A Year On A Farm

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Copyright }^^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.

One Hundred Lessons

Agriculture

in

with

Practical

Problems

By

Aretas

W.

Nolan, A. M.

Associate Professor of Agricultural Education, West Virginia University

Chicago

Row, Peterson & Company

/

\ ^""ii .i^-

Copyright, 1911, by

AKETAS W. NOLAN

iv

\.

©CI.A297827

TO

MY FATHER AND MOTHER,

WHO ALL THEIR

LIVES

HAVE DWELT AMONG THE FIELDS, IS THIS BOOK DEDICATED.

PREFACE. The preparation of in convenient

this

form the

book

is

an

effort to

combine

discussions, directions for labo-

ratory and field exercises, note-book work, and farm arithmetic, which the author has found most practical

and helpful

in teaching elementary agriculture in rural

schools. It

has been the aim of the author to select from the

and practice such and methods as the teacher

vast field of agricultural knowledge subject-matter, materials, in the

one-room country school, in the grammar grades

of a graded school, or in the beginning years of a high school,

may

find easily practical, within the range of

the pupil's understanding,

and

full of profitable inter-

and manual and educational value. combined for the purpose of leading away from the usual text-book method of teaching to the method of It is a text-book

est

first-hand contact with the real things of agriculture.

The

fields,

the pastures, the groves, the orchards,

the gardens, are the real text-books, a "friendly guide-post."

If the

—

work

this is

book

is

and only

not conducted

by means of real things, the educational value

is

lost,

and the information given not permanently retained. Many of the lessons are followed by a set of practical farm problems. These problems have a definite relation 5

PREFACE

6 to the

subject-matter which they follow, as well as a

Most of these problems were prepared by Professor Hatch of the University of Wisconsin, to whom we make grateful acknowledgment. close relation to

The

farm

life.

lessons are arranged in the order of actual

operations and interests,

farm

during a year on the farm,

and the teacher in the public schools may easily adapt them to local needs, beginning with any month of the year. The seasonal sequence of subject matter in school agriculture is both pedagogical and practical. Illustrative material is easily obtained, the interest of the pupils is

at once

awakened, and cooperation with the farm

tivities of the

community

is

ac-

natural and inevitable.

The Author.

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 1.

Read from other

texts the subject-matter treated

in these lessons. 2.

Collect beforehand the materials needed for the

and have everything ready for the

practical exercises, recitation. 3.

Ask

the pupils to assist in collecting the materials,

and have them perform the experiments whenever possible. 4.

Make many

ing methods.

excursions for observations of farm-

Bring the

when the But always the farm upon

class to the material

material cannot be brought to the class. obtain permission from the owner of

which excursions are made. 5.

Have

6.

Write

a school garden if possible. to

your State Agricultural Experiment

Station, the State College of Agriculture,

Department of Agriculture

at

and

to the

Washington, D. C, for

information, bulletins, and seeds. 7.

Require each pupil to keep a permanent agri-

cultural note-book in which to write a neat pen-and-ink

record of each lesson. sults of the

The work

of recording the re-

practical exercises gives the pupil some-

thing definite to do. 8.

Have

the lesson in agriculture the last period of 7

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS

8 the day, tical

and there

work.

Some

will be better

opportunity for prac-

of the lessons of the text

may

serve

for several school lessons. 9.

Relate the work in agriculture to the

home farms

Make "home projects"

the basis of

whenever

many 10.

possible.

recitations.

Make

the

"Year on

school year in agriculture.

the

Farm"

the

work

of the

TABLE OF CONTEXTS September r,Essox.

Selecting and Laying Out the Farm Farm Buildings Map Studies of Life A-field Insects That Injure the Crops

I.

II.

—

HI. IV.

The The The The The Fhe The

V.

YI. VII. VIII. IX. X.

Grasshopper Butterfly Fly

Bug Dragon Fly

Bee Beetle XII.— Plant Diseases The WHE.VT Crop XIII.

XL

Page. 13 17 22 24 27 30 32 34 36 37 39 42 44

October Selecting and Storing Seed Corn The Best Corn in the Co.m.munity Collection of Farm I'roducts Fruit Growing XVIIL— XUT Crops XIX. Classification of Fak.m Crops XIV. XV. XVI. XVII.

—

40 55 56 57 64 65

November XX. XXI. XXII.

—The

The The XXIII. The XXIV.— The XXV.— Fhe XXVL—The

Stock on the Far.m Driving Horse

Draft Horse Dairy Cow Beef Cow Sheep

Hog

Feeds and Feeding Test for Food Compounds XXIX. Determining Rations for Farm Animals XXX.— The Dairy XXXI. Composition of Milk XXXII. The Babcock Test XXXIII. Poultry XXXIV. A Study of Feathers XXXV.— The Egg. 9

XXVII. XXVIII.

—

-

,

67 70 74 78 81 83 86 91 94 95 100 104 107 110 114 116

CONTENTS

10

December Lesson.

XXXVI. XXXVII.

Page. 118 121 122 123

Farm Accounts The Year's Account dy Months

XXXVIII.

Crop Records Record of a Good Crop Rotation Comparison of Agriculture Products

XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. XLIII.

An Assessment of Farm Values Farm Machinery Agricultural Outlook West Virginia

—

126 127 127 as a Type

St.ate

129

January Country Life Conveniences The Farmer's Reading

XLIV. XLV.

XLVL—Soil Plant Foods

XLVII. XLVIII.

Fertilizers

131 133 135 143 149

February

XLIX.— Drainage L.

LI. LII. LIII.

—

LI V. LV.

Fences Knot Tying in Ropes A Hot-bed Garden Rural Free Mail Delivery Agricultural Societies The Grange

158 162 165 167 169 172 177

March Structure of Seeds Germination of Seeds and Growth of Seedlings .lUDGING AND SCORING SEED CORN Testing Seed Corn LX. rHE Plant and Water LXI. The Root System of the Plant LXII. Clover and Other Legumes LXIIL— Crop Rotation LXIV. Spraying Fruit Trees LX V. Pruning Fruit Trees LVI. LVII. LVIII. LIX.

—

181 185 191

197 201 205 208 213 221 221

April

LXVI.— Grafting Fruit Trees LXVII. LXVIII.

LXIX.

LXX.

Plant Propagation fro.m Cuttings Propagation of Raspberries School Gardening Home Gardening

226 229 232 234 238

CONTENTS

11

Lesson.

Page.

LXXI. LXXII. LXXIII.

LXXIV.

—

Beautifying Home and School Grounds 244 Farm Forestry 249 Spraying for Codling Moth AND Fungous Diseases. 259 Pi^ANTiNG Corn 263

May LXXV. LXXVI. LXXVII. LXXVIII. LXXIX.

LXXX. LXXXI. LXXXII.

Cultivation of Corn Tilling the Soil

Transplanting Potatoes Tomatoes Plant Leaves

267 272 277 279 283 286 288 291

•

The Flower Plant Stems

June

LXXXIIL— Weeds LXXXIV. LXXXV.

LXXXVL LXXXVII. LXXXVIII.

295 299 303 306 309 312

Truck Crops The Value of Birds to Agriculture The Toad, the Farmer's Friend Cutting Clover and Alfalfa Five Lines of Agricultural Improvement July

LXXXIX. XC.

XCL XCIL

Roads and Road-making

314 118 321 323

Timothy Hay Pastures

Dry Farming

August XCIII.

XCIV.

XCV.

XCVL XCVn. XCVin. XCIX. C.

Alfalfa Budding Fruit Trees No Two Plants Alike The Water Supply The United States Weather Service Conservation of Natural Resources -Agriculture and Education

The Farm Home

Appendix Notes

-.

326 329 331 333 335 338 340 342 345

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE A YEAR ON THE FARM SEPTEMBER LESSON

I

SELECTING AND LAYING OUT THE FAEM

A

forty-acre farm.

—Let

us suppose that

is

it

the

day of September, and that we have moved into a new liome upon a forty-acre farm. Our farm is square 80 rods by 80 rods and the buildings are located at first

—

—

We

Our and we have good roads. The farm is level, with the exception of a V-shaped valley extending across it from north to south, dividing the

one corner of

market

farm

is five

into

it.

shall do general farming.

miles away,

two nearly equal parts.

This valley furnishes

excellent drainage facilities and an abundance The soil spring water throughout the year.

farm

is

is

in

good physical condition.

our

The

are free from stumps, stones and waste places. is an orchard of five acres, a wood-lot of five and the rest of the farm, with the exception of

There acres,

of

a rich, sandy loam for the most part, above a

clay subsoil, and fields

of good

the valley running through

it,

13

is tillable.

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUBE

14

The climate

is

temperate, ranging from zero to 90

degrees above zero. terfere with stock

ness of the place

and church

school

The climatie conditions do not inand the general healthfulThe local markets, the assured.

raising, is

facilities,

the character of the neigh-

bors, are all excellent factors in helping us to decide

upon

this farm.

We

we shall find The planning, the building, the sowing and reaping, and the beautifying of our home will furnish us interesting work for many years in fact, the work will never be finished, and shall be

very busy

all

the year, but

great pleasure in our work.

;

therein

is

the joy of

it all.

—

The month's work. September is the month for school to begin, and the interests of the farm will enter largely into the activities and lessons of the school. Busy days are ahead of us. Very little planting is to be done at this season, aside from wheat sowing, but we are in the midst of harvest, when we reap the rewards of the year's labor, and begin to plan for the coming winter. The great work of this month is the sowing of the wheat, and we shall learn of this great crop during the month. The second crop of clover is to be cut for seed.

Perhaps the wheat from the July During is to be thrashed.

harvest has been stacked and

month we shall find many weeds on the farm going and these should be cut down. The hungry insects will continue their ravages and demand our

this

to seed,

attention

SELECTING AND LAYING OUT FARM

15

Practical Exercises 1.

Make

JReport on the

a report in class

Home Farm

upon the home farm, using

the following topics 1. 2.

Kind of farming done. Size and shape of farm.

Courtesy of 0. Fig.

2.

J.

Kern.

At the Grove School

—level or

3.

Surface condition

4. 5.

General fertility condition. Drainage.

6.

"Water supply.

hilly.

Advantages or disadvantages of the location market, schools, neighbors, etc. 7.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

16 8. 9.

10.

—

Improvements house, farm buildings, Trees and landscape features. Climate and healthfulness. S.

Map

of

etc.

Home Farm

Each pupil in the class should draw a map of the home farm, shoAving fields, woodlot, orchards, gardens and buildings. report and

Draw to a scale the map as the

draw

of inches. first

agricultural note-book.

Fig.

3.

Write the

exercises in your

Diagram of 40-Acre Farm

FARM BUILDINGS

LESSON

17

II

FARM BUILDINGS Location.

granary,

—On our farm we have a good house, barn, carriage house, poultry house, and farm

silo,

laboratory.

Attention has been given to the proper

arrangement of these buildings, within themselves and The barn and other farm in relation to each other. houses are located back of the dwelling house, and the vegetable garden

is

convenient to the kitchen, yet well

The dwelling upon an elevation sufficient to afford good drainage, several rods back from the road, leaving room for a pretty lawn in front. A drive leads from

hidden from the front view of the house. house

is

situated

the road to the barn, passing through the barn-lot, con-

venient to the side of the house.

walk leads from the house

to

A

clean,

the barn.

attached to the barn, and the granary

is

dry gravel

A

silo

is

near by. One

of the most important out-buildings on our farm

is

the

The importance of silage as a feeding stuff is growing more apparent, but silage will not keep well in a poorly constructed silo. The silo must be air-tight, strong, perfectly smooth on the inside, and placed on

silo.

a strong, solid foundation.

