20091008_5394275_0

mmm MILITARY

MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

310

GERMA MEDIEVAL ARMIES . 10 0-1300

CHRISTOPHER GRAVETT

GRAHAM TURNER

SERIES EDITOR: LEE JOHNSON

GER AN MEDIEVAL AlES 1000·1300

TEXT BY

CHRISTOPHER GRAVETT COLOUR PLATES BY

GRAHAM TURNER

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Acknowledgements I shouk:I like 10 Ih8nll Or DavId Nicolle lor tlIs ~ -.ssIstance with mat. . for 1M Sieiia'l Musli'ns and lor checking my eflorts in ItIat - . Abo my appreaatiorl to Lyn Slone for pnMding photognIphs. and 10 I'ler. ~ Todd and Irene 0lIYies fof wrestling with an an6ql.Iated CDfTlClUIer 10 IIIow me to produoe the map. F"1II8Iy. gralefIJ ttwlks to S8rah Barter-Bailey lot her W1guistic skil5.

Publisher's Note ReedeB may wlst\ 10 $t~ Itli$ title In conjunction with the following Osprey publlcallons: MAA 231 Frend1 Medieval Arrnfe;s 1000-1300 MAA 50 M6OIev1lJ European Atmies MAA 166GermanArrrrl&s 1300-1500 MAA 136/lallan Atmles 13(}(}.1500 MAA 195 HunglJrf IWd Eastern Europe 1000- 1568 Campaign 46 Lake Pelpus 1242

Artist's Note Reaclets may CBnI 10 note Itlal the original PiWdings from which the colour plal. In this boolI were prepared are IIYaillIbIe lot private sale. AI ~ oopyright ..matsoever is ~ by the pubistB. All enquiries should be addressed to: Graham TurTW". ·F.... Acres'. Bucks HPS 2SN

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GERMA

MEDIEVAL ARMIES 1000-1300

BACKGROUND

An Ottonian casket of c. 1000 shows guards at the crucifixion wearing sImple tunics and carrying circular wooden shields. (Copyright British Museum)

lTll THE f LL OF the western half of th Roman Empire in the 4th I1tu numerou barbarian o-ibes erupted into 'w·ope. Charlemagn King of th Franks became emperor f the lands when crown 'd by the pop in AD 00 (though Byzantium, entrf th ea tern empire, r garded itself the tru u ce SI r of Rome). On harlemagn 's death in J4 the mpire wa divid d b tween his son and rand on5. large area would b 'com Fran e, whit much of the east rn part r main'd under the rule of the western 'Roman' emperor. The Gennan kingdom was th first to recover fTom th chao of th late 9th c Dlury. The ount were larg Iy allodial landholder, that is, th ir land was not held of an lord, and so feudali m had made Ie' headway. Th problems of the monarchy were compounded b the 'heer 'ize of the eropil'e, stretching from the 'hores of the Baltic down to the Alps and be ond and from the French borders to the lav mar 'hes which neCTat d any real hope of c nLl-ali 'ation. Within the empire itself weI' geographical ob ades, Sll hath grea fore ts separating axony and Thuringia from FraJ1Conia. uch obsta I had r ult d in th [Olr G rman trib ,th wabiaJls, BavaJ'ians, axon. and Franconian developing a eparate p apk', with their own dial 'cts, customs
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KINGDOM OF POLAND

LOWER LORRAINE WorringenX Cologne e

Flarchheim

X Mainz:e Melrichsladl X

KINGDOM OF FRANCE

KINGDOM

OF HUNGARY

SAVOY

PROVENCE

ITALY

Romee Tusculu01 X KINGDOM X Benevento Naples •

•

Palermo SICILY

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Map of the Holy Roman Empire. Boundaries varied to some extent during the course of this period.

'Christ Triumphant', from the Reliquary of 5t Hadelin of about 1046, is dressed as a warrior in a mail coat with side-vented skirts. There is no sign of a hood, unless It has been pushed right back on the shoulders. (Treasury of Church of 5t Martin, Vise, Belgium)

h irs to titles and fiefs papal propaganda struggle over church land, royal minorities and the decline of dynastie after 1076 The dangers of su h hao were recognised and led to th instigatiOJ of th LandJriecle, based on the Fr nch 'Truce of ad'. However in G rman th oaths were not kept and, being voluntal1' as ociations, violence continued under the gui e of punishing tho e who brok> th pea e. The mp ror could offer mediation through hi com in dealing with di putes. A r. udal and magi tel'jal overlord, with large imp rial land., theocratic id al' and war-l adership th mperor. houLc! hav b en a power wiulin Germany. hi was not, however a political realit . IL was Frederick Barbaro sa who fir t added th till 'HoI,' to that of R man Emperor. In fact the Inj 1'01' and hj on or heir, tbe 'King of the Rom<ms', were faced with large block of land such a wabia and Saxon which, ere full of pett princelings who felt mey had every right to maintain m n to fight tlleir private quarrels. Their retinues were far larger than those of con temporal Lord in France or Englalld. It was not wlusual for spiritual and temporal lords to hav 100 knights and the margraves (border lords) had ven more. Thi m ant that th potential r ourc s of th > empire were impres ive but only if the mperor could unite ev r on to fight wh n r quired. Private disputes and powerpolitic en ured Ulat u 11 a response was lIDCOfnmon. Th duke who had d n up took conO" I from m crown, while pri ate war raged within each dttkedom. However, the lllperor had man royal estates cattered through Franconia and wabia, and the Chw"ch u"adilionall leaned toward royal upport. Thus the emp 1'01' weI' never totalJ submerged, de pite th occasionaJ ri e of dangerous pretender. ivil war raged from 1077 to 1106, when Henry IV fought off two rival, and again from] 125 to 1135, bet-\ een Emperor LothaiJ" U and Frederick Hoben tauren. Duke of wabia, whi h initiated th sU'uggl between Welf (GuelI) and Waiblingen (GbibcUine). Th mperor were acutely aware of their 'Roman' onnection and often int der d in the politics of northern Italy. fter his ucce ion, th new king would wish to weal' th iron crown of Lombardy and the imperiaJ crown b stow d b the pop. Thi often meant u ing u-oop to back up hi claim and it wa not llllU ua1 for m emperor to sta in Ital for 'everal year. The erman annjes usually assembled at Augsburg or Ratisbon in August or ptember alld marched via the Brenner Pa s into Italy or, more rarely thr ugh me Mont erus or St G mard pas e . From til Brenn I' Pas the army a'sembled in the plain ofRoncaglia. From th mid-lIth c ntmy 'h p pe found them el e tr ad.ing a delkate line, playing off Llle potentially dangerous 'inter-st' of the erman emp !'Or in nortJlel11 and cenu-aI Italy, again t th aggre' ive settJ ment of th Nor-mans in ouLhem Italy and Sicily. The greate·t of th Hoh n taufen

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This Reliquary of St Hadelin, made probably in the third quarter of the 12th century, shows warriors still wearing side-vented hauberks; those slit front and rear were more con· venient for riding. The coifs almost appear to be attached over the top of the helmet brim though, given the date, this seems highly unlikely. The lance has a ring attached low down. This Is probably a very early example of the ring fitted behind the hand-grip, which pressed against the arm-pit to s10p the lance sliding back on impact. (Treasury of Church of St Martin, Vise, Belgium)

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emperors was Frederick I known as Barbaros a ('Redbeard ), who led. ix expedition La Hal . For much of the 13th century, outhem Italy was the FfohenSu'mfen bas for th main furcat to the papacy. Frederick II 11lpor 1/l'undi (wonder of the world), a ruul1ess yet il telligem emperor, consolidated southern ital b 1231. IIi death in 1250 led vemuall to a blood int IT gnum from 1254 La 1273. Th actual nd of tJle Hohen taufen line, tJle 'nest of viper. " came in 126 after aEinaJ stn,lggl WitJl th Angevin over uthern Ital, r suIting in the ballJ of Ta liacozzo and th e'cution of Conrad in, Fredel; k grandson. 1'h emperor al 0 had probl m in the east, for here was an immen border eltJed by march r lord - lIwlkf:.J1·apm (margrave). Fa ed b hostile and often heath n tribes beyond tJ1C borders, the margrave \ ere accustomed to maintaining large miJitary forces. ]n the early days the men had b en vital since full-scale incm ions by Magyar (Hungarian) o'oop were common. However, the vi tory of Otto I, the Cr at over the HWlgarians at th L chf Id (955) put an end to any ma'or threat. The Germans expanded east, building fortified BU1gwiirden (lawns) but erman invasion for e into Poland and Hungary often fa d ·tarvarion beaus th nati es de troyed or carried off their provi ions. mall force were sometim s more succe sful such as the purely ,axon troops \ ho won Conrad II's Polish victory in 1031. Progress was cbeeh d b a major lav insmr ction in 1066. When Lothar of upplinburg became duke of Saxony in 1106, hri tianity was for lhe first lime push d into lav territory with vigOlu~ by mean of winter eampaign' which allowed pas age over tJle marshe east of the Elb . By 1125 the German were establish d as far as lh OdeI'. In futm there would b a thru I' ea t b soldier and s ttl r from as far away a Flanders, and b warrior monk, notably the Teutonic Knights, into Pmssia and Rus ia.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 996-1002 Otto ill 1002-1024 Henry IT 1002-1014 War again"tLombardy. King Ardoin deposed 1003-1017 War again l Poland. Its king, BolesJav seiz s Lu aria and Sile ia 1024-1039 Conrad II ucce ful against nobles and ha ome sue e. in Italy 1030 Invade Hungat bu defeated by King t phen I ] 031 Regains Lusatia from Poles (temporarily) 1039-1056 Henry ill 10 -1 Defeats Bratislav of Bohemia 1047 Defeats r v It by Flanders and Lor-rain

1049-10 2 Invades Hun ary v ral tim but I' pul d by Andrew I 1056-1106 Henry IV Inherits throne at age of ix. Wh n of ag , he r co ers central authority lost during a weak regency lO73-1075 uppres es bloody axon revolt ]073-1077 mpire weakened by prolonged truggl with papacy. H nry ubmit at ano a 1077-1106 ivil War. Rudolf of wabia proclaimed anti-king - killed in 1080 1086-1088 econd rival, Herman of Luxemburg, evenrually defeated 1081-1085 Italian E"'-pedition. Rom captlJJ"ed (1083), re aptured by Norman under Robert Cuiscard (10 4) 1090-1095 Second Italian Expedition 1093-1106 Revolt of sons Henry and onracl. Emp ror captured and escapes (1105) 1106-1125 Henry V 1107-1110 Figh ring in Bohemia 1l08lnvade Hungary but defeated 1l09lnvade Poland but d feated llI0-1111 Italian Expedition ee submission of Pope 1112-] 115 Cru hes revolts in Lorraine and other provinces 1120-1124 Several campaign in Holland 1124 Invades Franc but repuls d by Loui VI 1125-1137 Lothair II 1125-1135 Civil war against rival, Fredeti k of Hobenstaufen, Duk of wabia. hus began the struggle of Welf (Guelph) and Waiblingen (Chib lline). Fred lick defeated 1136-1137 icilian exp clition defeated by Roger n of icily 1138-1152 Conrad m First Hohen taufen emperor. Rebellion by Well' led by axon dukes, Henry th Proud and Ienry the Lion (duke 1142-11 0). Late r was Like an indep ndent king, congu ring Slav tenitory 1146-1148 Conrad and his n ph w, Frederick,join Se and em ade 1152-1190 Frederick I 'Barbarossa' Cr ate t Bohen taufen ruler. ampaigns in Bohemia, Poland and Htmgary 1182 Finally d pose Henry the Lion 1154-11 6 Lx Ttalian expeditions 1166-1168 Fourth Expedition captures Rome but disease force retreat from Italy 1174-1177 Fifth Expedition end in defeat at Battle of Legnano (1176) 1189-1190 Tak pa.rt in Third ru ade but drown in iii ia 1190-1197 Henry VI 1190 Short revolt by Welfs under Henry th Lion 1191-1193 arnpaign in southern ltal again t ancred of il 1194-1195 Return, conquers Sicily and crowned king

The 12th-century town gateway at Eisenach In Thuringia. (Photo: Astrid Schwan)

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Built by the archbishops of Cologne in the first half of the 12th centul')', the Drachenfels on the Rhine was later enfeoffed to the counts of Drachenfels. The ruined Bergfrled also dates from the 121h-centul')'.

