A Latin Grammar (1911)

91^

PURCHASED FROM

UNIVERSITY FUNDS a^^mrYv

L.3'6'=i

Digitized

by Microsoft®

The

daf

'i

Cornell University Library

PA 2087.B97

A Latn

grammar,

3 1924 021

All

books are subject

612 910

to recall after

Olin/Kroch Library

DATE DUE

two weeks

This

book was

cooperation

digitized

witli

by Microsoft Corporation

Cornell University Libraries, 2007.

You may use and print this copy in for

your personal purposes, but

provide access to for

it

in

limited quantity

may not distribute

or

(or modified or partial versions of it)

revenue-generating or other commercial purposes.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

A LATIN GRAMMAR BY

HARRY EDWIN BURTON,

Ph.D.

Professor of Latin in Dartmouth College

SILVER, BURDETT & BOSTON NEW YORK Digitized

by Microsoft®

COMPANY CHICAGO

U3S^ Copyright, igii, bv

SILVER,

BURDETT & COMPANY

Digitized

by Microsoft®

PREFACE This book has been written in the in order to

contain ners'

meet the needs

morethan

belief that

a Latin Grammar,

of pupils in secondary schools, should

the elementary facts of the language.

Begin-

books and grammatical appendices have to a certain extent

superseded the strictly elementary of the school course.

grammar

for the first

It seems, therefore, that a

two years

grammar, in

order to be useful throughout the school course, should contain

not only the ordinary and simple facts but also those which are

more unusual or more complicated.

The author

believes that

such a grammar best meets the demands of the secondary school, while at the

same time

it

retains its usefulness through the college

Familiarity with such a book acquired at school

course.

great value to those

In any case

it is

who

is

of very

continue the study of Latin in college.

undoubtedly true that the proper use of a

fairly

complete grammar gives not only a wider but also a more appreciative

and more permanent knowledge

of the language.

While seeking to include even the more uncommon forms and constructions,

the author has studiously excluded

all

material

which would be confusing to the beginner and would be negby the more advanced student. He has endeavored to

lected

present the essentials with the greatest possible simplicity for

the benefit of the younger pupil, and has clearly subordinated

statements regarding the more unusual constructions by print-

them in smaller type. At the same time he has had in mind the needs of the college undergraduate, which, as a matter

ing

of

fact,

except for the peculiarities of individual authors, are

about the same as those of the yoimger student who is reading Cicero or VergU. A b3pj^^wj^c]^.trea^adequately the grammar

PREFACE

IV of these

two authors

with slight additions,

is,

sufficient for the

reading of college authors.

Of the passages quoted as examples three-fourths have been that is, from may be called school authors,

—

taken from what

Caesar, Cicero, Vergil, Sallust, Nepos, and a very few from Ovid,

— though

not always from the works or parts of works which

The

are usually read in school. exception,

other examples, almost without

have been taken from works commonly read by college

undergraduates. It has been thought best to treat the formation of

words under

the various parts of speech, instead of treating the subject as

This has been done partly because this

a whole in one place.

arrangement seems more

younger student

may

sented in this way.

logical,

but especially in the hope that the

find the subject less forbidding

The

when

briefly but, it is hoped, sufficiently for the reading of Vergil

Ovid.

It has

pre-

subject of versification has been treated

and

been thought unnecessary to include the meters of

Horace and other

college authors.

Versification is not a part of

the subject of Latin grammar, and modern editions of Latin texts

almost invariably treat the meters used by their authors.

In the treatment of sounds and words the author has had the help of Professor R.

W. Husband, and

in the treatment of syntax

K. Lord, both of Dartmouth College, and wishes hereby to acknowledge his gratitude. He is indebted also that of Professor

J.

to Dr. William Gallagher, Principal of Braintree, Massachusetts,

who has

and has made many valuable

Thayer Academy at South

read the whole manuscript

Thanks are due

also to

Harriet P. Fuller of the English High School, Providence,

Rhode

Island,

and to

Fra,nklin A.

Pennsylvania, for Hanover,

many

criticisms.

Dakin

of Haverford School, Haverford,

useful suggestions.

New Hampshire. Digitized

by Microsoft®

CONTENTS FIRST

PART— SOUNDS PAGE

The Alphabet

I

Classification of Sounds

2

Pronunciation

3

Pronunciation of Vowels

Quantity

of

4

Vowels

4

Pronunciation of Diphtfiongs

.

.

.

^

.

6

.

Pronunciation of Consonants

Syllables Length

7

8 of Syllables

.

8

.

Accent

9 ID

Enclitics

Phonetic Changes Weakening in Unaccented Syllables Weakening of Vowels in Medial Syllables Weakening of Vowels in Final Syllables Weakening of Diphthongs Loss of Vowel ... Combination of Vowels ... Iambic Shortening Vowel Gradation Changes of Single Consonants Changes in Consonant Groups .

.

.

.

II

.

.

.

12 13 13 13

14 14

14 IS

SECOND PART — WORDS Formation of Words Roots Stems

.

.

.

.

Inflection

.

.

Gender

.

i6 i6

.

i6 17

.

.

17

.

General Rules of Gender

17

Number Case

19 DigUizect

by Microsoft®

V

19

CONTENTS

VI

PAGE

Nouns

19

Formation of Nouns Primary Suffixes

19 .

20

.

Agent

Means

20 or Instrument

21

Action

21

Abstracts

.

.

Secondary Suffixes Abstracts

.

22

.

22

.

22

.

Place

23

Diminutives

23

Patronymics

.

23

.

Compound Nouns Declension of Nouns

24 .

2S

.

General Rules of Declension

25

First Declension

26

.

Second Declension Third Declension

28 31

Consonant Stems

31

i-Stems

36

.

.

Nouns Greek Nouns

41

Gender

42

Irregular

4P

.

Fourth Declension

43

Fifth Declension

.

Nouns Variable Nouns Defective

Names

44 46

.

.

....

....

...

of Persons

Adjectives Formation of Adjectives Comparison of Adjectives .

Declension of Adjectives

.

.

48 5° S2

52

54

.

57

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensisns

57

Adjectives of the Third Declension

60

Adjectives of

One Ending

Adjectives of

Two

Endings

60 62

.

Adjectives of Three Endings

63

Possessive Adjectives

64

Adverbs

64

Derivation of Adverbs Classification of

64

Adverbs

.

.

Comparison tSf Adverbs Digitized

by Microsoft®

67

69

CONTENTS

Vll 7AGE

Numerals

70

Numeral Adjectives

70

Fractions

72

Roman

Notation Declension of Numeral Adjectives Adjectives derived from Numerals

72

Numeral Adverbs

74

.

73

74

Peonotjns

75

....

Personal Pronouns

7S

.....

Relative and Interrogative Pronouns

...

....

Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns Indefinite

.

....

Verbs Formation of Verbs Primary Verbs Derivative Verbs

....

81

.

.

... .

.

...

81

.

81

.

82

.

Verbs formed by Composition

.

83

.

Verb-Stems Conjugation Voice

84 85

....

.

Deponent Verbs .... Mood and Tense Signs .

Indicative

.

...

.

.

.

87

...

.

92

.

92

Infinitives

Supine

.

93 93

.

Gerund

.

93

.

...

Tense-Groups

Number

.

95

.

.

.

.

.

.

...

Conjugation of sum

.

First Conjugation

.

Second Conjugation Third Conjugation

.

.

.

... .

...

.

.

,

97 98 100 103 105 107

109

no in

.

Periphrastic Conjugation Digitized

.

...

.

Verbs in -id of the Third Conjugation Fourth Conjugation

Deponent Verbs

95 95

.

Principal Parts

88 91

Verbal Nouns and Adjectives

Participles

87

.88

.

Mood Mood

.

.

.

.

.

.

Subjunctive

Person

76

-77 .78

by Microsoft®

CONTENTS

VUl Verbs

— Continued

Irregular Verbs

PAGE .

112

.

Conjugation of possum

112

Conjugation of

volo

113

Conjugation of fero Conjugation of eo

IIS

114

Conjugation of /w

117

Conjugation of edd

117

Conjugation of do

118

Defective Verbs

.

Impersonal Verbs List of Verbs

.

.

.

119

.

.

121

121

.

Prepositions

134

Conjunctions

.

.

134

.

Interjections

13s

THIRD PART — SYNTAX Introduction

136

.

Principal and Subordinate Clauses

.

136

.

Subject and Predicate

136

Phrase

137

.

Classification of Sentences

138

Interrogative Sentences

138

Answers Alternative Questions

.

.

.

Syntax of the Parts of Speech

141

Syntax of Nouns

141

...

....

Appositives Predicate

139 140

...

Nouns

Cases of Nouns ... Nominative and Vocative Cases Genitive Case Genitive with Substantives and Adjectives

141 143

.

.... •

•

•

.

.

.

14s 146

...

Possessive Genitive

.

I4S

.

.

146 146

.148

Genitive of Definition Genitive of the Whole

.

.

148

Genitive of Material

.

.

ISO

Genitive of Quality Objective Genitive

GenTtive of

^^^igf^ Microsoft®

.

.

....

150 151

152

CONTENTS Syntax op '^ovns

IX

— Continued

page

Genitive with Verbs

152

Genitive of Charge or Penalty

152

Genitive with refert and interest

153

Genitive with Verbs of Plenty or

Want

154

Genitive with Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, Genitive with Verbs of Mental Sensation

154 156

Genitive with potior

156

Genitive of Exclamation

156

Dative Gasp

.

.

156

...

Dative with Verbs

etc.

157

.

Indirect Object with Transitive Verbs

157

Indirect Object with Intransitive Verbs

158

Compound Verbs

Indirect Object with

Dative of Reference

159 161

Dative

162

of Separation

Ethical Dative

.

162

.

Dative of Possession Dative of Agent Dative of Purpose or Tendency

Dative with Adjectives

.

163 163

164 164

.

Accusative Case Direct Object

165

...

.

Accusative of Exclamation ,

.

.165

....

Accusative of Kindred Meaning

Two

.

.

...

167

168

Accusatives

Accusative of Limit of Motion Accusative of Extent .

.170

.

.

171

.

172

Accusative of Specification Subject of Infinitive

Ablative Case

.

173 i73

.

Separative Uses

167

-173

.

.

Ablative of Separation with Verbs Ablative of Separation with Adjectives Ablative of Place

173

174 i74

Whence

i7S

Ablative of Source Ablative of Agent

.....

.

176

Ablative of Material

177 i77

Ablative of Comparison

Ablative of Cause Digitized

,

by Microsoft®

i79

X

CONTENTS

Syntax oe Nouns

— Continued

pace"

Instrumental Uses

i8o

....

Ablative of Accompaniment

Ablative of

Manner

.

i8o

.

Ablative of Attendant Circumstance

.

Ablative of Quality

.

...

Ablative Absolute

.

Ablative of

.

".

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

,

Means

.

i8o

.

182

->.

184

.

.

Ablative of Price

185

Road

Ablative of the

...

Ablative of Measure of Difference

.

..^

186

T

186

.

Ablative of Specification Ablative of Place Ablative of

188

...

Locative Uses

Time

.

.

Where .

.

.

.

.

';.

,

,

.

.

,

,

188

.

,

_•

190

.,1.

191

.i'Vi

'9^

.

.

The Roman Calendar Time

188

.

.

Ablative of Extent of

Locative Case

.

.

193

,';.

Syntax of Adjectives Classification

.

194 194

.

Participial Adjectives

.•

•

Possessive Adjectives

•

.

Attributive and Predicate Adjectives

Agreement

•

.

.

':"?•».

.

.

Adjectives and Participles as Substantives Adjectives instead of Adverbs

.

'.

.

.

.,•

.

.

200

204 .

'.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

204 205 206

.

208

.

,

.

.

.

....

208 210 211

.

.

.

.

.

Pronouns and Adjectives Distributive Pronouns and Adjectives Relative Pronouns and Adjectives Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives Indefinite

Digitized

200

203

.

.

197

202

.

'.....

'.

Intensive Pronoun

alter

196

202

.

Reflexive Pronoun

and

.

.'

.

...

Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives

alius

-

.

Personal Pronouns

The The

195

199

.>'.)'.

.

'.

Syntax of Pronouns

?'

.

.

Comparatives and Superlatives

Syntax of Advekbs .... The Use of Certain Adverbs

'94

"•

.

.'

...

of Adjectives

Negative Adverbs

i8i

i8i

'.

214 .'

by Microsoft®

217

'

CONTENTS

xi PAGE

Syntax of Verbs

....

218

.

Voice

218

Agreement of the Verb with

Moods

a^id

Tenses

Indicative

its

...

Subject

.

....

.

219 220

.

Mood

The Use

220

of the Tenses of the Indicative

Epistolary Tenses

...

Mood Subjunctive Mood

in

Mood

221

22s

Subjunctive

226

Independent Sentences

226

Volitive Subjunctive

226

Subjunctive of Exhortation or

Command

226

Deliberative Subjunctive

227 228

Optative Subjunctive Potential Subjunctive Tenses of the Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses

229 230

.

.

Subordinate Clauses in the Indicative or Subjunctive

23s

Relative Clauses Relative Clauses of Fact

23s 235

...

.

...

Relative Clauses of Characteristic

Causal or Adversative Relative Clauses Relative Clauses of Purpose

.

.

... ...

236 238 239

Subordinate Clauses Introduced by Conjunctive Particles Clauses of Purpose

240

.

240

Clauses of Result

241

Substantive Clauses

242

Substantive Clauses with the Verb in the Indicative

.

Substantive Clauses with the Verb in the Subjunctive

.

242

.

243

Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive Sub-

...

junctive

243

Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative Subjunctive

...

,

.

Substantive Clauses developed from Clauses of Result Indirect Questions

Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses

....

.

.

.

246

.

247 248

.

251

.

with

cum

...

251

with antequam and priusquam

253

.

with postquam, ubi, etc

'.

255

with dum, donee, quoad, and qtiam diu

with quando

Causal Clauses Adversative and Concessive Clauses

...

.

Digitized

.

.

by Microsoft®

.

.

.

.

.

.

257 260

.

260

.

262

CONTENTS

XU

— Continued

Syntax of Verbs

paoe

Subjunctive of Repeated Action Subjunctive by Attraction

264 .

.

Independent Subjunctive Constructions in Subordinate Clauses Conditional Sentences

The Use Types

265

266

of the Conditional Particles

.

266

.

of Conditional Sentences

.

Conditions of Fact

.

.

.

.

267

.

267

268

Conditions of Possibility Conditions Contrary to Fact

Other Forms of Protasis

.

269 271

.

Conditional Relative Sentences

272

Conditional Clauses of Comparison

272

Clauses of Proviso

273

Imperative

Mood

Negative

The

265

274

Commands

274

Infinitive

275.

The Use of the Tenses of the The Uses of the Infinitive .

Infinitive

27s 277

.

Nominative Case as Accusative Case with Passive Verbs

Infinitive as

277

Infinitive

278

Infinitive

281

Infinitive with Adjectives

281

Infinitive of

Exclamation

282

Infinitive of

Purpose

282

282

Historical Infinitive

Indirect Discourse

282

Declarative Sentences in Indirect Discourse

283

Questions in Indirect Discourse

286

Commands

in Indirect Discourse

286

Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse

286

Conditions of Fact or Possibility* Conditions Contrary to Fact

Implied Indirect Discourse

....

Participles

The Use of the Tenses of The Uses of Participles

289 .

the Participle

Gerundive and Gerund Case-Constructions of Gerundive and Gerund

The Supine

.

287 288

.

Syntax OF Prepositions o^g,.f^gjy^^.^.^^3j,^

289 289 291

294 294 296 297

CONTENTS

XUl PAGE

Syntax of Conjunctions •

298

Cojirdinating Conjunctions

299

Copulative Conjunctions

299 301

Disjunctive Conjunctions

Adversative Conjunctions

302

Logical Conjunctions

303

Causal Conjunctions

303

Asyndeton

303

Arrangement of Words

305

Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric

309

Versification

312 316

Meter

The Oral Reading

of Verse

List of Authors and

317

Works Cited

318 321

Index

Digitized

by Microsoft®

Digitized

by Microsoft®

—

LATIN

GRAMMAR

FIRST PART

— SOUNDS

THE ALPHABET 1. The Latin alphabet was borrowed from the Chalcidian Greek colonies of southern Italy and adapted to the sounds of the, Latin language. Only capital letters were used; srhall letters did not come into use till the end of the eighth century A.D.

In Cicero's time the alphabet consisted of twenty-

2.

one

letters

letter

A

:

pronounced

letter

pronounced

letter

pronounced

— THE ALPHABET

2

(j-8

u were doubled; i was written ei or a taller letter was used; sometimes a mark (apex) was put over a long vowel; a late form of this mark is the one now used to indicate a long vowel.

The

C

g sound like the and was retained for that purpose in the abbreviations C. (Gaius) and Cn. (Gnaeus). It gradually came to represent a k sound, supplanting the letter K, which was used generally in the earlier period, but in the classical period only occasionally in Kaeso, Kalendae, Karthago, and a few abbreviations. When the letter C had thus assumed a new function (this Use was general by the beginning of the third century B.C.), a new letter was needed to represent the g sound; for this purpose G was formed from C and inserted in the alphabet in the place once held by Z, which had gone out of use. 5.

letter

originally represented a

third letter of the Greek alphabet,

and

V

regularly represented both the vowel sounds and the semivowel or consonant sounds (maior, vols). The consonant i sound was, however, represented sometimes by a taller letter, sometimes by doubling (TrSiia). The differentiation of U and V, for vowel and consonant respectively, was not made till the tenth century A.D. The letter J was introduced in the seventeenth century, to indicate the consonant i. In this book, according to the modern custom, i is used for both vowel and consonant, u for vowel u, and V for consonant u. 6.

I

(sim, bonus)

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS 7.

lows:

The vowels

— open, a;

—

a, e,

medial, e

o, u, and y and o; dose,

i,

— i,

are classified as folu,

and

y.

There

however, variation within these classes; long e and o, example, are closer than the corresponding short vowels. 8.

The diphthongs

a very few wojds. early Latin;

are ae, au, oe,

and eu; eu occurs

is,

for

in only

Besides these, the following are found in

ai, el^stJ^euiijd/MMiosoft®

lo)

P>

PRONUNCIATION

The combination some regard 9.

(a)

this as

ui occurs in huic, cui,

classified as follows:

Sonant: b, d, g, consonant c, f,

h, k, p, q, s,

t,

i, 1,

m,

n,

x.

Sonants are voiced, surds are not. (6)

and the

interjection hui;

a diphthong, others beheve that the u

Consonants are

Surd:

3

—

r, v, z.

is

a consonant.

PRONUNCIATION

4

{il-I4

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS Long

11.

a as

y

is like

Short

a as

In father

in along

e

u

they

e

<<

net

i

It

machine

i

n

pin

6

u

no

o

<(

oJey

u

((

rule

u

u

^<

German

ii

(as in BrUder) or

French

u.

These EngUsh equivalents are only approximate; all long vowel in English except that of a as in father end in a vanishing sound which makes them somewhat diphthongal. sounds

QUANTITY OF VOWELS The sound

12.

of the long

long as that' of the short.

many

cases

from

its

line of the Aeneid,

vowel

We know

value in poetry;

we may

is

theoretically twice as

the length of a vowel in

as, for

example, in the

first

recognize from their position in the

verse the value of the long and short vowels, as indicated:

arma virumque cano Troiae is

long

if its

vowel

is

qui primus ab oris.

But a

syllable

followed by two consonants, irrespective

of the length of the vowel.

In such cases the value of the vowel

may sometimes

be learned from (a) grammarians; (b) inscriptions, in which long vowels are sometimes marked; (c) etymology; (d) compotinds, in which long vowels are treated differently from short (cf adactus from actus, affectus from factus) (e) transliteration into Greek; (f) treatment of the vowel in languages derived (called hidden quantity)

statements of

.

Roman

;

from Latin.

A

vowel which represents a diphthong or is the result is long: as, concido from caedo; nil from nihil. vowel is long before nf or ns, and probably before net and

13.

of contraction

A ax:

as, infelix,

insanus, defiinctus, coniunx.

14. A vowel^s short before another vowel or h. the following exC^pti(M9ii^«^ by Microsoft®

There are

^5-^S)

QUANTITY OF VOWELS

(a)

Numerous words

(b)

In "classical Latin: 1.

in early Latin: as, pius,

a in the old genitive ending of the

and 6

first

5

ffli.

declension, -ai.

and vocative singular and nominative, dative, and ablative plural of nouns (usually proper names) ending in -aius, -eius, or -oius as, Gai, Pompei, Boi, plebeis. 3. e in the ending of the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, always when e is preceded by i, rarely, in early Latin, when 2.

a, e,

in the genitive

:

—

another letter precedes: 4.

i

regularly have 5.

i

as, diel, but,

with a few exceptions,

in the pronominal genitives unius, totius, etc. later, the

i;

fidel.

The dramatists

vowel was commonly shortened.

in all forms of fio, except

when

followed

it is

by

er: as, fiebam;

but fierem. in

dms

6.

I

7.

Many

15.

A

(for divus).

Greek words:

vowel, unless

as,

Aeneas, aer, Diana (more often Diana).

it is

the result of contraction,

nd as, amant, amandus but vendo from venumdo. before nt or

A

16.

;

:

vowel

is

as, fissus, fossus,

unless there

is

st in verbal endings,

contraction: as, fuisti; but amasti.

Exceptions: some monosyllables ending in the other adverbs of place, is

short

short before ss, except in contracted perfects:

but amasse; also before

17. A vowel is short in monosyllables and ending in any consonant except s.

vowel

is

contio from coventio,

sol,

c,

non, cur; before

n,

1,

r

and

final

syllables

and r: as, hie and t, an original long

retained in early Latin and sometimes in poetry of the classical

period: as, pater, ferar, videt.

Before

18. 1.

final s

The vowel

the quantity of the vowel varies:

—

long in final as, es, and os.

is

Exceptions: anas, duck; as, copper; es in the nominative singular of

some dental stems which have a es (from esse) 2.

;

penes

The vowel

Exceptions:

is

is

;

short vowel in the other cases: as, miles;

os, bone;

compos impos. ;

short in final is

and

us.

in plural case-endings; in the second person singular

of the perfect subjunctive active (rarely -is. as,

^

Digitized

by Micitsom

on the other hand, '

-is

;

PRONUNCIATION

6

occurs rarely in the future perfect)

;

{iQ,

in the second person singular of the

present indicative active of the fourth conjugation and of verbs: as,

is, fis, ifis;

20

some

irregular

in the second person singular of the present sub-

some irregular verbs: as, sis, velis; and in -vis, force, and sometimes sanguis and pulvis. us in the gem'tive singular and the nominative and accusative plural of the fourth declension; in the nominative singular of third declension nouns having u in junctive active of Quiris, Samnis,

the other cases,

e.g. virtus, tellus.

In monosyllables and

19. (a)

final

Exceptions: (b)

final

nisi, quasi, sicuti,

o

final syllables

ending in a vowel:

long;

is

i

is

and, usually, mihi,

tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi.

long;

Exceptions: cedo (imperative), cito, duo, ego, modo, and, rarely, the

first

person singular of verbs.

becomes increasingly common

Beginning with Ovid, the short vowel

in the

nominative singular of the third

declension (as in virgo), in verb-forms, ergo, ilico,

immo,

octo,

u

is

long;

(d) final a

is

short;

(c)

final

and

in

some other words:

as,

quando.

Exceptions: the ablative singular of the tive of the first conjugation;

first

declension; the impera-

and most uninflected words:

as.

frustra,

triginta.

(e)

final

e

Exceptions:

is

^hort

all

monosyllables except enclitics; the ablative singular

of the fifth declension; the second person singular of the present imper-

ative active of the second conjugation; adverbs derived from adjectives of the first

and second declensions:

as. longe, recte

(but short in bene,

male, inferne, superne).

PRONUNCIATION OF DIPHTHONGS 20.

In diphthongs both vowels are pronounced in quick

succession

is

by one

effort.

ae had the sound of short a followed by that of short e. It the commou practice, however, to pronounce ae and the

earlier ai in the

same otget^fiiBsxIviiarcmfmsle,

PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS

2l)

7

oe had the sound of short o followed by that of short e, but both oe and the earlier oi are. pronounced like oi in toil. au is like ou in our. eu is short e followed by short u. The early diphthongs ei and ou were originally pronounced respectively like ay in hay and o in no, where there is a vanishing sound of u. But by the middle of the second century B.C. ei had come to be pronounced like i in machine, ou like u in rvle.

is

Diphthongs are always long; except that prae in composition sometimes shortened before a vowel: as, praeeunte, Aen. 5,

186.

PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS 21. Consonants are pronounced in general as in English, but the following points should be noted: b before s or t has the s6und of p, as in ixrbs, obtineo. c always has the sound of English k. g always has the sound of g in get. h was originally the same as in English, but was often omitted

—

in pronunciation. i

as a consonant

m

is

like

y

in yes.

when final was pronounced French nasalized n. n is usually like the English n. But before c, g, q, and x it has a guttural sound like ng in sing. Before f, consonant i, s, and V, except in the prefixes con- and in-, it is silent, the preceding vowel being lengthened, if short, and nasalized: as, c6(n)sul, me(n)sis. As a final consonant it is weak, except in monobefore another consonant and

without closing the

lips like the

syllables. r is trilled as in French.

In s is always unvoiced, like s in soft, never like s in his. early Latin final s after a short vowel and before a consonant

was only slightly sounded or disappeared entirely. V is like w V^^ctAsii^^SbjPfMcr^i8?k= "W®*"-

8

PRONUNCIATION

The Greek like

t,

p,

(22,

23

4*) and X, were always pronounced Before 145 B.C. they were represented by after that, by th, ph, and ch, but the pronunciation

and

aspirates, 0, k.

and c remained the same. Doubled consonants were not pronounced as in English like single consonants, but with a prolongation of the sound of the single consonant. In writing, consonants were not doubled

t,

p,

till

;

after 200 B.C.

SYLLABLES 22.

A

word has

as

many

syllables as

it

has vowels

or diphthongs.

The is

syllable before the last

is

the penult; the one before that

the antepenult.

A

vowel or diphthong

syllable ending in a

is

called open;

others are called closed.

In the division of words into syllables a single consonant between two vowels goes with the following vowel: pa-ter, fe-ro.

In a group of two or more consonants the division after the first, except that a

lowing vowel: dic-tus,

mute and a

fal-lo,

is

made

liquid go with the fol-

mon-stnim,

In the case

a-cris.

mute and a liquid, however, if in poetry a long syllable needed, the mute may be sounded with the preceding vowel. of a

In the treatment of the double consonant

x,

practice varies;

write di-xit, others dix-it; the actual pronunciation

The combination qu

is

some

die-sit.

treated as a single consonant: a-qua.

Prepositional compounds parts: as,

was

is

are separated into their

component

ad-est, ab-rump6, con-cipio.

LENGTH OF SYLLABLES 23.

A

thong, or

syllable is long if its

mute and a

vowel

is

if it

contains a long vowel or a diph-

by two consonants (except a by the double consonant x, or by z

followed

liquid, see 24),

(wljich is treated, accoUdinfc/tta'tlheoSfiigfek custom, as a double

ACCENT

24-27)

9

consonant).

In the latter case the syllable

hy position.

One

said to be long be at the beginning of the next word, h does not count as a consonant; qu has the value of only one consonant: thus, in adhibeo and equus the first syllables are short. In early Latin final S on account of its faint sound does not always make a syllable long

by

two consonants

of the

is

may

position.

24.

A

1

mute

containing a short vowel before a

syllable

followed by

or r

regularly short; in verse, however,

is

it is

sometimes treated as long. In compounds, when the prefix ends in a mute and the second part begins with 1 or r, the prefix is always long. 25.

A

followed

syllable

is

long

by consonant

i

:

if it

as,

contains the vowel a, e, 0, or

u

In these

maior, eius, Troia, cuius.

words the first syllable is really a diphthong formed by the vowel and a transitional sound (vowel i), so that the actual ^ound would be represented by maiior, etc. 26. In compounds of iacio (spelled adicio, of.

inicio, etc.) the

consonant i

the simple verb was probably pronounced, though not written.

fore the first syllable,

In reicio the

if it

ends with a consonant,

first syllable- is

is

long

by

Thereposition.

long for the same reason as in maior, etc.

ACCENT While the nature of Latin accent is disputed, it The like the English, a stress accent. probably was and unaccented difference in stress between accented syllables was, however, not so great as in English. 27.

In the earliest period all Latin words had recessive accent, were accented on the first syllable. As late as the time of Plautus words of four syllables of which the first three were short were still accented on the first syllable: as, facilius,

i.e.

This recessive accent was the cause of numerous phonetic changes, being responsible for the loss or weakening of unaccented syllables: as, posse from potesse.

mulierem.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

ACCENT

lO

(sS-^O

In classical Latin, in words of two syllables, the

28.

accent

on the

is

first.

But when a final syllable following a long penult has appeared or has been contracted, the accent is on the syllable

—

:

compounds of die and due: as, addue for addQee. words compounded with the abbreviated enclitics, -ce

(a) in (b) in

and -ne

as, illic for illiee,

:

tanton for tjintone, viden for videsne.

nominatives of adjectives ending in -as and

(c) in

and

-atis

-itis: as,

-is,

for

nostras, primas, Quirfs, Sanuus. *

(d) in perfects like audit, for audivit.

In words of more than two syllables the accent

29. is

dis-

last

.

regularly on the penult,

if

the penult

is

long; otherwise,

on the antepenult. According to the

now

Roman grammarians

(their

statement

is

questioned), in the contracted genitive and vocative of

nouns in -ius and -ium, the penult

is

accented even

if

it is

short: as, Vergili, eonsili, imperi.

When

faeid is

compounded with another

verb, the accent of

facio remains unchanged: as, calefacit, patefacis.

Nominatives of proper nouns and adjectives ending in -as have the accent on the last syllable: as, Maecenas,

for -atis

Arpinas.

In words of four or more syllables there is a secondary on the second syllable before the chief accent, if that

accent, is

—

long or

is

the

first syllable of

the word; otherwise, on the

third: as, areessiverunt, habuerunt,

habuerSmus.

ENCLITICS 30.

joined in

word.

words which have no accent, being pronunciation and writing with the preceding

Enclitics are

They

are

(a)

-ce, -n^, -que,- -ve.

(b)

-dem, -dum,

-ityiepd-fl^ieJ/prodaaBi,

-per,

-pte,

-quidem,

PHONETIC CHANGES

JI, J2)

II

ibidem (ibidem in early Latin), agedum delnde, egomet, iibinam (ubinam rarely), parfimper, suQt)te, siquidem, ' etiimtum.

-turn: as in

,

verb-forms:

and scilicet; quamvis; forms of esse in compound tenses. After a vowel or m, the vowel of es and est was not pronounced and is often omitted in writing: as, audita es, pronounced auditas; auditum est, pronounced auditumst. The verb was combined with a noun or an adjective in the same way: as, epistulast, iudiciumst, bonast. (c)

libet in

qt^bet;

In the early writers,

by a vowel

licet in videlicet, ilicet,

e.g.

t^s in

if

es or est follows a word ending in s preceded

(usually short), not only

is

e of the verb lost, but also s of the

previous word: as, tu servos, for tu servos es; bonust, for bonus est; similist, for similis est.

(d) the indefinite (e)

pronouns quis and qui:

cum

the preposition

Besides these, other words,

as, siquis.

following its case: as, nobiscum. if

unemphatic, are sometimes

enclitics; e.g.

personal and demonstrative pronouns and possessive adjectives (as dicmihi, pronounced dicmihi) even nouns

(cf.

;

31.

As an

enclitic

was a part

qu6modo, quare,

of the

postridie).

word to which

it

was

attached, the combination was regularly acceiited as one word.

The Roman grammarians

however, that the syllable

assert,

before -ce, -ne, -que, and -ve was ac_cented even

magn^que, pericul^que; and though questioned, the evidence against This principle -que has lost

its

it

does not apply to most

this

seems

if

short: as,

statement has been insufiicifint.

of those combinations in

which

proper meaning, and; thus, denique, findique, utique,

ftaque, (therefore); but, utrique

and plerique, probably on account of

the influence of their other cases.

PHONETIC CHANGES 32.

The form

of

many words

certain changes of sound based ciples.

period,

in classical Latin is

upon

due to

well-established prin-

Some of these changes occurred in when all wor(isgW^*/3jin the

the

pre-literary

first syllable.

;;

PHONETIC CHANGES

12

(jJ-JP

WEAKENING IN UNACCENTED SYLLABLES The vowel of an unaccented syllable, either medial or was often weakened, especially in syllables immediately preceded by the chief accent. 33.

final,

Weakening

of

Vowels in Medial Syllables

34. Medial a before a single consonant, except p or

becomes

first

a and, later,

i: as,

r,

and before ng

cado, accedo (in Ennius), accido; facio,

conficio; datus, redditus; tango, attingo.

Medial a before p becomes o or u

as, capio,

:

u,

when

the preceding syllable contains

occupo.

Medial a before two consonants and before acceptus; dare, reddere. it

1,

becomes u:

But

before

1

r becomes e as, capio, and any other consonant except :

as, salio, insultus; calco, inculco.

35. Medial e before any single consonant except r becomes i; otherwise, it usually remains unchanged: as, lego, coUigo; fero, confero; Before a labial the weakened sound varies between

sedeo, obsessus. i

and u:

as,

monimentum

or

monumentum.

36. Medial o before a single consonant except 1 sometimes becomes i (or e, if preceded by i) : as, ilico (from in loco) bonitas (from bono-) ;

societas (from socio-); stage,

maximus (from maxomos), with an

intervening

mazumus.

Medial o before two consonants, and, unless preceded by a vowel, 1, becomes u: as, dicuntur (for dicontiir); poculum (forpocolum) The same change occurs in initial syllables when filiolus (from fflio-). before

o

followed

is

multa (cf

(for

by

1

molta);

and another consonant, or by nc, ngu, or mb: as hunc (for hone); unguis (cf. ov«|); umbilicus

6)i<|>a\6s).

37. Medial u before a single consonant usually becomes tibus

(f

rom f ructu-) butacubus (from ;

acu-).

an

So, in

i: as,

fruc-

initial syllable,

lubet becomes libet.

38. Medial av and ov become u:

Weakening 39. Final

i

of

and o become

as, lavo, eluo;

novus, denuo.

Vowels in Final Syllables e

:

as,

mare (from mari) ante (from ;

anti)

iste (fromisto).

a in ,,

,

final clSsed syllables becomes e: as. auceps V Digitized by Microsoft®

(froni fac-).

(from cap-); artifex ^

COMBINATION OF VOWELS

40-42)

e in final closed syllables before s or

t

becomes

i

13 :

as, dicis, dicit (for

dices, dicet); virtutis (for virtutes).

o in final closed syllables, unless preceded filium (for lilios, filiom);

as, filius,

donum

by u or

(foi:

v, becomes u: donom); genus (for

genos); dicunt (for dicont); but, equos, relinquont, extinguont, servos.

In the time of Augustus words ending with -quo- and -guo- underwent a change; equos, relinquont, and extinguont became ecus, relincunt,

and extingunt. Later the forms equus, relinquunt, and extinguunt came into use; and also such forms as- servus. The conjunction cum (from earlier quom) remained unchanged; the form quum did not come into use

till

the sixth century A.D.

Weakening 40. In (for aides)

poena

ei

becomes 1

(for poina);

unchanged,

:

as,

Diphthongs

becomes ae:

initial syllables ai .

of

as,

died (for deico)

as,

duco

(for caido);

aedes

becomes oe or u or i as, (for voidit). au remains

punio (for poinio); vidit

eu and ou become u:

caedo oi

.

(for

:

deuco); iussi (for

iusi,

earUer iousi).

In medial and

final syllables ai, ei,

and

oi

become i: as, concido (for au and eu become

concaido); indico (for indeico); servi (for servoi). u: as, concludo (from claudo);

Examples

of

eu occur

jections (as, eu, heu) or

conduco (from deuco). but they are either

in classical Latin,

new formations

(as,

inter-

neuter).

Loss of Vowel 41. A short vowel in an unaccented syllable is sometimes lost. If the vowel is medial, the loss is called syncope; if final, it is called apocope. Examples of syncope: aetas (aevitas), pergo (perrego), prudens (providens), rettuli (retetuli), valde (valide). If,

1 or r would stand between two conand preceded by a consonant, it becomes being represented by ul, r by er: difficulter (from difficilter,

through the

loss of

sonants or would be syllabic,

I

difficlter),

a vowel,

final

ager (from agros, agrs, agers).

Examples

of apocope: ab- (dirb), quin (quine), die (dice),

nee (neque),

ac (atque), animal (animale).

COMBINATION OF VOWELS 42. loss of

in the formation of words by composition or through the an intervening consonant, two vowels come together, they are If,

Digitized

by Microsoft®

— PHONETIC CHANGES

14

(43-45

sometimes allowed to remain (hiatus), but more often are contracted into one: coegi, deeram; nemo (ne-hemo), praetor (prai-itor), cogo (co-ago),

promo (pro-emo), dego

(de-ago),

amo (ama-6),ames

Rarely they are combined into a diphthong or one

is

(ama-es).

dropped: coetus

(co-itus), nullus (ne-ullus).

IAMBIC SHORTENING 43.

the

In iambic words (^ -) the fact that the accent was on tended to weaken the second, and many long

first syllable

vowels thus became short.

So' the final

a of the

first

declen-

and of neuter plurals of the second declension became a in iambic words and from these the usage was extended to all. The short final o of verb-forms arose in the same way. Other examples are homo, bene, male, cite, modo. sion

VOWEL GRADATION 44.

The Indo-European language from which Latin

derived had a system of vowel variation in related words,

is

—

changes of quantity, or of vowel due to the position of the accent.

This system

is

called Ablaut.

In Latin such variation

and complete system cannot be recognized. The lack of such a system is due to the wide and levelling influence of analogy, to the fact that many diphthongs became long vowels, and to the development of sonant liquids and nasals; for example, 1 sometimes became ol and later, usually, and n sometimes became em and en. The following ul; occurs, but a regular

m

examples

will illustrate

Ablaut in Latin:

dare,

donum;

tegula,

tego, toga; fido, foedus (forfoidus), fides; sedes, sedeo, sodalis,

sido (for si-sd-6).

CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS 45. Final d after a long vowel disappears. This change affects all lirst and second declensions and of consonant stems of the third declension, and some adverbs and prepositions: as, ablatives singular of the

pugna (for pugnad) servo med, ted, sed) aiso retro ;

;

me, te, se

(for served)

;

aere (for aerid)

(for retrod)

;

supra (for suprad) ; also future

imperatives: as, esto (for^tftSa^^&itd tioMfitod).

;

(for

:

CHANGES IN CONSONANT GROUPS

46-51)

46. s between vowels becomes ero (stem, es-), gero

portasom).

If s

(cf.

the process

r;

gessi, gestus),

Lares

is

15

called rhotacism

(for Lases),

portarum

appears between vowels in classical Latin,

sents usually an earlier ss: misi (for missi), causa (for caussa).

are a few exceptions to the general rule; s

was retained perhaps

e.g.

(for

repre-

it

There

miser, caesaries, in which

to avoid repetition of the r sound.

Most

of the

In nominatives like honor (for due to imitation of the other cases, where the principle of

other exceptions are foreign words.

honos)

r is

rhotacism was properly applied.

47. V often disappears between vowels: iunior

(for iuvenior), contio

(for coventid), nolo (ior nevolo), ditior (for dlvitior),

amasse

(for

ama-

visse).

CHANGES

The pronunciation

48.

by

IN

CONSONANT GROUPS of

consonant groups was made easier

(a) assimilation, (b) loss of one consonant, (c) development of

a vowel between 49.

the consonants.

Assimilation

(a)

may be

complete or partial,

i.e.

one consonant

may

be made the same as the other (the first is usually assimilated to the second), or one may be so altered as to employ the same vocal organs as the other.

Examples

of

complete assimilation:

— occurro

(adcurro), sella (sed-la), siccus (sit-cus),

immortalis

(dis-fero),

differs

(concut-si),

summus

(acersi-mus).

(obcurro),

accurro

(sup-mus), concuss!

(in-mortalis),

acerrimus

—

rectus (reg-tus; the first mute Examples of _partial assimilation: the -prepositions ob, ab, sub, (scrfb-si); scripsi unvoiced), becomes originally op, ap, sup, owe their form to the fact that they were often

used before voiced consonants; imbellis (in-bellis), imperitus peritus), tantus (from tarn), somnus (for sop-nus). 50.

(b)

A

consonant

may

(in-

disappear at the beginning, in the middle,

from toUo), lupiter (Diupiter), nosco (gnosco), natus (gnatus), locus (stlocus); suscipio (subscipio),

or at the end of a word:

ostendo

as, latus (tlatus

(sexcenG),

(obstendo),

sescenti

cognosco

(congnosco),

(spargsl),

(ispse); es (ess), ter (terr),

quintus

(quinctus),

sparsl

idem (isdem), ultus (ulctus), ipse hoc (hocc). No word ends in a doubled con-

sonant.

51.

daUy

(c)

A vowel

is

those containing

sometimes developed in consonant groups, espe-

aj^d^go^^i^^^clum), mina

(mna).

.

SECOND PART— WORDS

FORMATION OF WORDS 52. A Root is that part of a word which contains the fundamental meaning. With few exceptions this element is not and never was an actual word and exists only as a device for the convenience of grammatical statement. A root is usually

common

many words

in Latin and often to words Greek or the Germanic languages. On account of phonetic changes the Latin form of the root often differs somewhat from the form which was originally

to several or

in other languages, especially

common

to the various languages of the group.

all roots are of such a nature that their meaning may be expressed in the form of a noun or a verb; A very few appear only in the form of pronouns. A root ending in a vowel is called a vowel root; one ending in a consonant is called a consonant root. A root soriietimes appears in different forms: Roots are someas, fid-, fid-, feed-, in fidus, fides, foedus.

Nearly

times indicated by the sign \/ 53. The Stem of a word is the part which contains the fundamental meaning of that word as a part of speech. The stem More often it is formed is sometimes the same as the root. from a root by the addition of ,a suffix. The root vowel is often reg; toga, toga, \/ teg. lengthened or changed: as, rex, king, Stems formed directly from a root or from a verb-stem are Stems formed from noun-stems or adjectivecalled Primary. stems are called Secondary or Denominative. Thus victor, \/vic, is a Primary Derivative; victoria, formed from victor,

V

is

a Secondary Derivative. In the combination of the stem and the suffix the usual phonetic changes i.e. a final vowel oP'S'^SSSfrfMisappeafl before a suffix beginning

occur;

i6

INFLECTION

54~57) with a vowel; a

final short

l^

vowel of a stem is weakened before a suffix final consonant of a stem is liable to

beginning with a consonant; a

change or

loss before

a

suffix

beginning with a consonant.

INFLECTION 54. Latin is an inflected language; i.e. a word may appear in various forms, which have various meanings or grammatical relations. This variety is secured usually by terminations attached to the stem, sometimes by changes of the stem itself.

Pronouns (except personal pronouns) and adjectives (including participles) are inflected to denote Gender, Number, and

Case; nouns and personal pronouns are inflected to denote

Number and

Case. This is called Declension. Verbs are inflected to denote Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. This is called Conjugation. The comparisoii of adjectives is another form of inflection. 55.

The

following are not inflected: adverbs, prepositions,

Adverbs, however, are combe properly regarded as a form of

conjunctions, and interjections.

pared, and comparison

may

These parts of speech are called Particles. The term Particle is, however, sometimes restricted to a somewhat inflection.

indefinite

list

of monosyllables, like an, -ne, ne, non,

num,

and sL

GENDER

—

Masculine, Feminine, There are three genders, the gender is determined and Neuter. In many nouns 56.

by

sex, in others it is purely

grammatical.

GENERAL RULES OF GENDER 57.

Names

of males

tains are masculine:

and

of rivers, winds, months,

as, pater, father; Tiberis,

April; Apetminus, Apennines. south wind;' Aprilis, *^ Denized by Microsoft®

and moun-

Tiber; auster,

8

GENDER

1

But names

of rivers ending in a are feminine: as, Allia, Albula; also

Some names

the Greek names Lethe and Styx. feminine: as, Alpes; also Greek

dope; a few are neuter:

The names line

(58-63

of

names ending

mountains are Rho-

of

in a or e: as, Aetna,

as, Soracte.

months are

really adjectives, agreeing

with the mascu-

noun, mensis.

58. plants,

Names

of females

and most

and

abstract

of countries, cities, islands, trees,

qualities

are feminine:

Roma, Rome; Deles,

mother; Italia, Italy;

as,

mater,

Delos; ulmus, elm;

rosa, rose; virtus, manliness.

But some names

and towns are masculine: as, Pontus, -i; some are neuter: as, Latium, Tarentiun, Leuctra. Some names of trees and plants are masculine: as, oleaster, wild olive; iuncus, rush; boletus, mushroom; some are of countries

Sulmo, Gabii, and other plurals in

neuter: as, acer, maple; apiimi, parsley; papaver, poppy.

59.

Letters of the alphabet, indeclinable nouns, infinitives

used substantively, and quoted words, phrases, and clauses are neuter: as, O Graecum, Greek 0; fas, right; totum hoc philosophari, all this philosophizing; istuc taceo, your "I'll say

nothing."

But

letters of the

alphabet sometimes have a femi-

nine adjective, agreeing with littera understood. 60.

Some words

are of

common

gender, being masculine

or feminine according to the sex referred to: as, parens, parent; infans, hahy; bos, ox or cow. 61.

Some words

are of different gender in the

as, locus, place, plural loca;

62.

Some names

two numbers:

rastrum, rake, plural rastri.

of animals

have one grart^matical gender,

though applicable to either sex

:

as,

anser, goose or gander,

masculine; aquila, eagle, feminine; vulpes,/oa;, feminine.

These

are called epicenes. 63.

Collective nouns referring to persons have the gender

regularly indicated culine;

by

their endings: as, exercitus, army,

cohprs, cohort, and

army, and concilium,

copiae, troops, feminine;

si^^ihymMf^bm

mas-

agmen,

NUMBER AND CASE

^4-<^9)

19

NUMBER There are two numbers, the singular and the

64.

plural.

CASE

—

There are five cases Nominative: the case of the

65.

:

subject.

Genitive: possessive, or objective with

of.

Dative: objective with to or for. Accusative: objective with verb or preposition. Ablative: objective with, from, with, by, or in. These

The

The

definitions are not all-inclusive.

in detail under the

head

cases are treated

of Syntax.

Genitive, Dative, Accusative,

and Ablative are

called

Oblique Cases. 66. Another case, the Vocative, the case of address, is in form not a distinct case except for masculine stems in -0 and a few Greek nouns with other endings. Of all other nouns the nominative is used as the case of address.

67. Some names of towns and a few common nouns have another case, denoting the place where, called the Locative: as,

Romae,

at Rome; ruri, in home and in the field.

the

country;

domi mQitiaeque,

at

NOUNS FORMATION 68.

stem. 69.

Most nouns

is, they contain only one Simple noun-stems are either Primary or Secondary.

are simple; that

Primary Stems are

of

two

sorts

:

—

—

Roots, with or without change of vowel: Nominative Root Noun-Stem (a)

due-

due-

dux

reg-

reg-

rex

These are found more commonly at the end of compounds: armiger, armor-bearer, \/[S§Xt^cM^imiio^dmpeter, s/ can-.

as,

— FORMATION OF NOUNS

20

i70-72

Roots, with or without change of vowel, or verb-

(b)

A

stems, with an added sufBx.

stems are of this sort:

—

great majority of primary

Noun-Stem

Root or Verb-Stem

Nominative

fuga

fug-

fuga-

od-

odio-

odium

reg-

rector-

rector

saluta-

salutation-

salutatio

Secondary Stems are formed by the addition of a to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem 70.

:

First

71.

Stem

—

Secondary Stem

Nominatfve'

civi-

civitat-

civitas

aer-

aerario-

aerarium

audac-

audacia-

aiidacia

Some

suffixes

a meaning more or

have no

definite

suffix

meaning.

less definitely established.

'

Others have

They

are dassed

as Primary or Secondary, according as they are U'sed -in the

formation of Primary or Secondary Derivatives.

For conven-

ience the form of the suffix which appears in the nominative singxilar is given,

rather than that which appears

in.

the stem.'

Primary Suffixes Agent 72. The suffix -tor (fern, -trix), added to verb-stems, forms'nouns denoting the agent or doer of the action indicated by the verb. The verb-stem which appears in these words participle,

and the

suffix -tor

as the participial ending -tus

;

may that

is

that of the perfect passive

undergo the same phonetic change

is,

as -tus becomes -sus, -tor becomes

-sor:

vena-tor, hunter (venari)

lec-tor, reader (legere)

vena-trJx, huntress

pas-tor, i/jej^Wi (pascere)

ton-sor, harher (tondere) tons-trix,

female barber

scrip-tor, loriter (scrlbere) peti-tor, candidate

^etere)

Masculines in -sor have no corresponding feminine, except tonsor

and expulsor (expultrix), expeller. sometimes added. to iwunrstema^ thus ibecoming a secondary as, gladiator, gladiatar, from gladius, jttt0»2 (this form-, of -the

(tonstrix)

-tor is suffix:

PRIMARY SUFFIXES

73i74) suffix, -ator,

of the senator,

being due to the frequency of agent formations from verbs conjugation)

first

21

from the stem

from ianua, door; senator, from via, road.

ianitor, doorkeeper,

;

sen-, old age; viator, traveller,

The sufSx -6 is sometimes used to denote the agent: as, err-6, derer (errare); praec-6, herald (for praevoco, from praevocare).

The suffix -ter,

originally denoting the agent, forms

names

warh

of kindred:

as, pa-ter, father; ma-ter, mother; fra-ter, brother.

Means

or Instrument

73. The suffixes -ulum, -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum, and

-mentum, added to roots or verb-stems, form neuters, and the suffixes -ula, -bula, and -bra, added to roots or verb-stems, form feminines, denoting means or instrument :

—

vinc-ulum, chain (vincire)

ara-trum, plow (arare)

pa-bulum, fodder (pascere)

ali-mentum, nourishment (alere)

vehi-culum, wagon (vehere)

reg-ula, rule (regere)

delu-brum, shrine (deluere)

fa-bula, tale (far!)

sepul-crum, tomb (sepelire)

late-bra, hiding-place (latere)

Nouns formed with than means:

as,

bare); stabulum,

these suffixes sometimes denote place rather

delubrum, sepulcnun, latebra; cubiculum, chamber (custall

(stare);

sometimes

especially with -mencaementum, cut stone (cae-

result,

turn: as, tiagmentam., fragment (frangere);

dere); simulacrum, likeness (simulare).

-culum suffix; so,

(earlier,

-clum) and -crum are different forms of the same

abo, -bulum. and -brum.

In candelabrum,

candlestick,

from

casdela, candle,

the suffix

is

secondary.

Action

-men, -mdnia, and -monium, added to roots or verbaction or, sometimes, the residt of action : denoting nouns stems, form

74. The

suffixes

—

flu-men, river (fluere)

certa-men,

conflict (certare)

queri-monia, complaint (queri)

ali-monium, nourishment (alere)

-mentum is an extension of -men, and some words are formed with either suffix: as, fragmen, fragmentum, fragment; tegumen, tegumentum covering.

-mdnia and -monium (derived from -mon, a form more commonly as secondary suffixes: as, sanctimonia,

matrimonium, marriage

{SiSiMif-d

by Microsoft®

of

-men) are used

sanctity (sanctus);

— FORMATION OF NOUNS

22

{75,

76

Abstracts

75. The

suffixes -io, -ium, -or, -tio, -tura,

and

-tus,

added to roots or

verb-stems, form abstract nouns denoting action or condition, or concrete

nouns denoting the

with

If the suffix begins

result of action.

t

the

same

consonant changes occur as in the perfect passive participle ; hence, -tura,

and -tus may become

and -sus

respectively -sio, -sura,

:

-tio

:

leg-id, legion (legere)

scrip-tura, writing (scribere)

od-ium, hate (odisse)

ton-sura, shearing (tondere)

am-or, love (amare)

can-tus, singing (canere)

ac-tio, action (agere)

vi-sus, sight (videre)

mis-sio, dismissal (mittere)

These tions:

suffixes, especially

-ium, are sometimes used in secondary forma-

mention

mentio,

as,

(mens);

hospitium,

hospitality

(hospes);

litteratura, literature (littera).

The action:

suffixes

—

-do and -go form noims denoting action or the result 0}

cupi-do, desire (cupere)

ori-go, beginning (oriri)

torpe-do, numbness (torpere)

vora-go, whirlpool (vorare)

These are used also in secondary formations: (dulcis); lumbago, lumbago (lumbus).

as, dulcedo, sweetness

Secondary Suflixes Abstracts

76. The

suffixes -ia, -tas, -tia, -ties, -tudo,

adjective-stems,

and the

suffix

abstract nouns denoting quality, condition, or

freedom

(liber)

tristi-tia,

sadness

(tristis)

-tus,

added usually to

office:

—

magni-tiido, greatness (magnus)

audac-ia, boldness (audax) liber-tas,

and

-ium, added usually to noun-stems, form

senectus, old age (senex)

sacerdot-ium, priesthood (sacerdos)

segni-ties, laziness (segnis)

A

stem- vowel disappears before -ia and -ium:

perbo-) ; collegium, college (collega-) ginning' with t:

(bono-);

as,

following

;

it is

as,

changed to

superbia, pride (sui

before a suffix be-

magnitudo, greatness (magno-); bonitas, goodness i is

^,^|§^0;g/befoj^t:

societas, alliance (socio-).

as, pietas, deniotion (pio-);

•

SECONDARY SUFFIXES

77-^0)

23

Place

77. The suffixes -arium, -etum (or -turn), and -ile form neuters usually denoting place; -elum denotes usually a place occupied by trees; -Ue, a place for animals:

—

aer-arium, treasury(Aes)

virgul-tum, thicket (virgula)

oliv-etum, olive-grove (oliva)

ov-ile, sheepfold (ovis)

Diminutives

78. The suffixes -lus (-la, -lum), -ulus (-ula, -ulum), -cuius (-cula, -culum), added to noun-stems, iona diminutives. These usually have the gender of the nouns from which they are derived. Diminutives are often used to express affection, admiration, pity, or contempt, the exact meaning

—

being determined by the context: son

filio-lus, little filio-la, little

oppid-ulum, small town (oppidum)

(filius)

daughter

homun-culus, dwarf (homo)

(filia)

munus-culum,

reg-ulus, chieftain (rex)

Stems

79.

in -eo-, -io-, or -vo- take .-lus (-lum); stems in -ea-, -ia-,

or -va- take -la preceded

by

o,

which displaces the stem-vowel.

stems in -o- and -a- and stems ending in a mute take -ulus

Stems in

-i-,

(munus)

little gift

-e-, -u-, -1-, -n-, -r-,

and

Other

(-ula, -ulum).

-s- usually take -cuius (-cula,

-culum).

The diminutive ending little little

field (agar)

;

-ellus is

due to phonetic changes:

fabella, short story (fabula)

;

as, agellus,

so, also, -ullus in

homullus,

man (homo).

Other diminutive endings appear in avunculus, uncle (avus); homuncio,

little

codicilli, writing-tablets

(codex);

man (homo).

Patron3rmics

80.

The masculine

suffixes -eis, -ias,

or ancestor.

poetry:

—

and

They

suffixes -ades, -iades,

-is,

and -ides and the feminine

form patronymics, denoting descent from a father

are nearly

all

Greek names and are used

chiefly in

Aene-ades, descendant of Aeneas Scipi-ades, a Scipio

Ner-eis, daughter of Nereus

Atlant-iades, descendant of Atlas

Tyndar-is, daughter of Tyndareus

Tyndar-ides, son of

Thest-ias, daughter of Thestius

Ty^eu^ ^^ ^.^H^e^^r-ides

(plu.),

of Hesperus

daughters

FORMATION OF NOUNS

24 The

occasional ending -ides

is

{81-84

due to the union of -ides with a preceding

vowel: as, Tydides, son of Tydeus.

Other patronymic endings are -ine and -one:

Nerine, daughter oj

as,

Nereus; Acrisione, daughter of Acrisius.

Other Secondary Suffixes 81.

-alius, denoting usually a person

employed

some business or

in

(argentum); statuarius, sculptor

craft: as, argentarius, hanker

(statua). -cus, -icus or -icus (-ca, vilicus,

overseer

-cum)

:

(^la);

as, biibulcus,

^/owma» (bubulus);

amicus, friend

(amare); fabrica,

workshop (faber); canticmn, song (cantus). a primary or secondary

-ina,

suffix: as, rapina, robbery (rapere);

regina, queen (rex); medicina, medicine (medicus); tonstrina, barber' s-shop (tonsor).

Compound Nouns 82. In compound nouns the second member is usually the fundamental one, its meaning being more or less affected by the first. The second member is sometimes a root used as a stem, but more often either a root with a formative suffix or a nounstem: as, armiger, armor-hearer, Vger-; iudex, judge, Vdic-;

iaterregnum, interregnum.

The

first

part of a

compound may be

83. (a) the stem of a noun or adjective. In compounds of this sort a vowel at the end of the first member usually disappears before a vowel at the beginning of the second: as, magnanimus, great-souled (magno-); sometimes even before a consonant: as, manceps, contractor (manu-).

But a

final

vowel regularly appears as

i

before a consonant: as, tubicen,

trumpeter (tuba-); cormcen,6Mg/«"(comu-); latifundiimi,/ayge estate (lato-).

By

analogy a

final

consonant generally assumes an

as, fratricida, fratricide (fratr-). as, veneficus, poisoner (veneno-).

drop the !

84.

suffix,

substituting

i: as,

A

i

before a consonant:

whole syllable sometimes disappears:

Stems opifex,

in -er-, -or-,

workman

(b),a preposition or an adverb:

as,

and

-or- usually

(oper-).

adventus, arrival; coniunx,

spouse; perfuga, deserter. D^jfg^flgjiy&/fe)^rase pro consule forced into

the form and inflection of a noun.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

8s-8^ 86.

(c) the genitive of

a noun:

sulttun, decree of the senate;

unchanged,

.while the

Compounds

pounds.

member

Names

is

In paterfamilias, father

declined.

the genitive, and only the

first is

de-

sometimes called Syntactic Com-

lupiter; Maxspitet, father

ajre

republic ihoth parts declined);

86.

is

of this sort are

Similar to these

aquaeductus, aqueduct; senatuscon-

aquae and senatus are genitives and remain

second member

oj a family, the second clined.

as,

25

Mars; res

publica,

ius iurandtim, oath (both parts declined).

compounds according

are sometimes given to

to their meaning.

Determinatives are those in which the second

element

by the

is

qualified

and- those in which the to. -the

second:

first,

first

as

by an adjective

member has a

agricola, farmer;

as,

or an adverb;

logical case-relation

armiger, armor-bearer;

comicen, bugler. The former are sometimes called Descriptive Compounds, the latter Objective or Dependent Compounds.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS Caseis consist of the stem alone, sometimes with a final 87. vowel shortened or lengthened or with the loss of a final consonant, or they consist of the stem with an added sufi&x. A final stem-vowel disappears before a vowel suffix or combines with The term case-ending, as used in the paradigms of this book, it. is

applied to the characteristic endings of the cases in the several

declensions; these are in others" a suffix,

and a

and

some

in others a

cases the final stem- vowel, in combination of the stem- vowel

suffix.

General Rtiles of Declension

and feminine nominatives except stems in -a-, -1-, -n-, -r-, and -s- are formed by adding s to the stem. In all neuters the nominative and accusative are alike, in both singular and plural. The plural always ends in a. The accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends All masculine

88.

in

m

with

.the

stem- vowel shortened,

plural in s preceded

long; the accusative

is the stem with its that in stems in -i- the lengtheneSiaii^^ii^tf'im^ vowel

The final

by

if

a long vowel.

ablative singular of vowel stems

:

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

26

The

ablative often has -e instead of -L

{8g,

go

ablative singular of

consonant-stems adds e to the stem. is formed by adding rum to stems in and -e- (the o of o-stems being lengthened); um to stems in -i-, -u-, and consonant-stems. The dative and ablative plural are always alike; stems in -a- and -o- take is, which combines with the stem-vowel, becoming is; others take bus, before which consonant-stems add i.

The

genitive plural

-a-, -0-,

There are

89.

by the

five declensions of nouns, distinguisiied

final letter of

the stem.

It

ever, to indicate the declension

is

the custom, how-

by the ending

of the

genitive singular. Declension

Gen. Sing, ending

Stem-ending

-ae

I

-a-

II

-o-

III

-i-

IV

-u-

-as

V

-e-

-ei

First 90.

-i

or a consonant

Declension

-is

— a-Stems

Example Singular Case-endings

Nom. Dat.

mensa mensae mensae

to

Ace,

mensam

a table

-am

Abl.

mensa

from, with, by, or on a table

-a

Nom.

mensae

tables,

Gen.

mensarum

tables',

Dat.

mensis

to

Ace.

mensas

Abl.

mensis

Gen.

a

(or the) table

a

table's,

of a table

or for a table

-a -ae -ae

Plural

or the tables of tables

or for tables

Oi^ffMS^by Microsoft®

from, with, by, or on tables

-ae

-arum -is

"^S -is

FIRST DECLENSION

91-94)

27

The nominative singular is the stem with final vowel The stem-vowel is shortened also in the accusative singular. The case-endings are in general a combination of stem-vowel and suffix. The translations are intended only to 91.

shortened.

common uses. Town names and a few common nouns have

suggest the most -ae: as,

Romae,

at

Rome;

a locative in

militiae, in service.

Gender

Most nouns

92.

names

of males

sailor;

poeta,

of the first declension are feminine.

masculine:

are

Belgae, the

poet;

Adriatic, and, rarely,

damma,

But

agricola, farmer; nauta,

as,

Belgians; also, Hadria, the

deer,

and

talpa, mole.

Case-Forms

An

93.

old genitive singular ending

is

preserved in familias, of the

family, often found in combination with pater, father, and mater, mother,

and

rarely with

-ai is

filhis, son,

found in poetry:

and

filia,

An old

daughter.

genitive singular in

as, aulai, of the hall.

A genitive plural in -vim, instead of -arum, is sometimes found

(usually

compounds of -cola, inhabiting, and -gena, born, in Greek patronjmiics, and in names of peoples: as, agricolum, of the farmers; Graiugenum, of Greek-born men; Aeneadum, of the descendants of Aeneas; Lapithum, of the Lapithae; also in amphora, a liquid measure, and drachma, a Greek in poetry) in

coin.

In words in

-ia, -iis

sometimes becomes

gratis, /iw nothing; this occurs regularly in

The

-is:

nouns in

as, taenis,

with

fillets;

-aia: as Bals, at Baiae.

dative and ablative plural sometimes ends in -abus; especially,

deabus, goddesses, and fUiabus, daughters; duae, two, and ambae,

also,

duabus and ambabus from

both.

Greek Nouns 94.

Greek

throughout:

common nouns as,

poeta, poet.

regularly have Latin forms Masculines sometimes have a

nominative singular in -es, accusative in -en: reader, ace. anagnosten. Greek proper nouns are declined as follows: Digitized

by Microsoft®

as,

—

anagnostes,

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

28

Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl.

Voc.

Aeneas Aeneae Aeneae Aenean (-am) Aenea Aenea

(95

Anchises Anchisae

Circe

Anchlsae Anchlsen (-am) Anchise (-a) Anchise (-a, -a)

Circae Circen (-am>

Some feminine nominatives end

Circes (-ae) -

Circe (-a)

Circe (-a)

in -a: as, Phaedra.

Greek forms are not found in the plural.

Second Declension 95.

Stems

Examples:

in -o-

— o-Stems

with the nominative in -us or -um:

—

SECOND DECLENSION

96-98) 96.

!

29

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

30

(PP-^OJ

Gender

Most nouns ending

99.

um

ending in

Exceptions:

us and

in

r are masculine; those

are neuter.

—

Nouns having meanings enumerated

in 58 are feminine: as, Aegyptus,

Egypt; Corinthus, Corinth; Rhodus, Rhodes; ulmus, elm-tree; some Greek noims: as, methodus, method; Arctos, the constellation of the Bear; and the following: taff;

—

alvus, ielly; carbasus, linen (pi. carbasa, sails); colus, dis-

humus, ground; vamius, winnowing-fan.

The

following are neuter:

The

crowd.

— pelagus,

accusative of these nouns

except that an accusative pelagum

is

sea; virus, poison; vulgus, the is

the same as the nominative,

sometimes found.

in the plural, except that pelagus, which

is

They do not occur

a Greek word, sometimes has

These are really Heteroclites, the nominaand accusative being third-declension forms.

the accusative plural pelage. tive

Case-Forms

Nouns

100.

tive singular in

in -ius or -ium, until the -i,

not

-ii: as, filius,

Augustan period, have the

son, gen.

fill;

geni-

Vergilius, gen. Vergili;

For the accent of these words see 29. began to be common in the Augustan period. -i was retained longer for proper names, and gentile names almost always have the single -i. Locatives always have -ii.

ingenium, nature, gen. ingeni.

The custom The ending

The

I

of writing

-ii

vocative of proper names in -ius ends in

i:

as, Vergili,

Mercuri;

also the vocative of filius, son; genius, good angel; volturius, vulture.

Proper names in -eius have

-ei,

or -ei pronounced as one syllable:

as,

Pompeius, voc. Pompei or Pompei.

The nominative

ended originally in oi, the dative and became ei and eis, which are found -rarely the Ciceronian period; then i and is.

101.

plural

ablative plural in ois; these in

Proper names in -aius,

102.

plural in -ai, -ei,

and

-ois: as, Gai, Gais;

The

103. earlier

first

and -oius have the nominative and ablative plural in -ais, -eis, and

-eius,"

-6i; the dative

Pompei, Pompeis; Boi, Bois.

genitive plural sometimes ends in

cm) instead

of drum.

This

is

a mere imitation of the genitive plural of the

form

is

um

(after

an earlier form, the first

u or v, in the -orum being

later

declension.

used regularly infYmias'dsRcmngmiMsy or measure:

The

earlier

as, sestertius,

1

THIRD DECLENSION

104-106)

nummus,

3

and is often found in cardinal and and in some other words: as, trecenti, three hundred; two each; deus and divus, god; faber, mechanic; Uberi, children;

sesterce;

coin; iugerum, acre;

distributive numerals bini,

socius, ally.

Deus,

104.

nom. del dat. and deos; dil and diis

god, is thus declined in the plural:

(rare before Ovid), dii or dl; gen.

deorum

abl. deis (rare before Ovid), diis or dis;

were pronounced

like di

and

or

ace.

deum;

For the genitive

dis.

plural,

divum or divom (from the adjective divus) are often used. The singular is regular; the vocative singular is not used; in late Latin the

nominative

is

used as a vocative.

Greek Kouns

Greek nouns

105.

of the second declension

the Latin terminations.

But masculines and

have regularly

feminines, espe-

proper names in poetry, often have -os in the nominaand -on in the accusative singular: as. Deles, Delon. Neuters often have -on in the nominative and accusative

cially

tive

singular: as, Ilion.

Names

in -6s, like Afhos, ABdrogeos,

have the genitive

in -6 or

-i,

the

accusative in -on, -um, or -6.

For names in -eus,

A

genitive in -u

like

is

Orpheus, see 125.

found rarely:

as,

Menandru.

Panthus has the

vocative Panthu.

The plural of Greek nouns of the second declension is usually regular, but The genitive

the nominative plural sometimes ends in oe: as, Adelphoe.

plural sometimes ends in on: as, Georgicon, of the Georgics.

Third Declension

Consonant Stems and i-Stems A.

CONSONANT STEMS I.

106.

Mute Stems

Examples:

miles, M., soldier

stem, milit-

rex, m., king D/g/siejiMyBBgrosoft®

princeps, m., chief

stem, princip-

32

DECLENSION OF NOUNS Singular

{.107

;

THIRD DECLENSION

io8, log)

A

33

combines with s to form x:

palatal, (c, g)

as,

rex; pax

(stem, pac-), peace.

In words of more than one

an original a or e appearweakened to i in the other cases: as, miles; pnnceps; iudex (gen. iudicis), judge. There are, however, exceptions to this rule: as, seges (gen.

ing as e in the nominative

syllable,

is

regularly

segetis), crop.

a change of u to i in caput; and of e to e in pes (gen. pedis), compounds; abies,/r; aries, ram; and paries, wall. In auceps, bird-catcher, the genitive aucupis shows the true stem, the nominative being formed on the analogy of piinceps, etc. I

There

foot,

and

is

its

Supellex, furniture, has the genitive supellectilis, etc.

The only

mute are and Greek words like poema. In these the nominative singular is the stem without the final consonant. In Greek neuters a dative and ablative plural in -is is often found, and sometimes a genitive plural in -orum as, poematis poematdrmn. 108.

neuters with stems ending in a

cor; caput; lac, milk;

:

n. 109.

Liquid Stems

Examples:

consul, M., consul

stem, consul-

flower

victor, m., victor

flos, m.,

stem, victor-

stem, flor-

pater, M., father

stem, patr-

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

34 genus,

(no

THIRD DECLENSION

Ill, 112)

sometimes in the nominative singular: tree;

honor

(g.en.

as,

35 arbor (gen. arboris),

honoris), honor; but the earlier forms, arbos

and honos, are sometimes found. Vas, vessel, retains s even between two vowels. Most neuter stems in -er- and -or- (originally -es- and -os-) have the nominative in -us: as, genus, corpus. But some neuter stems in -or- have the nominative in -ur thigh; iecur,

liver;

robur,

:

as,

ebur, ivory; femur,

oak; femur has also the genitive

feminis from an n-stem, and iecur (iocur in the Augustan period) has also the genitive iocineris.

Neuter stems in -11-, -rr-, simplify U, rr, to 1, r, in the nomimel (gen. mellis), honey; far (gen. farris), spelt.

native: as,

Iter (gen. itineris)

,

journey, has the nominative formed on a different

stem from that of the other

cases.

,

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

36

(113

Stems in -din- and -gin- have the nominative in -6, with the vowel of the stem lengthened: as, virgo; prdo^ rank. In this class are included, also Apollo (gen. Apollinis);. homo, man; nemo, nobody; turbo, whirlwind. Three nouns of this class have 6 in all cases: harpago (gen. -onis), grappUngoriginal short

—

hook; ligo, mattock; praedo, robber.

;-;•

Stems in -in-: (not -din- or -gin-), including many neuters andi a few masculines, have the nominative in- -en: as,- flumen;^^ flamen, u., priest; pecten, m., comb; tibicen, m., flute- player.. There

is

only one stem in -m,

— hiems

(gen. hiemis)

Peculiar formations are card (gen. camis), flesh, sanguinis),, blood; also canis (gen. canis)

,

dog,

young person, with the nominative formed as

,

winter.

and sanguis (gen.

and iuvenis (gen. iuvenis) from an i-stem.

if

II4-II6)

THIRD DECLENSION

mare, N.,5ea sedQe,

n., 5ea2

stem,

animal,

n.,

awwai

37 cslcax,^., spur

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

38

The

following have

accusative singular in -im or -em:

puppis, stern

clavis, liey

febris,

thfe

jemr

messis, crop

{liy-Iig

sementis, planting

restis, rope

strigilis,

securis, ax

turris, tower

scraper

navis, hoat.

Nouns having the accusative

117.

ablative singular exclusively in securis, ax.

The

ablative in

-i;

singular in -im have the

and

also canalis, conduit,

invariable also in neuters,

-i is

net, and names of and Soracte. The ablative ends in i or e in nouns which have the accusative in -im or -em, except messis (-e), restis (-e), and securis (-i);

except baccar, a plant, iubar, radiance, rete,

places like Praeneste

also in the following

:

—

end

aimiis, river

finis,

avis, bird

fiistis,

bilis.

Hie

ignis,

orbis, circle ovis, sheep

club

pelvis, hasin

_/ire

imber, shower

civis, citizen

unguis, nail

classis, jleet

A nominative plural in -is,

118. plural, is

The

found

formed

in imitation of the accusative

rarely.

following nouns have the genitive plural in -um, not

-ium: ambages,

circuit; senex, old

man;

volucris, hird.

Both

endings occur in apis, hee; caedes, bloodshed; clades, disaster;

mensis, month; sedes, seat; strues, heap; suboles, offspring; vates, prophet.

The

accusative plural in Cicero's time ends in either is or

es; after the middle of the

first

century A.D. es became the

regular ending. 119.

The nominative and accusative

originally the stem; but the final

i

was

singular of neuters in classical

was

Latin either

changed to e or, if preceded by al or ar, dropped, the preceding a being shortened. There are some exceptions to the latter rule: as, collare, collarf'uivSte, "Soc%yard.

THIRD DECLENSION

I20, 121)

39

Mixed i-Stems.

n.

Examples:

120.

virbs, F., city

nox,

stem, urb(i)-

stem, noct(i)-

f.,

night

aetas,

cliens, m., client

f.,

age

stem, client(i)- stem, aetat(i)-

Singular

Nom. urbs

nox

cliens

Gen. Dat.

ixrbis

noctis

clientis

aetatis

urbi

nocti

client!

aetali

Ace.

urbem

noctem

clientem

aetatem

Abl.

urbe

nocte

cliente

aetate

aetas

Plural

Nom. urbes

noctes

clientes

aetates

Gen. Dat.

urbium

noctium

clientium

aetatum

urbibus

noctibus

clientibus

aetatibus

Ace.

urbis (-es) noctis (-es) clientis (-es) aetatis (-es)

Abl.

urbibus

noctibus

clientibus

aetatibus

These are consonant-stems which have assumed the plural.

They

(or -ium)

i

forms

in

are declined, therefore, like consonant-stems

in the singular, like i-stems in the plural.

Nouns of this class more syllable than

are imparisyllahic, having in the genitive one in the nominative.

This class includes: Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, (a) ars, skill; arx, citadel; falx, sickle; opes (no nom. sing.; gen. 121.

-um), means; pons, bridge; stirps, stock. (b)The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a

plu. in

vowel:

—

dormouse

nix,

snow

as, as

glis,

dos, dowry

Us, stri]e

nox, night

mas, male mus, mouse

vis, force

fauces

(plu.)

fraus, fraud

,

throat

Digitized

by Microsoft®

strix, screech-owl

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

40

The nominative genitive plural of

singular of fauces is not found in classical Latin.

some

of these

{l22

The

words varies between -ium and -um.

(c) Polysyllables in -ns or -rs: as. cohors, cohort; cliens, client;

parens, parent; cliens and parens have the genitive plural in

-ium or -um. (d) Nouns in -as or -is: as, civitas (-itmi or -um), state; optimates (-ium or -\xm), aristocrats; penates, household gods; Quirltes, Roman citizens; Samiutes, Samnites.

122.

:

THIRD DECLENSION

I23-I2J) 123. different

The following nouns are peculiar, having a nominative stem from that of the other cases: caro (gen. caxais), flesh; iter (gen.

—

itinetis) jjouxn^

nivis),

41

;

iecur (gen. iecoris, iecinoris, iocinoris), liver; nix (gen.

snow; senex (gen.

senis), old

man;

supellex tgen. supellectilis),

furniture.

The

,

124.-

Town names and

stems have a

Locative Case

a few

locative in -i:

the country.

'

as,

common nouns

with consonant

Carthagini, at Carthage; ruri, in

'

Greek Npxms 125. /Greek nouns of the third declension often have Greek forms in the nominative and accusative, singular and plural; sometimes in the genitive singular. The Greek endings are

,..,

usually

these:

— genitive

singular,

-os;

accusative

singular,

-a or -n; nominative plural, -es; accusative plural, -as; the

sometimes used as a vocative singular. Names in -eus usually have the forms of the second declension.

stem

is

Examples herds, m., hero

—

-

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

42

(isd

Proper Names

Nom. Capys

Orpheus

Gen.