—

The farm workshop. Every farmer should have a room in some building, in which he can do experimental work with plants, soils, etc., and in which he can do wood-working, forging in iron, and building, or a

general shop work,

A

shop well equipped with car-

penter's tools, a forge and anvil, a work-bench and

its

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

18

equipments, would save the farmer

much time buildings.

in the

repairing of

many

his

dollars

implements

and and

This same workshop might be provided with

apparatus for seed-testing, fruit-tree pruning and graft-

and analyzing, and with various chemicals and apparatus used in experimental work with plants and animals. A room so equipped on every farm would furnish interesting and profitable work during the winter months, and the results of the experiments in these laboratories might be profitably applied on the farm. ing, soil testing

The following

is

a

list

of materials

and furnishings

that might be useful in the farm laboratory: 1.

2.

Work-bench and carpenter's tools. Forge and anvil, with necessary

tools

accom-

panying. 3.

icals,

Medicine case with drugs for animals; and chemsuch

formalin,

as

sulphuric

acid,

ammonia,

copper sulphate, lime, sulphur, lead arsenate, paris green,

hellebore,

phosphoric

acid,

potash,

sodium

nitrate, etc., etc. 4.

Tight case for various seeds.

5.

Boxes of

6.

Table for general experimental work.

clay,

sand and humus

soils.

Water supply and means of heating the room. The pupils and teacher may add other materials to the above list, and, as a part of the work of this lesson, the pupils should draw the ground floor plan of such a room as described above, and indicate in their plan 7.

FAEM BUILDINGS

19

where they would place the different furnishings of the shop. Free Bulletins, U.

S.

Dept. of Agriculture

No. 32.— Silos and Silage. No. 126. Practical Suggestions for

—

Farm

Buildings.

Measurements Rules. 1.

To

find the area of a triangle multiply the base

by one-half

the height. 2.

by 3

To

find the circumference of a circle multiply the diameter

1-7.

3. To find the area of a circle multiply the square of the radius by 3 1-7. 4. The square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other sides.

Note: Make a drawing before attempting to solve any of the following problems.

Model Farm Buildings

Pig. 4.

Problems 1.

How many

to build a pig

to ground,

feet of inch

pen

lumber

will be required

six feet wide, four feet

and eight

feet long?

from peak

(See rules 1 and 4.)

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

20 2.

to

How many

board up

lumber

feet of inch

will be

needed

the gables of a barn thirty feet wide, the

peaks being twelve feet above the eaves? 3.

crib

How much

lumber

with four-inch

will it take to cover a corn

placed one inch apart, the

slats,

crib being twenty-four feet long, six feet wide at the

bottom, eight feet at the top, eight feet to the eaves,

and the peak three 4.

How

feet above the eaves

?

long will the rafters need to be for this

How many

feet

of 2x4 rafters will be required if they are placed

two

crib if they are to project one foot?

feet apart? 5.

How many

feet of

2x4 studding

will be

if they are placed the same distance apart

1

needed

How many

feet of roof boards will be required if they are allowed

to project one foot at each 6.

How many

to hold a

end

I

cubic feet must a bin contain in order

thousand bushels?

Make

a

list

of convenient

dimensions for such a bin. 7.

How many

feet

of two-inch plank will

be re-

quired to build a cylindrical tank fourteen feet across

and two

feet

deep ?

What

will be the cost of the

lumber

at $30 per thousand? 8.

How many

make three hoops 9.

How many

feet of

band iron

feet of inch

to cover the inner wall of a feet across

will it require to

for this tank?

and eighteen

feet

lumber

"round" high?

will be required silo

twenty-one

How many

of two-inch plank will be needed for a cover? will be the cost of all this

lumber

feet

What

at $25 per thousand.

FARM BUILDINGS 10. silo at

11.

What

will

put a cement

floor in this

10 cents per square foot?

How many

and placed one

What

2x4 studdings eighteen

foot apart will

will be their cost at 12.

cost to

it

21

will

it

feet

long

be required, and what

$24 per thousand?

lumber to floor a barn and one-half inch plank

cost for the

forty by sixty feet with two

$18 per thousand?

at

Fig.

13.

the

The peak

Barn amd Silos

of this barn

What

eaves.

5.

will

is

twelve feet higher than

inch lumber for sheeting the

gables cost at $24 per thousand. 14.

The rafters are made of 2x4, and twenty-seven

inches long, placed eighteen inches apart. will they cost at 15.

What

$20 per thousand.

will be the cost of the sheeting for the

roof at $16 per thousand at each

end?

How much

if

the roof projects two feet

LESSONS IN AGKICULTURE

32

What

16.

will

inches to the at the eaves

shingle

to

five

?

is

placed on a wall twelve inches

and eight feet high. "What stone for same at $5 per cord?

thick

What

18.

with

roof

this

per thousand, laying thein

weather and allowing for a double course

This building

17.

cost

it

shingles worth $3.25

will

it

cost

to

is

the cost of the

fence a field sixty rods

long and forty-five rods wide with a five wire fence, posts one rod apart, worth 5 cents each, staples 6 cents

per pound

pound

the

to

amounting 19.

pound), wire weighing one

(200 to the

worth $4.50 per

rod,

cwt.,

and labor

to $6.

What

will

around the same inches wide, and

it

board fence

using twelve-foot boards, six

worth

and

cents each, nails

cost to build a five

field,

per thousand, posts 5

$16

labor, $15.

LESSON MAP STUDIES OF

—Boys

III

LIFE AFIELD

out of doors all

who have ensummer may not

relish the prospect of sitting indoors

during the pleas-

School out-of-doors. joyed the free

life

and

girls

ant September days studying from books, while life

and

activity

on the farms without.

begin by bringing some of the

life

Hence

all is

let

us

of the farm into

and carrying some of our school probfarm for answer. The fields, the woods, the roadsides, the brooks and the skies shall be our

the schoolroom,

lems out to the

MAP STUDIES OF LIFE AFIELD

33

books when we are out of school, and we shall enjoy

our hours in school, telling each other what we have seen and learned in the big books of nature.

^^^^^^^^^^^Hf^ ^^^

^

In

all

LESSONS IN AC4RICULTURE

24

accurate scale.

Place in this

map

the creeks, springs,

buildings, etc. Collect bottles of the different kinds of soil

2.

on the 3.

and bring

tract,

Make

a

list

found

to school.

of all the useful plants growing on

the plot.

Make a list of all the weeds or useless plants known on the plot. 5. Make a list of all the domestic and wild animals 4.

seen, 6.

Make

from time

a

list

of all the birds

insects observed

to time.

This work

may

many weeks, and and accurate record in

continue through

the pupils should keep a neat their

and

permanent note-books of the observations on their

tracts of land.

LESSON IV INSECTS THAT INJUKE THE CROPS

"The farmer may prepare the soil ever so well, he may fertilize with the greatest of care, he may cultivate thoroughly, the weather conditions may be favorable, and yet he may lose all or a portion of his crop through the attacks of insects and the ravages of plant diseases."

(Hatch.)

Extent of injury.

— Insects

value of millions of dollars.

The farmer has learned

some of these pests successfully, and yet too attention is paid by the average farmer to methods

to fight little

destroy our crops to the

INSECTS THAT INJURE CROPS

25

of combating insects as well as plant diseases. is

much

control

to learn about insects before

them

We

successfully.

There

we can hope

to

must learn when and

where the insects lay their eggs, when the eggs hatch, and into what forms they develop, and what they feed upon. Some people make fun of boys and girls when they see them hunting and studying "bugs," but

if

somebody did not hunt and study bugs, they would eat and drive us all out of house and home. There are usually four Life history of an insect. stages in the life history of an insect the egg stage,

—

—

the grub or caterpillar stage, the resting

pupa

or

stage,

and

the full-groAvn insect.

The egg

is

by

laid

the full-grown insect in the

ground or

in

any part of the plant.

The eggs hatch what we usually a

into call

grub or w^orm. The

grub of most insects is a great eater, and it age

is

done

to

Fig.

7. Section of a Tree-Truxk Showing Gvpsy Moth Lauvak

Ascending is in

this stage that

our plants. After

it

much dam-

has eaten and grown

fat, it

hides itself and goes into a pupa or resting stage.

From

this pod-like affair

sect,

it

emerges as a full-grown

in-

Some

in-

ready to lay eggs and repeat the

sects,

life cycle.

such as grasshoppers, do not go into the resting

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

26 stage, but

grow

their

wings as they hop about

in search

of food.

Feeding habits of into

two

classes,

insects.

—Insects

may

be divided

according to their habits of injury to

and the sap-sucking

plants: the leaf-eating insects

in-

These habits of the insects furnish the farmer a

sects.

methods of destroying them.

clue to

a certain insect

is

If he finds that

eating the leaves of his plants, he

can spray them with a poison, such as lead arsenate,

and the

insects will eat the poison

insect that

is

and

die.

If the

injuring the plants has a beak which

it

uses to suck the sap from the tree or plant, without

eating the leaves, then the farmer can spray with lime-

sulphur or a mixture of kerosene and soapsuds, which stop the insect's breathing pores or

will

destroy

its

Directions for making these mixtures are given

body.

elsewhere in this book.

The body

of insects.

—Insects

they are "in sections." tions of

men.

an

insect's

The head

is

body

are so called because

There are three main

—the

sec-

head, thorax, and abdo-

provided with a pair of

feelers,

a

pair of strong jaws (or a sucking tube), and two com-

pound or two simple

eyes.

Three pairs of legs and

usually two pairs of wings are attached to the thorax.

The abdomen segments. sides.

note

is

the back part of the body,

made up

of

Insects breathe through little holes in their

In the practical exercises which follow you will all

Note.

these points of structures in various insects.

The practical

exercises

on insects

given as separate lessons and so numbered.

will

be

THE GBASSHOPPER

37

LESSON V THE GRASSHOPPER

1.

General

directions.

—In

making

these

practical

an example of each of the common will be taken up. The pupils should

studies of insects,

orders of insects

provide their

own

material,

the class for study.

The

and bring the

will facilitate the catching of

grasshopper, butterfly, bee,

etc.

winged

insects like the

Bottles

and cans may

be used to catch such insects as the beetles

Fig.

A

hand

helpful. sors,

lens to

A

8.

insects to

insect net illustrated below

and bugs.

Insect Net

magnify the

body

insect

will be

found

sharp penknife, a pair of sharp-pointed

scis-

two large needles mounted in wooden holders, and

a pair of sharp eyes are essentials in the study of insects.

Field and laboratory studies.

—In

making this study draw a whole and then make such notes and

of the insects, the pupils should

body view of the

insect,

first

LESSONS IN AGKICULTURE

28

answer such questions as are asked

Determine

lines.

in the k\sson out

answers from observation.

all

1.

Observe in the

Its

method of locomotion.

field

:

Its protective coloration. Its sounds.

Its enemies. 2.

With

Its haunts.

spiracle, just

above the base of the middle

and closing of the Put a grasshopper under

the opening pore.

JNB Fig.

Its food.

the living insect, try to find the breathing

DiFFEUEXTiAL Locust

9.

lips of this

a glass

— After

Perhaps

will eat grass or leaves.

it

Wliy does it do this? body can it jump? In what ways do the hind pair

Watch

legs.

and

breathing see if

it

S.\nderson

has spit "tobacco

How many

times

of legs differ

from

juice" on you.

the length of its 3.

the others?

Of what advantage

are

the

hooks and spines

on

the legs?

Count the number of Study the wings.

4.

pare with the hind folded

?

By

gether, the

drawing

joints on each leg.

How does the jjair? How are

front pair com-

the hind wings

rubbing the upper and lower wings grasshopper

of the Avings.

sounds

are

made.

Make

to-

a

THE GRASSHOPPER Study the mouth

5.

ficult

parts.

29

These are the most

dif-

Find the

fol-

of all the external parts to see.

lowing parts (a)

The upper

(b)

A

the upper

lip.

A pair of jointed maxillae A two-lobed lower lip, the

(e)

(d)

The female has

6.

a two-lobed lab rum.

lip,

pair of blackish horny mandibles, covered by

at the

an opening into the ground are

adults in every

called

way

end of the abdomen, four These are used for making

points called the ovipositor.

grasshoppers

below the mandibles, labium.

to receive the eggs.

nymphs, and

Young

resemble

the

except that their wings are unde-

veloped.