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11 7 Reb Ilion in south m [Lal . Henry dies trying to uppr it Frederick II, yOlmg on of Henry, fa es ri al anti-king Rudolf of wabia and Ouo ofaxony 1197-1214 Otto IV of Bnmswick (Welf) and Philip Il of Swabia (Waiblingen) Ri al emp ror until Philip as assinat d in 1208 Otto now face Frederick 11. Latter allies with Philip It of France in war againstJohn of England and Ouo who are defeated at Battlc of Bouvines (1214) 1210-1239 Rise of the Teutonic Knights 1211-1224 Alta k again t Cuman in Hungary, on invitation of King Andrew. Later expelled by him becau e of th ir growing power 1226-1285 Conqu st of Prussia 1241 Battle of Li gnirz (Wahl tart). Mongol defeat Henry !.he Piou of ile ia 1260 Battle of Durben. T Lltoni Knights defeated b Lithuanian' 1211-1250 Frederick II 'The Wonder of the World' Much of reign pent in Italy again t pop . Victory over Lombard L agu at Baul of ortenuova (1237) 1229-1230, 1240-1241 Wars against Pop Gregory IX 1244-1247 War again t Pope Innocent Tv. 1247-1256 ivil war in Germany by Frederick and his son Conrad, against anti-kings 1-1 nry of Thuringia and William of Holland 'upported by Innoc nt 1

1250-1254 Conrad IV ivil wars ontinu in G rmany. Conrad campaign against Lh Pope and other ind pendent Italian state 1254-1273 The Great Interregnum Civil wars rife in Germany. Rule has brok n down 126 Battl of Tagliacozzo. End of Hohen rauf< n lin 1273·1291 Rudolf I of Habsburg War again to tokar II of Bohemia, who i' killed at tI e Battl of the archfeld (Dumkrut) (1278) On Rudolf d ath til I ctors are so h'ight ned b his t rritorial gains that they bypa his on 1291-1298 Adolf of Nassau Deeply involved in the truggl in the etherland where England and Franc are vying for power 129 Challenged b Albert ofHab. I Llrg and killed in battle at Gollheim 1298-1308 Albert I ampaign against the Bohemian dynasty, but \ eak

ORGANISATION Feudalism, th giving of homage and fealty (and the ervlce of fighting men) to a lord in retum for land or upke p, wa ne er as mark d in Gennan lands as it was in France, England and oth I' we. tern areas of Europe. WbH the collap 'e of tile Carolingian dyna ty had brought chao and civil wars to France and Ital ,th stablishment of a axon dynast}' in 919 had allowed a 'table ro al administration to reappear onl eight year aft r the break-up of the ,arolingian line. Such a strong hold rather re u'icted the growth of £ udal bonds which were es entiaIly a form of ready respon by local lords and vassal working 10 ely against enemi . The plinces and lord were the hell' to triba] blocks of land whi h had be n allodial, that is, independent famil e tate owing no ervice to the king or emperor. In the 11th and 12th centuri uch ervice might or might not be forthcoming when ailed upon. This itllaLion wa particular! n ticcablc on the ea tern borders or '//laths where the counts of th march or markgrajen had, since me time of Charlemagne in the 8t11 entury, h ld large bodie of warriors to safeguard their border. These lord had little inclination to change and 111e influen of feudali m was therefore slow in making itself felt acros Germany. The Rhineland \'Ia the most completely feudali ed area but Franconia, Lorraine and Burgundy also utili ed feudal practice, as did Bavaria to a certain extent. Yet the concept of knighthood its If wa a far Ie \ ell d fined ideal than in we tern Europe and together with 111 granting of fieE, was not even establi h d wHil the] 2111 century. Tb fir l r cord d in tance of a knigbtil1g ceremony elate only to 1146. The king was exp cteel to ommand hi army, aI d ag wa no obstacle: the 13-year-old Henry IV led o'oop again t tile Hungarian ill 1063. The king could pas authority down to a eluke aIld a bishop. orne larg r wlits till r rained a territorial base, de pit feudalobligations, and 0 a canting nt from each regnum was I d by it duk .

Gideon, from the Bible d'Averbode of about 1170, has a 'U'-Shaped line on the mail under his throat, in the same way as some figures in the Bayeux Tapestry. It may be a ventall drawn up over the chin, or even an early separate coif. (Bibllotheque de l'Universite, Liege, Ms. 363B, f.16v)

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Once the consent o[ the prin e' was obtain d at the a embly in the Reich tag. knights ould be demanded for the ReichshcClfa'/u·t, service eith I' in Gel-many or b yond the Ip. The Sachsenspiege~ ('Mirror of the axon '), written in the 1220s, notes that 40 day , grace was allowed after the summons for servic on the erman ide of the AJp . For servic 'outh of th Al P (th Romjah'rt) a gen rous 4] da wa Quota wer allowed. usuall fixed by ustom: Poland and Bohemia were (Q upp1y at least 300 horsemen, though tL~ually [ewer men were required from tenants-in-chief for ervice beyond the Alp_ than for that in Germany. HO'wever, th realit), did not mirror til ideal. Tn 1156, for eampl ,the Privilegiu,'m minus allowed th dukes of Au tria to take part only in operations in neighbouring lands and kingdoms. In th 13th century the margraves of Brand nburg owed th king of G rmany unconditional sentice only in axony and huringia, while in 1212 th Bohemian were 1 t all the exp dition to Rome altogether on payment of a sum of sil er. Thus th mperor wa potentially IV ak. In 1124, Henry V found that many German- I' fu d to join hi advance into France becau they wer not keen to fight for ign r . Though the per Ol1al r tinues of those attending a diet (parliament) in 1235 were recorded at 12,000 knights, in r alit th impel-ial army often had to rely more on the forces of the church. E c1 siastic did not hold aIJodial land having it rather by imperial decree. Th ir service were not feudal, how ver. From til revenue of the e estates they were xpe ted to find and Anan e a p cific number of troops, a burden which sometime left them pawning 01- mortgaging th· ir land or good. Many abbots, bi hops and archbishops were miJi.tary leader and auld be se n a the head of ·beir 1D n. Their importance to the emperor" ma be seen from the fact that, in ]046, mperor Henry 1Jl invad d Italy with thr archbishop, ten bishop and cwo abbots.

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TOP Knights receive communion before departing for war, a poignant reminder of the flck.le nature of battle, from the Rolandslied des Pfaffen Konrad, a Franconian manuscript of 1170. (University Library, Heidelberg, Ms. Cod. Pal. Germ. 112, f.47r) ABOVE Roland's paladins In battle, from the Rolandsl/ed. Notice the 'T'-bar on the end of one knight's nasal, the first step to a full face-guard. (University Library, Heidelberg, Ms. Cod. Pal. Germ. 112, f.66v)

Frederick Barbarossa wa the first mperor to fully e tabU 'b western feudalism in th G rman lands, and b 1 J 0 had managed to bind hi. prin e , both lay an I cel iastical with th tie of a alag . Land was now h ld in r turn for ·ervice. In t ad of d manding cash pa m nts from th noble, Fr del; k organi d th rai ing of troop al ng 'imilar I-man prin e , both la and line to tho c tabli hed in France. The ecde iasti aI, weI' n w t nan -in-chi f, b und to end fixed quo . of kni ht for a period of ix, k. Th might b Furth r alled upon at ther time, aft r another. ix-we k p riod, when th emp ror or th lenant-in-chi f would pa r th knights. Prince- of th chur h took prec dence over tho of th laity. Thi attempt to bring order and a more regular uppl I' u'oop to th imperial call was laudable but traniLOry. Although u h demand were usually m t, an re al iO'an e could have fatal con equence : the defeat at Legnano in 1176 rna be blamed on the r fu al of orne magnate n tabl Henry th Lion to f< 1I0w th ir mperor. ter r d rick' d ath in 1190 hi. ucc or were unabl to maintain the f< udal struclUr and the princes manag d t impos increasing d mand for aulonom within their lands. Fr deri k II (]2]]]25) allowed fre ct rn from imp rial int r£ renc and th monar h becam clectiv again. Though Rudolf I of Hab burg (1273-129]) m to hay achieved a partial r v r al in thi tr nd he al 0 wa for d to crush in urrection b r bel and to d tro their a. tIe in order to exerci. e hi pow r. If fr or unfree knigh were to r e for long periods monetary remuneration wa xp ct d. Moreov r, th reluctanc of G rmal princ 'in sending t11 nece ary troop to fight in the imperial arm m ant that d pit th potential power of the mperor' forces, almost in vitabl numb r had to b mad up by hiring u·oop. earl the late 11 th cen nu Henl IV was advised to use a form of mage for employing mer-

This copy of the Hortu8 Oeliciarum (destroyed by fire in 1870) shows warriors of about 1180. The rather bulbous round· topped helmets were favoured in German lands. Many German manuscripts such as this one do not show the long tunic emerging from below the mail coat, which was common in other area s.

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The Siculo-Norman Uber ad Honorum August; of Peter of Eboli, probably dating to the early 13th century, shows a mixture of Norman, Sicilian, Muslim and German styles of dress and equipment. If the date Is correct, the helmets show no sign of the latest faceguards. Here Emperor Frederick I 'Barba rossa' sends his men forward to cut a path through Hungarian woodland. IBurgerbibliothek, Bern, Ms. Cod. 120 II, f.143r)

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cenarics to replace the peculiarl German 'feudal' levy then existing. This call was repeated by Henry I of England to his on-in-Iaw, Emp ror Henry ,after hi abortive campaign again t France in 1124 lUld it was beard again after the d feat at Bouvines in 12] 4. Certainly th personal troops of the emperor were often larg Iy mer enary: Henry I u'ed 6,000 of Lhem for a wo-year peliod includjng 1,500 killghts and a similar number of squires, in hi ru ading project of 1196. Many uch m rcenarie were paid for by mon y-ll f:. Fred rick n and hi thr e Hohen tauren ucce sors had permanent bodies of G rman mercenaries, while in 1238 Frederick brought over a troop of mOlmted era bowmen from Hungary, and a year later ordered a ea-captain to bu as man crossbows with two-foot stirmps as couJd b found in ere. The Marshal alone, oum Fred rick of Antioch, is aid to have commanded 1,600 hired troops in 124 . Manfred had 1,200 German h avy horse with him at til Batrle of Benev nto in 1266. In the late 13th century m rc nari came especially [rom the Rhineland and e 1 di triets, and had a bad r putatiO)) for gr cd. A ub Lantial number of hired soldiers anle [wm rile Low ountries. he Brabanr;:on wer particularly loathed for their bmLality, first being employed within Gel'many in ] lOb A.r hbishop Philjp of Cologne, though Fr derick Barbarossa had taken rll m into Italy for his campaigl of 1166 and 1174. A mall group of Braban ons distinguished it~elf in ] 107 however, in helping relieve the Archbishop of Cologne who was trapped in TuscuJum.