Orphei (-os)

Socratis

Orpheo

Socrati

Dido Capyos Didonls (Didus) Capja Didoni (Dido)

Dat.

Didonem

Capjm Capye Capy

Ace. Abl.

Voc.

(-i)

Orpheum

(Dido)

Didone (Dido) Dido

Socrates

(-a)

Orpheo Orpheu

(-1)

Socratem

(-en)

Socrate*

Socrates (-e)

Paris has the accusative forms Paridem, Parim, and Parin.

Gender

— —

tions are as follows (a)

Masculine

Nouns in

:

Feminine:

-ex (gen. -icis) -o (gen. -onis) -or, and -6s. ,

,

— miter, mulier; merges, seges, teges; compes, merces,

linter,

quies, requies; abstract

Neuter:

and the principal excep-

classes

:

-er, -es, -es,

Exceptions:

cadaver,

iter,

and

collective

nouns

marmor;

in -io; sorer, uxor; cos, dos.

and names

tuber, fiber, ver,

in -er; ador, aequor, cor,

(b)

in the Third Declension

The most important

126.

of trees

and plants

6s.

—

Feminine:

Nouns in -as (parisyllabic), -is, by a consonant), -lis, and -x.

-6 (gen. -inis) , -io, -s (preceded

Exceptions:

Masculine:

nouns

in

-nis,

and anguis,

(plu.), caulis, cinis, coUis, corbis, cuctmiis,

lapis,

axis,

callis,

ensis,

mensis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulvis, sanguis, sentes unguis,

torris,

vectis,

vepris,

vermis,

vomis;

canalis,

fascis,

foUis,

casses fustis,

(plu.), torquis,

Apollo, cardo,

cupido

(sometimes masc), homo, margo (masc. and fem.), nemo, ordo, turbo; some nouns in -ns; mus, Greek nouns in -pus; calix, coniunx (masc.

and fem.), dux (masc. and

fem.), fornix, grex, rex,

(gen. -icis).

Neuter: (c)

crus, ius, pus, rus, tus.

Neuter^

Nouns

—

in -c, -e,

-1,

-np^/z^<jywir»ri^flb-us.

and most nouns

in -ex

FOURTH DECLENSION

i2y, 128) Exceptions:

Masculine:

—

sal

(sometimes neuter in

sing.), sol; cornicen,

oscen, pecten, tibicen; furfur, turtur, vultur; lepus.

Feminine: pecus (gen. -udis).

Fourth Declension

Examples:

127. i

43

— u-Stems

flamen,

lien,

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

44 tribe;

a few

names

of plants

and

{l2gf-IJI

trees; rarely

penus,

and

store,

•...,'.

specus, cave.

The only neuters in common use are comu; genu, Some cases are found of peca, flock; also artua

veru, spit.

knee; (nofiii-

plu.), limbs.

Case-Forms

An

129.

old genitive singular in -uis or -uos is sometimes found: as,

senatuis, senatuos, of the senate.

Nouns

in -tus

sometimes have a second-

declension ending in the genitive singular: as, adventi, of the arrival.

The

dative singular in -Q, which

is

the regular neuter ending,

is

often

found in masculines and feminines.

The

genitive plural has sometimes a shorter form in

-um:

as,

cumiin,

of chariots; passum, of paces.

The

dative and ablative plural end in ubus, in acus,

haw; tribus,

tribe; in

piti, needle;

arcus,

ibus or ubus, in axtas, joint; genu, knee; lacus, lake;

partus, birth; portus, harbor; specus, cave; tonitrus, thunder; veru, spit.

Names in

some

of trees

and a few other nouns have second-declension forms

cases, fourth-declension

forms in others;

gen. sing, lauri or laurus, abl. lauro or lauru,

lauros or laurus; colus,

130.

and

is

Domus,

F.,

distaj',

e.g. laurus, bay-tree,

has

plu. lauri or laurus, ace.

has similar variation.

house, has

declined as follows:

nom.

—

two stems, dome-

arid

domu-,

^32-134)

FIFTH DECLENSION Singular

45

;

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

46

Some nouns have forms (ace.

-em,

and the fifth declensions: as common people; coUuvio (-onis)

of both the third

plebs or plebes (gen. plebis, plebei, plebi) or colluvies

136

{13^,

abl.

-e),

,

fames, hunger,

scourings;

famis or fami, abl. always fame; requies

(-etis), rest,

has

gen.

has sometimes

gen. requie, ace. requiem, abl. requie; satias (-atis), sufficiency, has some-

times nom. saties, ace. satiem, abl. satie; tabes

(-is),

wasting, has abl.

tabe.

Defective

Nouns used only

Nouns in the Singular

135. The meaning of some words is such commonly only in the singular. These are: 1.

Proper

names.

But the

plural

is

that they are used

sometimes used to

designate two or more persons or places of the same name: as,

Caesares, the Caesars; Galliae, Cis- and Transalpine Gaul;

or,

Pompeios evertit? what overthrew men like Crassus and Pompey? Juv. 10, 108. 2. Names of material: as, aer, air; ferrum, iron. But the to express character: as, quid Grasses, quid

plural

is

objects

sometimes used to designate parts

made

of

it: as,

nlves, snowflakes, snowstorms; 3.

Abstract nouns:

of the material or

aera, bronzes, wages; cerae, wax-tablets;

\mA, wines.

as, fides, faith;

iuventus, youth.

But

sometimes used to designate various instances of the quality, occurring in different persons, on different occasions, the plural

is

or in different places: as, odia, hatreds; otia, vacations; calores, frigora,

times of heat and cold; propter swamps were dry everywhere.

siccitates

paludiun,

because the

Nouns used only

in the Plural

—

The following nouns are used only in the plural: Some names of towns: as, Athenae; Falerii. Most names of festivals: as, Bacchanalia; Saturnalia. Some names of classes: as, liberi, children (used rarely

136. 1. 2.

3.

the

singular);

maiores,

ancestors;

manes,

ghosts;

in

posteri,

descendants; optimates^a;^^||gc^^jjj^^^ij|^ rarely in the singular)

penates, household gods.

;

.

^37' 4.

DEFECTIVE NOUNS

^3^

Many

others,

some

of

which are clearly plural in meaning,

while others are represented in English

most important angustiae,

are:

47

—

defile, difficulty

by the

indutiae, truce

arma, arms

insidiae,

cibaria, provisions

Kalendae, Calends minae, threats

divitiae, riches

epulae, banquet

ambush

exuviae, spoils

moenia, walls munia, duties Ndnae, Nones

facetiae, wit

nundinae, market-day

exsequiae, funeral

The

singular.

fauces, throat, pass

niiptiae,

grates, thanks

reliquiae, remainder, remains

hibema, winter-quarters idiis,

scalae, stairs

Ides

tenebrae, darkness

Facetiae, fauces,

The

137.

wedding

and scalae are used

plural

is

rarely in the singular.

sometimes used instead of the singular

to generalize the statement, or, in poetry, for metrical reasons:

eius ipsius liberos a praedonibus esse sublatos, that his

as,

children were carried off by robbers (he

Manil.

T,y,

had only one

own

child)

monumenta

regis templaque Vestae, the memorials and the temples of Vesta (monumenta and templa to one building); Hor. C. i, 2, 15.

of the king

each refer

Nouns Defective

in Cases

Several neuters are used only in the nominative and accusative

138. singular:

—

fas, right; nefas,

opus, need; secus, sex.

The

wrong;

instar, likeness ; nihil, nil, nothing;

genitive nihili

and the ablative

nihilum, nothing) are sometimes used.

^The

following nouns lack the nominative singular:

also gen. plu.)

and

gen. plu.)

;

;

Fors, chance,

—

(from

nihilo

dapis, feast (lar

frugis, fruit; opis, help; vicis, change (lacks also dat.

precl (dat.) is

,

prayer (lacks also gen. sing.)

f

xYi&t

used only in the nominative and ablative singu^r and

Nemo, no one, is not used in the genitive and supplied by nullius and iuul^4i.'c«ia"iiaUb£-'®

ablative, these c%sion or

.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

48 Infitiae, denial, is

Some

{139,

used only in the accusative and only with

ire, to go.

nouns, especially u-steras, are used only in the ablative singular:

as, iussu, by order; iniussu, without order; natu, fry hirth;

(with a numeral often to be translated pounds, the omitted)

I40

pondo, by weight

word

libra being

rogatu, by request; sponte, voluntarily.

;

Most nouns

of the fifth declension (see 131)

and many monosyllabic

neuters of the third are seldom or never used in the genitive, dative, and ablative plural: as, acies, Une-of-battle; species, appearance;

fel,

poison;

rus, country.

Many

monosyllables of the third declension lack the genitive plural:

mouth;

as, cor, heart; fax, torch; 6s,

Many

os; bone

(ossium

other nouns, especially of the fourth and

But

apparently lacking in one or more cases.

it is

is

used in late Latin)

fifth declensions, are

often

mere chance that

certain cases are not found.

Variable

Nouns Variable 139.

Nouns in Declension

Nouns which have forms

of

two

different declensions

are called Heteroclites.

For nouns varying between the

and the fifth declensions see and the fourth declensions, see and the fifth declensions, see 134. For the declension of pelagus,

first

134; for nouns varying between the second

129 for nouns varying between the For the declension of domus, see virus, and vulgus, see 99. ;

140.

Other Heteroclites are:

Names

third 130.

—

and Saturnalia, regularly of the which sometimes have the genitive in -onun. So, also,

of festivals, like Bacchanalia

third declension,

ancile, shield (gen. plu. ancilium or ancilionim).

balneum, bath;

plural,

balnea (N.) or balneae (F.), the latter meaning

usually public baths. delicia (F.) or delicium (N.)

,

pleasure; plural, deliciae (F.)

,

pleasures,

'ivorite.

^epvihim., feast ; plural, epulae, feast (not in plural sense). -

the ,

igerum,

acre,

with singular of the second declension and plural usually

si*'^^'^'^'

iitas (-utis)

aescenau ,

peaates,

and iuventa Digitized

.

-

(-ae), youth; senectus (-utis)

by Microsoft®

and senecta

VARIABLE NOUNS

141, J42)

49

margarita and margaritum, pearl.

Mulciber (gen.

-eri

and

-eris), Vulcan, of the

second and third declen-

sions.

and 'ostreum,

ostrea

oyster.

pecus (gen. pecoiis), flbck, has also nom. and

nom. and penus,

ace. plu. pecua, gen.

pehum

(gen. peni, penoris, penus), provisions, with forms of the

and fourth

second, third,

abl. sing, pecu, dat. pecui,

pecuum.

sequester (gen.

declensions.

-tfi, -tris)

trustee,

,

with forms of the second and third

declensions.

vas (gen.

Tasonun,

vasis)',

etc.)

;

vessel,

vasum

with plural of the second declension (vasa,

in the singular occurs rarely in early Latin; a dative

plural vasibus also occurs.

The name

Heteroclite

is

applied also to those nouns which, though of

only one declension, have more than one stem:

femims), thigh; iecur (gen.

as,

femur

(gen. femoris or

iecinoris, iocinoris, iecoris), /wer.

Nouns Variable

in

Gender

These are called Heterogeneous. Besides those given under the "head of Heteroclites there are also some nouns of the second declension which have masculine and neuter forms in both numbers: as, balteus, belt; caelum, heaven (caelus is rare) clipeus, shield; pileus, cap. In some nouns 141.

;

of the second declension the singular

whUe

the singular

is

of such nouns has sometimes a

These

—

are:

and

plural are of different genders; or,

of only one gender, the plural is of two.

meaning

different

carbasus (F.), saU

carbasa (N.), sails

frenum (N.)

freni (M.) or frena (N.)

,

hit

The

plural

from that of the singular.

,

bridle

(M.) or ioca (N.), jokes

iocus (M.), joke

ioci

locus (M.), place

Ioca (N.), places; loci (M.), usually

rastnun (N.), rake

rastri

topics or passages in boohs

Nouns 142. of' the'

In

many nouns

(M.) or rastra (N.), rakes

Variable in

Meaning

the meaning of the plural

singular; or' the plural has both the

another.

Sbme

gender.

Others

is

meaning

different

from that

of these

and have been given as Variable also in declension or

are:—

Digitized

by Microsoft®

of the singular

.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

5° aedes

(sing.)

,

aedes

temple

{14^-143

(plu.), hoiise

auzilium, help

auxilia, auxiliaries

castrum, fort

castra,

comitium, meeting-place

comitia, assembly

copia, plenty

copiae, troops

finis,

end

camp

fines, borders, territory

fortuna, fortune

fortiinae, possessions

gratia, favor, gratUiide

gratiae, thanks

impedimentum, hindrance littera, letter (of

impedimenta, baggage

the alphabet)

litterae, epistle, literature

natales, descent, family

natalis, birthday

workmen

opera, work

operae,

pars, portion

partes, role, party

rostnun, heak

rostra, speaker's platform

sal, salt,

vigilia,

sales, witticisms

wit

watchfulness

vigiliae, pickets

NAMES OF PERSONS 143. During the classical period Romans had regularly three names, praenomen, nomen, and cognomen:

—

as,

Gaius {praenomen) lulius {nomen) Caesar {cognomen).

144.

The praenomen was

the personal name, indicating the

common

iirst names it was chosen and individual gentes regularly restricted their choice to a few names in this list. The praenomina, with their abbreviations, are:

individual.

Like our more

from a somewhat limited

list,

A. Aulus

L. Lucius

Q. Quintus

App. Appius

M. Marcus

Ser. Servius

C. Gaius

M'. Manius

Sex. Sextus

Cn. Gnaeus

Mam. Mamercus

Sp. Spurius

D. Decimus K. Kaeso

N. Numerius

T. Titus

P. Publius

Ti. (Tib.)

145.

The nomen was

always in ius and

is

the

name

of the gens.

It

Tiberius

ends almost

properly an adjective; thus, Tullius means

and is derived from the name of Tullus, the supposed founder of thgti^iit^ Microsoft® of the Tulliin gens,

NAMES OF PERSONS

146-149) 146.

The cognomen was

of the gens.

Many

had

name

of the family, a subdivision

cognomina were originally derived from

personal peculiarities: these

the

51

as,

Balbus, lisping; Scaevola, left-handed;

in the course of time entirely lost their proper

mean-

Further subdivision of the gens sometimes produced a second cognomen: as, P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica. ing.

I

Am! additional name was sometimes given to commemorate an achievement; thus, the elder Scipio received the name Africanus;/his grandson by adoption, the younger Scipio, inherited the

name

Numantinus.

Africanus, and acquired the additional name,

In the

classical period there

was no name

for

such additions; in the fourth century they began to be called agndmina. 147. An adopted son took the complete name who adopted him, adding his own original nomen

of the

man

in the

form

an adjective in -Snus; thus, C. Octavius Caepias, being adopted by C. liilius Caesar, became C. lulius Caesar Octavianus. But this custom became confused before the end of the republic, and under the empire there appears to have been' no of

definite system.

148. In the classical period a woman regularly had only one name, the nomen of her father in its feminine form: as, Cornelia, Terentia. Other daughters might be distinguished as Secunda, Or, the older daughter would be Maior or Maxima, Tertia, etc. the younger Minor. A woman's name is often accompanied by the nomen of the father or the husband in the genitive case.

Slaves had one name, often of foreign 149. which indicated the place from which they came: Afer.

If freed,

origin, or as,

one

Phamaces;

they took regularly in the classical period the

praenomen and nomen of the master, retaining the slave name as a,, cognomen: as, P. Terentius Afer.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

ADJECTIVES

$2

{150-156

ADJECTIVES FORMATION 150.

Some

adjectives are primitive words: as, bonus, malus,

Others are formed by the addition of a suffix to a root or to the stem of a verb, noun, adjective, or adverb.

brevis.

151.

The suffixes -ax, -ulus, and -uus form adjectives usually of active

meaning, denoting character or condition:

—

aud-az, bold (audeo)

cred-ulus, credulous (credo)

pugn-ax, pugnacious (pugno)

vac-uus, empty (vaco)

bib-ulus, thirsty (bibo)

assid-uus, assiduous (assideo)

152.

The

suffixes -lis

usually passive:

—

and

-bilis

form adjectives denoting ama-bilis, lovable (amo)

fragi-Iis, fragile (frango) uti-lis,

useful (utor)

missi-lis, to be

153

.

qualities

no-bilis,

thrown (missus)

famous (notus)

visi-bilis, visible (visus)

The suffixes -bundus and -cundus form adjectives having usually

the force of a present participle, though adjectives formed with -cundus

denote regularly a more permanent characteristic:

mori-bundus, dying (morior)

—

fa-cundus, eloquent

treme-bundus, trembling (tremo) ira-cundus,

154.

The

suffixes -eus, -aceus, and,

adjectives denoting material:

—

(fari)

irascible (iratus)

sometimes, -nus and -neus form

aur-eus, golden (aurum)

acer-nus, of maple (acer)

herb-aceus, of grass (herba)

ebur-neus, of ivory (ebur)

155.

The

suffixes -lentus (rarely -lens)

denoting supply or fullness:

—

and -osus form adjectives

opu-lentus, rich (ops)

anim-osus, spirited (animus)

vino-lentus, intoxicated (vinum)

mor-osus, fretful (mos)

pesti-lens, pestilential (pestis)

fructu-osus, fruitful (fructus)

156.

The

suffix -tus

forms adjectives meaning provided with;

it is

often added to an imaginary verb-stem, assuming the forms -atus, -itus, or -utus:

—

Digitized

by Microsoft®

FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES

157-160) .

S3

funes-tus, deadly (funus)

barb-atus, bearded (barba)

hones-tus, honorable (honor)

turr-itus, turreted (turris)

ius-tas, just (ius)

cora-utus, horned (cornu)

The suffixes -anus,

157.

-ius, -icus,

and

-iacus,

-enus, -inus,

added to names

denoting place of origin:

—

-s, -as, -is, -ens, -ensis, -iensis,

of places,

form proper adjectives

Rom-anus, Roman

Vei-ens, 0} Veil

Cyzic-enus, of Cyzicus

Cann-ensis, of Cannae Carthagin-iensis, Carthaginian

Lat-inus, Latin

Tibur-s, of Tibur

Corintli-ius, Corinthian

Arpinum

Aipin-as, of

Ital-icus, Italian

Samn-is, Samnite

Corinth-iacus, Corinthian

These are often used substantively, especially

in the plural, as

names

of peoples.

The

suffix

-anus (sometimes -ianus)

names of persons

Some

:

as,

is

used to form adjectives from

Sullanus, belonging to Sulla; Ciceronianus, Ciceronian.

of these suffixes are used also to

various meanings:

—

form common adjectives

camp

veter-anus, veteran (vetus)

castr-ensis, of the

terr-enus, earthly (terra)

patr-ius, paternal (pater)

div-inus, divine (divus)

bell-icus, warlike (bellujn)

158.

The

suffixes

of

{c&stca)

-emus, -ternus, -urnus, -turnus, and -tinus form

adjectives denoting time, mostly from adverbs:

—

hodi-emus, of to-day (hodie)

diu-turnus, long-continued (diu)

hes-ternus, of yesterday (heri)

cras-tinus, of to-morrow (eras)

di-umus, daily (dies) 159.

Diminutive adjectives are formed

with a similar variety of meaning (see 78)

:

—

like

diminutive nouns, and

ebrio-lus, tipsy (ebrius)

pulch-ellus, pretty

long-ulus, rather long (longus)

pauper-culus, rather poor (pauper)

vet-ulus,

160.

little

The

little

(pulcher)

old (vetus)

suffix -idus

forms adjectives denoting a quality:

nit-idus, shining (nited) herb-idus, grassy (herfii^feec/ by MiBSrttfl®, wasting (tabes)

cup-idus, eager (cupio)

—

ADJECTIVES

54 161.

Other adjective

-aris, -arius,

suffixes of various

{161-163 meanings are -alis,

by a vowel), -ticus, -estris), and -timus:

-cus (sometimes preceded

-tivus, -nus, -ter (or -tris), -ester (or

-elis, -flis,

-icius, -ivus,

—

summer

mort-alis, mortal (mors)

aest-ivus, of

fid-elis, faithful (fides)

recid-ivus, restored (recido)

vir-Jlls,

manly

(aestus)

tempes-tivus, timely (tempus)

(vir)

popul-aris, of the people (populus)

ver-nus, of spring (ver)

ordin-arius, regular (ordo)

palus-ter,

civi-cus, of

a

citizen (civis)

med-icus, healing (medeor)

swampy

(palus)

semes-tris, lasting six months

(sex menses)

(campus)

am-icus, loving (amo)

camp-ester,

cad-ucus, falling (cado)

silv-estris,

domes-ticus, domestic (domus)

mari-timus, maritime (mare)

level

woody

(silva)

patr-icius, patrician (pater)

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

—

There are three degrees of comparison, PosiThe Comparative tive, Comparative, and Superlative. is regularly formed by adding, ior, the Superlative by adding issimus (in early Latin issumus), to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel if it has one. Participles used as adjectives are compared in the same manner. 162.

Positive

Comparative

Stem altus,

high

fortis,

hrave

(forti-)

happy

(felic-)

feUx,

(alto-)

amans, loving (amant-) apertus, open (aperto-)

Many adjectives are compared by using magis, more, 163. and maxime, most, with the positive: as, mirus, wonderful, magis mirus, maxime mirus. But this usage is in prose reguon account of their meaning, would not nfftai^4!3*'A4fvepejfl®parative and superlative

larly confined to those adjectives which,

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

164-166)

common

forms in

and superlative, e.g.

if

use,

and

55

to those of which the comparative

would not be euphonious; by a vowel: as, dubius, doubtful,

regularly formed,

adjectives in -us preceded

magis dubius, maxime dubius. 164. Adjectives in -er have a regular comparative, but form the superlative by adding -rimus to the stem, with the loss of the final vowel of the stem:

—

asper, rough (aspero-)

aspeiior

celer, swift (celeri-)

celerior

celerrimus

acer, sharp (acri-)

acrior

acerrimus

Dexter,

right,

Maturus,

asperrimus

has the rare superlative dextimus.

ripe, besides its regular superlative

maturissimus, has also

the form maturrimus.

Vetus,

old,

has the early comparative veterior

(later, vetustior)

,

super-

lative veterrimus.

165.

Six adjectives in -lis form the superlative

-limus to the stem of the positive without facilis,

easy

its final

by adding vowel:

—

ADJECTIVES

56 form of the positive

is

not found:

{i6y-iyo

as, honorificus, honorable, honorificentior,

honorificentissiinus.

The

167.

following adjectives have irregular comparison due

to the use of different stems or different forms of the

stem:

—

bonus, good

melior, better

optimus,

malus, bad

peior, worse

pessimus, worst

magnus,

maior, greater

maximus, minimus,

great

parvus, small

minor, smaller

multus, much

pliis,

more

same

best

greatest

smallest

pliirimus, most

Parvus has rarely the superlative parvissimus. 168.

The

indeclinable adjectives

are compared as follows:

169.

worthy,

friigi,

—

and nequam,

frugJ

frugalior

frugalissimus

nequam

nequior

nequissimus

worthless,

and senex, old, have the irregular comparatives and senior; for these, minor natii and maior natii

luvenis, young,

iunior (iuvenior

is late)

are sometimes used (natii being often omitted).

The

superlatives are

minimus and maximus, with or without natu. Defective Comparison

Of the following adjectives derived from prepositions the positive is rare, being used only in a few special phrases or senses, and usually as a substantive \ extremus exterior, outer exterus, outside outermost \ extimus 170.

:

—

i

\

in&nus ^imus {

inferus, below

inferior, lower

posterns, following

posterior, later

postremus,

}

postvmius, late-born

superior.

,

'

The

positive

is

used,

for

lowest

{

{

superus, above

i

example,

supremus

summus in

I

last

highest

exteri, foreigners;

nationes escterae, foreign peoples; inferi, the gods of the lower world; superi, the heav9M'^^§^(if;'^&§6S^ posterity; omnia supera,

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES

lyi, 172)

and below; postero

infera, all things above

day; ia postenim, for

The

on

on

die,

the future.

following adjectives lack the positive: citerior,

57 the following

—

citimus, nearest

this side

ulterior, farther

ultimus, farthest

deterior, worse

deterrimus, worst

interior, inner

intimus, inmost

primus,

former

prior,

first

propior, nearer

proximus, nearest, next

ocior, swifter

ocissimus, swiftest

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES There are two declensions of adjectives, one 171. being a combination of the first and second declensions of nouns, the other having the terminations of the third declension of nouns. Adjectives of the first and second declensions have three distinct se'ries of terminations for the masculine, feminine, and neuter, corresponding respectively

to masculine o-stems

and neuter o-stems of consonant stems

(95).

The

a-stems

(95),

(90),

third declension consists

and i-stems;

it

usually has only two

complete series of terminations, since masculine and feminine in the third declension are not distinguished

by

different endings.

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions 172.

Example: bonus, good; stems, bono-, bonaPlural

Singular

M.

r.

Nom. bonus bona

N.

bonum

bonae boni bonae bofio

Gen.

boni

Dat.

bono

Ace.

bonum bonam bonum

Abl.

bono

bona

M.

boni

F.

bonae

N.

bona

bonorum bonarum bonorum bonis

bonis

bonis

bonos

bonas

bona

Di^9 by Micrii^m

bonis

bonis

ADJECTIVES

S8

There

is

{173-175

a special form in -e (bone) for the vocative singular

masculine.

Adjectives in -ius have uncontracted forms in the

173.

and vocative

genitive

singular,

and neuter:

masculine

The

as,

(See 100.)

regius, royal; gen. sing, regii, voc. sing, regie.

possessive adjective meus, my, has no vocative singular

masculine; in

its place,

mi, a dative of ego,

is

used.

have the nominative singular in -cus (or -quos), -qua, -cum (or -quom), the accusative singular in -cum (or -quom), -quam, -cum (or -quom): as, aecus (or aequos), aequa, aecum (or aequom).

Stems

in -quo-, in order to avoid -quu-,

Stems in -ro- preceded by a long vowel are declined bonus: as, severus, stern; sincerus, sincere; also, ferns, wild; merus, pure; morigerus, obliging; praeposterus, reversed; 174.

like

properus, quick; prosperus (rarely, prosper), lucky; triquetrus, triangular; inferus, below;

and superus, above

(rarely, in early

Latin, infer and super).

Other adjective stems in -ro- are declined as follows: if the stem-ending is -ero-; otherwise, like niger; the declensions of puer and ager, 96)

175.

like liber, (cf.

:

liber, free

niger, black

stems, libero-, libera-

stems, nigro-, nigra-

M.

N.

—

liber

Singular N.

libera

liberum

M. niger

F.

F.

N.

nigra

nignun nigri

G. liberi

liberae

liberi

nlgri

nigrae

D. libero A. liberum

liberae

libero

nigro

nigrae

nigro

liberam

liberum

nigrum

nigram

nigrum

A. libero

libera

libero

nigro

nigra

nigro

N.

liberae

libera

nigri

nigrae

nigra

Plural

liberi

G. liberorum liberarum liberSrum nigrorum nigrarum nigrdrum

D. liberis

liberis

liberis

A.

liberos *

liberas

A.

liberis

liberis

„.

libera

libens

...

nigris

nigris

nigris

nigjps

nigras

nigra

mgns

nigris

nigris

lyd, 177)

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES

Like liber are declined asper, rough; gibber, hump-hacked;

59 lacer,

tmn;

miser, wretched; semifer, halj-beast; tener, tender; compoxmds of -fer and -ger, hearing: as, mortifer, jatal, right;

and one adjective

and

aliger,

winged; sometimes, dexter,

in -ur, satur, full.

Nine adjectives in -us or -er have pronominal endand dative singular of all genders, ius in the genitive, -i in the dative. Alius has aliud in the nominative and accusative singular neuter. 176.

ings in the genitive

'<

alius, other

nullus, no

alter, the other

ullus,

neuter, neither

unus, one

The

solus, ofily

any

totus, whole

uter, which {of two)

singular of these adjectives

genitive of alius being contracted

is

from

declined as follows, the alilus

:

—

:

ADJECTIVES

6o uterque.

Alterutei , one of two, is usually treated as a single

the second part

and

Alls

{178-180

is

word and only

declined.

alid are early

rarely contracted to

forms for alius and aliud;

alii

in the dative

is

ali.

Adjectives of the Third Declension 178.

Adjectives of this declension are classified accordnumber of endings in the nominative singular

ing to the

as Adjectives of One,

Two, or Three Endings.

Adjectives of

;

all consonant stems except comparahave assumed the characteristics of i-stems

This class includes

179. tives

One Ending

but nearly

all

in the following cases

Ablative singular,

:

—

-i

(but often -e);

Nominative and accusative plural neuter,

-ia;

Genitive plural, -ium;

Accusative plural masculine and feminine,

This class includes also

all

the nominative by adding s to the stem.

rules for

180.

audax,

nouns

t

(but often -es).

Present Participles.

All adjectives of this class except stems in

with stems in -nt- drop

-is

before

s.

-1-, -r-,

or -s- form

Present Participles

For other changes see the

of the third declension (107).

Examples bold;

stem, audac-

amans, Singtilar

loving; stem,

amant-

i8i)

DECLENSION OF ABJECTIVES

6i

Plural

Norn.

audaces

audacia

amantes

amantia

Gen. Dat.

audacium

audacium

amantium

amantium

Ace. Abl.

audacibus audacibus audacis (-es) audacia audacibus audacibus par, equal; stem, par-

amantibus amantibus amantis (-es) amantia amantibus amantibus vetus, old; stem, veter-

Singular

M. &F.

62

ADJECTIVES 182.

Pubes

(gen. puberis)

-a (not -ia) in the nominative

183.

The

,

{1S2-186

grcnmi up, and uheT, fertile, and accusative pl6ral.

following adjectives regularly have

—-those which have -e in the

-um

like vetus,

have

(not -ium) in the

compounds of nouns which have -lun in the genitive plural:; as, inops, helpless; qasLdiupes, four-footed; also, memor, mindful; uber, fertile.; vetus, old; and genitive plural:

vigil,

abl. sing, (see I8I);

watchful.

Present Participles spmetinjes have the genitive plural in

184.

Adjectives which have

-es in the accusative plural

;

-um in

others regularly

Adjectives of

-um

in poetry.

the genitive plural regularly have -is.

Two Endings

These include all i-stems, except some of those in -ri-, comparatives except plus; the latter were originally s-stems, the s being preserved only in the nominative and accu185.

and

all

sative singularneuter.

(Cf. 110.)

Examples: levis, light; stem, levi-

Singular

Plural

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES

i87.-i8g)

The ablative singular of comparatives has rarely -i fof -e;

63 the accusative

plural has rarely -is for -es.

187.

Plus, more,

is

declined as follows, being used in the

singular only as a neuter noun: Singular

M.

&

F.

Plural

N.

Nom.

plus

Gen. Dat.

pluris

Ace.

plus

Abl.

—

ADVERBS

64

(igo-ip4

Celer, swift, has the nominative singular celer, celeris, celere, the second

e being a part of the stem; the genitive plural, which occurs only as a substantive,

is

celerum.

Volucer, winged, has usually the genitive plural

adjectives

have forms of both declensions:

volucrum.

Some

190.

as, gracilis

gracilus, slender; hilaris or hilarus, gay; inermis or inermus,

or

unarmed;

bicolor or bicolorus, hvo-colored.

A

191.

few adjectives are indeclinable:

as, frugi,

worthy; necesse,

nequam, worthless; and most of the cardinal numerals. Potis, commonly used as an indeclinable adjective, but has the neuter

necessary; able, is

form pote.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

The

192.

Possessive Adjectives are:

my

meus,

tuus,

noster, our Voster

is

an

your (singular)

— suus, his, her,

your (plural)

vester,

its,

their

form of vester.

earlier

Another possessive adjective

is

cuius, whose, usually interrogative,

rarely relative.

These are declined as adjectives of the first and second For the vocative of meus, see 173.

declensions; see 172, 175. 193.

The

ablative singular

tion of the enclitic -pte less often,

-met:

as,

other cases

:

as,

may

is

often emphasized

suopte.

The

by the

addi-

ablative singular and,

be emphasized by the addition

of

suomet, meamet.

ADVERBS DERIVATION OF ADVERBS Adverbs may be divided into three classes on the basis form or derivation: be identified as original case-forms 1. Those which can

194. of

—

(ablative, accusative, or locative) of adjectives (including participles), notins, or 2.

pronouns.

Those formed

^M"^^iM?°i^xes.

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS

195-201)

6$

3. Those which are a combination of two or usually a preposition and a case-form.

195.

more words,

Adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and e, which is the remnant of

(i)

second declensions usually end in

ed, an early ablative ending of o-stems:

(from probus); Woeth, freely

as,

probe, honestly

(liber); aegre, reluctantly (aeger);

docte, learnedly (doctus). This e

is

shortened in bene,

well,

and male,

hadly, according to the

principle of iambic shortening (see 43).

The ablative ending 6 appears in some adverbs of this pnmd, at first; tuto, safely. This 6 is sometimes shortened, as in cite, quickly. Some adverbs have two endings, 196.

class:

as,

e and 5:

as, certe

and

certo, certainly; consulte

and consults,

purposely. 197. From adjectives of the first and second declensions adverbs are formed also with the ending of the feminine ablative,

&: as, alia, otherwise; recta, straightway; una, together. 198.

Some adverbs

are derived from adjectives which have gone out

of use: as, fefe, ferme, nearly; saepe, often.

199.

Adverbs ending

as, eo, thither;

Of nouns

in

6 or a are derived also from pronouns:

quo, whither; ea, that way; eadem, the same way.

sometimes serves as an adverb:

also the ablative

as,

volgo, commonly; forls, out of doors; forte, by chance; sponte, voluntarily.

200.

The neuter

used as an adverb

:

accusative singular of adjectives

as, facile, easily;

very often; recens, lately.

second time;

This

non (ne-oinom,

is

is

often

multum, much; plerumque,

the origin also of iterum, a

later unxxm), not.

Feminine accusative endings, singular and plural (am appear in certain adverbs of which some are evidently derived from nouns, pronouns, or adjectives, and others are of un201.

and

as),

known origin

:

as,

quam, how; tam,

clam, secretly ;$z\dixa., openly ;^ev^eraia., wrongly; so; idagiSieatb^tkim(tim& ; foras, out of doors.

ADVERBS

66

The ending

202.

singular of stems in

nouns and

(202-205

tim, originally the ending of the accusative -ti-, is

participles:

used generally to form adverbs from fiirtim,

as,

partim, partly; This ending appears

secretly;

separatim, separately; statim, on the spot. as sim,

the participle ends in sus:

if

cursini, quickly; passim, here

and

as,

the use of tim with participles of the

developed the adverbial ending atim:

caesim, by cutting;

From

(from pando).

there

conjugation was

first

as,

gradatim, gradually;

singulatim, singly.

A

203.

locative ending

from pronominal stems:

and

appears in adverbs of place formed hie

(for

hi-ce),

here;

Locative in form and sense are also

there.

illi-ce),

i

as,

(for

illic

ibi, there,

ubi, where.

204.

some

The

(2)

which

of

following are examples of adverbial suffixes,

may have been

-dam, as in quondam,

originally case-endings:

—

once.

-de, as in inde, thence; unde, whence.

-dem, as in tandem, at last. -im (-inc = im-ce), as in illim,

illinc,

thence; hinc, hence;

interim, meanwhile. -per, as in nuper, lately; semper, always; tantisper, so long.

-tus or,

more

often, -itus,

funditus, from the bottom.

forms within,

many

suffix,

from

the

which denotes

gods;

soiirce,

adverbs from nouns and adjectives; in intus,

and subtus,

below,

it is

added to prepositions.

Adverbs are formed from adjectives of the third declenter or iter to the stem a final t of the stem is

205. sion

as in diAOnitus,

This

by adding

dropped:

;

as, acriter, eagerly; fortiter, bravely;

audacter, boldly;

sapienter, wisely; feliciter, happily.

Adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declensions sometimes hava>this ending as well as the usual e: as, dure and duriter, harshly;

humane and hvSi&tiP^p:hMm9^^

— 206-20g)

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS

67

206. (3) The following adverbs are examples of the combination of two or more words welded into a single word: admodum, fully; antea, before; interea, meanwhile; postea, afterward;

comminus (con-manus), hand-to-hand; eminus (ex-manus), long range;

at

denuo (de novo), anew; extemplo (ex tempulo),

immediately; forsan (fors an), perhaps; forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps; ilico (in loco) on the spot; nihilominus, nevertheless;

nimirum, undoubtedly; postmodo, presently; prorsus (pro vorsus)

,

absolutely; rursus (re-vorsus), again; quotannis, yearly; ilicet (i,

imperative, and

you may

licet,

go),

straightway;

scilicet

(sci-licet), certainly; videlicet (vide-licet), clearly.

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS 207. Adverbs may be classified according to their meaning in five groups Adverbs of Place Adverbs of Time; Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause; Negative Adverbs; Numeral Adverbs. :

208.

(i)

—

;

Most Adverbs

of pronouns; they

may

of Place were originally case-forms be subdivided into four groups, denoting

respectively place where, place

way by which; the following

to

which, place

are the most

from which, and

common:

—

way way

hie, here

hue, hither

hinc, hence

hac, this

ibi, there

eo, thither

inde, thence

ea, that

way way qua, what way ubi, where quo, whither unde, whence alicunde,/rom aliq\m, some way alicubi, 5owe- aliquo, (/o) illic,

there

istic, there

where

illiic,

thither

istiic, thither

somewhere

illinc,

thence

istinc, thence

ilia (iliac), that

ista, that

somewhere

—

209. A fifth group contains compounds of vorsum, turned: deorsum, downward; sursum, upward; introrsum, inward; prorsum, forward (prorsus, absolutely) seorsum, apart; quorsum, to what end; retrorsum, backward; rursum (rursus usually in ;

classical Latin), agaitQigiti^ed by Microsoft®

ADVERBS

68 210.

(210-213

Other adverbs of place are

citro.

beyond (often best translated actually,

to

i.e.

this side; ultro,

beyond what

is

expected or required); intro, within; porro, further on; retro, backward; uspiata, usquam, anywhere; nusquam, nowhere; usque, as far as, continuously; ubique, everywhere; and some derived from nouns or adjectives: as, dextra, on the right;

from

foris, out of doors; funditus,

the bottom; recta, straightway.

—

Examples of Adverbs of Time are: iam, (2) mox, postmodo, presently ^ nuper, recently; nunc, now; turn (time), then; quondam, formerly; antea, before; pnmo, at 211.

already;

first;

primima,

first;

tandem, postremo, at other times;

umquam,

delude, next; postea, afterward; denique, at last;

postremum, for

the last time; alias,

allquando, at some time: extemplo, immediately;

ever;

numquam,

never; semper, always; totlens, 50

often; aliquotlens, several times; hodle, to-day; pridle, the before; postridle, the

day

day

day; heri, yesterday;

after; cottidle, every

eras, to-morrow; iterum, a second time; rursus, again; crebro,

repeatedly; saepe, often; plerumque, very often; tantlsper, so

long; Interim, Interea, meantime.

212.

(3)

Most adverbs derived from adjectives or nouns Manner: as, tuto, safely; brevlter, briefly; grada-

are Adverbs of

Others are ita, sic, so; ut (uti), how; utut, utcumque, however. Adverbs of Degree are magls, more; paene, almost; quam, how; quamvis, quamlibet, however much; tam, so; valde, very, very much; vix, hardly. Adverbs of Cause are eo, ideo, idclrco, propterea, on this tlm, by degrees.

account.

213. not at

and

all,

(4)

The Negative Adverbs

;

nemo, nesclo, / know not) ne

also in composition: as,

/ say not;

much (s)

are non, not; haud, minlme,

by no means (in stronger negation) ne (in prohibitions;

less.

.

;

„. .^. Digitized

The Numeral Adverbs

,

,

...

for .

.

ne-homo, no one; nego,

quldem, not even; nedum, ,^

by Microsoft® are treated under the head of Numerals.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

214, 215)

69

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS With few exceptions the only adverbs which are compared are those which are derived from adjectives 214.

or participles.

The Comparative'

of

an Adverb

is

the neuter accusa-

from which the adverb is derived (see 201). The Superlative of an Adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective by changing the stem-vowel to e (see 195). If the adjective is compared with magis and maxime, the adverb is compared in the same way tive singular of the comparative of the adjective

:

alte,

on high

altius

—

altissime

docte, learnedly

doctius

doctissime

misere, wretchedly

miserius

acriter, sharply

acrius

miserrime acerrime

fortiter, bravely

fortius

fortissime

facile, easily

facilius

facillime

egregie, excellently

magis egregie

maxime

bene, well

melius

male, badly

peius

optime pessime

parum,

minus

minime

propius

proxime

little

prope, near

egregie

—

magis following adverbs have no positive: maxime, most; potius, more; sometimes mage), (in poetry rather; potissimum, especially; prius, before; primum, first. A few adverbs have superlatives in -6 or -um: as, meritissimo, most deservedly; prime, at first; postremo, at last; primum, first; postremum, for the last time; plurimum, most. A few adverbs, not derived from adjectives, are compared 215.

The

as follows

:

—

diu, a long time; diutius; diutissime. nuper, recently; nuperrime, most recently. saepe, often; saepius, saepissime. satis,

enough;

SaidlSSgitb^Sfy Microsoft®

— NUMERALS

7°

(216

NUMERALS Under

this

head are included Numeral Adjectives and Nu-

meral Adverbs.

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES Of Numeral Adjectives there are three principal

216.

classes

at

:

How many?

1.

Cardinals, answering the question,

2.

Ordinals, answering the question,

3.

Distributives, answering the question.

Which in order?

How many

a time? Cardinals

Ordinals

unus, one

primus,

first

Distributives

singuli, one each

duo

secundus

bini

tres

tertius

term, trini

quattuor

quartus

quatemi

quinque

quintus

quini

sex

sextus

seni

septem

Septimus

septem

8.

octo

octavus

octoni

9.

no vera

10.

decern

noveni deni

11. 12.

undecim duodecim

13.

tredecim

14.

quattuordecim quindecim

17.

sedecim septendecim

nonus decimus undecimus duodecimus tertius decimus quartus decimus quintus decimus sextus decimus Septimus decimus

18.

duodeviginti

duodewesimus

19.

unde^ginti

undevicesimus

undeviceni

20.

viginti

vicesimus

viceni

vicesimus primus

viceni singuli

unus

singuli et

15. 16.

t\n[ginti

unus

/unus efWginti 26.

duodetriginta

et THcesimus

''^^''^cgsimuf

undeni duodeni temi deni quatemi deni quiiu deni

seni deni

septeni

dem

duodeviceni

Aicem

duodetriceni

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES

2iy, 218) Cardinals

Distributives

29.

undetriginta

undetricesimus

undetriceni

30.

triginta

tricesimus

triceni

40.

quadraginta

50.

60. 70.

80. 90.

100.

200.

quadragesimus quinquaginta quinquagesimus sexaginta sexagesimus septuaginta septuagesimus octoginta octogesimus nonagiiita nonagesimus centum centesimus (centum unus centesimus primus (centum et imus ducenii ducentesimus

quadrageni quinquageni sexageni septuageni octogeni

nonageni centeni

centeni sineuli

duceni

300.

trecenfi

trecentesimus

400.

quadringenti

500.

quingenti

quadringentesimus quadringeni quingentesimus qixingeni

treceni

600.

sescenfi

sescentesimus

sesceni

700.

septingenti

septingentesimus

septingeni

800.

octingenti

octingentesimus

octingeni

900.

nongenti

nongentesimus

nongeni

millesimus

singula millia

centies millesimus

centena millia

1000. mille 100,000.

centum

If there are

et

Ordinals

71

is

millia

more than two numbers

in a

<

compound numeral,

rarely used: as, ducenti quinquaginta tres, 253.

217.

Above

numeral adverb

and ordinals are formed byand centies millesimus the proper

100,000, cardinals

prefixing to centena millia :

as, cardinal,

centies centena millia, 10,000,000;

ordinal, centies centies nullesimus ; the distributive

is

the

same

as the cardinal.

The higher

cardinals are used chiefly for reckoning money,

millia is regularly omitted:

as,

quinquies sestertixun, 500,000

and centena sesterces.

Besides their ordinary use, distributives are regularly 218. used in place of cardinals with nouns plural in form but usually With such singular in meaning: as, bina castra, two camps.

nouns, however, uni, Sidk^MWi^irkoM^^' ^"^^ t^'"' not terai.

NUMERALS

72

{2ig~22I

Distributives are used also in multiplication: as bis bina, twice

two; and sometimes, in poetry, in place of cardinals. Alternative

219.

Alter

Compound

Forms

often used for secundus.

is

forms, with or without

et,

are sometimes used for

the numbers 13-19: as decern tres; decern et octo.

In the

corresponding ordinals the larger number sometimes comes

with or without

first,

et.

Instead of duodeviginti and undeviginti, octodecim and novendecim are sometimes used. There are similar alternative

forms for

38, 39; etc.

28, 29;

The corresponding

sometimes octavus decimus, nonus decimus, distributives:

The

as,

ordinals are

So also the

etc.

octoni deni.

ordinals vicesimus, tricesimus, etc., are spelled in early Latin

vicensimus, tricensimus, etc.

MQlia

is

spelled with one

in the imperial period.

1

FRACTIONS Fractions are expressed, as in English, by a cardinal

220. for the is

numerator and an ordinal

for the

denominator the ;

in the feminine gender, agreeing with pars,

understood:

as, tres

latter

expressed or

One-half

is

dimidium

omitted and pars

is

expressed:

quintae, three-fifths.

or dimidia pars.

When the numerator is

one, it is

as, tertia pars, one-third.

When

the denominator

the denominator

is

is

only one larger than the numerator,

omitted and pars

is

expressed: as, tres partes,

three-fourths.

ROMAN NOTATION I

I

222-225) 7

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES

73

NUMERALS

74

{226-228

sedile (113), and takes a dependent genitive; e.g., tria mlllia hominum, three thousand men. The singular also is sometimes used as a noun in the nominative or accusative with a dependent genitive: as, mflle

hominum misit,

he sent a thousand men; rarely

in other cases, unless connected with the

cum foot

same case

of

mQlia

:

as,

octo millibus peditum, mille equitum, with eight thousand

and a thousand

horse.

Ordinals and distributives are declined like bonus,

226.

the latter, with few exceptions, only in the plural. tives often

have -um

-orum

for

ADJECTIVES DERIVED Multiplicatives:

227.

decemplex,

as,

Distribu-

in the genitive plural.

FROM NUMERALS

simplex,

duplex,

single;

double;

tenfold.

Proportionals: as, duplus, twice as great; triplus, three times as great.

Partitives: as, binarius, having two parts;

temarius, having

three parts.

These are declined

like other adjectives of the

same endings.

NUMERAL ADVERBS Numeral Adverbs answer the question.

228.

How many

times ?

^cies semel semel et vicies

1.

semel, once

12

duodecies

2.

bis, twice

13

terdecies

3.

ter

14.

quater decies

30.

tricies

4.

quater

IS'

quindecies

40.

quadragies

5.

quinquies

16.

sedecies

SO-

quinquagies

6.

sexies

17'

septies decies

60.

sexagies

7.

septies

(

octies decies

70.

septuagies

8.

octies

(

duodevicies

80.

octogies

9.

novies

{

novies decies

90.

nonagies

10.

decies

\

undevicies

11.

undeeies

The

early ending -ieiftaifppyp* WteJsqSaater Latin.

(

21.

19.

20

vicies

\

100.

centies

mQlies

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

22g-2Jl)

75

The accusative singular neuter of the ordinals is sometimes used as a numeral adverb: as, primum, for the first time (also the ablative, primo, at first) consul tertium, consul for the third ;

time.

PRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUNS 229.

The

Personal Pronouns of the

persons are declined as follows Singular

:

first

—

Plural

Singular

and second Plural

Nom.

ego, /

nos, we

tu,

nostrum, nostri nobis

tui

vestrum, vestri

tibi

vobis

nos

te

vos

nobis

te

vobis

Gen.

mei

Dat.

mihi, rai

Ace.

me me

Abl.

you

vos, you

There is no personal pronoun of the third person. There is, however, a Reflexive Pronoun of the third person, which is declined as follows 230.

:

Gen.

sui,

Dat.

sM,to

Ace.

se,

Abl.

se,

of himself, herself, "

itself,

—

themselves

"

by

Case-Forms 231.

Tute'and tutemet (or tutimet) are emphatic forms of

The forms

tu.

and plural were originally genitives mei, tui, sm, nostri, and vestri, the genitive

of the genitive singular

of the possessive adjectives;

singular neuter; nostrum

—

•

and vestrum, the genitive plural masculine or

neuter.

Old forms of the genitive singular are mis and tis. The old forms mihr and tibi with final i occur often in poetry. Med, ted, and sed occur for both accusative and ablative singular. This is an original form of the ablative; as an accusative, it came to be used on the analogy of the ablative. Reduplicated forms are common in meme, tetg/f/sedSjy Alll4«j4efl®id septe are found rarely. the same cases:

—

/

PRONOUNS

76 Vostnun and

vostri for

vestrum and

vestri occur in early

All forms except the genitive plural

adding -met:

as,

{232-234

may

and

late Latin.

be made more emphatic by

egomet.

RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 232.

The Relative Pronoun

Interrogative

Pronoun

clined as follows

:

—

quis,

qui,

who?

who, which, and the quid,

what? are de-

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

^35-237) Quoius and quoi

and dative

for the genitive

77

singular are found even as

late as Cicero's time.

Qui often occurs as an ablative of either number and of any gender, and is used commonly as an adverb meaning haw. Ques is an early and rare form of the nominative plural. Quis for quibus (dative and ablative plural)

is

foimd even in

classical Latin.

Quis and qui (the interrogative adjective) are sometimes emphasized

by

the addition of -nam,

— quisnam, quinam.

—

Other Relative and Interrogative Pronouns are: which of two; used both as relative and interrogative; for

235. liter,

the declension see 176.

utercumque, whichever of two; an indefinite

relative.

quicumque and quisquis, ^whoever; indefinite relatives. The two parts of quicumque (qui -|- cumque) are sometimes separated by an intervening word. Both parts of quisquis are declined, but only quisquis, quidquid (or quicquid), and quoquo are in common use. ecquis (adjective, ecqui), any one; an interrogative. 236. There are also the following Pronominal Adjectives, quot, how many (indeused as Relatives and Interrogatives: With quantus, how large; and quails, of what sort. clinable) tot, so many (indethese are correlative the Demonstratives:

—

—

;

tantus, so large;

clinable);

and

talis, such.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 237.

The

principal Indefinite

one (substantive), and These are declined

qui,

any

Pronouns are

like the interrogative

commonly have qua

quis,

any

(adjective).

and

relative pro-

quae except in the nominaQuis is regularly used as the nominative tive plural feminine. singular of the substantive for both masculine and feminine nouns, but

for

genders.

The and

Indefinites

have the same early and occasional forms as the

interrogative; see 2Z^igitized by Microsoft®

relative

— PRONOUNS

78

The compounds

238.

{2j8,

of the Indefinites quis

the nominative singular masculine

follows;

is

2jg

and qui are as the same for

substantive and adjective, and quid appears in the neuter singular substantive,

quod

in the adjective, except

where

it is

other-

wise stated:

quispiam, some one; neuter singular (substantive), quippiam or

quidpiam. quisquam, any one; neuter singular (substantive and adjective), quicquam. There are no feminine forms; quisquam and quemquam are used rarely in early Latin as feminines."

There this

is

no

plural.

word as an

UUus commonly

takes the place of

adjective.

quisque, each one.

unusquisque, each one individually.

Both parts are

declined.

some one; aliqui is sometimes used as the nominative singular masculine of the substantive and usually as the nominative singular masculine of the adjective. The nominative singular feminine nearly always, and the nominative

aliquis,

and accusative neuter plural always, is aliqua. m is changed to n before d: as, quendam, quorundam. quilibet and quivis, any one. For the Indefinite Relatives see 235. quidam, a certain one;

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS Demonstrative Pronouns are used either alone substantives, or with nouns as adjectives.

239. as

ille, that

hie, this

Singular

M.

Nom.

hie

Gen. huius Dat. huic

F.

N.

haec huius

hoc huius

huic

huic

Ace.

hunc-

banc

Abl.

hoc

hac

^

M.

r.

ille

ilia

illud

illius

ilUus

illius

illi

illi

illi

illam

illud

iUg,

jUd

ilium hoc Dl}^^d by Microsofl^Q

N.

.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

240-245)

79

Plural

Nom.

hi

Gen.

horum harum horum

illorum illarum illorum

Dat.

his

his

his

illis

illis

illis

Ace.

hos

has

haec

illos

illas

ilia

Abl.

his

his

his

ilUs

illis

illis

hae

haec

illae

ill!

ilia

The stems

of hie are ho- and ha-, to which in some added the demonstrative enclitic -ce, which usually loses its vowel. The enclitic is sometimes attached to forms which are usedregularly without it as, huiusce haec (nominative plural feminine); horunc (in early Latin). It is found also (with e weakened to i) in combination with the interrogative

240.

forms

is

;

:

enclitic

241.

-ne :

as,

hocine.

The nominative and

(though the vowel

is

two consonants (hoc

The

accusative neuter singular

for hocc,

early forms hoius

is

a long syllable

vowel was originally followed by

short) because the

from hod-ce)

and hoic were used even

in Cicero's time.

A

nominative plural masculine hisce occurs in early Latin.

242. ille,

Forms

of

an early pronoun

olle,

having the same meaning as

are sometimes found.

243.

Iste, that, is declined like ille.

The

initial i is

some-

times omitted. 244.

The

enclitic -ce is

often attached

chiefly in the following forms:

—

to

ille

and

iste,

Singular

M.

F.

N.

Nom.

illic

Ace.

illunc illanc illuc (illoc)

Abl.

illoc

illaec illuc (illoc)

iliac

illoc

M. istic

F.

N.

istaec istuc (istoc)

istunc istanc istuc (istoc) istoc

istac

istoc

Also in the nominative and accusative neuter plural,

illaec

and

istaec.

245.

The Intensive Pronoun

ipse, self, is declined like ille,

has ipsum in the nominative and accusative singular neuter. Ips?,4|^dS9^fe^J^fe'^ °^ *^^ demonstrative

-except that

it

PRONOUNS

8o

(246-248

and the suffix -pse. The first part was originally declined; eapse, eumpse, and other similar forms occur in Plautus. In

is

Plautus also are found forms with both parts declined: eapsa, eampsam.

The nominative

singular masculine

is

as,

some-

times ipsus. 246.

IS,

this or that

Plural

Singular

M. ii (i)

eorum iis (is)

eis

iis (is)

There are three stems,

—

ea

earum

eorum

lis (is) eis

lis (is) eis

ea

eas

eos

247.

N.

F.

eae

ei

eis

iis (is)

i- for is

and

eis id,

iis (is)

eis

eo- and ea-

for the other forms.

Dative singular forms of early poetry are

ei

and monosyllabic

ei;

also eae.

The usual forms

of the

nominative plural masculine and the ii and iis, but these were pro-

dative and ablative plural are

nounced (and sometimes written) as monosyllables, i and is. The forms ei and eis were usually pronounced as monosyllables.

— FORMATION OF VERBS

249-252) Rare forms and eidem.

81

of the nominative singular masculine are eisdem, isdem,

The nominative plural,

plural masculine and the dative and ablative though sometimes written ildem and iisdem, were always

dissyllabic in pronunciation.

VERBS FORMATION OF VERBS Verbs are either Primary or Derivative. Priinherited from the parent language. Derivative Verbs were formed from Latin words after Latin had become a distinct language. 249.

mary Verbs were

Primary Verbs

Of Primary Verbs there are the two following 250.

Root Verbs.

Only a few forms

irregular verbs belong to this class.

of

classes

:

certain so-called

In these forms personal

as, from the root es, from the root i, to go, i-s, i-mus; from the da-t, da-nt; from the root fer, to hear, fer-s,

endings are attached directly to the root: to he, es-t, es-te;

root da,

to give,

fer-t.

251. Thematic Verbs. In these verbs a vowel, called the Thematic Vowel, is attached to the root. To this combination are added the personal endings of the present system. The thematic vowel was originally e or 0, but usually appears in Latin as i or u: as, from the root ag-, to drive, ag-i-t, ag-i-mus, ag-u-nt.

The

root

may

appear in a modified form:

as, gero,

To

this class

from the root ges- ; frango, from the root frag-.

belong most verbs of the third conjugation. There are, however, many derivative verbs of the third conjugation, and these also

have the thematic vowel. 262.

Most verbs

of the

first,

second, and fourth conjugations

are derivative, but a few are primary.

In either case the per-

sonal endings of the indicative present are attached to a final Digitized

by Microsoft®

— 82

VERBS

,

{253-255

vowel which belongs to the present stem. The present stem may be identical with the root, as in dare, to give (root and stem da-), flere, to weep (root and stem fle-); or it may be the root with an added vowel, as in videre, venire,

to see

(root vid-, stem vide-),

come (root ven-, stem veni-).

to

Derivative Verbs

Of Derivative Verbs there are the two following classes

:

Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives. but there are many the fourth, some of the second, and a few of the third. In

253.

Most of

of these are of the first conjugation,

general the a-declension produces verbs of the

first

conjugation,

the 0-decIension verbs of the secoftd conjugation, the u-declension verbs of the third conjugation with the infinitive in -uere,

and the i-declension verbs

many

are

exceptions:

—

of the fourth conjugation;

but there

from fuga, flight. from albus, white. metuere, to fear, from metus, fear. finire, to end, from finis, end. fugare,

to

put

to flight,

albere, to he white,

Verbs derived from other verbs.

254.

five classes

255.

:

—

Of these there are

(i) Ileratives or Intensives, of the first conjugation, regularly

derived from the stem of the perfect passive participle (therefore denominative in origin),

and ending

derived from verbs of the

in the indicative present in -to or -so.

first

Those

conjugation, however, always end in

-ito,

There sometimes appears to be no iterative or intensive force, the meaning of the derivative being apparently the same as that of the

not

-ato.

simple verb

:

—

dicto, say often or emphatically,

from

prenso, grasp, from prendo, take hold rogito, keep asking,

The move

from rogo,

iteralfve ending is

violently,

from ago;

dico, say. of.

ask.

sometimes added to the present stem:

fi&steOjf

tec8^«^igo^gbm nosed.

as, agito,

—

— FORMATION OF VERBS

236-260)

A

second iterative

is

sometimes formed:

,83

as, dictito,

from

dicto; cursito,

from cuTso. 256.

(2)

/wfeMijW, of the third conjugation, ending in -esso or

The perfect and participial systems are usually of capesso,

seize,

from

-iss6.

the fourth conjugation:

capio, take.

petesso or petisso, seek eagerly, from peto, seek. lacesso, provoke,

from

lacio, eniice.

incipisso, begin eagerly,

257.

from

incipio, begin.

Inceptives, of the third conjugation,

(3)

formed by adding the

ending -sco to roots or to the present stem of verbs. original verb,

if

was one, has gone out

there

of use.

In some cases the

The name Inceptive

sometimes indicates only the form, not the meaning, as

many

of these

verbs, especially those formed from roots or obsolete verbs, do not denote

an action or condition; e.g. pasco, feed; quiescd, rest; Examples with real inceptive meaning are: calesco, grow warm, from caleo, be warm. seised, inquire, from seio, know. horresco, begin to shitdder, from horreo, sh-udder. The endings -aseo and -esco, of which the first vowels are really stemvowels, came to be regarded as suffixes and were attached to noun and the beginning of

—

posco, demand.

adjective stems: as, vesperaseit,

it

becomes evening; vesper, evening.

mitesco, grow mild; mitis, mild.

Inceptives have only the present system of tenses, but the perfect and participial systems are often supplied

Inceptive

258.

is

by the simple verb from which the

derived.

(4)

i?jm»Miw«j, of the

first

conjugation, ending in

-1116.

These

are rare: cantillo, chirp,

from eanto, sing. from consciibo,

eonscribillo, scribble,

259. -surio.

(5)

write.

Desideratives, of the fourth conjugation, ending in -turio or

Only two are

in

parturio, be in labor,

esurio, Be hungry,

common

from

use:

—

pario, bring forth.

from edo,

eat.

Verbs formed by Composition

Verbs are formed also by Composition; that is, the combinatioiP/sB&eaiib'advepMal prefix with a verb.

260.

by

VERBS

84

Some

(261,

'

262

of these prefixes are used separately as adverbs

or prepositions, others appear only in composition.

Those used separately a-, ab-, abs-,

away

are:

in-,

—

in

pro-, pro-, prod-,

forward ad-, to

inter-, between

retro-, back

ante-, before

ob-, toward, against

sub-, subs-, under'

circum-, around

per-, through,

subter-, beneath

thoroughly

com-, con-, together post-, after de-, away, down prae-, before

super-, over supra-, over

praeter-, past

e-, ex-, out

Those used only

in composition are:

trans-, across

—

amb-, am-, an-, around

intro-, within

re-, red-, back

dis-, di-, apart

por-, forward

se-, sed-, apart

For vowel changes occurring

in the composition of verbs see 34ff.

261. Some verbs are formed by the combination of words not regularly used as prefixes, with simple verbs. These are called Syntactic

Compounds:

animadverts, attend benedico,

to

—

(animum

adverto).

bless.

maniimitto,

set free.

satisfacio, do enough.

In compoimds like calefacio, heat, and consuefacio, habituate, the first was probably a formerly existing noun-stem, but was treated as a

part

verbal stem in -e.

VERB-STEMS 262.

The

is modified to serve as a basis for the In this way three stems are formed,

root of a verb

the various forms.

— —

and Participial. The Present Stem is the basis of the following forms: Present, Imperfect, and Future tenses in both voices and in all moods in ^y^Jj, i)iSSg,Ml?s are found.

Present, Perfect,

Present Infinitive in both voices.

26j-26j)

CON:rUGATION

85

Present Active and Future Passive Participles.

Gerund.

The

Perfect

Stem

is

the basis of the following forms:

Perfect, Pluperfect,

—

and Future Perfect Indicative Active;

Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active. Perfect Infinitive Active.

The

Participial

Stem

is

the basis of the following forms:

Perfect Passive Participle and, therefore,

—

all

—

forms of which

this is a part, namely, the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive, the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive, the Perfect Infinitive Passive.

Future Active Participle and, therefore, the Future Active Infinitive.

Supine and, therefore, the Future Passive Infinitive. 263.

Every form

of the Indicative

and Subjunctive (except

the present indicative and the perfect passive system) consists of three parts,

— stem, mood and tense

sign,

and personal

ending. 264.

The Imperative has no mood and

tense signs. Personal

endings are attached directly to the stem, except that the

thematic vowel appears in the third conjugation, in the third person plural of -io verbs of the third conjugation, and in the third person plural of the fourth conjugation.

THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 265.

Voice,

The inflection of the verb by which are expressed Mood, Tense, Number, and Person is called Con-

jugation.

There are four conjugations, distinguished by the vowel of the present stem. The Present Active Infinitive

most conveniently

indicates the conjugation;

the

infinitive endings (rfg/*be/^owi"rofi0i®jugations are respec-

VERBS

86 tively -are, -ere, -ere,

and

-ire.

be found by dropping the 266.

{266-269

may

The

infinitive

present stem ending -re.

Stem-vowel,

First Conjugation.

Most verbs of are some primary

,

a.

this conjugation are denominative,

verbs: as, sto, stand, no, swim.

verbs of this conjugation originally had a stem in a: subdue; perfect, domui (for domavi); supine,

but there

Some primary as,

domo,

domitum

(for

domatum). 267.

Second Conjugation.

Stem-vowel,

e.

This conjugation includes both primary and denominative

The stem-vowel e usually appears in the present system only; but it appears in all forms of certain verbs with The stem- vowel is roots ending in e: as, fieo, weep, neo, spin.

verbs.

shortened before another vowel. 268. Third Conjugation. most forms to i or u.

Stem-vowel, e or

o,

changed

in

The stem-vowel is the thematic vowel. The present stem may be simply a root with the thematic vowel, as in dico, say; or the root may be modified in various ways, as follows:

—

make, do; Vfac.

1.

Present in -16:

2.

Present in -SCO :

3.

Present in -esso :

4.

Present in -to:

5.

Present in -no:

6.

Present with inserted nasal:

The

as, facio,

as, cresco, as,

grow; Vcre.

capesso, seize; \/cap.

as, fiecto,

(See 257.) (See 256.)

bend; Vfiec.

as, sterno, strew; \/stra. as,

rumpo, break; \/rup.

nasal sometimes appears also in the perfect and participial

systems:

as,

iungo, join;

Viug;

perfect, iunzi;

participle,

iunctus. 7.

Reduplicated:

as, sisto, set; \/sta.

Fourth Conjugation. Stem-vowel, i. Verbs of this conjugation are either primary or denominative. In the primary verbs fei^^^yj^toPJiJirs in the present system only: as, venio, come (veni, ventum); in the denominative verbs 269.

VOICE

270-274) it

87

appears also in the perfect and participial systems: (finivi,

finish

The stem- vowel

finitum).

i

becomes

as, finio, i

before

another vowel.

A

270.

forms of the

few verbs have forms of two conjugations. first

and the

Lavo, wash, has

A few verbs of the third conjugation have

third.

occasional forms of the fourth: as, oriretur or oreretur,

and

orior, arise; potiretur or poteretur,

potiri,

from

and

oriri,

from

potior, get possession of;

moiiri or mori, from morior, die.

In certain verbs the perfect system or the participial system, or both, belong to a conjugation different from that of the present system:

aim

at,

as, peto,

quaero, seek, haurio, drain, vincio, bind.

271.

The term

Irregular

is

applied to certain verbs

which, though in large part regular, have some forms made by adding the personal endings directly to the root.

(See 251.)

The

irregular verbs are sum, possum,

void, nolo, maid, fero, eo, qued, fid, edo,

and

do.

VOICE 272.

There are two

voices, Active

and Passive.

Deponent Verbs Certain verbs, called Deponents, have a complete passive system only, but with the meanings of the active. In addition to the passive forms they have also the future infinitive 273.

active (the future infinitive passive

and future participles active,

t he

is

not used), the present

geru nd, and the supine.

The

future passive participle and, sometimes, the perfect passive participle are passive in meaning.

Some verbs

are used either as active verbs or as deponents: as, assentio

or assentior, agree; populo or populor,

pillage.

A few verbs, called Semi-Deponent, have active forms present system, passive forms with active meanings in in the These are audeo, dare, participial systems. and the perfect 274.

fido, trust

gaudeo,

(and

rejoice,

compounds confido, solecf^i^^^^^ims^t®

its

trust, difiido, distrust),

VERBS

88

{275-280

MOODS AND TENSES There are three Moods, and Imperative.

275. tive,

Indicative

The

276.

Present,

Indicative

Imperfect,

Mood

Mood

Future,

— Indicative, Subjunchas

six

tenses,

Future Perfect. 277.

— the and

Pluperfect,

Perfect,

"

The Present has no

tense-sign; the personal endings

For vowel changes

are added directly to the present stem. see 315.

278.

The

tense-sign of the Imperfect

is

-ba-, the vowel being

shortened before the personal endings -m,

-t, -nt,

and

-r.

In

the third and fourth conjugations the stem-form to which this

attached ends in -e-: as, rege-ba-m, capie-ba-m, audie-ba-m. In the fourth conjugation in earlier Latin, and in poetry of all periods, this e is sometimes omitted: as, scibam, for sciebam. is

279.

The

conjugations

tense-sign of the Future in the is

-b- and the thematic vowel,

changed, except in the

first

person singular, to

tense-sign of the Future in the third is

-a- in the

first

first

and second

— that i

is,

e or o,

The

or u.

and fourth conjugations

person singular (shortened because

it is fol-

m

lowed by or r), -e- in all other forms (shortened before -t and -nt). In early Latin the fourth conjugation sometimes has a future like that of the first and second: as, audibo, for audiam.

The

regular future of eo, go,

280.

stem

is

The

Perfect

is

is

formed

ibo.

Rarely the

in various ways.

the same as that of the present:

as, solvi,

from

solvo,

from verto, turn. Sometimes it is different only by the lengthening or change of the vowel: as, fugi, from fugio, The comflee; veni, from venio, come; egi, from ago, drive. monest tense-sign is -v-. This appears in the form -av- in nearly all the verbs gfg,|^ g^^,.^j^^ation, and in the form loose; verti,

-iv- in nearly all of the fourth: as,

amavi, audivi.

The

sign

: ;

MOODS AND TENSES

281-284)

89

-V- appears also in the perfect of

some verbs of the second and third conjugations: as, delevi, from deled, destroy; novi, from nosed, learn. Five verbs of the third conjugation with nasal suffix have the perfect in -vi; these are cemo, lino, sino, spem5, and stemo. In verbs of this class with perfects in -avi and -evi there

281.

are often shoirtened forms in

all

the tenses of the perfect system,

V and the following vowel disappearing before s or r

:

as,

amasti,

for amavisti; consuerat, for consueverat; in the subjunctive,

amaverim; consuessem, for c5nsuevisseni; in the amasse, for amavisse. Perfects in -m also have shortened forms, but the vowel

amarim,

for

infinitive,

disappears only before

s,

not before r :

as, audisli, for audivisti;

aadierunt, for audiverunt.

The perfect forms of nosed are similarly shortened: as, nosse, for novisse compounds of moved: as, commossem, for commovissem.

also

282. -u,

-lit,

ii, lit,

as,

Some verbs with in the first

from eo.

-m

perfects in

and third persons

Rarely there

is

a

have also forms in

singular: as, audii, audiit;

first

person plural in -iimus

audiimus.

283. Another common tense-sign of the perfect is -u-. This appears in most verbs of the second conjugation, in many of the third, in a few primary verbs of the first (see 266), and very rarely in the fourth: as,

284.

monm,

alui,

Another common tense-sign

appears, especially with

mute stems,

sonm,

salui (from salio).

of the perfect in

many

is -s-.

This

verbs of the third

conjugation, in some of the second, and in a very few of the

aim, sens!. For consonant changes due to of the final consonant of a root with s, see 49. combination the generally remains the same as in the the root vowel of The variation: as, cessi, from cedo; is occasional there but present, rejd, rego; fiuxl, from flup; ussi, from from mitto; from misi, fourth: as, carps!,

ijyQ^

Digitized

by Microsoft®

VERBS

go 285.

Some

perfects

{285-288

have reduplication,

— that

is,

a prefix

and the vowel from cano; pepuli, from pello.

consisting of the initial consonant of the root

e:

A from cado; cecini, stem- vowel a is weakened to i or e ae to i. If the stem- vowel of both present and perfect is i, o, or u, that vowel appears in the reduplication: as, didici, from disco; poposci, from posco; If the verb begins with sp or st, both cucurri, from curro. consonants appear in the reduplication, but s disappears from the root: as, spopondi, from spondeo; steti, from sto. as, cecidi,

;

Reduplication occurs, with a few exceptions, only in the third

—

It is found in four verbs of the. second, conjugation. and in two of the first, mordeo, pendeo, spondeo, tondeo, do and sto. Reduplication does not occur in compounds, except in compounds of do, sto, disc5, posco, and sisto: as, abdidi, circumdedi; cecidi from caedo, but occidi from occido; it occurs also in repperi (for repeperi), rettuli (for retetuli) and sometimes in compounds of curro.

—

—

286.

The

Perfect Passive

— that the perfect —

perfect system, indicative,

perfect infinitive,

are

is,

and

all

other passive tenses of the

the pluperfect and future perfect

and pluperfect subjunctive, and the

made by

a combination of the perfect

passive participle with forms of the present system of the verb

amatus sum, / have been loved; amatus esse, to But forms of the perfect system of esse are sometimes used: as,' amatus fui, for amatus sum; amatus fuerat, for amatus erat. esse,

to he: as,

have been loved.

287.

The

tense-sign of the Pluperfect

tached to the perfect stem; a

is

is

-era-,

shortened before

final

which is atm, t, and nt.

288. The tense-sign of the Future Perfect is -er-, followed by the thematic vowel; this is attached to the perfect stem. The forms of this tense are similar to those of the Perfect Sub-

and the occasional forms of the second person singular and the first and second persons plural with -i-, that is, -is, -imus, and -itis, are due to confusion with the perfect subjunctive,

junctive, where -x-

is

?Jjgyi&V nS^^^ular ending

of the third

:

MOODS AND TENSES

28g-294)

person plural, -int instead of -unt,

91

a mere imitation of the

is

corresponding form of the perfect subjunctive. 289.

In early Latin (and rarely in

later writers)

indicative sometimes has the ending -so (or -sso)

-sim (or -ssim)

:

as, capso,

Forms

the future perfect

the perfect subjunctive

from capio; amasso, from amo; faxim, from

These are forms of an

facio; negassim, froin nego.

jugation.

,

earlier

system of con-

and same system, are found, especially in dixem for dixissem; dixe for dixisse.

of the perfect indicative, pluperfect subjunctive,

perfect infinitive, belonging to this early Latin: as, dixti, for dizisti;

Subjunctive 290.

The Subjunctive Mood has

ent, Imperfect, Perfect, 291.

Mood

The

four tenses,

— Pres-

and Pluperfect.

tense-sign of the Present

is

for the first conjugation

-e- (representing a form of the old optative mood-sign), the

For the

stem-vowel a disappearing before the other vowel. other conjugations the tense-sign shortened, as usual, before final

is

m,

-a-. t,

nt,

Both e and a are and r. The long

stem- vowel of the second and fourth conjugations

and in the

is

shortened,

third conjugation the thematic vowel does not appear

Some irregular verbs have the tense-sign -i-, the mood-sign of the old optative; in this way are formed the usual of sum, of volo and its compounds, and subjunctive present occasional forms like duitn (from do), edim, etc. in this tense.

292.

The

tense-sign of the Imperfect

is

-se-,

which

is

added

to the present stem, s becoming r between two vowels (see 46) as, es-se-s,

293.

ama-re-s.

The

tense-sign of the Perfect

to the perfect stem.

is -eri-,

which

is

added

Confusion with the future perfect indica-

tive often shortens -is to -is in the second person singular and, rarely,

294.

-imus to -imus in the

The

first

person plural.

tense-sign of the Pluperfect

is

-isse-,

which

added to the perfect stem. In

all

forms a long vowel

For the forms

of

is

shortened before final m,

^^i^§i^mMmA

t,

see 264.

nt,

and

r.

is

VERBS

92

{2QJ-3OO

VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES Besides the forms of the three moods, certain

295.

noun and adjective forms are treated as parts of the verb. These are the Infinitives, the Supines, and the Gerund, which are verbal nouns, and the Participles, which are verbal adjectives. Infinitives

296. There are six Infinitives, and Future for each voice.

The ending

297.

which

is

amare

for

— the Present,

Perfect,

of the Present Active Infinitive

is

-se,

attached to the present stem.

This ending appears only in esse, to be, esse, to eat, and their compounds. In other verbs it comes between two vowels and is changed to r: as,

299.

(Ferre and velle stand for ferse and velse.)

The ending

298.

which

amase.

is

of the Perfect Active Infinitive

attached to the perfect stem:

The ending

is

-isse,

amav-isse.

of the Present Passive Infinitive is -ri, ex-

cept in the third conjugation where audi-ri; but reg-i.

as,

This infinitive

it is -i is

:

as,

ama-ri, mone-ri,

sometimes extended by

the addition of the syllable -er, with shortening of the preceding

vowel: 300.

amarier, dicier.

as,

The

as follows

:

—

three other infinitives are formed

by combination

The Future Active is the future active participle with esse: amaturus esse. The Perfect Passive is the perfect passive

as,

participle with

esse:

as,

amatus esse.

Active and Perfect Passive Infinitives esse

But is

in

the Future

often omitted: as

amaturus for amatiirus esse; amatus for amatus esse. The Future Passive is the Supine in -um with iri, the present passive infinitive of eo, go, us^^g^Qegs^j^^i^^s, amatum iri.

VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

301-305)

93

Supine 301. The Supine is a verbal noun of the fourth declension, formed from the participial stem, but with the suflSx -tu-, not -to-. There are only two forms in common use, the accusative, and the dative or ablative singular: as, amatum, amatu. There is a rare dative in -tu.

—

Gerund 302.

The Gerund

is

the neuter singular of the Future Pas-

noun of the second and ablative cases. the English verbal noun

sive Participle (Gerundive), used as a verbal

declension, with genitive, dative, accusative,

The meaning in -ing :

as,

is

the same as that of

regendi causa, for the sake of ruling. Participles

—

There are four Participles, 303. the Present and the Future Active, the Perfect and the Future Passive. 304.

The Present Active

Participle

is

formed by adding

the suffix -nt- (nominative singular -ns) to the present stem,

the long stem-vowels of the

first,

second, and fourth conjuga-

tions being shortened except in the nominative singular.

The

thematic vowel of the third conjugation appears as e; in the fourth conjugation the same form of the stem is used as in The Present Active Participle is dethe imperfect indicative. clined as an adjective of the third declension

ing of the English participle in 305.

The Future Active

and has the mean-

-^ng.

Participle

is

formed with the

suffix

-uro- (nominative singular masculine, -urus) added regularly to the participial stem with omission of final -0: as, amatiirus, monitUTUS, rectiirus, cursiirus. There is, however, occasional The Future variation: as, moritiirus, oriturus, ruiturus.

Active Participle is declined as an adjective of the first and second declensions an^^g^^^|j|J^ about to happen.

VERBS

94

The

{306-308

Passive Participle is formed with the changed to -so- (nominative singular mascuThere is great variety irr the stem-forms line, -tus or -sus). Some verbs, especially those to which this suffix is attached. of the second and third conjugations, add -tus or -sus directly to the root-syllable (with the usual consonant changes): as, auctus, from augeo; suasus, from suadeo; factus, from facio; Most first-conjugation verbs have the sparsus, from spargo. 306.

Perfect

suffix -to-, often

-atus,

in

participle

exception in the

first

verbs

fourth-conjugation

conjugation

is

in

An

-itus.

potus, from poto; in the

Verbs in -u6 have the partifrom loquor, and secutus, from sequor. Verbs with the perfect in -ui regularly have the participle in -itus: as, domitus, monitus, genitus; but there are fourth, sepultus, from sepelio. ciple in -utus;

so also locutus,

The quantity

exceptions; as, sectus, doctus, cultus.

root-vowel

is

of the

generally the same as in the present, but there

is

occasional variation.

The

suffix -so-

(nominative -sus)

is

regularly used with

all

roots ending in a dental, the dental being assimilated to the

following s: as, fossus from fodio; but ss

is

reduced to s after

a long syllable: as, clausus from claudo. Many other verbs by analogy take the suffix -so-: as, mersus, from mergo; pulsus,

from pello; cursus, from curro.

The the

is declined as an adjective of and second declensions and has the meaning of the

Perfect Passive Participle

first

English perfect passive participle. of esse, to be, to

form the

It is

used also with forms

perfect, pluperfect,

and future perfect

tenses in the passive voice. 307.

The

Perfect Passive Participle of

Deponent Verbs has

usually an active but sometimes a passive meaning.

The

Perfect Passive Participle of other verbs seems sometimes to

have an active meaning:

as,

cenatus, having dined; coniuratus,

conspiring; placitus, pleasing; potus, having drunk. 308. suffix

Th,e

-ndo-

Future Passive Participle

is

(nominati-B5^/«iB(gjj^gur/c45ias©iline

formed with the -ndus) ad4ed to

PERSON

309-311)

95

that form of the present stem which appears in the present

amandus, monendus, regendus, audienand fourth conjugations was probably -undo-, and this is often found in early Latin; active participle: as,

The

dus.

eundum

always the future passive participle of eo. The is declined as an adjective of the and second declensions.

future first

original sufiSx in the third

is

passive participle

TENSE-GROUPS 309.

The

tenses of the indicative

— Primary or Principal —

are grouped as follows

and subjunctive

:

:

amo, / love -amabo, / shall love ama^n, / have loved amavero, / shall have loved

Present

Future Present Perfect

Future Perfect

Secondary or Historical

:

— amabam, / was

Imperfect

loving

Historical Perfect amavi, / loved

amaveram, I had

Pluperfect

The

perfect indicative,

it

loved

should be noted, has two uses,

— one

(the

present perfect) denoting action completed in present time, the other (the historical perfect) denoting past action.

In the subjunctive the present and perfect are primary tenses, the imperfect and pluperfect are secondary tenses. It should be noted that tenses of present and future time are primary, those of past time are secondary.

NUMBER 310.

Verbs have two numbers, Singular and Plural.

PERSON 311.

Third.

Verbs have three persons, Digitized

—

by Microsoft®

First,

Second, and

VERBS

96

The

personal

313

endings of the indicative and subjunctive,

except the perfect indicative active, are as follows: Person

(312.

—

PRINCIPAL PARTS

314-31^ The second person

singular of the present

(in the third conjugation with the thematic

Verbs of the third conjugation

rege, audi.

is

97 simply the present stem

vowel

e)

:

ama, mone,

as,

ending

in -io lose -i- before the

-e: as, cape.

There

no second person plural of the future imperative passive.

The imperatives

314.

due,

is

fae,"

and

of dico, diico, facio,

—

the longer forms,

diee, duee,

and

faee,

Deponents have rarely -mino instead

first

die,

three

— are more common.

The same statement applies to compounds except that compounds of faeio always have

these verbs,

of

the longer form.

of -tor in early Latin.

In the union of the personal endings with the stem or

315.

tense-sign certain vowel changes occur:

A

and fero are

except in early Latin, where for the

fer,

long vowel

is

—

shortened before the endings -m,

amabam, amat, amet, amant, monet,

-t,

-nt,

and

-r:

as,

In early Latin and

audit, regar.

in poetry, however, the original long vowel before final -t

is

sometimes

retained: as, videt.

In the

first

person singular of the present indicative active of the

conjugation, a disappears

by

contraction before 6 : as,

and fourth conjugations the stem-vowel

The thematic vowel

is

u

was

first

in the second

shortened: as, moneo, audio.

as,

rego;

(earlier o) before nt (regunt),

endings (regis, regit, regitur). plural, -ont,

;

of the third conjugation appears as 6 in the first

person singular of the present indicative active: before r (regeris), as

amo

until the

end

as, ruont, vivont, sequontur.

The

appears as e

it

and as

i

before other

early ending of the third person

of the republic retained after u, v,

Sometimes qu became

and qu:

c: as, secuntur.

In the second and third persons singular of the present indicative active i is sometimes lengthened by the poets.

of the third conjugation

PRINCIPAL PARTS

The which show 316.

Principal Parts of a verb are four forms

the Present Stem, the Conjugation, the

—

Perfect Stem, and the Participial Stem. These are: (i) The First Person Singular of the Present Indicative Active. (2)

The Present /J/p&elty^ie/
VERBS

98

The

(3)

318

{317,

First Person Singular of the Perfect Indica-

tive Active.

The Nominative

(4)

Singular Neuter of the Perfect

Passive Participle. The

neuter of the participle is selected rather than the masculine,

because in intransitive verbs the latter

serves

its

is

Moreover the neuter

used impersonally.

purpose even

if

the participle

participle nor supine occurs,

lacking, while the former

may be

is

identical with the supine

is

not found at

all.-

the future active participle

is

and

If neither

sometimes

given as one of the principal parts.

So, for example, the principal parts of amo, remain (intransitive), are:

love,

and maneo,

amo, amare, amavi, amatum maneo, manere, mansi, mansum.

The

317.

Principal Parts of

Deponent Verbs are the

first

person singular of the present indicative passive, the present infinitive passive,

and the

first

person singular of the perfect

indicative passive, as: Conor, conari, conatus sum.

CONJUGATION OF SUM

The

318. follows.

irregular

This verb

is

verb sum, be, is conjugated as given first because it enters into

the conjugation of other verbs. Principal Parts Pres. Indic.

'

Pres. Inf.

Perj. Ind.

Fut. Partic.

esse

fui

futurus

sum

Indicative Present Singular

Plural

sum, / am es, you (sing.; est; he

is

are

^.^.^^^^ ^^

sumus, we are estis, you (plu.) are

^.^^^^

they are

CONJUGATION OF SUM

3^8)

99

Lnperfect

Singular

Plural

eramus, we were eratis, you were

eram, / was eras., you were erat, he

was

erant, they were Future

erimus, we shall be

ero, / shall be eris,

you

erit,

he will be

will be

you

eritis,

will be

erunt, ihey will be Perfect

fui,

fuimus, we have been, were

/ have been, was

you have been, were he has been, was

you have been, were

fuisti,

fuistis,

fuit,

fuerunt, fuere, they have been, were

Pluperfect

fueram, I had been

fueramus, we had been fueratis, you had been fuerant, they had been

fueras, you had been fuerat, he had been

Future Perfect

fuerimus, we shall have been

fuero, T shall have been fueiis,

you

will have been

fueritis,

fuerit, he will have been

you

will have been

fuerint, they will' have been

Subjunctive Imperfect

Present

sim

simus

essem

sis

sitis

esses

essetis

sit

sint

esset

essent

essemus

Pluperfect

Perfect

fuerim

fuerimus

fuissem

fuissemus

fueris

fueritis

fuisses

fuissetis

fuerit

fuerii^j

igitized

by

Mici

fuissent

VERBS

lOO

Oip, 320

Imperative Present este, be (plu.)

es, he (sing.)

Future esto,

you

estote,

shall he

you

shall he

sunto, they shall be

esto, he shall he

Participle

Infinitives

Pres. esse, to be Perf.

fuisse, to have been

Fut.

futurus esse,

The meanings

to he

about

to he

Fut. futurus, about

of the Subjunctive are so numerous

single translation

to he

and varied that any

might be misleading; therefore none

is

given.

The various forms of this verb are made from two one of which, es, serves as the present stem, the other, as the perfect stem and as the basis of the participial stem.

319. roots, fu,

Other forms of the verb in occasional use ate: Pres. Subj., siem, sies, siet, sient; also, fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant.

Imperf. Subj., forem, fores, foret, forent. Fut. Inf., fore.

There

is

no present

participle; a participial

in the adjectives absens

The

element appears, however,

and praesens.

following verbs are conjugated as models of the

four regular conjugations:

—

FIRST CONJUGATION

amo, 320.

amo

love

'C!<s»-p,Q

OpSig pONJUgATIO^

32o)

lOI

^

-a^:

Imperfect Singular

amabam, / was amabas

Plural loving,

I loved

amabamus amabatis

amabant

amabat Future

amabo, / amabis amabit

amabimus

shall love

amabitis

amabunt Perfect

amavi, / have

loved, I loved

amavisti

amavimus amavistis

amavit

amaverunt or -re Pluperfect

amaveram, I had amaveras amaverat

amaveramus

loved

amaveratis

amaverant

Future Perfect

amavero, / amaveris amaverit

shall have loved

amaverimus amaveritis

amaverint Subjunctive

Present

Imperfect

amem

amemus

amarem

amaremus

ames

ametis

amet

ament

amares amaret

amarent

Perfect

amaretis Pluperfect

amaverim

amaverimus

amavissem

amavissemus

amaveris amaverit

amaveritis

amavisses amavisset

ainivissetis

amaverint

amavissent

Imperative Present

ama,

love (sing.)

amate,

love (plu.)

Future

amato, you shall love amato, he shall Ism.

amatote, you (plu.) shall

amant^ they

shall love

love

VERBS

102 Infinitives

(J2I

SECOND CONJUGATION

322)

103

Future Perfect Plural

Singular

amatus ero, I amatus ens amatus erit

shall have been loved

amati erimus amati eritis amati erunt

Subjunctive Imperfect

Present

amemur

amer

amarer

amaremur

ameris or -re amemini

amareris, -re

ametur

amaretur

amaremini amarentur

amentur Perfect

amatus sim amatus sis amatus sit

Pluperfect

amatus essem amatus esses amatus esset

amati simus amati sitis amati sint

eimati

essemus

amati essetis amati essent

Imperative Present

amare,

amamini,

he loved (sing.)

he loved (plu.)

Future

amator, you shall he loved

amantor, they

amator, he shall be loved

shall he loved

Participles

Infinitives

Pres. amari, to he loved Perf.

amatus esse,

to

have

Perf.

amatus, having been

Fut.

amandus,

loved

been loved

Fut.

amatum about

iri, to

he

to be loved

to he loved

SECOND CONJUGATION moneo,

advise

Principal Parts

322.

monere

mone5

monui

monitum

Indicative Passive

Active

Present

moneo mones monet

monemus

moneor

monemur

monetis

moneris, -re

monemini monentur

Digitized

by MicrosoflS

VERBS

I04 Active

(322 Passive

Imperfect

monebamur

monebam monebamus

monebar

monebas monebat

monebaris, -re monebamini

monebatis

monebatur

monebaat

monebantur

Future

monebimur

monebo

monebimus

monebor

monebis monebit

monebitis

moneberis, -re monebimim monebuntur monebitur

monui

monuimus

monuisti

monuistis

monuit

monuerunt, re

monebuat

Perfect

monitus sum monitus es monitus est

moniti

sumus

moniti estis

moniti sunt

Pluperfect

monueram monueramus monueras monuerat

monueratis

monuero

monuerimus

mbnueris monuerit

monueritis

monuerant

monitus eram monitus eras monitus erat

moniti eramus moniti eratis moniti erant

Future Perfect

monuerint

monitus ero monitus eris monitus erit

moniti erimus moniti

eritis

moniti erunt

THIRD CONJUGATION

323) Active

Passive Pluperfect

monuissem monuissemus

105

momtus

VERBS

io6 Active

(J2J Passive

324)

VERBS IN

-10

OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION

Active

107

Passive Pluperfect

rexissem rexissemus

rectus essem recti essemus

rexisses

rexissetis

rectus esses

recti essetis

rexisset

rexissent

rectus esset

recti essent

VERBS

io8

Verbs in

-io of the

(324

Third Conjugation

capio, take

Principal Parts

capere

capi5

captum

cepi

Indicative Passive

Active

Present

capimur

capio

capimus

capior

capis

capitis

caperis, -re capimini

capit

capiunt

capitur

capiuntur

Imperfect

capiebam,

capiebar, etc.

etc.

Future

capiam,

capiar, etc.

etc.

Subjunctive Present

capiam,

capiar, etc.

etc.

Imperfect

caperem,

caperer, etc.

etc.

Imperative Present

capere

cape

capite

capito

capitote

capitor

capito

capiuntd

capitor

capimini

Future

capiuntor

Infinitives

Pres. capere

capi Participles

Fut. capiendus

Pres. capiens ,

Gerund Digitiia9i^aiflfc%bm rel="nofollow">

FOURTH CONJUGATION

325)

109

FOURTH CONJUGATION audio, hear

326.

Principal Parts

audio

audire

audivi

auditum

no

VERBS Active

(326 Passive

Imperfect

audirem

audiremus

audirer

audires

audiretis

audireris, -re

audiremini

audiret

audirent

audiretur

audirentur

audiverim

audiverimus

auditus sim

auditi simus

audiveris

audiveritis

auditus sis

audili sitis

audiverit

audiverint

auditus

auditi sint

audiremur

Perfect

sit

Pluperfect

audivissem

audivissemus

auditus essem auditi essemus

audivisses

audivissetis

auditus esses

auditi essetis

audivisset

audivissent

auditus esset

audifi essent

PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION

32?)

Examples:

III

—

First conjugation: conor, conari, conatus

sum, attempt Second conjugation: vereor, vereri, veritus sum, fear Third conjugation: utor, uti, usus sum, use Fourth conjugation: ordior,

orsus sum, begin

ordiri,

The semi-deponent audeo,

dare, has an old perfect subjunctive ausim. For the meanings of the participles of Deponent Verbs and for the deponent use of the perfect passive ps-rticiple of certain regular verbs, see 273 and 307.

PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION 327.

There are two Periphrastic Conjugations,

— the Active,

consisting of the future active participle with the auxiliary

verb sum, and the Passive, consisting of the future passive

sum. The Active indicates a future or intended action, the Passive indicates one that is

participle with the auxiliary verb

intended, proper, or necessary.

The conjugation

is

as follows:

112

VERBS

"3

IRREGULAR VERBS

330)

Participle

Infinitives

potens (adj.)

Pres. posse Perf.

potuisse

Longer forms, potessem and potesse, are sometimes found;

also, the

early present subjunctive possiem.

Conjugation of void, wish, and 330.

Nold, he unwilling,

malo, prefer,

is

is

its

compotinds

a compound

a compound of tnagis

(in the

of ne and volo; form mag) and volo.

114

VERBS

(JJJ

332, 333)

IRREGULAR VERBS

"5

ii6

VERBS

{334

7

IRREGULAR VERBS

335-33^)

Qued, can, and flequed, can

335.

eo, except that the perfect

is

qum,

II

not, are

nequivi,

conjugated like

and that certain

forms are lacking.

Conjugation of 336.

fid, be

made, be done, or become

make, do, lacks the present passive system,

Facio,

perfect

and

sum, factus esse, supplied by fid

etc.

except the future passive participle faciendus;

its

participial systems are complete: f actus

The missing present

passive system

is

fio

fiam

fiamus

fis

fias

fiatis

fiat

fiant

fiunt

fit

Imp.

fiebam fiam

Fut.

fierem

Imperative Pres.

337.

Infinitive

fite

fi

Prepositional

—

Subjunctive

Indicative Pres.

:

fieri

compounds of facio are usually conjugated reguBut sometimes forms of fio are used in such

larly; e.g. conficior, deflcitur.

compounds:

as, confit, confiunt, defit, infit.

calefacio, patefacio

have forms of

fid in

Compounds

like benefacio,

the passive.

Conjugation of edo,

eat

In addition to forms with the thematic vowel, edo has forms in certain parts of the present system, made by attaching 338.

the personal endings directly to the root ed-, the d of the root

being changed to s and the vowel being lengthened. Principal Parts: edo, edere or esse, edi, esum.

Subjtmctive

Indicative Pres.

edo

/

edimus estis(editis)

edis(edas)

editis(edatis)

est(edit)

edunt

edit(edat)

edint(edant)

Imp. edebam Fut.

edim(edam) edimus(edamus)

es(edis)

edam

esseni(edereni) Digitized

by Microsoft®

'

VERBS

ii8

(339,

340

Imperative

Pres.

,

Pres.

es (ede)

este (edite)

Fut.

esto (edits)

estote (editote)

esto (edito)

edunto

Infinitive

Participle

Gerund

esse (edere)

edens

edendi, etc.

In the participial system there are esus, esurus, and the supines esum, esu.

The longer forms of the present indicative are found only in late Latin. The subjunctive forms edim, etc., are the only ones in common use till the Augustan period.

In the passive, besides the regular forms, the present indicative estur

and the imperfect subjunctive essetur occur rarely. The compound comedo has the perfect passive participle comestus, as well as comesus.

Conjugation of do, 339.

This verb

tion, except that

is

a

give

conjugated as a verb of the first conjugalong only in the second person singular

is

and present imperative and in the nominative singular of the present participle. The passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. of the present indicative

Early forms from another root du- are the present subjunctive duim,

dms,

duit, etc., and,

sometimes, duam, duas, duat,

The verb do had originally two meanings, compounds contain the latter meaning. 340.

Compounds with a monosyllabic

of the third conjugation, e

and a becoming

etc.

give

and

put,

and most

prefix are conjugated as verbs i

and Those with a

in the perfect

systems: as, abdo, abdere, abdidi, abditum.

participial

dissyllabic

prefix are conjugated like the simple verb do: as, circiundo, circumdare,

circumdedi, circumdatum.

Compounds sometimes have the subjunctive

-duim, etc^ interdo sometimes has the present indicative interduo from the same root.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

DEFECTIVE VERBS

341, 342)

119

DEFECTIVE VERBS 341.

Defective Verbs lack certain forms.

mon and

Conjugation of Indicative Pres.

The most com-

the forms of each which are found are as follows:

aio

aid, say

Subjunctive

—

,

VERBS

I20

{343-345

Conjugation of fari, speak

343.

Indicative Perf. fatus

Pres.

fantur

fatur

Fut.

fabor fabitur

— — —

sum

fati

sumus

fatus es

fati estis

fatus est

fati

sunt

fati

eramus

Plup. fatus

eram

fatus eras

fati eratis

fatus erat

fati

erant

Imperative fare Infinitive

fari

Gerund

Participles

fans

fandi

fatus

fando

.

Supine fatu

(abl.)

fandus Other forms are used in compounds of

fari.

—

Three verbs are used mainly in the perfect system, The coepi, I have begun, memini, I remember, and odi, / hate. perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect of memini and odi have the meanings of the present, imperfect, and future respectively. These verbs all have a complete perfect active system. In addition, coepi has coeptiirus, coepturus esse, coeptus, and a complete perfect passive system, which is used regularly when there is a dependent passive infinitive: as, id fieri coeptum est, this began to be done; a few forms of the present system occur Memini has the imperative forms memento, in early writers. mementote. Odi has osurus and occasional forms of a perfect passive system used as deponents. 344.

345.

Many

verbs of the second, third, and fourth conjugations are

used only in the present system.

Inceptives derived from verbs have no

perfect system of their own, but use that of the simple verb; they participial system.

The verbs used

have no

as regular forms of greeting, avere (or

havere) and salvere, appear rarely except in the infinitive and imperative: salve, salvete, salveto ;ave, avete, aveto.

The verb cedo, give

plural cette, has no otheir^jamgt/ by Microsoft®

(imperative)

5^(5,

LIST OF VERBS

347)

121

IMPERSONAL VERBS 346. These verbs are used (except for a few scattered forms) only in the third person singular and the present and perfect infinitives: as, pluit,

it

rains; licet,

it

is allowed.

verbs are used impersonally in certain senses:

happens; constat,

it is

evident.

The

passive of

Some

some

personal

accidit, it

as,

intransitive

used impersonally as, itur, it is gone, i.e. some one goes; pugnatur, there is fighting; ventum est, some one came. verbs

is

:

LIST OF VERBS 347.

In this

list

the following verbs are omitted:

— regular

first, second, and fourth conjugations, inflected amo, moneo, and audio; verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjugations whose only irregularity is the lack of the perfect or participial system, or both; inceptives formed from existing simple verbs and having no peculiarities. The principal parts of compounds are given under the simple verb; compounds are not noted in their proper place in the alphabetical list if the form of the verbal element is the same as that of the simple verb. A prefixed hyphen indicates that the verb is found only in compounds. The abbreviations Def. and Impers. are used for Defective and Impersonal.

verbs of the like

abici5, see iacio.

acquiro, see quaerS.

abigo, see ago.

acud, acuere, acm, acutum.

aboleo, abolere, abolevi, abo-

adhibeo, see habeo.

.

adicio, see iacio.

litum. abripio, see rapid,

adigo, see ago.

abscido, see caedo.

adim5, see emo.

abstineo, see teneo.

adipiscor, see apiscor.

accerso, see arcesso.

adolesc5, see alesco.

accido, see cado.

adsideo, see sedeo.

accido, see caedo.

afficio, see facio.

accipio, see capio. Digitized

aggredior, see gradior. by Mia

;

VERBS

122 agnosco, see nosed. ago,

agere,

arripio, see rapio.

So

actum.

egi,

{347

But

circumago and perago.

ascendd, see scando. aspergo, see spargo.

abigo, abigere, abegi, abac-

attineo, see teneo.

tum; and

attingo, see tangd.

so adigo, ambigo,

exigo, prodigo, redigo, subigo, transigo.

(Seecogoand

audeo, audere, ausus sum. auged, augere, auxi, auctum. ave, Def., (345).

dego.) aio, Def., (341).

alesco,alescere. adolesco,ado-

adultum

adolevi,

lescere,

batuo, batuere, batui. bibo, bibere, bibi.

coalesce coalescere, coalui,

coalitum; exolesco, exoles-

cado, cadere, cecidi, casurus.

cere,exolevi, exoletum; ino-

Cpds., -cido, -cidere, -cidi,

inolevi;

-casum. caedd,caedere, cecidi, caesum.

inolescere,

lesco,

subolesco, subolescere. algeo, algere, alsi.

Cpds., -cido, -cidere, -cidi,

allicio, see -licio.

-cisum.

alo,

alere,

alui,

altum

or

alitum.

cano, canere, cecini.

Cpds.,

-cino, -cinere, -cinui (rarely

ambigo, see ago. ambio, see e5.

-cecini).

capesso, capessere, capessi^,

amicio, amicire, amixi or ami-

amictum.

capessitum.

ango, angere.

capere, cepi, captum. So antecapio; other cpds.,

aperio, aperlre, aperui, aper-

-cipio,

cui,

capio,

tum. apiscor,

apisci,

aptus

adipiscor, adipisci,

sum;

-cipere, -cepi, -cep-

tum.

sum.

adeptus

carpo,

tum.

carpere,

carpsi,

carp-

Cpds.,

-cerpo,

-cer-

so indipiscor.

pere, -cerpsi, -cerptum.

arcess5 (or accers6),arcessere,

caveo, cavere, cavi, cautum.

arcessivi, arcessitum.

cedo, Def., (345).

ardeo, ardere, arsi, arsurus.

cedo, cedere, cessi, cessum.

arguo, arguere, argui, argutum.

-cello, -cellere.

arrigo, see'rego.

Digitized by i/crog5^"l^o>

So antecellS,

'e«^ell6.

But ex-

LIST OF VERBS

347)

123

cello, excellere, excellui, ex-

comprimo, see premo.

celsum.

concido, see cado.

-cendo, -cendere, -cendi, -cen-

sum.

concido, see caedo.

concino, see cano.

censed, censere, censui, cen-

concipio, see capio.

sum. cemo, cemere, cre^, -cretum

concludo, see claudo.

(rarely certum).

cdnfercid, see farcid.

cieo, ciere, civi, citum.

in cpds.,

-citum;

-cio,

concutio, see quatid.

-cire,

Also,

cdnficid, see facid.

-civi,

cdnfiteor, see fateor.

always accio. Other cpds. have forms of both conjugations. cingo, cingere, cin^, cinctum.

cdnfringd, see frangd.

clauded, claudere; also clau-

cdmved,

so

do, claudere.

claudo,

close,

clausum.

congruo, congruere, congrui. conicid, see iacid.

cdnivere,

cdnivi

or

cdnixi.

claudere, clausi,

Cpds.,

congredior, see gradior.

-cludo,

-cludere, -clusi, -clusum.

conquird, see quaerd.

cdnspergd, see spargd. cdnspicid, see -spicid.

clepo, clepere, clepsi.

cdnstitud, see statud.

coepi, Def., (344).

cdnsuld,

c5gd, cdgere, coegi, coactum.

cdnsulere,

cdnsului,

cdnsultum. conticescd, conticescere, con-

collido, see laedo.

ticm.

colligo, see lego,

cold, colere, colui, cultum.

contined, see tened.

comburo, see uro.

contingd, see tangd.

cotnininiscor, comminisci, com-

mentus sum.

coqud, coquere, coxi, coctum. corrigd, see regd.

como, comere, compsi, comptum. comperco, see pared,

corripid, see rapid,

comperio, see -perio.

credd, credere, credidi, credi-

compesco, compescere, com-

crebrescd,

compingo, see pango

crepare,

crepui

paia rare), crepitum. Digitized

cre-

tum. crepd,

pescui.

crebrescere,

brui.

by Microsoft®

(-cre-

VERBS

124

cresco, crescere, crevi, cretum.

crudesco, crudescere, crudui.

cubo,

cubui

cubare,

rare),

(cubavi

cubitum.

i347

dirimd, see emo. diripio, see rapio.

disco, discere, didici. discutio, see quatio.

cudo, cudere, -cudi, -cusum.

-cumbo, -cumbere, -cubui, -cu-

disicio, see iacio.

dissided, see sede5.

bitum. dissilio, see

saUo.

cupio, cupere, cupivi, cupitum.

curro,

currere,

sum. is

cucurri,

cur-

In cpds., the perfect

-cum

or

ditesco, ditescere.

dividere,

divido,

-axcam.

do,

dare,

divi-

decerpo, see carpo.

Impers.

So 340.

Other cpds. are of the third dere,

defetiscor, see fatisco.

see

etc.;

conjugation:

decipio, see capio.

datum.

dedi,

circumdo,

decet, decere, decuit.

divisi,

sum.

abdo, ababditum; so

e.g.

abdidi,

addo, cond5, credo, dedo, di-

dego, degere. deleo, delere, delevi, deletum.

delibuo, delibuere, delibui, de-

do, edo, indo, obdo, perdo,

prodo, reddo, subdo, trado,

vendo.

libiitum.

deligo, see lego,

doceo, docere, docui, doctixm.

delitesco, delitescere, delitui.

domo, domare, domui, domi-

demo, demere, dempsi, demp-

tum. duco, diicere,

tum.

diixi,

ductum.

deprimo, see premo.

dulcesco, dulcescere.

depso, depsere, depsui, deps-

duresc5, diirescere, diiruL

tum. edo, edere or esse, edl, esum.

deripio, see rapio.

descendo, see scando.

So comedo, but

desilio, see salio.

or

see faci5.

desipid, see sapid,

efficio,

detineo, see teneo.

eicio, see iacio.

died, dicere, dixi, dictum, diffiteor,

^ee fateor.

dnigO, see lego.

comesum

comestum.

elicio, see -licio.

eligo, see lego. Digitized

by kMVS^Sm>^ eminere,

eminm.

LIST OF VERBS

347)

em5,

emere, emi, emptum. So coetno and, rarely, in-

teremo and peremo usually iaterimo and perimd. Most cpds. change e to i in present system: adimo, dirimo, eximo, redimo. Cf. also como, demo, promo, sumo. ;

eo, ire,

the

ii

or

ivi,

same,

ambire,

Cpds.

itum.

except

ambivi,

axnbio,

ambitum.

I2S

ositional cpds., -ficio, -ficere, -feci,

-fectum.

fallere,

fallo,

refello,

farcio,

fefelli,

refellere,

farcire,

confercire,

falsum.

refellL

fartum

farsi,

(rarely farctum)

confercio,

.

confertum;

refercire,

fercio,

re-

refers!,

refertum. fateor,

fateri,

Cpds., -fiteor,

See also veneo.

Prep-

benefacio, calefacio.

fassus

sum.

-fiteri,

-fessus

sum.

erigo, see rego.

evanesco, evanescere, evanui.

fatisco, fatiscere.

faveo, favere, iam, fautum.

einlesco, e\^escere, e^olui.

-fendo, -fendere, -fendi, -fen-

excio, see cieo.

sum.

excipio, see capio.

For

fero, ferre, tuli, latum.

excludo, see claudo.

cpds. see 332.

excutio, see quatio.

ferveo,

exerceo, see arced.

fervere,

ferbui;

also

fervo, fervere, fervi.

exigo, see ago.

fido, fidere, fisus

eximo, see emo.

figo, figere, fixi,

sum.

fixum.

exolesco, see alescd. findo, findere, fidi, fissum.

expergiscor, expergisci, exper-

fingo, fingere, finxi, fictum.

rectus sum. fio,

experior, see -perio.

fieri,

factus

sum.

For

cpds. see 337.

explodo, see plaudo.

fleets, fiectere, flexi,

exsilio, see salio.

fleo, flere, flevi,

exuo, exuere, exui, exutum.

-fligo, -fligere, -fflxi, -flictum.

flexum.

fletum

flu6,fluere,fluxi, (fluxus, adj.).

facesso,

facessere,

facessivi

or facessi, facessitum. facio, facere, feci, factum.

non-prepositional

cpds.^

fodio, fodere, fodi, fossum. [for],

So as

fan, fatus sum.

(343).

Def.,

VERBS

126

frango, frangere, fregi, frac-

tum.

Cpds., -fringo, -frin-

gere, -fre^, -fractum.

frendere,

fresum

ico, icere, ici, illicio,

or

ictum.

see -licio.

illido, see

fremo, fremere, fremui. frendo,

{347

laedo.

imbuo, imbuere, imbui, imbutum. impingo, see pango.

fressum. frico, fricare, fricul,

frictum or

incesso,

incessere,

incessivi

(incessi rare).

fricatum. frigesco, frigescere, -frixi.

incido, see cado.

frigo, frigere, frixi, frictum.

incidd, see caedo.

fnior, frui, fructus

sum.

incipio, see capid.

fugi5, fugere, fugi, fugiturus.

incipisso, incipissere.

fulcio, fulcire, fulsi, fultum.

include, see claudo.

fulgeo, fulgere, fulsi; also ful-

incutio, see quatid.

indipiscor, see apiscor.

go, fulgere.

funds, fundere, fudi, fusum.

indulged, indulgere, indulsi.

fungor, funp, functus sum.

induo,

induere,

indui,

indii-

tum.

furo, furere.

ingredior, see gradior.

gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum. gemo, gemere, gemui.

ingruo, ingruere, ingrui.

gero, gerere, gessi, gestum.

inquam, Def., (342).

gigno, gignere, genui, genitum.

inquire, see quaero.

glisco, gliscere.

insideo, see sede5.

glubo, glubere.

inolesco, see alesco.

insilio, see salio.

gressus sum.

instituo, see statuo.

Cpds. -gredior, -gredi, -gres-

interficio, see facio.

sus sum.

inveterasco, inveterascere, in-

gradi,

gradior, ,

vetera^a.

haereo, haerere, haesi, haesu-

irascor, irasci, iratus

sum.

rus.

haurio, haurire, hausi, haus-

tum (but hausurus). have, see ave. hiSCO, hiSCere.

iacid,

iacere,

So superiacio.

ieci,

-icio, -icere, -ieci, Digitized

by kcroSSm'^^y

in

iactum.

Other cpds., -iectum;

poetry

with

.

LIST OF VERBS

347) lengthening

a

of

preposi-

tional element with a final

consonant

in the present sys-

licet,

licere,

-licio,

So

-iecio, -iecere.

But

licuit

or licitum

Impers.

est.

tem, due to an earlier form

127

-licere, allicio,

elicio,

-lexi,

-lectum.

illicid,

pellici5.

elicere,

elicui,

elicitum.

iubeo, iubere, iussi, iussum.

iungo, iungere, iiiim, iunctum.

lingo, lingere, linxi, linctum.

iuvenesco, iuvenescere.

lino, linere, levl, litum.

iutum

iuvo, iuvare, iuvi,

(also

linquo, linquere, liqui, -lictum. liqueo, liquere, licui.

iuvaturus).

liquor, liqui.

labor, labi, lapsus

lacessere,

lacessd,

loquor, loqui, locutus

sum.

sum.

liiceo, lucere, luxi.

lacessivi,

lacessitum.

ludo, lUdere, lusi, lusum.

lugeo, lugere, luxi.

laedo, laedere, laesi, laesum. illido, illidere, illisi, illisum.

luo, loose, luere, lui. -luo, wash, -luere, -lui, -liitum.

lambo, lambere. ]a.v\, lautum or lotum (rarely lavatum). Also, in early Latin and in poetry,

lavo, lavare,

malo, malle, maliu.

adlego, interlego, perlego or

mando, mandere, mandi, mansum. maneo, manere, mansi, mansum. mansuesco, see suesco.

relego,

marcesco, marcescere, -mar-

lavo, lavere. lego, legere, legi, lectum.

pellego,

praelego,

sublego,

translego.

vowel change,

With

colligo, colli-

gere, collegi, collectum ;

so deligo, eligo, seligo.

X

So

and With

in perfect, diligo, diligere,

dilexl,

tellego

dilectum; and so in-

and neglego

(rarely

perfect intelle^ andneglegi) libet, libere, libuit

est.

or libitum

cui.

maturesco, maturescere,

medeor, mederi. memini, Def., (344). mergo, mergere, mersi, mersum. metior, metiri,

mensus

Digitized

stmi.

meto, metere, messui, messtmi.

metud, metuere, mettu.

Impers.

ma-

tiirui.

by Microsoft®

.

VERBS

128 mico,micare,micui.

So emico,

But dimico,

intermico.

di-

i.347

neglego, see lego.

neo, nere, nevi.

micare, dimicavi (rarely dl-

nequed, see queo.

micui), dimicatum.

nigresco, nigrescere, nignu.

Im-

mingo, mingere, minxi, mictum. minuo, minuere, minui, minutum.

nolo, nolle, nolui.

misceo, miscere, miscui, mix-

nosco, noscere, novi, notum.

ninguit or ningit, ninxit. pers. niter, niti, nixus or nisus

sum.

So ignosco, intemosco, per-

turn.

misereor, misereri, miseritus (rarely misertus) svim.

mitesco, mitescere. mitto, mittere, misi,

missum.

molo, molere, molui, molitum.

mordeo,

mordere,

momordi,

nosco, praenosco; but agni-

tum and cognitum from agnosco and cognosce. notesco, notescere, notm. nubo, nubere, nupsi, nuptum. -nuo, -nuere, -nui.

morsum. morior, mori or moriri, mor-

tuus

moveo, tum.

sum

(but moriturus).

movere,

mo-

movi,

obliviscor,

oblivisci,

oblitus

sum. obmutesco, obmutescere, obmutui.

mulceo, mulcere, mulsi, mul-

obsideo, see sedeo.

sum. mulgeo, mulgere, mulsi, mulsum.

obsolesco, obsolescere, obsolevi,

obsoletum.

obtineo, see teneo. obtingit,obtingere,obtigit.

nanciscor, nancisci, nactus or

nanctus sum.

occallesco, occallescere, occa-

nascor, nasci, natus sum.

neco,

necare,

neca^

rare) , necatum.

lui.

(necui

eneco (enico enec-

rare), enecare, enecui,

tum ( enicavi, enecatum rare) necto, nectere, nexui or nexi,

nexum.

Im-

pers.

occido, see cado. occido, see caedo. occino, see cano. occipio, see capio.

occulo, occulere, occului, occul-

tum.

•

Digitized

by Microsofi®

LIST OF VERBS

347)

129

6di, Def., (344).

pectd, pectere, pexi,

operio, operire, operui, oper-

pellieid, see -licid.

tutn.

pexum.

pelld, pellere, pepuli,

oportet,oportere,oportuit.

Im-

In

cpds.

reppuli

pers.

opperior, see -perio.

sum. sum. Fut.

ordior, ordiri, orsus

Present sys-

Part, oriturus.

tem, except

inf.,

(for repepuli)

but from

repelld.

opprimo, see premo. orior, oriri, ortus

pulsum.

-puli;

perf.

usually of

pended,pendere,pependi (cpds. -pendi), -pensum. pendd, pendere, pependi (cpds. -pendi), percelld,

pensum. percellere,

perculi,

perculsum.

third conjugation.

perficid, see facid.

paciscor, pacisci, pactus

sum.

So depeciscor or depaclscor. paenitet, paenitere, paenituit.

Impers.

orpansum. Soexpando; dispando or dispendo, dispesor dispansum.

peg^

Cpds.,

pactum.

rare),

-pingo,

compered or

parere, peperi,

partum

(but pariturus).

petior,

peri)

;

deponent,

experior,

sum; and

experiri, expertus

perquird, see quaerd. perspieid, see -spicid.

passus sum.

perpeti,

petessd or petissd, petessere. petd, petere, peti^, petitum.

Impers.

est.

pingd, pingere, pinxi, pictum.

pased, paseere, pavi, pastum. patior, pati,

reperid

piget, pigere, piguit or pigitum

compared, eompersi. parid,

and

pertined, see tened.

pared, parcere, peperci or par-

parsurus.

comperid

(but perf. repperi for repe-

-pingere,

-peg?, -pactum,

si,

-perid, -perire, -peri, -pertum.

so opperior.

pango, pangere, pepigi (panxi

and

pergd, see regd.

So

pando, pandere, pandi, passum

sum

perfringd, see frangd.

per-

perpessus

sum.

pinsd or pisd, pinsere, pinsui or

pisivi,

pistum or pinsi-

tum. plangd, plangere- planxi, planc-

tum.

paved, pavere, pavi. Digitized

by Microsoft®

VERBS

130

plaud5, plaudere, plausi, plau-

sum.

So applaudo, circum-

plaudo; but explode, explodere, explosi, explosum, and so supplodo.

plexum.

So deponent in cpds., -plec-pleo, -plere, -ple\ii, -pletum. plico, plicare, -plicavi or -pli-

-plicatum or -plicitum. pluere,

sum. Cpds., -primo, -primere, -pressi, -pressum. prodigo, see ago.

pluit

or pluvit.

Impers.

poUuo, polluere,

pollui,

proficiscor, proficisci, prof ectus

sum. profiteor, see fateor.

-plexus sum.

tor, -plecti,

pluit,

premo, premere, pressi, pres-

proficio, see facio.

plecto, plectere, plexi,

cui,

{347

poUu-

tum. pono, ponere, posui, positum. porricio, porricere, porrectum.

promo,

prdmpsi,

promere,

promptum. prosilio, see salio.

psallo, psallere, psalli.

pubesco, pubescere, pubui. pudet, pudere, puduit or pudi-

tum est. Impers. pungo, pungere, pupugi

(cpds.,

-punxi), punctum.

putesco, putescere, putui.

porrigo, see rego.

posed, poscere, poposcL

quaero,

possideo, see sedeo.

possum, posse, potior,

potiri,

potul.

sum.

potitus

inf.,

usually of third conjugation. poto, potare, potavi, potimi or

potatum.

quaesumus forms in quatio,

are

the

common

quatere,

only

use.

quassum.

-cussum. queo, quire, quivi, quitum.

praeside5, see sedeo.

prandere,

pransi,

pransum. prehendo, prehendere, prehendijprehensum; alsopren46, prendere, prendi, pren*

-quiro,

-quism, -quisitum. quaeso, quaesere. quaeso and

Cpds., -cutio, -cutere,-cussi,

praecino, see cano.

sum.

Cpds.,

-quirere,

Present system, except

prandeo,

quaesm,

quaerere,

quaesitum.

-,.

...

,,

Digitized

by

queror, queri, questus sum. quiesco, quiescere, quievi, qui-

etum.

rabo or rabid, rabere.

;

LIST OF VERBS

347) rapid,

rapere, raptii, rapttxm.

Cpds., -lipid, -ripere, -ripui,

In

-reptum.

Latin

early

surrupio (perf. .surrupuit or surpuit)

found

is

for

sur-

131

rddd, rddere, rdsi, rdsum.

rudd, rudere,

mdm.

rumpd, rumpere, rtipi, ruptum. rud, mere, rui, -rutum (but ruiturus).

ripi5.

saepid, saepire, saepsi, saep-

recido, see cado.

tum.

recido, see caedo. recipio, see capio.

salid, salire,salui. Cpds.,-silid,

recludo, see claud5.

-silire, -silui (-silivi late).

redigo, see ago.

salve, Def., (345).

redimo, see emd.

sancid,

refercio, see farcid.

sapid,

reficio, see facio.

regere,

sanxi,

sanc-

sapere, sapivi.

Cpds.,

-sipid, etc.

sarcid, sarcire, sarsi, sartum.

refrigesco, see frigesco.

rego,

sancire,

tum,

refello, see fallo.

rexi,

rectum.

scabd, scabere, scabi.

Cpds., -rigo, -rigere, -rexi,

scalpd, scalpere, scalpsi, scalp-

-rectum but pergo, pergere, perrexi, perrectum, and so surgd; rarely porgo for por-

scandd,

;

ttxm.

scandere.

Cpds.,

-scendd, -scendere, -scendi,

-scensum.

rig5.

remimscor, reminisci. reor, reri, ratus

seated

sum.

or

scatd,

scatere

or

scatere.

reperio, see -perio.

scindd,

repo, repere, repsi.

sum.

reprimo, see premo.

scindere,

scidi,

scis-

vbook.pub, scribere, scripsi, scrip-

tum.

require, see quaere.

resided, see seded.

sculpd, sculpere, sculpsi, sculp-

tum.

resilid, see salid.

resipiscd, resipiscere, resipivi.

seed, secare, secui, sectum.

respergd, see spargd.

seded, sedere, sedi, sessum.

retined, see tened. rided, ridere,

risi,

risum.

ringor, rin^, rictus

sum. Digitized

So circumseded,superseded but other cpds., -sided, -sidere, -sedi, -sessum. by Microsoft®

VERBS

132

status, statuere, statui, -statu-

seligo, see lego.

sen-

sensi,

sentire,

sentio,

sum. ptiltum.

serere,

sertum;

-serui,

satum; sow.

Cpds., -sero, -serere, -se^a, -situm.

-sti-

sidere,

-sedi),

sidi

sm,

(-sidi

or

situm.

solvi,

rare

-statum or

Most

cpds.

have

circumsteti, supersteti.

forms of third sonit,

stridere,

stridi;

also

tum. struS,

conjugation,

steti,

strings, stringer e, strinxi,stric-

solu-

sonare, sonui, sonaturus.

sonunt,

struere,

struxi,

struc-

tum. suadeS, suadere, suasi, sua-

sum. subigS, see agS.

etc.)

sorbeo, sorbere, sorbui (sorpsi

subolescS, see alescS. succidS, see cadoJ

rare).

spargo, spargere, sparsi, spar-

Cpds., -spergo, -sper-

gere, -spersi, -spersum.

spemo, spemere,

succidS, see caedS.

suesco, suescere, sueia, sue-

tum.

sprevi, spre-

tum.

sufficiS, see faciS.

sugS, sugere, sua, siictiun.

-spicio, -spicere, -spexi, -spec-

turn.

spondeo,

stare,

strido, stridere.

tum.

sum.

sto,

strides,

statum.

soleo, solere, solitus simi.

solvere,

-stinxi,

strepo, strepere, strepui.

sisto, sistere, stiti,

(Also

stinguere,

-stinctum.

perfect -stiti; but antisteti,

-sessum.

sino, sinere,

stravi, stra-

sterto, stertere, -stertui.

-stitum.

serpo, serpere, serpsl.

sotio,

-stituo,

stemo, sternere, tum.

stingu5,

entwine. sero, serere, se^i,

solvo,

Cpds.,

stemuo, stemuere, stemuL

sequor, sequi, secutus sum.

sido,

tum.

tuere, -stitui, -stitutum.

sepelio, sepelire, sepelivi, se-

sero,

i347

spondere,

(cpds., -spondi),

spopondi

sponsum.

spud, spuere, -spui, -spixtum. Digitized

sum, esse, fui, futiirus. siimS, sumere, siimpsi, sumptum. suS, suere, sui, siittun.

supplSdS, see plaudS. '

by Microsoft®

.

LIST OF VERBS

347) surgo, see rega.

133

traho, trahere, tram, tractum.

surripio, see rapid.

transigo, see ago.

tremo, tremere, tremui. taedet,

taesum

taedere,

est.

tribuo, tribuere, tribui, tribu-

tum.

Impers. tango, tangere, teti^, tactum. Cpds., -tigo,

-tigere,

-tigi,

trudo, trudere, trusi, trusum. tueor, tueri, tutus sum.

tundo,

-tactum. tego, tegere, texi,. tectum.

temno, temnere, -temptum.

tundere,

-tudi

(but

from retimdo), tu(-tusum or -tunsum)

rettudi

-tempsi,

sum

turgeo, turgere, tursl.

tends, tendere, tetendi (cpds. -tendi), late).

tendo

tentum (tensum But extends and oshave extensus and

ostensus (besides the regular forms) in classical Latin. teneo, tenere,

tenui.

Cpds.,

ulciscor, ulcisci, ultus

sum.

unguo, unguere, unxi, unctum. (Also ungo, ungere.) urgeo, urgere, ursi. uro, urere, ussi, iistum. utor, uti,

usus sum.

-tineo, -tinere, -tinui, -ten-

tum.

vado, vadere, -vasi, -vasum.

tergeo, tergere, tersi, tersum. (tergo, tergere rare.) tero, terere,

tri^/i,

vulsum. (Also

tritum.

texo, texere, texui, textum.

(Also tinguo, tinguere.)

'

tollere,

sustuli,

subla-

tondere,

-totondi,

-tondi

or

tonsum.

tono, tonare, tonui, -tonitum or -tonatum.

torqueo, torquere, torsi, torturn.

vends, see do. veneo, venire, venii. venio, venire, veni, ventum.

vergS, vergere.

turn.

tondeo,

vollo, vollere,

volli.)

tingo, tingere, tinxl, tinctum.

tollo,

veho, vehere, vexi, vectum. vello, vellere, velli (vulsi late),

verrS,

verrere,

-verri,

ver-

simi (early vorro, etc.) verts,

vertere, verti,

versum

(early vortS, etc.).

vescor, vesci. vesperascit, vesperascere, ves-

peravit. torre5, torrere, torrui, tostum. Digitized by Microsom>

Impers.

VERBS

134

^sum.

vols, velle, volui.

dnctum.

vincio, vincire, vinxi,

^sere,

volvo, volvere, volvi, volutum.

vomo, vomere, vomui, vomitum. voveo, vovere, voin, votum.

vinco, vincere, T^ci, victum. visb,

349

Tavo, vivere, Aaa, -victum.

veto, vetare, vetui, vetitum.

video, videre, vidi,

(34^,

visi.

PREPOSITIONS Originally case-forms alone served to

348.

way

show

in a general

those relations which later were expressed, by prepositidns in

combination with certain cases. Then various adverbs began to be used, to define more exactly the meaning of the case-form,

and a new part

Many

of these

was thus developed.

of speech, the preposition,

adverbs which came to be used as prepositions

continued to be used also as adverbs, either as independent words or, as prefixes, in combination with verbs: as, ante, cir-

cum, contra,

The

inter, per, post.

origin of

are case-forms in.

:

some prepositions

is

doubtful: as, ab, ad;

many

as ex, extra, infra, supra, circum, coram, ante,

(For the origin of adverbs see 195

£f.,

and

for the use of

adverbial or prepositional prefixes with verbs see 260.)

The use

of prepositions with case-forms

is

treated under the head of

Syntax.

CONJUNCTIONS The

some Conjunctions is doubtful, but most pronominal adverbs as the following, derived from the relative, interrogative, or indefinite pronoun: -que) quoque, quidem, quippe, cur (for quor), quam, cum (for quom), quando, quod, ubi (for quubi), quia; from other pronominal roots: sed, ceterum, enim, nempe, utrum, si, dum. The following are from noun or adjective stems: modo, venuil, vero. The following combinations contain the pronominal element: quamvis, quare, qupminus. The con349.

of

them

are

origin of clearly

:

—

—

—

junction vel

The Syntax.

is

the imperative of void.

classi%;ation

and use

of conjunctions are treated

Digitized

by Microsoft®

under the head of

INTERJECTIONS

J5o)

13S

INTERJECTIONS 350.

Some

Interjections are mere exclamations of surprise,

joy, grief, etc.: as, 6, id,

words:

by

as,

em

eheu; some are derived from other later superseded

(probably from eme, take)

en, the Greek \\v

—

,

—

ecce (from a pronominal stem), pro

and preposition); others are Greek words: as, euge, euhoe; others are oaths, containing the names of deities: as, (the adverb

hercle, pol.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

THIRD PART— SYNTAX Syntax

351.

treats, of the

combination

of

words

in

sentences.

A

352.

Sentence

sion of thought.

a complete statement or expresbe Simple, having only one

is

may

It

and predicate, or it may consist of two or more members, called Clauses, each having a subject and

"subject

predicate.

PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Clauses are either Principal

353.

A

ordinate (dependent).

Main

Clause.

The verb

the indicative, but

of

A

354. called

often called the is

most often

in

be in the subjunctive, imperative, or in indirect discourse and, sometimes, in

exclamations a principal verb

is

is

a Principal Clause

may

historical infinitive;

Subordinate Clause

(independent) or Sub-

Principal Clause

is

is

in the infinitive.

The verb

of a

in the indicative or subjunctive.

sentence consisting of two or more principal clauses

Compound;

principal clauses

a sentence consisting of

one or more

and one or more subordinate clauses

is

called

Complex. The subordinate clauses may be coordinate with one another or one may be subordinate to another.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 355. said.

The Subject The Predicate

that about which something is is that which is said about the

is

Subject. 356.

The Subject

used as a noun.

is

a

noun

Digitized

or pronoun, or anything else by Microsoft® 136

PHRASE

357-3'^l)

The Subject may be an

infinitive or a clause:

praeclarum est scire Latine,

it is

placuit ei ut legates mitteret,

B. G.

The

I,

34,

137

it

seemed

best to

him

to

send envoys;

I.

infinitive subject is especially

verbs: as, peccare licet 357.

—

a fine thing to know Latin; Brut. 140.

nemim, no one

common

with impersonal

is at liberty to sin;

Par. 20.

As the subject may be expressed by the personal end-

may

ing of the verb, a sentence

consist of a single word:

as,'

venit, he aame.

358.

may be

The Predicate

a

is

finite

sum

a form of the verb

verb or an infinitive;

(or a verb of similar

or, it

meaning)

with a predicate noun or adjective defining or describing the subject: as, Caesar imperator erat, Caesar was commander; fortissimi sunt Belgae, the Belgians are the bravest.

359. copula.

The verb sum, when used Other verbs are so used

in this

way, is called a with predicate

in the passive

nouns and adjectives; these are fio, become, videor, seem, and to name, choose, regard, etc.

verbs meaning

:

—

hi consules facti sunt, these became consuls; Cat.

amicus appellatus 360.

erat, he

5, 13,

often omitted: as,

founded; Liv.

10,

called

M.

14.

a friend; B. G.

i, 3, 4.

it may be easily haec hactenus (sc. dixi), so much But forms of the auxiliary verb sum are 2. coloniae deductae (sc. sunt), colonies were

The Predicate

is

rarely omitted unless

supplied from the context: for that; Att.

had been

i,

as,

i.

PHRASE 361.

A

Phrase

is

a group of two or

more words connected

in

sense and not containing a finite verb (i.e. any form of the indicative, subjunctive, or imperative) as, cottidianis proellis, in :

daily battles;

ab extremis Galliae finibus, from the very borders

decertare, to contend in Gaul;' proelio of ' ^ Digitized by Microsoft®

battle.

— CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

138

{362-36$

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 362. follows:

Sentences are classified according to their meaning as

—

Declarative: postero die castra movent, on the next day they move their camp;

E.G.

I, IS, I.

Interrogative: quis est

me

mitior?

who

than I?

is gentler

Cat. 4, 11.

Imperative or Hortatory: consuUte vobis, take counsel for yourselves; Cat.

hos latTones interficiamus,

let

us

4, 3.

kill these robbers;

B. G.

7, 38, 8.

Exclamatory: utinam copias eduxisset! would

that he

aerumnas incidisse! misery! Fam. 14, i, i.

te in tantas

to

had led out his forces! Cat. 2,4. think that you fell into such

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES 363.

may

Interrogative Sentences are of various forms.

They

pugnare? do you want to fight? Pl.Rud. ion. The lack of an interrogative word is rather common if the question contains the negative non: as, patere tua consilia non sentis? you don't see that your schemes are known? Cat. 1,1. It is often doubtful whether contain no interrogative word:

as, vis

such sentences are interrogative, exclamatory, or declarative.

—

Or, they

may

364.

by an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb

(a)

be introduced as follows:

quid agis? what are you doing? Cat.

:

i, 27.

quali fide existimatis eos esse? wliat sort of honcrr do you think they

have? Font. 31. cur loquimur?

365.

(b)

usually the

why do we speak? Cat.

by the first in

iucunda? can

enclitic

2, 17.

-ne attached to the emphatic word,

the sentence: as, potestne tibi haec lux esse

this light of

day he pleasant

to

you? Cat.

i,

15.

Sentences thus intro(|}i^g^(y^j5/cfego^n-committal as to the

— ANSWERS

366-371)

139

expected answer; or they may expect an aflSrmative answer; or, less often, a negative answer. The enclitic -ne is sometimes attached to other interrogative words: as, utnimne, whether.

sometimes loses

It

its

vowel:

as,

for itane; viden, for

itan,

Tidesne. 366.

(c)

by

an affirmative answer:

n.5nne, expecting

nonne meministi? don't you remember? Fin. 2, 10. nonne hunc in vincla duci imperabis? won't you order him

—

to be

put

into prison? Cat. i, 27.

367.

(d)

num num 368.

by num, expecting a negative answer:

baxbardrum Romulus rex barians? Rep. I, 58. infitiari

(e)

pbtes? can you deny? Cat.

by an;

this is especially

—

was Romidus a king of bar-

fuit?

i, 7.

common

in

argumentative

language, introducing questions which are purely rhetorical

and often exclamatory:

as,

an vero P. Scipio

Ti.

Gracchum

privatus interfecit? did Publius Scipio, a private citizen, really

cause the death of Tiberius Gracchus? Cat. 369.

(f)

by ecquis

i, 3.

ecqui)

(adjective,

and,

by

rarely,

ecquando: ecquis hie est? is anyone here?

ecqui

PL Am.

metus? have you any fear?

1020.

Verr. 4, 18.

ecquando his de rebus tales viros audituros existimasli? did you think that such

men would ever hear

about these things? Verr.

2,

43.

ANSWERS 370.

The answer

of the question:

potest? can ita,

it

he

as,

yes

is

expressed

valetne?

is

by

repetition of the verb

he well? valet, he is; fienne

done? potest, yes ; or by an adverb, etiam,'

—

sane, sic, vero, etc. numquid -nsf is there anything you want? etiam, ilia maneat? is she to remain? sic, yes; Ter. Ph.

371.

:

The answer no

is

expressed

by

yes; PI.

Am.

S44-

813.

repetition of the verb

of the question with ^;gggg^jgji^/§^j^suniusne esse tufi? can

— CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

I40

we

non possumus,

be safe?

non, minime,

etc.

:

—

{372-376

by an adverb,

no; Phil. 12, 27; or

venitne? has he come? non, no; PI. Ps. 1067.

an haec contemnitis? do you despise means;

De

Or.

these things?

minime, by no

295.

2,

ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS In Alternative Questions the

372.

member

first

intro-

is

duced by utrum or -ne, or, especially in early Latin, has no introductory word; the second member is introduced by an: utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est? Acad.

2,

is

this

your fault or ours?

95.

servosne es an liber? are you a slave or free?

PI.

Am.

343.

Tacitus es an Plinius? are you Tacitus or Pliny? Plin. Ep.

If the second

373. it

consists simply of

questions), necne:

—

pater eius rediit an

member an non

is

9, 23, 3.

a mere negation of the

or, rarely

non? has his father

first,

(but often in indirect

returned or not? Ter. Ph. 147.

sunt haec tua verba necne? are these your words or not? Tusc.

374. the two

Rarely an introductory utrum precedes an alternative question, members being introduced by -ne and an: as, utrimi censes ilium

tuamne de se orationem that he

libentius

auditurum fuisse an

meam?

do you think

would have heard your speech about himself with greater pleasure or

mine? Fin.

375. as,

3, 41.

2,

60.

The two members

are sometimes introduced

by -ne

.

.

.

-ne:

versans Siculisne resideret arns Italasne capesseret oras, deliberating

whether he should shores; Aen.

376.

member

5,

The

settle

in the Sicilian fields or

particle -ne is

way

to the Italian

iussi

—

persequemur otium an hunc laborem?

give myself to leisure or undergo this toil?

cum

his

sometimes attached to utrum in the

or to an in the second:

utrumne

make

702.

three are few or

BtsH^e^iot^^i^p^gft®

shall I obediently

Hor. Epod.

interrogetur tria pauca sint anne multa, since

it

first

is

i,

7.

asked whether

APPOSITIVES

377-3^l)

A

377.

member among For

the noblest citizens?

is

sometimes introduced by utrum, the second

utrum

as,

is,

in clarissimis est civibus is? is he

Flacc, 45.

single questions introduced

378. tion

single question

being suppressed:

141

by an

see 368.

Single questions sometimes contain alternative details; the ques-

not which thing

fore, are

particles:

is true,

but whether either

These, there-

is true.

not alternative questions and do not contain the alternative

—

quaero

num

id iniuste aut

improbe

fecerit,

/ ask whether he did

this either

unjustly or dishonestly; Off. 3, 54. num Homerum, num Hesiodum coegit obmutescere senectus? did old

age compel either Homer orHesiod

379. all

An

but the

alternative question

first

«n fortunam

may

to

become silent? Cat.

M.

23,

contain more than two members;

are regularly introduced

by an

:

as,

utrum hostem an vos

utriusque populi ignoratis? are you ignorant of the enemy or

of yourselves or of the fortunes of the two peoples? Liv. 21, 10, 6.

Syntax of the Parts of Speech

SYNTAX OF NOUNS APPOSITIVES 380. A noun meaning the same person or "thing as another noun or pronoun and used in combination with it, usually for the purpose of identification or description, is called an Appositive and is said to be in Apposition. 381.

An Appositive agrees with its noun

case and,

if

possible, also in

or pronoun in

number and gender:

—

P. Scipio, pontifez maximus, Publius Scipio, pontifex maximus; Cat.

lo^

I, 3.

Statorl, antiquissimo custodi

huius urbis,

to

Jupiter Stator, the

most ancient guardian of this city; Cat. i, 11. Themistocles veni ad te, /, Themistocles, have come

Them. historia,

to

you; Nep.

9.

magistra vitae, history, the teacher of life; De Or. 2, 36. illas omnium doctrinarum inventrices, Athenas, to say

ut omittam

nothing of Athgigit^0WffSKiBffi ^^ leairning;

De Or.

i, 13.

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

142

An

382.

aedem

may

Appositive

denote time or cause or other ideas

by subordinate

usually denoted

{382-386

clauses:

—

Salutis dictator dedicavit, he dedicated the temple of Safety

when he was

dictator;

Liv. 10,

i, g.

fortuna praemia vobis ea victoiibus proponit, Fortune ofers you these

rewards if you conquer; Liv. 21, 43,

An

383.

Appositive usually follows

5.

its

noun, but

may

pre-

cede: as, gravissimus auctor Cato, Cato, an authority of the great-

Tusc.

est weight;

A

384.

(See also 381, example from

4, 3.

noun

pronoun

or

is

De Or. i, 13.)

sometimes accompanied by an

appositive which denotes only a part of the whole denoted

the noun or pronoun. Especially alius

—

common

alius,

and

This

called

is

Partitive

by

Apposition.

in this construction are quisque, uterque,"

alter

— alter: —

quos Poenus in civitates quemque suas dimisit, ginian sent away, each

to his

own

whom

the Cartha-

state; Liv. 21, 48, 2.

decemviri alius in aliam partem castrorum discurrunt, the decemvirs hurried one

to

one part of the camp, another

to

another; Liv. 3,

SO, 12.

In poetry and late prose the accusative

386.

apposition with a clause:

—

is

sometimes used in

iaculum emittit in auras, principium pugnae, he hurled his javelin the air, the beginning of the fight; Aen. 9, 53.

into

deserunt tribunal manus intentantes, causam discordiae, they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists,

386.

A

noun

in apposition

a cause of dissension; Tac. Ann.

with a locative

is

i,

27.

put in the abla-

tive with or without the preposition in (see 612).

The

preposition

denoting place

to

Tarquinios, in city;

is

regularly used with appositives of nouns

which or from which:

—

urbem

Tarquinii, a very prosperous

Rep.

fldrentissimam,

to

2, 34.

Tusoulo, ex clarissimo- miinicipid, from Tuscuhim, a very famous

town; Font,

/[digitized

by Microsoft®

PREDICATE NOUNS

3^7-390) 387. tive:

—

An

Infinitive or a Clause

may

143

be used as an apposi-

hoc admiratus sum, mentidnem te hereditatiun ausum esse facere, / wondered at this, that you dared to mention inheritances; Phil. 2, 42.

Caesar senatus in

eum beneficia commemoravit, quod rex appellatus

esset, Caesar mentioned the kindness of the senate toward him,

had been

the fact that he

called king;

B. G.

i,

43, 4.

id agunt, ut viri boni esse videantur, they strive for this, that they

may seem 388.

A verb

good men; Off.

to be

i,

41.

sometimes agrees, not with

its subject,

but with

an appositive of the subject; this is the regular construction if the appositive is urbs, oppidum, or civitas, and is common with cases of partitive apposition:

—

Corinthum, totius Graeciae lumen, ezstinctum esse voluerunt, they wanted Corinth,

the light of all Greece, to be extinguished;

Manil.

11.

Corioli oppidum captum, Corioli-town was taken; Liv. 2, 7,^, duae res mazimae, altera alter! defuit, the two most important

were lacking, one

to

one of them, the other

9.

things

Brut. 204.

to the other;

PREDICATE NOUNS 389.

in

A

Noun

Predicate

agrees in case and,

number and gender with the noun which

describes

:

stilus

—

optimus dicendi magister

eloquence;

nta

De

Or.

i,

(est), the

pen

Rose.

Am.

it

possible,

defines or

is the best teacher

of

150.

rustica parsimoniae magistra est, country thrift;

if

life is the

teacher of

75.

consules creantur Caesar et Servilius, Caesar and Servilius are elected consuls;

B. C.

3, i, i.

For the use of the Predicate Nominative see 358, 359. 390.

A

predicate

noun

(or

adjective)

with an infinitive

(except the historical^gi^d^g^n^kme^ary infinitives)

is

regu-

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

144

larly in the accusative,

subject or not:

non

—

whether the

est amici talem esse,

it

is

i.391-393

infinitive

has an expressed

not the part of a friend to act so;

Lael. sp. si

vos voltis perhiberi probos, if you want

he held in honor;

to

Ter. Ad. 504.

hoc est patrem esse?

But very sative

is

is this being

and almost always

rarely,

a father? Ter. Ad. 707.

uxor

invicti lovis esse nescis,

unconquered Jove; Hor. C. ait fuisse

when

in poetry,

omitted, the predicate nominative

is

used:

you don't know

the subject accu-

—

that

you are

the wife of

3, 27, 73.

navium celerrimus, it says it was

the swiftest of boats;

CatuU.

4, 2.

For the use of a predicate noun or adjective with a complementary infinitive see 951.

391. With impersonal verbs which take a subject infinitive and a dative of the person, if the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predicate noun or adjective may be in the dative:

—

licuit

esse otioso Themistocli, Themistocles might have been lazy;

Tusc.

I,

33.

vobis necesse est fortibus viris esse, brave

men; Liv.

it is

necessary for you to be

21, 44, 8.

nostrapte culpa facimus ut malis expediat esse, by our

we make 392.

A

it

profitable to be bad;

predicate noun in the accusative

is

:

—

Hamilcarem imperatorem Nep. Hamil.

me augurem ducem 393.

fault

often used in

connection with the direct object of verbs meaning choose, call, etc.

own

Ter. Ph. 766.

fecerunt, they

make,

to

made Hamilcar

general;

2.

nominaverunt, they named

me augur;

Phil. 2, 4.

se praebuit, he ofered himself as leader; Vat. 33.

With the phrase nomen

esse, the name, which would

naturally be in the predicate nominative or accusative,

put in th| dative: as, Faustulo fuisse his name was FaustuliBi^itizid'^y m^i^fof®

nomen

is

often

ferunt, they say

— CASES OF NOUNS

394~39^) 394.

A

predicate noun

is

145

rarely used in the ablative: as, Dolabella

hoste decreto, Dolabella having been voted an enemy; Phil. 11, 16.

An

395.

infinitive or a clause

may

be used as a predicate

noun: vivere est cogitare, to

live is to think;

altera est res ut res geras deeds; OS.,

A

396.

Tusc.

:

5,

non omnis

iii. great

dicitiir

agmen,

its

subject, but with

Trojan band;

the boys are called the

602. error stultitia dicenda est, not every mistake is to be

called folly;

Div.

2, 89.

contentum suis rebus esse mazimae sunt dmtiae, one's

you do

66.

—

Troianum

Aen.

s,

the other thing is that

verb sometimes agrees, not with

a predicate noun pueri

i,

magnas,

own

content with

to be

possessions is the greatest wealth; Par. 51.

The predicate uses of

the genitive, dative, and ablative are treated under

the Cases.

CASES OF NOUNS

The

principles here stated apply not only to nouns but also

to all other declined substantives,

adjectives

397.

and

—

i.e.

to pronouns,

NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE CASES The nominative is used as the subject of

verb and of the historical infinitive (see 963) Caesar

ita respondit,

Caesar replied as follows; B. G.

—

:

i,

Appius ius dicere, Appius pronounced judgment; Liv.

398.

and to

participles used as nouns.

a

finite

14, i.

2, 27, i.

The nominative is used also as the case of adwhen used in this way, is called the Vocative.

dress, and,

Stems in -o of the second declension are the only ones which have a special form for the vocative :

quo usque tandem abutere,

—

Catilina, patientia nostra ?

tell

how long will you abuse our patience? Cat. 1,1. res omnis mihi tecum erit, Hortensi, all my attention will

us, Cati-

line,

you, Hortensius; Verr. Digitized

a. pr. 33.

by Microsoft®

he given to

— SYNTAX OF NOUNS

146

But the nominative

of o-stems is

{399-403

sometimes used as a case

of address: as, audi tu, populus Albanus, hear, ye people of Alba;

Liv.

So, also,

I, 24, 7.

an adjective

in

agreement with a voca-

tive or an appositive of a vocative: as, nate,

my

solus,

son, thou alone

my

great power;

mea magna potentia

Aen.

The nominative is sometimes used by an interjection:

399.

O O

festus dies!

in exclamations,

—

usually accompanied

664.

i,

joyful day I Ter. Eun. 560.

frustra suscepti labores

nature! Hor. C. 3,

5,

In these cases the nominative

in vain endured! Mil. 94.

toils

!

pro curia inversique mores

alas, the senate-house

I

and our

perverted

7.

may be

regarded as the subject of a verb

to be supplied.

GENITIVE CASE 400.

The Genitive

is

used with substantives, adjecrarely, with adverbs.

and verbs, and, very

tives,

Genitive with Substantives and Adjectives Possessive Genitive

401. The Possessive Genitive is used to denote not only actual ownership but also origin, cause, place, etc. :

potentia Pompei, Pompey's power; Sail. Cat. 19.

clamor oppidanorum, the shouts of the townsmen; Liv. Canachi signa, statues by Canachus; Brut. 70.

bellum Venetorum,

the

Trasumenni pugna,

the battle of

402.

When

war with

the Veneti;

B. G.

—

Caesaris adventus, the arrival of Caesar; B. G.

The

3, 16, i.

Trasumennus; Liv.

by the noun on which

called a Subjective Genitive:

403.

33, 8.

23, 43, 4.

the Possessive Genitive denotes the person

does* the act indicated

reliquias

2,

Danaimi,

the

remains

left

possessive adjective

it

depends,

6, 41, 4.

by the Greeks; Aen.

is

who it is

i,

30.

regularly used instead of

the posseSsive genitive of a personal or reflexive pronoun (for Digitized

by Microsoft®

GENITIVE CASE

404-408)

exceptions see 623); if there the implied genitive:

—

is

a qualifying word

ad vestram omnium caedem, for

tuum studium

147

the

it

agrees with

murder of all of you; Cat. 4, when you were young; Fam.

adulescentis, your zeal

4.

15,

13, I-

tuam 404.

ipsius amicitiam, your

The

possessive idea

own

friendship; Verr. 3,

by an

often expressed

is

always used instead of the genitive of alius:

—

adjective; alienus

servBi tumultu, in the insurrection of the slaves; B. G. aliena virtQs, another's courage; Sail. Cat.

7.

i,

is

40, j.

7, 2.

405. The repetition of a noun governing two possessive genitives where the English uses "that " is regularly avoided: as,

quis est qui possit conferre vltaxa. Treboni

who

is there

who could compare

Dolahella? Phil. 11,

406.

the life of

cum DolabeUae?

Trebonius with that of

9.

For the sake

of brevity the possessor

is

sometimes put in

place of the thing possessed: as, videtisne captivorum dratidnem

cum

perfugis convenire ? do you see that the talk of the captives agrees with that of the deserters?

407. depends

B. C.

In a few is

2,

39, 2.

common

phrases the noim on which the genitive

sometimes omitted:

—

Hectoris Andromache, Hector's wife, Andromache; Aen. 3, 319. Hasdrubal Hamilcaris, Easdrubal, son of Hamilcar; Liv. 26, 17,

4.

Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus, the slaw of Claudius; Ter. Ph. Didasc. ventum erat ad Vestae, we had come to the temple of Vesta; Hor.

S. i,

9. 35-

408.

with

The

sum

Possessive Genitive

or facio

:

—

is

often used in the predicate

omnia hostium erant, all things belonged to the enemy; Liv. 6, 40, 17. neque Galliam potius esse Ariovisti quam populi Romani, and that Gaul did not belong to Ariovislus more than to the Roman people; B. G.

oram Romanae rule; Liv.

i,

45,

i.

dicionis fecit, he brought the coast Under

2b^6^^e§-/,yM/croso«®

Roman

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

148 This construction the verb

is

common when

especially

is

was

a fool

the part of

est consulis videre quid agatur,

the subject of

—

an infinitive or a clause:

stulti erat sperare, it

{4OQ-412

it is

to

hope

; Phil.

2,

the consul's duty to see

23.

what

is

Mur. 4. negavit moris esse Graecorum ut in convivio Tirorum accumberent mulieres, he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to recline at a man's dinner; Verr. i, 66. being done ;

409. The genitive with causa, and postridie is of possessive origin:

gratia,

—

ergo, tenus, instar, pridie,

amicitiae causa, by reason of their friendship; B. G.

Aen.

ergo, on his account;

illius

i,

laterum tenus, as far as the sides; Aen. 10, 210. instar montis equum, a horse like a mountain; Aen. pridie eius diei,

410. their

on

the

day

39,

2.

6, 670.

B. G.

before this day;

i,

2, 15.

47,

2.

Certain adjectives meaning similarity or connection and

opposites sometimes

take the Possessive Genitive;

so,

similis, dissimilis, contrarius, par, dispar, proprius, alienus, etc.

In this construction the adjective

is

treated as a noun.

Genitive of Definition

411.

The Genitive

is

sometimes used to define a word

of general meaning; this

Genitive

:

Troiae

urbem

(the regular phrase

of Troy; Aen.

i,

haec vox voluptatis,

nuUam

virtus aliam

would be Troiam urbem),

this

word "pleasure"; Fin.

mercedem no

reward beyond

other

this

one of praise

glory; Arch. 28.

The Genitive denoting

stantives, adjectives,

eorum una quis

2, 6.

desiderat praeter banc laudis et

Whole

Genitive of the

412.

the city

565.

gloriae, virtiie desires

and

called also the Appositional

is

—

the whole is

used with sub-

and adverbs which denote a part:

pars, one pari of them; B. G.

omnium mortalium? who

of all

i, 1, 5.

men?

Verr.

5,

And. 398sapientum octavusc^ygig^jfft,^/%^j5jij|g men; Hor. aliquid boni, something good; Ter.

179. '-"''^

S. 2, 3, 296.

—

— GENITIVE CASE

413-417) 6 maior iuvenum,

primos

O dder of the youths;

civitatis, the first

men

parum, enough

dom; Sail. Cat. s, 4. ubinam gentium sumus? where in

413.

The

to that pitch of

Genitive of the

descriptive adjective:

—

Hor. A. P. 366.

of the state; B. G. 2, 3,

satis eloquentiae, sapientiae

eo miseriarum,

149

Whole

the world are

we? Cat.

little

i, 9.

rarely used with the positive of a

is

8.

Adjectives of the third declension are rarely found in this con-

struction unless used in combination with an adjective of the

second declensions: tion;

N. D.

I,

as, nihil solidi, nihil

first

and

eminentis, no solidity, no projec-

75.

This construction is found sometimes in the predicate

415.

quid est tui consili? what is your advice? Fam. 11, quid est huic reliqui? what is

left for

him?

conquered; Sail. Cat.. 11,

Uterque, each (of two),

416.

:

i, 3.

Sull; 89.

mllites nihil reliqui viclis fecere, the soldiers

or,

wis-

misery; Sail. Jug. 14, 3.

peditum ezpediti, the light-armed infantry; Liv. 37, 18, sancte dedium, thou holy one of the gods; Aen. 4, 576.