Count the segments of the abdomen.

7.

Observe

on each side of the abdomen a groove, and just above it

a

row of breathing

spiracles.

braneous depression on the

men. 8.

This

is

supposed

Observe the eye.

first

Observe the thin mem-

segment of the abdo-

to be the ear.

Perhaps you can

see that

it

is

made up of many divisions. The grasshopper has two compound eyes and three simple eyes. Try to find these. 9.

What

other

insects

belong to the

grasshopper

Are they injurious on the farm? How? Note. For killing insects, prepare a cyanide bottle as follows: Break potassium cyanide into small pieces and put into the bottom of a wide-mouthed bottle. Avoid the deadly poisonous fumes. Poiir over the family?

—

LESSONS IX AGEICULTUEE

30

pieces just enough water to cover them.

paris until the water

is

absorbed.

until the contents are dried

dropped into the

;

Add

plaster of

Leave unstoppered

then cork tightly.

bottle will die.

Keep

Insects

the bottle

from

children.

LESSON VI 2.

THE BUTTERFLY

Every country boy or girl knows the white cabbage and its associate, the sulphur butterfly. With a freshly killed specimen, take up the study as butterfly,

follows 1.

INIake

a drawing of the whole body, showing the

characteristic markings. 2. How many segments to the body? appendages from these segments?

3.

How

What

do the legs compare with those of

are the

tiie

grass-

hopper ? 4.

Write a descriptive sentence about each of the

following points of the wings: Action, shape, overlapping, scale-covering, and vein-structure. 5.

How many

like those of the 6.

which

With Answer

flower..

Are they

grasshopper?

Examine the mouth

coiled tube

7.

segments to the abdomen?

it

of the butterfly.

Find the

uses to obtain the nectar from the

and note its length. the following points on the observation

a pin uncoil

of a live butterfly

it

THE BUTTERFLY rnanner of

Its

(a)

31

flight.

The kind of food, and the manner of feeding. The natural enemies of the butterfly. The position of the wings when at rest. (d) What is the damage done by the cabbage but8. (b) (c)

terfly

?

should be remembered that the

It

the best friend

we have

common

toad

is

in the garden to rid the ca])bage

of this pest.

What

9.

is

the life-history of the butterfly?

question will be asked in connection with

we

shall

therefore eral

all

This

the insects

study a

gen-

answer should

probably be given to

make

clear.

this point

The

cab-

bage butterfly lays its eggs usually on "„ J, the lower surface

Fig.

,

of cabbage leaves. in color.

worms. for

Cabbage Butterfli

They are small and

After the worms have fed upon the cabbage leaves

some time, they spin from this

pod

is

mouths a

their

called the pupa.

usually found on old fences or posts.

pupa ruptures, and out, dries its

of a

new

are pale-yellowish

These hatch into larva, the so-called cabbage

around themselves; is

10.

pod

The pupa

In a short time the

a full-grown cabbage butterfly crawls

wings and

generation.

silken

flies

away

to begin the life history

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

32 10.

If

you can get a moth compare

with the but-

it

terfly as follows:

(a)

Difference in the feelers

(b)

Manner of folding the wings when Time of flying, day or night.

(c)

(antenna^).

(d)

Comparative

size of bodies.

Note.

—Butterflies

and moths belong

at rest.

to

this

order

of insects.

LESSON 3.

VII

THE FLY common

1.

Make

2.

Write a sentence on each of the following points,

a drawing of the

based upon your

own

house-fly.

observation of a live fly:

(b)

The rapidity of the wing motion, Its manner of eating.

(c)

Its favorite haunts.

(a)

3.

How many

the wings

and try

wings has the fly?

Look under

to find the little white knobs, called

the balancers. 4.

Note how rough and hairy the legs and feet of

Would they

the fly are. it

hold

filth

and

dirt so that

could be carried? 5.

How

does the abdomen of the fly compare with

other insects

we have studied?

Count the segments

of

the abdomen. 6.

The

life

history of the fly family

may

be studied

THE FLY

33

Expose out of doors a bit of may be laid upon it. The

easily in the schoolroom.

lean meat, so that the eggs

upon meat.

blue-bottle fly will lay eggs

Fill a tin can

box with sand, and on a chip in the center of

or

place the bit of meat with the eggs on glass tumbler over

down onto

it

Invert a

it.

and push the rim of the tumbler

it,

the sand to prevent the

In a few

escape of offensive odors.

hours the eggs will hatch, and in a

few days the grown.

larva

They

will

under the chip

be

fully

probably

crawl

will

change into pupse.

to

They may come out soon flies,

or they

in this its

may remain

as

adult

over winter

The house fly lays ^^^- H- the fly manure and filth and is transformed through

stage.

eggs in

the same stages of

life history.

Rules Against Flies 1.

Flies are very dangerous in the spread of disease,

therefore

we should not

allow any decaying organic

matter in which they can breed to accumulate. 2.

damp 3.

If the cellar

is

damp

clean

out

the

dark and

corners and apply lime.

Pour kerosene

with kerosene

all

into

the

drains

and

also

treat

waste materials not intended for fer-

tilizers. 4.

If the kitchen waste

is

deposited in large cans

it

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

34

should be removed at least once a week.

The cans

should have covers. 5.

Kitchen waste intended as food for hogs should

be removed and used daily. 6.

Haul out the manure and spread

every day, or put over the 7.

fields or

it

in a screened

it

on the

to be

soil

emptied

gardens at least once a week,

If inconvenient to haul the

vals, treat it

box

manure

at short inter-

with kerosene or gypsum.

work of destroying adult flies by the usual methods, and judiciously screen against them. Flies breed in filth they are among the worst agencies in the spread of typhoid fever, and every means possible should be used to banish them from our homes. 8.

Keep up

the

;

LESSON 4.

If

it

is

VIII

THE BUG

possible to catch a two-year cicada, some-

times called "dog-day harvest fly," or improperly, the locust, this will

make

of the true bug.

If

bug

the best specimen for the study

none of these can be

1.

Draw

2.

How many

squash

the view of the whole body.

wings are there?

bug that the front half of the wing the back half is membranous. 3.

got, a

will illustrate the characteristics of all bugs.

Note in the squash is

horny and that

Note the triangular prominence of the thorax on

the back.

THE BUG

35

4. Observe the mouth parts. What does the bug's mouth show as to its manner of eating? For what kind of locomotion are the legs 5.

adapted ? 6.

Find the eyes and

describing each.

L

^'i^

feelers.

Write a sentence

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

36

This

is

an injurious order of

sene emulsion spray

is

the

insects,

means

and the kero-

of combating in most

cases.

LESSON IX THE DRAGON FLY

5.

Both dragon and damsel

They

with a net.

flies will

have to be caught

are usually seen flying about ponds

or streams of water. 1.

Answer

the following questions from the observa-

tion of a living specimen

(b)

What What

(c)

How

(a)

is

their habit of flight?

is

their food?

do the dragon

fly

and damsel

fly

diflfer

in habits?

What

(d) 2.

is

the position of the wings at rest?

After killing the dragon

straighten

its

fly in

the cyanide bottle,

wings and legs and draw the whole body

view. 3.

How

do the legs compare with those of the grass-

hopper ? 4.

How many

wings are there?

Write a descrip-

tive sentence about them. 5.

Note

the

What would

enormous

this

indicate

Find the three simple

development

of

as to their habit

eyes,

and

tell

the

eyes.

of life?

where they are

located. 6.

Write a descriptive sentence about the abdomen. segments?

How many

THE DRAGON FLY 7.

Does the dragon

8.

The

life history.

They hatch

fly

have a sting?

— The eggs are laid in the water.

nymph, a form resembling the adult

into a

In this stage they

without wings.

37

in the water,

live

and feed greedily upon small water

insects.

At

this

stage they are benein eating

ficial

quito the

nymph

grown of

it

is

fully

crawls out

water

the

mos-

When

larva.

upon

some convenient rock or reed, Fig. 13.

feet down

The Deagon-Fly

fastens

firmly,

its

splits

the back, and

dragon fly crawls out, dries itself, and is soon ready to fly. The dragon fly is a beneficial insect, because it preys upon other insects that are pests to us.

the adult

LESSON X THE BEE

6.

1.

Answer

the following questions on the honey, or

biimble bee, based

upon

(a)

What kind

(b)

Is it

(c)

Does

(d)

What

(e)

Explain how

(f)

How

field

observation

of flowers does

shy while feeding? it

it

Will

feed upon? it

sting then?

stay long at each flower?

does

does

gather from the flower?

it

it

its

that of the butterfly?

helps the flower.

manner

of flight

compare with

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

38

Kill the bee in the cyanide bottle,

2.

and make a

drawing of the body. Note the large body in comparison

3.

Do you think that the wings wear many wings are there? Are the Try to

4. 5.

the

How

out easily?

Explain.

legs of the bee all alike?

find

to the wings.

mouth parts and the tongue.

"Write a descriptive sentence about them.

Can you

6.

see

any value in the hairy covering of

the bee's body?

Fig. 14.

Find the

7. is

Queen,

Drone.

Worker.

The Bee

sting of the bee

and remove

it.

There

a poison gland at the root of the sting, which pours

a fluid into the

wound made by

the sting, causing the

painful sensation with which every boy 8. is it

Where does made of?

9.

Life history.

second stage

is

the

bumble bee make

—The eggs are

is

its

familiar.

nest?

laid in the cells.

What The

the worm-like creature, the larva, lying

It must be fed, and it is a big eater. grown it spins a silken cocoon about itself and enters the next stage. The third stage is the pupa. Here it remains quietly concealed within

inactive in the

When

it

is

cell.

fully

THE BEETLE its

39

cocoon, over which the workers spread a thin layer

making a

of wax,

way through

cell of

it.

the top of the cell

After a time

it

cuts its

and comes forth a

fully

developed bumble bee. 10.

To

this order

belong the wasps, hornets, saw-

and honey bees. Note. If it is desired to make an extended study of the honey bee as an insect for farm use, write to Mr. Frank Benton, of the Division of Entomology, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for his Bee Book and other circulars.

flies,

gallflies, ants,

—

LESSON XI 7.

1.

Make

2.

How many

THE BEETLE

a drawing of the beetle.

wings has the beetle?

killed specimen in hand, extend the

wing-covers,

With

a freshly

two horny, sheath

which meet by smooth edges along the

middle of the back, completely covering the thin membraneous wings beneath.

Spread out

wings and make a drawing

to

all

four of these

show the wing arrange-

ment. 3.

parts.

Write a descriptive sentence about the mouth Are they made for sucking or biting and

chewing ? 4.

Write a sentence

telling of the size

and position

of the eyes. 5.

How many

the claws.

joints in the beetle's leg?

Describe

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

40 6.

How many

segments

in

abdomen?

the

Com-

pare the upper and lower surfaces. 7.

How

Find

do beetles live?

as

many

different

kinds as you can. 8.

Life history.

egg, larva, pupa,

— The beetle has and

all

the four stages:

The eggs

adult.

hatch

into

of the beetle

grub s, w

worms, borers,

i

r o

In this

etc.

damage and other

stage they do great to the crops, trees,

vegetation.

From

the

grub

stage they pass into a pupa

stage similar to all other

in-

The pupas are usually in the ground, from which emerge adult beetles. a. Larva, b. Adult. Fig. 15. Ground Beetle Most of the beetles are very injurious insects, the tiger beetles and lady beetles excepted, and, since they are usually chewing insects, sects.

the treatment

is a

lead arsenate or paris green spray.

Free Bulletins, U. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No.

S.

Dept. of Agriculture

— Spraying for Fruit Diseases. —Some Insects Injurious Stored Grain. — The Grain Smuts: Cause and Prevention. —Potato Diseases and Their Treatment. — Three Insects Enemies of Shade Trees. — Important Insecticides. 132. — The Principal Insect Enemies of Wheat. 146. — Insecticides and Fungicides. 171.— The Control of the Codling Moth. 172. — Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees. 38. 45. 75. 91. 99. 127.

to

196.— The Usefulness of the Toad. 212.— The Cotton Bollworm.