RIGHT The more settled con· dltions In the empire from 1000 were reflected In the small number of castles. The wars of the investiture contest, begun In 1075, set off a great increase in castle building, though mottes never became popular. Many castles were set on crags, allowing domestic buildings to be arranged for comfort, while flanking towers were slow to develop. There was often a tall watchtower or Bergfried. The Wasserburg, protected by a wet moat, was useful In flat areas. a) The Husterknupp II the courtyard and artificial mound adapted after c.950 from the Carolingian fortified farmstead. Ii) altered to create a motte and bailey castle in the 12th century. bl Staufen in 1090, provided with palace and tower, the castle from which the Hohenstaufens took their name. cl Miinzenberg, Hessen, built c.1174 and strengthened after 1286 by the Falkenstein family. Because the plateau site is long, the castle has two Bergfrieden. dJ The fortified palace of Gelnhausen. el The tower or Bergfried at Steinsberg. Such towers were primarily for defence rather than for living in.

astl s were held by Bm-gmannen or castellorurn cllstodes and were of increa ing importanc ; strongholds guard d th Dani b lav and Magyar frontier. Th distri t at d the a tie \ hi h ono'olled i wa known as the Burgward. Large nwnb r of infant! came from the La\' Countri man of who e ruler became vassal of th emper r and suppli d either feudal quotas or m rc narie . The Count of Fland r d pit 'iding with Otto IV t the Battl of BOLlvine in 1214, was actuall a a sal of th F'rench rown. The number of foot soldiers ent b th e territorie was often sub tantial: the Count of Hainault sent 10,000 in 1183. Th notion of an obligation on all free men to perform military service lingered in Germany fat, longer than elsewhere I' suiting in free peasants being seen in Germatl at'mie even in the 13th century. The distinction between the wan'ior, and the peasant holding allods (hereditat land LLI1der no lord), two elements offeudal soa ty, was slow to d velop. Footsoldiers from peasant communjtie or republics prospered in som areas unfavourable to knights uch a th mat'shes of the north coast of Frie land and of Dithmar chen - the latt r's oldier)' removing Dani h influence at the Battle of Bornhoved in 1227. he wi s mountains and valley aw the rise of three pow rful canton: ri, Inten'l'ald n and chwyz which produced the most famous peasant infano)'. Thi low growth of ocial di 'tinction wa also as i ted by the open [ron tier on the ast. In axon especially the arm' was rather like tile old Heerban, the levy of all fr e men. Though the axon noble was distinguished from the les er fr eman all fough t on foot tluoughout th 11 th c n tury. The threat of lavic raid' kept tl1 general ummons alive on the ea tern bard r but it di d out elsewhere. I owevel~ ther wer variation , ev n in lands where feudali m was taking root, LI h a a summon to appear with all forces. The FolgefJilicht, the call to anus d for the maint nance of public peace only exempted women, shepherds, cl rics and hur h t-vants. Even more enveloping lh u trian La:n.drecht of 1237 requir d everyone t defend the country in an a (i) m rgen y.

c

b

German Cities

e

a (ii)

In rman land the military organisation for citie was rather like that in Italian citie , that is, it wa bas d on ilia e knights who lived in th city. The

13

knights themselves had th ir numb r swollen b burgher, rich merwho e importan through wealth was equal to that of the kni htly class. S rvice all horseback initially fell to thas b st uited to it, in oLher word the urban knigb ; later it includ d all townsmen who had enough money to support such animals. ome burgher held fiefs from lay or ec le iastical lord and rode to war in armour. OLher migbt in ( ael end the a.rmed m n th y used wh n on th road, or I e a ubstitute for Lhem ehe , depending on the requirements. In ome cities, su h SLra bOLlrg and agdeburg, th e mounted bLlrgher were known as K017 laj!,eror Konslojler (constable). nlike in Ital ,paying ivi levie, or those allied levies who might come to assi 't, was not practis d until the later l3th cen t11 I),. The forces usualJ becam organ! 'ed b tween the vierteln (quarters) of the town, each under a viert,ebneisICI; and often led b th mayor. The effectiveness of the e forces wa mixed. With le s opportunity to develop a military spirit- Je e en than in Ital which at least aw some transient militaq successes by the citizen - there was little in the way of accomplishment. The petty fighting which racked Germany betwe n n ighbouring prince and king did not help to produce an effecti e militaq citizenship. Th town bodies were usually mployed in maintainillg and defending th ir wall and w re nol lIsually exp ted to go mor than half a day' march frolU them. Urban troop t nded to a (as a nppon force for Lhe rest of the ann , often being u ed a marksmen. Th cro sb w wa' ommonly used in all rman ities in the 13th century, notabl in the Low ountries and amongst the Han e towns, and shooting guild were ·stablished. arl a 1256 the city ouneil of Mainz deeid d to hiJ-e mercenaries as far as possible. In this \\~ay they employed knig-hts and Ie . er soldier, and in addition made treaties Witll n ighbouring lords and knighc, who rec ived payment in return for militaJ)' aid. Such agreements becaJne increa ingl common. In 1263 Count Adolf of Berg became a itizen of Cologne aJld, in retw-n for a daily wa of five mark in ologn p nnie , agreed to provide nin knights and 15 squire on armoured horses. FOl- its part the city would find 25 men from the be'l families, armoured and mount d on armoured horse. ologne made funher treati willi aunts William and Wall-am of Juli h and Dietrich of KatzeneUenbogen. The number of knights provided by su h agr ements was not great, but the were knights nevertllele s, member of th trained warri r cia and a valuabl ommodit. It wa not only kin s, prince and [QI-d that fought ach tb r; truggl al 0 took place within ities. tn ] 3th-century ologne, there was tension between th leading families and th guilds. Eg ed 01 by the Archbishop, Engell ert n of chanL~

Emperor Henry VI captures Salerno in southern Italy In 1194, from the Llber ad Honorum Augustl. There are several points of interest: the shape of the banners, popular In Germany; the heraldic boar, borne in a circle, on the shield of Dietmar von Schweinspoint; the lone slinger on the batllements; and the man· powered traction trebuchet on the batllements In rear. (Burgerblbllothek, Bern, Ms. Cod. 120 II, f.132r)

14

FaLk nburg, the guild got LO ether and decided to assalilL the house of th ir en mie . Thi resulted in a liv I cIa'h on the tr he guild men tried to block the tr with chain, but the kni hts, wh an harcU ha eben nWllerou , form d LIp on h r' back and d pit narr wne of th tree, dr v ba k their enemie and br k Lh chain. Th Dobl laught red man citiz n ,parti uJarly th \ aver. ev 11 more bizalTe in id n t k plac everal, ar la r in 126 , . a r lilt of a di pute b tween lw important families th Over t lz n and th Win. Th Wei en, wh bad finall been driven lit of th city refu ed to go quieti '. The paid obbler, wh hOll la llnd r n of the arch of the ci wall, to dig a hole und r the waH large enough for a hor eman t pa s through. Once thi huge excavation was finished Dul< Walram ofLirnburg, th cOllnlof 1've and the lord ofFalkenburg agr ed to nter th city with 500 men n th night of 14 ctob I~ he duk manag d to do ju t thi, P n d th neare t gate and let in aU his troops. nfortunately, the a er tolz n had be n warned and, with the UppOrL of th citiz ns, attacked th intrud r. blo dy ncount I' I ft everal nobl dead, and nded with the e pul ion ofth W i en [action, a Ilumber fwhom wer cal LUI' d. Italy

By the 11th c r tury counts and marctlli 'e had 10 t ontr 1of mo·t citi , and Ii d in rural ca tie or on . am roew (e lat ) with their retinues of knights who weI' granted fieE·. B r the mid-12th century anI the arqui of ont~ rrat till remain d ind p nd ilL. Hm r e pedal! ' in difficult terrain uch th fOOtllilJ of the Alp or th Romagna, ~ udal lord I' main d dominant. Th bi hop w r nm all pow rful in rno·t iDes commanding va al and Ie er vas al (valva sores). Man citi d manded that Lh nob] live within th iI" all ~ I' mll h of th ar but th e nobl built t w r house, retain d fi hting In n and ontinu d tbeir private quarrel a b for. De pite chi ,th noble form d an important fighting fore and tog th rwith th wealthier LOwnsmen and non-noble (mililes pm commune - knights for th ommune) w re exp cted to provid ca airy hoI' and attend in per on LlI1l ick old or an infal t, \\lh n a ubULUte auld a tend. Th mo. t pow rEul 12lh-eentury city, Milan, was owed th 'ervi e of 2,000 knights. Not ever on wa call d up at once, hm v r, and .tizen w I' pai L f< r th ir h r ' upke p and for i los or injUl in c mmunal rvic ,in addition to th ir 0\ n pa . Infantry w re provided b th Ie. wealth Lawn m n on a regional basi. Abl -born d mal ither between th ag of 14 and 70, or 1 alld 60, w r ligible. Infantry ffi r r eived a . mall. tip nd tllrough the ar, and oth r rank re iv d pay while Oil a rive rvic. Uj d Llicch rving Flor nc in

Emperor Henry VI rides out, his banner-bearer before him, from the Uber ad Honorum Augusti. The imperial eagle Is emblazoned on his shield, horse-trapper (the only one shown In the scene) and helmet. Traction trebuchets appear in the background, together with a crossbowman. (Burgerbibllothek, Bern, Ms. Cod. 120 II, f.109r)

15

An Ivory _aket from K61n, made In the let. 12th """'lvry, hII, ac-. from the life of TrI,U1n. KnighUl In Iong-,leewd heuberb wu. cylindricalOf' e1ightl, round·topped helmeUl e, the)' set ebout _ _ the. with double-edged . - 0 . . ICOflYrillht British Mu....m)

1184 reccin;d three SQlidi per day for cavalry and one for foot soldiers. In 11th· century Milan men .....ere groupcd in units, perhaps based on thc six wards ('quartcrs') imo which tile city was latcr di\'ided. Town walls were already being officially lIlaimaincd in Pisa in 1162 and sometimes each quart.er was responsible for its sector. The cQ"tadQ (counl'l-.side) under communal control also pro\i.ded men for use m'er a limited area. Cavalry might be expected from nobles and dependent communcs, infantr)' from areas split into districts, specific regions usually being placed undcr each quarter of a cit}'. Such le\'ies were oftcn u.sed for pioneer and engineer seniccs. In nonhem Ital)' tile urban states demanded all resources when necessa'l"; Perugia expected its rolllndo to supply weapons, men, horses and conl. In northern illld centralltal)' the first refercnce to hired soldiers is in 1124 and then onl)' as indi\iduals; bands ofmerccn;u;cs do not appear until the mid-13th ccntu'l', It was Archbishop Aribert of Milan who illlroduced the cllrTocdo. an ox-drawn cart bearing the standard of St Ambrose, A rall)ing POSt ",i.th its OWII guard. it was a disgr.lce to lose it 10 all enCIll)', The idea ....'its taken up b}' many IL,lian cities and was seen occa...ionally in Germany and e1swhere. By tllc ciu'ly 12th ccnlll'l' command of levies was oftcn in the hands of electcd consuls, including members of thc lla!T'f/Ssorts and othcr free citizens. Their disunit), and caution pl'Obabl)' led to the apath)' of the Lombard League in undertaking lll.ti0r ollclIsivc actions. Nevertheless, this League, formed in 1167, prc,·clHcd an)' real hope of Ccnnan sLlccess. Its armics werc advanced in ol'gimisatioll. strong in cavalry (which was ideal for warfare on the Lombard plain), and toughcned by pcrmanent fig-hting. \'CL their squabbling- hindcred the formation of a unified state. There were alwa)'S some cities willing 10 aid the Germans, b)' providing men and supplies. Indecd, it was the lise of such 11'00pS which allowcd the cmperor his succcsses. Howcvcr, too man)' Italians were hostile, and too man)' cities rcquired long sieges (with the e\'erpresent threat of disea.<;e) for the empel'Or to \.'in convincingly. Sicily

,.

When the Hohcnsl
used b the German rulers were L.he Saracen , under Qa id and heikhs. The cl Li, orienral taste. of nd r "uch a. Fr derick LI meant that the e men w re allowed, iJ d ed I ouraged, to pursue th ir Mll lim faith and culture; they in their turn r warded thi' L.ol 'rance with 10 alt lmmatched by the rest of th icilian troops. The popes could nOl. frighten Lbem with LhreaLS of excoml lmicat.ion. a ,,-aluable bonu to the German emperor in their sU'uggles wiLh the papacy. Bervveen 1222 and 1226 Fr d J' k esrabli hed coloDies of cu'aCens On the Italian mainland, mainly around Lucera, wher i has be I sLimated LhaL b rvveen ] 6,000 and 60,000 weI' 'ettl d, probably in luding women and hildren. C rtainly omewher between 7.000 and 10,000 cavalry [rom here rode with Frederick on the ccunpai.gn of 1237. Hi' 'on M.mfr d - dubbed , ultan of'Lllcera' by the Pope in 1266 - ma hav used up L '10,000 aracens at th BatLi of Benevento. Th accounts would sugg ·t that 'nch men were rg,mised on a de imal ba i, ince aL Cart nuova 7000 are aid to have harged in seven division , probably of 1,000 men ea h. If th is lncluded the araccn', each division ma have b en made up of fi e compani s each of 200, tllem Ives divided iJ Lo five units of 40 eigbt-man se uons. TI r was sLrong influ nc in i ill [rom Andalusia wh r . uch a y'tem operated, wiLh a Qa'id officering each 1 OOO-man division. ome emperor, noral I Frederick II, had aracen bod guard, in luding units of Tunisian Berber. an' of Llle Mu lim soldier foughL a iJlfanU , but ome were emplo d a. lighL cavalry armeo wiLh composiL bows. The aracen also provided valuabl service in sicgecraft. om were involved in building ieg engines as \ 11 a in the produ Lion of mail and ,""eapon". In addition, icily had a fleet of ships, many crewed b enoese sailors. Frederick wanted to u"ength n th xisting fleet to 100 ralley' and 50 transports b 1225. He eems to have gone sam way toward acbi ving dus, sin ce in ] 228 40 galle wer' u.s 'd on his rusad au mpt In ] 241 65 galleys are I' corded, wiLh possibly 100 gall s in crvic und r mnardo. admiral to anfr d, in 1258.