414.

i.

eloquence, too

left

nothing to the

7.

both,

when used with

a pronoun,

sometimes, with a noun and a pronoun combined, takes the

genitive; with a

agreement:

—

noun

it

is

regularly used as an adjective in

uterque nostrum, each one of us;

quaium civitatum utraque,

Sull. 13.

each of these states; Verr.

uterque dux, each commander; Marc.

The

plural

is

s, 56.

24.

used either with the genitive or in agreement.

In certain phrases where the English uses of, an is uSed instead of the Genitive of the Whole; the most common adjectives thus used are extremus, imus, medius, multus, nullus, omnis, plerique, quot, reliquus, 417.

adjective in agreement

summus,

tot, totus,

and ultimas

extrema hieme, media aestate, of summer; Manil. 35. hi

omnes,

all

of

:

—

at the end of winter, in the middle

thef$iy^^^i„y^ft^

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

150

With cardinal numerals (except

418.

dam, a

mille)

certain one, the ablative with e, ex, or

used instead of the genitive unus ex

genitive

An

419.

—

and with qtude is regularly

Cat. 3, 16.

nostris, one of our colleagues;

Fam.

11, 21, 5.

sometimes used with unus and quidam.

is

extension of the Genitive of the

sages as the following:

—

angusta viarum, the narrow in

:

isGs, the only one of these;

quidam de coUegis

The

(418-421.

aequo campi, on

streets;

Aen.

Whole

j,

is

found in such

pas-'

332.

the level plain; Liv. s, 38, 4.

Genitive of Material

The Genitive

used to denote material. a development of the Genitive, of the Whole

420. is

is

:

flumen verborum, a stream of words; Or. 53. obtorti circulus auri, a chain of twisted gold; Aen.

5,

—

This

559.

Genitive of Quality

421.

The Genitive

quality,

but only when

is

sometimes used to denote a accompanied by a qualifying

it is

word. There

is

often no distinction between the genitive and abla-

but the genitive regularly denotes a quality permanent and usually one that is internal rather than

tive in this sense,

which

is

external

:

—

homines magnae virtiitis, men of great courage; B. G. 2, 15, 5. eius modi consilium, a plan of this sort; B. G. s, 29, 5. plurimarum palmarum gladiator, a gladiator of many victories; Rose.

This genitive

Am. is

magnae habitus .3. G.

17.

sometimes used

in the predicate

auctoritatis, regarded as a

man

:

—

of great influence i

7, 77, 3.

notus animi ^Atevafji^iegmiffilJlihiStl^nal spirit; Hor. C.

2, 2, 6.

GENITIVE CASE

422-425) 422.

The Genitive

of Quality

nection with a proper name;

noun

151

rarely used in direct con-

is

usually attached to a

it is

in apposition with the proper

—

name:

man

Cato, adulescens nullius consili, Cato, a young

Q. Fr.

common

of no judgment;

I, 2, 15.

Hannibalem, annorum novem, Hannibal, when nine years Liv. 21,

423. it is

When the Genitive of Quality denotes length, height, etc.,

sometimes called the Genitive of Measure:

pedum,

in altitudinem

424.

old;

I, 4.

One form

as,

of the Geniti-ve of Quality

scrobes trium

B. G.

trenches three feet deep;

7, 73, 5.

the use of certain

is

substantives and, more frequently, adjectives, to denote indefinite value:

non

—

flocci facio,

I don't care a straw; hit. 13, 50, 3. homo sit; parvi eaim pretrest qui tarn

noli spectare quanti

est, don't consider

value

who

The

genitive

how much

is so worthless;

man

the

Q. Fr.

nihil!

worth, for he is of small

is

14.

i, 2,

Objective Genitive is used to denote the object of an action implied in a noun, an adjective, or a participle

425.

used as an adjective:

—

cupido gloriae, desire for glory;

odium potentiae Jug.

Sail.

Cat.

nobilitatis, hatred of the

7, 3.

power of the nobility;

Sail.

30, 3.

Helvetiorum

iniiiriae populi

tians to the

Roman

Romani,

people; B. G.

the i,

wrongs done by 30.

the Helve-

(Helvetiorum

is

sub-

jective, populi is objective.)

cupidum rerum novarum,

memorem Cat.

vestri,

desirous of a revolution; B. G.

oblitum

sui,

4, 19.

tempestatum potentem, ruling amantissimos Cat.

i, 18, 3.

mindful of you, forgetful of himself;

rei

the storms;

publicae viros,

Aen.

msn most

i,

80.

devoted to the state;

3, s.

Dignus, worthy, and indignus, unworthy, are rarely used with the genitive;

see 687.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

—

1

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

152 426. ity,

With a present

{426-43

participle the genitive denotes

a permanent qual-

the accusative a particular instance.

427.

In place of the Objective Genitive we sometimes find a possessive

—

a descriptive adjective, or a prepositional phrase: neque neglegehtia tua neque odio id fecit tud, he did this

adjective,

neglect

metus odium

neither

from

nor hatred of you; Ter. Ph. 1016.

enemy; Sail. Jug. 41, 2. Antonium, hatred of Antony; Fam. 10, 5, 3. (Cf. ereptae Tirginis ira, in wrath at the loss of the maiden; Aen. 2, 413.) hostilis, /eor of the

in

Genitive of Specification

428.

The Genitive

used with a few adjectives to denote that with reference

nouns and many to which a quality This construction

and

is

particularly

of Specification

is

exists.

is

an extension of the Objective Genitive

common

in

the poets and later prose-

writers: praestantiam

rerum,

fessi

virtutis,

preeminence in virtue; Lael. 70.

tired of trouble;

Aen.

i,

178.

integer vitae scelerisque purus, upright in

Hor. C.

I,

linguae feroces, bold of tongue; Tac. H.

429.

life

and free from

guilt;

22, I. i,

35.

Either the genitive or the ablative

is

used with adjec-

tives denoting plenty or want; as, plenus, dives, onustus, refertus, ezpers, inanis,

430.

and inops.

Animi, in mind (really a locative), and, by analogy, the genitive

mentis are used with adjectives and verbs which express mental condition:

—

animi maturus, mature in mind; Aen.

g, 246.

sanus mentis aut animi, sound in mind or heart; Plaut. Trin. 454. AntiphO me ezcniciat animi, Antipho distresses my heart; Ter. Ph. 187.

Genitive with Verbs Genitive of Charge or Penalty

431. Verbs meaning to accuse, condemn, or acquit take a genitive of the charge and, sometimes, a genitive of the penalty: Digitized by Microsoft®

—

— GENITIVE CASE

432-434)

accflsatus est proditionis, he

was accused

153 of treason;

Nep. Milt.

7, S-

pecuniae publicae est condemnatus, he was condemned for embezzle-

ment of

the public

funds; Flacc. 43.

video non te absolutum esse improbitatis, sed

illos damnatos esse you were acquitted of outage, bid that they were condemned for murder; Veir. i, 72. ut damnarentur votorum, that they be condemned to pay their vows;

caedis,

/

see not that

Liv. 27, 45, 8. capitis

condemnari,

to be

condemned

to death;

Rabir. 12.

This use probably originated in the combination ofcrlmine, or a similar word, with the genitive.

The charge is sometimes expressed by de with the by an ablative like crimine with the genitive. The

432.

ablative, or

Genitive of the Penalty

and multiples

quanti, is

is

confined in prose to capitis, pecuniae,

like dupli.

Of other words the ablative

used.

433. The Genitive noun reus:

Charge or Penalty

of the

is

used also with the

pecuniarum repetundarum reus, charged with extortion; condemned to pay his vow; Aea. 5, 237.

Sail.

Cat. 18,

3.

voti reus,

Genitive with refert and Interest

434.

With

the impersonal verbs refert and interest, the

person or thing affected, is

if

of the third person

expressed by the genitive;

of the third person reflexive, of the possessive adjective,

Refert

is

if

and not

reflexive,

of the first or second person or

by the ablative

singular feminine

— mea, tua, nostra, vestra,

or sua.

characteristic of early Latin, interest of later Latin,

beginning with Cicero.

The

degree of interest

the genitive of value or by an adverb:

—

is

expressed by

quid tua id refert? magni, what difference does that make to youf

much; Ter. Ph. 723. faciundum aliquid quod illorum magis quam sua retulisse videretur, something must be done which should seem more for their good than his own;

/S^zfogy W*rofeoft®

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

154 video quid

my The verb

mea

intersit,

(435^43^

quid utriusque nostrum, I see what

Fam.

advantage, what for the advantage of us both;

is

sometimes omitted:

quid id nostra? what's that

as,

is

for

7, 23, 4.

to

us?

Ter. Ph. 940.

435.

The person

—

accusative:

is

rarely expressed

by the dative

by ad with the

or

quid ref erat intra naturae finis viventi ? what difference does

it

bounds of nature? Hor. S. 1, i, 49. aut ad meam rem ref ert ? what difference does

it

make

to

one

living within the

quid ad or to

me my interests?

Genitive with Verbs of Plenty or

Want

The genitive is sometimes used with verbs, as with adjectives, meaning plenty or want:

436. it is

make to me

PI. Pers. 513-

—

implentur Bacchi, they Jill themselves with wine; Aen.

egeo

consili,

I need

Att. 7, 22,

advice;

For the ablative with these verbs 437. struction,

With verbs meaning but the genitive

me laborum levas,

is

you

i,

215.

2.

see 528.

separation, the ablative is the regular con-

sometimes found in poetry:

relieve

me

of

my

troubles; PI.

desine querellarum, cease your complaints; Hor. C.

—

Rud.

247.

2, 9, 17.

abstlneto irarum, refrain from anger; Hor. C. 3, 27, 69.

Objective Genitive with Verbs of Mental Action or Sensation

Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, or Reminding

Memini and reminiscor, when they mean to be mindful of (also memini meaning to mention) and obliviscor, when it means to be unmindful of, take the genitive nee me meminisse pigebit Elissae, / shall not regret the thought of 438.

:

—

Elissa; Aen. 4, ZZS-

reminisceretur virtutis Helvetiorum, of the Helvetians;. B. G.

i,

let

him

Achillam, ciiius supra meminimus, Achilles,

B.C.

3,

bear in

mind

the courage

13, 4.

whom I mentioned above;

108,2.

obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum, dismiss the thought of

and

fires;

CaXDig/tbed by Microsoft®

murder

GENITIVE CASE

439-442)

1^5

The genitive is used also with the impersonal expression venit mentem as, venit mihi Platonis in mentem, the thought of Plato comes :

my

mind; Fin.

remember,

means

to

5, 2.

Memini and

439. to

in

reminiscor,

to retain

when they mean

in the mind, and oblmscor,

literally to forget,

take the accusative:

Cinnam memini, / remember Cinna;

literally

—

when

it

Phil, s, 17.

reminiscens pristini temporis acerbitatem, remembering the bitterness of the past; Nep. Ale. 6, 3.

totam causam oblitus

The

440.

distinction

est, he forgot the

whole case; Brut. 217.

which has been given

is

observed, especially in the case of reminiscor, which

and usually takes the accusative.

tively rare

only the genitive of a person.

not always is

compara-

Obliviscor takes

Neuter pronouns and adjectives

are regularly in the accusative.

441.

Recordor, remember, takes de and the ablative of a

person; of a thing either de and the ablative, the accusative,

very rarely in classical Latin, the genitive: as, flagitidrum sudrum recordabitur, he will remember his crimes; Pison. 12. or,

442.

the thing or, if it is

by

reminding, — adtnoneo, commoneo, and — take the accusative the person reminded;

The verbs

commonefacio, is

of

of

expressed by the genitive, by de with the ablative,

a neuter pronoun and sometimes even if it is a noun, same constructions occur with moneo,

the' accusative; the

—

except that the genitive is very rare: admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae, he reminded one of his poverty, another of his greed; Sail. Cat. 21, 4.

mearum me miseriarum commones, yoM remind me Rud. 743. commonefacere quemque

of

my

misery;

PI.

benefici sui, he reminded each one of his

kindness; Sail. Jug. 49, 4.

quod vos

lex

commonet,

eam rem nos Sail.

that of which the

locus admonuit,

Jug. 79,

tlie

law reminds you; Verr.

place has reminded

me

3, 40.

of this thing;

I.

legafis perfidiae monitis, the envoys being reminded of their treachery;

Liv. 3O) 37, 'Digitized by Microsoft®

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

156

(443-448

Verbs of Mental Sensation

Misereor and miseresco, pity, take the genitive:

443.

miseremini sociorum, pity your

—

Verr. i, 72.

allies;

tniserescite regis, pity the king; Aen. 8, S73-

The impersonal verbs

444.

miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet,

and taedet take an accusative of the person who feels pity, etc., and a genitive of the person or thing toward which the feeling is directed:

—

eorum nos miseret, we

me

civitatis

morum

pity them; Mil. 92.

piget taedetque, /

of the state; Sail. Jug. 4,

The

am sick and tired of the morals

9.

sometimes used impersonally. All may have as subject a neuter pronoun (almost without exception in the singular), an infinitive, or a quod-clause. With pudet the genitive is sometimes used of the person before whom there is a feeling of shame: as, nos ne civium quidem horum pudet? not passive, miseretur,

is

these verbs except miseret and miseretur

even before these citizens are

445.

we ashamed? Liv.

22, 14, 4.

In poetry the genitive sometimes occurs with cupio, fastidio (used

impersonally), invided,miror, studeo,and vereor (once in prose, Att. 8, 4,1).

Objective Genitive with potior

The

is sometimes used with potior, get posseswhich usually takes the ablative: as, partis Siciliae potitus est, he became master of part of Sicily; Nep. Dion. 5, 5.

446.

sion

genitive

of,

The phrase rerum to be,

potiri

is

common

in the sense to become, or

master of the situation.

Tacitus uses rarely the same genitive with apiscor and adipiscor. Genitive of Exclamation

447.

Very

rarely, in imitation of Greek, thegenitive is

tions: as, foederis

heu

taciti, alas, the secret

covenant;

used in exclatna-

Prop.

5, 7, 21.

DATIVE CASE 448. The Dative denotes direction or connection. It Is used with verbs and adjectives, rarely with nouns and adverbs, and sometisg/ggeaM^S^fe^^ sentence as a whole.

DATIVE CASE

449-453)

157

Dative with Verbs Indirect Object

The Dative

449.

used with

is

many

verbs, transitive

or intransitive, to denote that toward which an action or feeling

directed.

is

Indirect Object with Transitive Verbs

With

450.

transitive verbs in the active voice the Dative

of the Indirect Object

is

used in connection with the Accusative

of the Direct Object; with the passive voice the direct object

—

becomes the subject and the indirect object remains: Utteras a te mihi reddidit, he gave me a letter from you; Fam. regi haec dicite,

tell

the king this;

Aen.

i,

nuntiabantur haec Curioni, these things were announced B. C.

2, 17, i.

137. io

Curio;

37, 1.

2,

451. Verbs of motion, which regularly take the accusative with a preposition, sometimes take the dative:

—

cum

subsidium ferrent, while they brought help

aliis alii

other; B. G. 2, 26,

rogas ut

mea tibi

Fam.

I, 9,

This construction

to

one an-

2.

me

scripta mittam, you ask

to

send you

my wriiings;

23.

is

regularly confined to nouns denoting persons, but

the poets sometimes use

it

with nouns of place:

caelO capita ferentes, raising their heads

to

^

heaven; Aen.

3,

678.

Carthagini iam non ego nuntifis mittam, no more shall I send messengers Carthage; Hor. C. 4,

to

So, with

sky; Aen.

452.

4, 69.

an intransitive verb:

5,

it

clamor caelo,

the shout rises to the

451.

With

scribo, write, the person is either in the accusative with the

preposition, or, less often, in the dative.

453.

The verb dono,

present, takes either the accusative of

the thing and the dative of the person or the accusative of the

person and the ablative of the thing: praedam

—

militibus donat, he presents the booty to the soldiers; B. G. 7,

II, 9.

hunc

civitate

dona^j^^^jj^^^g^w with citizenship;

Arch.

5.

•

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

1S8 454.

(4S4~45^

Verbs usually intransitive sometimes have a direct

—

object in connection with the indirect:

multi se alienissimis crediderunt, ptany entrusted themselves

to utter

strangers; B. G. 6, 31, 4.

id eis persuasit, he convinced them of this; B. G.

i, 2, 3.

equites imperat civitatibus, he demanded horsemen

B. G.

6, 4, 6.

from

the states;

(Cf. the passive use: singulis censoribus denarii

trecenti imperati sunt, three hundred denarii were

each censor; Verr.

demanded of

137.)

2,

Indirect Object with Intransitive Verbs

455.

The Dative

of the Indirect

Object

is

many

following groups of intransitive verbs; in

used with the

cases the English

uses a transitive verb with a direct object to express the

same

idea.

456. for

(a)

Many

verbs denoting a mental attitude or action;

example, verbs meaning

to advise,

command,

persuade, believe,

obey, yield, envy, favor, flatter, help, injure, indulge, pardon, please, displease, serve, resist, spare, threaten, trust,

and

distrust

:

—

an C. Trebonio persuasi? cui ne suadere quidem ausus essem, have

I persuaded Gains Trebonius? whom I would not have dared even to advise; Phil. 2, 27.

huic legioni Caesar et indulserat et confidebat, Caesar had indulged this legion

457.

Some verbs

please; iubed, crrder

and had confidence in of these

it;

B. G.

i,

40, 14.

meanings take the accusative;

e.g. delecto,

(dative probably not before Tacitus); iuvo, help;

laedo, injure.

Other verbs take either the accusative or the dative without apparent

dif-

ference of meaning; e.g. adulor,/aiwj upon; de&cio, fail; despeto, despair

458.

The verbs

fido

and

confido, trust,

and

diffido, distrust,

of.

sometimes

take the ablative.

The verb person,

invideo,

when

it

means

begrudge, takes the dative of

the

— the dative, accusative, ablative (with or without a preposition),

or (once) the genitive, of the thing;

when

it

means

envy, the dative of the

person or the dative of tl}§/^g^^|t)i!j^J^SsBS#essive genitive of the person.

DATIVE CASE

459-4'^4)

159

459. Verbs of this class (denoting mental attitude or action), which take the. dative, are used only impersonally in the passive,

—

the dative being retained: his persuader!

non

cui parci potuit?

poterat, they could not be persuaded; B. G.

who could

Exceptions are very rare;

e.g.

2,

10, S-

be spared? Liv. 21, 14, 4.

why am I

cur invideor?

envied? Hor.

A. P. s6.

Some

meaning to verbs of this audiens esse, or dicto audiens esse, to he obedient to; praesto esse to be on hand; fidem habere, to have confidence in; morem gerere, to humor. 460.

expressions equivalent in

class take the dative; e.g.

461.

Some nouns

take the dative

:

—

meaning

similar in

obtemperatio legibus, obedience miserils suis

to the

remedium, a cure for

to verbs of this class

laws; Legg.

42.

i,

their woes; Sail. Cat. 40, 3.

insidiae consuli, the plot against the consul; Sail. Cat. 32,

462.

(b)

The impersonal

verbs, libet, licet, convenit, con-

ducit, expedit, liquet, accidit, contingit, evenit:

quibus

licet

B. G. si

fortunatissimis,i£)to

may now

—

be most fortunate;

6, 3S, 8-

quid accidat Romanis, if anything should happen B. G.

463.

iam esse

(c)

i.

to the

Romans;

1, 18, 9.

Some verbs denoting

denoting contention or difference:

union, and, in poetry, verbs

—

potest hoc homini huic haerere peccatum? can this crime be associated with this tibi certat

man?

Rose.

Amyntas, Amyntas

diSert sermoni,

it

differs

is

Am. your

17.

rival; Eel. 5, 8.

from prose; Hor.

Indirect Object with

S. i, 4, 48.

'

'

Compound Verbs

464. The Dative of Indirect Object is used with many verbs compounded with ad, ante, circum, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, Some of these verbs are transitive, others insub, and super. transitive, the former J^gfc&o|fedir^ and indirect objects:—

•

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

l6o finitinus

bellum

non solum

inferre, to

make war on

{465-469

their neighbors;

part in these matters hut even took the lead;

umquam succumbet

nee

B. G.

i, 2, 4.

rebus sed etiam praefuit, he not only took

interfuit iis

Fam.

i, 8, i.

inimicis, he will never yield to his enemies;

Deiot. 36.

The

compounds is due to the preposition; with others due to the meaning of the simple verb.

dative with most

(e.g. confido, trttst) it is

465.

If the

no idea of

meaning of the compound

such that there

is

is

direction, the verb takes a direct object; e.g. inter-

ficio, kill.

In some compounds an original idea of direction has been and the accusative is used; e.g. aggredior, attack; obeo,

lost,

undertake; oppugno, oppose.

To emphasize phrase

is

the idea of motion or place a prepositional

often used with compounds:

ut in gladium incumberet, so that he fell

—

upon

his sword; Inv. 154.

tamquam ad saxum adhaerescunt, they cling as if to a rock; Acad.

Some compounds take

466.

2, 8.

either the accusative of the

thing and the dative of the person, or the accusative of the

person and the ablative of the thing;

e.g.

circumfundo, impertio, induo, intercludo: tibi

haec

licia

quinis castris

circumdo, / put these threads around you; Eel. 8, 75. oppidum circumdedit, he surrounded the town with five

camps; B. C.

3, 9, 4.

Some compounds cum with the ablative. Some compounds take

467. or

aspergo, circumdo,

—

(e.g.

comparo, confero) take either the dative

either the dative or the accusative without

difierence of meaning; e.g. antecedo, praecurro, invado.

468. is like

The

that of

poets sometimes use the dative with verbs whose meaning

compounds which take the dative;

survive (see 479); excello

The

469.

=

adjective obvius

supero

=

supersum,

and the adverb obviam used

connection with a verb take the dative:

—

mgter sese tulit obvia, his mother came to meet him; Aen. obviam Clodio, ^itiw^b^MidtfispfM'ii. 29.

cui fit

e.g.

praesto, surpass.

1,

in

314.

DATIVE CASE

470-473)

161

.

Dative of Reference

The dative

used with many verbs to denote the thing concerned in the action or condition expressed by the verb. The dative may 470.

the person

is

or, rarely,

— advantage or disadvantage, denote actual — or a mere connection, more or remote — interest,

i.e.

tibi patet,

mihixlausa

less

mea domus

is closed to

consurrexisse

me; Rose. Am.

omnes

M.

honor; Cat.

illi

est,

:

my own house

is

open

you,

dlcuntur, all are said to have risen in his

63.

ut suae vltae consuleret, that 'he should consult for his

B. G.

to

145.

own

life;

7, 12, 3.

471. The Dative of Reference is often used loosely, having no connection with any single word, but denoting an interest in the fact as a whole:

—

talia iactanti procella

a

The

velum adversa

blast strikes the sail athwart;

ferit,

Aen.

i,

as he utters these words

102.

dative thus used often takes the place of a Possessive

Genitive qualifying a single word:

—

sese Caesari ad pedes proieceruut, they threw themselves at Caesar's feet;

iter

B. G.

i,

31,

2.

Poenis obstruere voluenmt, they wanted Carthaginians; Cat.

472.

and

The

satis:

—

dative

bene facere

is

rei publicae, to benefit the state;

operam dabo ut

to block the

march of the

75.

used with verbs qualified by bene, male,

Optimo viro male dicere, Att.

M.

to

speak

ill

tibi satisfaciam,

of

I

an

Sail.

excellent

Cat.

3.

man; Deiot.

shall endeavor to satisfy

28.

you;

2, 4, 3.

473. The Dative of Reference is used of the person upon whose judgment a statement is based:

—

erit ille

mihi semper deus, he mil always be a god in my eyes; Eel.

Quintia formosa est multis, Quintia Catull. 86,

i- Digitized

is beautiful in the eyes of

by Microsoft®

i, 7.

many;

—

•

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

l62

Closely connected with this indicate the point of vieiv:

—

is

the use of the dative of participles to

urbe egressis tumulus, there is a those coming out); Aen. I,'] j:^.

est

Many verbs

474.

(e.g.

{474-478

hill

as you come out of the city [for

consulo, metuo, prospicio) take either

the Accusative of Direct Object or the Dative of Reference,

according to the meaning.

The Dative

475.

of Reference

is

sometimes attached to nouns:

—

aut coUo decus aut capiti, an ornament for the neck or head; Aen.' 10, 135.

tribuniciam potestatem,

bulwark of

The Dative

476.

ei mihi,

vae

munimentum

libertati, tribunician power,

the

liberty; Liv. 3, 37, S-

of Reference

is

sometimes used with

ah me! Aen. 2, 274. woe to the conquered! Liv.

victis,

5,

interjections:

—

48, g.

Dative of Separation

477.

The Dative

advantage)

is

of

Reference (denoting advantage or

denoting things this construction poetry:

—

aureum

ei detraxit

N. D.

dis-

often used with verbs of separation; with nouns is

rare

and

is

confined to

amiculum, he took a golden mantle from him;

3, 83.

hunc mihi timorem

eripe, take this fear from

me; Cat.

fessos oculos furare labori, steal your weary eyes

from

i, 18.

toil;

Aen.

s,

845-

The verb

and the accusaand the ablative

intetdico, forbid, takes the dative of the person

tive or ablative of the thing, or the accusative of the person

of the thing.

Ethical Dative

of a personal pronoun is sometimes used emotion or surprise to indicate a slight degree of interest in the statement as a whole; if of the second person This is a form of the Dative it serves merely to call attention.

478.

The dative

in expressions of

of Reference:

Digitized

by Microsoft®

DATIVE CASE

479-4^2)

quid mihi Celsus agit, what

163

Celsus doing, I wonder; Hor. Epis.

is

i,

3, 15-

ad

at tibi repente venit

came

to

me; Fam.

me

Caninius, but look, Caninius suddenly

9, 2, i.

Dative of Possession

The dative

479.

the possessor:

—

used with forms of sum to denote

is

controversia milii fuit

cum avunculo

tuo,

/ had a debate with your

uncle; Fin. 3, 6. est homini

cum deo

similitudo,

man

has a resemblance

to

God ;hegg.

I- 25.

The verbs absum and desum, ,be

wanting,

and supersum,

survive, take

the Dative of Possession.

For the dative with the phrase nomen esse see 393.

Dative of Agent

The dative is sometimes used to denote the perwho has something to do or who has something done.

480.

son

This

is

a development of the Dative of Possession.

It

regular construction with the future passive participle,

mon

is

is

the

com-

with the perfect passive participle and forms of the perfect

passive system, and

used rarely with other passive forms:

is

—

Caesari omnia find tempore erant agenda, Caesar had everything

do at once; B. G.

mihi res provisa

neque cernitur 481.'

with ab,

dam

To is

est,

ulli,

/ have

he

is

the thing arranged; Verr. 4, pr.

not seen by

any one' Aen.

him

482.

i,

440.

avoid ambiguity, the regular agent construction, the ablative

sometimes used with the gerundive:

as, ei

?

The

me

referen-

show

my grati-

ego a

gratiam non putem? should I not think that I ought

tude to

to

2, 20, i.

to

Plane. 78.

datives with probor, be approved, and videor, seem, are in

origin Datives of

Refereng^/^ed

/,/

M/crosoft®

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

164

i4^3~4^7

Dative of Purppse or Tendency

483.

The

This

tendency.

is often used to express purpose or often found in combination with the

dative is

Dative of Reference, denoting the person concerned muneii

misit, he sent

it

Nap. Att.

as a present;

cecinit receptui, he gave the signal for

a

retreat;

:

—

8, 6.

Tusc.

3, 33.

quinque cohortes castris praesidio relinquit, he leaves five cohorts as

a guard for

the

camp; B. G.

60,

7,

2.

paupertas probro haberi coepit, lack of wealth began

a disgrace;

484.

The

Sail.

Cat. 12,

to he considered

i.

indeclinable adjective frugi

is

—

a dative of this sort:

ero frugi bonae, I shall he good for something; PI. Ps. 468.

homines

fortes et frugi,

men

Also cordi, as in Verr.

my 485.

—

causam recepttii

486.

thrifty; Verr. 3, 67.

mea

in this construction

fllia

mazime

cordi est,

is

sometimes attached

lacrimis, a reason for tears; Aen. 3, 305.

signum, a signal for

The

retreat;

Phil. 13, 15.

dative of the gerund and gerundive

used in this construction:

cum

and

112, .mihi

daughter is very dear to we.

The dative

to nouns:

brave

i,

—

is

sometimes

solvendo civitates non assent, since the communities were not ready for payment {were not solvent)

;

Fam.

3, 8, 2.

referundae ego habed linguam natam gratiae, / have a tongue made to express gratitude;

PI. Pers. 428.

triumvirum coloniis deducendis, a triumvir for founding colonies; Sail.

Jug. 42,

I.

Dative with Adjectives 487.

The

dative with adjectives

is

like the

Dative of it is a

Indirect Object with intransitive verbs; or, rarely,

Dative of Purpose or Tendency. It is used especially with adjectives denoting fitness, likeness, nearness, service, and their opposi tes j^^/zed /jy M/crosoft®

ACCUSATIVE CASE

488-493)

par similisque ceteris,

and

eqiuil to

prozimi Germanis, next

to the

.

Some

488.

it is

idoneum locum

B. G.

made them

i, i, 3.

tributary to themselves;

4, 3, 4.

causae est alienum, castris

like the rest; Sail. Cat. 14, 4.

Germans; B. G.

vectigales sibi fecerunt, they

B. G.

165

1,

49,

damaging

to the

delegit, he selected

cause; Caec. 24.

a place suitable for a camp;

I.

adjectives (e.g. benevolus, fidelis, idoneus, utilis) take

either the dative, or the accusative with a preposition.

For the Possessive Genitive with adjectives denoting

489.

similarity

or connection see 410.

With

similis the dramatists regularly use the genitive, later writers

either the genitive or dative; Cicero uses the genitive of persons

and

either

the genitive or the dative of things.

The pronoun idem

is

regularly followed

by atque or a

relative clause,

but in poetry sometimes takes the dative, like similis: as, idemfacit Occident!, he does the same thing as a murderer; Hor. A. P. 467.

490. propius,

The adjectives propior and proximus, like the adverbs and prozime, sometimes take the accusative:

—

propior

montem, nearer

the hill; Sail. Jug. 49,

proximus mare oceanum, nearest

491. adverbs:

the ocean;

;)rope,

i.

S. G.

3, 7,

.:.

Like the dative with adjectives is the occasional dative with congruenter naturae convenienterque vivere, to live in har-

as,

mony and

agreement with nature; Fin.

3, 7, 26.

ACCUSATIVE CASE 492.

The Accusative Case was a verb. The other uses

object of

first

used as the direct

are derived from that.

connected chiefly with verbs, sometimes with adjectives to express extent, and rarely with nouns. It is

Direct Object

The Direct Object of a verb is in the accusative; denotes either that' which is produced or that which is affected by the acti@^,fe|rf^^,y^|-Jjfe— 493.

it

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

1 66

duas legiones

conscribit, he enrolls two legions; B. G.

oppida sua omnia incendunt, they burn nisi

494.

me

fallit,

(494-498

unless

I

am

deceived

{it

all their

deceives

In colloquial language a direct object

is

10, 3.

i,

towns; B. G.

me)

i, S, 2.

Sest. 106.

;

sometimes used with

verbal nouns: as, quid tibi istanc tactio est? what right have you to touch her? Pi.

Poen. 1308.

A

Direct Object may be used also with the following verbs, which are usually intransitive:

—

(a) Verbs denoting /ee/wg, especially grief; e.g. doleo, gaudeo, gemo, horreo, maereo, and queror; also iuro,

495. fleo,

—

maneo,

rideo, sitio and taceo : meimi casum doluerunt, they lamented my calamity; Sest. 145. quod Ariovisti crudelitatem horrerent, because they dreaded the cruelty of Ariovislus; B. G.

quae manent

sanguinem nostrum

The

i,

victos, things

32, 4.

which await the conquered; Liv. 26, 13, 18.

sitiebat, he thirsted for our blood; Phil.' 5, 20.

poets use a direct object with a great variety of verbs usually

intransitive; e.g. ardebat Alexim, he burned with love for Alexis; Eel. 2,

(b) Intransitive .verbs, usually denoting motion,

496.

compounded with si

certain prepositions:

insulam adisset,

—

if he should go to the island;

tives qui circimistant senatum, the citizens

Cat.

Caesar

I,

B. G.

when

4, 20, 2.

who stand about the senate;

21.

omnem agrum Picenum percurrit, Caesar

num; B.

i.

C.

overruns all Pice-

i, 15, i.

For compounds taking either the dative or the accusative see 467. 497.

(c)

Other intransitive verbs of motion; and the passive vehor:

cum Xerxes maria had walked

me 498.

and

vecti, having

sailed the land; Fin.

journeyed over

as,

Digitized

1,

2,

ira.

22, 9.

all the seas;

Adjectives (originally present participles)

sometimes take a direct object: Liv. 25, 13, 4-

ambulo,

ambulavisset, terram navigasset, when Xerxes

the seas

lupus fugit, the wolf fled from me; Hor. C.

maria omnia

e.g.

—

fugio, navigo,

Aen.

i,

524.

ending in -bundus

vitabundus castra, avoiding the camp;

by Microsofi®

)

ACCUSATIVE CASE

499-502) 499.

The

passive voice of verbs meaning

reflexively in poetry

and takes a

167 put on

to

direct object:

—

is

sometimes used

galeam indoitur, he puts on a helmet; Aen. 2, 392. f errum cingitur, he girds on the useless sword; Aen.

inutile

2,

510.

500. The accusative is sometimes used in apposition with a clause: as, admoneor ut aliquid etiam de sepultura dicendum ezistimem, rem non difBcilem, / burial also,

am

reminded

— an easy

consider that something must be said about

to

matter; Tusc.

i,

102.

Accusative of Exclamation 501.

The

accusative

The

used in exclamations.

is

construction originated in sentences in which the accusative

was the object me miserum

an easily supplied verb:

of

wretched

!

testis egregios

1

man

that

fine witnesses!

I ami Fam.

14, i,

—

i.

Gael. 63.

In early Latin the accusative is used with the interjections ecce and em, in later Latin sometimes with en. The combination of forms of is with ecce gives eccum, eccos, etc.; and with em, ellum, etc. The enclitic -ne sometimes gives to an exclamation an interrogative force: as, hocine saeclum O this generation! {can it possibly be?); Ter. Ad. !

304-

Accusative of Kindred Meaning 502.

Many

intransitive verbs

tive in the accusative

may

take a substan-

which has, or suggests, a meaning

similar to that of the verb.

The

substantive

may

be a noun derived from the same root

as the verb, or one which has a similar meaning but no etymological connection; or it

of

may

meaning similar to that

be an adjective with which a noun

of the verb is to

cur non eosdem cursiis cucurrerunt? course? Agr.

2,

be supplied: =—

why did

the

same

in woe; PI.

Am.

they not

run

44.

ut vrvks aetatem miser, that you

may

live

your

life

1023.

magnum

clamat, he's making a great noise;

acerba tuens,

lookitt

PL

Mil. 823.

1

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

68

503. Verbs denoting Kindred Meaning:

herbam mella

or smell take

taste

—

(jOSSOj an Accusative of

sapiunt, the honey tastes of grass; Plin.

pastillos Rufillus olet, Rufillus smells of lozenges;

504.

Some

H. N.

Hor.

ii, i8.

S. i, 2, 27.

which rarely or never take a

intransitive verbs

noun may take a neuter pronoun or adjective of quantity as an Accusative of Kindred Meaning; and some transitive verbs may take such an accusative in connection with the direct object: idem

—

make the same boast; Cat. M. 32. making many other mistakes; N. D. 1, 29. hortatus, having said a few words of encouragement

gloriari, to

multa

alia peccans,

pauca mllites

to

the soldiers; Sail. Jug. 49, 6.

eos hoc moneo, / give them

505.

The poets

this advice;

Cat.

2, 20.

use this construction with great freedom,

sometimes even with passive verbs vox hominem sonat,

the voice

:

—

sounds human; Aen.

i,

328.

saltaret uti Cyclopa, to dancethe Cyclops dance; Hor. S.

Bacchanalia

^wmt,

Two see 392.

adjective

may

the

507.

the Satyr dance;

Hor. Epis.

2, 2,

125.

Accusatives

Instead of the predicate noun a predicate as, longiorem mensem faciunt, they

be used:

month longer; Verr.

Many

2,

129.

verbs meaning inquire, demand, teach, or conceal one of the person, the other of the

take two accusatives, thing:

63.

For the twoaccusativeswithverbsmeaning make, choose,

call, etc.,

make

i, 5,

they live a Bacchanalian life; Juv. 2, 3.

Satyrum movetur, he dances

506.

—

—

— me

sententiam rogavit, he asked

Caesar Haeduos frumentum of the

Eaedui; B. G.

omnes

celat,

opinion; Q. Fr.

2, i, 3.

Caesar kept demanding corn

i, 16, i.

why should I tench you yourletters? Pison. 73. he[fm^^M^^j^gg^^m eeeryone; Nap. Eum. 8, 7.

quid te litterasdoceam? iter

me my

flagitare,

ACCUSATIVE CASE

508-511)

Some of

608.

169

these verbs (e.g. peto, posed, postul6,quaerd) sometimes

take, instead of the accusative of the person, the ablative with ab, de, or ex, and, instead of the accusative of the thing, the ablative

509. sive:

—

The

accusative of the thing

with de.

used also with the pas-

is

sententiam rogatus, having been asked his opinion;

Sail.

Cat. 50, 4.

posceris exta, you are asked for the entrails; Ov. F. 4, 670. belli artes edoctus, trained in the arts of

nosne hoc

celatos, to think that

this; Ter.

this

Hec. 645.

hidden from

quid

ille

is

usually a neuter pronoun

and the construction

—

id

With

non

probably not

is

'

se velit, if he wanted anything of him; B. G.

id cogit omnis, he forces everybody to this; si

sunt? why was

cogo, accuse) sometimes

(e.g. volo,

to be distinguished from that of 504: si

me

Ps. 490.)

take two accusatives, but the thing or adjective of quantity

25, 40, j.

kept in the dark about

(But quor haec celata

me? PL

Certain other verbs

510.

war; Liv.

we have been

me

accusas, if you do not accuse

Rep.

me

these verbs also the accusative of the thing

passive: as, ego hoc cogor,

/ am forced

to this;

i,

34, 2.

i, 3.

of that; PI. Trin. 96.

may be

Rab. Post.

used with the

17.

511. Two accusatives are often used with verbs compounded with circum or trans, one being the object of the verb, the other of the preposition:

—

quos sua praesidia circumduxit, he B. C.

led

them around his fortifications;

3, 61, I.

flumen exercitum traducere maturavit, he hastened across the river; B. G. 2,

The

accusative connected with the preposition

also with the passive: as,

as,

army

may be

used

traducto exercitu flumen, the army

river; B. C. 3, 76, i. So also with Dyrrachiumpraetervehuntur, they sail past

having been taken across the

praetervehor:

to lead the

5, 4.

Dyrrachium; B. C.

3^,^,^^,i;

,^

„,,„3„^

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

lyo 512.

The verb

traicio

means

(512-51$

also pierce or cross,

takes only the accusative which

is

and

in these senses

connected with the preposition: as,

ciun ratibus Trebiam traicerent, wlien they crossed the Trebia cm rafts; Liv. 21, 56, 8.

Accusative of Limit of Motion 513.

The

limit of motion

is

accusative with a preposition: legatos ad

Caesarem mittunt,

regularly expressed

—

by the

they send envoys to Caesar; B. G. i, 11, 2.

in Italiam contendit, he hastens into Italy; B. G. i, 10, 3.

sub populi Romani imperium ceciderunt^ they fell under the

Roman people;

With names

the

power of

Font. 12.

towns and small islands and with domos), and rus, country, the preposition is regularly omitted. But with names of towns and small islands, if the meaning is not to but to the neighborhood of, a preposition is used: 514.

domum, home

of

(also the plural

—

Catilinam Massiliam ire dictitant, they say that Catiline Marseilles; Cat.

2,

is

going to

16.

Latonam confugisse Delum,

that

Latona fled

domum redierunt, they returned home; domum reditionis spe sublata, the hope

B. G.

to i,

Delos; Verr.

i,

48.

29, 3.

of a return home being gone; B.G.I, 5, 3ut domos suas discederent, that they scatter to their homes; Nep. Them. 4, 2. rus ibo, I shall go to the country; Ter. Eun. 216. ut ventum ad Cannas est, when they had come near Cannae; Liv. 22, 44,

I-

Poets and later prose writers often omit the preposition with names of countries

and common nouns

of place.

domus means a building, it regularly has the preposition: as, M. Laecae domum, / say that you came to the house of Marcus Laeca; Cat. i, 8. When accompanied by an attribute, especially 515.

If

(Uco te venisse in

any adjective'but a posseg^^^JJ gl'Wc)^/^

preposition.

— 516-521)

ACCUSATIVE CASE

171

516. The preposition is regularly used with urbem and oppidum, even when the name of the town is given: as, ad urbem Fidenas tendunt, they hasten to the city of Fidenae; Liv. 4,

The

617.

preposition

is

^t,,

10.

not used with the supine in -um, which

is

an

accusative case expressing limit of motion; or in the following phrases: ezsequias

go

ire, to

to the

funeral.

infitias ire, to deny.

venum venum

dare,

suppetias It is

rem

to sell.

ire, to be sold. ire, to

go to one's assistance.

sometimes omitted in the phrases malam crucem

ire

and malam

go to the torture (colloquially, to the deuce).

ire, to

Accusative of Extent

The

518.

accusative

(especially latus, longus,

space or time:

—

is

used with verbs or adjectives altus) to denote extent of

and

multa milia passuum proseculi, having followed for many miles; B. G. fossas

cum

2, II, 4.

qmndecim pedes latas,

trenches fifteen feet wide; B. G. 7, 72, 3.

dies et noctes nos fata circumstent, since the fates stand about

us day and night; Phil. 10, 20. undeviginti annos natus erat, he was nineteen years old; Brut. 229.

519.

Either the Accusative of Extent or the Ablative of Measure of

Difference

is

used with the verbs absum and

disto.

from which the distance is measured is not given, the is sometimes used: as, positis castris a mUibus passuum quindecim, having encamped fifteen miles away; B. G. 6, 7, 3. 520.

If the place

ablative with a or ab

521.

In expressions of time, instead of a cardinal numeral

with a plural noun, an ordinal with a singular noun

is someemphasize the fact used with iam, to that the statement times contained in the verb is still true: as, annum iam tertium et

^cesimumregnat,Ae Extent of time per

decem

is

is

now ruling

often expressed

his twenty-third year; Manil.

by per with the

dies facti sunt, games were carried on for ten days; Cat. 3, 20.

For the Ablative of E?tpfe^ ^JJiWfe/S^/^S.

7.

accusative: as, ludi

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

172

A neuter pronoun

522.

many

{522-525

or adjective of quantity

used with

is

verbs as an Accusative of Extent, to denote degree.

most common are aliquid, aliquantum, quicquam, multum, plurimum, tantum, quantum, and nihil:

—

multum stmt B. G. si

much

in venationibus, they are

The plus,

occupied in hunting;

4, I, 8.

me amas

tantum quantum profecto amas,

as you really do; Att.

if

you

love

me

as

much

2, 20, 5.

Accusative of Specification 623.

The

accusative

thing in respect

to

is

sometimes used to denote the is made.

which a statement

With a few exceptions the construction

is

confined to nouns

denoting the mind or a part of the body and to neuter plural

The former use

adjectives such as alia, cetera, omnia, etc.

is

rather

common

and

found occasionally in prose beginning with Sallust; the very rare in both prose a,nd poetry:

is

in

poetry beginning with the Augustan period

—

latter (except cetera) is

percussa mentem, stricken in mind; Georg.

4, 357.

caput nectentur, their heads shall he bound; Aen.

virum cetera egregium, a clari

524.

man excellent in

genus, of illustrious birth; Tac. Ann.

The Accusative

partem (with a qualifying word), in part. vicem (with a qualifying word), on account virfle or

309.

6, 9.

of Specification appears also in the following

phrases which are used as adjectives or adverbs:

secus (with

s,

other respects; Liv. i, 35, 6.

—

of, etc.

muliebre), in sex.

id genus, of that sort. id aetatis, of that age.

id temporis, at that time.

hat noctis,

at this

time of night.

625. The use of the adverbial quid, why, originated in this construction, and also that of quod in such phrases as quid est quod, why is it that, and niliil

est quod, there is nd^&im^-kHfC'K^rosoft®

ABLATIVE CASE

526-528)

1 73

Subject of Infinitive

The

526.

infinitive dicit

accusative

is

used as the subject of any

except a historical infinitive: montem ab

—

hostibus teneri, he says that the mountain

by the enemy; B. G.

i,

Divitiacum ad se vocari iubet, he orders Divitiacus

him; B. G. at te

i,

Romae non

is held

22, 2. to be called to

19, 3.

fore, but to think that

you won't

be in

Rome;

Att.

s,

20, 7.

ABLATIVE CASE 527.

The Ablative combines

of three original cases,

— the

in itself the functions

true Ablative, which de-

noted separation or departure, the Instrumental, which denoted originally association, and the Locative, which denoted the place where. The uses of the Ablative are therefore grouped under .three heads, Separative,

—

Instrumental, and Locative.

Separative Uses Ablative of Separation with Verbs

628.

Verbs denoting separation take the ablative.

In this class are included not only verbs denoting actual separation but also those which denote absence, aversion, ces-

and want. The ablative preposition, but no general rule accompanied by a is often It is regularly used when the noun can given. be for its use sation, difference, freedom, deprivation,

denotes a person; also with verbs denoting difference or aversion;

and with verbs denoting itself

literal

separation, unless the verb

contains a separative preposition.

It is regularly

omitted

with verbs denoting only figurative separation. Poets, and prose-writers beginning with Livy, omit the preposition more freely :

—

Digitized

by Microsoft®

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

174 te tuo loco

demovere potuenint,

(j2g,

they might have removed

530

you from

your place; Plane. 53. uti ex Galliae finibus pellerentur, that they would he driven out of Gallic territory; te

ab eo

libero,

B. G.

i,

31, 11.

I free you from him; Q. Fr.

3, i, 9.

ciTitatem dominatu regio liberarit, he freed the state

from a

king's

rule; Plane. 60.

oppugnatione desistunt, they abandon the siege; B. G.

quod abhorret a meis moribus, which Cat.

I,

is inconsistent

6, 39, 4.

with

my habits;

20.

omnibus egere rebus,

to be

in want of everything; B. C. 3, 32, 4.

For the genitive with these verbs see 436, 437; for the dative see 463, 477.

Ablative of Separation with Adjectives

529. The Ablative with or without a preposition is used with alienus and with adjectives denoting freedom or want:

—

alienum maiestate dednun, inconsistent with Div. 2, 105. alienus a

litteris,

liber cura, free

a stranger

from

the dignity of the gods;

to literature; Verr.

care; Fin.

i,

2,

64.

49.

inopes ab amicis sunt, they are destitute of friends; Att.

For the genitive with alienus see 410; for the dative meaning want see 429.

i, i, 2.

see 487.

For the

genitive with adjectives

Ablative of Place

Whence

Whence is regularly expressed by the ablaa preposition; but the preposition is omitted with names of towns and small islands (unless the meaning is from the neighborhood of), with domo, from home, riire, from the country, and, in poetry, humo, from the ground: 530.

Place

tive with

—

decedit ex Gallia, he withdrew from Gaul; Quinct. 16.

Roma acceperam

litteras,

/ had

received

a

letter

from Rome; Att.

8, 2.

Delo

f^mp^^s ;

proficiscitur, Beg'M9
Verr.

1,

46.

5,

ABLATIVE CASE

531-533)

1

75

de iUius Alexandrea discessu, about his departure from Alexandrea; Att. II, 18,

I.

ut a Mutina discederet, that he should of

Modena;

retire

from

the neighborhood

Phil. 14, 4.

cum rure redierit, when he returns from the country; Fam. s, 20, 9. domo ezcesserant, they had gone away from home; B. G. 4, 14, 5. vix oculos attollit

Ov. Met.

531. osition

2,

humo,

she scarcely

lifts

her eyes from the ground;

448.

Poets and later prose-writers sometimes omit the prepit would be used in classical prose; e.g. rediens

where

from Illyria; Tac. Ann. 3, 11. On the other hand the preposition is sometimes used (especially by Livy) with names of towns and with domo and rure. The preposition is regularly used with names of towns if accompanied by urbe or oppido also with domd when it means a building and, sometimes, if it is accompanied by a qualifying word. niyrico, returning

;

Ablative of Source

532. ti6n, is

The

ablative, either with or without

a preposi-

used to denote source.

This construction

is

found chiefly with nascor,

he born,

and

the participles of other verbs denoting parentage or descent: ex

me

natus

es,

you are

my

—

son; Ter. Heaut. 1030.

sate sanguine divom, sprung from the blood of the gods; Aen. 6, 125. edite regibus, descendant of kings; Hor. C.

i, i, i.

Belgas esse ortos a Germanis, that the Belgians were descended from the Germans; B. G. 2, 4, i.

533.

The

idea of source

sometimes emphasized when the

is

English would indicate the place where:

—

Rhenjis oritur ex Lepontiis, the Rhine rises in

the country of the

Lepontii; B. G. 4, 10, 3.

ex vinculis causam dicere,

Especially in the

to

common

a fronte, in front a tergo, in the rear a dextra, on the

plead his cause in chains; B. G.

phrases:

—

a latere, on the side ex hac parte, on this

5^^, ,^ Miofbm^^^

""^ '^«

^'A

i, 4, i.

side

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

176

One form

534.

(j34-537

Source is what is sometimes This denotes the source

of the Ablative of

called the Ablative of Accordance.

Certain words are often of an act, a condition, or a statement. used in this construction, e.g. casu, consilio, consuetudine,

—

iudicio, sententia, sponte,

and voluntate

:

—

virtutem ex consuetudine vitae interpretemur, according nihil nisi

standard of

life;

Lael. 21.

conimuni consilio acturos,

that they

to the

let

would do nothing

was not in accord with a common purpose; B. G. de

us interpret virtue

that

3, 8, 3.

consili sententia, according to the vote of the council; Verr. 5, 53.

quam

(gloriam)

nemo meo quidem

which no one in my judgment at

The common phrase ex senatus

iudicio est postea consecutus,

least afterward attained;

c5nsulto

is

Brut. 32.

of this nature.

Ablative of Agent

The' ablative with a or ab is used with a passive 535. verb to denote the person who does the act :

—

ab senatu amicus appellatus erat, he had been called a friend by senate; B. G. i, 3, 4. a patre eram deductus, I had been led by my father; Lael. i.

536.

A

thing

more or

less

definitely

treated as an Ablative of Agent: portus ab Euroo

waves; Aen.

—

fliictu ctirvatus, the

personified

the

may be

harbor curved by the southeast

3, S33-

animus bene informatus a

natfira,

a sold well formed by nature;

Off. I, 13.

537.

On

the other hand a person

is

sometimes regarded as

—

but very rarely a means, and the preposition is not used, with a passive verb: as, haec (castella) excubitoribus tenebantur, these redoubts were Usually, is

if

the person

used with per:

as,

is

held

by sentinels;

B. G.

7, 69, 7.

regarded as a means, the accusative

per ezploratores certior f actus est, he was

informed through scouti^gj^J^yj^j^Saofte

ABLATIVE CASE

53^-541) 538.

The agent

construction

is

177

sometimes used with an intransitive

verb which suggests the meaning of a passive: lest the

man should fall

For the Dative

of

at the

hands of

Agent see

ne vir ab hoste cadat, an enemy; Ov. H. 9, 36.

as,

{be slain by)

480.

Ablative of Material

539. The material out of which a thing is made is expressed by the ablative with ex or de (often omitted

in poetry)

.

—

scutis ex cortice faclis, shields

ex oratore arator factus

sit,

made

from,

man; Phil. 3, 22. templum de mannore, a temple

of bark; B. G.

540.

The

preposition

quid Tulliola

mea

is

—

fiet?

33, 2.

of marble; Georg. 3, 13.

aere cavo clipeum, a shield of hollow bronze; Aen.

phrases as the following:

2,

a pleader he has become a plow-

3, 286.

usually omitted in such colloquial

what will become of

my dear

Tidlia?

Fam.

14, 4, 3-

quid te futurum est? what will become of you? Verr.

de fratre quid fiet? what will become of

my

brother?

2,

155.

Ter.

Ad. 996.

For the Genitive of Material see 420.

Ablative of Comparison

641.

followed

An

adjective in the comparative

by quam with a substantive

as that of the

first

thing compared.

regularly

is

in the

same case

But

that

if

the nominative or accusative, the adjective followed by the ablative without quam.

is

in

may be

In Cicero the ablative construction is, with a few exceptions, to negative sentences and interrogative sentences

restricted

implying a negative.

Relative pronouns are, however, regu-

larly in the ablative without

quam, and

Digitized

by Microsoft®

in poetry this construc-

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

178

is sometimes used even when the nominative or accusative:

tion

—

non

callidior es

Am.

quam

hie,

{542^545

first

noun

not in the

is

you are not more shrewd than he; Rose.

49.

nihil est virtute amabilius, nothing is

more

than virtue;

attractive

Lael. 28.

Herodotum cur veraciorem ducam Ennio? why should I Herodotus more truthful than Ennius? Div.

2,

consider

116.

Polybium sequamur quo nemo fuit diligentior, let us follow Polybius than whom no one was more careful; Rep. 2, 27. Lucili ritu, nostrum melioris utroque, in the manner of Lucilius, a better

542.

may

man

than either one of us; Hor. S.

The comparatives

2, i,

29.

plus, minus, amplius,

and longius

take the ablative, but are regularly inserted without effect

upon the case

:

—

tecum plus annum

vixit,

he lived with you more than a year; Quinct.

41.

reliquumspatium est non amplius pedum sexcent6rum,/Ae remaining distance is not more than six hundred feet; B. G.

543. as,

38, 5.

In negative sentences alter and alius sometimes take the ablative:

nee quicquam aliud

544.

i,

libertate, nothing else than freedom;

Fam.

11, 2, 2.

Certain ablatives are used for the sake of brevity, instead of

clauses.

The most common

are aequo, credibili, dicto, exspectatione,

iusto, necessario, opinione, solito,

and spe

:

—

opinione celerius, faster than one would think;

Fam.

14, 23.

plus solito, more than usual; Liv. 24, 9, 7. serius spe omnium Romam venit, he came to

Rome

later

than every one

expected; Liv. 26, 26, 4.

The comparative

545.

of

an adverb usually takes quam; rarely the

ablative, except in negative sentences

tempus

te citius

words; Rose.

quam oratio Am. 89.

and

in poetry:

deficeret, time

—

would fail you sooner than

lacrima nihil citius arescit, nothing dries more quickly than a tear; Inv. i,

si

109.

bl^ndius Orphed moderere fidem,

if

you should play

persuasively thaf)Qffj^^tf^l^g^^g^ff^2^, 13.

the

harp more

-

ABLATIVE CASE

546-549)

1 79

Ablative of Cause

646.

The Ablative

is

used to denote Cause.

This construction probably originated in the Ablative of Its development was largely due, however, to the

Source.

influence of the Ablative of

The

resembles.

construction

Means, which

it

often closely

therefore, partly Separative

is,

and partly Instrumental. The Ablative of Cause is sometimes accompanied by a preposition, ab, de, or ex, rarely in:

—

—

ille

timore, ego risu corrui, he collapsed from fear,

Q. Fr.

2, 8,

Veneris praesidio ferox, made bold by C.

ab

Ira,

I from

laughter;

2.

the protection of

Venus; Hor.

I, IS, 13-

on account of anger; Liv.

qua de causa, /or

this reason;

26, i, 4.

B. G.

i, i, 4.

ex vulnere aeger, disabled by a wound; Rep.

2, 38.

in hac laude delector, / take pleasure in this praise;

(So also gaudeo, laetor, glorior,

etc., either

Fam.

6, 4, 4.

with or without the

preposition.)

547. of,

The Ablatives

on account

of,

of Cause,

causa and gratia, for

the sake

are used with a preceding genitive or with a

possessive adjective in agreement:

—

coronam habuisse honoris Caesaris causa, posuisse had taken the crown to do honor Caesar, that he had put it aside on account of grief; Att. 14,

rgscripsit se

liictus gratia, he replied that he to

19, 3-

vestra reique publicae causa, for your sake and that of the state; Verr.

Nomine

is

5,

173.

often used in the

same way,

either with a genitive or

a

possessive adjective.

648.

Cause

is

expressed also

by the

accusative with ob, per, propter,

and,' sometimes, ad.

649. a:s,

A

preventive cause is often expressed

neque decretum exaudtri consulis prae

by the

ablative with prae:

strepitu et clamore poterat, the

consul's decree could not be heard because of the tumult Digitized by Microsoft®

and shouts; Liv.

2, 27, 8.

— SOS54

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

i8o

{S

Instrumental Uses Ablative of

Accompaniment

Accompaniment

denoted by the ablative, regularly with the preposition cum. The term accompaniment is to be understood in a wide sense, 550.

is

including not only union and companionship, but also connection of

all

kinds,

— comparison,

contention, etc.

:

—

cum Pansa vixi, I have lived with Pansa; Att. 14, 20, 4. cum Caesare egit, he pleaded with Caesar; B. G. i, 13, 3. nee haec solitudo cum ilia comparanda est, this solitude he

compared with

is not to

that; 0£f. 3, 2.

nobiscum hostes contendenmt,

enemy fought with us; B. G.

the

s,

17, S-

cum

In certain military phrases

551.

never

if

the ablative

omnibus

copils

is

unqualified or

ad Derdam

for Ilerda; B. C.

i,

is

is

often omitted, but

qualified

by a numeral

:

proficiscitur, with all his troops he starts

41, 2.

uterque ciun equitatu veniret, that each should come with cavalry;

B. G.

cum

I,

The verbs misceo, commisceo, and confundo, mix, and

552.

The verbs

assuefacio and assuesco,

he accustomed), take the ablative

take the dative (see 463),

553. as,

the par-

iunctus and coniiinctus, joined, take the ablative with or without

ticiples

cum.

42, 4.

his quinque legionibus, with these five legions; B. G. i, 10, 3.

—

make familiar (assuesco

also

These verbs sometimes misceo and commisceo only in poetry. without cum.

In poetry and late prose simul

is

sometimes used instead of cum:

simul nobis habitat barbarus, the barbarian

lives

with us; Ov. Trist.

5,

10, 29.

For the dative with words meaning Ablative of

The

554.

The

manner

via, or

in

which an act

is

is

used

performed.

is not used with modo, more, pacto, ratione, with certain commori words which had come

preposition

and

Manner

ablative, either with or without cum,

to denote the

ritu,

contention, see 463.

555-55?)

ABLATIVE CASE

to be used as adverbs,

—

e.g. dolo,

i8i

fraude, furto, iure, iniuria,

ordine, silentio; or with arte, certamine, ope, and vitio.

preposition

omitted

if

—

nuUo pacto

fieri

The

sometimes omitted with other nouns, and usually they are qualified by an adjective: is

potest,

it

can't be done in

iure an iniuria, rightly or wrongly; Verr.

censores

any way; Fin. 2,

i,

27.

ijo.

vitio creati, censors irregularly appointed; Liv. 6, 27, 5.

mente veneremur, provided we worship them with a

ut eos pura

mind; N. D.

clean

cum

reliquias

2,

71.

cura exsecutus est, he followed

up

the

remnants

dili-

gently; Liv. 39, 41, 6.

555.

Manner may be

per vim, with violence; per

expressed also litteras,

by

by the accusative with

per: as,

letter.

Ablative of Attendant Circumstance

556. The ablative is used to denote a circumstance connected with the action of the verb.

The

preposition

cum

is

it is

regularly omitted:

words and phrases quanto id

cum

sometimes used, but with

cum periculo fecerit,

at

—

what risk he did

this;

tua peste ac pemicie proficiscere ad bellum,

and

destruction set out for war; Cat.

i,

to

common

B. G.

i, 17, 6.

your own ruin

33.

exercitum duarum cohortium damno reducit, he leads back his army with the loss of two cohorts; B. G. 6, 44,

i.

exierunt malis ominibus, they went out with bad omens; Sest. 71.

merito tuo

feci,

/ have done as you

deserve; Att. 5, 11, 6.

Ablative of Quality

557.

only

if

The the

ablative

noun

is

This construction

is

used to denote a quality, but.

accompanied by a qualifying word.

may

be used either attributively or in the

from the Genitive of Quality (see 421), the ablative usually (but by no means always) denotes a transipredicate.

As

distinct

tory or external quality^,-^^^^

^^ ^.^^^^^^

— SYNTAX OF NOUNS

1 82

sum maxima, I am

spe

statura fuit htmiili, he

(SSSS^I

in very great hope; Q. Fr.

was

of low stature;

i, 2,

Nep. Ages.

16.

8, i.

confixa claims digit! pollicis crassitCdine, held by spikes of the thick' ness of one's thumb; B. G. 3, 13, 3. singulari fuit industria, he

Nep. Cato,

was a man of unparalleled industry;

3, 1.

In later Latin the Ablative of Quality often qualifies a proper name; rarely in Ciceronian Latin.

Ablative Absolute

558.

A

substantive and a participle in the ablative

are often used in loose connection with a sentence, to express any one of a variety of ideas. This construction probably originated in the sociative use many examples show that

of the Instrumental (see 527), but its

development was due partly to the influence of the true

Ablative and the Locative.

[The perfect participle is most commonly used in this conthe present sometimes, and the future from Livy Instead of a participle, the second member of the phrase on. may be a substantive or an adjective used predicatively. struction,

The Ablative Absolute ideas

is

used to express the following

:

559.

Time:

(i)

hdc respdnsd dato away; B. G. Lepid6

TuUo

et

discessit,

when

this

answer had been given, he went

i, 14, 7.

consulibus, in the consulship of Lepidus and Tullus

[Lepjdus and Tullus being consuls); Cat.

560.

15.

(2) Cause:

rggnarl volebant libertatis dulcedine ing

to

(3)

ndndum

ezperta, Ihey were will-

be ruled by a king because they had not yet experienced the

sweetness of freedom; Liv.

561.

i,

i, 17, 3.

Manner:

instate equo se hostibus obtulit, with his horse at full speed he rushed

upon

the

enemyt,l§iti^^^^^fy^^ft@

ABLATIVE CASE

562-560) 562.

183

(4) Condition, sometimes with velut, quasi, tamqtiam,

or nisi: semper existimibitis viv6 P. C16did

nihil

eSrum vOs visurOs

fuisse,

you

always think thai if Publius Clodius had been alive you would not have seen any of these things; Mil. 78. will

omnes, velut dis auctdribus quisque acceptis, proelium poscunt, all demand each as if he had taken the gods as his supporters; Li v. 21, 45,

battle,

563. id

(5) Opposition,

sometimes with

quamquam:

etsi or

(oppidum) paucis defend entibus ezpugnare ndn potuit, though defended the town, he could not take

etsi invitS still at

564.

me tamen me auctore profectus my instigation, he started ; Att.

Any

(6)

instruction;

The

ferja

2, 12, 2.

est, though against

my

wish,

13, 28, 3.

attendant circumstance:

brevitatem secQtus

565.

B. G.

it;

9.

sum

Fam.

/ have aimed

te magistro,

at brevity

under your

11, 25, i.

ideas of time and cause are often combined:

quibus rebus cognitis Caesar apud milites cdntionStur, when (and because) he had learned this, Caesar

The

566.

particularly

made a speech

to the soldiers;

subject of the ablative absolute phrase

if it is

is

B. C.

i, 7, i.

sometimes omitted,

the antecedent of a relative pronoun:

—

quaerentibus quid rei esset, when they asked what the matter was; Liv.

3,

5°. 4.

digredientibus qui

who

A

567. struction:

—

spem omnem secum

ferebant,

carried all hope with them; Liv. S, 40,

clause sometimes takes the place of the

cognito vivere Ftolemaeum,

when

it

when

those departed

2.

was learned

noun

that

in this con-

Ptolemy was

alive;

Liv. 33, 41, sincerto quid neterent,

it

being uncertain what they should seek; Liv. 28,

36, 12.

568.

Sometimes a

participle

cdnsulto, after deliberation;

is

used alone in an impersonal sense:

OfiE. i,

nee auspicato nee litatS, without auspices or favorable sacrifice; Liv.

569. struction

A

noun or pronoun

if it

is

—

27. 5, 38, i.

rarely used in the ablative absolute con-

denotes a person or thing mentioned elsewhere in the sentence.

There are occasional exceptions: Digitized

—

by Microsoft®

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

l84 vosne ego patiar married

nemo

cum mendicis nuptas me

beggars while I

to

am

vivo viris ? shall I

you be

let

alive? PI. Stich. 132.

credat te invito provinciam

erit qui

{570-572

be no one to believe that the province

tibi

esse decretam, there will

was assigned

to

you against your

will; Phil. II, 23.

Means

Ablative of

570.

The

which an act gladiis

used to denote the means by accomplished

ablative is

:

pugnatum

lacte et

came

is

est, the battle

—

was fought with swords; B. G. j, 52, and meat; B. G. 5, 14, 2.

Aeacidae telo iacet Hector, Hector Aen.

I,

4.

vivunt, they live on milk

(slain) by Achilles' spear;

lies

99.

exercitus interitus ferro, the destruction of the

army by

the sword;

Pison. 40.

For the Ablative of Means of a noun denoting a person see 537. 571.

This construction

adjectives meaning full:

is

—

used with verbs meaning

fossam aggere explent, they fill

the trench with earth;

to jill

B. G.

7,

omamentis plenam domum, a house full of ornaments; Verr.

opimum

praeda, rich in plunder; Verr.

i,

and

79, 4. 4, 126.

132.

For the genitive with these words see 429, 436.

The Ablative and phrases: 572.

vescor,

—

of

Means

is

used also with the following words

(a) With the deponents utor, and some of their compounds:

fruor, fungor,

—

commoda quibus utimur lucemque qua we use and the quousque abutere

light of

fruimur, the blessings which

day which we enjoy; Rose.

patientia nostra?

potior,

haw long

will

Am.

131.

you abuse our

patience? Cat. 1,1. lacte et

came

vescebantur, they lived on milk and meat;

Sail.

Jug.

89,7.

These verbs sometimes take the accusative in early and For the genitive with potior see 446. The verb epulor, feast,

sometimesWs the ablatjy^-f^g^ ^^ Microsoft®

late Latin. like vescor,

ABLATIVE CASE

573~577)

185

573. (b) Sometimes with opus est and usus est, there need (opus and usus being used as the subject of est) :

opus

viro

est, there is

need of a

man;

ablative with usus est

574. qualified

is

common

is

Liv. 24, 8, 12.

usus est tua mihi opera, / need your help;

The

—

PI. Pars. 328.

only in early Latin.

The ablative with opus est and usus est is sometimes by a participle which contains the important idea of

the phrase:

—

ne ezistumarent

opus esse,

sibi perdita re publica

let

them not think

that he needed to ruin the state; Sail. Cat. 31, 7.

quam

subito argento

money;

Sometimes a

575.

Opus

is

est, there is

est, there is

need of haste; Liv.

used also as a predicate noun: 5,

8, 13, 17.

as,

quaecumque opus

sunt,

40, 6.

With the verb contineor, satisfied, and the adjective

(c)

conteiitus,

quickly I must find

need of silence; PI. Cist. 124.

whatever things are needed; B. G.

576.

how

—

:

maturato opus

usus

siet,

participle is used alone in the ablative in an

impersonal sense

tacito

mi usus invento

PI. Ps. 50.

consist

of,

the participle

fretus, relying on:

quae quattuor his virtutibus continetur, which

—

consists of these four

virtues; Fin. 2, 48.

own lot;

contentum suis rebus esse,

to be

superioribus victoriis

relying on their former victories; B. G. 3,

freti,

content with one's

Par. 6, 51.

21, I.

Ablative of Price

The

577.

ablative

is

used to denote

definite

price

or value; and, with a few exceptions, indefinite price or value,

if

indicated

by a noun

:

—

denariis tribus aestimavit, he valued

it

at three denarii; Verr. 3, 215.

vilest viginG minis, it is cheap at twenty

Eriphyla auro gold; Inv.

viri i,

minae;

PI.

Most. 297.

-wtam vendidit, Eriphyla sold her husband's 94. Digitized

by Microsoft®

life

for

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

1 86

(578-582

Either the genitive or ablative of certain adjectives

578.

is

used to express indefinite price; thus, magni or magno, parvi or parvo, minimi or minimo, quanti or quanto. So, the genitive or ablative of certain substantives: as, nihil! or nihilo.

For the Genitive of Price see 424.

Verbs meaning

579.

exchange (muto, commiito, permuto,

to

and, rarely, verto) take the ablative of the thing given or the

thing taken in exchange:

—

Lucretilem mutat Lycaeo Faunus, Faunus exchanges Lycaeus for

Hor. C.

Lucretilis;

mitibus mutare

f uneribus

vertere

Muto and

bitter;

Hor. C.

triumphos,

to

turn triumphs into funerals; Hor. C.

35, 4its

compounds sometimes take the ablative with cum or

The Ablative

580.

kind feelings for

16, 25.

I,

I,

i, 17, i.

tristia, to substitute

of Price

is

pro.

used with verbs meaning

to

punish, to denote the penalty: as, Frusinates tertia parte agri

damnati, Liv. 10,

the people of

Frusino were fined a third of their

territory;

I, 3.

For the Genitive of the Penalty see 431-433.

Road

Ablative of the

581.

as the

The

ablative

is

used of the road which serves

means of a journey:

Aurelia via profectus est, he

—

set out

by the Aurelian road; Cat.

2, 6.

porta CoUina intravere, they entered by the Colline gate; Liv. 3, 51, 10. secundo tlumine iter facere coepit, he began to march down the river;

B. G.

7, 58, S-

Ablative of

Measure

of Difference

With adjectives and adverbs in the comparasometimes with adjectives and adverbs in the superlative, and with other words which imply comparison the ablative is used ^i^iSySi^iikSbM^O'Sure of difference: 582.

tive,

—

ABLATIVE CASE

5^3-5^5) uno

die longiorem

mensem

one day; Verr.

2,

187

faciunt, they

make

the

month longer by

129.

quanto erat gravior oppugnatio, tanto crebriores

mitte-

litterae

bantur, the more burdensome the siege, the more often were sent; B. G. 5, 45, fuit

puniendum

nihilo

i.

(So, also, the correlatives

minus, punishment had

quo

.

to be inflicted

.

letters .

eo.)

none the

less; Mil. 19.

multo

me

vigilare acrius, that

multo maxima pars, much

I watch much mare sharply; Cat.

i, 8.

the greatest part; Cat. 4, 17.

hie locus aequo fere spatio a castris utriusque aberat, this place

almost equally distant from the

camp

of each; B. G.

i,

43,

was

i.

583. The Ablative of Measure of Difference is used with the adverbs ante, abhinc, and post, to denote time before or after: as, tribus ante (abhinc, post) annis, three years before (or after). There is often a following clause introduced by quam, or, by

combination with the adverbs, it is introduced by antequam or postquam. An ordiiial with an ablative denoting time when is sometimes used when followed by quam with a clause: as, tertio anno antequam or postquam. Quemi may stand for postqviam:

months

as,

mense quam coeptum

oppugnari, eight

after the siege began; Liv. 21, 15, 3.

The

584.

accusative

ante and post:

is

sometimes used with the prepositions

ante (or post)' tres annos, three years before In late Latin, rarely in classical Latin, this con-

(or after).

struction ordinal

octavo

as,

sometimes followed by quam and a clause. The sometimes used in this construction when followed

is

is

by a clause: as, ante (or post) tertium annum quam. The Accusative of Extent is sometimes used with abhinc: as,

abhinc tres aimos, three years ago.

585.

Instead of the ablative the Accusative of Extent

used with verbs meaning

numero aliquantum Liv. 22, 18, f

is

rarely with comparatives:

sometimes

—

praestabant, in numbers they were somewhat superior;

.i.

STmam aliquantum ''

to surpass,

augustiorem, a figure somewhat more dignified; Liv. Digitized

by Microsoft®

i,

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

1 88

(5S6-58Q

Ablative of Specification

The Ablative

586.

respect to

of Specification denotes that in

which a statement

is

made.

The preposition in is used sometimes with abstract nouns and regularly with pronouns, except relatives:

—

hi

omnes

lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt, these all differ

from one another in language, customs, and laws; B. G. r, i, 2. homines non re sed nomine, human beings not in fact but in name; Off. I, 105.

similem in fraude et malitia, similar in trickery and evil-doing; Rose.

Com.

20.

in ea superiores, superior in this; Fin. 3,

For the Supine

in -u as

The Ablative

587.

an Ablative

5.

of Specification see 1017.

of Specification

is

used with dignus and

indignus and, by the poets and later prose- writers, with the verb dignor:

—

amici digni amicitia, /ne«rf.s worthy of friendship; Lael. 67. omni honore indignissimum, quite unworthy of every honor; Vat. 39. haud tali me dignor honore, I do not deem myself worthy of such honor; Aen.

i,

335.

For the genitive with dignus and indignus see 426.

Locative Uses Ablative of Place

The

588.

expressed super)

:

—

place where a thing

by the

in Venetis,

among

sub monte,

at the foot of the

589.

Gaul; B. G.

the Veneti;

viridi,

B. G.

is

done

is

usually

2, r, r.

3, 17, i.

mountain; B. G.

on a couch of green

i,

48, i.

leaves; Eel. i, 80.

is used to express not only place in a but also various figurative ideas. Thus the prepo-

This construction

literal sense

or

is

ablative with in (sometimes sub, rarely

in citeriore Gallia, in nearer

fronde super

Where

ABLATIVE CASE

590-594) sition in

view

of,

may assume

in spite

of:

various meanings,

—

189

—

e.g.

in the case

of,

in

in tantis rei publicae periculis, in so great dangers of the state; Cat. 1,4.

quanto hoc magis in fortissimis civibus facere debemus, how much more ought we to do this in the case of our bravest citizens; Mil. 92. in tanta foeditate decreti, in view of the great cruelty of the decree;

Liv. 3, 47,

s-

noscitabatur in tanta deformitate, he was recognized in spite of great disfigurement; Liv.

2, 23, 4.

590. Verbs denoting motion regularly take the accusative with a preposition, but verbs meaning to place regularly take the ablative with a preposition :

—

Plato ratidnem in capite posuit, iram in pectore locavit, Plato has

put reason in

the

head and has located anger in the heart; Tusc.

I, 20.

pone sub curru

solis,

put

me under

the chariot of the

sun; Hor. C.

i,

22, 21.

ligna super foco reponens, putting logs

591. consido,

upon the hearth; Hor. C.

i, 9, 5.

Also the following verbs denoting motion take the ablative: sit

down,

defigo, drive in, fasten;

settle;

accusative); imprimo, press

upon

—

demerge, plunge (also

(also dative); include, shut into (also

dative).

592.

The

ablative of

the plural of

names

towns and small

of

islands, in

declensions and, in classical Latin, in the

all

singular of the third declension, to denote place where:

— Ciinus,

is

used without

at

the preposition

Cumae; Gabus,

at

Gahii;

Calibus, at Cales; Carthagine, at Carthage; Capreis, at Capri. 593.

The

ablative singular of town-names of the

first

and second

declensions, with the preposition in, is sometimes used instead of the

Locative, especially as, in

Liv.

when

there

is

assimilation with a preceding ablative:

monte Albano Larinioque, on

the

Alban mount and

at

Lavinium;

s, 52, 8.

594.

Urbs, oppidum, municipium,

etc., in

apposition with a town-name

usually take the preposition: as, Albae in urbe opportuna, at Alba, a convenient city; Phil. 4, 6.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

igo 595. ad:

General locality

ad Tibur, in

as,

{595' 599

sometimes denoted by the accusative with

is

Tibur; Phil.

the neighborhood of

6, lo.