THE BEETLE

41

Spraying Mixtures for Plant Diseases (Bordeaux Mixture.) 5 lbs. unslacked lime

$0.04 30

3 lbs. copper sulphate at 10c

Total Dissolve each thoroughly in 25 gallons of water. Use wooden vessels. are thoroughly dissolved, mix. fully into spray-pump, barrel, or tank.

$0.34

When

both Strain care-

Lime-Sulphur gallons lime-sulphur 50 gallons water.

$0.20

11/4

For Leaf-Eating Insects Paris green to 50 gallons water. Spray. Cost \ $0.15 3 lbs. arsenate of lead to 50 gallons water. Cost $0.45 Asenafe of lead sticks to the plant much better than Paris green, and is therefore more useful, especially in rainy seasons. lb.

1/2

For Sap-Sucking Insects 2 gallons kerosene 1 lb. hard soap (1 qt. soft soap) 1 gallon

$0.25 10

water

Total cost

$0.35

Problems

Suppose

1.

it

takes two applications of two pounds

of lead arsenate each,

day

to destroy the

many to

at $1.00 per

bushels of potatoes at 50c per bushel will

pay 2.

and two days' time

bugs on an acre of potatoes, how it

take

for the treatment?

If one house fly lays 80 eggs four different times

during the summer, and half of these eggs hatch female

number of eggs as the and so on to four generations, how many flies would come from the first fly during the summer? I^ind out the average yield of honey from hives 3. in your community, and calculate the income from a flies,

each one laying the same

first fly,

hive of bees at the prevailing price paid for honey.

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

42

LESSON XII PLANT DISEASES Injury and control. the in

summer grew

attention

— Perhaps we have noticed during

that some of the plants

sickly

and

interested

died, in spite of all the care

We

we gave them.

that plants

we were

have diseases, just as people do.

blight, smut, rot,

and the

of diseases which

afflict

and

are told by the botanists

like,

are the

the plant.

plant to plant by means of

little

Rust,

common names

They spread from dust-like

particles

air and Here the spores may grow and injure the plant by living upon its sap. They must be destroyed or they may kill the plant upon which they feed. The various diseases caused by the

called spores. settle

These spores

float

around in the

on healthy plants.

spores are called fungous diseases.

common forms the

are the

smut of corn and

fire

Some

of the most

blight of the pear

oats, the rust of

and apple,

wheat, the potato

scab,

potato blight, peach leaf curl, apple scab, club

root,

black knot of plum, brown and bitter rot, and

many other kindred varieties. As soon as the diseases make

their appearance in the

orchards or on the crops, the farmer should begin his fight.

If the leaves of the trees begin to

dry up and

blacken with the blight, the affected parts should be off, at some distance below the blight, The lime-sulphur, or Bordeaux mixture, spray described in Lessons 11 and 64, are the spray

immediately cut

and burned.

remedies to use on most plant diseases.

PLANT DISEASES Practical Observation of

43

Exercises

Some Plant Diseases Bring samples of diseased plants to the school and 1.

fill

out the following outline as you study the speci-

mens

:

Common Names

of the Diseases.

^.

|

Plants Affected.

Soak the

Remedy.

Treating Oats for Smut

Bring a half bushel of oats sack."

|

oats,

to school in a ''gunny-

sack and

all,

for

about ten

minutes in a vessel holding ten gallons of water, to

which has been added one-fourth pint of formaldehyde

Then spread the

(40 per cent).

formaldehyde the oats,

kills

oats out to dry.

The

the spores of the smut that are on

and the crop coming from

this treated seed

would be a good service to the farmers if the school would treat all the seed oats in the community. will

be free from the disease.

It

Problems 1.

Suppose

it

takes 200 gallons of

to spray

an acre of potatoes.

mixture?

(See Lesson 11.)

2.

blight

Bordeaux mixture is

the cost of the

Suppose

it takes two applications to cure the and each application requires a day's time,

What is the How many bushels

worth $1.00. 3.

What

bushel, will

it

cost of the cure?

of potatoes,

at

50 cents a

take to pay the cost of this spray?

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

44

Suppose two

4.

owned by

fields of

potatoes of an acre each,

One farmer sprays

farmers.

different

to

cure the blight, and gets 188 bushels of potatoes, worth

The other neglects

50 cents per bushel. gets but

75 bushels.

What

his field

and

difference in the

the

is

value of the two crops?

What did What is

5.

spray?

Did

pay

it

6.

to

cost the first

it

farmer

farmer?

If formaldehyde costs 50 cents per pint,

how much

and will

a it

sowing three bush-

cost per acre to treat the seed oats,

7.

apply the

spray?

pint will treat 40 bushels of oats,

els to

to

his actual gain over the other

the acre?

Suppose

it

takes a day's work, worth $1, to treat

the seed for 12 acres,

what

is

the total cost of the treat-

ment? 8.

How many

bushel, will

it

bushels

of

oats,

at

30

take to pay for the treatment?

cents

per

Suppose

the treatment increased the yield 20 bushels per acre,

how much

does the farmer gain on his crop

LESSON

?

XIII

THE WHEAT CROP General

cultural

requirements.

in value in the

perate,

United States.

and warm

climates,

It does best in clay loam,

— Wheat

has

been

The crop ranks third

cultivated from the earliest times. It

grows in

cool,

tem-

and in many kinds of soil. and poorest in sandy loam.

WHEAT CROP The

must be well drained, and

soil

—that

45 in a good physical

must be open, crumbly, and mellow. made valuable for wheat by manuring, by good tillage, and by crop rotation. Cow peas or red clover make a valuable crop to precede wheat for condition

Hard

is, it

clay soils can be

;

they add nitrogen to the lation of air,

soil,

loosen

and add liumus

it,

allow free circu-

to the soil

under.

^^^^^^

-

-.

-«

when plowed

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

46

central states varies

week

to the first

from the second week

On

in October.

advisable to sow wheat as late as possible.

fly it is

seed drill

is

the best implement for sowing wheat.

amount of seed per acre required to get the depends upon a number of conditions, such tility of the soil,

The The

best results as the fer-

the condition of the seed bed as to

and moisture, and the

fineness

size

and quality of the

"With medium-sized seed of good quality on a

seed used.

well prepared fertile

be

September

in

account of the Hessian

soil,

six pecks per acre will usually

sufficient.

The

selection of

good seed

is

increasing the yield of wheat.

from the best portions of the

way

in such a

for sowing.

an important means of Seed should be selected

and cleaned and plumpest grains

crop, graded

as to get the largest

In Indiana, the highest yielding varieties

of wheat are the Ruby, Pearl's Prolific, Michigan

Amber,

Farmer's Friend, and Abundance.

Feeding the wheat crop.

—Wheat

responds to the

use of fertilizers more readily than most of the ordinary crops.

A

tilizer is soil

may

study of the crop will show what sort of fer-

needed.

If the straw

is

be deficient in nitrogen

inferior ;

but

if

luxuriant and the heads small and poorly

and

short, the

the straw be filled,

the soil

contain too little phosphoric acid and potash. Purdue Experiment Station recommends for wheat the application at seeding time of about 300 pounds per acre

may

of a fertilizer containing two per cent nitrogen, eight available phosphoric acid, ash.

and two to four per cent potmix his own fertilizer and

If the farmer wishes to

WHEAT CROP

47

thus save several dollars per ton, 200 pounds per acre of the following mixture is advised 900 pounds steamed bone meal, 300 pounds high grade acid phosphate, and 200 pounds muriate of potash. These may be purchased :

from

companies and can be easily mixed with

fertilizer

a shovel on the barn

The average yield but

little

floor.

for

wheat in the United States

over thirteen bushels per acre.

fact that the acreage of

wheat

is

decreasing,

population of the country increasing, there

alarm over the future bread supply.

is

In view of the

is

and the

occasion for

The future wheat

supply must come, not so much from increased acreage, as

from increased production per

acre.

Practical Exercises 1.

Take a walk stand

is

good.

Study of the Wheat Plant. into a

wheat

field.

Is there a luxuriant

the heads filled out well

?

Note whether the

growth of stem ? Have

Pull up a single wheat plant,

and stem. Take several wheat plants and a handwheat into the schoolroom. Make a drawing of the wheat and its root system. Separate your handful of wheat grains into two piles one containing the plump, large seeds, and the other, the smaller, inferior root

ful of

—

seeds. ^.

The StooUng Habit of Wheat

Plant a few wheat seeds in pots in the schoolroom, and after they have grown into stems and begun to fall over, dig out a few of the plants without breaking of the roots.

Volunteer wheat

may

off

many

be found growing

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

48

Try to find the grain from which the plant Find the first joint.

in the fic4ds.

started.

Do you joint

find

more than one plant starting from

this

?

All but the central one of these are stools.

Do

the stools seem to be as strong as the central plant

Does the thickness of the stand seem to

to

?

have anything

do with the amount of stooling ? Is the stooling greater in rich soil or in

Is a large

amount

of stooling desirable

3.

A Visit some

If practicable, visit

made.

poor

?

soil

Why

?

?

to the Mill

mill to see

how

Write a paragraph describing your

the flour

is

visit.

Problems 1.

How much

wheat

bushels per acre?

will

What

we have on our farm

will

it

at 30

be worth at the prevail-

ing price? 2.

Calculate what

it

will cost to raise this crop at the

What

present price of labor and seed and fertilizer. will be our profit 3.

At the

?

price of flour, will

it

pay the forty-acre

farmer to raise wheat, or buy the flour ? References: is Fed.

World

The Cereals in America. — Thos. Hunt. — Industrial Reader, Carpenter. Circular

Experiment Station, Lafayette, Ind.

How 23,

the

Purdue

OCTOBER On ter,

the Farm.

—While the trees are preparing for win-

shedding their beai^ifully colored leaves, we too

must prepare for the winter, by lars,

filling

our barns,

and granaries with the grains and

fields.

After the

silo is filled,

we

cel-

fruits of our

shall cut

and shock a

part of our corn, but the greater part we shall husk

and leave the fodder

in the field for

' '

stalk pasture.

Our

' '

apples will be piled in cool places until time to store in the cellar.

We

shall

have pumpkins to gather, po-

tatoes to dig, sauerkraut

and cider

vegetables to store away.

If there are

and trees month for

to

plant on the

farm,

to

make, and

any more shrubs

October

Of course, we shall daffodil, and crocus bulbs

this work.

hyacinth, tulip,

fall

a

good

set

some

for

early

is

spring flowers.

LESSON XIV SELECTING AND STORING SEED CORN The good farmer in husking his corn will have by him a special box or basket into which he can throw ears of corn selected from the stalk for next year's seed corn.

Position of ear on stalk. selecting an ear for seed

The ear should be

set

— The is

its

first

point to notice in

position on the stalk.

about midway up the 49

stalk,

not

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

50

The shank

too near the bottom nor too near the top.

that holds the ear should not to be too long, so that

On

holds the ear far from the stalk.

should not be so short that

upright against the

medium

size,

it it

causes the ear to stand

it

The

stalk.

the other hand,

stalk

should be

of

strong and tapering with strong brace

* and plenty of leaves. Shape of ear. The next point to observe is the genFor eral shape and development of each ear selected.

roots

—

the

first selection

of the corn in the field be governed

by the following points: 1. Length of ear, between eight and ten Circumference

2.

of

the

ear,

about

inches.

three-fourths

the length.

Rows

3.

of kernels, straight

and butt of the

to the tip

and running well out Kernels well shaped,

ear.

firmly set in place, deeply dented and all of the same

purity of color.

Governed by these points in the field selection of ears, may select more corn than is really needed for his seed, so that a closer selection and grading may

the farmer

be

made

in the spring before planting.

Storing seed corn.

hung by

either be

may

be,

the

corn,

it

should

made

narrow

strips with spaces

Whatever the device used

to store the corn

or be placed in racks

between.