THE MINISTERIALES

Great helms a) From Madeln, Basel-land, a late 13th-century German helm. (Kantonsmueum, Liestal, Switzerland) b) From SChlossberg bei Dargen In Pomerania, probably made in the third quarter of the 13th century. (Museum fur Deutsche Geschichte, Berlin) c) From Bolzano, made at the end of the 13th century, probably German. (Castel San Angelo, Rome)

One unique aspect of the erman army wa th employment ill lar e munbers of a special type of fighting man, th unfr knight,> or ministetial s (Dienstleute). This class emeJ'ged in the firsL half of the lOlh century, and was first introduced in large numbers b onrad U (10241039).Inth lltilcenruryG nnannoble.wereabl t makcus of til ir economic advantages; they enfeoffed llew knightly retinues of mini tedale om Limes in large number. nlik th vas aJ knighlS of ap tian Franc or orman EI gland, nunisteriales lived under a form of'legal bondage, yet in pra tic uch re tri tion rell ct d th va sal-lord agre m nt made Isewhcrc. Despite this tile lord in German t hni all wn d his minist riale , because of the ITong tie of hereditary and personal dependenc of t1lese m n to their lord. Th word its If impli s a service, usually miLitaJ)', et the e knight wer aL 0 known b the atll I' term LI ually LI d for free knights, mililes. MiJites' also re[en-ed to dle gr at magnates, who were also Ere knights, bence the ne d for a separat tenn for the unfree

17

knight~,

a

b

c

a) c.1050-1120.(Museum fur Deutsche Geschlchte, Berlin) b) c.1 000+ , from Yverdon, Swltzerla.nd. (Schweizerlsches Landesmuseum) c) Probably c.1 040-60. (Kunstgewebermuseum, Dusseldorf) d) 13th century e) Hand-and-a-half-sword, c.1250-1300. f) Lancehead, 13th-14th century. (Kantonsmuseum, Llestal) g) Lancehead, 13th-14th century. (Historisches Museum, Bern) h) Detail of scabbard from the statue of Count Ekkehard, Naumburg, c.1250.

RIGHT 'The Victory of Humility over Pride', from the

Jungfrauenspmgelofabout

18

1200, shows knights wearing helmets with face-guards. Notice the two-handed grip used on what at this date Is stili an ordinary arming sword. The coatof-arms Is a later addition. (Kestner-Museum, Hanover)

especial I 111 the campI x I galjar n of the 12th c ntury. Thi di tinction was mad well into the 13th century wh n the fr e knights, the milites liberi, were disappearing altog til rinG rmany, and were finally ab orbed by int r-marriage with ministerial s in th following century. The mini teriaJe began life a non-noble Ere men, e ·tate admini trator who did not own th ir e tate in the same way as free vas·al . h d e They could be passed from lord to lord, hired out a. mercenaries, or ven 'old. Th if ervices were valued by ec I sia ti al landholders becau they could b employed as required 9 and senL to fulfil imperial demands widlOUl 10. of land or revenue. uch wa their value tllat their importance increased until, by the later 12th cenrnry, many held distinguished imperial po itions. In till' way the were increasingly seen as worthy of holding e tates and inde d, such office w re soon being converted La tenm'e . At the end of the 12th century, the mini terialis wa a land-holding knight in a similar way to th

free knights, who looked upon this developm n withdi ta teo 'ome mini teriales became extreme! pow rful, holding s'veral castles and leading large retin ue . ome ministeriales W re given fiefs but, becau'e the were obliged to 'erve th ir lord anyw'ay, homage wa tlleoretically not required. In orne ar as fi f giv n by the lord, rather tl1an on condition of homage, were called hove/en (house-fief'). By the end of 111 12th century uch distinctior wer pretty a ademic. on e mini t riale w re holding land by 'erviJe fief (jure rninistelialiwn) and a tually pr ferred i as a safeguard for their heirs. They also held land b), real or hereditaJ fief (JU1'e jeod£), fief for life (ju.,-e !In:caTl:o) , manOlial fief (jure uillicationis), or in return for 'astl -guard (jure castren is jeodt;. The latter fiefs, together with U10 'ittached to a ca tI or the ca teIJan' office., ere cOlllmon in Germany. They were designed to ensure that adequate mini teriales or men nomiJlated by them were available for variou services in a o-onghold. U1 J 2th en ttlr)' progressed fiefs held injure mil1isterialiu1n were incr asingly being replaced by real fief. Though mini tetiale' wer technicall born into service, in practice, lord w I' Ie s lik ly to keep so-ictly to th I tter of the law. Mini teriale were tTeat d largel)1 as free men and only marriage outside the lord' circle, with potential 10' of fam.il and futw'e knighLS, wa a mall I' for eriou on iderati.on. Other-wL ministeriales were allowed to take other lord in addition to their own, which ased the pre sur upon a lord l endow his va 'sal with land. How vel', unlike in France or England, the id a of li ge homag ,i.. rvi e first and foremost to one p ciA lord, was not practised. In the Rhineland ome ministeriale' offered 'li ge castle ' to new lord , but this referred to the building and had no implication for th man. Rather multipl agreements were .in tile form of mutual aid treatie , whereby the mini teliali would assist th lord in r tmn for a oef money-rent, or even plunder. Wernh r von Bolanden, th richest rnil1isterialis at the end ofth 12t11 century, boa t d44 lord, not including the emperor. Wher lord shared u h men, it wa a matt r of haring certain dutie ; only one lord actually owned the man. Oams of fealty were tecbJucall unnecessar since, being erf:, tll iT loyalty hould have been expe ted and unquestioned. However, oaths wer often 'worn wh D a minj teliali b gan activ service or when a OUtll ame of age. The weI' taken eSI eciall wh n a minislerialis W
0'

The Ene/de Heinrich von Veldeke was Illustrated probably at the end ot the 12th or early 13th century. Some knights wear deep cylindrical helmets with tace masks, while archers have kettle-hats with slightly flared brims. One crest at top lett appears to consist three small flags. (Stalitsbibllothek zu Berlin -Preusslscher Kulturbesitz, Ms. Germ. fol.282, t.46r)

0'

19

Strap arrangements of shield Interiors reconstructed by Helmut Nickel from surviving examples in Marburg, as evidenced from rivet-heads and leather fragments (Der mlttela/ter Re/tersch/ld des Abend/ands, PhD thesis, University of Berlin, 1958) a, b) Mid-13th century c) 2nd half of the 13th century

a

In this scene from The Ene/de, cylindrical helmets seem to have a brim well below eye-level, the chin protected by an extension pierced with breathing holes. Note the myriad devices now being worn as crests, and the padded and quilted thighdefence (cu/sse) worn by the knight at upper lett. (Staiitsbibllothek zu Berlin Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Ms. Germ. fol.282, f.59r)

20

death if captured. Many were held for ran OlD for many were actuall sized; al au 70 m n belonging to the bishop of Hildesheim were taken b th duke of Brunswick in 1279 at the iege of Campen Ca tle alone. The aunt-Palatine Hugo von Tubingen. capttu'ed about 900 f the 2,500 men lIS d by Duke W If in a feud with him in 1164-65. One of the main task of ministeriale was to hold castle. The lived in fortified hou es or LOwers, often allodial property of their own. ome Lived witl1 other in larger castles belonging to th ir lord. om lords required allodial castle' to be re-granted a' fiefs. Their ca tlcs were aI'o 1.1 d as gaol, a in the celebrated ca of Richard the Lionheart, incarc rat d by Leopold of u tria in Dumstein a tle. where the astellan was hi' ministeriali , Hadmar von Kuenring. Man G rman lord were captur d and implisoned to await ran am. ini teriales were often pow rfu! and ecure in th ir own strongholds. Thus, despite oatl1S of feallY, they sometimes rebelled robbed tl1cir lord or disobeyed him, especially when their master was away. Fred rick Barbaro sa hanged eral of his ministeriales for cau 'ing dislul-bances wbile he wa away on th S cond ~ru acle. Dme ven a assinated their lord. However, many w r loyal, trusted in council, and 'erved well in , ar or in pmsuit of blood feuds. mid-12th century d cumenl con rning UJe Arcbbishop of Cologne'. men provide a mall in ight into th ervices of mini teriales. Whether or not the were en~ off'ed knights, they w re expected to defend the arch bishop's lands, tllOugh beyond his boundarie they expected payment if th Ydid not agr e to s rv voluntarily. Ministeriales holding a fief with fiv marks' income should go over the Alps with U1eir lord for the coronation of the king. However the archbishop not only had to giv aclvanc warning of a year and a day, he also bad LO provide each man with 10 marks and 40 ells of cloth for equipment, plu a addled pa !
horse hoes and 24 nail for ve ,two m n. On at th Alps ach man recei ed one mark per month for the duration of h joun y. If payment wa not forthcoming on tim , the minist riaJi was freed. Ministeriales ..vith lower incomes could opt to stay b hind, but had to pay an indemnity equal to half their fief"s revenue.

THE TEUTONIC KNIGHTS The Ord I' of t Mary th irgin wa e tablishecL by a group of G nnan merchants wh el lip a ho pital out iet the besi ged walls of Acr in 1190 during the Third ru a Ie. Thi b came a perman nt ho pital inside the walls, and b 1196 ev raj atelJjtes had b en stablished. The Order was recognis d by th pop, at first follmving th Rul' of th Order of 5t John. Thi' was then amended so that Rule applied to the bospital, whit the RuJe of the Templars wa used to regulate the cI rgy knights and other brothers. . rever as powel{LIl in the Holy Land as th Templar or HospitLlllcr', the knights found anothet· opening to th 'ast of the empire, wh I' heathen. lavs provided a flu'get for con I' ion. Herman von alza, who became Hochmeistt>1' ( nmd Master) in 1210, was invited by the king of HungaJ)' to aJTIpaign against th Cumans and olIi red BlH'zenland in return. Although the king Lat I' reneged upon thi promi ,th Ord I' now looked ea t. Imp JiaJ support am in 1226, when Frederick U made the Hocft'l1~eistel' a prince of the empire, and this wa hown b the addition of the bla k imperial eagle on a gold e. utcheon on his anns. Two ear later von alza built a base at Vogelsang on the River Elbe, but in 1229 the knights were hancLed Kulm province, with the bIe 'sing of both emperor and pope, and \vith only nominal papal uzerainty. The follo\ving 'ear 20 knights and 200 ergeants under broth I' Hermann Balke et out on a ruthless campaign, building a network of ca tics and follo\ving a polk of con r ion or death. Three ntr d v lop cl: in the OLlth and southwest of enmm)'; in Prus ia, with a beadquart rs at arienburg wlder a Lmulmei leI' and in Livonia, where Balke became Lantlmei leI'. Acre remained the hom of th Order. In l201 Albr cht von Buxhovden had founded Riga on the Baltic, and in about 1202 the Brethren of the Sword were established to prate t u1e aJ'ea. B)' 1204 th re were 50 k.night mostl), from one area of central G I'm any. '1\... IIty Y ar later the had conqllered larg areas of Livonia. Half their nUlllber w re lost while helping a crusadjng fore in 1236 which refu d to wait until the mar h w re froz n in ....rioter and between 1237 and 123 Hermann Balke amalgamated them into the ivoniaJl bran h. In 1242 t.h Livonian BrethI' n advanced into Orthodox Chri tian Russia and met a rounding d 1" at at Lake Peipus, th so-call dIe laughter, whet' numbers of knights are said to have fallen through the ice, while others fell victim to light horsemen. The 'arne ' ar saw a selioliS Prussian revolt. A crusade launched in 1253 graduall s iz d th land separating Pi'll sia and Livonia ( amland and ourland) and led to the foundation of Konigsberg. By the late 1270 ,d pile setbacks the Order could field ome 2,000 knights; by 129 rno t oppositiml was

A coronation sword bearing the arms of the Holy Roman Empire, dating to between about 12001220. The rather small disc pommel may be a style from southern Italy or Sicily, at that time under imperial rule. (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)

21

crn h d. After th fall of cre in 1291 the headquarter moved to Venice, but it was the disappearance of heathen n mies in ea tern Europ and a gr at defeat at Tannenburg jn 141 ,which heralded the real decline of the rder.