For the use of the Locative Case of town-names and other nouns see 606-614.

In designations of place where, the preposition is often common nouns, especially if they are

596.

omitted with certain

accompanied by a qualifying word; e.g. initio, libro and libris, numero, parte and partibus, pnncipio, regione, rure; also with any noun qualified by cunctus, omnis, totus, universus, or medius. The preposition is regularly omitted with dextra, on the right; laeva, sinistra, on the left; also with animo (except in the phrase in animo esse or habere) and animis, corpore, lingua, memoria, and the phrase terra maiique. loco,

597. In poetry and any noim:

—

bellum geret

Italia,

later prose the preposition

he will wage war in Italy; Aen.

thalamS, in your chamber; Hor. C.

598.

The

i,

be omitted with

263.

16

i, 15,

following verbs take the ablative of place where, with or

without a preposition: sto, consto,

may

and

— acquiesco,

take pleasure in; nitor, rest, rely

or the ablative without a preposition. ablative without a preposition.

upon;

Innitor takes the dative (see 464),

consisto, persist in.

The

participle subnixus takes the

and

Fido, confido,

diffido usually take

the dative (see 466), sometimes the ablative without a preposition.

Ablative of

The time when

599.

a thing

is

done

is

Time

or the period of time within which

regularly expressed

usually with a qualifying word:

—

by the

superiore aestate, in the previous summer; B. G.

hieme, in the winter; B. G.

5, 8, 3.

5, i, i.

adventu Caesaris, on Caesar's proximis comitiis, at the

ablative,

arrival; B.

last election;

G.

B. G.

7,

5, 54, 2.

67, 7.

paucis diebus opus efBcitur, within a few days the work is finished;

. B. G.

6, 9, 4.

tribus proximis amSSs/ttBititiiy iile:last>t^ee years; SaU. Jug. 11.

ABLATIVE CASE

600-603)

I91

600. With words denoting a period of life or a term of oflBce, and with words denoting a period of time, when preceded by

a numeral adverb, the preposition in the noun

is

is

regularly used, unless

accompanied by a qualifying word:

—

in adulescentia, in youth; PI. Bac. 410.

eztrema

pueritia, at the

in consulatu nostro, in

end of boyhood; Manil. 28. considship; Arch. 28.

my

ter in anno, three times a year; Rose.

The preposition

is

Am.

132.

sometimes used with other words, especially when not accompanied by

those denoting periods of time, even

a numeral adverb

:

—

in tali tempore, at stich a time; Liv. 22, 35, 7.

in diebus proximis decern, within the next ten days; Sail. Jug. 28, 2. in hora ducentos versus dictabat, he dictated two hundred verses

hour; Her. S.

601.

The

an

1, 4, 9.

ablative of time within which

when

followed

by a

relative

clause sometimes denotes time after: as, diebus decern quibus materia

coepta erat comportari, within ten days after the lumber began to he hauled;

B. G.

4, 18, I.

sometimes expressed by the accusative cum; time within which by the accusative with intra or per 602.

Time when

with ad or

sub-, or

is

the ablative with :

—

ad horam destinatam, at the appointed hour; Tusc. 5, 63. sub occasum solis, toward sunset; B. G. 2, 11, 6. cum prima luce, at daybreak; Att. 4, 3, 4. intra annos quattuordecim, within fourteen years; B. G. i, 36,

7.

per eos ipsos dies profectus, setting out during those very days; Liv. 31, 26,

1.

The Roman Calendar 603.

The year

is

usually indicated

by the names

of the con-

suls in the ablative absolute construction, less often

by

reck-

oning from the traditional date of the founding of the city, le.T, B.C.: as, L. Domitio Ap. Claudio consulibus,' in the consul'-'•' '

Digiti^d by Microsoft®

5

SYNTAX OF NOUNS

192

(604, 60

ship of Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius (54 B.C.) B. G. I, i; the same date might have been expressed as follows: ;

annis post

tesimo post

Romam conditam septingentis Romam conditam.

or

— 5,

anno septingen-

604. Before 45 B.C. the months of March, May, July, and October had thirty-one days, February twenty-eight, the others Beginning with 45 B.C. the number of days in twenty-nine.

the months was the same as now. is

called

day of the month Nonae, the Nones, the March, May, July, and Octo-

Kalendae, the Calends, the

thirteenth Idus, the Ides; but in

The

first

fifth

ber the Nones are the seventh, the Ides the fifteenth.

when used

Calends, Nones, and Ides,

as dates,

The

are in the

Other days are reckoned back from these.

Ablative of Time.

The day before is indicated by pridie with the accusative: as, pridie N5nas lanuarias (abbreviated prid. Non. Jan.), the fourth Other days are indicated by ante diem with an of January. whole phrase being treated as a preposition, with Thus, ante diem sextum Kalendas AprHIs (abbreviated a. d. VI Kal. Apr.) is the twenty-seventh of March, since in reckoning forward or back the Roman counted both the first and the last of the series. ordinal, the

the accusative Nonas, Idus, or Kalendas.

A

date expressed in this

ad or

ex, from, or as,

way may be preceded by a

in, to.

preposition

Sometimes a shorter form

quinto die ante Idus Octobris (abbreviated

V

is

used:

Id. Oct.), the

eleventh of October.

The second day

before the Nones, Ides, or Calends

Roman method

ing to the

Ablative of Extent of *

605.

ablative

Extent of time :

—

is,

accord-

of reckoning, the third.

is

Time

sometimes expressed by the

tota nocte ierunt, they went during the whole night; B. G.

i,

26, 5.

quod quinque horis proelium sustinuissent, because they had kept

up

the fight for five hours;

B. C.

i,

For the Accusative o^^Jggtjjp^v^j^^

47, 3. 518.

LOCATIVE CASE

6o6-6lj)

1 93

LOCATIVE CASE The Locative Case denotes

606.

Only the following nouns have a

the place where. locative case

:

—

Names of towns and small islands in the singular and second declensions: as, Romae, at Rome; Lanuvi, Lanuvium; Melitae, at Malta; Cypri, at Cyprus.

607.

(a)

of the first at

608.

A few

(b)

town-names

in the singular of the third de-

But the ablative of third more commonly used to denote place where.

clension: as, Carthagini, at Carthage.

declension nouns 609.

is

Some common nouns

(c)

clensions; these are the

domi

of the first

and second de-

(rarely domui), at home; humi, on

ground; belli and militiae, in war; rarely terrae, in the

earth.

Also, of the third declension, run, in the country (the ablative

rure

is

610. island:

used in the same sense).

Very

(d)

—

the

rarely,

Aegypti, in Egypt; Val. 4,

Romae Numidiaeque, Cretae considere,

Of

all

611.

to settle

i,

name

of

a

country or large

15.

Rome and

in Numidia; Sail. Jug. 33, 4.

in Crete; Aen. 3, 162.

other words the ablative

used to denote place where.

is

In early Latin, instead of the locative of names of towns and with in

islands, the ablative

612.

at

For the locative aniini see 430.

When

oppidtim, insula,

etc.,

often used.

is

a locative

is

followed

by an

— the appositive

is

appositive,

— urbs,

in the ablative with

or without the preposition: as, Albae, in urbe munita, at Alba,

a

fortified

town; Phil.

4, 6

;

Antiochiae, celebri

at Antioch, once

a busy city; Arch.

the preposition

is

proper

name

in the city of 613.

The

is

If

4.

quondam

urbe,

the appositive precedes,

always used; under these circumstances the sometimes in the ablative: as, in urbe Rdma,

Rome;

locative

Liv. 39, 14,

7.

domi may be accompanied by a

or alienus in the genitive, or

your house; domi alienae,

at.

by a

possessive adjective

domi tuae, at heme; doim Caesaris, at Caesar's

possessive genitive: as,

another fwn's

SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES

194 But when

house.

the noun

is

{614-616

thus qualified, the ablative with in

is

sometimes used instead of the locative. In the following words and phrases a locative

614.

time when:

—

die in such combinations as die septimi,

day

piidie, the day. before; postridie, the

yesterday; luci, in the light;

mani

(later,

after;

is

on

used to denote the seventh

cottidie, every

mane), in

the

day;

day; heri,

morning; temper! or

tempori, on time; vesperi, in the evening.

SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION Adjectives are classified according to their nature

615.

as follows 1.

:

—

Descriptive adjectives, denoting quality or quantily:

as,

boniis, good; multus, much. 2.

3.

Participial adjectives: as, patiens, patient; rectus, straight.

Pronominal adjectives; these include (a) Demonstrative and Interrogative adjec-

adjectives: as, hie, this; (b) Relative tives: as, qualis, of

what

sort, uter,

adjectives: as aliquis, some; (d)

which (of two);

(c)

Indefinite

the Distributive adjectives,

quisque, each, and uterque, each (of two); (e) the Intensive, (f) alius, another,

ipse;

and

4.

Possessive adjectives:

5.

Numeral

two).

alter, the other (of as,

meus, my; cuius, whose.

adjectives: as, unus, me.

Participial Adjectives

nouns in gender, number, and are therefore to that extent adjectives. Only those which denote a permanent quality, however, are classed The present active and the perfect passive are as adjectives. 616.

and

All participles agree with

case,

often used in this way.

Augustan poets and

nent; Cicero uses futurus

occasionally so used

The

future active

later prose- writers: as,

and venturus.

is

so used in the

mansurus, perma-

The

future passive

a^i^e'SW^hsSfh timendus,

terrible.

is

-

6iy-62l) 617.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

195

Participles used as adjectives are sometimes compared:

si

—

qui adustidris col&ris essent, ij any were more sunburned; Liv. 27, 47,

homo

eruditissimus, a very learned

man;

2.

Verr. 4, 126.

Pronominal adjectives are treated under the head

of Pronouns.

Possessive Adjectives Possessive adjectives are ordinarily not used unless

618.

they are needed to make the meaning clear; they are used also to give emphasis or denote a contrast.

—

619. The reflexive possessive adjective of the third person, suus,— in an independent clause regularly refers to the subject; sometimes to another word, when the context makes the meaning

—

clear:

Orgetorix ad judicium

omnem suam

familiam coegit, Orgetorix

gathered all his people at the trial; B. G.

hunc

i, 4, 2.

sui cives e civitate eiecerunt, his fellow-citizens drove

him from

the state; Sest. 142.

Romanls multitudo sua auxit animum, their own numbers the courage of the Romans; Liv. 21, 30, 4. 620. of the

which

increased

In dependent clauses suus usually refers to the subject main verb; sometimes to the subject of the clause in it

stands:

—

Nasidius eos hortatur ut rursus auxiliis confiigant, fleet of

B. C.

cum

BrutJ classe additis suis

Nasidius urges them

to fight

again with the

Brutus, adding his {Nasidius') troops as auxiliaries;

2, 3, 3.

Helvetii persuadent Rauracis uti oppidis suis exustis proficiscantur, the Helvetians persuade the

out; B. G.

621.

Rauraci

to

burn

their

towns and

set

I, 5, 4.

In indirect discourse suus refers sometimes to the subbut usually to the subject of the verb

ject of the infinitive,

—

which introduces the indirect discourse: quam praedicant fratris sui membra dissipavisse,

they say that she

scattered her brother's limbs; Manil. 22.

omnes

finitimos

neighbors

suae

virtuti

invidere,

envie^tJMiimMlhhf^-

{they said) ^'

3^' 4-

that all their

f

-

SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES

196

The

622.

{622-62

lack of a non-reflexive possessive adjective of the

third person

is

supplied by the genitive of the demonstrative

pronouns. For the use of the possessive adjective instead of an objective genitive For the possessive adjective with refert and interest see 434.

see 427.

The

623.

magno

as,

B. G.

sui

for

cum

pericttld,

with great danger

to

themselves;

4, 28, 2.

The noun

of a personal or reflexive pronoun is emphasis instead of a possessive adjective:

genitive

sometimes used

personal or reflexive pronoun

is

regularly used

—

accompanied by omnium or utriusque ad omnium nostrum vitam pertinent, they pertain

is

:

of vs; Cat.

domus

I,

when

to the life

the

of all

14.

utriusque nostrum, the houses belonging

to

each of us; Q. Fr.

2, 4, 2.

For the Appositive Genitive with a possessive adjective see 403

The

624.

dramatists;

rare possessive adjective cuius, whose,

it

is

found chiefly in the

has either an interrogative or a relative force.

ATTRIBUTIVE AND PREDICATE ADJECTIVES Adjectives

625.

may

be

classified

also according to

their use, as (a) attributive, (b) predicate.

An

626.

rectly

:

—

Attributive Adjective qualifies a noun di-

magnis itineribus contendit, he hastens by forced marches; B. G.

i,

38, 7.

eventiis varil sequebantur, various results followed; B. G.

pervenerat ad loca nata insidiis, he had come for an ambush; Liv. 22, 4,

627.

the

A

to

2, 22, 2.

places fitted by nature

2.

Predicate Adjective qualifies a noun through of a verb, which serves as a means of con-

medium

nection between thg,^^y^^34^oJj^adjective:

—

— AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES

628-630)

197

foituna caeca est, fortune is blind: Lael. 54.

idoneum locum

cum

arbitratus, thinking the place suitable; B. G. 4, 23, 4.

milites alacriores effecissent,

more eager; B. G.

Capita as his own; Rose.

A

Am.

had made

the soldiers

21.

was a learned man; Brut.

fuit doctus, he

628.

they

Capitoni propria traduntur, three farms are given to

praedia

tria

when

3, 24, 5.

94.

form of the Predicate Adjective is the Prowhich is used with verbs not ordinarily taking

special

leptic Adjective,

a predicate adjective, to denote the result of the action of the

verb: si

parcent animae fata superstiti, if the fates will spare let

my

love

and

her live; Hor. C. 3, 9, 12.

scuta latentia condunt, they put their shields away in concealment;

Aen. alios

3, 237.

age rabidos, drive others mad; Catull. 63, 93.

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 629.

All adjectives (including participles) agree with

nouns

their

in gender,

number, and case

:

—

fortissimi sunt Belgae, the Belgians are the bravest; B. G.

mulier

litteris

Graecis et Latinis docta, a

and Latin

i, i, 3.

woman familiar with Greek

literature; Sail. Cat. 25, 2.

quail pietate exastimatis esse eos? what sort of piety do you think they

have? Font. 31.

tuae potestatis omnia

sint,

keep everything in your

own

control;

Liv. 22, 39, 21.

bina castra comlnuniunt, they fortify two camps; Liv. 22, 44,

630.

A collective noun

is

often qualified

by a plural adjective by the sense:

—

(or participle), the gender being determined pars perexigua

Romam

taken unarmed to

omnis aetas currere ^

'

i

ineimes delali sunt, a very small part were

Rome;

Liv.

2, 14, 8.

obvii, people of all ages

Digitized

by Microsoft®

ran

te

m^et them; Liv. 27,

— SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES

198 631.

If

nouns,

it is

{631-634

an adjective (or a participle) qualifies two or more usually plural, but it may be singular, in agreement

with the nearest:

—

NIsus et Euryalus priml, Nisus and Euryalus first; Aen. 5, 294. res erat multae operae ac laboris, it was a matter of much effort and toil;

An

632.

B. G.

s, 11, 5-

adjective (or a participle) qualifying

nouns

of different genders,

noun

as,

:

hominis

lands and

if

two

or

more

attributive, agrees with the nearest

agros omnis et maria parentia,

all the

man; Tusc. i, 6g. the nouns mean persons;

seas subservient to the welfare of

If predicate, it is

neuter,

utilitati

if

usually masculine,

if

they mean things; sometimes,

nected idea,

it

agrees with the nearest:

if

the nouns form a con-

—

pater mihi et mater mortui essent, how long my father and mother had been dead; Ter. Eun. 517. tempus et ratio administrandi eius libera praetori permissa, time

quam pridem

and manner of conducting

this

were

left to the

discretion of the

praetor; Liv. 35, 25, 10.

ut bracchia atque umeri liberi ab aqua esse possent, so that their

arms and shoulders could

633.

If

be kept out of water; B.

G.

7,

56, 4.

the nouns include both persons and things, a predi-

cate adjective (or participle)

is

sometimes masculine, sometimes

neuter, and sometimes agrees with the nearest,

if

that

is

plural:

rex regiaque classis una prof ecti, the king and the royal fleet

set

out

together; Liv. 21, 50, 11.

inimica inter se esse liberam civitatem et regem, that a free state

and a king are incompatible; Liv.

44, 24,

2.

patres decrevere legates sortesque exspectandas, the senate decreed that the envoys

634.

and the prophecies should

be awaited; Liv. 5, 15, 12.

Two

things are

or more masculine or feminine nouns denoting sometimes qualified by a neuter adjective (or parti-

ciple) in the predicate:

—

stultitiam et timiditatem et iniustitiam dicimus esse fugienda,

say that folly, timidity, and injustice are

we

avoided; Fin. 3, 39. nox atque praeda hostis remorata sunt, the night and plundering

delayed the ew^«9ir//^JbyJ/\%rq^^.

to be

ADJECTIVES AS SUBSTANTIVES

'^SS'^jS)

199

ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES AS SUBSTANTIVES 635. In the singular, the masculine of an adjective is rarely used as a substantive except as a predicate genitive: as, stulti erat sperare,

was

it

the part of a fool to hope; Phil. 2, 23.

masculine of participles

is

The

used freely in any case except the

The masculine nominative of adjectives and parsometimes used even in prose: as, si tabulam de

nominative. ticiples is

naufragio stultus arripuerit, extorquebitne earn sapiens?

if

a

from a shipwreck, will the wise man pull it away from him? Off. 3, 8g. But it is rarely found unless qualified by a pronominal adjective, hie, quidam, etc. It is used more freely in poetry.

fool snatches a board

—

The substantive but examples are

use of feminines

that of masculines,

is like

rare.

Neuter adjectives and participles are used substanany case, but are most common with prepositions and as Genitive of the Whole: 636.

tively in the singular in

varium

et mutabile

—

semper femina, woman

is

always a variable and

changeable thing; Aen. 4, 569.

rapto vivit, he lives on plunder; Liv. 22, 39, 13.

naves

in

aridum subduxerat, he had drawn

B. G.

ex insperato, unexpectedly; Liv.

upon dry land;

1, 25, 9.

aliquid boni, something good,; Ter.

637.

the ships

4, 29, 2.

And. 398.

In the plural, masculine adjectives and participles are

used freely as substantives

in

oderunt peccare bonl, good

any

men

case:

—

hate to sin; Her. Epis.

contemptu regentium, by contempt for

i, 16, 52.

those in power;

Tac. Ann.

12, S4-

suos continebat, he restrained his men; B. G.

638. thing,

Neuter

— are

plurals,

—

e.g.

i,

15, 4.

bona, good things, omnia, every-

used freely in the nominative and accusative,

rarely in the other ca-^^f^^ed by Microsofm

SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES

200

{639-642

639. Perfect Passive Participles used as substantives be qualified either by adverbs or by adjectives:

—

may

ob admissum foede dictumve superbe, on account of a foul crime a haughty word; Lucr. 5, 1224.

or

ferocibus dictis, with fierce words; Liv. 23, 47, 4.

640. Some adjectives constantly used as substantives have become nouns, and may be qualified by adjectives; so, for example, the names of the months; amicus, friend; inimicus,

enemy; dextra,

the

right;

sinistra,

the

left;

fera,

wild beast;

hiberna, winter-quarters ; patria, native land; propinquus, kins-

man;

regia, palace.

ADJECTIVES INSTEAD OF ADVERBS Adjectives are often used where adverbs would be

641.

used in English erat

Romae

—

:

Rome; Rose. Am.

frequens, he was often at

invitus feci, / did

it

unwillingly; Cat.

M.

16.

42.

se totos tradiderunt voluptatibus, they have given themselves wholly to

pleasure; Lael. 86.

Thus, instead of adverbs, the adjectives tremus, and ultimus are used to denote the

Troiae qui primus ab oris venit, who

Aen.

I,

first

prior, first

primus, princeps, pos-

or last to do a thing: as,

came from

the shores of

Troy;

I.

For the use

of adverbs instead of adjectives see 648.

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES Comparatives and Superlatives (adjectives and adverbs) have regularly the same meanings as in English, but they are often used where there is no definite comparison, the comparative denoting a degree that is rather high or too high (that is, higher than usual), the superlative denoting a degree that is very high. This meaning of the superlative is the same as would be expressed by the positive with admodum or valde, or by per or prae in composition with an adjective or adverb: 642.

—

—

senectus est natura loquacior, old age , Cat.

M.

is naturally rather talkative;

55.

vir foitissimus,

a

vqruji^kl^m ^(mtBsSfE)^, 12, 4.

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

643-646)

643

The

.

superlative

is

20I

sometimes used when there are only two persons maximus erat, to Numitor, who was the oldest

or things: as, Numitori, qui (of two brothers); Liv.

The

superlative

by unus,

adjective,

The

644.

is

i, 3, 10.

often strengthened

superlative

is

est possible degree, often able:

by

vel, eoen, longe,

by far,

—

an

used with quam, to denote the high-

with the addition of a form of possum,

quam plurimum scribere, to write as much as possible; De quam mazimis potest itineribus in Galliam contendit, into

or, if

the one.

Gavl by as rapid marches as he can; B. G.

quam maturrime,

as early as possible; B. G.

i,

Or.

x,

150.

he hastens

i, 7, i.

33, 4.

For the superlative with quisque see 691. 645.

When two

qualities are

compared, both adjectives or or, if magis is used,

adverbs are regularly in the comparative,

—

both are in the positive verior quam gratior, more true than agreeable; Liv. 22, 38, 8. libentius quam verius, with greater satisfaction than truth; Mil. 78. Celer disertus magis est quam sapiens, Celer is more eloquent than :

wise; Att. 10,

Rarely the

first

in the positive, or

i, 4.

adjective or adverb

is

in the comparative, the second

both are in the positive:

—

vehementius quam caute, more eagerly than cautiously; Tac. Agr. 4. Claris maioribus quam vetustis, 0/ a family that was famous rather than old; Tac. Ann. 4, 61.

646. in

The

following adjectives

— nearly

agreement often denote a part

of

superlatives

all

an object:

— medius,

reliquus, extremus, Imus, intimus, postremus, primus,

and ultimus

:

—

in coUe medio, half in

extremo ponte,

summus So, also

B. G.

I,

way up

the hill;

B. G.

summus,

1, 24, 2.

end of the bridge; B. G. 6, 29, 3. mons, the top of the mountain; B. G. i, 22, i. at the

multus and serus in such phrases as multo

22, 4;

—

and nocte

die, late in the day,

sera, late at night, Liv. 1, 57, 9. Digitized by Microsoft®

SYNTAX OP ADVERBS

202

{647-651

SYNTAX OF ADVEkBS 647.

Adverbs are used to qualify verbs, adjectives,

and other adverbs

(or adverbial phrases):

nuper pacati erant, they had been

—

recently subdtied; B. G.

tam propinquis hostibus, with the enemy minus facile, less easily; B. G. i, 2, 4.

i, 6, 2.

so near; B. G. i, 16, 6.

paene in conspectu, almost in sight; B. G. For the classification of adverbs see 297-213.

i, 11, 3.

Adverbs are sometimes used to qualify nouns, especially

648.

those containing a verbal or adjectival idea:

—

hinc abitio, departure from here; PI. Rud. 503.

baud dubie plane

maxim6

victor, undoubtedly victorious; Sail. Jug. 102, i.

in all respects a

vir,

man; Tusc. 2, 53. nuUo publice emolumento, with

privatim periculo,

personal danger and no public recognition; Liv.

Some common

649. satis,

and si

—

sic,

vales,

bene

satis esse

For the use

adverbs,

—

very great

6, 39, 6.

especially bene, male, ita,

are often used as predicate adjectives: est, if

you are

iinum consulem,

well, it is well;

that one consul

Fam.

—

5, i, 1.

was enough; Liv.

34, 43, 4.

adverbs as prepositions see 1025-1027.

of

Adverbs of place are sometimes used instead 650. noun with a preposition :

—

of a pro-

inde maiorem adoptavi, of these I adopted the older; Ter. Ad. 47. (inde = ex eis.)

apud eos quo se 38. is

(quo

unde

te

De

Or.

=

contulit,

among

those to

audisse dicis, he from 2,

For the meanings

whom

he went; Verr. 4,

ad quos.)

=

whom you

say you heard

it;

285.

(unde

of the

comparative and superlative of adverbs see

ex quo.)

642-645.

THE USE OF CERTAIN ADVERBS 651.

Of the adverbs meaning

so,

tam

(like

adeo and eo)

denotes degree; ita and sic usually denote manner: tam opportune tempore,

at so favorable

a time; B. C.

—

3, 36, 8.

sic'mnites cdasb\a.tgs^.lw,v^ri^t^s^co^ed his troops; B. G.

7, 19, 6.

NEGATIVE ADVERBS

652-657)

203

Certo and certe mean certainly, but certe

652.

in restricted aflBrmations,

meaning

at least, at

any

is

used also

rate: as,

res

fortasse verae, certe graves, things perhaps true, at any rate

important; Fin.

lam

653.

4, 7.

referring to past

and present time means already or

now, with reference to the time that has elapsed referring to future ;

time

it

means immediately; with negatives

Nunc

654.

refers to present

it

means

time without reference to any

other.

After present contrary-to-fact conditions

lated as

it is:

as, si

{no) longer.

it is

best trans-

discere posses fidem, ea disciplina a

me adhi-

bita esset; nunc, etc., if you could learn good faith, I should have given you this lesson; as

it is,

is

best translated as

Primum mt&ns first or in the first

655.

plying a

series,

and

is

So, tunc, then,

etc.; Liv. i, 28, g.

after past contrary-to-fact conditions

often followed

place,

was.

beginning or im-

by deinde,

and denique or postremo, finally. Prim5 means at first, as opposed to

it

next,

or,

turn,

then,

afterward, emphasizing

the idea of time only.

Quidem,

656. it

word it emphasizes; when followed by quidem honestum, verum hoc

indeed, at least, follows the

often has an adversative force, especially

sed, autem, etc.: as, est istuc

expedit, that is honorable to he sure, but this is expedient; Off. 3,75.

Ne

The word between ne and quidem: as, ne or phrase emphasized stands nor does Varus either copias producere, Varus quidem dubitat .

.

.

quidem means

not even, rarely not either.

hesitate to lead out his troops; B. C. 2, 33, 3.

NEGATIVE ADVERBS

Non

657. is

is

the negative for statements and questions, and

used also with single words.

command

sions of

Non 768). '

Ne

is

the negative for expres-

or wish.

sometimes used with the hortatory subjunctive Ovid uses it even with the imperative.

is

Digitized

by Microsoft®

(see

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS

204

Haud (haut, hau) negatives a

658.

single

{658-663

word and in classical

Latin is commonly used only with adjectives and adverbs: as, haud facile, not easily; Sail. Cat. 13,5. Cicero uses it with a few verbs, especially in the phrase

Nee

659.

is

haudjcio an, / don't know

but that.

sometimes used for non in early writers and

rarely in later writers, chiefly in the combinations

necdum,

not

and necopinans, unaware.

yet,

One negative in a clause usually counteracts another: non possum non confiteri, I must confess; Fam. 9, 14, i. Thus non nemo means some one, nonnumquam, sometimes, etc. After a general negative like nego or numquam, the corneve, and also ne relatives neque neque, neve quidem, do not counteract, but add emphasis to the negative idea: as, nihil umquam neque insolens neque gloriosum ex ore eius exiit, nothing either insolent or boastful ever came from his 660.

as,

.

lips;

.

Nep. Timol.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

4, 2.

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUNS

The

661.

person of the verb

shown by

is

its

ending;

hence, Personal Pronouns are regularly used as subjects

only to express emphasis or contrast: quos ego a Catilina non revoco,

from

—

these I, for

my part,

do not

call

away

Catiline; Cat. 2, 22.

ego reges

eieci,

vos tyrannos introducitis, / drove out kings, you are

bringing in tyrants; ad Her. 4, 66.

The Latin has no

662.

except the reflexive sui.

personal pronoun of the third person

The

lack

is

supplied

by the demon-

strative

and

relative pronouns.

663.

The

genitive singular of the personal pronouns,

of the reflexive sui,

meus,

laius,

is

and suus being regularly used instead

sessive genitive.

and

usually objective, the possessive adjectives Digitized

by Microsoft®

of the pos-

the reflexive pronoun

664-66y)

Of the two forms used as an

205

ending in

of the genitive plural, that

objective genitive;

larly as a genitive of the whole,

-um

that ending in

sometimes as an

is

-1 is

used regu-

objective genitive,

—

and always when accompanied by omnium: habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui, you have a leader mindfid of you, forgetful of himself; Cat. 4, ig.

uterque nostrum, each one of us; Att.

13, 33, 2.

custodem huius urbis ac vestrum, guardian of

this city

and of you;

Cat. 3, 29.

omniiun nostrum vitam,

The

664.

the life of

plural of the personal

us

all;

Cat.

pronoun of the

i,

14.

first

person

is

some-

times used instead of the singular as a conventional expression of modesty: as, sitque

of

me

memor

nostii necne, referte mihi,

let

me know

whether she thinks

or not; Ov. Trist. 4, 3, 10.

665.

nouns:

The personal pronouns as, tii te in

custody; Cat.

i,

are used also as reflexive pro-

ciistodiam dedisti, you gave yourself into

19.

THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN i

666.

The

Reflexive Pronoun

sui, like

the possessive

adjective suus (see 619), in an independent clause refers regularly to the grammatical or logical subject; but often to

some other word when the context makes the meaning

clear

:

—

is sibi

legationem ad civitates suscepit, he iOok upon himself an

embassy

cum

to the states;

B. G.

i, 3, 3.

etiam feras inter sese natura •udld beasts friendly to

quos studeo sanare sokes; Cat.

conciliet, since nature

one another; Rose.

sibi ipsos,

/ am

Am.

makes even

63.

eager to cure them for their

own

2, 17.

667. In dependent clauses it may refer to the subject of the dependent clause; when so used, it is called a Direct Reflexive; or, it may refer to the subject of the main clause, and is then called

an Indirect Reflgxi^e.^ ^B^Uhe^ndirect Reflexive

is

regu-

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS

2o6 larly

{668-671

used only when the dependent clause expresses the words

or thought of the subject of the main clause: si

qua

ad quam se

eluceat,

vittutis

Eignificatio

—

similis

animus

adiungat, i/ any indication of virtue should appear, to which a congenial

mind may

attach itself; Lael. 48.

huic mandat ut ad se revertatur, this B. G.

a Caesare invitor

sibi

his envoy; Att.

he orders to return to him;

ut sim legatus, I 18, 3.

2,

am

invited by Caesar to be

(Referring to the logical subject.)

In indirect discourse, when the subject from that of the verb introducing

668. is

man

4, 21, 2.

different

usually refers to the latter: Ariovistus respondit

—

omnes

of the infinitive it,

the reflexive

ad se oppugnandum

Galliae civitates

venisse, Ariovistus replied that all the states of Gaul had come to attack

him; B. G.

i,

44, 3.

Faustulo spes fuerat, regiam stirpem apud se §ducari, Faustulus

had

were being reared in his

believed that children of royal birth

house; Liv.

1,

5.

5,

(Referring to the logical subject of the

introducing verb.)

ne existumarent

opus esse,

sibi perdita re publica

let

them not think

that he needed to destroy the state; Sail. Cat. 31, 7.

(Referring

to the logical subject of the infinitive.)

669.

The

reflexive

English " one ":

as,

is

brag about one's self; Off.

670.

Suus

late Latin:

as,

is

sometimes used of an indefinite person

deforme est de se ipsum praedicare, i,

like the

bad form

to

137.

sometimes strengthened by

suo

it is

sibi gladio

hunc

sibi,

but chiefly in early and

iugulo, Tvith his

own sword I

kill

him;

Ter. Ad. 958.

For the use of ipse as a reflexive pronoun see 675. For the use of is instead of the reflexive pronoun see 719.

THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN 671.

The

Intensive Pronoun ipse,

self,

is

used alone

as a substantive, or in apposition with another word. It

is

used alone as ifp^-mkr^icrosoft®

-

THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN

672-677)

emphasize an omitted sub-

(a) In the nominative, to

672.

ject of the

second, or third person:

first,

207

—

ipse, / myself shall manage; De Or. i, omnia ad nos defenmt, they themselves report

moderabor ipsi

De

Or.

any other

—

:

erat scriptum ipsius

Cat.

case, as

manu,

it

an emphatic pronoun of the

had been written in his own hand;

3, 10.

id rei publicae praeclanun, ipsis gldriosum, this state, glorious

674.

To

(c)

for themselves; Phil.

autem

Nomentanus

(d)

erat super ipsum,

the

—

erat Pythagoras, the Master said;

"Master " was Pythagoras; N. D. Hor.

was splendid for

2, 27.

designate an important person: 'ipse"

ipse dixit;

675.

eoerything to us;

250.

1,

(b) In

673.

third person

iii.

i,

now

the

10.

Nomentanus was above

the host;

S. 2, 8, 23.

As an

indirect reflexive, in a subordinate clause,

referring to the subject of the

main

clause:

—

peitimuerunt ne ab ipsis descisceret, they were afraid that he woidd

abandon them; Nap. Ale.

7, s, i-

Ariovistus respondit si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset, sese ad etun

venturum

fuisse, Ariovistus replied that, if he

thing of Caesar, he would have come to him; B. G.

676.

If

agrees with se

there

it,

677.

the form

1,

34, 2.

a reflexive pronoun in the predicate, ipse sometimes

but more often

ipsum

me

is

had wanted any-

it

agrees with the subject:

interfecit, he killed

himself; Tac. H.

—

3, 51.

ipse consolor, / console myself; Lael. 10.

Ipse

is

ipsum

used in apposition with nouns and pronouns; used to intensify adverbs of time:

—

is

ipse Caesar, Caesar himself;

Fam.

turpe tnihi ipsi videbatur, even

nunc ipsum, ywrf now; Att.

to

it

seemed disgraceful; PhU.

12, 16.

For the use of ipse with a possessive Digitized

6, 10, 2.

me

adjective, see 403.

by Microsoft®

i, g.

— SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS

2o8 Ipse

678.

and

is

much more

used

is

{678-682

than the English

freely

own

often to be translated very, exactly, of one's

self

accord,

etc.:

ad id ipsum creatus,

elected for this very

purpose; Liv.

2,

42, 5.

triginta dies erant ipsi, there were exactly thirty days; Att. 3,21.

arma

arms fell of

ipsa cecideruat, the

their

own

accord; Off.

i, 77.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

The Interrogative Pronoun referring to an indefnumber is quis, who; the corresponding adjective qui, what or of what kind ( = qualis)

679. inite is

:

quis

who more famous than Themistoclesf

Themistocle?

clarior

—

Lael. 42. scribis te velle scire qui sit rei publicae status,

want

The

680.

to

—

eum

quis

is

The

me? who

it

that

you

i, 7, 10.

calls

my name?

him? Cat.

2, 12.

Ter. Ph. 990.

Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective referring to

fluat iudicari

direction

you write

Fam.

between quis and qui is not always sometimes used as an adjective, qui as a sub-

two persons or things

partem

country is;

senator appellavit? what senator addressed

qui nominat

681.

state of the

distinction

observed; quis stantive:

know what the

is

non

flows; B. G.

ut oculis in utram

uter, which:

as,

possit, so that

you cannot

see in

which

i, 12, i.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES Quis, any one, some one,

682.

indefinite pronouns, nisi, ne,

ubi,

etc.

clause:

and

is

the most indefinite of the

rare except in combination with

and certain interrogative and

—

relative words, as

It always stands after one or

d^erit quis, some one si

is

may

say; Off.

more words

of its

3, 76.

quid in te pecca.\i,ffiti^^,tlifffifQMmny wrong; Att.

si,

num,

3, 15, 4.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

683-686)

The corresponding

Indefinite Adjective

and

case of the interrogative pronoun is

is

209

qui; but, as in the

adjective, the distinction

not always observed; see 680. 683.

and nescio

Aliquis (adjective, aliqui), quispiam,

quis,

some one, all have about the same meaning, and are somewhat less vague than quis. Of similar meaning are the double negatives non. nulll, some, several (used also adjectively, as is the singular

non

nullus),

non nemo, some

in these there is a Aliquis sometimes ut

me

aliquid putare nugas, to think

CatuU.

my

3, 15, 8.

nonsense of some value;

i, 4.

Quidam, a

certain one, is

who might be named

if

more

definite, referring to

one

necessary: as, video esse hie quosdam, /

see that there are certain ones here; it is

—

means a person or thing of some importance: you want me to be somebody; Att.

veils esse aliquem, that

meas esse

684.

and non nihil, something, but of number or quantity.

one,

fundamental idea

Cat.

As an adjective

i, 8.

often used to soften the meaning of a noun: as, timiditate

ingenua quadam, hy a

Quisquam (substantive and

685.

De

sort of natural timidity;

Or.

2,

10.

adjective), awy one, and the

adjective ullus are used only in negative sentences or phrases,

implying a negative, in conditional clauses, and in which follow a comparative and imply a negative: estne quisquam de quo melius existimes tu? m there any one of whom

in questions

—

clauses

si

you have a better opinion? Rose. Com. 18. cuiquam generi liominum probatus sit, if he class of

saepius

men;

Verr.

cimi hoste coaflixit

certavit, he fought

is

approved by any

2, 17.

more

quam quisquam often with the

cvun inimico con-

enemy than any one

ever

wrangled with a personal foe; Manil. 28. sine ni

tillo

metii, without

any fear; Verr.

oSerumentas habebis clavos, unless

5,

96.

pluris in tergo tuo

you have more

stripes

quam

iilla

navis longa

on your back than any man-

of-war has nails; PI. Rud. 753.

686.

Qui^as and qmlibet

more than two; utervis and

mean any

one whatever, referring to

uterlibet. eiiAer, of two.

Neuter

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS

2IO

means

neither, of

two; in the plural

it

{pS^-dgi

two groups: as, side saw the other;

refers to

neutri alteros primo cemebant, at first neither Liv. 21, 46, 4.

687. Nemo, besides its regular use as a pronoun, is sometimes used as an adjective, in place of nuUus, and is regularly so used with a proper name, another pronoun, "or an adjective or par-

—

used substantively: ut hominem neminem pluris Fam. 13, 55, 1.

ticiple

faciam, that I rate no

man more highly;

nemo Cornelius, no Cornelius; Att. 6, i, 18. nemo quisquam, no one at all; Ter. Euti. 1032. nemo Arpinas, no one of Arpinum; Plane. 22. Nullus, not any, no, regularly an adjective,

688.

is

often

used as a substantive in the plural and sometimes in the singular; the genitive and ablative singular are regularly used instead of the corresponding cases of nullis

nemo

^ta posset esse iucundior,

Tusc.

I,

-

none coiM

life be

more pleasant;

94.

niilUus insector calamitatem, 2,

:

to

I

persecute

no

one's misfortune;

Phil.

98.

beneficia ab nullo repetere, he asked favors of no one; Sail. Jug. 96,

2.

Quicumque, whoever, properly a relative pronoun, is often an indefinite pronoun or adjective, any whatever: as, qui quacumque de causa ad eos venenmt, who have come to them for any reason whatever; B. G. 6, 23, 9. 689.

used, especially in the ablative, as

690. is

"

DISTRIBUTIVE

PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

Quisque, each,

every, refers to

more than two; uterque

each, of two.

691.

Quisque almost never stands word with which

regularly follows the

nected in sense.

It is often

not an individual but a

men; Arch.

26; so,

first

in its clause,

it is

most

used with superlatives to indicate as, optimus quisque, all the best

class:

wi^ji^-f^j^^g

and

closely con-

^uj^erkt^s,

—

in

omni

arte opti-

relative pronouns and adjectives

602-6q6)

mum

quidque rarissimum

most rare; Fin.

qudque amio

81;

2,

quinto

139.

2,

The combination

common

always the as,

Sicilia tota censetur, every fifth year all Sicily is

assessed; Verr.

so

est, in every art the best is

and with ordinal numerals:

211

that

struction, as

if

quisque with the reflexive pronoun was sometimes used irregularly, without conwere an indeclinable word: as, multis sibi of

it is it

many

quisque imperium petentibus,

seeking power, each for

himself; Sail. Jug. 18, 3.

692. Uterque in the plural, except when it is used with a noun plural in form but singular in meaning, refers to two

groups:

—

pugnatum

est

ab utrisque

acriter, both sides

fought vigorously; B. G.

4, 26, I.

utiisque castris,/(w each camp; B. G.

i,

51,

i.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES Relative

693.

and

Pronouns

Adjectives

are

connecting

words, which refer to a substantive (called the Antecedent),

and serve to introduce clauses usually subordinate.

Relatives

are either definite, as qui, who; quails, of which kind; or indefinite, as quicumque, whoever; qualiscumque, of whatever kind. definite relatives are

The

ever.

694.

indefinite relatives

The

he had; B. G.

pronoun is never omitted in Latin, as it is equitatum omnem quern habebat, all the cavalry

i,

15,

i.

The antecedent

(especially

repeated in the relative clause: locis esse

The

meaning whoare always compounded forms. indefinite, as qui

relative

in English: as,

695.

sometimes

if it is

as, iter in

dies, locus, or res) is

sometimes

ea loca facere coepit quibus in

Germanos audiebat, he began to make a journey Germans were; B. G. 4, 7, i.

into those places

in which he heard the

696. the

The

relative clause often precedes the

antecedent; when

one containing sometimes

this occurs, the antecedent is

placed in the relative clause, .taking the case of the relative

•^

'

Digitized

by Microsoft®

— SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS

212

{dgy-JOZ

pronoun; the antecedent may then be represented in clause by a demonstrative pronoun :

quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus,

I did in

things

my

attigit

consulship, he has touched

own

its

—

hie versibus, what

upon in

his verses;

Arch. 28.

quae pars on the

Romano

calamitatem populo

civitatis

poenas

persolvit, that part of the state

Roman people was the first to pay the penalty;

The antecedent is sometimes attracted

697.

pronoun, even when

na^ non Am. 1009.

the ship; PI.

B. G.

i, 12, 6.

as,

Naucratem

whom I wanted

Naucrates

erat,

ea piinceps

into the case of the relative

not included in the relative clause:

it is

quern convenire volui in

was not on

intulerat,

which had brought disaster

to

find

698. An antecedent which would naturally be an appositive in the main clause usually stands in the relative clause, agreeing in case with the relative

pronoun:

/ pushed on

to

as,

Amanum

contend!, qui

Amanus, a mountain

that

was

mons

erat

hostium plenus,

covered with the

enemy; Att.

s,

20, 3-

699.

An

adjective, usually a superlative or numeral, properly belong-

ing to the antecedent, sometimes stands in the relative clause, agreeing

with the relative:

as,

vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud

beautiful vessels which he

700.

had seen at his house; Verr.

eum

viderat, those very

4, 63.

In colloquial language the relative clause sometimes contains

a redundant demonstrative pronoun without construction, which might properly stand in the main clause: as,

partum bene, he who well obtained; PI.

is

Rud. 1240.

The antecedent

701.

ille

qui cavet, diutine uti

bene

licet

on his guard may enjoy for a long time what he has (Cf. 714.) is

often omitted, especially

if

it

is in-

definite:

sunt qui dicant, there are those who say; Cat.

bene

est cui

deus

obtulit

quod

Heaven has given what

is

2, 12.

satis est, blessed is the

enough; Hor. C.

man

to

whom

3, 16, 43.

A relative clause may refer to an idea as its antecedent; then introduced by quod, id quod, or quae res: as, si a

702. it is

vobis, id

which

I

quod non spero, deserar, do not expect;

if I

should be deserted by you,

^(f^^y ^/cfe%«®

RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

703-709)

213

703. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number; its case is determined by its construction in the clause in which it stands: as, anulum quern haberet, pallium qu5

amictuS, soccos quibus indutus asset sua the ring

which he wore,

slippers he

the cloak with

had on, he had made with

Rarely a relative pronoun

704. dent: as,

you are wont

to

do;

his

own hand; De

consuesti,

Fam.

its

antece-

5, 14, i.

plural,

and

for the

agreement of predicate adjectives

if

the

Or. 3, 127.

when you do something

a relative has more than one antecedent

If

confecisse,

attracted into the case of

cum aliquid agas eorum quorum

of those things that

705.

is

manu

which he was covered,

they are of different genders,

it

it is

in the

follows the rules

(see 632, 633)

:

—

fruges atque fructus quos terra gignit, the fruits and crops which the earth produces;

N. D.

2, 37.

otium atque ^vitiae, quae prima mortales putant, leisure and wealth, which

706.

If the

men

Sail.

Cat. 36.

is a collective noun, the relative may equitatum praemittit qui videant, he sends

antecedent

be in the plural: the cavalry

reckon of the first importance;

as,

forward

B. G.

to see;

i, 15, i.

707. If the relative dause contains a predicate noun meaning the same person or thing as the antecedent, the relative usually agrees with the predicate noun: as, animal hoc quern vocamus hominem, that animal which

we

call

man; Legg.

708.

A

i, 22.

relative

sometimes agrees with a personal pronoim implied in

a possessive, or with some other word easily supplied from the context: vestT^ qui

cum summa

is of the greatest

integritate vixistis,

importance

to

hoc maximS

you who have

—

interest, this

lived with the greatest

integrity; Bull. 79.

coniuraTere pauci, d§ quj

and of

709.

A relative clause

the relative pronoun,

quae tua prudentia Att."6, 9, 1.

(sc. coniiiT&tifine)

this {conspiracy)

is

I

will

speak;

dicam, a few have conspired,

Sail.

Cat. 18,

i.

containing an abstract noun, the antecedent of

sometimes used to characterize a person:

est, te valere,

I hope you are well, such

The same idea may be expressed by

is

as, spero,

your pmdence;

the Genitive of Quality,

cuius es prudentiae, or byagiJ/^gy^^tHftj^fefe^, pro tua prudentia.

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS

214

A

710.

pronoun

relative

is

sometimes equivalent to a per-

sonal or demonstrative pronoun,

which

is

not subordinate

quae cxim

:

—

men; B. G. For the use

and may introduce a clause

ita sint, since these things are so;

quae res magno usui nostris

a

of

(jlO-yi^.

f uit, this

Cat.

thing

i, lo.

was of

great service to

om

4, 25, i.

relative adverb

instead of a relative pronoun in expres-

sions of place see 660.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

The Demonstrative Pronouns are hie, ille, and idem. They are used either as substantives

711. iste,

is,

or

as adjectives. As substantives they supply the lack of a personal pronoun of the third person; as adjectives they follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives. 712.

Hie,

this, refers

time, or thought:

—

to

what

near the speaker in place,

is

hi sunt extra provinciam piimi, these are the first outside the province;

B. G.

I, 10, s.

his paucis diebus, in these last few days; B. G. 3, 17, 3. hie

tamen

vvnt, yet this

Hie sometimes

man

lives;

Cat.

i, 2.

refers to the speaker himself:

militem aecipias, receive these arms and this soldier

as, (i.e.

haec anna et hunc

we

myself); Liv. 2.

10, II.

713.

Die, that, refers to

place, time, or thought

It

:

—

what

is

remote from the speaker in

de

illius

sol

me ille admonuit, thai sun has reminded me; De Or.

diseessu, concerning his departure; Att. 11, 18,

sometimes hie est

refers to

ille

what

Demosthenes,

is

familiar:

this is the

i.

3, 209.

— famous Demosthenes; Tusc.

s,

103.

Medea 714.

ilia,

the

In poetry

well-known Medea; Manil. 22.

ille is

of increased emphasis

sometimes used superfluously, but with the

— ^V>°'^i^^S§W^^^<^f^ ^^ designated :

effect

715-718) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

AND ADJECTIVES

215

quem neque fides neque ius iurandum negue ilium misericordia repressit, whom neither honor nor oath nor pity restrained; Ter. Ad. 306. nunc deztra ingeminans showering blows,

now

ictus,

nunc ille sinistra, now with his right hand same man, with his left; Aen. 5, 457.

he, the

715. Hie and hie sometimes mean respectively the former and the latter, referring to two persons or things just mentioned: as, Caesar beneficiis ac munificentia magnus habebatur, integritate vitae Cato; ille mansuetudine et misericordia clarus factus, huic severitas dignitatem addiderat, Caesar was hdd great for his kindness and generosity, Cato for the integrity of his life; the former became famous through humanity and mercy, the latter' s dignity was based upon austerity; Sail. Cat. 54, 2. But hie sometimes means the former, ille the latter, when the person or thing designated by hie is more prominent in the speaker's mind: as, melior est certa pax quam sperata victoria;

haee in tua,

ilia

in deoiium

manu

est, certain peace is better

than

hoped-for victory; the former is in your hands, the latter in the

hands of

the gods; Liv. 30, 30, 19.

is more indefinite than hie or ille, what is near or to what is remote. It is used as a personal pronoun of the third person whenever the context does not call for the more definite hie or ille. It is often explained by a relative clause, of which it is the antecedent:

716.

Is,

this

or that,

referring either to

—

ex eo loco ad flumen contenderunt, from the river; si

obsides ab

hastened

to

dentur, if hostages should be given by them; B. G.

1,

B. G. ils

this place they

2, 9, 3.

14, 6. is

qui erit adductus in iudicium, he

who

shall be brought to trial; Verr.

3. 207.

717.

neque

man

Is is

is

sum

sometimes similar in meaning to qui mortis perieulo terrear, /

that is frightened by

718.

danger of death; B. G.

In combination with a connective

English and that too:

—

Digitized

is is

by Microsoft®

am 5,

talis,

such: as,

not the sort of 30,

2.

sometimes used

like

the

{jI^^S

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS

2l6

vincula, et ea sempiterna, imprisonment

magnum

negotium

piece of business to

Att.

719.

Is

voyage,

that too for life; Cat. 4, 7.

mense

and

it is a great month of July;

Quinctili,

that too in the

s, 12, I.

BuSdent Rauracis

una cum

uti

them; B. G.

Hie,

720.

make a

sometimes used instead of the

is

to set out with

and

est navigare atque id

ille,

iis

reflexive

pronoun:

as, per-

proficiscantur, they persuade the Rauraci

i, 5, 4.

and

is refer either

to

what precedes

or to

what

follows in time or thought.

721.

what

Iste, that of yours, refers to

near the person

is

addressed or to what relates to him or affects him: ista subsellia vacuefacta simt, the benches near

Cat.

—

you were

deserted;

I, 16.

ista praetura, that proctorship of yours; Verr. 2, 46.

It

used also without personal reference, to express contempt:

is

onimi est ista moUitia, that

A

722.

is

weakness of mind; B. G.

as,

7, 77, 5.

neuter pronoun often refers to a clause either pre-

ceding or following: hoc dico nullum

— te

signum

reliquisse, this

I say

that

you

left

a

not

statue; Verr. i, 53.

eo,

quod Minucius prospere pugnasset, on Minucius had fought successfully; Liv. 22,

The word

723. omitted:

as, solis

is brighter

that,

candor

this

account,

as used in the English phrase that illustrior est

quam

than that of any fire; N. D.

2,

quae possit

peated:

as, nulla est celeritas

there is

no quickness which can

because

34, 5. of, is regularly-

ullius ignis, the light of the

40. cvan.

Sometimes the noun

sun

is re-

animi celeritate contendere,

rival the quickness of the

mind; Tusc.

1,

43.

724. force viiTs,

Hie, ille, is, and iste (usually ille) sometimes acquire a concessive by the addition of quidem: as, libri scripti ab optimis illis quidem sed non satis eruditis, books written by men excellent to be sure, but

insufficiently educated;

Tusc.

i, 6.

Idem, the same, refers to what has been mentioned or about to be mentioned, or identifies two or more persons or

725. is

by the same substantive; means unchanging: Digitized by Microsofm things fienoted

—

or, as

an adjective,

it

— ALIUS AND ALTER

726-730) eodem tempore,

at the

same time

217

{just mentioned); B. G. 2, 24, 1.

causas simiUimas inter se vel potius easdem, cases very much like one another or rather just the same; Brut. 324.

idem semper

Idem

726.

—

over or yet:

is

vultus, always the

same expression;

Off. 1, 90.

often used where the English would use more-

eadem in piimis faceta oratio, a fine speech and morean exceedingly bright one; Brut. 273. rebus angustis animosus appare; sapienter idem contrahes vela, splendida et over

in straitened circumstances show a good spirit; yet if you are wise,

you

To

727.

express the idea the same as,

atque or ac,

A

728.

ut, the preposition

idem

cum, and,

is

used with qui,

in poetry, the dative.

demonstrative pronoun usually agrees with a prediif there is one, rather than 'with the word to which

cate noun, it refers;

will take in your sails, etc.; Hor. C. 2, 10, 21.

a demonstrative pronoun used in an indefi-

so, also,

nite sense as subject or object regularly agrees

with a predicate

noun: hie locus est

unus quo perfugiant; hie portus, haec

arz,

haec ara

sociorum, this is the only place where they can take refuge; this is the harbor, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies; Verr. 5, 126.

ea erat confessio caput

was

Romam

esse, this

was a

confession that

Rome

the capital; Liv. i, 45, 3.

eas divitias putabant, they thought this to be wealth;

Sail.

Cat. 6.

ALIUS Airo ALTER 729. alter

Alius might be included

among

among

indefinite pronouns,

demonstratives, but on account of similarity of

meaning and use they are best treated together. used both as pronouns and as adjectives. 730. ring to

when used

Alius,

more than two;

alius, one

.

.

.

another.

one or the other, of

alone,

it is

means

other,

They

another,

refer-

used also correlatively, alius

Alter,

when used

^^jMi^ Bf>Wi^^iS8m>

alone,

means

'^« second, of

are

.

.

.

either

a series;

— SYNTAX OF VERBS

2l8 it is

used also correlatively, alter

other:

.

—

divitias

praeponunt,

alii

.

.

{731-734

alter, the one

.

.

the

.

potentiam, some prefer wealth, others

alii

power; Lael. 20. fuit

claudus altero pede, he was lame in one foot; Nep. Ages.

proximo, altero,

tertio,

second, third,

first,

8, i.

denique reliquis conseciitis diebus, on the

and then

of the days that followed;

the rest

Phil. I, 32.

alter exercitum perdidit, alter vendidit,

one

lost his

army, the other

sold it; Plane. 86.

The phrases

731.

alius

.

.

.

and

alius

alter

.

.

.

alter are

used also in a reciprocal sense:alius

ex

alio

causam

quaerit, they ask one another the reason; B. G. 6,

37,6. ut alter alteri inimicus aiudlio esset, so that one other;

In

B. G.

s,

sometimes used instead of

this sense uterque is

utnquest cordi, each

The

is

reciprocal idea is expressed also

By

alter: as,

by

uterque

inter nos (or vos or se)

alii

mean

one

.

.

.

:

as,

5.

a condensed form of expression alius

twice in a clause or phrase to another: as, aliud

the

dear to the other; Ter. Ph. 800.

cohortafi inter se, encouraging one another; B. G. 4, 25,

732.

enemy helped

44, i3-

is

used only

one, another

.

.

.

natura iter ostendit, nature points out

to one man, another to another; Sail. Cat. 2, 9. So, with alias aliud sentiunt, they an adverb in place of one pronoun

one road

:

—

think one thing at one time, another at another; Or.

733.

As

2,

30.

from alii, ceteri means all the others, the rest; but in this word the idea of completeness is not

distinct

so, also reliqui,

so definite.

SYNTAX OF VERBS VOICE 734.

The Active and Passive Voices have

meanings as

usually the

same

in English.

With^rare exceptions intransitive verbs are used only impersonally in the passiveo^/^yj^ jajcASoifefee third person singular:

AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH SUBJECT

735-73^) as,

ibatur in earn sententiam, they came

decision; Q. Fr. (e.g.

2,

passive voice

was gone)

{it

to that

of intransitive verbs

may have

convenio, meet)

The

But compounds

i, 3.

2I9

a complete passive voice. sometimes used in a reflexive sense

is

accingitur ense, he girds himself with a sword; Aen.

:

640.

7,

ut lavarentur in fluminibus, that they bathe in the rivers; B. G. 4,

umeros mstemor pelle, I

cover

my shoulders with a skin;

AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH

A

735.

person:

verb agrees with

—

hos ego video consul, / vobis populi

Romani

A

736.

cum

to the

Roman

non desunt; vos ne populo Romano the protection

Roman

of the

may

people

not seem to be want-

people; Cat. 4, 18.

tanta multitudo lapides conicerent,

throwing stones; B. G.

when

plural verb

:

—

so great a crowd were

2, 6, 3.

pars maior receperunt sese, the greater part retired; Liv. 34, 47,

The

distributives quisque

721.

ITS SUBJECT

noun sometimes takes a

collective

i, 10.

2,

the consul see these; Cat. i, 9.

praesidia

not wanting to you; look out thai you

ing

Aen.

subject in number and

its

deesse videamini providete, is

—

and uterque sometimes take a

6.

plural verb: as,

uterque eorum exercitum eductmt, each one of them leads out his army; B. C. 3, 30, 3-

With two

737.

in the plural:

fuenint, hath Quintus times;

Fam.

4, 6,

more singular subjects the verb may be

or

as, et

i.

Maximus et L. Paullus iis temporibus Maximus and Lucius Paullus lived at those

Q.

Or, the verb

may

be in the singular:

as,

captus est, the daughter of Orgetorix and one of his sons were captured; B. G. i, 26, 4. With two or more singular subjects denoting things and

Orgetorigis

filia

atque iinus e

filiis

regarded as expressing a single idea, the verb is usually in the fama et ^^ta innocentis defenditur, the reputation

singular: as,

and

life

738.

mav'

of

an innocent man

With

singular

be in the plural

and

are defended; Rose,

Am.

15.

plural subjects pombined, the verb

or, if Digitized

the nearest subject by Microsoft®

is

singular, the

SYNTAX OF VERBS

220

(73^743

verb may be in the singular: as, quanto in periculo et castra et legiones et imperator versaretur, in what danger the camp, the legions,

and

A

739.

the

commander were

singular subject accompanied

take a plmal verb: the others

involved; B. G.

as,

had decided;

Lentulus

Sail.

cum

Cat. 43,

by an

2,

26, 5.

cum may

ablative with

ceteris constituerant, Lentulus with

i.

If the subjects are of different persons, the verb is in the person rather than the second or third, and in the second rather than the third: as, si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero

740.

first

valemus,

Fam.

you and Tullia are

if

A

741.

well,

Cicero and

verb having a relative as

its

of the expressed or implied antecedent:

adsum

I are well;

I.

14, s,

qui feci,

tu qui scis, you

I who did it am who know; Att.

subject

—

is

in the person

here; Aen. 9, 427. s, 2, 3.

In the compound forms of the passive system the par-

742.

—

with the subject in gender, number, and case: cum id nuntiatum esset, when this had been announced; B. G. 1, 7, i. se ad earn rem paratos esse arbitrati sunt, they thought that they were

ticiple agrees

ready for this thing; B. G.

With subjects

of different

i, s, 2.

numbers or genders the

participle

follows the rules for the agreement of adjectives; see 631-634.

For the agreement of a verb with an appositive see 388;

for

agreement

with a predicate noim see 396.

MOODS ANB TENSES INDICATIVE

The

743. (a)

as,

Indicative

Mood

MOOD

is

used as follows:

—

In independent declarative sentences which state a fact:

castra movent, they move the camp; B. G.

i,

15, i.

In independent interrogative sentences which make inquiry regarding a fact: as, quid te impedit? what hinders you? (b)

Cati

I,

28.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

—

•

MOOD

INDICATIVE

744"?4?)

In exclamatory statements of fact:

(c)

what men he has (d)

Iii

Cat.

left!

221 as, reliquit

quos viros!

4.-

2,

dependent clauses which state or assume a

These

fact.

include certain types of relative, temporal, causal, adversative, conditional,

and substantive

clauses; examples of the use of the

indicative are given in the treatment of these clauses.

The

744.

indicative in questions introduced

command

times equivalent to a

quin tu adducis lormn?

why

quin conscendimus equos?

or exhortation:

don't

why

you

by quin

—

is

some-

tighten the strap? Liv. 9, 10, 7.

don't

we mount our horses?

Liv.

i,

57.7-

From

this

comes the use of quin with the imperative:

attendite, iudices, consider

The Use

it

of the

The meanings and tive are as follows

in this way, judges,

Tenses

of the Indicative

quin

as,

sic

Mil. 79.

Mood

uses of the six tenses of the indica-

: :

The Present Tense

745.

— why not?

represents an action as occurriflg

or as actually in progress, or a condition as existing in present

time: as, epistulas scribo, I write

letters;

writing a letter; valet, he is well.

It

is

epistulam scribo, /

am

used also of a general

truth: as, risii inepto res iaeptior nulla est, nothing

is

more

foolish than foolish laughter; Catull. 39, 16.

746. The present sometimes represents an action as attempted or as just about to occur; this is called the Conative

Present:

—

qui mortis

poenam removet, who wants

Cat. 4,

iam iamque manu 747.

The

aside the death penalty;

present

tenet, he is just about to grasp is

sometimes used instead

eras est mihi iudicium, to-morrow I si

to set

7.

him; Aen.

2,

530.

of the future:

have a case in court; Ter.

—

Eun. 338.

vincimus, omnia tuta erunt, if we conquer, everything will be safe; SaU. Cat. 58,

9.

me pauca dicam, before I return tDSi^mVfiM^^Amt myself; Cat. 4, 20.

antequam ad sententiam redeo, de to the subject,

-

•

SYNTAX OF VERBS

222

In vivid narration the present

748.

occurring in past time; this ad eum Caesar legates 35,

is

{748-752

often used of an action

called the Historical Present:

is

mittit,

Caesar sends envoys

to

Mm;

—

B. G.

i,

I-

munun arietibus feriri vident, aurum atque argentum domum regiam comportant, when they see that the wall is being

postquam

assailed with battering-rams, they take the gold

palace; Sail. Jug. 76,

With expressions denoting duration

749.

with iam) the present

begun

dition

te

is

in the past

iam dudum

of

time (usually

used to indicate that an action or constill

—

continues:

/ have long been urging you; Cat. i, 12. iam annos habitat, he has lived at Lilybaeum now

many years; Verr. 4, 38. cum ista causa versatur,

anni stmt octo

case has been before us;

The present

now

eight years that this

is

used rarely with iam dudum:

as,

exact the penalty long since due; Aen. 2, 103.

indicative

is

sometimes used instead of the

subjunctive, in deliberative questions: quoi dono lepidum

it is

Clu. 82.

Similarly, the present imperative

iam dudum sumite poenas, 750.

silver to the

hortor,

Lilybaei multos these

and

6.

novum

libellum?

new book? CatuU. i, i. advolone an maneo? shall I fly or quid ago? what am I to do? Aen.

— to

whom am I

to

dedicate

my

bright

751.

The Imperfect Tense parce agebat, she used

represents an action or condition

to live

—

economically; Ter. And. 74.

ara vetus stabat, an old altar stood there; Ov. Met.

commentabar declamitans

13, 40, 2.

4, 534.

as continuing or repeated in past time:

wtam

I wait? Att.

shall

cottidie,

6,

326.

/ practised declaiming every day;

Brut. 310,

752.

The imperfect sometimes

represents an action or condi-

tion as just beginning, or as only intended:

iamque arva tenebant, and 2,

2og.

Digitized

—

they were just reaching the fields; Aen.

by Microsoft®

INDICATIVE

7 53-75^^

MOOD

223

quod tua sponte faciebas, which you were going accord; Cat. si licitum esset,

lo

do of your own

13.

i,

veniebant, they were coming, if

it

had been allowed;

Verr. 5, 129.

The imperfect

753.

is

used with expressions denoting dura-

tion of time, to indicate that

was

still

an action begun at an

continuing in past time:

—

earlier

time

copias quas diu comparabant, the forces which they had long been gathering; Fam. 11, 13, 5. iam dudum flebam, I had been weeping for a long time; Ov. Met. 3

For the use of the imperfect indicative

,

656.

in the apodosis of contrary-to-

fact conditions see 921-923.

754. will

The Future Tense denotes an

action or condition which

occur or be in progress in future time:

/ shall write a

letter, or,

as,

epistulam scribam,

I shall he writing a letter; adero, I shall

he present.

A

verb in the future

may

or

it

as,

\avum you

alive;

may

contain a mere statement of fact,

contain a promise or an expression of determination: te

non relinquam

shall die

;

moriere vir^s, I

under the rod; Verr.

4, 85.

will not leave

you

Thus the future

indicative in the second person sometimes has the force of an

imperative: to the

as,

nuntius ibis PeUdae, you will go as a messenger

son of Peleus; Aen.

2,

547.

Latin is more accurate than English in the expression time and regularly uses the future in subordinate clauses

755. of

'where, in English, futurity clause,

and the present

is

is

expressed only in the principal

used in the subordinate clause:

—

sequemur ducem, numquam aberrabimus, if we follow nature as our guide, we shall never go astray; Off. i, 100. nunc animiim advortite dum argumentum huius eloquar comoediae, now attend while I set forth the plot of this comedy; PL Am. 95. naturam

756.

The

present fact:

si

future

—

is

sic erit, you'll find

hoc verum

sometimes used to denote the future discovery of a it

erit, this

so; Ter. Ph. 801.

i0^i^mi^ ffS
Eun. 732.

.

SYNTAX OF VERBS

224

The

757.

{TS?-?^^

sometimes used instead of the dedemus ergo Hannisurrender Hannibal? Liv. 21, 10, 11.

future indicative

is

subjunctive in deliberative questions: as,

balem?

we then

are

The

758.

to

Perfect Tense has two distinct meanings:

may

it

represent an action or condition as completed in present time, or

may be used may mean

it

first

use

is

I have written a

letter

or / wrote a

The

letter.

called the Present Perfect, the second the Historical

The

Perfect.

Thus, epistulam

English past tense.

like the

scrips!

perfect

is

the regular tense of narration.

It

is

used not only of isolated occurrences, but also of an action or a condition which continued for some time, when the writer wishes merely to state, not to describe the fact.

The

759.

perfect

is

sometimes used to indicate

briefly,

but

emphatically, that a condition has ceased to exist: as, fuimus

Troes, fuit Ilium, we have ceased

Aen.

2,

325.

It is

to he

Trojans, Ilium has perished;

sometimes used referring to the future, in

order to emphasize the certainty of a result by representing as already accomplished: as, si

eundem (animum)

vicimus, if you shall have the same ii, 43,

we have conquered; Liv.

2.

The

760.

spirit,

it

habueritis,

perfect

truth (called the

is

sometimes used, especially in poetry, of a general Perfect), implying that what has always been,

Gnomic

continues and will continue to be:

—

rege amissfi constructa mella diripuere, when their king plunder the honeycombs; Georg.

is lost

they

4, 213.

nfillum saeva caput PrSserpina fagit, not one sold does cruel ProserpinA

pass by; Hor. C.

i,

28, 19.

Certain perfects, pluperfects, and future perfects have the mean-

761.

ings of the present, imperfect or perfect,

and future

respectively.

are memini, / remember, odi, / hate, and coepi, / begin (see 344)

now and

cognovi, /

know (I have

learned)

,

These ;

also,

and consuen, I am accustomed

(7 have accustomed myself)

Sometimes in subordinate clauses the perfect

762. context

makes

^ould seem

to

demand

is

used where the

the pluperfect; in these cases the writer

the statement fronD^zeWB>iraiBfefifo!«iew without reference to the

—

;

INDICATIVE

763-766)

MOOD

context: as, quia pacis auctores fuSrunt,

became they advised peace, war; Liv. i, i, r.

763.

The

belli Achivfis abstinuisse,

ifls

the Greeks refrained

225

from using

the privilege of

Pluperfect Tense represents an action or condition

as completed in past time: as, epistulam scripseram, / had written a letter;

adhuc valueranij up

to that

time I had been in

good health. 764.

The Future

Perfect Tense repriesents an action or condi-

tion as completed in future time: as, epistulam sciipsero, I shall

have written a

matter will have

letter; refiixerit res, the

This tense

is

much more common

lost interest.

in Latin than in English,

which often uses the present or perfect in subordinate clauses, accuracy- would demand the future perfect: carmina turn melius, cum venerit ipse, canemus, we shall sing our

—

when

when he comes

songs better

eum

go

765.

himself; Eel. 9, 67.

cimi videro, Arpinum pergam, when I have seen him, I shall

The

to

Arpinum;

Att. 9, 15,

future perfect

is

i.

sometimes used instead of the future to

emphasize the certainty of the completed act:

—

"quid cessas?" "fecera," "why do you delay?"

"I'll

do

it

at once'"

Ter. Ph. 882. qui

Antonium oppresserit bellum cdnfgcerit, whoever crushes crushed) Antony will have finished the war; Fam. 10, 19,

(shall have 2.

Epistolary Tenses

sometimes uses tenses which are letter is received; that is, he treats occurrences from the point of view of the recipient of the letter. Thus he may use the imperfect or the perfect in766.

In

letters the writer

appropriate to the time

when the

stead of the present, the pluperfect instead of the present perfect: proficiscebar inde pridie

dedi,

/ am

Nonas QmnctQes, cum hoc ad

setting out from here

this letter to

you; Fam.

2, 8, 3.

hiems rem gen prohibuerat, being done;

te litterarum

on the sixth of July, when I send

the winter has presented the thing

V^iif^%,y^icrosom

from

— SYNTAX OF VERBS

226

SUBJUNCTIVE

(767,

768

MOOD

767. The Subjunctive Mood is a combination of two moods which existed independently in the Indo-European language the Subjunctive and the Optafrom which Latin is derived, (a) it tive. The Indo-European Subjunctive had two uses:

—

—

expressed the will of the speaker; (b)

Indo-European Optative

it

had two

also

the wish of the speaker; (b)

it

uses:

—

(a) it expressed

wish,

and

Of these

expressed possibility.

four uses the Latin Subjunctive retains three, will,

The

expressed /MiMriij/.

—

expresses

it

It is probable that the Latin

possibility.

Sub-

junctive was at one time used also to express futurity, but in the literary period this use of subordinate clauses,

had disappeared except in certain types and the origin of the use of the sub-

junctive in such clauses

The Subjunctive used

is

a matter of dispute.

as an expression of will

is

called the

Volitive Subjunctive; as an expression of wish, the Optative

Subjunctive; and as an expression of possibility, the Potential Subjunctive, the Subjunctive of Action Conceivable, etc. these three uses

all

and subordinate

From

other uses of the Subjunctive in independent

clauses are derived.

Subjunctive

Mood

in Independent Clauses

Volitive Subjunctive

Subjunctive of Exhortation or 768.

The

subjunctive

or a command.

is

Command

used to express an exhortation

The negative

is

regularly ne, rarely non.

In early and colloquial Latin the second person singular is often used in positive commands. Otherwise,

(especially sis)

the second person is used only in prohibitions (then almost always the perfect tense), or when the subject is indefinite: hoc quod coepi primum enarrem,

let

me first

tell

the story I've begun;

Ter. Heaut. 273.

amemus

patriam,

let

us love our fatherland; Sest. 143.

a legibus non recedSigitts^dSyulilmisi^rt from the laws; Clu. 155.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

f6Q-77l) ne

transieris

Hiberum,

227

don't cross the Ebro; Liv. 21, 44, 6.

ne ezspectetis, don't wait; PI. Ps. 1234. isto bono utare dtun adsit, use this blessing white you have

M. cautus

mi

sis,

Tir6, be careful,

aut bibat aut abeat,

let

him

desinant insidiaii consuli, Cat.

769.

Cat.

it;

52,-

my dear

either let

Tiro;

Fam.

16, 9, 4.

drink or go away; Tusc.

them cease

5,

118.

against the consul;

to plot

32.

I,

The subjunctive

command

of exhortation or

is

some-

times used in the imperfect or pluperfect, to denote an unfulfilled

obligation in past time:

—

urbis periculo commoverentur, they ought to have been moved erally, tliey

were

to be

moved) by the danger

imitatus esses Voconium, you ought to have imitated Verr.

I,

Voconius;

107.

ne poposcisses, you should not have asked; Att. 770.

(lit-

to the city; Sest. 54.

This type of subjunctive

is

2, i, 3.

sometimes equivalent to a

clause of concession, the present referring to present time, the perfect to past time

ne

facial

do

:

—

ea quae iuvenes, at multo maiora

(literally, let

he does

much

fuerit aliis, tibi

did he begin

him not

facit,

do) the things that

greater things; Cat.

M.

though he does not

young m^n

do, still

17.

quando esse coepit? suppose he was to be to you? Verr. i, 37.

to others,

when

Deliberative Subjunctive

a form of the Volitive Subjunctive used originally in questions which askeS the will or advice of the person addressed. The negative is non. 771.

This

is

The usage is extended to real deliberative questions which a person puts to himself, and to questions of a purely rhetorical and often excl&,matory nature which imply the impossibility of the thing mentioned.

The present

is

used of present time,

—

« the imperfect, rarely the perfect, of past time: I to do? am I not what then am earn? igitur faciam? non quid

Ter. Eun. 46. Digitized by Microsoft®

to

go?

.

SYNTAX OF VERBS

228

{y)2,

773

huic cedamus? shall we yield

to him? Phil. 13, 16. an ego non venirem? was I not to come? Phil. 2, 3. tibi narret! he tell the story for youl Ter. Ph. looi.

afueris tarn diu et

cum

away so long, and 772.

his de dignitate contendas? have

will

you contend with

these for

Such questions are sometimes introduced by

or without -ne

:

—

utine haec ignoraret

suom patrem

!

you been

honor? Mur.

uti or ut, either

the idea of her not

21.

with

knowing her own

father! Ter. Ph. 874. te ut ulla res frangat? could anything crush

you? Cat.

i, 22.

For the present indicative in deliberative questions see 750; for the future indicative see 757.

Optative Subjunctive

773.

The subjunctive

negative

is

The

used to express a wish.

is ne.

The present

(rarely the perfect) refers to future time

and de-

may

perfect

notes that the object of the wish

be attained.

The

sometimes used to express the idea that the wish may have been already attained. The imperfect is used regularly of a wish unattained in present time, the pluperfect of a wish unattained in past time; but the imperfect sometimes refers to past time. The present and perfect are often, the imperfect and pluperfect are regularly preceded by utinam when utinam is used, the negative is sometimes non instead of ne is

;

:

sint beati,

may

—

they he happy; Mil. 93.

utinam ilium diem videam, may I see that day; Att. 3, 3. ne istuc luppiter sirit, may Jupiter not allow this; Liv. 28, 28, 11 mtinam spem impleverim, I hope I may have come up to his expectations; Plin. Ep. I, 10, 3.

I

utinam

Clo'dius viveret,

utinam

ille

all his

utinam

would

that Clodius were alive; Mil. 103.

omnis secum copias eduzisset, would forces with him; Cat. 2, 4.

te dl prius perderent,

would

that the gods

that he

had

killed

had

led out

you

before;

Capt. 537. utinam susceptus non essem, wotdd that I had not been allowed live; Att. 11, ^0zed by Microsoft® PI.

to

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

774-77^) 774.

In early Latin and in poetry

qui) is often

used instead of utinam:

ut pereat positum robigine t§luni,

Hor.

ufi or

—

may

229

ut (rarely, in imprecations,

weapon

the

rust

away unused;

S. 2, I, 43.

qui ilium di

omngs

perduint,

may

all

the gods destroy

him; Ter. Ph.

123.

775.

In poetry a wish

stret,

is

sometimes expressed in the form of a condi-

si umam argenti fors quae mihi monO if some chance would show me a pot of silver; Hor. S. 2, 6, 10.

by

tional clause introduced

776.

si: as,

Unfulfilled wishes in present or past time are sometimes intro-

duced by the imperfect subjunctive of volo or other verbs of wishing:

—

M. Antonius, / wish Mark Antony were here; Phil, i, 16. cuperem vultum videre tuum, / wish I could see your face; Att. 4, vellem adesset

17,4.

nollem datum, I wish

it

hadn't been given; Ter. Ph. 796.