—In storing

the husks torn back from the ear,

it

of

should provide for free circulation of air

about the ears, and a dry, cool place, protected from mice, rats

The

and poultry.

scoring,

judging,

and

final

testing

and

se-

SELECTING AND STORING SEED CORN lection

of

March, but

corn are treated

seed if

desired

at this time; in

may

which case

the

in

51

lessons

for

be taken up in the schools it

would be advisable

to re-

peat them in the spring.

Practical Exercises 1.

Observational Study of Stalls of Corn

Bring a half dozen stalks of corn into the schoolLet each stalk have its roots, leaves, ears and all

room.

^fff^ffff?***

^m^ima :<::'*:''

«

ttiiiiiiiiii.

Fig. 17.

complete.

Make

Reid's

Yellow Dent

notes of your observations of each

stalk on the following points: 1.

Leaf growth.

2.

Size

3.

Brace roots.

and vigor of

stalk,

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

53 4.

Height of

5.

Length of shank. Ear good or poor type.

—

6.

Farmers' Bulletin, No. 229.

Reference: 2.

Go

ear.

Selecting the Seed Corn in the Field

and

to a corn field in the vicinity of the school

select at least fifty desirable stalks of corn bearing the

ears as explained in the discussion above.

First select

the strong, medium-sized, stocky stalks having the ears

properly located and bending from the

enough of the ear selection

to

mentioned as

Husk

good standard.

see

Husk

stalk.

whether the other points of

(1), (2), (3) above, are

up

ten or twelve ears and take

to a

them

to the schoolroom for further study.

If

it

is

not practical to go to a corn

field,

a dozen

more stalks of corn should be brought into the schoolroom for a study of the points in field selection of seed or

corn.

Make

notes criticizing the stalks. 3.

Storing Seed Corn

Construct a swinging shelf in the attic of the school-

room by means feet long by one

of four wires foot wide.

and a board about the corn you have

Lay

lected for seed on this shelf, cording eral layers deep.

in the

Such a swinging

it

up

shelf

six se-

wood sevmay be made

like

barn or crib at the farm, and several bushels

of seed corn stored 4.

upon

it.

Selecting Exhibition Corn

Arrange for an exhibit day as a practical lesson under Each pupil should bring ten of the best ears

this topic.

SELECTING AND STOEING SEED CORN of corn he can select

from the home crop.

53

One very

important thing in choosing corn for an exhibit principle of uniformity.

on an exhibit,

alike as

which by careful measurement and comparison

Fig. 18.

Drying Rack fob Seed Coen

Arrange

are nearest alike.

brought to school, so as vantage.

parents

in,

to

all

the exhibits which are

show them

to the best ad-

See the lesson on corn judging and scoring.

Have some

outside person judge the corn, invite the

award

prizes, talk corn,

of the corn exhibit.

prize

must look

Pick out the best ten ears you can

nearly as possible. find,

the

In order to get a high rating

the ears in the set

all

is

and bring them

and make a great day

Save the ten ears that won to the

first

county and state corn shows.

—

LESSONS IX AGKICULTURE

54

5.

With

Field SUidies of the Corn

note-book, pencil,

and

rule,

go to the corn

field,

and answer from observations the following points: 1.

Name

2.

Date the corn matures.

3.

Average height of corn.

4.

Average number of leaves on a corn

number

of the variety of corn.

stalk; the

of joints.

5.

Length of ear shank on an average of ten plants.

6.

Husks abundant or scarce

7.

Number

;

;

close or loose.

of corn plants on an acre (10 rods x 16

rods). 8. 9.

Average height of ears from the ground. The number of ears of corn on the acre measured

number

the

of bushels on the acre. 6.

With an it,

Study of an Ear of Corn

ear of corn on the desk before you, describe

using the following outline 1.

Name

2.

Color of grain and cob.

of the variety.

3.

Surface, smooth or rough.

4.

Rows

of kernels; number, straightness, spacing,

and completeness. 5.

Grains, firm or loose.

6.

Shape of the

7.

Butt; even, shallow or deep.

8.

Tip exposed or covered, nature of kernel at tip. Kernels; square or rounded at top, shoe-peg or

9.

;

rounded form.

ear.

SELECTING AND STOEING SEED CORN

55

10.

Length and circumference of the

11.

"Weight of ear, of kernels, and of cob; per cent

ear.

of grain.

Number

12.

of kernels on the ear.

Problems

The corn crop for the

1.

last five

years in the United

States has been over 2,500,000,000 bushels a year.

much

is

2.

How

that for each person in the United States?

What

is

the value of this corn at the prevailing

price ? 3.

How much

corn was grown in your state last

year?

What was

of the

Department

(See Year Book

the yield per acre? of Agriculture.

If the school does

not have the latest copy, apply to your

member

of Con-

gress.)

LESSON XV THE BEST CORN IN THE COMMUNITY Practical Exercises

Let each pupil weigh out one bushel of corn in the ear at home,

and bring the weights

to school.

one copy the weights and data of

all

Then each and

the others,

tabulate the results as follows Pupils

Names.

lbs. Per ceut Lbs. of Variety. Overweight. Overweight. Underweight.

Weight of No. of Bushel.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

56

Problems

How much

1.

should we expect to gather from our

shown

ten-acre lot of corn as it

in Lesson

I,

and what

is

worth at the present price?

How many

2.

ears of corn will

it

take to

make a

bushel ?

How many

3.

bushels of corn in a

feet long, 3 feet wide,

and 27 inches deep,

wagon box 10 filled to

round-

ing and gauged by bushel measure 12x12x27 inches?

How many

4.

bushels of corn in a bin 10 feet long,

10 feet wide, and 10 feet high, using the same gauge?

LESSON XVI COLLECTION OF FARM PRODUCTS Practical Exercises

Try in the

to get small bundles of each of the grains raised

community,

viz.,

wheat, oats, rye, corn, cowpeas,

and any other crop raised for its seed. Pupils should each bring a few culms of these and a collection will soon be made. Each bundle should be labeled as clover,

follows

Name The

of plant.

Date of

seed,

put up

Name

of collector.

accompanied by samples of the

collection should be

mature

collection.

in

bottles

of uniform size,

and

labeled as above.

All the grasses and clovers used as hay lected in the

same way.

may

be

col-

Arrange the exhibit on the wall manner as possible.

or in a frame in as artistic a

A

day could be

set

apart

when

the fruits and vege-

CO

X X UJ

H

FEUIT GEOWING tables, as well as the

can be exhibited. thus making the

57

farm products of the neighborhood,

Awards and prizes might be offered, school a new center of interest in the

community.

As much of the collection as can be made permanent made so and kept at the school during the

should be term.

The

collection

j

and

arrangement

of

this

material

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

58

harvest of apples, peaches, and other fruits ripening in the

autumn

in our neighbors' orchards, to share in this

bounty by planting fruit trees on our own farms.

And

commendable resolution, for fruit is a most wholesome food, and the demands for it in the markets this

is

a

of the world are annually increasing.

Extension of orchards. fields,

— Many

hillsides

and

rolling

poorly adapted to grain culture would produce

profitable orchards of apples, peach, cherry, or smaller

FRUIT GROWING

59

Setting and caring for the orchard. reasons which

we

chard should be

—For

shall not discuss here, the

set

on high, rolling land.

various

young

After a

orsite

has been chosen, the land should be prepared as thor-

oughly as for a corn crop.

If

it is

not practical to plow

and dug for places in which to set It is best to buy trees at least one or two During this month the fruit planting.

the ground, large holes, about four feet in diameter

two the

feet deep, should be little trees.

years old for trees

may

be

set.

Follow the principles of planting

dis-

cussed in Lesson 72, and mulch the trees well with strawy

manure as they go into the winter. Apple trees should be set about forty feet apart each way, and peach trees from eighteen to twenty feet apart. They may be set in squares or in triangles. The triangular arrangement will give more trees to the acre. Just as the young forest described in Lesson 72 is plowed in the spring, so should the young fruit orchard be cultivated,

if possible.

After cultivating the fruit

orchard until the middle of June,

it

should then be sown

cow pea crop, which would act as a winter mulch for that season. Such care, together with the pruning and spraying that is discussed later, will start the young orchard well on the way to fruitfulness. The fruits. The trees may be divided into pome and

to a clover or

—

stone fruits.

The

apple, pear,

and quince are

called

pomes, because they contain a core in which are the seeds.

The cherry, plum, peach, prune, and apricot are

called stone or in a

drupe

hard stony

shell.

fruits,

because the seed

The grape

is

is

enclosed

our only vine

fruit.

LESSONS IN AGRJ CULTURE

60

Of the small fruits the currant, gooseberry, raspberry, blackberry, and dewberry, are commonly called the bush The strawberry is a fruits from their habit of growth. small fruit in a class by

itself.

Picking, marketing, and storing the fruit.

Fig. 21.

the apples

Harvesting Apples

and peaches are

fully pick

gathered for home

to be

use or to be sold on the market,

down and

it is

always best to care-

them from the trees rather than to shake them allow them to become bruised or injured.

Fruit with bruised or broken skin will rot

and

sell

—Whether

for less in the market.

much

sooner,

Apples and peaches

FBUIT GROWING

61

should be picked by hand and placed in baskets by the cool, well ventilated

Apples should be kept in a

pickers.

place until freezing weather before storing in the winter cellar.

Winter apples

will keep

ter condition if each fruit

some

sort.

is

wrapped

longer and in betin thin

paper of

Apples for the market are carefully graded

and packed

in attractive packages, either in barrels or

bushel boxes, and shipped to

and

much

parts of the country

all

to foreign lands.

Practical Exercises 1.

Types of Fruit

Let each pupil take an apple and a pear and ob-

1.

serve the blossom end, opposite the stem.

Here

is

a

This was the base of the

depression called the basin.

apple and pear blossom.

Compare with the blossom

end of the peach or plum.

Explain the difference.

Let each pupil cut the fruits through the center

2.

in a plane perpendicular to the

main stem.

the core, the cells and the seeds.

there?

How

are they arranged?

ment-like walls of the cell?

Make

How many

cells.

Examine cells

are

Observe the parch-

How many

seeds in each

a drawing of the cross section of the pear

or apple. 3.

Compare

the structure of the

with the apple seeds. of the pits. this

lies

or peach pits

shell-like covering

and observe the seed. the embyro, which will grow

Crack the

meaty portion

plum

Note the hard shell

new plant under proper conditions of air, moisture. Draw cross section of the peach.

a

heat,

In into

and

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

62

Answer

the following questions

What What

1. 2.

fruits

have a depression at the blossom end ?

fruits are

more or

less

round

at the blossom

end?

What common fruits have seeds ? What three common fruits have pits? How much space does the core take up

3.

4. 5.

apple

in the

?

How many cells in the core of the apple How do pits and seeds differ in structure ?

6.

?

7.

What

8.

fruit

are the general differen'^es between a

pome

and a drupe fruit?

References:

U.

S.

2.

Dept. Bulletin, No. 178.

Judging and Scoring Apples

Each pupil should bring four or five apples of the same variety to exhibit and use for scoring. The apples should be of standard size, all alike in shape, size, and color. Each apple should be free from insect, or fungous blemish, and as nearly perfect in every respect as it is

possible to find.

obtained, set

it

If only one plate of apples can be

before the class and let each pupil

mark

the score for the apples, using the following score card: Score Card for Judging Apples

Owner of

the exhibit

Points Noted.

Date

FEUIT GROWING

When may

63

single plates or apples are scored, the first point

be graded the full 20 points. Decay

^.

in

Apples

^Select three ripe apples of the

same variety and of

equal degree of ripeness, and bring them before the 1.

class.

Strike against the side of one so as to bruise the

surface but not break the skin. 2. 3.

Bruise the second apple so that the skin

broken.

is

Leave the third apple uninjured. away somewhere in the room

Place the three apples

where they will not be disturbed, and observe the from day to day. 1.

"Which apple decays

results

first?