CAMPAIGNS Henry IV's Civil Wars

Battle of Flarcheim, 27 January 1080 In 1077, Henry 1 was threat ned by a coalition of prin e who lect d hi iter shu band, Rudolf of wabia, as counter-king. Mter a victory tl1 following year at Metrich tadt (a cavalry ngagem nt on the border of Franconia and Thuringia) Henry a sembi d a new arm and felt strong enough to onfront Rudolf. Rudolf had lost the upport of some of the Sa.xon princes, and appeared weak enough for a winter campaign again t him to prove worthwhil . Henry therefore march d out, only to find him elf onfronted by Rudolf near the vLUage of Flarcheim, b tween Ei enach and Miihlhausen in Thuringia. Henry, reali 'ing tbat the axon forces had gathered on a hiU behind a brook 0 a to b able to attack him a be forded the stream, wi ely decided to march around iL What happened n xt is unclear. H may have waited until dark (about 16.00 hour) befor movin . In a 'now torm, Duke Wrati lav ofBohemja cut down RudoU" ·tandard-b arer, and th Saxons, v r Iy attack d, fl·d. The hronicl r Ekkehard sa)'. that dw'ing the battl a group of Saxons wlder Otto of ordheim attacked the 1'0 al camp, killed the quir s and seized much booty then t Irn d on th Franconians and Bohenuans forcing a sWTend r. Henry afterwards returned to East Franconia and disbanded the army. Whetller Henry wa actually d feaLed, or simply withdrew when he realised how many axon still support d hi rival i not known, but Berthold say. that th annie wer only parated by nightfall, when tile freezing weather forced Rudolf to wi til draw to the neare t viJIage, I' turning to th field in th morning. On intere ling oml11 nt h make i dlat only 3 men were killed in Rudolf arm, 36 of these b th hand of lesser' troop, nOL frol11 knightl wordsm 11.

22

Battle on The Elster, 15 October 1080 Henry' x ommunication b Pope Gregory VII in 1080 provid d Rudolf with a perfect excuse for anotller rebellion. Hem)' needed to unit the men from south and west Germany with those of Bohemia and Meissen. larching through Thuringia along the soutllern borders ofaxony h wanted to join with tile other conting nts on th aale or the Elster. The Saxon w r tri k d by a feint again t aslar allowing th main royal army to pa s ea t. Reali ing their mi take, the axon tm-ned to pur u Lhe enemy, overtaking Henry on th EI r near Mil in. The king had hi back to the river and though h may have been joined by tile Baval'ians, the Bohemian and Mei sener cooting ilLS w re still on the oppo ite bank. H 111)' r alis d that h could not p It off a battle any long r, while hi reu'eat was thr atened by the proximity of the Sa.xon forc . H mov d to a wamp valley, the 'Grona, which prote ted him from a dir t a aull by tile enemy. On arrival the knights of both ide began

The sword of St Maurice, a double-edged weapon of about 1198-1215 with a brazil-nut pommel and metal scabbard, has enamel and engraved decoration. (K,unsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)

RIGHT Some knightly figures on the Shrine of Charlemagne wear simple cylindrical helmets with no faceguards. The long shields bear rather simple fonns of early heraldic devices. (Cathedral Treasury, Aachen)

The Shrine of Charlemagne, a silver reliquary made in lower Lotharingia between c.12001207, has numerous Illustrations of early helms with face-guards and neck-guards. One flgure in the tent has flung his coif back to revea.1 the padded arming cap worn beneath. (Cathedral Treasury, Aachen)

trading insult \ hUe Henry pondered. Hi exit layover the bridge at Zeitz, but thi may well have b en closed b the townsmen. However, the men of Bohemia and Meissen were approaching and either the bridge would hav to be forced or a cro sing built. he axon could move arOlmd th swamp to the we t, but uch a mov would take th b st part of a da , allowing Henl ither to bllild hi crossing or pa muod the sou hern end of the swamp to keep the enem at a safe distance. Many Saxon foot soldiers had fallen b hind during the plU· wt, and now King Rudolf commanded all knights whose horses were weak to di mount. Thi tiffened th ranks of the infa.J1U·y md, with OttO von Nordheim, the cond in command at their h 'ad, the e bodie of foot moved to occupy th eros jngs over th Grona. While thi wa in progre ,the mounted knights mad to eirel the wamp. ow a cavalry battl opened a tb two force mad ootact, but Henry was soon threatened by Otto with the foot oldier who cam over the cro ing. Defeating par of Henry' force, Otto led his men into the enemy camp and having succe sfully prevented them from plundering, left th camp and fell upon the re·t of the enem who were busynghting. Henry lost hi army, many of whom drowned in the EI ter but had the atisfaction of knowing tint Rudolf was dead from a fatal wound in the abdomen, his right hand evered. The mar h L.hrough axony had allowed the axons to attack Helll before he could form his lHire force; a more circuitous rout may have been the c1iffi renee b !:we n d £ at and vi tory. Frederick Barbarossa's Italian Campaigns

Battle of Carcano, 9 August 1160 Emperor Frederick Barbarossa pent even month besi ging the malJ town of Cr ma in north Italy. Thi included tying pri on r from Milan and rema to a

23

This mailed north Italian knight of about 1210 has a pierced lace-guard. Notice how the chin tie is looped through a metal ring presumably riveted inside the helmet brim. The latter appears to be fluted. (Church of St Justina, Padua)

24

siege tower as protection but it wa. 0 pound d b catal ulan the walls that the tower was pulled back. Fina1l , when the tower reach d the wall th d fend r' r tr ated to the itadel and t nn weI' agre d. h imp rial arm r was in need of I' vitali arion and most of th nnan I' turned over th Ip. iJan th fat of f arcano, from Milan, willl a I from four f its LX quarter. The arm was fortifi d b knights from Brescia and Piacenza. Barbaro a cam to lift th i ge, umm ning nnan and mo, Italian tro p, including units from ovara, erc -IIi and Pavia, Levie from Montf! mil and nobl s from the Milane contado who were ·till tr ing to preserv> their fre dam from the city. Th ~ r to gath I' at a point belW en th astle and Milan i elf, in order to cut all' th b i ging army. In Lead of waiting for all hi force to gam r how v r Barbaro a des ended on th Milane e si ge lin onl to find that the en m had 00 intenti n of fi hting a defen iv a ti n. be ilan s foot advanced to me t the imperial tr p ut \ r U[ up b the G nnan knigh on m imp rial ri ht wing and th canvcciowa . iz c1. On th I fl it was a differ nl matt r. Th nring nt from omo and er eUi were d feated b th Milane and Br ian knights who nearl wiped out the ovarese too before turning witll impr s iv ohe ion to h lp til tubbornl l' iring 11ilane infanu in tead f indulging in a pur uit. Barbaro' a was unwilling to pI' nand mu t hay realised thal h had mi uudged the trength of th be ieging force. Ind d, on r port tat that h had ani 200 knights I ft. Th w ath r intervened witl1 h a rain, and the two armie \v1thdr w, the ilane to dleir an1p and Barbaros a towards Com. nfOrLunat I this withdrawal ofimperiaJ for es wa unknown to th additional 2 0 knj hts n w approaching from I' mona and Lodi, who were urpri d by the on d1 following d'~ and t k h avy C' ualti . b fore Fredelick Milan harged to me re cue. he victor for the Milane wa hOw; a ortie from arcano d tro ed Ul ir sicg ngin . \ hil 11 cia aft r the ballJ the \if ed m iege for ear of ful'Ul l' attacks. Battle of Legnano 29 May 1176 Having continued hi campaign in [tal, Fredelick Barbaro a wa at Pa ia in th pring f 117 wh n h d cid d to wa t o m r tim in negotiation with lilan. R inforcement had b en umm ned from mlan and n w mad Ul ir wa' toward Barbar a wh tog ther with hi guard, was probabl al waiting ~ r th mer enary ~ r e und r hri tian of Mainz. Thi arm had tr un d mlan rm t r eoli,

1: German knight, 11th century 2: Bohemian foot soldier, 11th century 3: Polish heavy cavalryman, 11th century

A

3 2

1: German knight, 1000-1150 2: Lotharingian infantryman, 1100-1150 3: Veronese infantryman, c.1139

B

1: German knight, 1150-1200 2: Milanese Infantryman, c.1170 3: Italian knlght.late12th century

c

1: Ministerialis, Wolfram von Eschenbach, c.1200 2: German knight, c.1200 3: Thuringian archer, c.1200

D

3

2

1: Savoyard knight. c.1225 2: Infantryman from Aries, c.1220 3: Count Louis II of Loos, c.1216

E

1: German knight, c.125O 2: Sicilian Saracen horse archer, c.124O 3: Tunisian Berber bodyguard, c.124O 4: Sicilian crossbowman, 1200-1250

'4

1: Walter von Geroldseck, Bishop of Strasbourg, c.1262 2: German urban Infantryman, 1250-1300

3: Mounted crossbowman, 1250-1300 4: Infantryman from the Low Countries, 1250-1300

3

4

2

2

3

1: German knight, c.129O 2: Braban(j:on mercenary, c.13OO 3: Cuman auxiliary, 1250-1300

H

Castello di Lombardla at Enna In central Sicily, a Byzantine stronghold fortified first by the Normans a.nd then by the Germans.

near Rom l' 0 month arli r, and wa mar hing north t upp rt Barbar a. Th north rn army in Iud d th ounts of aarbru ken Fland r and HoUand th landgrav of Thurin Tia, the archbi'h p f 10 n and 1agd bur ,and ev ral bi hop. Thi- for of perhap 500 knigh and 1,500 erg an ,had ignificanu redu ed in pot ntial ize b the refu al f th pow rful H n the Lion, Duke of Bavaria, to answ I' the summon. It era .ed th Alp ia the Lukmanier Pa . rath r than one of th astern pa e; thi r ut avoid dad tour astward, but had the di advantage of pia ing it on tile road through omo WiUl Milan direcd betw en it and Barbarossa's a-oops 1 mil 'outh at Pavia. Fr d dck I ft Pavia with an cort of p rhap 500 knigh', kin d Milan and m l th north rn arm at omo wh I' he was j in d b i burgher, making a force of perhap 3,000-3,5 0 men. Howev r the Milan now eeing the real dang r in allowing Barbaro sa to unit all ulr fore s, caU d for h lp from other citie . M anwhile, Fr deri k t ut £ I' Pavia, a ain kirLing jlan' unfortunal L UJi Lime he am within 20 mil and th Leagu iz d it. chane, marching OUl t d al with the thr at before th mperor could get ba k to Pa ia. lint d c nLin nts indud d 300 men from Novara and ¥ r IIi, 200 fr m Piac nza and 50 from Lodi, n cam from Bre ia, rona and th Verone e mark; their infantl 'were t defend Milan while ule "ilane fo [mar h d out with th cavaiJ', a for <:: of p rhap 4,000 hor . Th advan e guard of both armi . urpri d n another in tl1 wo d round at Legnano, about 1 mile north-\ e t of Han. h 00 erman av 1m I [0 th 700 Milan knights, h w r Ul n atta k d b th main b d at d brok. he main mbaI'd b d am fr m th \ 0 ds to fann 0PP ite th nnan , wim th Lombard cavalry in four divi in. D 'pit inferior l1lunb r ili G nnan knights harged, I

33

and ucce i ely broke up the en my division , hich may have been in column. Many hor III n fled pa't their infantry pW'sued by th imperial troop, Th foot oldier had mad a stand around th carro cio, perhaps assi t d by a tr nch ( r canal) which partly prot ct d the overnight camp til had pre umablyju t left. Drawn up in a mass with fronted sill Id and sp ar I v U d at th en my, I' inforced b ome of the knights who now dismounted, the pre ented a formidable obstacJ and. uccessfully halted the pursuit. The Milanese kni Tbts themselve ralJied when they m t a body of Brescian knights who had com to upport Milan. Togetll I' they laun hed an atta k on tbe flank of tll erman who do not eem to have mplo ed archer or era. bowmen again t the enem foot, not ev n from among tll bur rher of Como, presumably becau they were too far in tlle rear. Se ing th ermans falter, tll ltalian foot may well have advanc d at thi time. Th imperial standard fell and Barbaro sa was unhor d giving ris to a rumOlU' tllat he was dead and to panic. Lack of infantry and too few men togemer with the pirited opposition from arm d townsmen marked the end of Barbaro a' ambition in IU'lly. He manag d to return to Pavia. There ar no report of how close hri,tian of Mainz and hj relief fore from the outh mayor may no have be n. Frederick II's Italian Campaigns

34

Battle of Cortenuova 27 November 1237 The ltaJian preferenc for deaJing Witll imperiaJ threats wa to attack me en my only whjle hi forces w r divided as at Carcano and L gnano. Having been thwarted by these tactics in 1236 and failing to capture any strongholds, Fredelick IT retw"ned me following ear with 2000 knights and moved on Brescia. He already had the allegiance of ManUla, which had defected fr m the Lombard League. However, a Lombard army in a s ur po ition pl"evented any furtl1 ration, and in November several Italian city contingents were reJeas d from the imp rial army. In order to nti e th enemy out Frederick then crossed tbe Oglio with p rhap as many a 10,000 men including 2 000 German hal' e and mar h d w stward toward Cremona pI' t nding to depart for for winter quarter.. he Lombard, d spite fielding a force probably imilal'in iz to that of m mp ror, decided to return home too, and deciining the obvious route which would have meant marching a day behind the en my, they made a wid r detour north to add another day between tbem elv and Frederick. Th emperor, however, warned of the move by smoke ignals, had marcbed directly aJong th riv r in tead and a the daylight began to fade, fell upon tb Lombard cavalry in the region of Bergamo at Cortenuova.