Potential Subjunctive

The

777.

subjunctive

or condition as possible.

The present and

is

used to represent an action negative is non.

The

perfect regularly denote a present or future

possibility, the imperfect a past possibility:

hoc vobis incredibile videatur,

this

—

may seem

you

to

incredible;

Verr. 3, 109.

non

facile dixerim,

I could not

easily say; Tusc. 5, 121.

hoc bellxim quis arbitraretur uno anno thought that this

The

perfect

is

saria, these things

778.

The

war could

confici

sometimes used of past time:

may

as,

haec fuerint non neces-

not have been necessary; Brut. 52.

Potential

soften an assertion

posse? who would have

he finished in one year? Manil. 31.

:

—

Subjunctive

is

'

often used merely to

velim sic existimes, / should like to have you think so; Fam. hoc ebi>£xma.v6xim.cL!ff^^m^}^j^ift(§ssertion; Brut. 25.

12, 6.

-

SYNTAX OF VERBS

230

The

779.

Potential Subjunctive

is

^779-7^^

used when the verb

the indefinite second person singular, to express the idea (or one)

can" or "could":

—

saepe videas, you can often see; Hor.

perfectum Demosthenem

in

is

"you

S. i, 4, 86.

facile dixeris,

you might

easily call

Demos-

thenes perfect; Brut. 35.

Afros

a

Romanam crederes aciem, you Roman battle-line; Liv. 22, 46,

The

780.

indicative

is

would have thought

the Africans

3.

used in certain expressions where the

English idiom would suggest the Potential Subjunctive:

longum

est,

it

would take a long

tim.e; dif5.cile est, it

as,

would be

difficult.

For the Potential Subjunctive as the apodosis of a condition of the second

t}fpe see 915.

For the Potential Subjunctive

in subordinate clauses see 906.

Tenses of the Subjunctive 781.

The use

Mood

in Subordinate Clauses

of the tenses of the subjunctive in

independent

clauses has been treated in connection with the various types of

independent subjunctives.

The use

subjunctive in subordinate clauses ing principle, based as the

is

upon the tense-groups

Sequence of Tenses:

of the

tenses of the

determined by the follow-

—

(see 309)

and known

Tenses of the subjunctive depending upon a primary are primary (i.e. present or perfect) those dependupon ing a secondary tense are secondary (i.e. impertefise

;

The present and imperfect denote contemporaneous with or subsequent to

fect or pluperfect).

action that

is

(i.e. incomplete at the time of) the action of the main verb; the perfect and pluperfect denote action that is past (i.e. completed) at the time of the action of the

main verb

:

—

qyid est quod iam amplius exspectes? what is there which you can

any longer expEaffti£&hyV/i&rosoft®

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

782-784)

neque abest suspicio quin ipse

mortem

sibi

231

erit

and sus-

consciverit,

picion is not lacking that he committed suicide; B. G.

i, 4, 4.

verendtim mihi ne quisquam crudelius factum esse shall have to fear that

cruelly; Cat. i,

some one will say

that

dicat,

I have acted

S-

dicent quid statuerint, they will say what they decided on; Verr.

domo

erant itinera duo quibus itineribus

two roads by which they could leave

quod per tratii

fines

emn

2,

175.

exire possent, there were

their

Sequanonun Helvetios

Haeduorum

quare in

/

too

homes; B. G.

traduxisset,

i, 6, i.

quod a magis-

accusaretur, satis esse causae arbitrabatur

animadverteret, because he had led the Helvetians

through the territory of the Sequani and because he was accused

by the magistrate of the Haedui (Caesar) thought there was cient reason

why

he should punish him; B. G.

suffi-

i, 19, i.

ut de finibus suis exirent, he persuaded the people

civitalj persuasit

of the state to leave their territory; B. G.

i, 2, i.

Ariovistus tantam arrogantiam siimpserat ut ferendus

non

videretur,

Ariovistus had assumed such arrogance that he seemed unendurable; B. G. I, 33, 5.

782.

The present

perfect,

though properly a primary

often takes the secondary sequence:

—

mihi ut satis esset praesidi provisum should be ample protection; Cat.

est,

/ have arranged

tense,

that there

2, 26.

ne ignoraretis esse aliquas pacis condiciones ad vos veni, I have come to you that you may know that there are some chances of peace; Liv. 21, 13,

783.

The sequence

the present

is

2.

of tenses is

sometimes disregarded, and

followed by the secondary sequence simply be-

cause the writer

is

thinking of past time:

as,

cuius rel tanta

^s

ut Ithacam sapientissimus vir immortalitati anteponeret, so great is the power of this sentiment that the wisest of men preferred Ithaca to immortality; De Or. i, 196. est

784.

On

the other hand,

refers to present *^ .

if

the subordinate verb clearly

time,„or to, a.ction completed ' Vigitized by Microsoft® .

in present time,

SYNTAX OF VERBS

232

may

the present or perfect

secondary verb

—

:

filius pertiniuit

{785-787

be used, even

if it

depends upon a

ne ea res mihi noceret, cum praesertun adhuc stili my son was afraid that this thing might injure me,

poenas dem,

I am

especially since

Fam.

still

paying

the penalty for

my

writing;

6, 7, 1.

ardebat cupiditate

sic

umquam

ut in nulla

^derim, he was so on

iiagrantius studium

fire with eagerness that

I have never seen

more burning ardor in any man; Brut. 302.

In clauses of result (sometimes also in relative, causal,

785.

clauses) depending upon a secondary tense, the be used instead of the imperfect, though the sub-

and adversative perfect

may

The

ordinate verb refers to the same time as the main verb. fact contained in the subordinate clause

tense being treated as independent:

adeo anceps Mars so doubtful

fuit

was

—

ut propius

thus emphasized, the

is

penculum fuerint qiu werunt, who conquered were in

the conflict that those

greater danger ; Liv. 21, fuit mirifica vigilantia qui

i, 2.

suo toto consulatu

somnum non

viderit,

he was wonderfully wide-awake, for in his whole consulship he

did not know what sleep was;

Fam.

7,

30,

i.

cum ab bora septima ad vesperum pugnatum sit, aversum hostem videre nemo potuit, though they fought from the seventh hour till evening, no one could see

786.

In a clause expressing a general

upon a secondary this

is

an enemy inflight; B. G.

tense,

it is

truth,

if

i,

26, 2.

the verb depends

regularly in the secondary sequence;

unlike the usual English idiom: as,

ibi,

quantam vim ad

stimulandos animos ira haberet, apparuit, here it appeared what power anger had to goad the mind; Liv. 33, 37, 8. 787.

The

Historical Present (see 748)

as primary, sometimes as secondary,

is regarded sometimes and takes therefore either

the primary or the secondary sequence: persuadent Rauracis uti una

Rauraci

—

cum iis proficiscantur,

to set out together

with them; B. G.

they persuade the

i, 5, 4.

pe|suadet Castico ut regnum occuparet, he persuades Casticus seize the

power h^n&dh/M^osofm

to

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

f 88-792)

233

788. The Historical Infinitive (see 963) takes regularly the secondary sequence: as, Caesar Haeduos frumentum, quod essent polliciti, flagitare, Caesar demanded of the Haedui the gram which they had promised; B. G. i, 16, i.

Subordinate clauses in the form of deliberative ques-

789.

and

tions referring to past time or contrary-to-fact conditions

conclusions, retain their proper form, even

a primary tense: quaerd a

—

te cur C.

ask you

why I was

5.

repudiasset, dubitatis quin ei -ns esset adlata? if he had

ille si

refused

him?

they depend upon

Comelium non def enderem, 7

not to defend Gajus Cornelius; Vat.

quod

if

this,

do you doubt that violence would have been

ojffered

Sest. 62.

But the apodosis subordinate clause,

when used

of a past contrary-tp-fact condition,

may

as a

take the form of the future participle active or

passive with fuerim; see 924.

The imperfect subjunctive

790.

in contrary-to-fact condi-

and conclusions is treated as a secondary tense and is regularly followed by the secondary sequence: as, quid me prohiberet Epicureum esse, si probarem quae diceret? what would prevent me from being an Epicurean, if I accepted what he said? tions

Fin.

I,

27.

The

791. hibitions

is

perfect subjunctive in potential clauses or in pro-

regarded as a primary tense:

—

excellentibus ingeniis citius defuerit ars, qua civem regant,

qua hostem superent,

great geniuses

would be more

the skill to control the citizen than the skill to conquer the

Liv.

2,

course will.be preferable in

792.

it

When

enemy;

43, 10.

ne dubitaris quin id mihi futurum

clause

quam

likely to lack

my

sit

antiquius, don't doubt that this

eyes; Att. 7, 3, 2.

the perfect subjunctive

and has dependent upon

sequence takes the primary '^ ^ Digitized

it

is

itself

a subordinate

another subordinate clause,

when

it

by Microsoft®

represents the present

SYNTAX OF VERBS

234

perfect of the indicative,

(7PJ,

and the secondary sequence when

represents the historical perfect or the imperfect:

nemo

fere vestrum est, quin, quern

ad

modum

—

Syracuse was captured; Verr. culpa Pelopis qui non

curandtmi, greatly

far each thing was

A subjunctive

793.

to

is

how

4, 115.

fMum

blame

it

captae sint Syra-

cusae, audierit, there is hardly one of you but that has heard

magna

794

docuerit quatenus esset quidque

Pelops for not teaching his son how

to receive attention;

Tusc.

dependent upon an

i,

107.

infinitive, participle,

gerund, or supine follows the sequence of the finite verb of the sentence; except that a verb dependent or participle finite

may be

upon a perfect

in the imperfect or pluperfect,

primary tense

—

infinitive

even

if

the

verb

is

satis

mihi multa verba fecisse videor, quare esset hoc bellum

in a

:

necessarium, / think I have said enough

to

show why

this

war

is

unavoidable; Manil. 27.

versabor in re saepe quaesita, suSragia clam an palam ferre melius esset, I shall be busy with a question often asked, whether better to vote secretly or

The

794.

junctive (a)

after

is

it is

openly; Legg. 3, 33.

lack of a future and future perfect in the sub-

supplied as follows:

by the use

—

forms with sim or essem primary or secondary tenses respectively.

(b)

by the use

of active periphrastic

of the

idea being represented

ordinary subjunctive forms, the future

by the present

after

primary tenses, the

imperfect after secondary tenses, the future perfect idea being represented by the perfect after primary tenses, the pluperfect after secondary tenses.

The

method

employed for active verbs having a future depend upon a future or future perfect or upon a verb whose meaning suggests futurity (hope, With a main future or future perfect the periphrastic fear, etc.). form is used only if the time of the dependent verb is subsequent to that of the main verb. Under all other circumstances the second 'method is employed:,—;.. .,_ first

is

active participle, unless they

Digifizea

by Microsoft®

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

795-79?) non

est

dubium quin

non

legiones venturae

come; Fam.

that the legions will not

235 sint, there is

no doubt

2, 17, 5.

quod mihi proposueram, cum essem de belli genere I had set before myself when I was going to speak

dicturus,

what

of the character

of the war; Manil. 17.

tempus cum desideres,

erit

come when you

the time will

will desire;

Mil. 69.

sum

quidnam de

sollicitus

know what

is

provinciis decematur, I

decided about the provinces;

egestatem suam se laturum putat,

si

Fam.

am

anxious

hac suspicione liberatus

he thinks that he will bear his poverty,

if

to

2, 11, i. sit,

he is (shall have been)

Am. 128. quam agrum maluisset, ei se argento

freed from this suspicion; Rose.

qiu pecuniam

any one preferred money Liv. 21, 45,

to land,

satisfacturum, if

he would satisfy

him with cash;

s.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN THE INDICATIVE OR SUBJUNCTIVE from independent At an early stage in the history of language, thought was expressed by means of brief independent sentences. Though one might be subordinate to another in thought, it was independent 795.

All subordinate clauses are developed

sentences.

in form.

This coordinate arrangement

is

called parataxis.

From

was developed hypotaxis, subordination in form. For example, the earlier form of expression would have been rogo, fiat, / ask, let it be done; then the second clause came to be regarded as subordinate and was connected with the first by the conjunction ut, rogo ut fiat, / ask that it be done. this

—

Relative Clauses 796.

Under

this

head are included

all

clauses introduced

by

relative pronouns, relative adjectives, or relative adverbs.

Relative Clauses of Fact

797.

The

indicative

is

used in a relative clause which

states a fact.

Such clauses clause, or they

may be essential to the meaning of the main may bej/^jfeeailiylMrirofeB®, independent, adding a

— SYNTAX OF VERBS

236

Statement of fact which

main

(7p8

not essential to the meaning of the

is

clause: '

ea legione

quam secum habebat,

with him; B. G.

se

i,

Caesari dediderunt

8, ;

i.

in

quos gravius Caesar vindicandum Caesar; upon them Caesar decided

statuit, they surrendered to

that

a more

mith that legion which he had

severe penalty should be inflicted;

numquam

tantam dimicationem quanta

never was before; Att. 7, i, 2. apud eos quo se contulit gratiosus, popular among

has gone; Verr.

B. G.

3, 16, 3.

such a struggle as

fuit,

those to

whom

he

4, 38.

Relative Clauses of Characteristic

The subj unctive is used

in a relative clause which character of the antecestates a fact as a result of the 798.

dent. This

is

Such clauses more often after one

a development of the potential subjunctive.

are used rarely after a definite antecedent,

that

is

indefinite or negative or after

an interrogative antecedent

They are used also after the demonstratives is, talis, tantus, and eiusmodi, and after the adjectives unus, solus, dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus: which implies a negative.

—

secutae sunt tempestates quae nostros in castris continerent, storms followed which kept our

men

in camp; B. G. 4, 34, 4.

sunt qui dicant, there are those who say; Cat. si

quis est qui

ntilla est natio

fear; Cat.

quam pertimescamus,

is

is therefor

sum qui mortis periculo

by danger of death; B. G.

unus

there is

no nation which we

2, 11.

quid est quod exspectes? what

neque

2, 12.

me acciiset, if there is any one who accuses me; Cat. 2,3.

5,

terrear,

you

to

expect? Cat.

/ am not one

1, 6.

to be frightened

30, 2.

est solus inventus qui dissideret, only one

man was found who

disagreed; Sest. 130.

videtur qui imperet dignus esse, he seems to be worthy to rule; Legg. 3,5.

nequed initium

uUum

I cannot find any story; Ter.

invenire idoneum,

imde exordiar narrate,

suitable beginning with

Heo/J/feed by Microsoft®

which I

may

start

my

RELATIVE CLAUSES

799-^03) 799. in

237

Dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus sometimes take an infinitive

poetry and late prose; dignus and indignus sometimes take a clause

introduced by ut in early and late Latin.

800. istic

Comparatives are sometimes followed by characterby quam; the relative is sometimes

clauses introduced

omitted:

—

maiores arbores caedebant quam quas ferre miles posset, they cut trees larger

than a soldier could carry; Liv. $s,

non longius hostes aberant quam quo telum

5, 6.

adig^ posset, the

enemy

were not farther distant than a javelin coidd be thrown; B. G.

2,

21, 3-

Segestanis imponebat amplius the Segestans

801.

followed erat

quam

ferre possent, he imposed

more than they coidd bear; Verr.

upon

4, 76.

In classical Latin comparatives are more commonly by a clause of result introduced by ut: as, clarior res

quam

ut tegi posset, the thing was too notorious

to be

con-

cealed; Liv. 26, 51, II.

802.

After a negative antecedent or an interrogative implyis sometimes used instead pronoun (see 820)

ing a negative, qiun of the relative

nemo

fuit

:

how

great

qui

power

sensibus? who

there is in the senses?

is there

Acad.

who does

2, 20.

Relative clauses of a parenthetical nature expressing

restriction or proviso are teristic;

nominative

3, 53, 3-

qum cemat quanta vis sit in

not see

803.

of the

quin vulneraretur, there was no one who was not wounded;

B. C. quis est

—

sometimes treated as clauses

such clauses are often introduced by

mode

:

—

oratidnes, quas

quidem legerim,

of charac-

qm quidem

his speeches, at least such as

or

I have

read; Brut. 65.

servus est nemo, qui is

no

slave,

modo

tolerabili condicione sit servitutis, there

provided he is in an endurable state of servitude;

Cat. 4, 16.

quod sciam, so faiD^ti^tila^S/liShsoil^. 641.

•

SYNTAX OF VERBS

238

804. But the indicative quantum and when the verb

{804-807

is

often used in such clauses, especially with

is

sum

or possum; always in quod attinet:

—

quantum audio, uxore ezcidit, my master, according to what I hear, lost a wife; Ter. And. 423. prodidisti et te et illam, quod quidem in te fuit, you have betrayed yourself and her, so far as was in your power; Ter. Ad. 692. erus,

has

quod ad vos

attinet, so far as

you are concerned; Liv.

5, 9, 5.

Similar to such expressions as est qui, there is one who,

805.

are the expressions est

why:

there is reason fuit fuit

—

cum,

there is a time

when, and est quod,

aibitrarer, there was a time when I thought; De Or. 1,1. tempus cum Germanos Galli virtute superarent, there was a time when the Gaids surpassed the Germans in courage; B. G. 6,

cum

24, I.

est

quod gaudeas,

there is reason for

In poetry and early Latin (rarely in

806.

Trin. 310.

to rejoice; PI.

classical prose) the indica-

sometimes used in relative clauses following an indefinite and

tive is

affirmative antecedent:

—

sunt quos pulverem

Olympicum coUegisse

delights to have raised a cloud of

Hor. Epis. classical

defined

2, I,

whom

it

i, i, 3.

when popular opinion

is

mistaken;

63.

prose the indicative

by such words

iuvat, there are those

Olympic dust; Hot. C.

est ubi (vulgus) peccat, there are times

In

you

as multi

is rare,

and

except

when

the antecedent

is

nomiulli.

Causal or Adversative Relative Clauses

807.

The subjunctive

is

used in relative clauses which

express a causal or adversative idea; in causal clauses the relative

is

sometimes preceded by

ut, utpote,

or quippe

:

—

• fortiinate adulescens,

inveneris,

qui tuae virtutis

Homerum praeconem

fortunate youth, since you found

Homer

as the

herald of your valor; Arch. 24.

nee consul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset,

battle;

moram

had sought this very Liv. ^2pjsiitg:ed by Microsoft®

the consul, since he

certamini

fecit,

and

thing, did not delay the

inn

8o8-8ll)

RELATIVE CLAUSES

Cicero, qui

omnes

239

superiores dies milites in castris continuisset,

septimo die qiunque cohortes frumentatum

mittit,

though on

all the

days before Cicero had kept the soldiers in camp, on the

seventh

day he sent five

cohorts to get grain; B. G. 6, 36,

i. «

808. ut qiu

The

indicative

and utpote

is

used often with quippe qui, very rarely with

qui.

Relative Clauses of Purpose

809.

The subjunctive This

express purpose.

subjunctive: legatum

—

a development of the volitive

mantun distinendam

qui earn

mittit,

used in relative clauses which

is

is

curet, he sends his

lieutenant to see that this force is kept separated; B. G. 3, 11, 4.

sunt multi qui eripiunt

who

take from

aliis

quod

some in order

habebam quo confugerem, / had a Fam. 4, 6, 2.

The

aliis largiantur, there

are

many

to give to others; Off. i, 43.

place where

I might take refuge;

ablative of the relative pronoun, quo,

is used as a containing purpose clauses an adjecconjunction to introduce tive or adverb in the comparative:

810.

—

obducuntur cortice

trunci,

quo sint a frigoribus et caloribus tutiores,

the trunks are covered with bark that they

from cold and adiuta me, quo id

heat;

N. D.

2,

may

be better protected

120.

fiat facilius, help

me, that

this

may

be

more

easily

aaomplished; Ter. Eun. 150.

811. is

Rarely, a purpose clause which does not contain a comparative

introduced

by quo:

as,

habuerat, he had treated the himself; Sail. Cat. 11,

exercitum, quo sibi fidum faceret, liberaliter

army

generously, that he might

make

it

loyal to

5.

Other uses of relative clauses are treated under Conditional Sentences, Indirect Discourse, the Iterative Subjunctive, etc.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

SYNTAX OF VERBS

240

(812-814

Subordinate Clauses Introduced by Conjunctive Particles Clauses of Purpose 812.

most commonly expressed by a clause affirmative, by ut (earlier form, uti), if

Purpose

introduced, negative,

if

by ne

is

(rarely ut ne).

The verb

is

in the sub-

junctive.

This construction

is

pendent constructions, tive subjunctive:

—

probably developed from two inde-

— the

volitive subjunctive

and the opta-

Dumnorigi custodes ponit, ut quae agat scire possit, he puts guards over Dumnorix, in order to know what he does; B. G. i, 20, 6. ultra

eum

encamped beyond him with

of from his supplies; B. G. i, quod ego praetermltto, ne in hac exstitisse videatur,

crime

commeatu Caesarem

castra fecit eo consilio, uti

cluderet, he

may

te ulciscor, ut

/ pass

48,

this object, to cut

2.

civitate tanti facinoris inunanitas

this by, that the

enormity of such a

not seem to have existed in this state; Cat.

ne impune in nos

inter-

Caesar

illuseris,

/

shall

i, 14.

punish you, that

you may not make sport of us with impunity; Ter. Eun. 941.

813.

Occasionally a purpose clause

by ut non, but

is

apparently introduced

an affirmative clause, and the negative applies only to a word or phrase, not to the whole clause: as, confer te ad Manlium, ut non eiectus ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos isse videaris, betake yourself to Manlius, that you may seem to have gone, not driven out to strangers but invited to your friends; Cat.

814. ing

it is

really

i, 23.

Purpose clauses are often used parenthetically, depend-, of saying to be supplied

upon a verb

ne longior sim,

:

vale, not to bore

vere ut dicam, de te futurum about you;

—

you (I say) farewell; Fam. est, to tell the truth, it is

Ve^.^^i^?^^ ^.^^^^^^

15, 19, 4.

going to be

CLAUSES OF RESULT

815-818) 815. is

If

two purpose

and the second

clauses are coordinated

negative, the connective

especially in later writers, ut vis minueretur

24I

regularly neve or neu; sometimes,

is

neque

:

—

neu ponti nocerent,

that their effectiveness

might be

and that they might not injure the bridge; B. G. 4, 17, 10. ut ea quae statuit praetemuttam neque eos appellem, to pass over the decisions he made and not to call upon those persons; Verr. 3, 115. lessened,

816. Independent clauses with nedum (rarely ne) may be mentioned in connection with purpose clauses, though their history is uncertain. The verb in these clauses is in the present (rarely the imperfect) subjunctive:

—

nee vim tribumciam sustinere potuerunt;

nedum

his temporibus

power;

salvi esse possimus, they could not endure the tribunician

much

less

in these times can we be safe; Clu. 95.

secundae res sapientium animos fatigant; ne

ill!

temmen;

victoriae

perarent, prosperity weakens the character even of wise

much 817. as, erat

less

Nedum

is

did they use discretion in their victory; SaU. Cat. 11,

used sometimes merely to emphasize a word or phrase:

domicilium huius urbis aptius humanitati tuae

ponnesus,

nedum

8.

quam

tota Pelo-

Patrae, a residence in this city was more suited

refinement than all Peloponnesus, not to speak of Patrae;

Fam.7,

to

your

28, i.

Other methods of expressing purpose are treated under Relative Clauses the Infinitive (962) the Future Active Participle (999) the Gerund and Gerundive (1007), and the Supine (1015). (809)

,

,

,

Clauses of Result 818.

Result

duced by negative

is

ut,

is. regularly expressed by a clause introwith the verb in the subjunctive. The

non.

The is a development of the potential subjunctive. main clause often contains an adjective- or adverb denoting This

degree or quality, as, for example, tantus, adeo,

talis, ita:

—

multa rumor adfingebat, ut paene bellum confectum videretur, rumor started many false reports, so that the war seemed almost finished; B. C.

i,,

_. 53

I.

DigiliZ' Di'gifiz'ed

by Microsoft®

SYNTAX OF VERBS

242 sunt

ita multi,

non

ut eos career capere

a prison cannot hold them; Cat.

neque

is

(819-822

possit, they are so

many

that

2, 22.

es ut te metus a periculo revocarit, you are not of that sort

that fear has called

you bach from danger; Cat.

i, 22.

While negative purpose clauses are introduced by ne ne quid, ne ullus, etc., negative result clauses are introduced by ut nemo, ut nihil, ut nullus, etc. 819.

quis,

After negative ideas, either expressed or implied, result

820.

nullum tempus intermlserunt they

:

no time elapse without sending envoys across

let

B. G.

—

by quin (see 802) quin trans Rhenum legato s mittereht,

clauses are sometimes introduced

the

Rhine;

s, 55, I.

numquam tarn male est Siculis qmn aliquid facete dicant,

things never

go so badly with the Sicilians that they cannot say

something

witty; Verr. 4, 95.

Substantive Clauses

Any

821.

clause which serves as the subject or object of a

verb, as an appositive, or predicate

noun

stantive clause; thus, indirect discourse

is

is

properly a sub-

the object of the

an indirect question is the object of the In practice, however, the term is confined to the following clauses when they are used as nouns: a. Indicative clauses introduced by quod b. Subjunctive clauses verb introducing verb on which

it

it,

depends.

—

;

without introductory particle;

by

ut, ne, quin, or

c.

Subjunctive clauses introduced

quominus.

Substantive Clauses with the Verb in the Indicative

822.

The only common form

the verb in the indicative

meaning

is

that or the fact that:

of

substantive clause with

that which

—

is

introduced by quod

perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti, it happened very him anywhere; Att. 1, 17, 2. Caesar senatus in eum beneficia commemoravit, quod rex appel-

accidit

unfortunately that you did not see

latus esset, Caesar called his attention to the favors that the senate ^

had bestowed upon him, B. G.

I,

43, 4. Digitized

the fact that he

by Microsoft®

had been

called king;

SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES

823-826)

243

hoc uno praestamus vel mazime fens, quod conloquimur inter nos, in this one thing most of all

we talk praeterquam quod the fact that

id,

to

we

one another;

fieri

non

are superior to the beasts, in

De

besides the fact that this could not

pretended; Div.

as for the fact that

Nep. Epam.

32.

be done,

quidem it

potest,

cannot even be

2, 28.

me Agamemnonem aemulari putas, falleiis, am emulating Agamemnon, you are mistaken;

5, 6.

Cum

824.

quod

you think I

is

sometimes used in the sense of quod, introducing a sub-

stantive clause: as, hoc

me beat, quom perduellis vicit, this makes me happy,

has conquered his enemies; PI.

Clauses introduced etc.,

1,

fingi

A substantive clause with quod is sometimes used like an accusa-

823.

tive of specification: as,

that he

Or.

ne

potuit,

by cum

Am.

642.

after expressions of joy, grief, gratitude,

are substantive rather than causal, as appears from the use of the

indicative:

—

magna

cum te di monuere, we have great joy in the fact warned you; Sail. Jug. 102, scum tantum vales apud Dolabellam, / congratulate you that

laetitia

npbis est

that the gods have

gratulor

tibi,

you have so much influence with Doldbella; Fam. '

Substantive Clauses with the Verb in the Subjunctive

The subjunctive

826.

in substantive clauses, as in all sub-

ordinate clauses (see 795), its

9, 14, 3.

is

developed from one or another of To which one of the independ-

uses in independent sentences.

ent uses a certain type of substantive clause should be assigned, is

in

some

cases a matter of disagreement.

Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volltlve Subjunctive

Substantive clauses with the verb in the subjunctive are

used with the following classes of verbs: 826.

As object clauses with verbs expressing will or to command, induce, advise, ask, allow, decide, accomplish (when the idea is one of purpose rather than .(a)

purpose, — strive,

—

result).

'

as,

The

caranective

is

ut or ne:

—

suis imperavif ne quod telum reicerent, he ordered his

throw back

'a

sM^^d3igWQr&Pitp46,

2.

men

not to

SYNTAX OF VERBS

244

{82^-829

quod suades, ut ad Quintum scribam, as for your

advice, that

I

write to Quintus; Att. 11, 16, 4.

peto quaesoque ut tuos

mecum

and

Many

iubed, order,

you

to save

to

wait; Att. 16, 10,

amici iacentem animum excitet,

to

i.

make every effort

see to it that he rouses his friend's prostrate soul; Lael. 59.

these

of

form

earlier

beg

5, 4, 2.

constitueram ut manerem, I had decided eniti et efficere ut

and

serves, / ask

your friends together with me; Fam.

verbs

take

also

the

subjunctive without

and many take a complementary and veto, forbid, take the accusative and infinitive of expression,

Those which contain the idea of saying or thinking and infinitive.

may

ut,

an

infinitive;

regularly.

take the accusative

With the passive of these verbs the substantive clause is persuasum erat Cluvio ut mentiretur, if But verbs of Cluvius had been persuaded to lie; Rose. Com. 51. admonishing have a personal subject and the object clg,use is retained: as, admoniti sumus ut caveremus, we were warned to be careful; Att. 8, 11 D, 3. 827.

the subject: as, si

As subject clauses with certain impersonal verbs, with restat and sequitur, when the dependent clause expresses not a fact, but a thing to be 828.

—

(b)

as, licet, oportet, interest;

anticipated; also with phrases like melius est, necesse est, ius est, lex est,

mos

mea magnl see

est,

opus est; the connective

interest te ut videam,

you; Att. 11, 22,

into court; Quinct. 33.

who

of great importance to

it is

829.

is

g^,

to

had remained,

to

bring you

primam esse historiae legein,ne quid falsi dicere audeat? know that it is the first rtde of history, that it shall

of these verbs

(c)

me

does not

ut or the infinitive; so,

—

—

(Clause in apposition with subject.)

not dare to say anything false?

Many

ut or ne:

2.

illud restiterat, ut te in ius educerent, that

quis nescit

is

De

Or.

2,

62.

and expressions take also the subjunctive without regularly, licet and oportet.

With verbs meaning

to hinder, prevent, avoid, refuse,

impedio, prohibeo, caveo, vito, recuso.

ne, quin, or qu6minffl®/f/zeri

iiy

M/crosoft®

The connective

SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES

830-834)

qui tu id prohibere

me

potes ne suspicer?

245

how can you

my

prevent

suspecting this? PI. Trin. 87.

neque recusare quin armis contendant, nor did

they refuse to engage

in battle; B. G. 4, 7, 3. nee aetas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus, old .

age does not prevent our retaining an interest in agriculture; Cat.

M. 830. as,

60.

Substantive clauses are used also with the passive of these verbs:

impedior ne plura dicam, /

am prevented from

Caveo sometimes takes the

831.

saying more; Sull. 92.

imperative of ten takes

infinitive; the

In the sense

the subjunctive without connective.

to take

care that caveo

takes the subjunctive with ut.

832. Of the three connectives, ne is used regularly only after an affirmative main clause, quominus after either an affirmative or a negative, qvun only after a clause that contains or implies

a negative. 833.

(d)

With

expressions of douht or ignorance

of this

type are derived directly from the deliberative subjunc-

They occur after such dubium est, quis dubitat, quis tive.

qtun:

when the

Substantive clauses

main clause contains or implies a negative.

—

non dubitat quIn brevi

sit

expressions as ignorat, etc.

non dubito, non The connective is

Troia peritura, he does not doubt that Troy

M.

will quickly fall; Cat.

31.

non esse dubium quin pliirimum Helvetii possent,

that there

doubt that the Helvetians were the most powerful; B. G. quis ignorat quin tria

Graecorum genera

sint?

was no

i, 3, 6.

who does not know

that there are three kinds of Greeks? Flac. 64.

neque abest suspicio quin ipse is

834.

Non

sibi

mortem

consciverit, suspicion

not wanting that he committed suicide; B. G.

dubito takes also the accusative

late writers), the indirect question,

infinitive alone.

_. ... Digitized

,

infinitive (chiefly in

and, in the meaning not

^^ by Microsoft® ,

and

i, 4, 4.

...

hesitate,

the

SYNTAX OF VERBS

246

(835-838

Substaatlve Clauses Developed from the Optative Sabjuactlve

Substantive clauses with the verb in the subjunctive are used as object clauses with the following classes of verbs: 835. is

used,

Verbs meaning

(a) is

to

velim ut

tibi

amicus

sit;

The

wish.

ut or ne, but often there

is

—

opto ut beatus

when one

connective,

—

no connective: sis,

/ should

him

like

friend of yours; I want you to be happy; Att. 10, 16,

vellem

me

dinner;

836 clause

.

is

ad cenam

Fam.

invitasses,

would

that

you had

to he

a

me

to

i.

invited

12, 4, i.

When vols has the idea of requesting or commanding, the dependent developed from the volitive subjunctive:

as, volo ut

mihi respon-

deas, / want you to answer me; Vat. 14.

and cupio the accusative and more common; the accusative is usually omitted when the subject of the infinitive is the same as that of the main verb. 837.

With

void, nolo, maid,

infinitive construction is

838. that,

(b) Verbs

meaning

to fear.

The

connectives are ne,

introducing an affirmative idea, ut, that not, introducing a

Instead of ut, ne non is used regularly after main clauses which contain or imply a negative; rarely otherwise. In the earlier paratactic form of expression vereor, ne veniat, for example, meant I am afraid, may he not come; then, I am negative idea.

afraid that he

may

may come; vereor, ut veniat meant am afraid he may not come.

I

am

afraid,

he come; then, I id paves,

ne ducas tu illam; tu autem, ut ducas, you fear

you may marry her; you, on

the other

marry her; Ter. And. 349. timed ne hoc propalam fiat, / am afraid

hand, that you

that this

may

this, that

may

not

become known;

PI. Mil. 1348.

vereor ut Dolabella ipse nobis prodesse possit, / Dolabella himself ,

may

not be able to help us;

non vereor ne non scribendo

te expleam,

not satisfy you ^^gem&ilwiisfcms^ig;

am

Fam.

/ do not fear

Fam.

afraid that

14, 14, 1.

2, i, t.

that

I may

SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES

839-843)

So also when fear

839.

is

247

only implied, as in periculum est:

as, vidit

periculum esse ne exercitum nequiquam tradiixisset, he saw that there was danger that he had brought his army over

840.

Verbs of fearing

the accusative

and

may

to

no purpose; Liv.

21, 33, 9.

take also the complementary infinitive,

infinitive, or the indirect question.

Substantive Clauses Developed from Clauses of Result

Since these are derived directly from clauses of result,

841.

found in the potential subjunctive, from which the

their origin is

clause of result

is

Substantive clauses of this.type with

derived.

the verb in the subjunctive are introduced

—

as follows:

by ut and

are used

842. (a) With verbs meaning to bring about, accomplish, when the dependent clause states a fact (see 826); the clause is

used as the object of an active verb, the subject of a passive

verb

:

— ea

feci ut essent nota,

that they were

/ made

those things

known); Acad,

known

(brought

it

about

i, 8.

non potest ut eum tu non cognoveris, it cannot be that you did know him; Verr. 2, 190. quae res commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat, this thing made fieri

not

it

843.

possible for provisions to be brought; B. G. 2, 5,

(b)

As the subject

of certain impersonal verbs,

accidit, contingit, evenit; of est {it is is the

5.

a fact

—

as,

that), accedit {there

additional fact that), est with a predicate adjective, e.g.

verum, falsum, rarum {it is true that, etc.) of relinquitur, and sequitur, when the dependent clause states a fact:

—

;

accidit ut

omnes Hermae

deicerentur,

were thrown down; Nep. Ale.

more

happened

that all

theHermae

3, 2.

est ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta, his vineyards

it

restat,

it is

a fact

extensively than another;

that one

Hor. C.

man

plants

3, i, 9.

ad senectutem accedebat ut caecus esset, to old age was added the fact that he was blind; Cat. M. 16. Terum non est; sequitur ut falsum sit, it is not trus; it follows that it is

false; 'Pa,^i§kzed by Microsoft®

SYNTAX OF VERBS

248 844.

by

With tantum abest two

ut; of these,

one

clause of result: as,

is

(844-846

clauses are often used, each introduced

a substantive clause, subject of abest, the other

is

a

tantum aberat ut sua signa noscerent, ut vix ad arma

capienda competeret animus, so far were they from recognizing their own standards that they hardly had presence of mind to put on their armor; Liv. 22, S, 3-

845.

A

substantive clause of this type

is

often used as sub-

ject with fore or futiirum esse, instead of a future infinitive

active or passive; this

is

a necessary periphrasis

pendent verb has no future non speraverat Hannibal bal

had not expected

infinitive:

—

fore ut tot populi that so

many

when

the de-

ad se deficerent, Hanni-

peoples would revolt to him;

Liv. 28, 44, 4.

clamabant fore ut

ipsi se di ulciscerentur, they cried out that the

would avenge themselves; Verr.

gods

4, 87.

For the same usage in contrary-to-fact conclusions in indirect discourse see 981.

Indirect Questions

846. An Indirect Question is a subordinate clause introduced by an interrogative word, pronoun, adjective, adverb, or particle. The verb is in the subjunctive.

—

The

particles thus used are -ne,

num

(which does not

differ

meaning from -ne), and nonne (used only after quaero). Indirect Questions are used with verbs meaning to ask, think, doubt, fear, learn, know, tell, etc., or with any other word or expression capable of introducing an interrogative idea: in

—

[considerabimus] quid fecerit, quid factat, quid facturus

sit,

we

shall

consider what he has done, what he is doing, what he is going to do;

Inv. incerti

I,

36.

quo fata ferant, uncertain where

Aen.

the fates are carrying us;

3, 7.

vides ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte, you see white with the deep snow; Hor. C. Publilius itUTUsne •

sit

et

how

Soracte stands

i, 9, i.

quando ex Aledio

scire poteris, whether

Publilius will go and when, you can find out Att. 12, 24, 1, Digitized by Microsoft®

from Aledius;

INDIRECT QUESTIONS

847-S49)

void uti mihi respondeas to tell

me

num quis legem

whether any one dared

to

249

sit

ausus

/ want you

f erre,

propose the law; Vat. 17.

quaero a te nonne oppressam rem publicam putes, / ask you whether

you do not think

'

For methods

An

847.

the state is burdened; Phil. 12, 15.

of expressing future time in indirect questions see 794.

indirect question ordinarily represents a direct ques-

but

tion in the indicative;

may

it

represent (a) an exclamation

—

or (b) a direct question in the deliberative subjunctive: incredibile est

quam ego

ista

non curem,

non

ista

me

quo

(representing

little

I

quam ego

curd!)

vertam nescio, I don't know where

me

resenting quo

neque

how

is incredible

it

care for those things; Att. 13, 23, 3.

to

turn; Clu. 4.

(rep-

vertam?)

satis constabat quid agerent,

and

they would better do; B. G. 3, 14, 3.

it

was not

very clear what

(representing quid agamus?)

o

848.

Sometimes, especially

if

the main clause contains or

suggests the idea of trial or expectation, a clause introduced si, if, to

see

if, is

quaesivit

si

used instead of an indirect question

cum Romanis

mitted to serve with the

banc

si nostri transirent

to see if

ad

Gonnum

our

militare liceret, he asked if

Romans;

it

by

was per-

Liv. 40, 49, 6.

hostes exspectabant, the enemy were waiting

men would

cross this; B. G.

2, 9, i.

castra movet, si poliii oppido posset, he moved his

toward Gonnus,

849.

—

:

to see if

he could take the town; Liv. 42, 67,

camp 6.

Certain expressions which would naturally introduce in-

had

meaning and are used thus, nescio quis had become an indefinite pronoun, meaning some one; nescio quo, nescio unde, etc., had become adverbs: direct questions

lost their original

without effect upon the

mood

of the verb

;

—

boni nescio quo

modo

tardiores sunt, the good are in some

way more

dilatory; Sest. 100.

me

nescio quando venisse questus est, he complained that

come

at

some

^kf^

HfiSnsoft®

I had

SYNTAX OF VERBS

250

{850-854

Thus, the following phrases are used regularly as

850.

adverbs:

— mirum

(mire) quam, wonderfully;

minim quantum, immane

tremendously; sane quam, valde quam, exceedingly;

quantum, monstrously: mire quam pleases

Medus

lllius

me

—

loci cogitatio delectat, the thought of that place

wonderfully; Alt.

acinaces

i,

immane quantum

11,3. discrepat, the Persian dagger is

monstrously out of place; Hor. C.

The subjunctive

851. clause

is

is

i, 27, 5.

used regularly with forsitan, perhaps, and the

an indirect question, the adverb representing fors

sit an.

852. In colloquial language and in poetry the word which would naturally be the subject of the indirect question is sometimes taken into the main clause as object, or, rarely, if the main

verb

is

—

passive, as subject:

Marcellum quam tardus sit, you know Marcellus how slow he Fam. 8, 10, 3. quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves, in a little matter of money it is often seen how unreliable some people are (some people are seen how unreliable they are); Lael. 63.

nosti

is;

Indirect

853.

Alternative

Questions

are

regularly

intro-

duced by the same particles as direct alternative questions; see 372-376, 379. If

the second

member

is

a mere negation of the

more common than an non

:

as,

first,

quaesivi a Catilina, in

necne

is

noctumo

conventil fuisset necne, / asked Catiline whether he had been at the nocturnal meeting or not; Cat. 2, 13.

Haud

854.

by

an, the

scio often takes

first

member

an indirect question introduced

of the alternative question being sup-

This form of expression in Ciceronian Latin indicates the writer's belief in the truth of the fact contained in the question: as, haud scio an ita sit, / am inclined to think it is so; pressed.

Tusc.

2,

41.

So, but less

commonly,^!^^ ^^^Ja^^grtum,

etc.,

are used with an.

1

TEMPORAL CLAUSES

8s5-^5?)

The

855.

,

questions as, in

is

25

origin of the use of the subjunctive in indirect

not determined.

It

clearly a late development,

is

early Latin, ideas which in the classical period would be

expressed as indirect questions are coordinated with the main

verb and are in the indicative:

as, vide avaritia quid facit, see what avarice does; Ter. Ph. 358. So, sometimes in classical poetry: as, viden ut geminae stant vertice cristae? do you see

how

the double crests stand

upon

his

head? Aen.

6, 779.

Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses with

In early Latin

856.

cum

cum

(quom), meaning when, takes

the indicative. In classical Latin cum, meaning when, takes the indicative

if

the clause refers to present or future time

Romae videor I read a

esse

letter

cum tuas

from you; Att.

timi denique interficiere

you will

litteras lego,

to be

:

in

—

Rome when

2, 15, i.

cum nemo

he put to death

/ seem

inveniii potent, etc., then at last

when no one can

be found, etc. ; Cat. 1,5.

cum ego P. Graniimi testem produzero, ref ellito si poteris, when I call Publius Granius as witness, refute him if you can; Verr.

In classical Latin,

857.

troduced by cum

when a temporal

5, 1 54.

clause in-

a distinction is sometimes made between a clause which merely defines the time of the main action and one which states a circumstance connected with it; in the first case the indicarefers to past time,

tive (historical present, imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect)

used; in the second, the subjunctive (imperfect or

is

pluperfect).

The fact

distinction

and the

cum (which

is

that which

is

made between

relative clause of characteristic; is

a relative conjunction)

is

the relative clause of

and the subjunctive with

really a subjunctive of charr

acteristic.

The distinction is, however, not regularly observed. The subjunctive isflipii46fe/5ji»i9|-,§se^nmon than the indica-

SYNTAX OF VERBS

252

{858-860

tive in temporal clauses referring to past time

even where no idea of characterization eo

cum was

venio, praetor quiescebat,

apparent

cum ex urbe

driving

him from

Gallo narravi,

:

—

got there, the praetor

cum

pellebam, hoc providebam, while I was

the city,

I was anticipating

this; Cat. 3, 16.

cum proxime Romae f ui, quid audissem, / told Callus,

when I was

last

in Rome, what I had heard; Att. 13, 49, 2. magnas permulti amiserant, at the time

in Asia res

when very many had lost great fortunes in Asia; Manil. cum inambularem in xysto, ad me Brutus venit, while walking in the portico, Brutus came Caesari this •

858.

used

is

resting; Verr. 4, 32.

quern ego

turn

is

when I

and

cum

id

me; Brut.

nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe

had been reported

B. G.

to

to

19.

I was

10.

proficisci,

when

Caesar, he hastened to leave the city;

I, 7, I.

Sometimes a clause introduced by cum

is

temporal

I

only in form, and really contains the main idea of the sentence; in this case the indicative

is

always used and the clause follows

the grammatically independent clause:

—

iam dilucescebat cum signum consul dedit, it was already growing light when the consul gave the signal; Liv. 36, 24, 6. iamque hoc facere apparabant, cum matres familiae repente in publicum procurrerunt, and they were just getting ready to do this, when the matrons suddenly rushed into the street; B. G. 7, 26, 3-

For the same reason the indicative is used in temporal clauses main clauses which denote a lapse of time as, nondum centum et decern anni sunt cum lata lex est, it is not yet a hundred and ten years since the law was passed; Off. 2, 75. 859.

following

:

860. The indicative is used also in temporal clauses which, though they do not contain the main idea of the sentence, are still obviously statements of fact and not time-clauses: as, caedebatur virgis in medio foro, cum interea nullus gemitus audiebatur, he was beaten with rods in the middle of the forum, while meantime not a gfMW^dPi' ifleitf^fWeir. $, 162.

TEMPORAL CLAUSES

861-864)

253

861. The subjunctive may be used in a temporal clause, even in early Latin, not because the clause is temporal, but for other reasons; for example, because the verb is in the indefinite

second person

:

as,

(infamia) etiam turn

quom

^rivit

esse credas

mortuam, disgrace still lives even when you think it dead; PI. Pers. Or the subjunctive may be due to attraction, or to the 356. iterative meaning of the yerb; or it may be potential. cum meaning whenever see 904, 927. For the expression est cum, there is a time when, see 805. For the use of cum primum see 870, 873. For the use of

Temporal Clauses with antequam and priusquam 862.

Antequam and priusquam

are combinations of an ad-

verb with the relative conjunction quam; the adverbial element is

main clause and

often treated as a part of the

is

separated

from the conjunction by one or more words. 863.

Antequam and priusquam necessarily

ent time in general statements only;

when

refer to pres-

so used, they

take the perfect indicative or the present subjunctive; rarely, the present indicative

:

—

membris utimur priusquam didicimus, etc., we use our limbs before we have learned, etc.; Fin. 3, 66. antequam pronuntient, vocem sensim excitant, before they declaim, they start the vocal organs gradually;

ea ante

efiicit

paene quam

De

Or.

i,

251.

cogitat, he accomplishes these things

almost before he thinks; Div.

i,

120.

864. In clauses referring to future time antequam and priusquam take the present or future perfect indicative or the present subjunctive; rarely, the future indicative

or the perfect subjunctive:

—

antequam pro L. Murena dicere before

in

I begin

my own

to

institud, pro

me ipso pauca dicam,

speak for Lucius Murena, I will say a few words

behalf;

Mur.

2.

nunquam conquiescam antequam illorum

rationes percepero, / shall

never rest until[id^^T^amJidh^fmethods ;

De

Or. 3, 145.

—

•

SYNTAX OF VERBS

254

{865-867

veniat, litteras mittet, before he comes, he will send a

antequam

Agr.

letter;

2, 53.

priusquam quicquam convivis dabis, gustato tute prius, before you give anything to the guests, taste first yourself; PI. Ps. 885.

antequam

sit

ea res

is brought, it is

allata, laetitia frui satis est

enough

pugnae, until that news

to revel in the joy of the battle; Phil. 14, i.

865. In clauses referring to past time, antequam and priusquam take either the indicative or subjunctive; the perfect indicative (very rarely the imperfect or plu-

perfect)

is

commonly used

to

denote a

fact, regularly if

the main clause contains a negative; the imperfect subjunctive (rarely the pluperfect) act as anticipated or forestalled:

used to represent an

is

—

neque prius fugere destiterunt quam ad flumen pervenerunt,o«(i they did not stop running until they reached the river; B. G. priusquam educeret in aciem, orationem est exorsus, led {should lead) his

men

into battle, he began

i, 53, i.

before he

a speech; Liv.

21,

39, lo-

antequam verbmn facerem, de

sella surrexit, before

I

could utter a

word, he rose from his chair; Verr. 4, 147.

inde ante discessit

quam

ilium venisse audissem, he went

away from

I should hear {should have heard) that he had come;

there before

Att. 14, 20,

2.

866. When the main verb is a historical present, antequam and priusquam take the present subjunctive, rarely the perfect :

hunc

priusquam ab adversariis sentiatur, communit, he this quickly, before it is noticed by the enemy; B. C. i,

celeriter,

fortifies

54, 4-

non prius duces dimittunt quam ab lus not

867. freely,

let

After

sit

concessum,

the leaders go until they have agreed, etc.; B.

Cicero's

where there

antequam urbem

is

time

no idea

Romam

the

subjunctive

of anticipation

caperent,

in

is

etc., they

G.

do

3, 18, 7.

used

more

ducentis annis Italiam Gall! tran:

as,

scenderunt, two hundred years before they took the city of Rome, the Gauls crossed into m^f'1^t^J^'f°^s,

— TEMPORAL CLAUSES

868-870) 868.

255

Pridie quam, on the day before, takes the indicative or, beginning

with Livy, the subjunctive; postridie quam, on the day

after,

takes the

indicative.

869.

Potius quam, rather than, takes the subjunctive, some-

by

times (beginning with Livy) introduced the

an

main verb

is

an

infinitive, the

infinitive; ante, prius,

sense of potius

:

—

depugna potius quam Att.

and

ut; except that,

subordinate verb also

citius are

may

if

be

sometimes used in the

serrias, fight it out rather than be

a

slave;

7, 7, 7.

multi potius

many

quam

ut cruciarentur se in Tiberim praecipitavenmt,

rather than be tortured threw themselves into the Tiber;

Liv. 4, 12, II.

debere eos Italiae t5Qus auctoritatem sequi potius qtiam unius hominis voluntati obtemperare,

that they ought to follow the

example of all Italy rather than yield B. C. I, 35, I.

animam

omittunt prius

quam

to the

wUl of a

man;

loco demigrent, they lose their lives

PL Am.

rather than yield their ground;

240.

Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, 870.

single

Postquam (postea quam),

etc.

ubi, ut, simul atque (simul

ac or simul alone, rarely simul ut or simul et),

and cum

primum (quom extemplo in Plautus) take the indicative, usually the perfect or the historical present; postquam

sometimes,

ubi, ut,

and simul atque

perfect or pluperfect

:

—

rarely, take the im-

postquam Caesar pervenit, obsides poposcit, he demanded hostages; B. G.

after

Caesar arrived,

i, 27, 3.

ubi neutri transeundi initium facitmt, Caesar suds in castra reduzit,

when

neither side began to cross, Caesar led his troops back into

camp;'B. G.

2, 9, 2.

qui ut peroravit surrexit Clddius, when he finished his speech, Clodius got

up; Q. Fr.

2, 3, 2.

simul atque introductus in,

he finished

est,

rem

confecit, as soon as he

^^kmW^l^om

was brought

— SYNTAX OF VERBS

2S6

{871-874

nostri simul in arido constitenint, in hostes

as soon as our attack on the

men

enemy; B. G.

cum primum Romam

impetum

made an

4, 26, 5.

veni, as soon as

I came

to

Rome;

Att. 4,

ubi lux adventabat, milites clamorem toUere iubet, when approaching, he ordered the soldiers Jug. 99,

fecerunt,

took position on dry ground, they

1, i.

dawn was

to raise the battle-cry; Sail.

I-

postea quam bis consul f uerat, after he had been twice consul ; Caecil. 69.

871.

Following definite expressions of time postquam takes

commonly than the

the pluperfect more

circumstances post

perfect.

Under these

quam and is may be omitted

sometimes separated from

is

used as a preposition in the main clause

;

or post

altogether:post diem quartum they

came

sexto anno

to

quam

Nap. Ale. 872.

est in Britanniam

ventum, four days

indicative:

erat expulsus, six years after he had been exiled;

1, 5.

—

primum

poterit, se illinc subdiicet, as soon as she can, she'll get

away from

there; Ter.

Eun. 628.

simul ut videro Ciirionem, as soon as I see Curio; Att. 10,

873.

after

i.

Ubi and simul atque introduce also clauses referring time and then take the future or future perfect

to future

ubi

quam

Britain; B. G. 4, 28,

Postquam

subjunctive, where

is

it

4, 12.

sometimes found with the imperfect or pluperfect

cannot be explained as potential or as due to any of

the causes which might lead to the use of the subjunctive in a subordinate

and are emended. must be explained as due to the

clause; such passages are generally regarded as corrupt If the subjunctive is

allowed to stand,

it

analogy of the subjunctive with cum.

Ubi and cum primum also are sometimes found with the subjunctive. Tacitus sometimes uses the historical infinitive with postquam.

874.

Postquam and ut sometimes have the meaning

referring to a period of time: •

—

since,

postquam natus sum, satur numquam fui, since I was born, I have never had enou^SitPsap)Mi<S&iM% 56.

TEMPORAL CLAUSES

^75-^77)

257

ut illos de re publica libros edidisti, nihil a te postea accSpimus, since you published those hooks about the state, we have had nothing from you; Brut. 19.

875.

Clauses introduced by any of these particles

bine the idea of cause with that of time; this

is

postquam with the imperfect; the present also used in this sense: of

may com-

espdcially true is

—

sometimes

postquamliberastjubi habitet dicere incerte scid,»0w that she's free, I haven't enough information to tell you where she lives; PI. Epid. 504.

quae omnia

intellegit sibi nihil prodesse,

knows

convincittir, he

now

quam

postea

that all these things are of

testibus

no use

to

him,

that he is being refuted by witnesses; Verr. 5, 103.

For the use of these particles with verbs denoting

indefinite or repeated

action, see 904.

Temporal Clauses with dum, donee, quoad, and 876.

Dum,

quam

quoad, and

diu,

quam

diu

meaning as long as, same

while, take the indicative; the tense is usually the

as that of the ut aegrdto,

main verb dum

peius in Italia to

—

fuit,

sperare

have hope, as long as there

long as

quam

:

anin\a est, spes esse dicitur, sic ego, quoad

Pompey was

non

destiti, as the sick

is life, so

I did not

in Italy; Att. 9, 10,

man

Pom-

is

said

cease to hope, as

3.

diu quisquam erit qui te defendere audeat, vives, as long as

there shall be

Cat.

any one who dares

to

defend you, you shall live;

1, 6.

hostes popuU

Romani fuimus per

nos, quoad nostra

arma noe

we were enemies of the Roman people, relying while our arms could protect us; Liv. 23, 42, 2.

tutari poterant,

upon 877. also

is

ourselves

In poetry and late prose (beginning with Livy) donee used in

this sense:

donee gratus eram

—

tibi,

Persarum vigui rege beatior, while I was was prosperous and more happy than

pleasing in your sight, I the king of the Persians;

Hor. C.

3, 9, i.

donee armati abibant, peditum labor in persequendo

fuit,

while they

fled with their arms, the foot-soldiers engaged in the pursuit;

Liv. 6, 13, 4.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

SYNTAX OF VERBS

258 878.

Dum, meaning

(878-881

while {in the time during which),

regularly takes the present indicative, regardless of the

main verb;

tense of the indicative:

dum

—

rarely the other tenses of the

haec geiuntur, Caesari nuntiatum

was brought

going on, word

quas (artes)

si,

dum

to

dum

whUe i,

these things were

46, i.

est tener, combibeiit, if he absorbs these arts

while he is young; Fin. 3, 9.

haec

est,

Caesar; B. G.

.

aguntur, Cleomenes ad Helori litus peivenerat, while

were going on, Cleomenes had come

these things

Helorum; Verr.

S,

to the coast at

91.

dum conficiebatur, quaesivit a me, while this sacrifice was being performed, he asked me; Nep. Hann. 2, 4. dum animos hostium certamen averterat, capitur murus, while the

quae divina res

had

battle

distracted the attention of the enemy, the wall

Liv. 32, 24,

879.

In poetry and later prose (beginning with.Livy) the is sometimes used:

—

imperfect subjunctive caneret

dum

Tibull.

dum 880.

valle sub alta, while he

was singing in

the deep valley;

2, 3, 19.

tererent tempus, while they were wasting time; Liv.

2,

47, 5.

dum sometimes denote cause as well as dum aedificant, in aes alienum inciderunt, while they

Clauses with

time: as, hi build

was taken;

5.

(i.e.

by building) houses, they have got into debt; Cat.

2, 20.

881. Dum, meaning until, usually denotes anticipation or purpose and takes the present or imperfect subjunc-

tive; this is

probably a development of the optative use

of the subjunctive:

omne opus

—

contexitur,

dum

iusta

muri

altitude expleatur, the whole

structure is put together until the proper height of the wall is

reached; B. G. is

7, 23, 4.

diun veniat sedens

ibi opperibere,

you

shall sit there

and wait

till

he comes; PI. Bac. 48. ^Verginius,

waited

dum till

he

collegam consuleret, moratus,

c0iykiim^tfM»d^hmgue; Liv.

Verginius having 4, 21, 10.

— /

TEMPORAL CLAUSES

'882-884)

Dum,

882.

until, referring to the future,

!

sometimes takes the present,

future, or future perfect indicative; and, referring to the past, the perfect indicative, as a statement of fact; but these constructions are rare in classic prose.

most commonly used with the and later prose, it sometimes takes the present subjunctive when the main verb is 883.

Donee,

until, is

perfect indicative; in poetry

present or future. Other tenses of the indicative are sometimes found, especially the future and future perfect,

— and occasionally the imperfect

or pluperfect subjunctive, to denote anticipation or purpose in

past time; in late Latin the imperfect subjunctive in a simple statement of fact:

—

is

often used

usque eo timui, donee ad reiciundos iudices venimus, / was afraid up to the time when we came to reject the jurors; Verr. i, 17. secuntur cervonun simulacra, donee redeant ad se, they follow the

forms of stags until they come

to

haud desinam donee perfecero hoc, it

themselves; Lucr. 4, 995. I'll

never

rest'

until I've pushed

through; Ter. Ph. 419.

duzit longe, donee curvata eoirent inter se capita, she drew

hack

till

the curved tips should meet;

Aen.

neque proelium omisit donee eaderet, and he did not until he fell; Tac. Aim. 3, 20. 884.

Quoad meaning

until is

it

far

11, 860.

stop fighting

comparatively rare;

it

takes

the perfect indicative or the present (rarely the imperfect) subjunctive:

neque finem sequendi feeerunt quoad equites praecipites hostes egerunt, and they did not stop the pursuit till the cavalry drove the

enemy headlong; B. G.

5, 17, 3.

ego hie cogito commorari quoad here

till

I feel

better;

Fam.

me

refleiam,

/ am planning

to stay

7, 26, 2.

ezereebatur luctando quoad stans eomplecti posset, he used to practise wrestling till he should be able to get a good grip standing;

Nep. Epam. For

2, 5.

clauses of Troviso

m'^4a)^' fmi%S§ft®

SYNTAX OF VERBS

26o

.

{885-887

Temporal Clauses with quando 885.

Quando

Plautus;

it

as a temporal conjunction

takes the indicative:

quando

illud

quod cupis

—

effecero,

is rare,

except in

when I have done what you want;

PI. Cure. 364.

quando legates Tyrum misimus, when we

sent envoys to Tyre; Agr,

2,41.

Causal Clauses

Quod, quia, and quoniam, because, take the indicative; but if the reason is not that of the speaker or writer, the subjunctive is used on the principle of implied indirect 886.

discourse (see 983) ita

fit

—

:

ut adsint propterea quod oSicium sequuntur, taceant

idcirco quia periculum vitant, so

happens

it

autem

that they are here

because they seek to do their duty, but are silent because they want to

avoid danger; Rose.

quoniam de genera since

a

i.

nunc de magnitudine pauca dicam, I have spoken about the nature of the war, now I will say

little

supplicatid

about

its

importance; Manil. 20.

meo nomine

thanksgiving

/ had freed

mater

Am.

belli dixi,

was

decreta est, quod

voted in

my name

urbem Ubeiassem, a

because (as the vote read)

the city; Cat. 3, 15.

irata est quia

non redierim, mother

is

angry because I did not

return; PI. Cist. 99.

de suis privatim rebus ab eo petere coeperunt, quoniam consulere non possent, they began

to petition

civitati

him about

their

private affairs, since they could not take counsel fen- their state;

B. G.

887.

A

s, 3, 5-

reason sometimes appears in the form of indirect

discourse, depending

introduced by quod:

upon a verb of saying in the subjunctive, as, rediit quod se oblitum nescio qtiid

diceret, he returned because he said he

had forgotten something;

Off. I, 40.

So also with cum, since: ei laneum pallium iniecit, cum id esse apttmi ad omae anni tempus diceret, he put on him a woolen cloak, since he said that this was suited to every Q^^Bndo^jllMi^maqft^, D. 3, 83.

CAUSAL CLAUSES

888-8pj) 888.

Non

261

quod, non quia, and non quo (for non eo quod)

introduce a cause the truth of which

is

denied; the verb

is

regularly in the subjunctive (on the principle of implied indirect discourse),

may

but

be in the indicative to emphasize the it is denied as a cause:

—

truth of the statement, though

non quia salvos

vellet,

sed quia perire causa indicta nolebat, not

because he wanted to spare them, but because he did not want

them

non quo

to die

without pleading their cause; Liv. 38, 33, 11.

libenter

male audiam, sed quia causam non libenter I am willing to be in bad repute, hut because

relinquo, not because

I

am

unwilling

to give

up

the case;

De

Or.

2,

305.

889. If a clause of this sort is negatived, it may be introduced by non quin, instead of non quod non: as, non qmn posset verum inveniri, sed quia videbatur indignum esse, not that the truth could not be discovered, but because it seemed to be an outrage; Mil. S9890.

After magis,

quam quod

(quia, or quo) takes the subjunctive: as,

magis quia annuum imperium consulare factum est quam quod deminutum

quicquam to

sit

ex legia potestate, rather because the consular

a year than because anything was taken from

Quando,

891.

since, is

the regal

comparatively rare;

office

was

power; Liv. it

limited 2, 1, 7.

introduces the

reason of the writer or speaker and takes the indicative: as,

quandd virtus est adfectio auimi, the mind; Tusc. 4, 34.

since virtue is a condition of

Cum, 5mce, takes the subjunctive. This is a natudevelopment of the temporal clause with cum:

892. ral

—

Haedui cum se defendere non possent, legates ad Caesarem mittunt, since the Haedui could not protect themselves, they sent envoys to Caesar; B. G. i, 11, 2 (denoting both time and cause). quae cum

When

893.

ita sint, since this is so;

i, 26.

the action of the subordinate verb

identical with that of the prevails,

Cat.

and cum, when

takes the indicative: as,

relative causal

treated as

referring to present or future time,

cum

quiescunt, probant, when (and

since) they say nothing, they approve; Cat. i, 21.

For

is

main verb, the temporal construction

^^-smiM^hMofm

SYNTAX OF VERBS

262

{894-89.7

Adversative and Concessive Clauses

Quamquam, though, introduces an adversative 894. statement of fact and takes the indicative :

quamquam premuntur tant, though

forward

quamquamst

to

—

aere alieno, dominationem tamen exspec-

they are burdened by debt, they nevertheless look

supreme power; Cat.

scelestus,

2, 19.

non committet hodie umquam iterum ut

vapulet, though he is a rascal, he will never get himself beaten a

second time to-day; Ter. Ad. 159.

895.

In poetry and later prose This construction

junctive.

is

quamquam sometimes takes the subis not common before

found in Cicero, but

Tacitus.

896. Quamquam, etsi, and tametsi sometimes mean and yet and introduce an independent sentence: quamquam haec iam tolerabilia videbantur, and yet these things now

—

seemed endurable; Mil. 76. tametsi hoc minime

Fam. 897.

tibi deest,

and

yet

you don't need

this at all;

2, 7, 2.

Conditional clauses often have an adversative force, when introduced by etsi, tametsi, or etiam si; these

especially

compounds may then be treated as adversative conjunctions and translated though (instead of even if). Etsi and tametsi in this sense usually introduce adversative statements of fact and take the indicative; etiam it

si is

never necessarily adversative;

introduces conditional clauses either in the indicative or in .

the subjunctive and etsi

may always be

translated even

if:

—

ab hoste ea dicebantur, tamen non neglegenda existimabant, though these things were said by the enemy, yet they did not think they should be disregarded; B. G.

s,

28, i.

quae tametsi Caesar intellegebat, tamen quam mitissime potest legates appellat, though Caesar understood these things, he

addressed the envoys as pleasantly as possible; B. G.

etiam

si

quod scribas ndn habebis,

scribito

7,

still

43, 4.

tamen, though you have

nothing to wriUjigtSUeiiiti^iyiiBamft^, 26,

2.

ADVERSATIVE AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES

898-906)

Quamvis

898.

263

as much as you wish) and licet when used as concessive conjunc-

(literally,

(literally, it is permitted)

,

take the subjunctive. In both cases the subjunctive

tions,

is

hortatory in origin.

Clauses

introduced by these conjunctions are properly called concessive rather than adversative

and are like hortatory clauses with a Quamvis usually takes the pres-

concessive force (see 770).

ent subjunctive; licet takes the present or perfect subjunctive (according to the principle of sequence of tenses) senectus quamvis non

sit gravis,

age is not a burden, licet pericula

it

—

:

tamen auf ert viriditatem, though old away one's vigor; Lael. 11.

nevertheless takes

impendeant omnia, subibo, though

all

dangers threaten,

I will undertake it; Rose. Am. 31. licet non sint confirmati, a me tamen ut conflrmati obserrabuntur, though they have not been confirmed, they mil nevertheless be regarded by

Quamvis

me

as if they had been; Plin. Ep.

2, 16, 3.

rarely takes the indicative.

Quamvis, quamquam, and

etsi are

sometimes, especially in later

Latin, connected with participles, adjectives,

and phrases:

—

tamen magnSls,

res belld gesserat, quamvis rei publicae calamitosas, at he had done things in war which, though disastrous still

Volscis

were

great; Phil. 2, 116.

quamquam n6n

publicd cdnsilio capessentibus arma, voluntariis

secutis mSitiam, the Volscians, though not taking of the people, following the

900.

to the slate,

campaign as

up arms by

decision

volunteers; Liv. 4, 53, i.

Cum, though, introduces an adversative

clause,

and takes the subjunctive. This is a natural development of the temporal clause with cum:

—

cum

primi ordines concidissent, first

tamen reliqm resistebant, though the

ranks had fallen, nevertheless the

rest resisted;

B. G.

7, 62, 4.

(Both temporal and adversative.) Cato,

quom

esset Tusculi natus, in populi

Romani

civitatem suscep-

tus est, though Cato was born at Tusctdum, he was taken into the citizenship of the

Roman

people; Legg.

2, 5.

In early Latin (rarely in the classical period) cimi, though, takes the indicative.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

SYNTAX OF VERBS

264

In correlation with turn (meaning usually both

901.

and)

{goi-go4

cum

regularly takes the indicative, but,

if

.

.

.

the clause has

an adversative meaning, it takes the subjunctive: as, cum te a pueritia dOexerim, turn hoc tuo facto multo acrius dQigo, though I have loved you from boyhood, still I love you much more deeply on account of what you have done; Fam. 15, 9, i.

A

902.

concessive idea

is

sometimes expressed by ut with the sub-

junctive; the origin of this usage

is

—

uncertain:

ut omnia contra opinionem acciderent,

tamen se plurimum navibus

posse, though everything turned out contrary to their expectation, {they

knew) that they were very strong in ships; B. G.

non

(exercitus) ut not retreat,

An

903.

main

certaminum

eiat, ita

from

pedem,

is

3, 9, 6.

insistet certe, though the

army does

Phil. 12, 8.

will at least stop;

adversative idea

dicative, the

rest

it

referat

sometimes expressed by ut with the

in-

clause containing the correlative ita or sic : as, ut quies

battle, still

ab apparatu operum

nihil

cessatum, though there was

they did not stop the construction of the works; Liv. 21,

8,1.

For adversative

relative clauses see 807.

Subjunctive of Repeated Action

In early Latin and in the

904.

period the indicative was used

Then

part of the Ciceronian denote repeated action.

first

to

the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive began to be used

in subordinate clauses referring to past time,

are as

common

as the indicative.

The

and

in later Latin

present and perfect sub-

junctive also are sometimes used, but very rarely unless the verb is in the indefinite second person. Such clauses may be

introduced by the relative pronoun or by a conjunction, cially,

cum

{whenever),

si,

— espe-

quotiens, quando, ubi, or ut (some of

these often with the indefinite suflSx -cumque):

—

ubi spatium inter muros postulare videretur, pilae interponuntur, ,

wherever the space between the walls seemed to

were put in; BOQitiz^dil^ Mcrosoft®

demand

it,

piers

SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION

Q05, god)

265

qui unvun eius ordinis off endisset omnis adversos habebat, whoever had

ofended one neque,

of that order had tltem all against him; Liv.

aliter si faciat,

a,

does otherwise, he has no authority over his people; B. G.

utcumque locus opportunitatem a chance; Liv.

46, 2.

ullam inter suds habet auctoritatem, and,

if he

6, 11, 4.

daret, wheneuer the place gave them

21, 35, 2.

Subjunctive by Attraction 905.

clauses

The

subjunctive

which are

often used in subordinate

is

connected in thought with

closely

another subjunctive or an

infinitive.

The connection must be an

essential one, and, even then, the sometimes used, especially if the writer wishes to emphasize or vouch for the fact contained in the clause:

ihdicative

is

—

quis aut

eum

diligat

who

loves

a

quern metuat aut

man whom he

fears or

eum on-e

a quo se metui putet?

whom

by

he thinks he is

feared? Lael. S3mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti, it is the

custom at Athens for those who have been

battle to be eulogized

killed in

in afi assembly of the people; Or. 151.

ne hostes, quod tantum multitudine poterant, suos circumvenire possent,

lest the

should be able

enemy, because they were so superior in numbers,

to

surround his men; B. G.

2, 8, 4.

Independent Subjunctive Constructions in Subordinate Clauses 906.

The potential subjunctive

(especially

when the verb is in

the indefinite second person), the optative subjunctive, and the deliberative subjunctive vix erat hoc

may

be used in subordinate clauses:

—

imperatum cum ilium spoliatum videres, hardly had when you might have seen him stripped;

this order been issued

Verr. 4, 86.

ubi consulueris, mature facto opus est, when you have deliberated,

you must

act quickly; Sail. Cat. 1, 6.

haec die natali meo

scrips!,

have written this on

my

quo utinam susceptus non essem,

birthday,

been allowed to live; Att. 11, g,

quo

me

vertam

/

on which day I wish I had not 3.

ae^f§itiJe4Ql^tl\imi9SSdHkich

way

to turn; Clu. 4.

— SYNTAX OF VERBS

266

{goy-QIO

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 907.

A

Conditional Sentence consists of two parts,

the Protasis (or condition) and the Apodosis (or conThe Protasis is regularly a subordinate clause clusion).

introduced by

or sin.

nisi,

si,

The Apodosis

regu-

is

a principal clause, but may be subordinated to another clause. The Apodosis is sometimes introduced larly

by a

correlative to

si,

—

as, igitur, therefore, turn, then, at,

at least, etc.

The Use 908.

An

of the Conditional Particles

affirmative protasis

originally a locative, then an

is

usually introduced by

adverb meaning in

—

si, if,

thai case (cf.

sic, so).

A

negative protasis

regularly introduced

is

by

nisi, unless

(sometimes by ni); it is introduced by si non, if the negative is to be applied to a single word. A negative protasis is sometimes introduced by nisi 909.

An

si.

affirmative protasis containing an idea opposed to

that of a preceding protasis is

introduced by

by

domi sum, I

am

home;

at

is

introduced by sin;

or, especially

or aliter:

foris est

home,

PI.

si feceris id,

I

non,

minus

si (or sin) si

si

—

animus; sin

my mind

if

if

negative,

the predicate

foris

is

it

omitted,

sum, animus domi est, if I am out, my mind is a(

is out; but if

Merc. 589.

habebo gratiam;

shall he grateful; if

si

non fecens, ignoscam,

you do not do

it,

if

you

do' it,

I will forgive you; Fam.

5,

19, 2.

tecum omn^s tuos; si minus, quam pltirimos, take out with you aU your companions; if not all, as many as you can; Cat. 1, 10.

ediic

910.

Sive, or

Latin.

It is

sive

seu

(cy:

.

if, is

used after a preceding

more commonly used .

.

si chiefly in

as a correlative, sive

early .

.

.

seu) introducing alternative conditional clauses

or sentences: as, siv^i^ssmiy

mi^oi®iemus?

sive

meliorem

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

gil,gi2)

suam causam

267

fore putavit, quid iniustius? if he was afraid, what

more cowardly?

he thought his cause would be stronger, what

if

more unjust? Att.

8, 9, 3.

Types

Sentences

of Conditional

There are three types of conditional sentences, as lows

—

:

First

The

Type

— Conditions

fol-

of Fact

treated as an assumption of fact in present, past, or future time. The indicative is regu911.

condition

is

used in both protasis and apodosis; any tense may be used the tenses of protasis and apodosis may be the larly

;

same or

different

:

—

parri sunt foris anna, nisi est consilitun domi, arms are of small use abroad, unless there is si

iionoris

wisdom

home;

at

Off. i, 76.

causa statuam dederunt, inimici non sunt,

the statue as

if they gave

a compliment, they are not enemies; Verr.

2,

150.

si

accelerare volent, consequentur, if they are willing to hurry, they

si

quicquam

wilt overtake

him; Cat.

2, 6.

caelati adspexerat,

manus

abstinere non poterat, if

he had got his eyes on anything embossed, he couldn't keep his

hands of

912.

A

it;

Verr. 4, 48.

protasis of this type

may

denote a single act, a redenotes a repeated act, the

peated act, or a general truth. verb, if it refers to past time,

may

be in the imperfect or plu-

perfect subjunctive (see 904).

If it

denotes a general truth, the

verb

is

If it

regularly in the present or perfect subjunctive,

indefinite second person is used; rarely, otherwise: si

—

quis prehenderetur, consensii militum eripiebatur, if caught, he

B.C.

3,

was rescued by

the

unanimous

the

any one was

action of the soldiers;

110,4.

nee habere virtutem satis est nisi utare, and enough unless you use it; Rep. i, 2. turpis excusatio est, si quis contra

fecisse fateatui,

thatfor

if

it is

to

have virtue is not

rem publicam

a disgraceful excuse

afriem^s^Sf^e.^hasacMMgainst

if

se amici caus^

any one

confesses

the state; Lael. 40.

SYNTAX OF VERBS

268

A

913. in

protasis referring to the future

the present indicative: as,

enmt,

if

(piJ-piT

we conquer, everything

si

may have

the verb

vincimus, omnia nobis tuta

will be safe for us; Sail. Cat. 58, 9.

For the use of the perfect indicative in the apodosis see 769.

The apodosis of a conditional sentence of the first type be an imperative, a hortatory subjunctive, or any other form of the verb demanded by the sense or the context: 914.

may

—

£U

haec

ita sunt, sic

honor

quod

si

me

me

colitote ut detun, if this is so,

as a god; Cat.

M.

you are

to

81.

non possumus facere, moriamur,

if

we cannot do

it, let

us die;

Phil. 7, 14. si

meis incommodis laetabantur, urbis tamen periculo commoTerentur, if they rejoiced at

my

misfortunes, they might at least have

been disturbed by the danger of the city; Sest. 54.

(Potential

Subjunctive.)

Second Type 915.

time.

— Conditions

of Possibility

The condition is treated as a possibility m future The present or perfect subjunctive is regularly

used in both protasis and apodosis.

The subjunctive

development of the horta-

of the protasis is a

tory subjunctive; the subjunctive of the apodosis subjunctive: si

deus

—

te interroget, quid

respondeas?

what would you answer? Acad. si

a corona relictus sim, non

if

is

the potential

a god should ask you,

2, 80.

queam

dicere, if I should be deserted

by the crowd, I could not speak; Brut. 192. si

me

suspendam, meis inimicis voluptatem creaverim,

hang myself, I should

916.