Of what use is the skin of the apple ? 3. Take two apples of nearly the same size, and weigh both. Peel one and leave the other untouched. Weigh both apples again in twenty-four hours. Which 2.

has lost the most in weight

?

Explain the cause.

If there are no scales in the school, ask

Note.

some

pupil to bring his instrument from his home. Problems 1.

On

our farm

is

an apple orchard of three

acres.

If the trees are 40 feet apart, and are about 15 years

cash return should

old, wiiat

we expect from

the sale

of apples at $3.00 per barrel? 2.

What

orchard,

if

will

it

cost per acre to set out a

we have

to

pay 25c a tree?

young apple

Plant trees in

squares, 36 feet apart. 3.

Deduct from the price received above for apples,

the expenses of spraying, determined in Lesson 73, and

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

64

give the net profit

we

shall

have on our three-acre

or-

chard. References:

Bailey's Principles of Fruit Growing. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 178. Waugh's American Apple Orchard. Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 113 and 33. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 154.

LESSON XVIII NUT CROPS of as a

—

Nuts are not usually thought farm crop, yet every country boy and girl knows

Value of the nut crop.

autumn time without nuts would charm. Nuts are valuable food. They

that the its

nutritious,

and should always be counted

our winter's

store.

lose

much

are rich

of

and

as a part of

There are several kinds of nut trees

which are highly esteemed as ornamental shade

trees, as

well as for the valuable fruit they yield.

Some

of the leading kinds of nuts are English walnut,

almond, white walnut or butternut, black walnut, hickory nut, pecan, chinquapin, chestnut, hazel nut, cocoanut,

and Brazil nut. Nuts to plant.

— The planting of nut orchards

encouraged on the farm.

is

to be

Several varieties of valuable

nuts, such as the pecan, English walnut,

and hickory nut,

are widely adapted to temperate as well as sub-tropical

and should be planted on more of our farms. The pecan, especially such varieties as Mantura and Appomatox, the English walnut, and the little shell-bark or shag-bark hickory, have been successfully grown as far north as latitude 40°. If the boys and girls who read this lesson would plant a few nut trees this month, they regions,

CLASSIFICATION OF FARM CROPS

G5

would be rewarded, even before they were full grown men and women, by profitable and gratifying returns of a most delicious food. Practical Exercises 1.

Bring

Tabular Study of Nuts

to the school

samples of as

many

different kinds

you can find this month. Fill out the following table from your observation and study of these nuts of nuts as

Kind

of Nut.

|

Reference:

Nature

of Shells.

|

Kind

ol

Kernel.

I

Price in the Markets

Farmers' Bulletin, No. 332,

LESSON XIX CLASSIFICATION OF

FARM CROPS

Outline Beview

By

the end of October all the

farm crops for the year

have been planted and most of them harvested.

It will

be well for us to classify these crops into a few groups

by which they are commonly mentioned. The following outline should be copied into the pupils' note-books, and filled out as indicated I. Those crops which belong to the grass Cereals. family, and whose seeds are made into flour which is used for bread. 1

4

2

5

3

6

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

QQ

Legumes.

II.

Plants with blossoms similar to the

sweet pea and garden pea. 1

4

2

5

3

6

Crops having a slender or fleshy root

Roots.

III.

which

used for food both for

is

1

3

2

4 IV.

An

Tubers.

live stock

and man.

enlarged underground stem, used

for food. 1

2

V.

Bulbs.

petiole,

An

enlarged and thickened leaf-stock or

on which are thickened scale

1

VI.

leaves.

2

:

Fibre Crops.

Any

out of which cloth or rope

plant that furnishes material is

made

is

called a fibre plant.

3

1

2

VII.

Forage Crops.

for a good

many

crops.

The term forage crops is used It usually means those crops

that are used for coarse feed for live stock. 1

4

2

5

3

VIII.

...

6

Miscellaneous Crops.

Various other crops that

cannot be classified with the above. 1

4

2

5

3

6

NOVEMBER On

the

farm.— When the harvest

is

over and the

winter stores are properly put away, we shall look to

We

must decide what stock we The shall keep over winter and what we should sell. barns and sheds must be in good repair, the mows and silos full of feed, and fill conveniences possible provided for the care and feeding of the live stock. The most important work on the farm during the winter months is the stock on our farm.

the care

and feeding of the farm animals.

LESSON XX THE STOCK ON THE FARM The good farmer

He

has learned that

and that

it

costs

animal than

pays to take good care of his

no more in care and feed

to raise a

has also learned that

on the farm.

most cases avoids "scrub" stock.

in it

Farm

it

poor one.

stock,

to raise a

good

The successful farmer

pays to keep plenty of

live stock

animals are kept primarily to sup-

ply the demand for meat, milk, eggs, wool, and to furnish motive power for certain kinds of labor, but they also

make

after year,

possible a larger production of grain year

and a complete

utilization of everything

grown

on the farm, besides returning to the farm a large percentage of the feed in the form of valuable fertilizers. 67

68

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

—

Feeding farm animals. Animals must be fed make them grow, to keep them warm and active, and furnish special products, such as milk, eggs, wool,

to to

etc.

Animals must be fed regularly and with the proper food in sufficient quantities.

storms of

summer and

Shelter against the heat and

the cold of winter must go along

THE STOCK ON THE FAEM sicken,

and

die.

good care of

No one can

it

pays

to take

stock.

Value of good stock. costs

doiiht that

69

—

takes no more

It

room and

no more in food and care to raise a good farm ani-

mal than

it

A

does to raise a "scrub."

scrub cow eats

much hay, takes as much stable room, and requires as much work to care for as a cow of good breeding, and as

Fig. 23. it

A Heed of Jerseys

has been shown that the scrub cow does not pay for

her keep.

A scrub

a scrub cow; for as

much

it

colt or a

eats as

scrub sheep

much

or more,

as a good animal.

And

is

no better than

and

will not sell

a "hazel-splitter"

hog certainly requires as much food and care as a genuine "porker." are convinced that

If the pupils it

who read

this lesson

pays to keep good stock instead of

scrubs, the purpose of the lesson is already attained.

Free Bulletins, U. No. 41. No. 51. No. 64. No. 100.

S.

Dept. of Agriculture

— Fowls: Care and Feeding. — Standard Varieties of Chickens. —Ducks and Geese: Breeds and Management. — Hog Raising in the South.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

70 No. No. No. No.

141. 179. 200. 205.

Extracts.

— Poultry Raising on the Farm. — Horseshoeing. — Turkeys Breeds and Management. —Pig Management. — Some Practical Suggestions for the Suppression and :

No. 1.5. Prevention of Bovine Tuberculosis.

Table showing value of manure, per head, produced, annually by farm animals: Horse

$27.00

Cow Hog

19.00 12.00 2.00

Sheep

Table showing value of manure, per animal, saved annually from animals by the average farmer: Horse $10.00

Cow

6.00 4.00

Hog Sheep

75

Practical Exercises

The practical lessons on farm animals will be given and numbered as separate lessons in this series. Note.

•

LESSON XXI THE DRIVING HORSE

By comparing

the horses Ave see on the road,

observe that there are different forms or types.

we can Some

have a form that enables them to draw a heavy load at a slow pace, while others

drawing

have a form adapted to

light loads at a rapid pace.

These represent

two distinct types, and are called draft horses and driving horses.

In this lesson we are to study the driving horse.

You

will observe that the driving horse has a long graceful

neck, a

narrow

chest, long

body and

legs.

In this horse

THE DRIVING HOESE

71

not so important as in the draft horse.

Speed and endurance seem to be the principal points sought The driving horse varies widely in in the roadster. height and weight. The following points any school boy should recognize weight

is

in a good driving horse

Fig. 1.

The

The dark

color

A General Purpose Horse

24.

is

not so important in this type of horses.

colors are generally preferred.

2.

Geldings are to be preferred.

3.

The horse should be

fifteen to sixteen

hands high

at the withers. 4.

Conformation.

The horse should be harmoni-

LESSONS IN AGKICULTURE

72

ous, unblemished, withers rather low,

and

loins slightly

weak, but powerful croup, thighs, buttocks, legs and hocks are essential.

The neck should be

5.

long, chest large

and deep,

limbs clean and long, and muscles and joints showing graceful prominence.

The animal should have good

6.

life,

and not be

afraid of ordinary objects.

The teacher should study the following score card light horses, and if the proper explanations be

for

.

made, pupils of the eighth grade will be able to mark the card

and

score the horse fairly well

Have a horse before the class for The class should gather about

this lesson.

the horse, with this

book in hand, and opened at the score card. pil

Each pu-

should read each point of the score card, then look

at the horse to see

Mark

how

it

measures up to the description

grade you would give on each point, opposite the perfect grade given on the score card.

given.

lightly with lead pencil the

THE DEIVING HOKSE

73

Score Card for Light Horse PerfectI Score.

Description.

Frame

evenly ——Smooth, Bone clean and

proportioned hard, tendons well deveins prominent, skin and hair fine Temperament Active but kind Head Lean and symetrical Forehead Full and broad Eyes Large, clear, open, and bright Ears Close together, medium in size, pointed to carry well forward Muzzle Clean and fine, nostrils large, lips thin Quality

fined,

— — — — — — and even Neck — Muscular, crest high, windpipe prominent. Shoulders — Long, oblique, well muscled Arms — Short, thrown forward Fore-arms — Long, wide Knees — Wide, straight, and clean Cannons — Short, wide, sinews large Fetlock — Wide, straight degrees. Pasterns — Strong, angle with ground horn dense, frog Feet — Medium and even in large, elastic, bars strong, sole concave, heel wide Legs —Viewed in front, a perpendicular from point of shoulder should cut the center of knee 4.5

size,

cannon, pastern and foot viewed from side, a perpendicular from center of elbow should cut the center of knee and pastern joint and the back of hoof Withers Well finished and muscled at top Chest Deep, low, large Ribs Long, sprung, close

—— — Back — Straight, short, broad, well muscled Loin — Wide, short and thick Underline — Short, straight Hips — Wide, level Croup— Long, wide, muscular Tall — Attached high, well carried Thighs — Muscular, long, and spread Quarters — Deep and heavily muscled Gaskin — Muscular, long and wide Hocks — Clean, wide, straight Cannons — Short, wide, and clean Fetlocks — Wide, straight Pastern — Strong, sloping Feet — Same as fore feet Legs — From behind, perpendicular from point

of

buttock cuts center of hock, cannon, pastern foot; from side, perpendicular from point of hip should fall on center of foot and divide gaskin in the middle and perpendicular from buttock should be parallel with cannon.. Action Walk quick, elastic, trot rapid, straight, regular and high

and

—

4 20 I

Total

.J

^100

Students' I

Score.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

74

LESSON XXII THE DRAFT HORSE Have a

draft horse in the school yard for this lesson.

Note the short

legs,

heavy body,

short,

thick neck,

broad, deep chest and shoulders, strong hocks and rather large joints

and

feet.

With

the draft type weight

A

of the most important considerations.

may weigh from

o^e

The heavy

2,000 pounds.

1,500 to

is

draft horse

horse in harness brings greater power into the collar

than does the light one.

There are several different breeds of draft horses.

The

Pereherons,

Shires are the

Belgians,

common

Clydesdale,

and

English

breeds.

The following points any school boy should recognize in a good draft horse 1.

The

2.

bay, chestnut, brown,

best selling colors are:

roan, black,

and iron gray.

Body conformation,

muscular, short-flanked,

massive, low-set, ample, very cylindrical,

limbs, good feet, good face, ardor, 3.

The horse should be

large

and broad

and endurance.

at least sixteen

hands high

at the withers. 4.

The animal should be sound, and the following

blemishes should always be in mind in examining a horse:

Sweeney,

Spavin, curb, thorough-pin, sidebones, splints,

sprung knees,

faulty

hoofs,

poor eyesight,

string halt, poor wind, parrot mouth, blindness, etc.

The horse should have good life but be gentle. While the horse is present for this lesson, some interesting and profitable measurements may be made. 5.