The Story of Tristan, a 5trasbourg manuscript of c.1240. Though the knights all wear full helms, none wears a surcoat and only some wear leg armour. (Bayerlsche S1ailtsblbllothek, Munich, Ms. Germ. 51, f.86r)

The left-hand thief crucified alongside Christ in this miniature of c.1250 wears a coat of scale armour, with short sleeves and no hood. Though often associated in western art with Muslims or other non-Christians, here it is used in connection with a man whose soul is saved. As with many scale coats, this example has short sleeves and no coif, since scales were stiffer than inter-linked mail. (Bibliothitque de i'Universit6, Liege, Ms. 431, f.18Bv)

The armour worn by Parzlval and Feirefiz in this mid-13th century manuscript is typical of that worn in much of western Europe; however, the 'V'-necked opening 01 the sureoat and the wide triangular shields were popular in Germany. (Bayerlsche Staitsbibliothek, Munich, Ms. Germ. 19, f.49v)

he imperial cavalry, in s ven division' were met b the knights of the Lombard ad ance guard but the element of surprise h Iped the G rmans to repulse th m with th 1st di,~ ion alone. am fled from th camp, while other crowded round the focal point of the great ca1'roccio, prot ted as iL wa b a, dit h or canal in fran and the ~llage of ortenuova in the rear. The imperial army could not make any hcadwa: again t th Lombards, who were secure in thi defended positiol . Accardi), g to 'ome chronicl r Frederick u ed his aracen archer to break up the encm ranks. Hm ever, he him 'elf does not mention them in his own report of the battle, nor do th eem to have had an major effi ct, . ince hastilitie were called off as night fell It may be that the archer wer late in arri ing or of n gligibl number. The knights were ord red to sle p in their armour to be read for in Lanl action next morning. How v r, the L mbards had had nough. neler cover of darkne increasing numbers left their positions and slipp d awa until th whole army fled. The cro . on the carmccio wa brok n off and carried away, the wagon it elf con idered too great an en umbrance. The cross-piece was also abandoned and later fOlmd b imp rial oldi rs. Th amp was taken and Frederick.' men chased and killed numbers of the enemy and

35

aptur d other. This

1-

lJincant d ~ at did litt! for

th imp' rial au however. Though th Milan mad ov nur Fr derick th r fus t agr e to an unconditional urrender and th bitt r stmggl ontinu d,

36

Siege of Parma, 1247-48 During his contion d campaign again th iti Fr deri k n marched n the ci ty of Parma wi Lh om· 10000 men. ProbabJ to 5 w in number to un"ound the ity, the 'ct up a si cr camp oppo it part of th cit i wat d on th I ft bank of the river, mall r in area than thal on the right ban k. Tb i cam p was dubbed . ittoria'. From it thc ernp r r proc d d (Q d n I.h cit pr vi 'ion by w' ling th oUnLrysid r. r mil around. HaLo hoped ad ter an attempt to reJiev th itizens. Unfortl.tnal.eJ, in h had n [ urr lInded the ity, hi effor were nol. \\ h II effective; the antuan ailed up the Ri er Po with a neel. and pro eeded to help Parma, whi h it If po 's cd a larg number of fighting men. Winter am and I.h m n of Al andria B r am , Pa ia and ~ nona w rent h m'. Frederick aJ·o nr pan of hi arm Tre i a and At andria. a re uh hi remainiJlg force can ist d of 1,100 hor e, 2,000 fOOL from Cremooa and an unknown number of arac n. further 1,00 .. ere removed. Fredcri k Lh n went hUl I..iog accompanied, il i said by 500 mounted m n. n 1 February, \ hil h was awa th Parmesan' 'ame out with half meir army in order to mar b up th Po again t KiJlg . nzio (Fr deli k' illegitimat on). Th' ther half of m ir f< r orli d ut to guard Lh ir rear. Tbo e in amp, WimOLl

LEFT The little carved and painted figure of a sleeping guard at the Holy Sepulchre was made in Saxony between about 1250 and 1300. The most noticeable feature is the surcoat lined inside with vertical plates, probably of steel though they could have been of horn or whalebone. His neck Is protected by the upright collar of a padded aketon worn beneath his mall. His helm has a rather unusual semi-circular lower front plate, possibly an early visor. (Neidersachsisches Landesmuseum, Hannoveranover)

A surviving shield of the von Nordecks of Rabenau, black on a white field, second half of the 13th century. (Universitatsmuseum, Marburg)

waiLiJ g for orders and without donning full armour attack d thi force

but, on being wor ted, re reated back to the camp wi h the Parmesan in hot pur uil. The Parm an br k into th imp rial camp with the neeing en m, laught ring a they wcm. About 100 knights and 1,500 foo soldier were captured along with the entire camp. Struggles Within German Towns

Battle of Frechen, 1257 Conrad von Hochstaden, Archbi hop of ologn ,becam mbroil din a di pute with the citiz I s of the city. FollowiJ g everal c.la he, onrad cut off acce s to the city b land and wat r: placing hi troops on aU roads leading to ologn. Dietrich von Falkenburg, a 100"d hired by the bur hers, aid it was a di grace for them to be cut off b / 400 enemy soldiers and uped them to come out and fight them. The citizens responded and met the archbi hop' men at Frech n. The atta k was succe ful on F'alk nburg, who initially held his own men in res Ive, threw them into the fight.. It may b that hi figur of 400 wa a delib rate undere timat to spur on th burghers otherwi e the citizen' vi tory ay little for the fighting ability of the archbishop's soldiers. Battle of Hausbergen, 8 March 1262 Anoth I' battJ which developed from the sUl.lggles between a city and its e c1 ia tical head wa tllat b tween th trasbourg bw"gh rs and Bishop Walter von Gerold eck which gave it the name The War of Walter'. Thi began and continued with the destruction and looting of illages and the blockade b Waller of th road into the city. Th landed knights had id d with the bi hop who had arranged that if a knight's property wa atta ked, the bells were to be rung in the neare t villages and tJle call taken up by oth rs. Thu when the So"asbourger marched out under tlleir old burgoma tel', th knight Reimb Id Li b nz Ber, illt n 011 d troying a tower ncar Mundol heim, about five miles north of Strasbourg, th alarm wa sound d. Bishop Walter came up with 300 knights and prepar d to attack th burghers as they returned. th cli is appmached tho e burghers still within the city set out W1d r Nichola' Zorn [0 r in force th ir comrad s and joined up with them orne 3.5 mile' from trasbourg at Hau bergen. The burgher form d up in line of battle and encouraged on another, especially tho e on foot, an intere ting omment which ugge ts that tlJeir morale was not as good as that of th hor men (p rbaps becau e it wa easier to flee if already mount d). wo kni hts wer order d to how the infantrym n bow th y hould fight. Th ize of the o'asbo Irg r forces app ar to have urpri ed Walter's knights when they saw tllem for at fir t th Y were unwilling 0 advance. When advised of the situation, th bi hop called them award. De pite allowing any to leave who so cbose, honour made the knights remain, though many were sure tlle were about 0 die. <

37

_prelilTlinary jou t took place when Mar u· of Ecb....e rsh im, a young patrician not yet knighted, advanced to dare an opponent to fight him. Th challenge wa taken up bl a knight named Beckelariu '; both Ian es splintered the hal' 'e collapsed wilh their riders and died. Men rushed out from both armie but u,e trasbotll'ger reach d Mar us first and sl w his opponent. The battle now b an i.n cam st. The bishop s knigh joined batd with the nemy knigh but were then attacked in Aank b burgher who weI' lowl advan in T on foot in a solid mas of 'p ar . killing h I"e withjn reach. The burgoma tel' had ad ised them to thrust persistently, even ifit meant killing their friend " horse' b cause, he reasoned (perhaps in fun) the were cIa e to home and could return on fool. The Su'asbourgers had truck befor th bi hop' fa tsoldi I' bad com up. It may be that u,e bi hop eeing hi foot move out toward rra~bow'g in order to I ar a ditch, mistakenl tll011ght th YW I' 1 aving and decid d to alta k without th 'm. Ther i also th star of how hj infanu)' were ev rely galled by 400 enemy cro sbowmen, planted a ro' th road hatf 'hooting whil- half reloaded, to prev III tJle iJlfantl)' joinjng their knights. What vel' happened, the bishop's men were e entuaLly crushed b I weight of number and, de 'pite pres ing on after having two hoI' e killed wlder him Walter was defeated ,,~tl1 tl1e 10 s of 60 killgh and 74 captured, though tJ1 bi hop him elf escaped.

~

I

I

ABOVE Battle of Benevento. RIGHT, ABOVE Battle of TagliacoZ2o.

The Struggle For Sicily

Battle of Benevento, 26 February] 266 h P pe pro laimed a TU 'ad again t ling anfr d of icily, and Charl s of ~jou invaded with an army said to be over 26,000 'trang, including 600 mount d crossb wmen and many on foot. B the time th confronted anfred near the tOwn of Benev nto. man had been lost mrough hunger and the number of horse had al diminished. The French, however held th higber ground, with 900 Prav n~al horsemen in the fir t lin ,1400 cavalrywitl1 hades in th and. and 700 uncleI' Raben of Hand r in the third. In front wa a rna of infantry to 'kirmi h wi 'h tJle ara n '. < a h Fren h avah)'man was accompanied by tw toot oldiers who e job was to kill any wounded nemy oldiers. h i iUans, wi I Ben ento at uleir backs, cros, ed tll River alore by a narrow bridge which cau ed gap b tween the clivi ion, Th first lin was composed f 1,200 GenTIan mcrcenarie , the sec ncl f about 1,000 T Iscal and Lombard mer enary avail' under G Ivana Lancia of Salerno, togeilier wim 3-400 arac n light horse. and in me rear King Manfred with perllap' 1,000 Si iljan ~ udal cavalry. Covering the arm w r larg numl ers of aracen infantry archers, \ bo moved forward withoUl orders and shot up the enemy faa but w r broken by the first French mounted li-ne. Howev 1', meeting the erman

°

38

RIGHT 51 Maurice, a statue made in Brandenburg between 1250 and 1300, wears one of the earliest representations of a coat of plates. The plates are delineated by rivet heads on a tabard-like garment worn over a mall coat, with a separate coif. This coat of plates is fastened at the rear by three straps and buckles. Most of these early examples appear In the vicinity of the eastern part of the empire, a possible reflection either of Slav or Hungarian influence or of the dangers from their archers. (Cathedral Museum, Magdeburg)