The

future indicative

delight

is

917.

if

I should

enemies; PI. Cas. 403.

sometimes used

emphasize the certainty of the result:

pavidum f erient ruinae, him fearless; Hor. C. 3,

my

in

the apodosis, to

as, si fractus inlabatur orbis,

if the sky should break

and fall,

im-

the ruins will strike

3, 7.

The apodosis

of a future condition,

whether

of the first

type or of the secondpOTfeyc/bjr 'te'-aip^orm which expresses or

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

pi5, gig)

—

implies futurity,

269

the periphrastic conjugations, the im-

as,

perative, the present indicative of verbs denoting wish, possinecessity, etc.

bility,

quid, si hostes

:

—

ad urbem veniant,

what are you going

facturi estis?

do if the enemy should march on the city? Liv. 3, 52, 7. vir tuos si veniet, iube domi oppenrier, if your husband comes, to

him

intraie, si possim, castra

camp,

I can; Liv.

if

hostium volo, / want

to enter the

enemy's

12, 5.

2,

non possum istum accusare, si cupiam, / cannot accuse him, shoiM wish to; Verr. 4, 87. 918.

If

tell

wait at home; PI. Cist. 426.

to

a future condition

in the past, the

is

regarded from a point of view

verb of the protasis

is

in the imperfect or plu-

same mood and tense may be used may have a past tense of the indicative

perfect subjunctive; the

the apodosis, or

it

the periphrastic conjugation: at turn si dicerem,

non

I

if

in

—

audirer, but at that time

{it

was

of

clear that) if

I should speak, I should not be heard; Clu. 80. si

omnia quae postulates facere be {have been) willing to

were you

quos ego,

to

do? Quinct.

/ intended oppose

my

to

The

83.

triumphare prohiberent, testes

summon them

— Conditions

condition

is

citaturi fui,

as witnesses, if the tribunes shotdd

triumph; Liv. 38, 47,

Third Type

919.

me

si tribiini

voluisset, quid ageres? if he should

do everything that you required, what

4.

Contrary to Fact

treated as contrary

The subjunctive

to fact in

used in both protasis and apodpsis, the imperfect referring to present time (very rarely to past), the pluperfect to past time.

present or past time.

Is

The use of the subjunctive in conditional sentences of this type probably originated in the past-future use (see 918) si intus esset, evocarem, if he were in, I should call him out; PI. Ps. :

—

640. nisi tu amisisses,

should n^er

ntunquam recepissem,

unless

h^ifim&^fiio^^'^- "•

you had

lost

it,

I

— SYNTAX OF VERBS

270

(^20-922

neque diutius Numidae resistere quivissent, ni pedites magnam cladem facerent, and the Numidians would not have been able to

hold out

any

920.

Either the protasis or the apodosis

—

sound mind, would he have dared

Roma

now; Fam.

is

refer to present

a form of

if

sum

eam

before,

out the

if he

were of

army? Pison.

50.

certe relinqueres, if you

you would

certainly leave

it

7, 11, i.

The imperfect

in the apodosis

to lead

profectus esses, nunc

had not departed from Rome

921.

may

mentis esset suae, ausus esset educere exercitum?

nisi ante

great

(facerent refers to past time.)

time, while the other refers to past time: si

had caused

unless the infantry

longer,

slaughter; Sail. Jug. S9, 3-

or perfect indicative is used regularly

the verb denotes possibility or duty, or

if

it

with the gerundive or a predicate adjective

longum est):^ eum vitae cuisum tenuissem? how

(e.g. satis est, optabilius est,

consul esse qui potui, nisi

I have been consul, unless I had followed

Rep. 1, 10. Pompeius privatus

could

this course of life?

.

si

were a private si ita

tamen

esset,

citizen,

he

still

is

erat mittendus, if

ought

to be sent;

putasset, optabilius Miloni fuit, if he

Pompey

Manil. 50.

had thought

so, it

would

have been preferable for Milo; Mil. 31.

922.

verb to

The

may

imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect indicative of

any

be used in the apodosis to denote an action just about

happen or actually in progress when interrupted by the action under these circumstances usually

of the protasis; the protasis

contains or implies a negative

iam tuta tenebam,

:

—

ni gens crudelis ferro invasisset,

reaching a safe place {and would have reached fierce people attacked

pons

iter

paene hostibus

the bridge almost gave

me; Aen. dedit,

a famous

victory, if

the

358.

to the

enemy, had

it

not been for one

2, 10, 2.

praeclare viceramus, nisi Lepidus recepisset Antonium,

,

/ was just had not

m unus vir fuisset, Horatius Codes,

a path

man, Horatius Codes; Liv.

6,

it),

we had won

Lepidus had not taken Antony under his

protection; ¥a.xe)i^fSziemiy^icrosom>

— CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

023-Q26)

271

923. Past tenses of the indicative of the active periphrastic conjugation are sometimes used in the apodosis. In such sentences

it is

often diflScult to determine whether the idea

future (see 918) or contrary to fact:

—

past-

is

si Romae esset, contentus futurus erat, witk which, if he were in Rome, he would be satisfied; Att. 12, 32, 3. relicturi agros erant, nisi ad eos Metellus litteras misisset, they would have abandoned their fields, if Metellus had not sent them

quibus,

a 924.

If

letter;

the apodosis

fect subjunctive

which

it

Yerr. 3, 121. is itself a subordinate clause, the imperremains unchanged, regardless of the tense on

depends; instead of the pluperfect, the perfect subjuncis regularly used after a pri-

tive of the periphrastic conjugation

mary

tense si

and sometimes after a secondary tense animam edidisset, non dubito

turn P. Sestius

(see 785)

quin aliquando

statua huic statueretur, if Publius Sestitts had given ghost then,

up in

I do

facturus fueris,

si

what you would have done Liv. 9, 33,

eo tempore censor fuisses, tdl

if

the

you had been censor

me

at that time;

7-

ea res tantum tumultum praebuit fuissent, effusiira se

ut, nisi castra

omnis multitudo

Punica extra urbem

that, if the

In early Latin and in

classical

the city, 7.

poetry the present and perfect

subjunctive are sometimes used in contrary-to-fact conditions:

—

he were at home, I would tdl you; PI. Asin. 393. delicias tuas, ni sint inelegantes, velles dicere, you would want to talk si sit

domi, dicam

caused

fuerit, this thing

Punic camp had not been outside whole population would have poured out; Liv. 26, 10,

such a panic

925.

up

not doubt that at some time a statue would be set

his honor; Sest. 83.

^c quidnam

the

:

tibi, if

of your pleasures, if they were not unseemly; Catull. 6,

i.

Other Forms of Protasis 926.

The

protasis of

any type

of conditional sentence

may

be expressed by a single word, a phrase, or by a clause not in the regular form of a protasis: ^

—

qualem(dratidnem) nximquam Catilina victor habuisset, such a speech as Catiline

i»i»^g^^ ^fl^igf^^^f^ successful;

Sest. 28.

SYNTAX OF VERBS

272 nihil

{g27,g28

posse evenire nisi causa antecedente, that nothing can happen unless a cause precedes; Fat. 34.

nemo umquam

sine

magna

spe immortalitatis se pro patria offerret ever expose himself to death for his

ad mortem, no one wotdd

country without great hope of immortality; Tusc. flliam quis habet, pecunia est opus, a

tolle

man

money; Par. 44. banc opinionem, luctum sustuleris, destroy will have put

dares banc vim to

an end

M.

to grief;

Tusc.

i,

absque eo

is

32.

this idea

and you

30.

Crasso, in foro saltaret, had you given this power

Marcus Crassus, he would have danced in

(dares

i,

has a daughter, he needs

the forum; Off. 3, 75.

potential subjunctive.)

esset, recte ego

mihi vidissem, were

should have looked out for myself

all right;

it

not for him, I

Ter. Ph. 188.

Conditional Relative Sentences

Clauses introduced by relative words are often may have any of the forms

927.

equivalent to protases and

found in conditional sentences: haec qui videat, nonne cogatur

—

confiteri

deos esse?

the

man who

should see this would be compelled, wouldn't he, to admit that there are gods? N. D. 2, 12. quaecumque vos causa hue attulisset,

brought you here, I should rejoice;

cum rosam rose,

laetarer, whatever cause

De

Or.

viderat, incipere ver arbitrabatur, whenever he

he thought

it

was

had

2, 15.

saw a

the beginning of spring; Verr. 5, 27.

Conditional Clauses of Comparison

These are introduced by quasi (rarely quam si) tamut si, velut si, ac si (in late Latin), or ceu (chiefly in poetry); sometimes by tamquam or velut (without si). All 928.

quam

si,

mean

as

origin),

if.

The subjunctive

and the tense

is

is

used (probably volitive in

usually determined

by the sequence

tenses; sometimes, however, the imperfect or pluperfect after a

:

of

used

primary tense, to mark the action as contrary to fact. is implied in the introductory word (quam, ut,

The apodosis etc. )

is

Digitized

by Microsoft®

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

g29, Qjo)

hie est obstandum, relut

si

Romana moenia pugnemus, here we were fighting before the walls of

ante

we must make a stand as Rome; Liv. 21, 41, 15.

if

hos (honores) petunt, quasi honeste

ita

vixerint, they seek these

honors just as if they had lived honorably;

tamquam de regno

Ausonum

gens, perinde ac

Ausonian race was

si

Fam.

it

si

inter-

asset res mea, / shoidd like

undertake his business, just as if 2,

had fought in an

9.

eius negotium sic velim suscipias, ut to

Jug. 85, 19.

a kingdom; Liv. 40, 6, 6. intemecivo bello certasset, the

destroyed, just as if

necine war; Liv. 9, 25,

you

Sail.

dimicaretur, ita concurrenmt, they rushed to-

gether as if they were fighting for

deleta

273

it

were

my own

affair;

14.

Clauses of Proviso 929.

The

present and imperfect subjunctive are used

in Clauses of Proviso introduced

modo, provided, This

is

ne,

sometimes

The by the subject of

a development of the volitive subjunctive.

is

may

express a wish entertained either

verb or by the writer or speaker; or merely conditional: the main

—

omnia postposui, dtun modo praeceptis thing else secondary, in

Fam.

my

patris parerem,

desire to obey

may

it

/ held

my father's

be

every-

precepts;

16, 21, 6.

honesta neglegimt,

dum modo

honor, if only they

dum

or

Latin) non.

(in later

clause

The

if only.

by dum, dum modo,

negative

may

potentiam consequantur, they neglect

obtain power; Off. 3, 82.

res maneant, verba fingant arbitratu suo, provided the facts

remain,

modo ne

sit

let

them make up words as they please; Fin.

ex pecudum genere, provided he

5,

89.

is not of the herd of

cattle; Off. i, 105.

Clauses of Proviso are sometimes introduced by ut or ne: as, probanda est dementia, ut adhibeatur rei piiblicae causa severitas, mercy is a thing to be commended, if only strictness is observed in the interests

930.

ita

of the state; 0&.

i, 88.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

— SYNTAX OF VERBS

274

IMPERATIVE The Imperative is used

931.

{931-934

MOOD to express a

command

or

request.

The present calls for the immediate performance of the act. The future is used, as a rule, only when it is clear that the act is not to be performed immediately, as, for example, when it

—

forms the apodosis of a conditional sentence referring to the future; it is used also to express a permanent command, in rules, laws, etc.

:

proficiscere;

—

—

educ tecum omnes tuos, depart; take out with you

your companions; Cat. es, bibe,

cum

animo obsequere,

eat,

valetudini consulueris,

drink,

tum

and

voyage;

Fam.

moribus

932.

The

be merry; PI. Mil. 677.

when you make arrangements for the

consulito navigatidnl,

have attended to your health, then

si iste ibit, ito, if

all

i, lo.

16, 4, 3.

he goes, you go; PI. Ps. 863.

ways;

PI. Trin. 295.

third person of the future imperative is

used chiefly

vivito antiquis, live in the old-fashioned

in legal statements: as, regio imperio

two of regal power; Legg.

duo

stinto, there shall be

3, 8.

933. The future imperative of scio habed usually, instead of the present. For quin with the imperative see 744.

is

used regularly, and that of

For the use of the imperative in the protasis of conditional sentences see 926.

Negative 934.

Negative

Commands

Commands

by noli by cave or cavete with the present 831), and by the perfect subjunctive with ne are regularly expressed

or nollte with the infinitive,

subjunctive (see (see 768)

:

quemquam pleniorem ad dicendum fuisse, do not think any one was more fluent of speech; Brut. 125. cave eastimes me abiecisse curam rei publicae, do not think that I noli putare that

.

ne

have sis

lost interest

in the state;

Fam.

9, 24, 4.

admiratus, dSieiMzbd i%nf^sedgf^m.

7, 18, 3.

THE INFINITIVE

935-939) 935.

The

present imperative with ne

pofetry; the future imperative with

ne saevi,

[Boreal ilante,

is

trust not the horse;

ne

simen ne

arate,

is

rules, laws, etc.:

—

Aen.

2,

48.

when the north wind H. N. 18, 334.

iacitd,

not plow, do not sow your seed; Plin.

936.

used in early Latin and in

used in

And. 868.

be not angry; Ter.

equS ne ciedite,

ne

275

blows, do

Other forms of expression are cave ne, cura ne, fac ne, or vide ne

with the subjunctive.

The

poets sometimes use the present subjunctive with ne; and they

sometimes use, instead of noU, other words of similar meaning,

—

e.g.

fugej mitte, parce.

937.

Two commands,

of

which

second

the

is

negative

(whether imperative or stibjunctive) are regularly connected

by neve:

—

hominem mortuom burn a dead fructfis feros

in urbe

man

urito, neither

bury nor

2, 58.

moUite colendo, neu segnes iaceant terrae, make

•wild fruit's edible

Georg.

ne sepelito neve

in the town; Legg.

by cultivation, and

let

not the lands

the

lie idle;

2, 36.

THE

INFINITIVE

Infinitive is a verbal noun and has characboth noun and verb. Like a noun it may be used in certain case-constructions and it is sometimes qualified by a neuter adjective or demonstrative; like a verb it has distinctions of voice and tense, it governs the 938.

The

teristics of

'Same case as

its

verb,

The Use

and

of the

it is

Tenses

qualified

by adverbs.

of the Infinitive

tenses of the infinitive regularly denote time which is relative to tfet of the verb upon which the infinitive depends. The preser^t ten^e depojes action in progress, the perfect tense

939.

.

The

action cQsapWsds'the future tense action

still

at the time 6f th«";aG^9^^^f, Jh^mdiy^erb.

to be performed

SYNTAX OF VERBS

276

(g40-g44

With some verbs which look forward

940.

to the future (for

example, verbs meaning to wish or plan), the present infinitive refers to future

time

—

:

I

scire studeo quid egeris,

doing; Att. 13, 20,

am

anxious

to

know what you have been

3.

cogito in hortis Crassipedis cenare, /

am

planning

to

dine in the

gardens of Crassipes; Att. 4, 12.

The present

941.

infinitive is

sometimes used instead

of the

future with verbs meaning to hope, promise, or threaten; also

with verbs of saying when they contain the idea of promising:

—

totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant, they hope to be able to get control of all

Gaul; B. G.

1, 3, 7.

operam dare promittitis, if you promise to attend; PI. Trin. 5. illi se, quae imperarentur, facere dixerunt, they said that they would do what was ordered; B. G. 2, 32, 3. si

942.

With verbs

of remembering the present infinitive

used of a completed act:

member 943.

that

as,

meministis

fieri senatixs

is

sometimes

consultum, you

re-

a decree of the senate was passed; Mur. 51.

In indirect discourse (see 964) the perfect infinitive

represents any past tense of the indicative.

944.

The

perfect infinitive

is

sometimes used instead of the present

to emphasize the completion of the act:

—

bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfecisse, a war which we can finish before winter; Liv. 37, 19, 5.

tendentes Pelion imposuisse Olympo, striving

Hor. C.

to

put Pelion on Olympus,

3, 4, SI.

For the same reason the perfect passive

infinitive,

usually without

often used with volo (rarely with cupio

and nolo): as, monitos etiam atque etiam volo, / want them warned again and again; Cat. 2, 27; also with oportet, decet, and similar verbs: as, quod iam pridem factum esse,

is

esse oportuit, which ought

to

haw

been done long ago; Cat.

i, 5.

In poetry the use of the perfect infinitive where the present would

seem more natural

is,

no ^J(fee,§99'*S«n^)fee to metrical reasons.

THE INFINITIVE

Q45-94^)

277

945. The future infinitive is used only in indirect discourse with verbs of saying, thinking, perceiving, etc., and with verbs of similar meaning, for example, verbs meaning to hope', prom-

—

ise, threaten, etc.

946.

Instead of the future infinitive, the periphrastic form

futurum esse or fore

may

be used, with ut and the subjunctive,

either active or passive; this circumlocution

the verb has no future participle or supine:

magnam

in

spem veniebat

is

—

necessary

when

fore uti pertinacia desisteret, he

becoming very hopeful that he

woiM give up

was

his obstinacy; B. G.

i,

42, 3-

qua ex re futurum

uti totius Galliae

result of this thing

turned

947.

The

would be

away from him; B. G.

i,

they thought that the

war would soon

The Uses infinitive is

be

is

debellatum

sometimes used to

mox fore rebantur,

be {have been) finished; Liv. 23, 13, 6.

of the Infinitive

Infinitive as

The

as,

Gaul would

20, 4.

perfect passive participle with fore

denote completed action in future time:

948.

animi a se averterentur, the

that the loyalty of all

Nominative Case

used as subject with est and a

predicate adjective; with est and an abstract predicate noun,— for example, fas est, mos est, opus est, tempus est;

with est and a predicate possessive genitive; and with for example, decet, expedit, many impersonal verbs, When used iuvat, licet, oportet, placet, praestat, pudet.

—

way, the infinitive may have a subject accusaand may take a predicate noun or adjective in the

in this

tive

accusative

:

—

longum est ea dicere, it would take a long time to tell this; Sest. 12. neque erat facile nostrls uno tempore propugnare et munire, and it was not easy for our men to fight and build fortifications at the same time; B. C. 3, 45, 3. cum vivere ipsum turpe sit, when mere living is disgraceful; Att. 13, 2°i 2.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

-

SYNTAX OF VERBS

278 si

eos hoc nomine appellari fas est, if

Mur. 80. amentis pacem cogitare,

{949~95^ right for

it is

them

to be called

by this name; erat

it

was a madman's

act to think of

peace; Lig. 28.

oratdrem

irasci

to lose his

minime

decet,

temper; Tusc.

non esse cupidum pecunia

Many

it is

quite

unbecoming for an orator

4, ^s.

est, not to be covetous is wealth; Par. 51.

verbs or expressions of this sort

may

take a substantive clause;

see 828.

The

949.

infinitive is

sometimes used as the subject

of other

verbs:

non

cadit invidere in sapientem, envy does not come to a wise

Tusc.

man;

3, 21.

quos omnis eadem cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere in iinum coegit, the fact that they desired the things, feared. the

same

same

things, hated the

same

things, brought therri all together; Sail. Jug.

31,14-

The

950.

and

infinitive

is

used also as a nominative in apposition

as a predicate nominative:

—

proinde quasi iniuriam facere id

do

injustice,

vivere est cogitare, to

live is to

if that only, to

demum

were

to

esset imperio

make use

iiti,

just as

of power; Sail; Cat.

12, 5-

Infinitive as

The

951.

with

many

think; Tusc.

5,

in.

Accusative Case

infinitive without subject accusative is used verbs to denote another act of the same

subj ect. This

is

called the

pletes a thought

Complementary

which

With most verbs the which are intransitive tion.

of tl^s

is

Infinitive because

only introduced by the

it

com-

finite verb.

infinitive is a direct object; it is

with those used like an accusative of specifica-

The verbs

(or verbal phrases) which take an infinitive type are especially those meaning wish, decide, intend,

prepare, strive, hasten p^ii^b^(mlmik0^ease, dare, fear, neglect,

THE INFINITIVE

g52-g54)

279

learn, remember, forget, ought, seem, be able, be accustomed.

noun

predicate

the main verb,

or adjective

— that

is,

he

—

wage war

p^buli copia esse inciperet, as soon as there began to

a supply of fodder; B. G.

longer; Cat.

Some

to

4, 6, 5.

2, 2, 2.

nobiscum versari iam diutius non potes, you.cannot fieri

A

as the subject of

gerere constituit, he decided

with the Germans; B. G.

cum primum

same case

in the

usually the nominative:

cum Germanis

bellum

is

studebam

doctior,

of these verbs

live

with us any

i, 10.

may

/ was eager

to

become more wise; Lael.

i.

take a substantive clause instead of the

infini-

tive; see 826, 835.

An

952.

when

infinitive of this

it refers

type

may

take a subject accusative even

same person as the subject

to the

of the

main

rarely, unless the infinitive is esse, videri, putarl, or dici:

—

verb,

— but

cupio me esse clementem, I want to he merciful; Cat. i, 4. gratum se videri studet, he is eager to seem grateful; Off. 2, 70.

As an abstract noun the

953.

infinitive

may

be used as the

object of a verb, or in apposition with the object, or as an accusative case with a preposition:

—

hie vereri perdidit, he has lost his sense of shame; PI. Bac. 158.

ut totum hoc beate vivere in una virtute poneret, that he should base this

whole matter of a happy

tu das epulis

life

on virtue done; Tusc.

accumbere (Uvum, you

at the feasts of the gods;

Aen.

i,

give

me

5,

33.

the privilege of reclining

79.

misereri, invidere, gestire, laetari, haec

omnia morbos Graeci appel-

lant, pity, envy, longing, joy, alt these things the Greeks call dis-

eases; Tusc. 3,

7.

nil praeter plorire, nothing except

The

infinitive with subject accusative is

following verbs 954.

This

is

weeping; Hor.

(1)

:

—

Verbs meaning say,

think,

S. 2, 5, 69.

used with the

know, perceive.

the construction of principal clauses in indirect

discourse; see 965.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

SYNTAX OF VERBS

28o

{955-957

The subject accusative is sometimes omitted, but rarely unless would be me, nos, te, vos, or se. When the subject is omitted, a predicate noun or adjective is sometimes in the nominative, but chiefly in poetry: it

—

/ admit

stulte fecisse fateor,

that

I have

acted foolishly ; PI. Bac. 1013.

oblitum credidi, / thought he had forgotten; Fam. ait fuisse

navium celerrimus,

CatuU.

uxor

it

says

it

was

9, 2, i.

the swiftest of boats,

4, 2;

esse nescis, you forget that you are the wife of

invicfi lovis

unconquerable Jove; Hor. C. 3, 27, 73.

955.

Verbs denoting emotion,

(2)

complaint,

indignation,

grief,

pride,

—

for example, joy,

wonder; these are

verbs of thinking or saying, and the dependent construction may properly be regarded as indirect discourse

:

—

salvom

te

advenisse gaudeo, /

am glad that you have arrived in safety;

Ter. Ph. 286.

ne querantur se esse deserted; Tusc.

956.

or teach:

(3)

—

relictas, lest they

complain that they have been

5, 14.

Verbs meaning

order, compel, forbid, permit,

tertiam aciem castra munire iussit, he ordered the

camp; B. G. i, 49, 2. hunc patiemur fieri miserum? are we going to

men

of the third

line to fortify the

let

him become unhappy?

Ter. Ph. 536.

Some verbs 957.

of these

meanings

may

take a substantive clause; see 826.

Verbs of wishing, when the subject of the from that of the verb upon which

(4)

infinitive is different it

depends hoc te

:

scire volui,

eas res jg

—

I wished you

to

iactari nolebat, he did not j_

Digitized

know

this; Att. 7, 18, 4.

wish these things disacssed; B. G.

by Microsoft®

i,

the infinitive

g^S-gdo)

Infinitive with Passive

281

Verbs

Many

verbs which in the active voice take the infinitive with subject accusative are used also in the passive voice with a dependent infinitive. 958.

Verbs of saying, thinking, etc., are used either personally or impersonally in the present system and, as a rule, impersonally J

system and

in the perfect

in the periphrastic conjugation

centum pagos habere dicuntur, tons; B. G. 4,

mother of Pausanias

Homer was dicendum is no 959. believe,

est

is

vixisse,

lived at that time;

blind; Tusc.

5,

Rep.

Videor, seem,

is

it

is

Nep. Paus.

fuisse, there is

said that the 5, 3.

a tradition

that

114.

nullam esse rem publicam,

state;

it

must

be said that there

3, 43.

used, as a rule, personally in all forms; credo, if they have. a dependent Sulmonenses cupere ea facere quae vellet, the people 0} Sulmo are eager to do what he

impersonally; other verbs impersonally

dative: as, Caesari nuntiatur it

they are said to have a hundred can-

Homerum caecum

traditum est

—

I, 4.

tempore matrem Pausaniae

dicitur eo

:

announced

wishes; B. C.

i,

to

Caesar that

18, i.

Infinitive

with Adjectives

In poetry beginning with the Augustan period (rarely in earlier poetry) and in post-Augustan prose the infinitive is used with many adjectives, especially 960.

those which denote wish, ability, fitness (or the reverse) to

do something. This use

is like

that of the complementary infinitive with verbs

or the supine in -u with adjectives: avidi committere

pugnam, eager

fortis tractare serpentes, brave

to

—

begin the fight; Ov. Met.

enough

to

5, 75.

handle serpents; Hor. C.

i,

37, 26.

nescia humanis precibus mansuescere corda, hearts that knew not

how

to be

merciful to

human

prayers; Georg. 4, 470.

niveus videri, snoiB'isiMti'tMMM^o^r. C. 4,

2,

59.

SYNTAX OF VERBS

282

Infinitive of

The

961. is

infinitive

Exclamation

with or without subject accusative

The

used in exclamations.

interrogative enclitic -ne

often attached to the emphatic hoc non videre!

non pudere!

mene

—

pose,

word

:

—

ashamed/ Ter. Ph. 233.

incepto desisterel that I should abandon

The

my

purpose/ Aen.

Purpose

used in poetry to denote purchiefly with verbs of motion and with verbs

meaning to

infinitive is

give or undertake:

—

non Libycos populare Penatis venimus, we have not come the

Libyan homes; Aen.

i,

Aen.

s,

to pillage

527.

man

loricam donat habere viro, he gives the

a breastplate

to

wear;

260.

quis sibi res gestas Augusti scribere suinit? self to write the achieoem^nts of

The

is

the idea of not seeing this! Fin. 4, 76.

that he shouldn't be

Infinitive of

962.

ig6i-g64

expression do bibere, give

to

who

upon him-

takes

Augustus? Hor. Epis.

i, 3, 7.

drink, occurs in prose as. well s^ poetry. '

Historical Infinitive

In animated narration the present infinitive'may 963. be used instead of the imperfect (rarely the perfect) indica-

The

tive.

in

subject

is

in the nominative.

Beginning with Sallust the historical infinitive dependent clauses, relative and temporal

—

cottidie

:

Caesar Haeduos frumentum

demanded grain of

the

—

flagitare,

Haedui; B. G.

i,

is

used rarely

eo'ery

day Caesar

16, i;

Catilina poUiceri tabulas novas, Catiline promised abolition of debts; Sail.

Cat. 21,

2.

postquam exui aequalitas, when

equality

was overthrown;

Ta.c.

Ann.

3, 26.

Indirect Discourse

964.

of onojs

Direct Discourse

is

the quotation, without change,

own or another's words or thoughts

an independent

sent^}ia»feec/ by Microsoft®

in the

form of

INDIRECT DISCOURSE

965-968)

283

Indirect Discourse is the quotation, with the necessary changes of pronouns, tense, person, etc., of one's own or another's words or thoughts in the form of a dependent sentence, the object of a verb of saying or think-

—

ing expressed or implied.

The

construction of indirect discourse

is used also knowing and perceiving, and after manyother verbs which express or suggest in any way the idea

after verbs of

of speech or thought. Declarative Sentences in Indirect Discourse

965.

In declarative sentences in indirect discourse the with subject accusative is used in all principal

infinitive

clauses, the subjunctive in all subordinate clauses.

966.

For the use of the tenses of the

infinitive in principal clauses see

939, 941-943, 946-947.

The

tenses of the subjunctive are regularly treated according

sequence of tenses (see 781), the sequence being determined by the tense of the verb of saying etc., which to the rule for the

For the treatment of original which have no corresponding tenses

introduces the indirect discourse. futures

and future

perfects,

in the subjunctive, see 794.

967. The present and perfect subjunctive are often used even when the introductory verb is in a secondary tense; this irregularity (called repraesentatio) is due to a feeling that the

statement

is

made more

vivid

by representing the action

occurring or as completed in present time.

as

In the course of a

long passage in indirect discourse the sequence

may

change

several times.

For the use of the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive with a perfect a primary tense see 793.

infinitive after

968.

Verbs of remembering with the present

the secondary sequence. „.

..

,,

Digitized

...

,^

by Microsoft®

infinitive (see 942) take

SYNTAX OF VERBS

284

Examples

969.

course

:

declarative

of

—

proponit esse nonnuUos

quorum

sentences

the

common

there

1, 17, i.

eum animadverteret, he thought

reason why he should punish him; B. G. i, 19, i. Numidiae partem quam nunc peteret turn adven-

turam, he made

new

dis-

sufficient

regi patefecit

he

indirect

apud plebem plurimum some whose authority among

people is very great; B. G.

causae arbitrabatur quare in

was

in

auctoritas

valeat, he declares that there are

satis esse

{969-971

it

clear to the king that the part of Numidia

sought would then come

him;

to

Sail.

Jug. iii,

which

i.

erilem filium eius duxisse audio uxorem, I hear that his master's son has got married; Tar. Ph. 39. legati venerunt, qui se

envoys came,

B. G.

to

ea quae imperasset facturos pollicerentur,

promise that they would do what he should order;

4, 22, I.

Ariovistus respondit,

si

iterum expeiiri

velint, se

tare, Ariovistus replied that, if they

he

hunc

was ready

aiunt,

to fight it out;

cum taurum

B. G.

i,

immolavisset,

wanted 44, 4.

paratum esse decerto try

mortuum

say that after he had sacrificed the hull he

a second time,

(Repraesentatio.)

fell

concidisse, they

dead; Brut. 43.

(Tense of the subordinate verb due to the perfect infinitive.)

meministine

me

dicere fore in armis certo die, qui dies futiirus

diem sextum Kal. Novembris, C. Manlium? do you remember that I said that Gaius Manlius would be under arms esset ante

on a certain day, which day would of November? Cat.

be the sixth before the

Kalends

i, 7.

For the occasional omission of the subject of the main verb see 954.

The verb

970.

from the context:

non minus se

must sometimes be supplied omnes Caesari ad pedes proiecerunt:

of saying etc. as,

id contendere, all threw themselves at Caesar's feet,

(saying) that no less were they striving for this, etc.; B. G.

A

971.

followed quidvis

comparative with

quam

by the accusative and

me

potius perpessurum

i,

31, 2.

in indirect discourse is often

infinitive:

as,

noime aAtmasm.

quam ex Italia exiturum?

did I

not declare that I would endure anything whatever rather than leave Italy?

Fam.

2,

16,3.

Tlj^^ii^jy^j^y^sg^ut maybe used; seeSOl.

INDIRECT DISCOURSE

972-974)

285

When

one subject is compared with another in indirect by means of such phrases as idem qui, a comparative with quam, tantus quantus, etc., and it is apparent that the second verb would be the same as the first, the second verb, 972.

discourse

which would naturally be in a subject

finite

mood,

attracted into the accusative:

is

te suspicor

eisdem rebus quibus

me

—

is

omitted, and

its

ipsum conunoTeri, / suspect

same things as myself; Cat. M. (properly, quibus ipse commoveor.) you are disturbed by

that

the

i.

aiebat se tantidem aestimasse quanti Sacerdotem, he said he put the

same price on

it

(properly, quanti

as Sacerdos; Verr. 3, 215.

Sacerdos aestimasset.)

973. it is

A

subordinate clause

may have

the indicative, (a)

if

not a part of the indirect discourse, but an explanatory

statement;

or, (b) if

the writer wishes to emphasize or vouch

for the statement contained in the clause:

—

Caesari renuntiatur Helvetiis esse in animo iter in Santonum fines facere, qui

non longe a Tolosatium

est in provincia,

planning

who

to

it is

make an

announced

is

finibus absunt, quae civitas

Caesar that the Helvetians are

expedition into the territory of the Santones,

are not far distant

which

to

from

the territory of the Tolosates,

in the province; B. G.

i,

a

state

10, i.

video esse hie in senatu quosdam qiu tecum una fuerunt, I see that here in the senate there are certain ones

Cat.

974.

by a relative pronoun are sometimes indeIn indirect discourse these are treated as principal

Clauses introduced

pendent; see 710. clauses

who were with you;

I, 8.

and have the accusative and infinitive. So by cum, ut {as), quamquam, etc.:

censent

unum quemque nostrum mundi esse partem,

illud

also, occasionally,

—

clauses introduced

ex quo

nature cSnsequi, they think that each one of us

verse,from which this naturally follows ; Fin.

is

(

= et ex eS)

a pari of the uni-

3, 64.

ez quo intellegi potuit, ut mare ventorum vi agitari, sic populum Romanum hominum seditiosorum vocibus concitari, from which it could be understood that as the sea so the

is

disturbed by the violence of the winds,

Roman pegi^iSMl^p'M^kkf^f^'"''^^

°S agitators; CIu. 138.

SYNTAX OF VERBS

286

(.975-979

Questions in Indirect Discourse

975.

The subjunctive

discourse which in

person.

used in any question in indirect form had its verb in the second

is

its original

If in its original

form the verb was

the

in

first

or third

person, a real question, which expected an answer, has the subjunctive; a rhetorical question, which expected no answer, has

the accusative and infinitive: si

bonum

—

ducerent, quid pro noxio danmassent? if they thought

him a good man, why had

they

condemned him as guilty? Liv.

27> 34, 13-

num

recentium iniuriarum memoriam (se) deponere posse? cotdd

memory

he lay aside the

976.

An

of recent wrongs? B. G.

original subjunctive in a deliberative

i,

14, 3.

question

is

always

retained in indirect discourse.

Commands .

977.

subjunctive

in Indirect Discourse

— whether

Commands

— have the verb The

rect discourse.

tense

is

regular principles of sequence

originally imperative or

in the subjunctive in indi-

usually determined

—

:

by the

nuntius venit bellum Atheniensis indixisse; quare venire ne dubi-

a message came

taret,

Athenians had declared war; where-

that the

fore he should not hesitate to come; Nep. Ages. 4,

respondit:

si

ab armis discedere

velint, se adiutore

que ad Caesarem mittant, he their

arms,

B. G.

978. followed

5,

replied: if they

i.

utantur legatos-

wanted

them take his advice and send envoys

let

41, 7.

to lay to

down

Caesar;

(Tenses due to repraesentatio.)

Some verbs of saying etc. may denote will or desire and are then by an object clause: as, Pythia respondit ut moenibus ligneis se

milnirent, the Pythian priestess replied that they should defend themselves

with wooden walls; Nep.

Them.

2,

6.

Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse

979.

The

protasis

is

a subordinate clause and has the

subjiyictive.

The

apodosis

is

aDl§!t^t^\sim)iom^<^ has the accusative

INDIRECT DISCOURSE

g8o)

and

287

was originally imperative or hortawhich case the subjunctive is used see 914, 977.

infinitive, unless it

tory, in

The

;

by the

tenses are in general determined

principles

of sequence. Conditions of Pact or Possibility

980.

may

These

be treated together, as there

is

no

distinc-

tion in indirect discourse between future conditions that were originally in the indicative

and those that were

In both cases the tense

the subjunctive.

originally in

of the protasis is deter-

mined by the sequence and the apodosis has the future Examples

—

:

lovem

aiunt philosophi,

sic

loquitur

si

respondit:

.

.

quid

si

B. G. tive

loqui, the philosophers

speaks Greek; Brut. 121.

se

velit,

(Direct:

ilium ad se venire oportere, he replied:

wanted anything of him, he ought (Direct:

34, 2.

I,

if he

loquitur.)

.

ille

if he {Caesar)

Graece loquatur,

si

say that Jove speaks thus,

infinitive.

vult

si

.

.

.

to

come

to

him;

oportet; present subjunc-

due to repraesentatio.)

non dicam ne illud quidem, si maxime in culpa fuerit ApoUonius, tamen in hominem. honestissimum tarn graviter animadverti non oportuisse, / will not say this either, that if ApoUonius was very much at fault, still so severe a punishment ought not to have been inflicted upon a most honorable man; Verr. 5, 20. (Direct: si fuit

.

.

.

oportuit.)

erat scriptum, nisi

demn him .

domum

had been written

it

.

.

eum

damnatiirds,

death;

Nep. Paus.

would con-

(Direct: nisi reverteris

3, 4.

damnabimus.)

sensit, si in

turbam

f uturum.

get

to

reverteretur, se capitis

that unless he returned home, they

homine

exisset ab

tarn necessario se relictum,

ut ceteri consilium sequerentur, he

abroad that he had been deserted by d

the result 6, 3.

Toluptatem

would be

that others

(Direct: si exierit si

.

.

man

would adopt .

ipsa pro se loquatur

saw

that if

it

should

so closely connected,

that policy;

Nep. Dat.

sequentur; see 946.)

concess^ram arbitror

dignitati,

I think that if .Pleasure should speak for'herself, she would admit her inferiority to Merit; Fin. 3,

concedat.)

Digitized

i.

by Microsoft®

(Direct: si loquatur

.

.

.

SYNTAX OF VERBS

288

(98 1, 982

Conditions Contrary to Fact

Conditional sentences of the third type (contrary to

981.

fact) are treated in indirect discourse as follows:

The mood and The verb of the

—

tense of the protasis remain unchanged. apodosis,

active, takes the

if

form

of the future

active participle with fuisse (rarely esse).

The verb of the apodosis, if passive, is represented in indirect by futiirum fuisse followed by ut with the imperfect

discourse

subjunctive.

Examples: illud

—

Asia cogitet, rio

nuUam calamitatem afuturam

non teneretur,

Asia think

let

this, that

fuisse, si

hoc impe-

no disaster would be

lacking, if she were not held by this government; Q. Fr. i, i, 34.

(Direct: abesset

clamitabat Eburones,

si

.

si ille

non

tenerer.)

adesset, ad castra (non) ventiiTds esse,

he kept crying out that the Eburones, if he were there, would not be

coming

to the

camp; B. G.

5, 29, 2.

(Direct:

si

adessem

.

.

.

venirent.)

(apparebat),

diiitius

si

vixisset,

Italiae inlatiiros fuisse,

it

was

Hamilcare duce Poen6s anna evident that if he

had

lived longer,

under the leadership of Hamilcar the Carthaginians would have brought

war

into Italy; Liv. 21,

2, 2.

(Direct: si vixisset

.

.

.

intiilissent.)

de Caesaris

nisi niintii

victoria essent allati, existimabant plerique

futiirum fuisse uti (oppidum) amitteretur, unless reports about Caesar's victory had been brought, most people thought that the

town would have been allati

982. direct

If

.

.

.

amissum

lost;

B. C.

3, loi, 3.

(Direct: nisi essent

esset.)

the verb of the apodosis was in the indicative in the

form

(see 921-923),

it

becomes the perfect

infinitive in

the indirect: as, Platonem existimo, si genus forense dicendi tractare voluisset, gravissime potuisse dicere, I think that Plato, if he

had wanted

to cultivate the

forensic style of oratory, might have

been a<most impressive speaker; Off. potuit. )

Digitized

i, 4.

by Microsoft®

(Direct: si voluisset

PARTICIPLES

p83-g86)

289

Implied Indirect Discourse

The subjunctive is often used in dependent which would naturally have the indicative and, when so used, indicates that the clause contains an indirect quotation of words or thought 983.

clauses

:

Paetus omnes

libros,

Paetus gave Att. cottidie

me

—

quos frater suus

all the

reliquisset,

mihi donavit,

books which (he said) his brother had

left;

2, I, 12.

Caesar Haeduos frumentum quod essent

day Caesar demanded of the Haedui he reminded them) they had promised; B. G. every

nisi restituissent statuas,

polliciti flagitare,

the grain i,

which {as

16, 1.

vehementer minatur, he

threatens

violently unless they restore the statues; Verr. 2, 162,

them

(Apodosis

implied in minatur.)

For the use of

this

type of subjunctive in causal clauses see 886,

PARTICIPLES 984.

Like adjectives

Participles are verbal adjectives.

they qualify nouns and agree with them in gender, numand case; like verbs they have voice and tense and

ber,

govern cases.

The Use 985.

of the

Tenses

of the Participle

A participle denotes time which is relative to that

of the verb in its clause. 986.

The present

participle represents action as in progress

at the time of the action of the verb

pugnans

:

—

occiditur, he is killed while fighting; B. G. s, 37,

maniis tendentes vitam orabant, stretching out

their

5.

hands they begged

for life; Liv. 44, 42, 4.

Like the present indicative (see 749), the present participle denote action begun in the past and still continuing: as,

may

haec secum Sail.

difl

Jug. 113,

I.

volvens, having considered this for a long time;

In/ppjigy/jj-m^Ja^f^rose

it

sometimes

refers

SYNTAX OF VERBS

290

and denotes purpose:

to the future

orantes, envoys were sent

987.

The

to

(987-990

as, legati

ask help; Liv. 21,

missi auxilium

6, 2.

perfect participle represents action as completed at

the time of the action of the verb

:

—

his de rebus Caesar certior factus nihil (Gallls)

committendum

exis-

timavit, having been informed about these things, Caesar thought that nothing should be entrusted to the

Gauls; B. G.

4, 5, i.

ad Caesarem reversuros, the envoys said matter had been considered they would return to

legati dixerunt re deliberata

when

that

the

Caesar; B. G.

988.

The

4, 9, i.

perfect participle of

some deponent verbs

repre-

sents action as in progress; so, regularly, ratus, solitus,

and

veritus; and, often, arbitratus, ausus, conatus, conflsus, diffisus,

gavisus, locutus, secutus, and usus

Metellum esse _

:

—

rati portas clausere, thinking it

dosed the gates;

Sail.

Jug.. 69,

was Metellus, they

i.

isdem ducibus usus Kumidas subsidio oppidanis same guides he sends the Numidians to help B. G.

989.

using the

the townspeople;

2, 7, I.

This construction

prose-writers,

mittit,

and by them

of passive verbs

:

—

ad templum ibant

is is

used freely by the poets and later extended to the perfect participle

tristes et tiinsae pectora palmis, they

went

to the

temple in sadness and beating their breasts with their hands;

Aen.

I,

triennio sub

480.

(Reflexive use)

Hasdrubale meruit,

niilla

re praetermissa, he served

for three years under Hasdrubal, neglecting nothing; Liv. 21 4, 10.

990.

The

future active participle represents action as

still to

be performed at the time of the action of the verb.

The

future passive participle represents action as intended,

necessary, or proper.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

PARTICIPLES

991, 992)

The Uses 991. tions,

—

291

of Participles

Participles are used to express a variety of relaespecially, time, cause, means,

manner, situation,

—

condition, opposition:

omne malum nascens

facile opprimitur, every evil is easily overcome

(Time)

at its birth; Phil. 5, 31.

longius prosequi veritus, ad Ciceronem pervenit, because he was afraid to follow further,

he came

Cicero; B. G.

to

(Cause)

5, 52, i.

quae contuens animus accedit ad cognitionem deorum, by contemplating these things the

N. D. flentes

2,

153.

mind

a knowledge of the gods;

arrives at

(Means)

implorabant,

they

begged

with

B.

tears;

G.

i,

51,

3.

(Manner) stantem urbem

reliquit,

he

left

the city standing; Cat. 2, 2.

(Situa-

tion)

apparebat non admissos Carthaginem ituros, if they were not given audience, they

became apparent

that,

Carthage; Liv.

to

(Condition)

21, 9, 4.

non mihi

it

would go

admonito venisset in mentem,

nisi

occurred to

me unless I had

been reminded;

would not have

it

De Or.

2,

180.

(Con-

dition) ibi

perturbatus Lentulus tamen et signum et

manum suam cognovit,

thereupon, though thrown into confusion, Lentulus identified his

hand and For the use of

seal; Cat. 3, 12.

(Opposition)

participles as adjectives see 616-617.

The compound

forms of passive verbs are developed from the use of the perfect participle as a predicate adjective.

For the use

of participles as substantives see 636-639.

Verbs

992.

of perception

take either the accusative and

tive or a present participle in

object:

—

Catdnem

infini-

agreement with the accusative

sedentem, / saw Cato

sitting in the

audiam Hiberum narrantem loca, I shall hear you country of the B'0^i!^;M!^tMSfp%, 6.

describing the

vidi in bibliotheca

library; Fin. 3, 7.

te

;

SYNTAX OF VERBS

292 993.

The present participle

used with verbs meaning to represent:

is

Polyphemum Homerus cum

{993-997

ariete

Polyphemus talking with

the

conloquentem

ram; Tusc.

5,

faclt.

Homer

—

represents

115.

ipsos induzi loquentes, / have introduced them as speaking in person; Lael. 3.

The

infinitive is

used rarely

the dependent verb

if

lack of a present passive participle,

dependent verb the

is

it is

passive: as, construi a deo

world being constructed by God; N. D.

994.

The

is

active, but, for

the regular construction

mundvun

facit,

if

the

he represents

i, 19.

perfect participle often expresses an idea which in

English would be in the form of a coordinate clause:

as,

ut hos

in Britanniam traductos necaret, that he should take these over

Britain and put them 995.

The

to

death; B. G.

to

5, 6, 5.

perfect participle in agreement with an object of

habeo emphasizes the continued

an action:

effect of

—

pecunias magnas collocatas habent, they have large sums of money invested; Manil. 18. perfldiam

Haeduorum perspectam habebat, he had

lessness of the

996.

Haedui; B. G.

observed the faith-

7, 54, 2.

In early Latin participles are used similarly with reddo and euro

in late Latin with do ; in classical Latin missus with f acio :

—

hie transactum reddet stratas

omne, he will get it all done; PI. Capt. 345. legiones Latinorum dabo, / will overwhelm the legions of

Latins;\Av.

Manlium missum 997.

The

fecit,

he

let

Manlius go;

Off. 3, 112.

perfect participle in agreement with a substantive main idea of the phrase

often contains the

:

angebant vinim

Sicilia

post banc

man;

Liv. 21,

i, 5.

with rage at the rescue of the maiden; Aen. 2, 413. conditam, sirwe the founding of this city; Cat. 15.

ira,

urbem

3,

So, rarely, the present participle: as, fugiens is stirring

up

Pompeius homines movet,

the people; Att. 7, 11, 4.

For the ablative of the perfect see 574.

—

Sardiniaque amissae, the loss of Sicily and

Sardinia troubled the ereptae virginis

Pompey's flight

the

8, 6, 6.

Digitized

participle with opus est and iisus est by Microsoft®

— 9g8-l002)

The

998. of

PARTICIPLES

sum

future active participle

is

293

used chiefly with forms

in the active periphrastic conjugation.

For

use as

its

an adjective see 616.

The

999.

and

future active participle

is

used, chiefly in poetry

Aeneadas, they

filled the shores, to see those

—

later prose, to denote purpose:

complebant

litora visuri

with Aeneas; Aen.

legatos oraturos auxilia, he sent envoys to ask for reinforce-

nilsit

ments; Tac. Ann.

The

107.

s,

46.

2,

future passive participle

used in the following construc-

is

tions:

1000.

With forms

(1)

of

sum

in the passive periphrastic

conjugation.

The neuter

singular

is

often used impersonally; transitive

verbs used impersonally sometimes take an accusative object; the dative is

is

common

used with utor

etc.

with intransitive verbs, and the ablative :

—

nunc est bibendum, now we must drink; Her. C. i, 37, i. aetemas poenas in morte timendumst, we have to fear eternal punishment in death; Lucr. resistendum senectuti

utendum

1001.

i,

est,

iii.

one must

resist old

age; Cat.

M.

Cat.

M.

(2)

As an

35.

adjective; see 616.

— — the future passive

In agreement with the object of certain verbs, verbs meaning receive or

denotes purpose:

—

deliver,

agrum de nostro patre colendum habebat, he had a field from my father; Ter. Ph. 364. hos Haeduis custodiendos to

guard; B. G.

tradit, he

erected; Cat. 3,

(3)

As the

hands them over

especially participle

to cultivate,

to the

Haedui

6, 4, 4.

signum conlocandum locaverunt,

1002.

35.

exercitationibus modicis, one must take moderate exercise;

they contracted to have the statue

2a

^igimiiy:/pMicrosom>

— SYNTAX OF VERBS

294

{10O3-IOO7

Gerundive and Gerund

The

1003.

future

passive

participle

is

used most

often as a verbal adjective in agreement with a noun, referring either to present or to future time,

taining

When

no idea

so used

The gerund

it is is

intention,

of

necessity,

and con-

or propriety.

called the gerundive.

the- neuter singular of the gerundive

used as an active verbal noun in the genitive, dative, accusative and ablative. As a noun it is governed by other words; as a verb it may have an object. The essential difference between the gerundive and the gerund is the fact that the gerundive is grammatically passive and agrees with a substantive, while the gerund is grammatically active and, if transitive, has an object. 1004.

The gerund of an intransitive verb may be used in case. The gerund of a transitive verb is practically

any oblique

never used in the dative or accusative, or in the ablative with a preposition; it occurs rarely in the genitive, more often in the ablative without a preposition, but in both cases chiefly when the object is a neuter pronoun or neuter plural adjective used substantively.

Case-Constructions ot Gerundive and Oerund

1005.

The

1006.

The

case-constructions of the gerundive phrase and the gerund, so far as they are found, are the same as those of nouns. .

genitive

is

used with substantives and adjec-

tives: proelii

committendi signum,

the signal for beginning the battle;

B. G.

2,21,3. insuetus navigandi, unused

cupidus te audiendi, eager

1007.

With causa Cat.

M.

hear you;

B. G.

De

5, 6, 3.

Or.

2,

16.

or ^atia the genitive expres^.es purpose:

exercendae memoriae •

to sailing;

to

gratia, for the sake of training the

38.

praedandi ca.usii,fdpim^fi^oM
—

memory;

2, 17, 4.

GERUNDIVE AND GERUND

IO08-IOI4) 1008.

The

295

genitive of quality sometimes serves to express purpose:

Romam

pads petendae,

as, ut

mitterent

Rome

envoys to seek peace; Liv. 9, 45, 18.

oratores

that they should send to

1009. With nostri, vestri, and sui, which are genitive singular neuter in form (see 231), the gerundive ends in -i, regardless of genddr and number: as, vestri

adhortandl causa, for the sake of encouraging you; Liv. 21, 41,

1010.

The

tive instead of to select

genitive of the gerund sometimes takes

a direct object:

examples; Inv.

The

1011.

as,

exemplorum

an objective geni-

eligendi potestas, a chance

2, S-

dative

is

used with a few verbs and, especially

in late writers, with adjectives denoting fitness (see 486) praeesse agro colendo, Rose.

Am.

i.

to be

:

—

in charge of the cultivation of the land;

50.

quisque pugnando locum ceperat, each one had taken a place for fighting; Sail. Cat. 61,

2.

perferendis militum mandatis idoneus, suitable for carrying out the instructions of the soldiers; Tac.

cum

(for

1012.

Ann.

i,

23.

solvendo civitates non essent, since the

The

paying) dative

purpose of their

office,

;

is

Fam.

were not solvent

states

3, 8, 2.

used with the

with comitia,

titles of officials, to

486)

election, etc. (see

:

—

indicate the

triumvlros coloniae deducendae, triumvirs for founding a colony; Liv. 21, 4-

-

6,

_

comitia consulibus rogandis, an election for nominating consuls; Div. i, 33. dies rbgationi ferendae, the day for proposing the measure; Att. i, 14, 5.

1013.

The

accusative

is

with other prepositions: — ills

me

used with the preposition ad ; rarely

ad dicendam causam adest, he is here to make excuses, Ter. Ph. 266. vocas ad scribendum, you summon me to write; Or. 34.

ob rem iudicandam pecuniam accipere, judgment on a case; Verr. 2, 78.

1014.

The

ablative

is

constructions, — means,

with or without a

used in

many

to take

nounbe used either

of the ordinary

cause, time, etc.;

prg^gjfeiflsyiM/e^rosoft®

money for passing

it

may

— SYNTAX OF VERBS

296

{1015-IO18

quaerendis vadis, by seeking shallow water; Liv. 21, 28, 12. flendo turgiduli rubent ocelli, her eyes are swollen and red with

weeping; Catull.

3, 18.

partiendo praedam, by distributing the booty; Liv. 21,

5, 5.

industiia in agendo, energy in action; Manil. 29.

consilium illud de occludendis aedibus, that idea about shutting the house; Ter.

THE SUPINE -um is used with verbs

The Supine

1015.

in

tion to express purpose (see 517)

the

up

Eun. 784.

same construction

it

;

as its verb

:

may

—

of

mo-

be followed by

ad Caesarem gratulatum convenerunt, they came to Caesar to congratulate him; B. G. i, 30, i. legates mittunt rogatum auxilium, they send envoys to ask for aid; B. G.

I, II, 2.

Manilio filiam nuptum dat, he gives his daughter marriage

marry); Liv.

{to

non Grais seratum matribus Greek matrons; Aen.

The

1016. in

i,

Manilius in

to

49, 9.

ibo,

/

shall not go to be

a slave

to the

786.

2,

future passive infinitive, consisting of the supine

-um with iri, is rare

except in Cicero.

For the usual substitute

see 845.

The Supine

1017.

and with the nouns pendent case

in -u fas

is

and

used with a, few adjectives nefas; it never takes a de-

:

terribiles

nsu

ioira&e, figures terrible to see; Aen. 6, 277.

videtis nefas esse dictu it is

wrong

to

1018. The supine and indiguus:

—

ita dictu

nihil

The only and

Visu.

opus

dignum

est,

miseram

fuisse talem senectutem,

you

see

M.

13.

say that such an old age was unhappy; Cat.

in -u

is

used rarely with opus

est,

and with dignus

you must speak so; Ter. Heaut. 941.

dictu, nothing worth mentioning; Liv. 4, 30, 4.

supines in -u in

common

Digitized

use are aucUtu, cognitu, dictu,

by Microsoft®

f actii,

SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS

10ig-I022)

297

SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS The

uses of prepositions have been treated in connection with

the cases of nouns. 1019.

The

accusative :

—

following prepositions are used only with the

SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS

298

In and sub, when used with the accusative, denote

1023.

place whither; is

(1023-JO28

when used with the

ablative, place where.

Subter

used regularly with the accusative; rarely, in poetry, with the

Super, meaning upon, at, or in addition to, is used with the accusative; meaning concerning, with the ablative. ablative.

Dissyllabic prepositions are sometimes postpositive;

1024. that

is,

Ad, cum, and de often follow a

they follow the noun.

relative,

and cum

pronoun as an 1025.

is

regularly attached to a personal or reflexive

enclitic.

Certain adjectives and adverbs are sometimes used as

prepositions.

The

following are used with the accusative:

propior

propius

pridie

proximus

proxime

postridie

—

clam usque

1026.

Propior, proximus, propius, and proxiine are used also with the and with the ablative with ab. Pridie and postridie are used also with the genitive. Clam occurs very rarely as a preposition except in early Latin. Usque is rarely used as a preposition; it is commonly comdative,

bined with ad in the phrase iisque ad.

1027.

The

following adverbs are sometimes used as prepo-

sitions with the ablative:

—

palam The use prose.

of these

procul

simul

words as prepositions occurs only

In Ciceronian prose procul

is

in poetry

and

late

always used with ab, simul with cum.

SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS Conjunctions are either coordinating or suiborCoordinating conjunctions connect two members, words, phrases, or clauses, usually of similar grammatical nature; if clauses, both are independent or Subordinating conjunctions conboth are dependent. nect dependent clauses with the clauses upon which 1028.

dinating.

—

—

they dfepend. Digitized

by Microsoft®

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

I02g-I035)

299

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (a) Copulative

1029. (ac),

1030.

when

The

neque

Conjunctions

copulative conjunctions are

(nee),

Et and -que simply connect, but -que

members naturally

the two

-que, atque

et,

neve (neu), etiam, and quoque.

hos video et de re publica sententiam rogo, I opinion about the state; Cat.

is

used regularly

belong together: see

—

them and ask

their

i, 9.

senatus populusque Romanus, the senate and the

Roman

people;

Plane. 90.

1031.

Et

is

sometimes used in the sense

of etiam, too, es-

pecially before pronouns: as, et ilia iure laudantur, those things too are justly praised;

1032. second.

When When

Tusc.

-que connects two words it is attached to the member is a phrase or clause, it is

the second

usually atta:ched to the preposition, especially

first

if it is

attached to the second: terunt,

3, 28.

and toward sunset

as,

word; but

if

the

first

word

monosyllabic, the enclitic

sub occasumque

they gave

up

is

may

a

be

solis sequi desti-

the pursuit; B. G.

2,

11, 6.

more than two members et may but the first, or may be omitted altogether; or., rarely, the last two only are connected, usually by -que attached to the last. The repetition of -que in a series of more 1033.

When

precede each, or

there are

all

than two members occurs only in poetry. 1034.

Two

adjectives qualifying the

same noun are regularly con-

nected.

1035. Atque (ac) is used when the second member is more important than the first. It is used also after words of likeness in the sense Idem, alius, simul, contra, etc., pr unlikeness,, comparatives, but, with very few after also etc.; than, as, of

—

—

exceptions, only

when

ffetf'fefetyiMenibi^^contains a negative:

—

SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS

300

simul atque de Caesaris adventu cognitum

was

of Caesar

non

{1036-IO39 as soon as the arrival

est,

reported; B. G. 5, 3, 3.

dm secus ac sentiebam, / did not speak otherwise than I thought; De

Or.

24.

2,

baud minus ac Aen.

iussi faciunt, they

do no

less

than they were ordered;

3, 561.

For the use of atque or ac see 1038.

Neque

1036.

(neu)

(nee)

non 'wderunt nee ufi

is

usually equivalent to et non; neve

equivalent to et ne

is

:

—

sciunt, they did not see

suae pristinae virtutis

memoriam

animo, that they should keep

and should not

he disturbed in

and do not know; Tull. 24. neu perturbarentur

retinerent

memory

the

mind; B. G.

of their former valor 2, 21, 2.

Neque is sometimes used instead of neve as, suadebit tibi ut discedas neque verbum ullum respondeas, he will advise you to go away and answer :

not a word; CaecO. 52.

1037.

Nee

ullus

is

ordinarily used instead of et nullus, nee

umquam instead of et numquam, etc. But et and a negative may be used if the negative belongs to a single word: as, si te Tarentum to

et non Samarobrivam misissem, if I had Tarentum and not to Samarohriva; Fam. 7, 12, i.

sent

you

1038. Atque and neque are used before vowels or consonants; ae and nee are never used in prose before vowels and rarely before

e,

g,

and qu; the poets sometimes violate

this

principle.

1039. Etiam (as a conjunction) and quoque, too, connect a word with another word to be supplied from the context. Etiam usually precedes, quoque always follows the word to which it belongs:

—

etiamne hoc negabis? else);

PL Am.

will

patriae quis exsul se

10.

this also? (i.e. this

quoque fugit? what

and something

exile

from

his country has

himself and his country); Hor. C. Digitized by Microsoft®

escaped himself also?

16

you deny

760.

(i.e.

2,

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

IO40-IO44)

Disjunctive Conjunctions

(6)

The

1040.

sive (seu),

301

disjunctive conjunctions are aut, vel, -ve,

and

These denote

an.

difference or choice.

Aut connects alternatives which are as a rule essenand of which one excludes the other: as, hie vincendum aut moriendum est, here you must conquer or die; 1041.

tially different

Liv. 21, 43,

s.

1042. Vel (an old imperative of volo) implies a choice between alternatives which are not mutually exclusive, or merely between forms of expression :

orabant ut

—

modo Rhenum

auzilium ferret, vel exercitum

sibi

transportafet, they begged

army

only bring his

him

bring them help or {if he wished)

to

across the Rhine; B. G. 4, 16,

5.

post obitum vel pothis excessum Romuli, after the death or rather the departure of

Romulus; Rep.

2, 52.

Vel sometimes introduces an example and

may

be translated for inIn poetry and

stance; it is used before superlatives in the sense of even. late prose it is

used instead of aut.

Sive (seu) as a disjunctive conjunction denotes a non-

1043.

essential distinction or uncertainty

or writer

:

—

on the part

of the speaker

quid perturbatius hoc ab urbe discessu sive potius turpissima fuga?

what more this

like

a panic than

this departure

most disgraceful flight? Att.

urbem matri seu novercae

reliquit,

(jf the other story is true) to his

For

sive introducing

1044.

The

a grotasis

from

the city or rather

8, 3, 3.

he

left the city to

his mother or

stepmother; Liv. 1,3,3.

see 910.

enclitic -ve denotes

a non-essential distinction

usually connects words, phrases, or dependent clauses:

—

amici regis duotresve, two or three friends of the king; Att.

;

it

6, i, 3.

decretum ut consules sortirentur compararentve inter se, it was decreed that the consuls should draw lots or arrange between themselves; Liv. 24, 10,

For the use of an see

2.

zi^m.^ ^^ Microsofm

SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS

302

Both copulative and disjunctive conjunctions may

1045.

be used as

.

.

-que

.

.

.

.

.

-que and -que

.

.

.

.

and the other negative,

ative

For the use

of

Many adverbs bial force: as,

cum

.

.

ac

.

neque, neither

.

neque

.

.

nunc,

.

.

or

is

neque

.

affirm.

.

et.

mode

.

.

.

modo, qua

.

.

.

qua.

Adversative Conjunctions

are autem, sed

These usually denote modification or

etc.

at,

.

turn see 901.

The adversative conjunctions

1046.

.

poetry and later prose,

when one member

;

.

stand before each more:

are used in this way, losing wholly or partly their adver-

nunc

(c)

tamen,

.

.

or; in

et

may

of a series of three or

and; neque .

.

they

is,

each member

aut, either

.

.

.

.

et, both

.

nor; aut

— that

correlatives,

alternative or before as, et

{1045-1050

contradiction. 1047.

Autem is the weakest, denoting contrast or merely it may usually be translated however, but sometimes,

transition;

when

there

moreover. first

is

no suggestion

Autem

is

may

of contrast, it

postpositive,

— that

is, it

(sometimes after the second) word of

be translated

stands after the

its clause.

Sed, verum, and ceterum,

hut, contradict or modify a sometimes used in a weaker sense, simply to introduce a new thought or to resume an old one. Vero, hut, in fact, is stronger except in the historians, where it is often equivalent to autem; vero is postpositive.

1048.

previous statement; sed

1049.

Tamen,

is

nevertheless,

yet,

introduces a statement in

opposition to a previous one which cessive or adversative;

it

may

stand

is

in

form or sense con-

first in its

clause or follow

an emphatic word. 1050.

At, hut (sometimes ast in poetry), introduces

an oppos-

ing argument or the imaginary objection of an opponent or a

sharp transition of

thsftil/gi^ iiylrotoid/lKJing

an apodosis

it

may

— COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

IO51-I054)

be translated

and

1051. tions are

if

remember; Aen.

the gods to Atqui,

genus humanum tenmltis, at speyou scorn the human race, at least expect

at least: as, si

memores,

rate deos

303

i,

542.

an emphatic form

yet, is

The following common:

of at.

correlative uses of adversative conjunc-

non solum (or non modo) .... sed etiam, not only non modo non .... sed ne quidem, not ordy not

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

hut also. .

but not

even.

But non modo (followed by ne quidem) is used non modo non if the two members have a verb in common Eind the verb stands in the second member: as, non modo praesidi quicquam sed ne nuntius quidem cladis Romam .

.

.

instead of

est missus, not only no guard, but not even a messenger of the disaster

was

sent to

Rome; (d)

The

1052. etc.

Liv.

5,

38, 9.

Logical Conjunctions

logical conjunctions are itaque,

These introduce a statement which

result of a preceding statement.

is

igitur, ergo,

the logical

Igitur is usually post-

positive. (e)

1053.

The

causal

Causal Conjunctions

conjunctions

are

nam,

These introduce the reason ing statement or an explanation of it. enim, etenim.

Enim

is

namque,

for a preced-

postpositive except in Plautus and Terence, where

almost always has its original meaning of indeed, may stand at the beginning of its clause.

it

really,

and

ASYNDETON 1054.

Asyndeton

junction between

is

the omission of a coordinating con-

members

that would naturally be connected.

This occurs especially in lively narrative and is more common when there are more ^)^^g^^^pi^/fjQ%^gf^rs than when there are

304

SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS

only two; see 1033.

It occurs also in certain

{1054

common combi-

Optimus Maximus; and when the year is designated by the consuls' names (unless only the nomen or cognomen is given) as, M. Messalla M. Pisone consulibus, in the consulship of Marcus Messalla and Marcus Pisa; B. G. i, 2, i. nations: as, luppiter

:

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS Subordinating conjunctions,

— cum,

ut,

quamquam, si,

are treated under the head of Subordinate Clauses.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

etc.,

—

.

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS 1066.

The arrangement

of

upon

greater or less degree

words in a clause depends to a

their relative importance.

It

is

based upon the principle that the elements of the thought are expressed in order of emphasis, the subject being normally the most emphatic. The position of the verb, which normally stands at the end, is an apparent exception to this principle, but in most clauses the verb serves only to make definite an idea which has been already anticipated from the meaning or

construction of the preceding words.

1066.

The normal

lated, is as follows: 1.

Subject.

2.

Words

—

order, so far as

one

may

be formu-

qualifying the subject (not necessarily im-

portant, but closely connected in sense with the subject,

and

really forming a part of

it)

4.

Direct Object (if there is one). Adverbs qualifying , the verb.

5.

Verb.

An

indirect object stands normally either before or after a

3.

direct object

(if

there

is

The

one).

position of other elements

example, ablatives of cause, means, etc., and prepositional phrases) is determined in part by the emphasis which the (for

writer wishes to give to them.

The

•

following details are noteworthy:

—

(i) Qualifying words normally follow the words 1067. which they qualify; these include descriptive and possessive adjectives, indefinite pronominal adjectives, ordinal numerals, appositives, and geni^j^ed by Microsoft® 3°S

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS

3o6

{1058-1063

But the following qualifying words normally precede the

— demonstrative adjectives

words which they qualify: ille

when

it

means

well-known),

the

(except

adjectives of quantity

(multus, totus, etc.), and cardinal numerals.

and interrogative words normally stamd first in their clauses also demonstrative words or phrases which serve to connect a clause with a preceding one: as, ad eas res (2) Relative

1058.

;

conficiendas

Org'etorix

deligitur,

Orgetorix is chosen; B. G.

to

accomplish

these

things

i, 3, 3.

1059. (3) When a noun is accompanied by a qualifying word, a case-form depending either upon the noun or upon the

word usually stands between them maiore iumentormn quam hominum pemicie,

qualifying

:

—

with greater loss oj

baggage-animals than men; Liv. 21, 35, i. subiectos Alpinis montibus campos, the fields lying at the foot of the

Alps; Liv. 21, 35,

1060.

(4)

8.

Vocatives usually stand after one or more words

in the sentence.

1061.

(5)

Most adverbs normally precede the words which

they quahfy. 1062.

(6)

A

monosyllabic preposition

tween an adjective and B. G.

I, 2, 3.

its

noun:

as,

is

often inserted be-

una ex

parte, on one side;

A preposition is often separated from its noun by a

qualifying word: as, Tolosates; B. G.

i,

a Tolosatium finibus, /row

10, i.

the territory of the

For postpositive prepositions see 1024.

1063. (7) A governing word is often inserted between a noun and its qualifying word: as, eodem usi ccmsiiib, following the same plan; B. G. i, 5, 4.

For postpositive conjunctions see 1047, 1052, 1053.

The normal order is liable to unlimited variation, by which all possible shades of emphasis may be expressed. EmpHasis is secure^j^^J^e^ollo^ng ways:

-

•

I064-1068)

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS

307

(i) By putting a word in a position in the clause than that in which it would normally stand, especially

1064. earlier

by giving

the

it

magna

first

place:

dis immortalibus

due

Romam

to the

—

habenda

immortal gods; Cat.

quae asportata sunt,

est i,

the things

great gratitude is

gratia, 11.

which were carried

(contrasted with those left at Syracuse); Verr.

1065.

By

(2)

to

Rome

4, 121.

putting before a noun a qualifying word

—

which would normally follow it: Romae ad primum nuntium cladis

eius ctun ingenti terrore ac

tumultu concuTsus in fonun populi est factus,

at

Rome (empha-

sized to denote change of scene) at the first news 0} this disaster,

in great alarm and confusion, a crowd of people gathered in the forum (primum and ingenti emphatic); Liv. 22, 7, 6. cur ego non ignoscam, si anteposuit suam salutem meae? why should I not forgive him if he put his (mm safety before mine? Pison. 79.

Emphasis may be given also by separating a qualifying word from the word which it qualifies: as, haec res unius est propria Caesaris, this thing belongs 1066.

By

(3)

to

Caesar alone; Marc.

putting together words of contrasted meaning

or similar origin: as,

quod victoribus

victi ultro inferrent

because the conquered actually brought war Liv. 21,

11.

upon

arma,

their conquerors;

I, 3.

By reversing the order of words in the second one pair is contrasted with another: as, finis et Gallls pair, when fuit Romams, the Gauls ceased to terrify pavendi et territandi and the Romans to fear; Liv. 21, 25, 13. This is called Chiasmus. The use of the same order in the second pair is called Anaphora: 1067.

as, to

(4)

princeps in proelium ibat, ultinxus ezcedebat, he was the

go into

1068.

battle, the last to

The

come out; Liv.

following facts

—

may

first

21, 4,-8.

be noted regarding subordi-

nate clauses: Relative clauses normally follow the clause containing the antecedent; for relative clau^s.prep|dj[gg.di^ntecedent see 696.

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS

3o8

(1069

Clauses of result, substantive clauses, and indirect questions

normally follow the main clause. Temporal, adversative, conditional, and purpose clauses normally precede the main clause.

When clauses

the subject or object of the

is

the same, or

when the

main and subordinate

subject of one

is

the object

(either direct or indirect) of the other, it usually stands at the

beginning of the sentence:

—

hostes, ubi primtun nostros equites conspexerunt, nostros per-

turbaverunt, the enemy, as soon as they saw our cavalry, put our

men Caesari

to flight;

cum

this

was announced

city;

1069.

•

desire to

B. G.

4, 12, i.

id nuntiatum est, maturat

B. G.

i,

7,

to

proficisci,

when

from

the

i.

The arrangement of words was affected also by the produce a rhythmical succession of sounds and by the The

individual habit of the writer.

and that

position of the subject

verb at the end were fixed by The position of words in the middle of a clause was

at the beginning

custom.

ab urbe

Caesar, he hastened to set out

of the

not so definitely established; ablatives, prepositional phrases,

even forms of the verb sum (which do not stand habitually at the end) seem to be placed anywhere in the middle of the clause. These could be shifted without great change of emphasis, and their arrangement is probably often to be explained as a matter of

rhythm

or habit rather than emphasis.

In poetry the arrangement

is

affected also

by the

restrictions

meter and by the possibility of securing emphasis by placing a word at the beginning or end of a verse. of

Digitized

by Microsoft®

FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC 1070. Alliteration is the repetition of sounds; the term is used most frequently of a series of two or more words beginning with the same letter.

Anacoluthon is a change in the construction of a sentence which leaves the first part without proper grammatical connection

:

—

ceterae philosophSnim disciplinae

.

.

eas nihil adiuvare arbitror, the

.

other instructions of the philosophers

.

.

.

these

I think

give

no help;

Fin. 3, II.

Analogy

similarity in

is

many forms and

form or expression; to

Anaphora is the use of the same same place in successive clauses:

or a similar

—

ter si resuTgat

this are

murus aeneus,

word

ter pereat, ter uxor capta

if three times the wall of bronze should rise, three times

three times

due

constructions. in the

virum pidret, would it fall,

would the captive wife bewail her husband; Hor. C.

3, 3, 65.

(See 1067.)

Anastrophe Antithesis

the use of a preposition after

is

its case.

—

the juxtaposition of contrasted ideas: vincere scis, victoria uti nescis, you know how to conquer, you do know how to use your victory; Liv. 22, 51, 4. is

Aposiopesis effect

:

—

quos ego

is

an abrupt pause

in a sentence, for rhetorical

— sed mStos praestat compSnere

better to

not

calm the angry waves; Aen.

i,

fluctiis,

135.

(Cf.

whom I

— but

it is

Anacoluthon.)

Asjnadeton; see 1054.

Brachylogy

is

brevity or condensation of expression

:

—

ne cuius suoTum popularium mutatam secum fortunam esse vellent, that they might not wish to change lots with any of their countrymen (secum for cum fortuna sua); Liv. 21, 45, 6.

Chiasmus;

see lOBBlgltized by Microsoft® 309

— FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC

310

{1070

one or more words needed to com-

Ellipsis is the omission of

plete the sense: ad Carmentis (sc. aedem), (See 360 and 407.)

Enallage

the shrine of Carmentis; Liv. s, 47> 2.

at

the use of one part of speech for another, one

is

ber or gender for another, etc. populum late regem, a people :

Aen.

ruling widely

(regem

templa Vestae, is

the temple of Vesta (templa for

regnantem);

for

templum); Hot. C.

16.

i, 2,

the use of mild or agreeable language to soften

an unpleasant fact

—

:

quid mihi accidisset, if anything should happen

si

num-

21.

I,

Euphemism

—

to

me

(i.e.

if

I should

die); Phil. 1, 10.

Euphony

the choice or arrangement of words for agreeable

is

sound.

Hendiadys is the expression of a complex idea by the use of two nouns in the same case connected by a conjunction, instead of a single noun qualified by an adjective or a genitive:

—

quilem pateris libamus

et auro, such as

patens aureis); Georg.

H3^allage nova

in

me

2,

sing of forms changed into

corpora); Ov. Met.

H3rperbaton

offer

from golden bowls

—

is

new

bodies (for in

a violation of the natural order of words: all the

gods I pray you; Hor. C.

Hysteron Proteron et in

arms; Aen.

Litotes

ing

is

2,

:

—

is

Hor. C.

will be

by deny-

sordidos, leaders stained with no dishonor-

2, i, 21.

—

nOn ezistumas

'

the midst of

an implied comparison, expressed by the figura-

tive use of words: te

—

353.

a form of expression which affirms an idea

able dust;

—

i, 8, 1.

is a reversal of the logical order media arma ruamus, let us die and rush into

opposite: duces non indecoro pulvere

its

Metaphor

novas formSs

i, i

per omnis te deos aro, by

moriamur

(for

an interchange of grammatical relations: animus mutatas dicere formas corpora, my mind prompts

is fert to

we

192.

invidiae incendid conflagraturum 7 do you not think you

consumed^jL^^rg^l^g^^aX.

i,

29.

—

-

FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC

lOJo)

Metonymy to which

the use of a word suggested by another word

is

related in sense: as,

it is

31I

Mars

for bellum,

Ceres for

patiis.

Onomatopoeia is the use sound the thing signified:

—

of

words which suggest by their may

vipera nostris sibilet in tumults et super ossa cubet,

upon

Oxymoron cum

my

tomb and

lie

upon

my

bones; Prop.

the viper hiss

5, 7, 53.

the juxtaposition of contrasted words:

is

tacent, clamant, when

they

—

are silent, they cry out; Cat.

21.

i,

(C£. Antithesis.)

Personification

is

the treatment of inanimate things as per-

sons: age die Latinum, barbite, carmen, come play a Latin tune,

Hor. C.

Pleonasm

is

I,

32, 3.

the use of unnecessary words:

my

harp;

—

erant itinera duo quibus itineribus ezire possent, there were two roads by

which they could depart; B. G.