THE DRAFT HORSE which should teach the pupils

75

recognize good pro-

to

portions in the horse.

Three important points for measurements of the head,

total

are, length

length of the body, and the total

height of the body.

Fig. 25.

A Perciieron Team

Use an ordinary tape measure

in this

part of the

exercise. 1.

The height of the

horse,

from the top of the

withers to the ground. 2.

The height

of the

horse from the hips to the

ground. 3.

to the 4.

Length of the body from the point of the elbow back of the buttock.

The length

It will

of the head.

be found in a horse of good proportions that

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

7C the

three measurements each equal about two and

first

one-half times the length of the head.

we take

If

compare

it

the total length of the horse's head, and

with the body of a well formed horse, we

find that there are

will

most exactly equal

The length

1.

to

from the top of the withers

much

difference between these

measurements, we say that the head neck

is

al-

as follows

it

of the neck

If there is

to the poll.

four other measurements

is

too long or the

too short.

The height of the shoulder from the top of the

2.

withers to the point of the elbow.

The thickness of the body from the middle of If there is a the abdomen to the middle of the back. great variation in these measurements, we say the horse 3.

has poor form.

The width

4.

A

of the

body from one side

to the other.

measurements of

better instrument for taking the

a horse, as suggested by Mr. Harper in the Cornell

Rural School

A

Leaflets, is as follows:

piece of soft

white pine two inches wide, one-half inch thick, and four feet long it,

;

to one

end of

this,

and

at right angles to

tack a similar piece of pine 18 inches long; to the

other end strap loosely an ordinary carpenter's square so that

it

may

slide

back and forth.

Now mark

off

the

long piece into inches, beginning at the inside of the right angle. '

Ay gather your reins and crack And bid your steed go faster He does not know as he scrambles

'

!

That he has a

fool for a master.''

your thong. along.

— Holmes.

THE DEAFT HORSE

77

The Horses' Plea Please give us water often. Please give us a moment's rest on the

Please do not overload us. Please do not use the whip.

^^J

We

way up

the

hill.

are doing our best.

It is

seldom necessary.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTUEE

78

LESSON XXIII THE DAIRY COW For this lesson bring a dairy cow into the school yard, and as the class observes the cow the teacher should speak briefly upon the following points. Cattle are kept for two main purposes for the production of milk and for the production of beef. These two purposes make different demands upon the energies ;

Fig. 27.

A Typical Jersey Cow

of the animal, and thus through many generations of selection and development, there have arisen two types of cattle, the beef form or type, and the milk form or These two forms are not entirely distinct or type. separate, but they tend to merge into intermediate forms. The chief differences that distinguish the beef and

dairy types are 1.

Outline of bodv-

THE DAIRY COW 2.

Depth and smoothness of

3.

Size of udders.

79

flesh.

In the dairy type the general outline of body

wedge-shaped from before backward. a large to

is

is

due

is

to

development of the hind quarters, and sometimes

The height of the animal

low thin shoulders.

hip

This

from one-half

shoulders.

to

The wedge-shaped appearance

is

increased

<jU»^

Fig. 2S.

at the

one inch greater than at the

0g^

a Typical Holsteix Cow

by a large and pendulous abdomen, and by a large and well developed udder.

In the dairy type there

is

less

muscular development and more spare, angular appearance.

The animal may be

fat

enough and

still

present

this spare appearance.

In the dairy type the udder

much

than in the beef type, and the

larger

and

fuller

so-called "milk-veins" stand out prominently.

is

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

80

The dairy breeds are the Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire, Holstein, etc.

While the cow

is

before the class the pupils should

each score the animal, using the following score-card,

which explains how the points should be marked: Score Card for Dairy Cows student's

Name

Date Weight .

Age

Breed

IPerfectl Score.

Description.

I

General

— —

Wedge shaped, viewed from front, side and top Hair and skin fine and mellow, skin loose and thin Temperament Nervous Head and Neck Muzzle Large and clean, nostrils large Eyes Large, brilliant full and mild Face Dishing and lean Forehead Broad Bars Medium in size, fine in texture, with no Form

.

I

j

Quality

—

— — — —

—

long,

8 |

|

1

I

1

|

1 I

—— Forequarters Withers — Short, lean and thin Shoulders— Light, lean and oblique

1

Horns Waxy, small, and fine in texture Neck Fine, clean, with little or no dewlap....

— Short, — Deep, Bowel Ribs Legs

straight and

fine

I

Body

Chest

wide, girth large arched, long, and wide apart; stomach large and roomy Back Straight, lean; spines prominent and

—

— wide

apart Loin Broad Navel Large HindquartersHips Far apart,

—— — Rump — Long

level

|

I

level

I

—

I

Pinbones and Thurlis High, prominent Tail Reaching to hocks, fine

wide

apart,

and

—

I

1

I

Thighs— Thin, long

— High and spreading Udder — High behind, extending well Escutcheon

quarters even; udder not fleshy front;

teats

1

|

coarse hair

1

forward

evenly

in

placed;

I

|

|

I

Students' Score.

THE BEEF COW

81

LESSON XXIV THE BEEF COW This lesson should follow Lesson 23, so that the comparison of the two types clearly.

The

may

be brought out more

chief characteristics of the beef

cow are

as follows:

In the beef form the outline of the body approaches the rectangular.

bottom line

is

The general contour of the top and

straight

and

FiG. 29.

parallel,

and the general

Beef Type

mensions of the body approximate those of a brick. the best beef animal the

smoothly covered with

whole body

flesh,

bones are not prominent.

is

is

thickly

In

and

so that the angles of the

The neck

whole body has a rounded appearance. not only

di-

is

short,

and the

In the beef type,

the udder small, but the veins leading

from

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

82 it

are small

and more or

embedded

less

in the surround-

ing muscular and fatty tissue.

The

principg[l

breeds are

:

Aberdeen- Angus, Gallo-

ways, Shorthorn or Durham, Hereford, Sussex,

etc.

Use the following score card and judge the points in the

animal before the

class

Score Card for Beef Cattle student's

Name

Description.

Date

THE BEEF COW

83

LESSON XXV THE SHEEP well to emphasize the study of this

and it would be farm animal. Dis-

cuss the following points about sheep

:

Sheep raising

is

especially profitable,

Fig. 30. 1.

A Southdown Ewe

Sheep are found in almost every

latitude,

and

they can find sustenance and thrive where other animals

can scarcely 2.

are 3.

live.

Sheep provide

among

man

with meat and clothing, and

the most profitable of animals.

Sheep

increase

rapidly,

mature

early,

furnish

wholesome food, and improve the land on which they are pastured.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

84 4.

Sheep are

docile,

rather easily handled, live on

a great diversity of food, and require

any other kind of 5.

less

grain than

live stock.

Enough food

is

wasted on the ordinary farm to

maintain a small flock of sheep.

Sheep may l)e divided into two classes, wool breeds mutton breeds. Of the wool breeds, American and 6.

Fig. 31.

]Merino, Delaine Merino,

A Cotswold Ewe

and Rambouillets are the stand-

ard types.

Of the mutton

breeds. Southdown, Shropshire,

Horned

Dorset, and Cheviot are the standard types.

Open

the fleece of the sheep and observe the clean

skin in which the fibres grow.

These

fibres are so

rough

that they keep the dirt to the outside.

Wool

is

valuable in proportion to the length and

evenness of the fibre and the density of the

Answer the following

questions:

fleece.

THE SHEEP

How many

1.

85

pounds ought a

of

fleece

wool to

weigh ?

Which makes

2.

the better clothing, coarse or fine

wool? 3.

Why

4.

Does cold weather trouble sheep.

are sheep washed before shearing

?

Wet weather?

Use the following score card and mark the score for each sheep before the class Score Card I

Scale of Points.

Age

I

ard.

Teeth

....

Mutton Sheep. Stand- Students'

I

I

A.

— Sheep Score.

I

Fine Wool Sheep. Stand- Students' ard.

I

I

Appearance —Estimated

B. General

Weight

Actual to age

Form,

lbs.

|

I

symmet-

compact,

low,

|

according

lbs.

I

Quality, bone and wool fine Constitution, in girth, as seen

I

and fleece Head and Neck.

skin, C.

Muzzle, Eyes, Face,

size;

bright,

7

10

I

full,

nostrils

whites

clear.] ]

broad

|

erect thick, short

fine,

Neck,

6

thin

lips

short

Forehead, Ears,

I

mouth and

fine;

good

of

6

;

rical

I

'

D. Forequarters. Shoulders, smooth, well covered.] Chest, wide, deep Brisket, thick and carried well

|

I

|

forward

4

|

3

|

LiCgs, straight, short, strong, well set,

arm

full,

shank smooth..

I

J

E. Body.

Back and Loin

I

straight and wide.

I

Ribs well sprung, deep

Flanks

making

low,

I

straight

underline

Length Yolk

good

Total

Animal Owner. Date.

.

|

|

Hips well apart, smooth long, level, wide Thighs full Twist plump, deep Legs straight, short, strong; shank smooth G. Wool. soft,

|

3

I

I

Rump

fine,

S

4

|

F. Hindquarters.

Quality Density

3

clean,

i

4 .5 .5

!

I

4

|

3

even....

3 3 3

great I

I

1

100

I

Breed Student .

Grade

of Stud.ent

I.

Score.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

86

LESSON XXVI THE HOG For

this lesson go to see

some good breed of hogs, or

have a good specimen brouglit to the school yard.

The

first

point to mention

adaptation to the

and and

the hog's structural

is

he leads.

life

The skeleton

is

heavy

low, allowing great accumulation of weight in flesh fat.

The snout

and the eyes are

is

set

strong and tough for rooting,

below the

ears,

indicating his

ground-feeding habits.

The chief value of the hog is its production of meat, and if properly cared for, it will bring the farmer more money than any animal on the farm. The most desirable type of hog has short legs, ^eavy shoulders, small dished head, straight back and straight under-lines, and heavy hams. The "razor back" hogs are very unprofitable, and will not gain so rapidly under feeding.

The following are some standard breeds of hogs 5. Poland-China 1. Chester White 2.

Yorkshire

6.

Duroc-Jersey

3.

Tamworth

7.

Cheshire

4.

Berkshire

8.

Victoria.

Hogs pens.

will

do better when kept as

But when they are kept

most important

to

little

as possible in

in pens, cleanliness

is

reduce the danger of disease.

Score the hog, using the following

marking the points

score-card

and

THE HOG

87

—Hog

Score Card

I

[Standard

Scale of Points.

|

Students' Score

GENERAL APPEARANCE — 30 1.

Points: score according to age deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical,

Weight,

2.

Form

3.

compact, standing squarely on legs Quality, hair silky; skin fine; bone fine; mellow covering of flesh, free from lumps

and wrinkles 4.

deep, even covering of Hesh, region of valuable cuts mild, quiet S Points: Snout, medium length, not coarse Eyes full, mild, bright cially

5.

espe-

Condition,

in

Temperament

HEAD AND NECK— 6. 7.

8. 9.

10. 11.

Face short, cheeks full Ears fine, medium size, attached neatly Jowl strong, nest broad, firm

Neck

thick,

medium

length,

smooth

to

shoulder

FOREQUARTERS— 12 12. 13. 14.

Points: Shoulder broad, deep, full, compact on top

Breast advanced, wide Legs straight, short, strong;

bones

clean;

pasterns upright; feet medium size Points: Chest deep, broad, large girth and close full; ribs lengthy, Sides deep, well sprung Back broad, straight, thickly and evenly

BODY — 32 1.5.

16. 17.

fleshed

Loin wide, thick, straight Belly straight, even HINDQUARTERS 18 Points: 15. 19.

20. 21.

—

Hips wide apart, smooth

Rump

long,

level,

wide,

evenly

fleshed,

straight

22. 23.

Ham

fleshed, plump, full, deep. wide.. Legs straight, short, strong; bone clean, pasterns upright; feet medium size iieavily

Total

Animals Student

Answer the following questions: 1. At what age marketed? 2.