39

Battle on the Marchfeld

now that Ch rl , ha ing impotentl observed the rout of his maio force. charged up with hi division and scatt red the few troop who 'ulTounded onradin, When the imperial looters aw their commander in flight, they also took to their heels, H nry of Castile managed to rally a number of horsemen and advanced the ngevins. against However, 40 French knight feigned fUgh to draw out th en m . As the broke rank they were attack d by harles' battle, whil th 40 knight whe led to trike their flank. De pit a rall , the could not hold off the Angevins and fled. Conradin, Frederick and al aoo were caught a few w ek later and like rhos tak n in th battle, weI' executed. He11l1' of astile wa impri oned for 23 years. The Eastern Problem

40

Battle on the March.feld, 26 August 1278 Rudolf I mad> an attempt to crush nativ' Bohemian rc i tance and met a larg arm under King Ottokar, on th bank of the River arch. Among oth r, ttokar I d a force of Moravian, north German mercenaries, Pole and om Rus·ian. Rudolfs troop included at least 14.000 Hungarian. both heavy and light cavalry, many of them Cumans. The Bah mian dre, up in ix divisions: Bohemian; Moravian with additional Bohemians [Tom the Pilsen area; Germans from Mi nia and Thuringia; two divisions of Pol<:: . and Bavarians and north Germans with Ottokar him elf. re rve probably of Bohemians, was commanded by Milita of Diedicz Chamberlain of 10ravia. All wore green ros e as a di tingui hing badge. Rudolf or anj ed hi men in three or po sib I four division apparently placing th Hungarian in three divi ion of their own on hi left with the creen of umans in front. I owever the exaCl placement of ith r army i not known for certain. infanu)' appear to hav tak n part. Riding fon¥ard, th Cumans and Hungarians advanced in a semiire! round th right flank f the n -m , harrying with arrow the Boh mian and Poles stationed there. The Hungarian h avy cavalry th n harged forward into th enemy flank 10 ing ohe ion, and after a litlle whil put th Bohemian and Pol s to fli ht laught ring or cap uring man men during the pur uit. eanwhile, on Rudolf left Ottokar had pushed the imperialists back. However steadied by their r serv , they

reformed and advanc d again. his time Ottokar's troops w re push d back his reserve broke and the whole of hi' line collap ed. Ouokar was killed and man were caught by the HunO"arians and llrtlanS a they sought afety in fliglu. Other drowned trying to s ape across the river. Succession Quarrels

Battle Of Worringen, 5 Jnne 1288 In 12 3 th death of the Du he of Limburg in Lower Lorrain et off a uccessiol1 struggl b tw en Dllk John of Brabant and ReinaJd of Gu IdeI' ,th dt! h on ort, who was support d by Si gfri d of We terburg, Archbi hop of Cologn and th other lord. Joh_l1' upporters i.ncluded the citizen of Cologne, who 1'0 e again t th ir archbi hop in 12 . John moved to attack Won'in n on th Rhin, where the castle Ie\~ed h avy tolls on shipping. On 4JLme iegfri. d drew up near euss and blocked th road to Cologn d nying John' supply rout. ext morning the archbishop march d to th Rhine in th leading division, followed by the force of th aunts of Lux mblLrg and Cuelder. John meanwhile drew off acros. the PIetsch to open ground. Th duke a replacement hoI' e read , led the large Brabancon divi ion; lh econd included th counts of Laos and Jiilich. 1n th rear, on the Rhine near th ca tIe was th th i rd clivi ion with the hoI'S and foot (many with piked club) ofth OlLllt orB rg, and communaJ force from ColoO"n . Th army may have numbered about 2000-2,200 knights and mounted sergean ts, and 2 000-3,000 fool. nemy number weI' similar, with p rhap lightly more cavalry. About 30 quil"es were dubbed byJohn. John waite I for AT hbi hop iegfried' forces on a hill b hind a marsh with the olague-Warring n road in front. Siegfried's battle advanced towards the count of B rg, who S 11 to

Knights Jousting, from Wilhelm von Or/ens of c.1270. One knight has a scarf wrapped round his helm. Note the three enarmes or carrying straps inside the shield. (Bayerische Staatsbibllothek, Munich, Ms. Germ. 63, f.49r)

41

A siege, from Wilhelm von Orlens. A crossbowman aims from the top of a siege tower, while a warrior with an axe hacks at the wooden structure. A counterweight trebuchet Is shown at bottom right. Note the stiff shoulders of the surcoats of the mounted knights rounding up horses and cattle. (Bayerlsche Staatsbibliothek, Munich, Ms. Germ. 63, f.81r)

42

the duk for aid. John ignored advice to ill in pOSluon near til road ditches and mar h and fall on th n my as they cros d the dit hes of the erkenich-Worrin Ten road. In tead, be undertook to help Berg, moving over th Col gne road toward th en my. e i.ng thi', iegfried cro ed th M rk nich road to meet him, all three division' dosing up into a huge moving mass. In open fi Ids betw en the angle of tlw road the armie lowly [0 ed, 'as if th Y had a b,-id' in front of dlem in th sad eI I '. Raa of Gaver fealing an overlap b the long nemy front, wanted John to thin and I ngthen the line, but inst ad the divi ion closed up 'thick and tight' as eyewitn ss, Jan van I eelu, put it. Packed knee to kn e, th Braban~on were outOank d on their light by the Count of Guelder' clivi ion, who wer more in tere ted in pLlshin on to plunder the ducal camp. .,'" However, they were soon blocked by the arrival of th econd division lU1der Loa' aJld]ll1ich. Di ciplin was uch that none left th rank to attack the few who gOl through to the camp. John' hor fell, as did that of hi banner-b'arer, the uump tel'S ceasing to blow wltil they saw th flag rai ed again. oun Henry IV of LlDcembw-g tli d to eize John, bu a he did 0, be was slain b a Braba.n~on knight, Wouter van den Bisdomme. AJ i gfri I' menb gantoweaken the ountofBergcam upwith th third divi. ion. A Braban on hoI' man led the infantry, many armed with spiked clubs, to attack the Archbi hop' flank and rear, the infantry aI 0 storming his WTroCclo in the form ofa wooden castle. OnJohn' right a final push felled Gueldcr's banner; the count and Si gfried Wel"e among those tak n pri oner. After a long hard battle the victory of Duke John' army sealed the ind pend J1 of Brabant from tl, G nnan <mpire.

Battle of Gollileim 2 July 1298 Thi' bartl took I la e between King dolr of Nassau an the COllnterking, Albert of Bab bnrg- u o·ia. It appear to have been a battle b tween knights though the number invol eel ar unclear. Albert suppo ell gave order for the hal' s to be kjlJed, resulting in a wall of dead hal' He h b hind whi h the Bavarian knights ontinueel the ·truggl on foot, with their prine . before them. He is also supposed to ha ord red th knights b ginning t wear in rea ing amounts of solid armour in ctle form of teel, whalebone or uir bouilli. Fighting men w re to especialJ harp n their sword points for better thrusting and a sword ctlrust which might also burst ct.email links apart, was Ule best wa to fmel gaps. The Bavarian are supposed La have briefly rested behind the wall of horses, another questionable event. V'I'llcther or not u h La tics were actuaJ] used, tlle batLle nded with the death of dolr and the sllcce sian to ctle crown of the victolious Albert.

FURTHER READING Benjamin Arnold German Km:ghlhood I05(J.l '()O (Oxford, 1985) John Beeler, Wmfare in Feudal EUlVpe 730-1200 (London, ]972) Eric Christian n 771ft orlhem en.t ades, The Ba.ttic and lire Calholic Fmnlier 1100-1525 (London, 1980) Ph.illipe ontamine Wa:r in lhe \tliddle Ages (Trans. Micha I Jones Oxford, 19 4) R. H. C. Davi , A Hi lory ojMedieval EwojJe (London, 1970) H. Delbnkk, Ge. chichl€ des Kriegshu'I1s1/:n Rahmen del' politi dum Ge chichle, m:· Miltelaller (Berlin, 1923, repro 1964) W. Erben, Kriegsgeschichl.e des Miltetaller. (Berlin and unicb, 1929) F. L. Gan'bof Feu.dali 111 (Tran . Philip Gt-ier on, London 1952) K. Gorski 'Th Teutoruc Order in Prussia', Medievalia el Hmnanistica, XVII, 1966 Ferdinand Lot, CAl"1 Militai're elles Armee au Mo)'en Age en Eumpe el dan le Proche-Olienl (2 vol, Paris, 1946) PteI' MutlZ Frederick BarbanJssa: A stud)' in Mfdiev{/,l Polilic (1969) David icolle, 'Th Mooreale Capital and the Military Equipment of Later orman 'icil', Gl,adiu , >"'V, 19 0, pp. 87-] 03 , he apella Palatina Cei1iJlg and the MusLim MiJitary lnheritanc of Norman Si ily' Ctadills XIV: 1983 pp.45-145 A,'m and ArmOU1' oj the Crusading .E,'m (2 vols w York 198 ) . W. . Oman A Hi lOry' oj lhe A"l oj War in the Micldle g ,AD 373-1485 (2 vols, Landau, ] 924· (repr. 1960) J. F. Verbrugg n, The A rl oj Warfare in t;u'IOpe dW7,ng the Mid 1I.e Ages ( ran. 01. S Williard & Mr. R.W. authern, Woodblidge, 1977)

The Massacre of the Innocents of about 1280 shows mail coifs with the squared lappet familiar In German illustrations. The central figure wears a short uncovered haubergeon. His coif has a lace around the temples which probably secures a steel cervelliere beneath. He seems to have no mail chausses but, like his companion on the right, does wear gamboised culsses which divide Into strips at the calf and are stitched to give a close fit. Over these are attached solid poleyns to guard the knees. The man on the left seems to have a long· sleeved surcoat. Note the buckles on the waist belts, but lies on the sword belts. (By permission of the British Library, Ms. Add. 17687)

43

THE PLATES A1: German Knight, 11th century The mail coat is rather old-fashioned in being split up the sides for ease of movement, rather than at front and rear. Examples of this style persisted in Germany for over two centuries. Though a front and rear vented hauberk would be better for use on horseback. this knight still fights as an infantryman, The helmet is of the old spangenhe/m type, plates being riveted inside a framework of bands. It has no nasal (nose-guard) and the mail coif lacks any throat defence. His large oval shield Is based on several instances of pictorial representation but, like examples depicted elsewhere in western and central Europe, is unsupported by archaeological evidence. A2: Bohemian Foot Soldier, 11th century Common to many other areas of Europe, infantrymen were often distinguished from knights and men of rank by being almost totally devoid of body armour. This man, however, does possess a helmet with a nasal to protect against the cut of the slashing swords currently in use. It has been drawn up from a single piece of metal, unlike that of the mailed warrior. The rivets round the brim serve to hold a leather or canvas band Inside, to which is stitched a padded lining. He also carries the so-called kiteshaped shield Introduced around the turn of the 11th century for both foot soldiers and horsemen. The boss, a legacy from the circular shield, which once covered a hole in the shield for the fist which grasped a bar, no longer has a true function. A3: Polish Heavy Cavalryman, 11th century The Poles were in contact with the Germans on a number of occasions, threatened by the aggressive policy of the emperors. This man wears a coat of iron scales and carries a shield with stitched leather sections. His gilded helmet is set with applied decorative plaques, and he carries a short axe at the saddle.