Simile

is

illustration

i, 6, i.

by comparison:

senatus consultum inclusum in tabulis

—

tamquam

in vagina reconditum,

a decree of the senate enclosed in our records, like a sword concealed in its scabbard; Cat. i, 4.

Synecdoche

is

the use of a part for the whole:

Gallica temperat 6ra, he guides the Gallic mouth

(i.e.

—

horse);

Hor. C.

i,

8,6.

—

Synesis is construction according to sense: magna pars occisi, a large part were killed; Sail. Jug.

58, 2.

(See 736.)

—

is the separation of the parts of a compound word: quam rem cumque, whatever thing; Hor. C. i, 6, 3. per mihi mirum visum est, it seemed very strange to me; De Or. i, 214.

Tmesis

Zeugma

is

the connection of two words with a verb which

strictly applies in sense to

only one of them:

—

n6n legates neque prima per artem temptamenta tui pepigi, / envoys nor made my first trial of you by cunning (from pepi^ with legttos); Aen.

8, 143.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

sent sc.

no

mi^

VERSIFICATION The

subject of Versification

not a part of Latin Grammar,

is

but, for the convenience of students,

it

has been thought best

to give a brief general treatment of the subject

common

technical terms in

1071.

Latin poetry

more

sisting of a

is

and

to define

use.

based upon quantity, each verse con-

or less definitely-established series of long

and short syllables. The quantity of syllables is in general the same in poetry as in prose. A syllable is long if its vowel is long, or if its vowel is followed by two consonants (one of which may be at the beginning of the following word) in the latter ;

case the syllable

is

said to be long by position.

if its

vowel

is

short

consonant.

The

short

and

is

followed

A

syllable

is

by not more than one

principles governing the quantity of vowels

and diphthongs are given under the head

of

Sounds, sections

12 to 20; those relating to the length of syllables in sections 23 to 26. 1072.

The

unit in versification

is

a short syllable, marked w;

the time occupied in pronouncing a short syllable

a mora.

A

long syllable

short syllables;

it

is

is

marked

—

.

stands in the place of a short one;

and

is

marked >.

prolonged to

fill

morae (marked 1073. is

a

morae.

A

On

is

called

regarded as the equivalent of two

A

long syllable sometimes

it is

then said to be irrational

the other hand, a long syllable

the time of three morae (marked l_

)

may

be

or four

I—I ).

verse is

a definite succession of feet; each foot containing a definite number of

gtoup of syllables

Digitized

by Microsoft® 312

VERSIFICATION

IO74-I077) 1074.

The

following feet are in

morae

Feet of three

more or

Dactyl,

Iambus, w

^^

w

—

Spondee,

morae

five

Feet of six

—w— Paeon, — www Cretic,

1075.

morae

ww

Ionic,

Choriambus,

two short

If

wwww

—ww—

w

Bacchius,

(for

—

— -^^

Proceleusmatic, Feet of

use:

morae

Anapaest,

www

Tribrach,

common

less

Feet of four

—w —

Trochee,

313

syllables stand in place of a long syllable

example, a tribrach for an iambus), the long syllable

is

A foot containing an irrational long syllable is itself called irrational. A dactyl standing in place of a trochee said to be resolved.

is

1076. if

and

called a cyclic dactyl

there

One is

—

is is

is

resolved,

is

of the

it is

two short

1077. or

syllables,

Elision.

The

it is

a long syllable having the

mark

At the end

word a vowel, a diphthong,

of a

or h.

our practice to omit

sto,

The Romans it

—

— do, dem,

In

(— w—) word is

rare

if

the

immediately preceded by a the necessity of elision is avoided these cases

would be elided

all

re,

In dactylic verse

cretic ) or the final syllable of an iambic (w Elision rarely elided before a short vowel.

vowel.

slurred the

altogether.

stem, sim, qui (plural).

is

syllable that

first

are regularly elided before another

following monosyllables are not elided:

rem, spe, spem,

a long syllable

the ictus on the though properly both have it.

word beginning with a vowel sound;

If

the custom to

m and a preceding vowel

final

— usually

called the thesis of the foot; the

rest of the foot is called the arsis.

ictus

— ww or —w w.

pronounced with greater stress than the called the ictus and is marked thus: -^ w w.

having the ictus

syllable

marked

syllable in each foot

one

others; this stress

The

is

is

by the arrangemenfo^/JiWbjSTO^dfeoft®

VERSIFICATION

314

Sometimes

Hiatus.

1078.

elision

{1078-1084

does not occur wliere

it

Hiatus occurs especially when the iirst word is an interjection, a proper name, or a Greek word. It occurs sometimes in the principal caesura of a verse and, in the dramatists, when there is a change of speakers. regularly would occur; this

When is

is

called

/r^'ato^.

a long vowel or a diphthong, instead of being elided,

treated as a short syllable, 1079.

The ending

Caesura.

There

called caesura.

one of these there

it is

is

may

called semi-hiatus.

a word within a foot

of

be a pause in the sense; this

likely to

called the principal caesura or the caesura of the verse.

sometimes impossible to say which

A

caesura 1080.

marked

is

Diaeresis.

is

be several caesuras in a verse; at

is

is

It is

the caesura of the verse.

l|.

word and a foot end together

If a

it is

called diaeresis.

1081.

There

Syllaba Anceps.

The

of a verse.

is

a slight pause at the end

last syllable (called syllaba anceps)

either long or short; a vowel or

m preceded by a vowel

may

is

be

usually

not elided before a vowel at the beginning of the next verse

An

Acatalectic Verse

one in which the last foot is one in which the last foot is incomplete; the time is usually made up by a pause marked if two morae are lacking. But in A if one mora is lacking; catalectic iambic verse it is assumed that the last arsis is omitted and the preceding thesis is prolonged, thus: v^ U._i.. 1082.

complete.

A

is

Catalectic Verse is

A

OCCASIONAL PECULIARITIES 1083.

Some kinds

of verse are

preceded by an introductory

two scheme

syllable or syllables (a short, a long, or

called an anacrusis

and

in a metrical

the rest of the verse thus, 1084.

Two

:

shorts). is

This

is

separated from

.

vowels (or a vowel and a diphthong) belonging

to different syllables ig/^^jyvgpwicS^B^imes coalesce to

form a

VERSIFICATION

1085-Iogo)

single syllable: as, aurea, Aen.

This

is

is

I,

A

short vowel

the foot and

as,

is

sometimes used as long:

308; amor, Aen. 12, 668; liminaque, Aen.

called diastole.

On

698; dehinc, Aen.

i,

6,

678.

called synizesis or synaeresis.

1086.

Aen.

315

is

It occurs

as, videt,

3, 91.

This

almost invariably in the thesis of

often merely a recurrence to an earlier quantity.

the other

hand a long vowel

dederunt, Hor. Epis.

i, 4,

7.

sometimes used as short: This is called systole.

is

This

shortening probably represents in most cases an actually existing pronunciation.

The poets sometimes allow themselves in proper

The vowels

1086.

variations of quantity

names. i

and u

are sometimes treated as conso-

vowel is short, is long by genua laMnt, Aen. 5, 432. 5, 663; On the other hand consonantal i and u are sometimes treated

nants; the preceding syllable,

if its

position: as, abiete, Aen.

as vowels: as, Gaiiis, CatuU. 10, 30; siltiae, Hor. C.

A

Syncope.

1087.

sometimes dropped; sents the

Aen.

I,

common

i,

23, 4.

short vowel between two consonants

is

and probably reprerepostum for repositum,

this is called syncope

pronunciation:

as,

26; periclo for periculo, Hor. C. 3, 20,

i.

1088. In early Latin final s was indistinctly pronounced and does not count in making a syllable long by position. This peculiarity occurs as late as Catullus.

In early Latin the

first syllable of ille, illic

quippe, inde, unde, nempe, and oninis

is

(pronoun), immo,

sometimes treated as

short.

1089.

Iambic Shortening.

A

long syllable preceded

short monosyllable (the monosyllable elision), or a short initial syllable,

or followed

1090.

by

may

by a

be the result of

and immediately preceded

the ictus, is often treated as short.

Synapheia.

One

verse

is

another by the elision^oE^^a^^v^w^lj^w

sometimes combined with

^ and a preceding vowel,

— VERSIFICATION

3i6 at the

end

{logi-iogs

vowel at the beginning of said to be hypermetrical and the

of the first verse before a

The

the second.

combination

is

first

verse

is

called synapheia.

METER used of the definite system by which a verse or a strophe (a stanza, a group of verses) is measured. 1091.

The word

1092.

Trochaic, iambic, and anapaestic verses are usually

named according

meter

to the

is

number

of pairs of feet (dipodies)

they

(two dipodies), trimeter (three), tetrameter (four). But they are sometimes named according to the numquaternarius, senarius, octonarius; the tetrameter ber of feet, contain:

dimeter

catalectic

is

regularly called the septenarius.

Other verses are named according to the number of tetrameter (four feet), pentameter (five), hexthey contain: feet 1093.

ameter (six). 1094.

Trochaic verses containing cyclic dactyls are called

logaoedic verses.

Of the various kinds

of

meter

it will

be

sufiicient to describe

those two which the student finds in his early reading of Vergil

and Ovid,

1096.

The

— the

Dactylic Hexameter and Pentameter.

The Dactylic Hexameter The scheme of the dactylic hexameter

fifth foot is

the verse

is

almost always a dactyl; when

called a spondaic verse.

end with a word

is

as follows:

it is

—

a spondee,

Spondaic verses usually

of four syllables.

The last syllable (the syllaba anceps) may be either long or short. The principal caesura occurs most often after the thesis of the third foot; less often after the thesis of the fourth, in which case there

second.

is

usually another caesura after the thesis of the

Sometimes the principal caesura

•short syllables, in

^^^^mcf4y\^^rM^

is

foot.

between the two

VERSIFICATION

1096-Iogg)

A

1096.

caesura

3 17

immediately after the thesis

is

called

masculine; one between the two short syllables of the arsis

is

called feminine.

A diaeresis after the fourth foot is called

In the second half of the dactylic hexameter, especially

1097.

in the fifth to coincide. if it is, it is

and sixth feet, word-accent and ictus are very likely The last word in the verse is rarely a monosyllable; usually preceded by a monosyllable.

The 1098.

the bucolic diaeresis.

Dactylic Pentameter

The ancient grammarians divided this verse into and called it pentameter. It is now treated as a hexlacking the arsis of the third and sixth feet. The thesis

five feet

ameter,

of the third foot is

prolonged to compensate for the missing

The pentameter

arsis.

is

rarely used except in combination

with the hexameter, with which Distich (couplet). follows :

—

it

The scheme

forms the Elegiac Stanza or

of the Elegiac Distich is as

1 I

I

-

\i^^^

Spondees are used only in the first half of the pentameter. third foot is always a long syllable, and this syllable always ends a word. The last syllable of the verse, as in the hexameter, may be either long or short. In Ovid, the last word of the pentameter is usually one of two syllables. The sense is usually complete at the end of each

The

stanza.

There are verse:

THE ORAL READING OF VERSE two opinions as to the Roman method

of reading

^-

I. That the word-accent disappeared when the ictus on a different syllable. This is the method in general use. 2. That the word-accent was always heard, and that,

1099. fell

when the also

ictus did not coincide with the word-accent, the ictus

was heard but

^^^^l^mmfh

AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS CITED In citations from Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil the author

The

omitted.

is

Cicero:

Caesar: B.

C, Bellum

B. G., Bellum Gallicum

Catullus

CatuU.,

Manil.,

-pro

Lege

actio

Ma-

nilia

Acad., Academica

Marc, pro Marcello

Ad

Mil., pro

Heren-

Agr., ie Lege Agraria

N.

Aiticum

ris Oratoribus

Caecil.,

Dimnatio

Caecilium

Cat. M., Cato

Paradoxa

Pison., in

Pisonem

Plane, pro Plancio

Cat., in Catilinam

Maior

{de Senectute)

Clu., pro Cluentio

Deiot., pro Deiotaro Or., de Oratore

Q.

tica

C, Carmina{Odes) Epod., Epodoi

Phil., Pkilippicae

in

Cael., pro Caelio

De

A. P., de Arte Poe-

Epis., Epistulae

Or., Orator

Fr.,

ad Quintum

Fratrem

S.,

Juv.,

Sermones (Satires)

Juvenal

LivY Lucretius Nep., Nepos: Liv.,

Lucr.,

Ages., Agesilaus

Ale, Alcibiades

Quinct., pro Quinctio

Att., Atticus

Rabir., pro Rabirio

Dat., Datames

Rab.

Epam., Epaminondas Eum., Eumenes

Post., pro Rabi-

rio

Rep., de

Postumo

Re Publica

Hamil., Hamilcar

Div., de Divinatione

Rose. Am., pro Roscio

Hann., Hannibal

Fam., ad Familiares

Milt., Miltiades

Fin., de Finibus

Amerino Rose. Com., pro Roscio Comoedo

Flacc, pro Flacco

Sest.,

Font., pro Fonleio

SulL, pro Sulla

In v.,

Tull., pro Tullio

Fast., Fasti

Tuse., Tusculanae Dis-

H., Heroides

Fat., de Fato

de

Inventione

Rhetorica 'La.el.jLSelius citia)

(deAmi-

actio

II Hor., Horace:

de Officiis

Par.,

Caec, pro Caecina

Natura

I Verrem

Deorum Off.,

Brut., Brutus, de Cla-

de

D.,

Arch., pro Archia Att., ad

Milone

Verr., in

Mur., pro Murena

nium

—

Verr. a pr., in Verrem

Lig., pro Ligario

Cicero: Her., ad

of the

Cicero:

Leg^., de Legibus

Civile

name

following abbreviations are used:

pro Sestio

putationes Djgitized bu- Micmsoft® Vat., tn Vatinium

318

Paus., Pausanias Them., Themistocles Timol., Timoleon^ Ov., Ovid:

Met., Metamorphoses Trist., Tristia

LIST OF PL, Plautus:

Am., Amphilruo Asin., Asinaria

Bac, Bacchides Capt., Captivi Cas., Casina Cist., Cistellaria

WORKS CITED

P1.,Plautus: Stich., Stichtis

Trin., Plin.,

Trinummus

Pliny, junior:

Ep., Epistulae Plin.,

H. N., Historia Naturalis

Epid., Epidicus

Prop., Propertius

Merc, Mercator

Sail.,

Most., Mostellaria Pers.,

Persa

Ter.,

Terence: Addphi

Ad.,

And., Andria Eun., Eunuchus

Heaut. Heauton Timo,

roumenos

Pliny, senior:

Cure, Ctiradio

Mil., Miles Gloriosus

319

Sallust

Cat., Catilina Jug., lugurtha

Tac, Tacit US:

Poen., Poenulus

Agr., Agricola

Ps;, Pssudolus

Ann., Annates

Rud., Riidens

H., Historiae

Digitized

by Microsoft®

Hec, Hecyra Ph.,

Phormio

TibulL, TiBULLUS

Val.jVALERIUS MAXIMUS

Vergil: Aen., Aeneis Eel., Eclogae

Georg., Georgica

Digitized

by Microsoft®

INDEX The references are to sections. The following abbreviations may be noted adv. = adverb or adverbial; app. - appositive or apposition; charac. = characteristic; cl. = clause; compar. = comparison; conjug.- conjugation; constr. = construction; cpd. = :

compound;

decl.

subjunctive; vb. &, ab,

= declension; loc. = locative; pass. = passive; subj. = subject; subjv. = = verb; w. = with. Other abbreviations will be readily understood.

abs, 1021; w. abl., 528; place

whence, 530, 53 1; agent, 535; cause,

Time, 605.

546.

adv. ending, 197, 199. abhinc, w. abl. of measure of difference, 583; w. ace. of extent, 584.

-a,

Ablative, for forms see Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns; loss of -d, Syn45; nouns used only in, 138. tax: in app. w. loc, 386, 612; pred. noun, 394; w. fids and cpds., 458; w. a or ab denoting extent, 520;

Separative, Instrumental, and Locative uses, 527; Separation, w. w. adjs., 529; Place vbs., 528; Whence, S3°. S3^'< Source, S32-534; source instead of place where, 533;

Accordance, 5341 Agent, S3S-538; agent w. intrans. vb., 538; Material, 539. 54°; Comparison, S4i-54S; Cause, 546-549; w. causa and gratia, 547; w. prae, 549; Accompaniment, 550-553; Manner, 554; Attendant Circumstance, 556; Quality, 557; Ablative Absolute, 558-569; subj. of abl. abs. omitted, 566; cl. as subj., 567; 568; 572; 574; 576; 579;

597; Time, 599-602; w. prep., 600; denoting time after, 601; Extent of

Ablaut, 44. absens, 319. absque, 1021. Abstract nouns, forms, 75, 76; in plu., 135-

absum,

constr., 479, 519. -abus, for -is, first decl., 93. ac, see atque. Acatalectic, 1082. Accent, 27-29; in verse, 1076, 1079.

Accompaniment, Accordance,

abl.,

550-553.

abl., 534.

AccasATivE, for forms see Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns. Syntax:

Means, 570-576; w. utor, etc., w. opus est and usus est, 573,

app. w. cl., 385, 500; pred. vbs. meaning make, w. choose, etc., 392; instead of dat. of ind. obj., 457; w. cpd. vbs., 465-467; Direct Object, 493; w. verbal nouns, 494; w. vbs. usually intrans., 495497; w. adjs. in -bundus, 498; w. pass, of vbs. meaning to put on, 499; Exclamation, 501; w. ecce, etc., 501; Kindred Meaning, 502-505; w. vbs. of taste or smell, 503; Two Accusatives, 506-512; w. vbs. meaning in-

w. contineor, contentus, fretus,

quire,

Price, 577-580; w. mutS, etc.,

w. other vbs., 510; w. vbs. compounded w. circum or trans, 511, 512; Limit of Motion, 513-517; names of towns, etc., 514-516; Extent, 518-522, 585; in expressions of time, 521; Specification, 523-525;

participle alone as abl. abs.,

Penalty,

580;

Road,

in

noun

demand,

teach, conceal, 507,

509;

581;

Measure

of Difference, 582-585; w. ante, abhinc, and post, 583; Speci-

w. dignus, etc., 587; Place Where, 588-598; w. vbs. of motion, 590, 591; instead of loc, Subj. of Inf., 526. 593, 612, 613; prep. or^^gg^^M/,cte2«?fevbs. meaning, constr., 43I.432fication, 586, 587;

321

INDEX

322

acer, decl., i88, 189; compar., 164. Acquit, vbs. meaning, constr., 431, 432. ac si, w. subjv., 928. ad, denoting cause, 548; place where, 595 ; time when, 602; postpositive,

1024. adeo, conjug. in pass., 334. Adjectives, formation, 150-161; cornpar., 162-170; decl., 171; first

and

aedes, 142.

Aeneas, decl., 94. Agent, dat., 480-482; abl., S3S-S38; abl. w. gerundive, 481.

Agnomen,

146.

Agreement, of subj.,

adjs.,

629-634; of vb. w.

735-742.

ai6, 341; ain, 341. -aius, names in, 102.

second decl., 172-177; third decl., 178-189; of two decls., 190; inde-

alienus, for gen. of alius, 404; w. abl.,

191; possessive, 192, 193; neut. ace. sing, as adv., 200; fem. ace. as adv., 201; derived from numerals, 227; interrogative, 233; pro-

aliquis (adj. allqui), forms, 238; ing, 683.

nominal, 236. Syntax: dat. w., 487489; dat. or prep, and ace. w., 488; classification, 615; participial, 616,

Alliteration, 1070.

clinable,

possessive, .618-624; attribupred., 625-628; proleptic, 628; agreement, 629-634; plu. adj. with collective noun, 630; quahfying two or more nouns, 631; qualifying nouns of di£ferent genders, 632; qualifying persons and things, 633; neut. adj. w. nouns denoting things, 634; adjs. and participles as substantives, 635-640; qualified by adjs., 640; adjs. instead of adverbs, 641 comparatives and superlatives, 642-646; compar. of two qualities, 645; with rel. pronoun instead of quaUfying antecedent, 699; adjs. as preps., 1025. admoneo, constr., 442. Adverbs, derivation, 194-206; classification, 207-213; of place, 208-210; of time, 211; of manner, degree, or cause, 212; negative, 213; compar., Syntax: 214, 215; numerals, 228. dat. w., 491; constr. w. comparative,

617;

and

tive

;

545; general use, 647; qualifying nouns, 648; as pred. adj., 649; adv. of place for pronoun w. prep., 650; use of certain adverbs, 651-656; negatives, 657-660; double negative, 660; as preps., 1025; as correlatives, 1045.

Adverbial prefixes, 260. Adversative clauses, relative, 807; w. quamquam, 894-896; w. etsi, tametsi, and etiam si, 896, 897; w.

cum.9oo;Vut.903.

529,

alius, decl., 176, 177; use,

mean-

729-732; w.

abl., 543.

Alphabet,

i, 2.

alter, 176, 177; gen. sing, for gen. sing, of alius, 177; use, 729-731; w. abl., .;43-

Alternative questions, 372-379. alteruter, decl., 177.

ambio, conjug., 334.

ambo,

decl., 223.

amplius, constr., 542. an, in single questions, 368; in alternative questions, 372-379; in ind. quest., 854.

Anacoluthon, 1070. Anacrusis, 1083. Analogy, 1070. Anapaest, 1074. Anaphora, 1067, 1070. Anastrophe, 1070. Anchises, decl., 94. animi, in mind, 430. an non, 373, 853. Answers, 370, 371. ante, w. abl. of measure of difference, 583; w. ace, 584. Antecedent, 693; repeated in rel. cl., 695; in rel. cl. instead of main cl., 696; in main cl., but attracted into case of rel. pronoun, 697; appos. of antecedent in rel. cl., 698; antecedent omitted, 701. Antepenult, 22. antequam, 862-867. Antithesis, 1070.

Apex, 4. Apocope, 41. Apodosis, defined, 907; as subordinate ^^® Conditional sentences.

o/g/feed/,y Micr^'dM'^'

,

INDEX Aposiopesis, 1070. Appositional genitive, 411. Appositives, defined, 380; agreement, 381; denoting time, cause, etc., 382; position, 383; partitive app., 384; ace. in app. w. cl., 385; app., w. loc. or w. nouns denoting place to which or from which, 386, 612; inf. or cl. as app., 387; agreement of vb. w. app., 388. aptus, w. cl. of charac, 798; w. inf.,

323

Case-endings, defined, 87.

causa, w. gen. or adj., 409, 547, 1007. Causal clauses, relative, 807, 808; w. quod, quia, and quoniam, 886-890; w. quando, 891; w. cum, 892, 893; in the form of ind. disc, 887. Cause, abl., 546, 547; prep. w. ace, 548; prae w. abl., 549; abl. abs., 560, 565.

cave5, constr., 829-832; cave in neg.

799-

Arrangement of words, 1055-1069; normal order, 1056-1063, 1068; variations, 1064-1067, 1069.

commands, 934. -ce, attached to

cede, 345.

-ascd, inceptive suffix, 257. Aspirates, 21. Assimilation, 49.

celer, decl., 189.

cenatus, 307. certe, 652. certs, 652.

Asyndeton, 1054. at,

1050.

cSteri, 733.

c§teTum, 1048. ceu, w. subjv., 928.

(ac), 1035, 1038.

atqui, 1050.

Attendant circumstance,

abl.,

556; abl.

abs., 564.

Attraction, subjv., 905. Attributive adjs., 626. audeo, 274. ausim, 326. aut, 1041. autem, 1047. Auxiliary verb, sum, 286, 318. avere, 345.

Characteristic clauses, 798-806; w. quam, 800; w. quin, 802; w. qui, quidem or qui modo, expressing restriction, 803; w. indie, 804, 806; w. est cum or est quod, 805.

Charge, gen., 431-433Chiasmus, 1067.

Choriambus, 1074. circum, vbs.

S",

Bacchius, 1074.

balneum,

demon, pron., 240,

244.

Arsis, 1076.

atque

See De-

clension. Catalectic, 1082.

decl., 140.

bene, compar., 214; quantity of -e, 195. benevolus, compar., 166. bonus, compar., 167; decl., 172. 1

compounded with, constr.,

S12.

circumdO, constr., 466. citerior, compar., 170. clam, as prep., 1025, 1026. Clause, principal and subordinate, 353; as app., 387; as pred. noun, 395-

bSs, decl., 122. Brachylogy, 1070.

Close vowels, 7. Closed syllables, 22.

Bucolic diaeresis, 1096. -bundus, adjs. in, 153; w. ace, 498.

coep'i,

'

344.

Cognate accusative,

see Accusative of

kindred meaning.

C, original use, 5. Caesura, 1079; masc. and fem., 1096. Calendar, 603, 604. Calends, 604. Cardinal numerals, 216-219; w. prep,

and

abl., 418.

Cases, defined, 65-67; formation, 87. See Declension, Nominative, Genitive, etc. '

„. .,. Digitized

,

by

Cognomen, 146. cognosco, meaning

of perf., etc., 761. Collective nouns, w. plu. adj., 630; w. plu. vb., 736. comedd, 338. Commands, subjv., 768-770; in ind. disc, 977. See Imperative mood,

commonefacid,

,BmWm''^'

constr., 442.

constr., 442.

INDEX

324

Comparative degree, meaning, 642;

consto, constr., 598.

comparatives, 185, 186; comparatives w. charac. cl., 800; w. ut-cl., 801. Comparison, adjs., 162-170; adv., 214, 215; abl., 541-545; of two qualities,

consuevi, meaning, 761. consuls, w. dat. or ace, 474. contentus, constr., 576. contineor, constr., 576. Contrary-to-fact conditions, 919-925; in ind. disc, 981, 982. Coordinating conjunctions-, 1029-1053.

decl.

of

645-

,

Complementary

infinitive, 951-953; w. subj. ace, 952; w. vbs. of will or purpose, 826. Compound nouns, 82-86; vbs., 260, 261; constr. w. cpd. vbs., 464-467. Conative present, 746. Conceal,' vbs. meaning, constr., 507-

force, 897.

Conditional particles, 908-910. Conditional sentences, 907-927; of Fact, 911-914; denoting a repeated act or a general truth, 912; of Possibility, 915-918; fut. condition from past point of view, 918; Contrary to Fact, 919-925; indie, in cont.-to-fact cond., 921-923; pres. and perf. subjv., 925; conditional relative sentences, 927; conditional clauses of comparison, 928. confide, constr., 458. Conjugation, defined, 54, 265; characteristics of first conjug., 266; second, 267; third, 268; fourth, 269; irregular vbs., 271; model of first

(amo), 320, 321; second 322; third (rego), 323; vbs. in -io (capio), 324; fourth (audio), 325; deponent, 326; periphrastic, 327; irregular, 328-340; defective, 341-345; impersonal, 346. conjug.

(moneo),

Conjunctions, origin, 349; coordinating and subordinating, 1028; copu1029-1039; disjunctive, 10401045; adversative, 1046-1051; logi105 2 ; causal, 1053 ; omitted, 1054. C5nsisto, constr., 598. lative, cal,

Consonants,

classified, 9; pronunciachanges of single consonants, 41;-47; changes in groups. 48-51; assimilation, 49; l^s|.^°^^

tion, 21;

Copula, 359. cordi, 484.

Correlatives, 1045, 1051. Cretic, 1074. cuius, poss. adj., 624.

cum, quom

509-

Concessive clauses, w. quamvis and licet, 898; w. ut, go2. Condemn, vbs. meaning, w. gen., 431. Condition, expressed' by abl. abs., 562. Conditional clauses, w. adversative

.

copia, 142.

form, 39; w. sub824; w. temporal cl., 856-861; indie, or subjv., 856, 857; introd. main idea or statement of fact, 858-860; w. subjv. in early Latin, 861; w. causal cl., 887, 892, 893; w. adversative cl., 900; correlated w. turn, 901 cum primum, 870. stantive

(conj.),

cl.,

;

cum

w. abl. of accompaniment, 550-552; w. abl. of manner, 554; w. abl. of attendant circumstance, 556; w. abl. denoting time, (prep.),

602; postpositive, 1024. cupio, w. gen., 445; w. subjv., 835; w. inf., 837, 951, 952. euro, w. perf. pass, part., 996. CycUc dactyl, 1075. d, loss of final, 45.

Dactyl, 1074. Dactylic hexameter, 1095-1097; pentameter, 1098. Dates, 603, 604.

Dative, for forms see Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns. Syntax: pied. noun w. impers. vb. and inf., 391; w. nomen esse, 393; Indirect Object, w. trans, vbs., 450-454; w. vbs. of motion, 451; w. intrans. vbs., 455463; w. vbs. of mental attitude or action, 456-459; w. phrases or nouns of similar meaning, 460, 461; w. impers. vbs., 462 w. vbs. of union, contention or difference, 463; w. cpd. vbs., 464-467; w. other vbs. of similar meaning, 468; w. obvius and obviam, 469;^ Reference, 470-476; w. vbs. qualified by bene, male, or satis, °°™=' 475! w. interjections.

^^ Micr^lM'

;

INDEX

32s

476; Separation, 477; Ethical, 478; Possession, 479; Agent, 480-482; Purpose or Tendency, 483-486; w. frugl and cordi, 484; w. nouns, 485; w. adjs., 487-489; w. adverbs, 491. d§, w. abl. of material, 539, 540; w. abl. of cause, 546; postpositive, 1024. Declension, defined, 54; formation of cases, 87; general rules, 88; stemendings, 89; First Declension, 9094; Second, 95-105; Third, consonant stems, 106-112; i-stems, 113-119; mixed i-stems, 120, 121; irregular nouns, 122, 123; Fourth, 127-130; Fifth, 131-134; defective, 135-138. See Adjectives and Pronouns. Defective, nouns, 135-138; vbs., 341-

dignus, w. gen., 425; w. abl. 587; w. charac. cl., 798; w. inf. or ut-cl., 799; w. supine, 1018. Dimeter, 1092. Diminutives, nouns, 78, 79; adjs., 159;

34S; Definition, gen. of, 411. Deliberative questions, pres. indie, 750; fut. indie, 757; subjv., 771, 772; in subord. cl., 906; in ind. disc,

diu, compar., 215. do, conjug., 339; cpds., 340; w. perf. pass, part., 996. domus, decl., 130; domum, limit of

.

vbs., 258.

Diphthongs, 8; pronunciation, 20; weakening, 40. Dipody, 1092. Direct object, 493-500; w. vbs. usually intrans., 454.

Direct reflexive, 667. dispar, w. gen., 410. dissimilis, compar., 165; w. gen., 410. distS, constr., 519.

Distributive numerals, 216-219; "sed for cardinals, 218; distrib. pronouns and adjs., 690-692.

motion, 514, 515; domo, place whence, 530, 531; domi, w. quaU-

976.

Demand, vbs. meaning,

constr.,

507-

509-

Demonstrative pronouns, 239-248; meaning and use, 711-728; neut. referring to cl., 722; agreeing w. pred. noun, 728; redundant in rel. cl., 700. Denominative verbs, 253. Dentals, 9. Deponent verbs, 273; meaning of perf. part., 3P7; prin. parts, 317; conjug.,

326.

Derivative verbs, 253-259. Descriptive compounds, 86. Desiderative verbs, 259.

^

dgsum, constr., 479. deterior, compar., 170. Determinatives, 86.

cl., 833, 834. dubito, constr., 833, 834. duco, imperat., 314.

duim,

etc., 339.

dum, w. temporal

cl.,

meaning

-e, abl., third decl., see

-i.

adv. ending, 195. ecce, w. ace, 501. ecquis, ecquando, 369. eccum, etc., 501. edo, conjug., 338. ego, decl., 229. -eius, names in, 102. eiusniodi, w. charac. cl., 798. Elegiac distich, 1098. Elision, 1077. Ellipsis, 1070. ellum, etc., 501. -e,

DiSspiter, 122.

compar., 165.

diffidS, constr., 458.

dignor, w. abl., 587. Digitized

while,

w. indie, 876, 878; w. subjv., 879; denoting cause, 880; meaning until, 881, 882; w. cl. of proviso, 929. duo, decl., 223.

e, see ex.

deus, decl., 104. dexter, compar., 164. Diaeresis, 1080; bucolic, 1096. Diastole, 1085. dico, imperat., 314. Dido, decl., 125. dies, decl., 131. difScilis,

fying gen., 613. donee, w. temporal cl., meaning while, 877; meaning until, 883. dono, constr., 453. Doubt, vbs. meaning, w. substantive

by Microsoft®

INDEX

326 em, w. ace, 501. en, w. ace, 501. Enallage, 1070. Enclitics, list, 30; accent, 31. enim, 1053. eo, conjug., 333; cpds., 334; passive, 334. Epicenes, 62. Epistolary tenses, 766. epulor, w. abl., 572.

quantity of i, 14; conjug., 336; cpds., 337; w. abl., 540. First conjugation, 320, 321. First declension, 90-94. fiS,

Foot, 1073, 1074.

use of

fore ut, 946; fore w. perf. pass, part., 947Forget, vbs. meaning, constr., 438-440. Formation of words, 52, 53; nouns,

compar., 164. ergo, w. gen., 409. -es, or -is, ace. plu., nouns, 115, 118; adjs., 184, 186. -er, adj's. in,

-esco, inceptive suffix, 257. -esso, intensive suffix, 256. et, 1030, 1033; for etiam, 1031.

Frequentative, see Iterative.

etc., 899.

Euphemism, 1070. Euphony, 1070.

fungor, constr., 572. Indicative: form, 279; use, Imperative: form, 264; 754-757.

Future,

compar., 165. facio, accent of cpds., 29; imperat., 314; pass, of cpds., 337. fames, decl., 134. facilis,

familias, 93.

931-933.

Infinitives:

form,

Participles: forrn, act., 305, pass., 308; use, 990; see

300;

Exclamations, nom., 399; gen., 447; ace, 501; infin., 961. Exhortation, subjv., 768, 769. Extent, ace, 518-522. exterus, compar., 170. extremus, denoting a part, 417, 646.

use,

945.

Gerundive and Gerund.

Future perfect,

Indicative, form,

288, 289; use, 764.

Future time,

how

expressed in subjv.,

794-

futurum esse

ut, 946.

G, origin of letter, 5. gaudeo, 274. Gender, 56; general rules, 57-63; first decl., 92; second decl., 99; third decl., 126; fourth decl., 128; fifth decl., 132; variable, 141.

fari, conjug.,

343. fas, w. supine, 1017.

w. gen., 445. faxo, faxim, etc., 289. Fear, expressions of, constr., 838-840. fastidit,

femur, no. fero, conjug., 331; cpds., 332; imperat.,

314-

and

fretus, w. abl., 576. frugi, compar., 168; constr., 484. fruor, constr., 572.

use,

ex, use, 102 1 ; w. separative abl. constructions, 418, 528-534, 539, 546.

-flcus, adjs., in,

68-86; adjs., 150-161; adverbs, 194206; vbs., 249-261. forsitan, w. subjv., 851. Fourth conjugation, 325. Fourth declension, 127-130. Fractions, 220.

Ethical dative, 478. etiam, 1039; in answers, 370. etiam si, adversative, 897. etsi, w. independent sentence, 896; w. adversative cl., 897; w. participles,

fido

fore, forem, etc., 319.

compar., 166.

cpds., conjug., 274; w. dat. or

abl., 456, 458, 598. Fifth declension, 131-134.

forms^93. Final clauses, see Purpose. „.

filia,

...

Digitized

Genitive, for forms see Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns. Syntax: 400; Possessive, 401-410; governing

noun omitted,

405, 407; possessor

for thing possessed, 406; poss. gen. in pred., 408; w. causa, gratia, etc.,

409; Subjective, 402; Definition, 411; of the Whole, 412-419; w. positive of adj., 413; in pred., 415; w. uterque, 416; adj. instead of gen. of the whole, 417; Material, 420; Quality, 421-424; w. proper names, 422; Measure, 423; Indefinite Value, Objective, 425-427; adj. or

by MicrSih^^^''

INDEX prep, phrase instead of obj. gen., 427; Specification, 428-430; Charge or Penalty, 431-433; w. refert and interest, 434, 435; w. vbs. of Plenty or Want, 436, 437; w. vbs. of Remembering, Forgetting, or Reminding, 438-442; w. vbs. of Mental Sensation, 443-445; w. potior, 446;

Exclamation, 447.

1007; gen. of quality expressing purpose, 1008; agreeing w. nostri, etc., 1009; w. obj. gen., loio; Dative, ion, 1012; dat. of purpose, 486; Accusative, 1013; Ablative, 1014; agent cOnstr. w. gerundive, 480, 481. gratia,

perfect, 760.

gracilis,

compar., 165.

vowel and

consonant,

6;

vowel

as consonant, 1086; consonant as vowel, 1086. i-stems, 113-119. -i or -e, abl. sing, third decl., nouns, treated

117; adjs., 179, 181, 186. adv. ending, 203. iaciS, cpds., quantity of first syllable, -1,

26.

Gerundive and Gerund, 1003, 1004; Genitive, 1006-1010; w. causa or

Gnomic

I,

327

gratia, constr., 409, 547. Greek nouns, first deal., 94; second, 105; third, 125.

Gutturals, 760.

iam, meaning, 653; w. pres. indie, or imperat., 749.

Iambic shortening, 43 1089. Iambus, 1074. ;

Ictus, 1076.

idem,

decl., 248; use, 725, 726;

w. dat.,

489; expressions meaning the same as, 727; idem qui in ind. disc, 972. idoneus, w. dat. or prep, and ace, 488; w. charac. cl., 798; w. inf., 799. Idus, 604. -ier for

-i,

pres. pass, inf., 299.

igitur, 1052. ille.decl., 239; use,

713-715, 720; posi-

tion, 1057. illic,

quantity of vowel before, 14. habeo, fut. imperat. for pres., 933; w. h,

perf. pass, part., 995.

baud, 658. Hendiadys, 1070. Heteroclites, 139, 140.

Heterogeneous nouns, 141 see Hetero;

decl., 244.

vbs. in, 258. -im, ace. in, third decl., 116. Imparisyllabic nouns, 1 20. -illo,

impedio, constr., 829-832. Imperative mood, forms, 264; use, 931-937; negative commands, 934937; represented by subjv. in ind. disc, 977.

clites.

Hexameter, 1093; dactylic, 1095-1097. Hiatus, 42, 1078. hie, decl., 239; use, 712, 715, 720. Hidden quantity, 12, 13, 15, 16. Hindrance, vbs. meaning, w. subst. cl., 829-832. Historical infinitive, 963; w. post-

quam, 873. Historical perfect, 309. Historical present, 748. Historical tenses, 309. hoc, quantity of 0, 241.

Imferseci, Indicative: forms, 278;

junctive.

Impersonal verbs, 346; w. ace. and gen., 444; pass. w. dat., 459; w. subst. cl., 828, 843-845; w. inf., 948; w. perf. inf., 944. Implied indirect discourse, 983; causal cl.,

Hortatory Subjunctive, 768-770. humi, 98; humo, place whence, 530. humilis, compar., 165. Hypallage, 1070.

Hyperbaton, 1070. Hypermetric, 1090. H5T)otaxis, 795. Hysteron proteron, 1070.

886, 888.

imus, lowest part of, 417, 646. in,~io23; w. ace, 513-517; w. abl. of cause, 546; w. abl. of specification, 586; w. abl. of place where, 588S98; w. abl. of time, 600. Inceptive verbs, 257. Indefinite pronouns, list, 237, 238; use, 682-689. Indefinite second person, 779. Indefinite value, gen., 424.

Digitized

use,

751-753. Subjunctive: form, 292; for use see the various uses of the sub-

by Microsoft®

.

INDEX

328

Indicative mood, general use, 743, 744; Present: 745-750; conative, 746; for future, 747; historical, 748; in deliberative questions, 750. Imperfect: Future: 754-7571 in de751-753liberative questions, 757. Perfect: 758-762; of a general truth, 760; w. meaning of present, 761. Pluper-

954-957; w. pass, vbs., 958, 959; w. adjs., 960; of exclamation, 961; of purpose, 962; historical, 963. See Indirect discourse. Inflection, defined, 54. innitor, constr., 598.

inquam, conjug., 342. Inquire, vbs. meaning,

Future Perfect, 764, 765.

509-

Indicative charac. clauses, 804, 806; in ind. questions, 855; in contrary-to-fact conditions, 921-923. indignus, w. gen., 425; w. abl., 587; w. charac. cl., 798; w. inf. or ut-cl.,

jnstar,

fect, 763.

Epistolary Tenses, 766. in

rel.

clauses,

797;

in

799-

Indirect discoitrse, 964; Principal and Subordinate clauses, 965; tenses of inf. and subjv. 966 pres. and perf subjv. after secondary tense, 967; secondary sequence w. vbs. of remembering, 968; vb. of saying to be ,

;

supplied, 970; indie, in subord. cl.,973; independent rel. cl. in ind. disc, 974; inf. in subordinate cl., 974; Questions in ind. disc, 975, 976; Commands, 977; Conditional Sentences, 979-982; condition of fact or possibility, 980; contrary to fact, 981, 982; Implied indirect discourse, 983. Indirect object, 450-469; position, 1056. See Dative. Indirect questions, 846-855; introduced by si, 848; subj. taken into main cl., 852; alternative questions, 853; haud scio an w. ind. quest., 854; indie in ind. quest., 855. Indirect reflexive, sui, 667; ipse, 675. inferus, compar., 170. Infinitive, forms, 296-300; as subj., 356; as app., 387; as pred. noun, 395; characteristics, 938; use of tenses, 939-947; pres. referring to future, 940, 941; pres. w. vbs. of remembering, 942; perf. in ind. disc, 943; perf. for pres., 944; futfirum esse or fore w. subjv. instead of fut. inf., 946; inf. as nom. case, 948-950; as ace case, 951-957; complementary, 951-953; as abstract noSn, 953; w. subj^acc,, 05?,

constr.,

507-

w. gen., 409. Instrument, see Means. Intensive pronoun, see ipse. Intensive verbs, 255, 256. interdico, constr., 477. Interest, see Reference. interest, w. gen. or poss. adj., 434; w. dat. or ad and ace, 435. Interjections, 350; w. dat., 476.

Interrogative pronouns and adjectives, forms, 232-236; use, 679-681. Interrogative sentences, 363-369; alternative questions, 372-379. intimus, inmost part of, 646. intra, w. ace, 602. Intransitive verbs, impers. in pass., 459, 734invideo, constr., 445, 458. -io, vbs. in, third conjug., 324. Ionic, 1074. ipse, decl., 245; use, 671-678; as indirect reflexive, 675; agreement,

676; in app. w. nouns and pronouns, 677; w. adv. of time, 677. Irrational syllable, 1072; foot, 1075. Irregular nouns, third decl., 122, 123. Irregular verbs, 271; conjug., 328-340. is, decl., 246, 247; use, 716-720; equiv. to talis, 717; as reflex, pronoun, 719; w. charac. cl., 798. -is, nom. plu., third decl., 118; ace plu., third decl., see -es; for -iis, first decl.,

93.

-isso, intensive suffix, 256. iste, decl., 243; use, 721. istic, decl.,

244. 651; in answers, 370. itaque, accent, 31. ita,

123. Iterative verbs, 255. iubeo, w. ace or dat., 457. iugerum, 140; gen. plu., 103. -ium or -um, gen. plu., third decl., 1 18, 121,

iter, decl.,

Microsoft®

INDEX

memini, forms and meaning, 344; w.

luppiter, decl., 122. -ius, -ium,

nouns

329

in,

100; accent, 29;

adjs. in, 173.

pronominal gen. in, 176, 177. iussu, 138. iuvenis, compar., 169.

gen. or ace, 438-440. -met, 193, 231.

Metaphor, 1070.

-ius,

Meter, 1091-1094.

MetonjTny, 1070. metuo, w. dat. or ace, 474. ml, as voe of meus, 173. Middle voice, see Reflexive, mille, decl. and use, 225. minime, in answers, 371.

J, use of letter, 6.

Jussive subjunctive, see Volitive.

K, use of letter, $• Kalendae, spelling, 5; use, 604. Kindred meaning, ace, 502-505.

minus, constr., 542. miror, w. gen., 445.

mirum quam, Labials, 9. lavo, 270. liber, decl., 175. liberi, gen. plu., 103. licet, w. dat., 462; w. subst.

cl.,

828;

w. concessive cl., 898; w. infin., 948. Limit of motion, ace, 513-517. Linguals, 9. Liquids, 9; liquid stems, third decl., 109, -lis,

etc.,

as adv., 850.

misceo, constr., 552, 553. misereor, miseresco, w. gen., 443. miseret, constr., 444. missus, w. facio, 996.

no.

adjs. in, compar., 165.

Mixed i-stems, modo, quantity

120, 121. of final 0, 43; w.

cl.

of

proviso, 929. moneS, conjug., 322; constr., 442. Monosyllables, quantity of vowel, 17. Months, names of, decl., 188; gender, S7-

Moods,

Litotes, 1070.

see Indicative, etc., and the types of sentences and

Locative, 67; first decl., 91; second decl., 98; nouns in -ius, 100; third

various

124; use, 606-614; w. app. in abl., 612; denoting time, 614. locus, decl., 141.

Mora, 1072.

decl.,

Logaoedic, 1094.

clauses.

morior, 270.

Motion, vbs.

of,

w. dat., 451; w.

abl.,

SQO, 591Multiplicatives, 227.

longius, constr., 542.

multus, compar., 167; use, 417.

m,

elision of final, 1077.

magis, in compar., 163, 214. magnus, compar., 167. male, quantity of e, 195; compar., 214. maledicus, compar., 166. malo, conjug., 330; w. subjv., 835; w. inf.,

malus, compar., 167. Manner, abl., 554; per w. acc.^ 555; abl. abs., 561; participles, 991. mare, decl., 113.

Material, gen., 420; abl., 539, 540. maturus, compar., 164. mazime, in compar., 163, 214. Means, abl., 570-576; of a person, 537. Measure, gen., 423. Measure of difference, 582-585.

med,

ace.

and

abl., 231. of,

stems, third decl., 106-108. miito and cpds., w. abl., 579. n, pronunciation, 21.

nam, 1053.

837, 951, 952.

medius, the middle

Mutes, 9; syllable w. short vowel followed by mute and liquid, 24; mute

417, 646. Digitized

-nam,

enclitic, 234.

Names

of persons, 143-149; adopted sons, 147; women, 148; slaves, 149. Nasals, 9; stems, third decl., in, 112; inserted in verb-stems, 268.

nascor, w. abl., 532. natu, abl. only, 138; w. minor, etc., i6g.

nd, quantity of vowel before, 15. -ne, enclitic, 365; in alternative questions, 372-376; in exclamations, 501; in ind. quest., 846.

by Microsom)

INDEX

33°

ne, 213, 657; w. subjv. of exhortation or command, 768, 934, 936; w. opt. subjv., 773; in purpose cl., 812; in subst. cl., 826, 828, 829, 832, 83s; in subst. cl. w. expressions of fear, 838, 839; in cl. of proviso, 929, 930; w. imperat., 935; in ind. disc, 977; for nedum, 816. ne non, in subst. cl. w. expressions of fear, 838.

ne

.

.

.

quidem,

656;

after

general

neg., 660.

nee, for non, 659; see neque. necesse est, constr., 828. necne, 373; in ind. quest., 853. nedum, 816, 817. nefas, w. supine, 1017. Negative adverbs, 213, 657-660; negatives, 660. nemo, forms, 138; as adj., 687. nequam, 191; compar., 168.

two

quin, w. subjv., 889. nos, for ego, 664. nostri, objective gen., nostrum, gen. of the whole, 663. Nouns, gender, 56-63; number, 64; case, 65-67; formation, 68-86; declension, 87-134; defective, 135-138; variable, 139-142. Syntax: appositives, 380-388; pred. nouns, 389396; see Nominative, Genitive, etc. novi, meaning, 761. ns, quantity of vowel before, 13. nt, quantity of vowel before, 15. nullus, decl., 176; use, 138, 417, 688. num, 367; in ind. quest., 846. Number, 64, 310; nouns used only in sing., 135; only in plu., 136; plu. used for sing., 137; meaning of plu. different from that of sing., 142. Numerals, 216-228; cardinals, ordinals,

neque

(nee), 1036-1038; correl. after general neg., 660; connecting pur-

pose clauses, 815. nequeo, conjug., 335. nescio quis, 683; nescio quo, unde,

non

etc.,

distributives,

216-219;

frac-

220; Roman notation, 221; decl. of numeral adjs., 222-226; numeral adverbs, 228. nummus, gen. plu., 103. tions,

nune, 654. compar., 215. -6, adv. ending, 196, 199.

849. neuter, 686. neve (neu), 1036; correl. after general neg., 660; connecting purpose clauses, 815; in neg. commands, 937. nf, quantity of vowel before, 13. ni, go8. niger, decl., 175.

nflper,

nihil (nn), forms, 138.

obliviseor, w. gen. or ace, 438-440. obviam, obvius, w. dat., 469.

nisi, nisi si, 907, 908; nitor, w. abl., 598.

w. abl. abs., 562.

Oblique cases, 65.

Octonarius, 1092.

w. neg. commands, 934. nolo, conjug., 330; w. subjv., 83s; w. noli,

inf.,

Object, direct, 493-500; indirect, 449469. Object clauses, see Substantive clauses. Objective genitive, 425-427, 438-446.

837, 9SI, 952-

odi, 344.

-oius,

names

in, 102.

olle, 242.

Nomen, 145. nomen esse, w. pred. noun in dat.,

omnis, use, 417. 393.

Nominative, as

subject, 397; as voc, 398; in exclamations, 399; in pred., pred. noun w. inf., 390. 358, 3S9j ^s nomine, w. gen. or poss. adj., 547. non, 657; in answers, 371.

Nonae, 604. non modo for non modo non, 1051.

opinione, w. comparative, 544. oportet, w. subjv., 828; w. inf., 948. Opposition, expressed by abl. abs., 563-

nonne, 366; in ind. quest., 846.

n6n nemd, nSn nihil, non nullus, 683. non quia, non quod, non quo, w. subjv. or indicat., 888.

Onomatopoeia, 1070. -ont, -unt, in verbs, 315. OpenVowels, 7; syllables, 22.

Optative subjunctive, 767, 773-776; in subordinate cl., 906. opus est, w. abl., 573, 574; w. participle, 574; as pred. noun, 575; w. supine, 1018.

Digitized

by Microsoft®

'

INDEX Oratio obliqua, see Indirect discourse, 964.

Oratio recta, see Direct discourse, 964. Ordinals, 216-219; ^.cc. sing, as adv., 228. orior, forms, 270. -8s, Greelc nouns in, 105. -Osus, adj. suffix, 155.

Oxymoron, 1070. paenitet, w. ace.

and

gen., 444.

Paeon, 1074. palam, w. abl., 1027. Palatals, 9. par, w. gen., 410. Parataxis, 795. Parisyllables, 113. parte, partibus, 596; partem, 524. Participial adjectives, 616, 617.

Participles, forms, 304-3o8;pres. act., 304; decl., 179-183; fut. act., 305; perf. pass., 306; perf. pass. w. act. meaning, 307; fut. pass., 308. Syntax: characteristics, 984; use of tenses, 985-990; pres. referring to fut.,

986; perf. referring to pres.,

988-989; uses of participles, 9911014; w. vbs. of perception, 992; w. vbs. meaning represent, 993; perf. part, instead of coordinate cl., 994; agreeing with obj. of liabeo and other vbs., 995, 996; containing

main idea

of phrase, 997; fut. act.

denoting purpose, 999; fut. 1000-1002; denoting pass, part., purpose, looi; see Gerundive and Gerund; part, used impersonally as abl. abs., $68; w. opus est or usus part,

est, 574; perf. pass. part, as substantive qualified by adj. or adv., 639; agreement w. subj. in forms of

perf. pass, system, 742.

Particles, 55.

Penalty, gen., 431-433! abl, 580. Pentameter, 1093; dactylic, 1098. Penult, 22. penus, forms, 140. per, prep., of time, 521, 602; of the agent, 537! of cause, 548; of manner, SSSPerception, vbs. of, constr., 992. Pehfect, Indicative: forms, 280-286; tense-sign, -v-, 280; shortened forms, 281, 282; tense-sign, -U-, 283; tensesign, -S-, 284; reduplicated, 285; perf. pass, system, 286; personal endings, 312; use, 758-762; referring to future, 759; gnomic, 760; w. pres. meaning, 761. Subjunctive: forms, 293; use, 781, 791, 792; see also the various uses of the subjv. mood. Infinitive: forms, act., 298; pass., 300; use, 943, 944. Participle: 306, 307; use, 987-989Periphrastic conjugation, 327, 998, 1000; used to supply lack of fut. tenses in subjv., 794; in apod, of cont.-to-fact cond., 923, 924; in ind. disc, 981. Personal endings, indie, and subjv., 311; perf. ind., 312; imperat., 313, 314; vowel changes, 315. Personal or impersonal use of pass, vbs., 958, 959.

Personal pronouns, forms, 229-231; Syntax, 661-665; use of gen. sing,

and

plu., 663; plu. of first pers. for

sing., 664; reflexive use, 665.

Personification, 1070. petfi, constr.,

508.

Phonetic changes, 32-51. Phrase, defined, 361. piget, w. ace. and gen., 444. Pity, vbs. of, constr., 443, 444. Place whence, abl. w. or without prep., 53°. SSI-

Partitive apposition, 384. Partitive genitive, see Genitive of the

Whole. Partitives, 227.

parum, compar., 214. parvus, compar., 167. Passive, see Voice.

Patronymics, 80. pecus, forms, 140. pelagus, 99.

33^

Place where, abl. w. or without prep., 588-598; loc, 606-613. Place whither, ace. w. or without prep., 513-517placitus, meaning, 307. plebs or plebes, forms, 134. Plenty, adjs. of, w. gen. or abl., 429; vbs. of, w. gen., 436.

Pleonasm, 1070. Digitized

by

!J^S&i&^'

417; pleraque, accent, 31.

INDEX

332 Pluperi'ECT,

Indicative: form, 287; Subjunctive: form, 294; see the various uses of the subjv.

use,

763.

mood. Plural, lacking, 135; plu. only, 136; plu. used instead of sing., 137; meaning different from that of sing., 142.

plus, decl., 187; constr., 342pondo, use, 138.

posed, constr., 508. Position, length by, 23, 1071. Position of words, see Arrangement. Possession, dat., 479. Possessive adjectives, forms, 192, 193; use, 618-624; suus, 619-621; instead of poss. gen. of pers. or reflex, pronoun, 403; instead of obj. gen.,

427; w. refert and interest, 434. Possessive genitive, 401-410. Possibility, conditions of, 915-918; in ind. disc, 980. possum, conjug., 329. post, in expressions of time, 583, 584; as prep., followed by quam w. temporal cl., 871. posterus, compar., 170. Postpositive prepositions, 1024. postquam (postea quam), in temporal cl., w. indie, 870, 871; w. subjv., 873; w. hist, inf., 873; referring to a period of time, 874; in causal cl., 875-

postremus, meaning, 641, 646. postridie, w. gen. or ace, 409, 1025, 1026; w. quam and indie, 868. postulo, constr., 508.

Potential subjunctive, 777-780; in subord. cl., 906; in conditional sentence, 915. potior, forms, 270; w. gen., 446; w. abl. or ace, 572. potis, use, 191, 329. potius,

quam, w.

subjv., 869.

potus, having drunk, 307. prae, w. abl. denoting cause, 549. Praenomen, 144. praesens, 319. praetervehor, w. ace, 511. Predicate, defined, 355; consisting of vb. w. pred. noun or adj., 358, 359;

omitted,^6o.

Predicate nouns, agreement, 389; ace. or nom. w. inf., 390; dat. w. impers. vbs., 391; ace. w. vbs. meaning make, choose, etc., 392; dat. w. nomen esse, 393; abl., 394; inf. or cl. as pred. noun, 395; vb. in agreement w. pred. noun, 396; poss. gen. in pred., 408; gen. of the whole, 415; gen. of quahty, 421. Prefixes, in cpd. verbs, 260. Prepositions, origin, 348; w. ace, 1019; w. abl., 1020; w. ace or abl., 1022; postpositive, 1024. Present, stem, 252, 262; Indicative: forms, 277; personal endings, 311; use, 745-750; conative, 746; for fut., 747, 913; historical, 748; w. iam, 749; in delib. questions, 750. Subjunctive: forms, 291; for use see the

various uses of the subjv. mood. Injinilive: forms, act., 297; pass., 299; use, 939-942. Participle: form, 304; decl., 179, 180; use, 986. Present perfect, 309. Price, gen., 424; abl., 577-580. pridie, w. gen., 409, 1026; w. ace, 1025; pridie quam w. indie or subjv., 868.

Primary Primary

suffixes, 72-75.'

tenses, 309; in sequence,

781-

794-

Primary verbs, 250-252. primus, meaning, 641, 646; primum and prima, 655. princeps, decl., 106; use, 641. Principal parts, 316, 317. Principal tenses, see Primary tenses.

compar., 170; use, 641. priusquam, 862-867. prior,

pro, form in cpds., 328. pro, interjection, 350. probor, w. dat., 482.

Proceleusmatic, 1074. procul, w. abl., 1027. prohibeS, constr., 829-832. Prohibitions, 934-937. Proleptic adjective, 628.

Pronominal adjectives, 176, 177, 236, 615; see Pronouns.

Pronouns, forms, 229-248; personal, 229-231; rel. and interrog., 232-236; indefinite, 237, 238;

Predicate adjectives, 627, ^^jfj^ed by Micr3S9f(&^^-

Syntax:

demonstrative, 623,

personal,

INDEX 661-665; reflex., 623, 666-670; intensive, 671-678; interrog. pron. and adjs., 579-681; indef. pron. and adjs.,

682-689; distrib. pron. and adjs., 690-692; rel. pron. and adjs., 693710; demon, pron. and adjs., 622, 711-728; alius and alter, 729-733. Pronunciation, how determined, 10; vowels, 11-19; diphthongs, 20; consonants, 21. prope, compar., 214; as prep., 490. Proper names, 143-149; in plu., 135. propior, compar., 170; constr., 490, 1025, 1026. pTopius, constr., 490, 1025, 1026. Proportionals, 227. proprius, w. gen., 410.

Prosody, see Versification. prdspicio, w. dat. or ace, 474. prosum, conjug., 328. Protasis, 907; unusual forms, 926; see Conditional sentences. Proviso,

cl. of,

929, 930.

prozime, constr., 490, 1025, 1026. prozimus, constr., 490, 1025, 1026. -pte, enclitic, 193, 231. pudet, w. ace. and gen., 444. Purpose, dat., 483-486; relative

cl.,

w. ut, ne or ut ue, 812815; parenthetical cl., 814; two clauses coordinated, 815; infinitive, 962; fut. act. part., 999; fut. pass, part., looi; gerundive or gerund w. causa or gratia, 1007; gen. of quality, 1008; dat., 1012; ad w. ace, 1013; supine, 1015.

809-811;

cl.

333

quands, w. temporal cl.,

cl.,

885; w. causal

891.

Quantity, vowels, 12-19; vowel before another vowel, 14; in monosyllables, 17; in final syllables, 1719; hidden quantity, 12; diphthongs, 20; syllables, 23-26. quasi, w. abl. abs., 562; w. subjv., 928. Quaternarius, 1092. -que, 31, 1030, 1032, 1033, 1045. que8, conjug., 335. Questions, see Interrogative sentences and DeKberative questions; in ind.

disc, 975,976. qui, rel.: decl., 232, 234; indef.: decl., 237; use, 682; interrog.: 679, 680; £is abl., 234; in imprecations, 774. quia, w. causal cl., 886, 888, 890. quicumque, 235; use, 689. quid, adv., 525.

quidam, forms, 238; w. gen. or prep, and abl., 418; meaning, 684. quidem, 656; w. concessive force, 724. qunibet, 238, 686. quin.in questions, 744; w. imperat., 744; w. charac. cl., 802; w. result cl., 820; w. subst. cl., 829; w. causal cl., 889. quippe qui, w. causal or adversative cl., 807, 808. quis, interrog.: decl., 232, 234; use, 679, 680; indef.: decl., 237; use, 682. quis, for quibus, 234.

quispiam, forms, 238; use, 683. qoisquam, forms, 238; use, 685. quisque, forms, 238; use, 690, 691; w. plu. vb., 736; in partitive app., 384. quisquis, 235.

quaero, constr., 508. Qualifying words, position, 1057, 1065. Quality, gen., 421-424; abl., 557. constr., 541, S4S; for postquam, 583, 871; w. superl. and often w. form of possum, 644; w. cl. of charac, 800; w. cl. of result, 801; w. mirum, sane, valde, etc., 850; w. ace. and inf. in ind. disc, 971.; vb. omitted in ind. disc, 972. quam diu, w. temporal cl., 876.

quam,

quamquam, w. adversative cl., 894, 89s; meaning and yet w. independent cl., 896; w. participles, etc., 899. quamvis, w. concessive cl., 8g8; w. participles, etc., 899.

Digitized

quivis, forms,' 238; use, 686.

quo, w. purpose cl., 810, causal d., 888, 890. -quo-, words ending in, 39.

quoad, w. temporal

cl.,

811;

while,

w.

876;

until, 884.

quod, w. subst. cl., 822, 823; w. causal cl., 886-890; quid est quod, 525. quoi, for cui, 234. qudius, for cuius, 234.

quom, see cum. qudminus, w. subst. quoniam, w. causal quoque, 1039.

829, 832. 886.

cl.,

cl.,

quot, 417.

by fl^ifl^§oB®ms

in,

39; adjs., 173.

INDEX

334

r-stems, ending originally in s, no. ratus, w. present meaning, 988. Recessive accent, 27. Reciprocal pronouns, 731. recorder, constr., 441. recusa, constr., 829-832. reddo, w. perf. pass, part., 996. Reduplication, in perf. ind., 285. Reference, dat., 470-476. refert, w. gen. or poss. adj., 434; w. dat. or ad and ace, 435. Reflexive pronoun, decl., 230; reflex, use of pers. pronouns, 665; of ipse, 675; of

is,

719; of vbs., 734.

reicio, 26.

Relative clause, preceding antecedent, 696; introd. by quod, id quod, or quae res, 702; containing abstract noun, 709; of fact, 797; of characteristic, 798-806; causal or adversative, 807, 808; of purpose, 809-811; equivalent to condition, 927; w. inf. in ind. disc, 974.

quantity of vowel before final, 18; between vowels becomes r, 46; pro-

nunciation of final, 21, 1088. saepe, compar., 215. salvere, forms, 345. sane, in answers, 370. satis, compar., 215. Saying, vbs. of, w. ind. disc, 964-982; w. ut-cl., 978. scilicet,

710. reliquus, use, 417, 646; reliqui,

mean-

ing. 733-

Remember, vbs. meaning,

constr.,

438-

441.

206.

imperat. for pres., 933; quod sciam, 803. -SCO, inceptive vbs. in, 257. scribe, constr., 452. Second conjugation, 322. Second declension, 95-105. Second person sing, indef., 779, 904. Secondary sufiixes, 76-81. Secondary tenses, 309; in sequence, 781-794. secus, ace, 524. sed, 1048. scio, fut.

sed, ace.

Relative pronouns and adjectives, forms, 232, 234-236; Syntax: 693710; qui, agreement, 703; attracted into case of antecedent, 704; w. two or more antecedents, 705; w. collective antecedent, 706; agreeing w. pred. noun, 707; agreeing w. word to be supplied, 708; equivalent to pers. or .demon, pronoun,

Remind, vbs. meaning,

!i,

and

abl., 231.

Semi-deponents, 274. Semi-hiatus, 1078.

Semivowels,

9;

how

represented in

writing, 6. Senarius, 1092.

senex, decl., 123; compar., 169. Sentences, defined, 352; compound and complex, 354; classification, 362; interrogative, 363-369. Separation, gen., 437; dat., 477; abl., 528, 529. Septenarius, 1092.

Sequenceof TENSES, 781-794; w. pres. 782; sequence disregarded, 783-785; in clauses of result, etc., in cl. expressing a general 785; truth, 786; w. hist, pres., 787; w. hist, inf., 788; in delib. questions and cont.-to-fact sentences, 789; w. cont.-to-fact conditions and conclusions, 790; w. perf. subjv., 791, 792 w. inf., part., gerund, or supine, 793; in expressions of future time,

perif.,

constr., 442.

reminiscor, w. gen. or ace, 438-440. Repeated action, subjv., 904. repraesentatio, 967. res, decl., 131.

Resolution, in verse, 1075. Result clauses, w. ut, 818, 819; w. quin, 820. reus, w. gen., 433. Rhetorical questions, 771; in ind. disc,

97S-

Rhotacism, 46. Road, abl., 581. Root, defined, 52. rus, limit o^ motion, 514; rure, place whence, S30, S3i; ^rl, l
/jy

;

794sese, 231. sestertius, gen. plu., 103. seu, see sive. si,

in cl. expressing a wish, 775; in cl. equiv. to ind. quest., 848; in prota-

M/cr§^rf©7~9°9;

si

minus,

si alitor,

909.

INDEX Sibilants, 9. sic, 651; in answers, 370. -Sim, perf subjv. in, 289. Simile, 1070. similis, compar., 165; w. gen., 410; w. gen. or dat., 489. .

simul, w. abl., 553, 1027; simul atque (ac, ut, or et), w. temporal cl., 870, 872. sin, 907, 909. Singular, nouns only in, 13s; lacking, 136; meaning different from that of plu., 142. sis, for si vis,

330. sive (seu), 910, 1043. -so, iterative ending, 255; fut. perf., 289. socius, gen. plu., 103. solee, semi-deponent, 274; solitus, meaning, 988. solus, ded., 176; followed by charac. cl.,

798.

Sonants, 9. Sounds, classification, 7-9; pronunciation, 10-21. Source, abl., 532-534. Specification, gen., 428-430; ace, 523525; abl., 586, 587. Spirants, 9. Spondaic verse, 1095. Spondee, 1074. sponte, 138. ss, quantity of vowel before, 16. Stem, defined, 53; of nouns, 69-71; of the declensions, 89; of vbs., 262-264; of the four conjugations, 266-269.

w. abl., 598. Strophe, 1091. studeo, w. gen., 445. sub, use, 1023; w. ace, 5i3;_ w. abl., 588, 590; in expressions of time, 602. Subject, defined, 355; inf. or cl. as subj., 356; omitted, 357; nom. as sto,

subj., 397; ace. subj. of inf., 526, 952; ace. omitted, 954. Subjective genitive, 402. SrrBjuNCTiVE mood, tense-signs, 290-

294; origin and use, 767; Vohtive, 768-772; Optative, 773-776; Potential, 777-779; Tenses in subord.

781-794; relative 'clauses, 798-811; purpose, 812-817; result, 818-820; substantive, 825-^5;.ind. clauses,

335

quest., 846-855; temporal, 856-884; causal, 886-893 ; adversative and concessive, 894-903; repeated action, 904; attraction, 905 conditional sen;

tences, 911-928; proviso, 929, 930; for subjv. in ind. disc, see Indirect discourse. Subordinate clauses, 353, 354; origin, 79S; position, 1068. Substantive clauses, 821, 825; introd.

822, 823; by cum, 824; object cl. w. vbs. of will or purpose, 826; subj. cl. w. pass., 827; subj. cl. w. impers. vbs., etc., 828, 843-845; w. vbs. meaning hinder, prevent, avoid, refuse, 829-832; w. expressions of doubt or ignorance, 833, 834; w. vbs. meaning wish, 835837; w. expressions of fear, 838, 839; w. vbs. meaning accomplish, 842; w. tantum abest, 844; w. fore or futurum esse, 845; w. vbs. of saying,

by quod,

978.

Substantive use of adjectives and participles, 635-640. subter, 1023. SufiSxes, 69-81;

primary, 72-75; sec-

ondary, 76-81. in main cl., 666; in 667; in ind. disc, 668; of an indef. person, 669; strengthened by sibi, 670. sultis, 330. sum, conjug., 318; cpds., 328; as copula, 359; as auxiliary, omitted, 360. sui,

decl., 230;

subord.

cl.,

summus,

use, 417, 646. suopte, etc., 193. supellex, 107, 123. super, 1023. Superlative degree, meaning,

642;

used of only two, 643; w. quam or quam possum, 644. supersum, w. dat., 479. superus, compar., 170. Supine, forms, 301; in -um, use, 517, 1015, 1016; in -u, use, 1017, 1018. Surds, 9. sGs, decl., 122.

suus, 192; in main cl., 619; in subord. cl., 620; in ind. disc, 621. Syllaba anceps, 1081. Syllables, 22; length, 23-26.

INDEX

336 Synapheia, 1090. Syncope, 41 in verse, 1087. Synecdoche, 1070.

ante, post, 584; time after, abl., 601; of reckoning, 603, 604. Tmesis, 1070. -to, iterative vbs. in, 255. tot, use, 417. totus, use, 417.

method

;

Synesis, 1070. Synizesis, 1084. SjTitactic compounds, nouns, 85; vbs., 261. SjTitax, defined, 351. Systole, 1085.

Town-names, place whither, 514, 516; place where, abl., 592-594; loc, 607, 608, 611, 612; place whence, 53°, S3I-

taedet, w. ace. and gen., 444. talis, w. charac. d., 798. tam, 651. tamen, 1049. tametsi, w. independent cl., 896; w.

adversative

tamquam, w. si,

cl.,

897.

tamquam

abl. abs., 562;

tantum abest,

constr., 844. charac. cl., 798; tantus quantus in ind. disc, 972. Teach, vbs. meaning, constr., 507, 509.

w.

and abl., 231. Temporal clauses, w. cum, 856-861; w. antequam and priusquam, 862-

ted, ace.

868; w. postquam, ubi,

etc.,

w. dum, donee, quoad, 876-884; w. quando, 885. temporis (id temporis), 524. Tendency, dat., 483-486.

870-875;

quam

diu,

Imperfect,

etc.,

and

Sequence of tenses. tenus, w. gen. or abl., 409, 1020, 1021. -ter or -iter, adv. ending, 205. Tetrameter, 1092, 1093. Thematic vowel, 251; in imperat., 264; in third conjug., 268, 315; in fut. perf., 288; in pres. act. part'., 304. Thesis, 1076. Third conjugation, 323; vbs. in -io,

constr.,

tres, decL, 223. Tribrach, 1074. Trimeter, 1092. trini, for terni,

218.

tu, decl., 229, 231.

tunc, 654. -turio, desiderative vbs. in, 259. -tus or -itus, adv. ending, 204. tute, tutemet, 231.

vowel treated as consonant, 1086; consonant as vowel, 1086. ubi, in temporal cl., w. indie, 870,

u,

abl. plu.,

fourth decl., 129. -uis or -uos, gen., fourth decl., 129. iillus, decl.,

ulterior,

176.

compar., 170.

ultimus, use, 417, 641, 646. -um, gen. plu., first decl., 93; second decl., 103; third decl., i-stems, 118, 121; fourth decl., 129; adjs., third decl., 183, 186.

-undus, gerundive ending, 308. unus decl., 176; use, 222; w. gen. or prep, and abl., 418; w. charac. cl., 798; uni for singuli, 218. urbs, in app. w. town-names, 516, 531, 594, 612.

324-

Third

w.,

872; subjv., 873.

forms of indie, 276-289; subjv., 290-294; inf., 296-300; part., 303-308; tense-groups, 309; for use, Present,

compounded

S"-

-ubus and -ibus, dat. and

Tenses,

see

trans, vbs.

Trochee, 1074.

w. subjv., 928.

tantus,

traicio, constr., 512.

declension,

nouns,

106-126;

adjs., 178-189.

-tim, adv. ending, 202.

Time, when or within which, abl., 599, 600; other forms of expression, 602; abl. abs., 559, 565; extent of time, ace, 518, 521; abl., 605; perw. ace, 521; time before or after, abl. w. ante, abhinc, post, S^y^cc^

f^

usque, 1025, 1026. usus est, w. abl., 573, 574. ut (uti), in purpose cl., 812-815; in result cl., 818, 819; in subst. cl., 826-828, 835, 836, 841-845; w. expressiqps of fear, 838, 839; in temporal cl., 870; meaning since, 874; in concessive cl., 902; in adversaMicrMM^-' 9°3; '° cl. of proviso, 930;

INDEX ut for utinam, 774; ut ne for ne, 812; ut qui, w. causal cl., 807, 808; ut si, w. subjv., 928. uter, decl., 176; cpds., 177; use, 23s,

681. uterlibet, 686.

uterque, decl., 177; in partitive app., 384; general use, 416, 690, 692; for alter, 731; w. plu. vb., 736; utraque, accent, 31. utervis, 686.

utinam, w. opt. subjv., 773. utor, w. abl., 572; in pass, periphrastic conjug., 1000.

utrum, 372-379; in single question,

337

vereor, w. gen., 445; veritus, w. pres. meaning, 988. vers, 1048. Verse, 1073. Versification, 1071-1099. verto, w. abl. of price, 579. verum, 104S.

vescor, w. abl. or ace, 572. vestri, objective gen., vestrum, gen. of the whole, 663. vetus, compar., 164; forms, 181, 183. vicis, forms, 138; vicem, 524. videlicet, 206.

videS, w. participle, 992; videor, w. dat., 482; used personally, 959. virus, 99.

377-

vis, decl., 122.

V, representing vowel and consonant sounds, 6. T, consonant, treated as vowel, 1086. Value, gen., 424; abl., 577-580. Variable nouns, 139-142. vas, decl., 140. -ve, 1044. vel, 1042.

829-832. Vocative, 66; in second decl., 95, 96; nouns in -ius, 100; adjs. in -ius, 173; use, 398; position, 1060. Voice, 272; pass, of intrans. vbs. used impersonally, 734; reflexive use of

Tito, constr.,

pass., 734;_

vellem, introducing an unfulfilled wish, 776. velut, w. abl. abs., 562; w. subjv., 928. Verbal nouns, 295; w. ace, 494. Verbs, formation, 249-261; stems, 262-264; conjug., 265-271; of two conjugs., 27o;irreg., 271; voice, 272274; deponents, 273; semi-deponents, 274; moods and tenses, 275294; verbal nouns and adjs., 295-308; tense-groups, 309; number, 310; person, 311-31S; P™. pts., 316, 317; conjug. of sum, 318; amo, 320, 321; moneS, 322; rego, 323; capio, 324; audio, 325; deponents, 326; periphrastic, 327; irreg. vbs., 328340; defective, 341-345; impers., 346; list, 347. Syntax: voice, 734; agreement w. subj., 735-742; w. two or more singular subjs., 737; w. sing, and plu. subjs., 738; w. subjs. of different persons, 740; w. relative as subj., 741; w. app., 388; w. pred.

noun, 396; agreement of part, in cpd. forms, 742; see also Indicative, Present, Imperfect, etc.. Sequence of tenses, and the various t3fpes of sentences and clauses.

Volitive subjunctive, 767-772. V0I6, conjug., 330; in imperf. subjv. w. unfulfilled wish, 776; w. subst. cl., S35, 836; w. inf., 837, 951, 952; w. perf. pass, inf., 944. -Tolus, adjs. in, compar., .166.

Torsum, cpds. of, 209. Vowels, long and short, distinguished in writing, 4; classification, 7; pronunciation, 11; quantity, 1 2-19 weakened in medial syllables, 34-38; ;

weakened

in final syllables, 39; loss, 41; combination of vowels, 42; gradation, 44; developed in consonant

groups, 51. vulgus, 99. adjs. meaning, w. vbs., w. gen., 436, 437.

Want,

y, use, 3;

pronunciation, 11.

etc..

Digitized

gen., 429;

Whole, gen. of, 412-419. Wish, vbs. meaning, w. subst. cl., 835, 836; w. inf., 837, 951, 952; introducing unfulfilled wish, 776. See Optative. Words, order, 1055-1069.

z,

use, 3.

Zeugma, 1070. by Microsoft®

Digitized

by Microsoft®

Digitized

by Microsoft®

Digitized

by Microsoft®

Digitized

by Microsoft®