44

B1: German Knight, first half of the 12th century This knight's helmet has a forward-pointing apex typical of the time. Mail sleeves now reach the wrist, but unlike some contemporaries, he wears no armour on the legs. His sword belt is fastened by passing the split ends of one half through slits cut in the shorter half and knotting them together. This was the almost universal method of holding the belt in the t2th century, and remained common in Germany in the following century. B2: Lotharingian Infantryman, first half Of the 12th century Dressed in a short mailcoat with sleeves only to the elbow, he carries a circular shield, now equipped with cross· strap enarmes instead of the metal bar used in earlier versions. Despite the widespread adoption of 'kite' shields, the circular variety was often to be seen in the hands of infantrymen. B3: Veronese Infantryman, c.1139 This man is of some standing in the city. being well-protected in mail. His dress also displays a couple of features of Italian equipment: the helmet is tilted forward but also drawn out and down at the rear to afford some extra protection for the back of the head, and the shIeld is very long. The squared off lower edge is a feature of some Italian shields, otherwise only seen In use by some Muslims. His equipment is of knightly quality, but the single mail-covered leg indicates that he is a heavy Infantryman, who has to present his left leg towards the enemy. C1: German Knight, second half of the 12th century The legs are protected by strips of mail laced in place down the back, though other knights wore full mall hose. His helmet is tall and hemispherical. a style which was popular in the empire. The sides are painted with simple early heraldic arms. His nasal is expanded at the base to form an inverted 'T' bar to help guard the mouth, the first step towards a fUll face mask. C2: Milanese Infantryman, c.1170 The helmet worn by this man, a member of the city whose soldiery caused the Germans so much trouble, is drawn down at the back to guard the nape. He wears no armour, but his shield has strengthening bands and is rounded off at the bottom. He carries a very early form of falchion, the weighted end of the blade being particularly good for dealing heavy blows. C3: Italian Knight, late 12th century This figure represents one of the north Italian knights who fought with (and against) the Germans during their campaigns south of the Alps. Though his eqUipment differs little from that of his German companion. his helmet is drawn out at the back which, together with its rounded skull, gives it rather the appearance of a later salle!. The medial ridge is drawn up at the top to form a crest. He carries an early form of flanged mace fitted with a head of copper-alloy. The V"tta Caroll Magnl of the late 13th century relates the life of Charlemagne and portrays the church militant In the form of Archbishop TlJrpins. His crest of a mitre seems to have a cloth mantling hanging down at the rear, which wafts out behind, though the other helms have a plate over this area which Is presumably a reinforce. No surviving helm shows this feature, question.able since any reinforces are usually added to the front. (Cathedral Ubrary, St Gallen, Switzerland)

01: Ministerialis, Wolfram von Eschenbach, c.1200 Wolfram came from a family of Bavarian ministeriales. The pendant sleeves and 'Y'-neck on his surcoat can be seen in several German sources of the period. The practice of embossing the surface of the helmet with vertical flutes was popular in Germany. an action which strengthened the metal. Whether the armourers of the day realised this or simply employed it as a decorative addition is not known. His face is completely protected by a mask riveted to the brow of the helmet. On top is a small crest in the form of a 'banner' which repeats his heraldic arms. Whether Wolfram actually used the battle-axes (shown on the Manesse Codex of the early 14th century) or his family arms of flowerpots with handles, is not known for certain. The warhorse, taken from a manuscript of The Eneide, wears what appears to be a quilted form of trapper, though the dot in each square of the original may possibly represent some form of metal reinforcement. 02: German Knight, c.1200 This figure is also largely taken from The Eneide. The mail sleeve now extends over the hands to form mittens, in which the palm Is covered by cloth or leather to facilitate a good grip. The hand can be extricated through a slit in the palm. His mall hood is extremely unusual. having two eye-holes and presumably forming part of the mailcoat worn beneath the surcoat. However, the manuscript gives no hint as to how it was laced up. It may have been an elongated form of ventall, which would normally only cover the mouth at most. Some ventails seem to have been laced either side of the temple and this is how we have chosen to depict this example. Another note-

A knight from a Flemish manuscript of the late 13th century wears armour of similar type to that In France reflecting the strong influence of that country. (By permission 01 the British Library, Ms. Sloane 2435, f.85)

worthy item is the baggy quilted cuisses now used to defend the thighs. Slipped on over the mail chausses which emerge below, they are drawn up and tied to a waistbelt. The rather wide shield was a form popular among German knights, and his arms are repeated on the surcoat, a style as yet uncommon. Again rather a rarity, his sword hangs from a wrist strap, a device more usually seen in connection with the mace. 03: Thuringian Archer, c.1200 Unarmoured except for a kettle-hat, this archer sports a weapon of almost longbow proportions. His quiver has a form of hood to protect his arrows, rather like that used by east European or Muslim horse archers. The arrows with their crescentic heads are carried point-uppermost, a feature usually associated with crossbow bolts. It may be that the archers of this region were influenced by their proximity to the Slav borders. E1: Savoyard Knight, c.1225 This figure comes from a region of the empire which formed part of the Kingdom of Aries. He wears a form of early helm, the faceguard now extended to protect the sides and back of his head. ned below the chin by laces, the helm was put on over the mail hood and padded arming cap. His cuisses are more closeA siege, from the late 13th-century Weltchronlk of Rudolf von Ems. A foot soldier ascends a scaling ladder protected by a very large 'kite-shaped' shield, a.lmost a form of pavise. The kettle-hat was faVOUred for siege work since the broad brim could deflect missiles dropped from above. In contrast, the crossbowman wears a great helm. Though often seen In western art, it Is debatable whether such ali-enclosing protection would be preferred by crossbowmen. (Cathedral Library, St Galien, Switzerland)

45

E3: Count Louis II of Loos, c.1216 This picture is based on the count's seal, and shows him wearing a surcoat with stiffened shOUlders, though it is not known for certain how this was achieved. No support is visible on this or many other examples, and though one or two elsewhere in Europe suggest an extension of a cUirie, or solid cuirass, worn beneath, here it may well have been achieved by stiffening the cloth itself. The surcoat is decorated with his heraldic arms. These are repeated on his horse's trapper, which only covers the front half of the animal, a form rarely encountered. On his original seal the helmet is shown with a crest, but the form of it has been lost through damage.

This cmssbowman, from an ea..ly 14th-century album probably made in Flanders, wears a scale coat rather than the mail favoured by his companions. As with other examples, he also wea.rs a great helm. (Blbliothl!que Royale Albert ler, Ms 9245, f.254r)

fitling below the knee, the latter protected by a very early form of poleyn, which we have reconstructed as cuir bou/lll (hardened leather), each of which has been pierced round the edges and stitched on to the cuisse. The almost triangular shield is typically German in style. E2: Infantryman from Aries, c.1220 This man wears a coat of mail, but with a separate mail coif, unusual at this date. The squared lower edge was a style favoured within the empire, and probably shows German influence in an area Increasingly coming under France. His curious helmet- more than one depiction exists in this region - may have been made from two halves with an applied crest to protect the join, though it could equally well be drawn up from one piece of metal. The roping shown both on the crest and brow-band are also rare; roped decoration on armour did not become popular until the sixteenth century. That on the brow-band might be twisted cloth but it is hard to suggest such an explanation for the medial crest. His shield is of the old, round-topped 'kite' variety.

46

F1: German Knight, c.1250 The equipment of this knight is rather similar to that of his contemporaries in France and England. He wears no solid armour on his knees, but his helm has become somewhat deeper, supported by a padded coif with a roll around the top, which gives his mail coif a squared appearance. His sword has a crescentic pommel, a type rarely seen outside Germany. He bears the arms of a member of the von Mallinckrodt family of Westphalia, which are repeated on his horse's trapper. F2: Sicilian Saracen Horse Archer, c. 1240 Frederick II was especially fond of Saracens and this man, whose dress is rather similar to that of the Saracens of Andalusian Spain, carries a composite recurved bow of sinew, wood and horn. The sinew on the back (outer side) of the bow gives stretch. the horn on the belly (inner side) gives good compression. He does not use a bow-case, though his arrows are carried in a quiver on his right side. The sword is of the straight form favoured by the Arabs. F3: Tunisian Berber Bodyguard, c.1240 Frederick II, like the Sicuio-Norman Roger I before him, employed bodyguards of Tunisian extraction. This man, in striking contrast to the German knights, is very Arab in his dress, complete with turban over a steel conical helmet, topcoat and circular shield with leopard-skin covering. Body armour is in the form of a short coat of lamellar, small iron plates laced together, which was popular among many Muslim soldiers but rare in Catholic Europe.

The knights In the Histoire de Bon Roi Alexandre, probably a Flemish manuscript of about 1300, wear altlettes on their shoulders, a method of displaying heraldic arms rather than offering subs1antlal protection. The helmets have what appear to be movable bevors on the lower front half, though this could be an early visor. (Bibliothl!que Royale Albert ler, Ms. 11040, f.36v)

Notes sur les planches en couleur

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mim]

MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

MILITARY

An umivaIled source of information on the uniforms, insignia and appearance of the world's fighting men of past and pre ent. The MCII-at-Arms titles cover subjects as diverse as the hnperial Roman army, the Napoleonic wars and German airborne troops in a popular 48 page format including some 40 photographs and diagrams, and eight fuIl-colour plates.

CHRISTOPHER GRAVETT

left, was born in 1951. He has a master's degree In medieval studies from London University; and Is now Assistant Curator at the RoyaJ Armouries at HH Tower of London. He has published a number of articles on his period of Interest and is the author of severaJ Osprey books Including Campaign I] Hastings 1066 and Men·at·Arms 166 Medieval German Armies 1300-1500.

GRAHAM TURNER Is a leading artist In medieval history, but a relative newcomer to Osprey having produced the artwork for Warrior 10 British Redcoat (2) 1793.18 I5 and the six outstanding battle scenes for Campaign .... PavIa 1525. This is his first Men-at-Arms.

COMPANION SERIES FROM OSPREY CAMPAIG Concise, authoritative accounts of decisive encounters in military history. Each 96 page book contains more than 90 iIlustrations including maps, orders of battle and colour plates, plus a series of three-dimensional battle maps that mark the critical stages of the cl.!mpaign. ELITE Detailed information on the uniforms and insignia of the world's most famous military forces. Each 64 page book contains some 50 photographs and diagrams, and 12 pages of fuJl-colour artwork. NEW VA GUARD Comprehensive histories of the design, development and operational use of the world's armoured vehicles and artillery. Each 48 page book contains eight pages of fuIl-colour artwork including a detailed cutaway of the vehicle's interior. WARRIOR Defmitive analysis of the armour, weapons, tactics and motivation of the fighting men of history. Each 64 page book contains cutaways and exploded artwork of the warrior's weapons and armour.

MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES TITLES THE ANCIENT WORLD 111 ANCIENT CHINESE ARMIES 109 ANCIENT ARMIES Of THE MIDDLE EAST 11. IMPERIAL CHINESE ARMIES (I) 100 BC·§lI'/NJ 131 THE SCYTHIANS 700-300 B.C " GREEK AND PERSIAN ARM IES 500-313 BC 1.1 THE ARMY OF IU.£XANDER THE GREAT 111 ARMIES OF THE CARTHAGIAN WARS 165·1.6 BC 113 EARl'Y ROMAN ARMIES .6 THE ROHAN ARMY FROM CAESAR TOTRAJAN 9J THE ROMAN ARMY fROM HADRIAN TO CONSTANTINE 191 REP\J8UCAN ROMAN ARMY 1OO-Il)oIIC

n9 ROME'S ENEMtES (I) GERMANICS & DACIANS IS' ROME'S ENEMIES (1) GALUC & 8RITISH CElTS 175 ROME'S ENEMIES (3) PARTHIANS & SASSANIDS 110 ROME'S ENEMIES (4) SPAIN 218-1' BC 143 ROME'S ENEMtES (S) DESERT FRONTIER

ISO THE AGE Of CHARLEMAGNE 19 BY2ANTINE ARMIES 8116-1118 IS SAXON. VIKING & NORMAN 131 fRENCH MEOIEVALARMIESIOQO.1300 3' 0 GERMAN MEDIEVAL ARMIES 1OQO.llOO 71 ARMIES Of THE CRUSADES 171 SAlADIN & THE SARACENS ISS THE KNIGHTS Of CHRIST 100 El aD & RECONQUISTA 10SO-I.91 105 THE MONGOLS THE MEDIEVAL WORLD 1.7 ROMANO-BYZANTINE ARMIES 117 BYZANTINE ARMIES 1111-1461 .TH,9TH C. 111 THE AGE OFTA.MERlANE IS. ARTHUR & THE ANGlO·SAXON WARS 15 I MEDIEVAL CHINESE ARMIES 195 IMP1:RIAL CHINESE ARMIES (2) S90-116OAO SO MEDIEVAL EUROPQ" 155 ARMIES OF THE MUSUM CONQUEST I SI THE SCOTTISH AN[ Ill()'l~ 115 ARMIES Of ISlAM. 7TH-II TH C.

9. 136 166 I'S 1S9 1.0 11 0 III

1.4 III 1.5 "

THE SWISS AT WAR 1300-1500 ITAlIAN MEDIEVAL ARMIES 1300-1500 MEOIEVAlGEPJ1AN ARMIES 1300-1500 HUNGARY & THE FALl OF E. EUROPE 1000-1568 THE MA.MlUKS OTTOMAN TuRKS IlOO-In4 VENETIAN EMPIRE 1200-1670 ARMIES OF CREC'Y AND POITIERS M£DIEVAlSURGVNDY 136'1-1.n ARMIES OF AGINCOURT WARS THE RQsES MEDIEVAL.HEJIAIhuo

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