Average weight then?

3.

Average price?

4.

Symptoms of hog cholera? Good preventives?

5. 6.

pay

At the present price

of corn

and hogs, would it it by the bushel?

better to feed corn to hogs or sell

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

88 7. 8.

9.

How

How many

and what breeds in your community

Do hogs like pasture ? What do hog raisers expensive

cattle or horses

is

generally

this feed as

?

feed the hogs?

compared with feed for

?

Problems

A

cow requires about 4 feet by 9 feet floor space for a stall, with 4 feet by 3 feet additional for a manger. 1.

How much

floor space will be required for

Fig. 32. 2.

Will

it

A Poland-China

'Prize

20 cows?

Winner

be better to stand the cattle in one long

row, or in two rows of 10 each? 3.

two rows, would you have them face each

If in

other with the 4.

What

coAvs in

face the wall?

Why?

dimensions of a barn for 20

two rows of 10 each, using the

in the first 5.

manger between, or

will be the

floor space given

problem?

Draw

a plan of this barn with cows facing each

THE HOG

89

With the cows facing the wall. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each plan? other.

How many

6.

feet of 2-inch

plank will

Find

lay the floor in this barn?

cost of

take to

it

same at

$25.

per thousand.

What

7.

will be the cost of a

cement

floor for

same at

10 cents per square foot?

Will "scrub" cattle require the same room?

8.

In the following examples do not forget to add

Note.

the value of the

manure produced

to the values of the

product

hay worth $6 per

ton,

1,000 lbs. of ground feed worth 80 cents per ewt.,

and

cow

If a

9.

eats 3 tons of

pasture amounting to $5 in a year, what does

farmer

to

it

cost a

Will a "scrub" cow cost as

keep a cow?

much? 10.

A

"scrub" cow

will give 15 lbs. of milk,

worth

80 cents per cwt., daily for 300 days in the year, and

worth

raise a calf

$3.

What

is

the farmer's profit on

her? 11.

A

Jersey cow will give 25

the same time

and

raise

lbs.

of milk daily for

a calf worth $5.

What

is

the farmer's profit on her? 12.

How much

than on the 13.

If

it

' '

scrub

more does he make on the Jersey ' '

?

costs 2 tons of hay,

worth of pasture annually

40 bu. of oats and $6

to raise a colt,

cost to raise a horse 4 years old with

and

oats at 30 cents per bu.

?

hay

what does

it

at $5 per ton

LESSONS IN AGEJCULTURE

90

A

14.

farmer

A

15.

"scrub"

coach horse will bring $150 instead.

If

it

is

the

takes 3 tons of hay worth $6 per ton, 50

worth 25 cents per

bu. oats

bu.,

and $10 worth of pasture

keep 10 sheep for a year, what

of wool worth 20 cents per

weight about 50

cwt.,

What

what

lbs.

is

the cost per head?

will shear about

If one ''scrub" sheep

17.

will

What

Which

profitable animal?

16.

to

the

and how much!

has the farmer gained or lost on this colt ?

more

Has

bring about $80.

colt will

lost or gained,

lb.,

and

raise a

4

lbs.

lamb that

and bring about $3.50 per farmer?

will the entire flock return to the

Will he gain or

will each sheep return?

lose,

and how much ? 18.

If of a good breed, each sheep will shear about

8 lbs. of wool

and

raise a

worth $5 per

cwt.,

what

lamb weighing about 70 will this flock return?

lbs.,

Wh^t

will each sheep return? 19.

How much

per head will be the farmer's gain

on a well-bred flock ? 20.

bu. six

If

it

takes 12 bu. of corn worth 35 cents per

and $3 worth of other feed months old, what is the

to raise a pig until

it is

of the pig to

the

cost

farmer ? 21. If a "scrub," it will weigh about 125 lbs. at six months and bring $4 per cwt. Will the farmer gain oi

lose? 22.

If a Poland-China,

it

and be worth $4.75 per cwt. Will the farmer gain or

lose,

will

weigh about 200

What

is

lbs.

the pig worth?

and how much?

FEEDS AND FEEDING 23.

How much

more

91

will the blooded pig bring

on

the market than the scrub?

LESSON XXVII FEEDS AND FEEDING Purposes of feeding.

—We

live stock to repair the

have learned that we feed

waste in their bodies, to make

them grow, to keep their bodies warm, to furnish energy for work, and to make special products milk, eggs, wool, and the like. All animals wear out their muscles by work and exercise, and must have food to repair this waste or they will grow thin and poor. The harder the horses work, the more they must be fed. Young animals that are growing must not only eat to repair the waste, but they must have food to make them grow larger. The bodies of animals are kept warm by the food they eat. The strength of the horse and its power to do work must come from the food it eats. The food builds up the muscles, and strong muscles are necessary for work. Just as the fuel and water make the engine go, so food furnishes the heat and energy to "make the mare go." In

—

addition to

all

these reasons for food, the dairy

have food out of which to make milk. gets

When

cow must

the pasture

"short" in the summer, we notice the milk supply So, too, the sheep must have an extra supply

runs low.

of food out of which to special food

from which

make wool, and the hen to make eggs.

Kinds of food needed.

—Farm

factory, producing materials that

requires

animals are a sort of

we

need.

The horse

LESSORS IN AGRICULTURE

93

a power house

cow is a milk factory the sheep, a wool factory; the hen, an egg factory, and the hog, a meat factory. In order to get these products from our animal factories, we must feed them the raw materials from which they can make these products. Herein lies the problem of the whole system of stock feeding. The farmer must determine the best and most economical food is

;

the

;

produce the desired results. Foods are divided into three classes: fats, protein, and carbohydrates. The following are examples of these to be used in order to

foods

Fat meats, butter, under the

example of protein.

and all kinds of The white of an egg

lard,

class of fats.

The

oils, is

come

the best

sticky part of flour, the princi-

pal part of cheese, lean meat, glue, hides, hair, wool, and

and vegeThe fats are usually included under carbohydrates also, and may thus be feathers, are largely protein.

Starch, sugar,

table fibre are the carbohydrates.

considered in these lessons. Carbohydrates are foods containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in combination.

The protein foods

differ

from the carbohydrates

in that

they contain nitrogen in addition to other elements.

—

Balanced rations, All the common stock foods have more or less of the three kinds of materials mentioned above fats, protein, and carbohydrates. A balanced ration is one that has the proper amount of protein and

—

carbohydrates to secure the animal product desired.

The balanced ration usually given for a dairy cow and a work horse is one in which there is about six

FEEDS AND FEEDING times as

much carbohydrates

93

A

as protein.

"wide"

a

"narrow"

The

ration, less.

how much dry

lesson shows

table at the

of the

Special uses foods

make

bone, blood,

different

If muscle

for the body.

foods must be fed.

foods.

is

and

stuffs.

— The

protein

The carbohydrates

and muscles.

are the fat producing foods.

end of the

matter, fats, protein,

carbohydrates are in the different feeding

ra-

and

tion contains a larger proportion of carbohydrates,

Carbohydrates make heat

to be built up,

then protein

upon corn

If the horses are fed only

and timothy hay in the summer, they are getting too much fat and heat producing food, and not enough musCorn and timothy are rich in carcle forming food. bohydrates. Oats and clover hay are rich in protein food material. In the spring it is muscle and energy that is wanted and not heat and fat. Protein foods are also required to produce wool, milk, and eggs. Young growing animals should be fed plenty of protein food, with mineral matter in

foods there

is

it,

form bone and muscle.

to

plenty of carbohydrates; the difficulty

to get the protein food in the

find the total stuff,

as

amount

proper balanced ration.

much

One pound of fat pound

heat as one

"nutritive ratio" bohydrates.

To

total

and add

will

produce

to the car21/4

times

carbohydrates.

The

the proportion of protein to car-

find the nutritive ratio of

amount of carbohydrates amount of protein.

divide the total

by the

is

21/1,

of

is

To

any feeding

of carbohydrate in

multiply the fats given by

bohydrates.

In most

any

ration,

in the ration

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

94

Practical Exercises

Note.

The

practical exercises on this subject follow

as separate lessons.

LESSON XVIII TEST FOR FOOD COMPOUNDS To

(a)

test for the

bohydrates as corn,

presence of starch in such car-

oats,

pour over them a

seeds,

wheat, or rye, pulverize a few little

boiling water, let stand

a short time, and add a drop of iodine.

If the seeds

contain starch the water will turn blue or black in a short time. tected

If the seeds contain sugar

it

may

be de-

by chewing them slowly and thoroughly.

A

sweet taste will indicate the presence of sugar.

To

(b)

test for protein,

kernel of corn and scorch off

remove the germ from a on the

it

stove.

the odor like that of burning feathers,

protein.

If it

it

gives

contains

Test other seeds

All seeds contain protein.

for protein. (c)

To

test for fats or oil,

piece of clean white paper.

ing careful not to scorch

it.

crush seeds or nuts on a

Heat the paper gently, beThe grease spot that ap-

pears will indicate the presence of It

oil.

might be a profitable exercise

of feeding stuffs,

carbohydrates.

and

classify

them

to

make

collections

into fats, protein,

and

RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS

95

LESSON XXIX DETERMINING RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS The following formula

illustrates the

method of

find-

ing the nutritive ratio

Carbohydrates+ ( fat X 2.25 :=nutritive ratio.

protein

For example, suppose we wish ratio of the following ration:

to find the nutritive

(Horse weighing 1,000

pounds, doing medium work.)

Timothy hay

15 pounds

Corn

10 pounds

Cotton-seed meal

3

pounds

Solution

In 100 pounds of timothy hay there

dry matter, fat.

2.8

protein,

(See table below.)

In 15 pounds hay there are 15-100 of 86.8 dry matter, 13.02 pounds. 15-100 of 2.8 protein, .42 pounds. 15-100 of 43.4 carbohydrates, 6.51 pounds.

15-100 of 1.4

fat, .21

pounds.

In 10 pounds corn there are 10-100 of 89.1 dry matter, 8.91 pounds. 10-100 of 7.9 protein, 7.9 pounds.

10-100 of 66.7 carbohydrate, 6.67 pounds. 10-100 4.3

fat, .43

is

43.4 carbohydrates,

pounds.

In 3 pounds cotton-seed meal there are 3-100 of 91.5 dry matter, 2.74 pounds. 3-100 of 38.1 protein, 1.14 pounds.

86.8 lbs.

and

1.4

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

96

3-100 of 16.0 carbohydrate, .48 pounds. 3-100 of 12.6

fat, .378

pounds. I

I

Timothy, 15

lbs

Corn, 10 lbs Cottonseed meal, 3 lbs.

Dry matter 13.02

I

I

1

Protein

|

Carbohydrate

RATIONS FOE FAEM ANIMALS Free Bulletins, U.

S.

97

Dept. of Agriculture

Farmers' Bulletins. No. 22. The Feeding of Farm Animals. No. 36. Cotton Seed and Its Products. No. 49.- Sheep Feeding. No. 58. The Soy Bean as a Forage Crop. No. 170. The principles of Horse Feeding.

— — — — —

Protein and Carbohydrates in Feed

Pounds per Bushel.

Kind of Food. Dry peas Rye

Protein.

Carbohydrates.

10

32

5

39

Barley

4

32

Corn

31/2

40

Oats

3

19

Table showing approximate amounts of protein and carbohydrates required daily by farm animals of average size:

Animal.

Protein.

Carbohydrates.

Dairy cow

2

lbs.

12

lbs.

Work

2 lbs.

12

lbs.

horse

Calves under 1 year .... Pigs,

growing

Lambs, growing

1

lb.

1/2

lb.

6 lbs. 2i/'2

1-5 lb.

lbs.

1 lb.

Note: This amount varies with the

size

and age

of

Fattening stock can be profitably fed a

the animal.

greater allowance of carbohydrates in the form of grain, like

corn and barley. Problems

1.

With

How many oats at

tein cost per 2.

pounds of protein

in a bushel of oats?

30 cents per bushel, what does

this pro-

pound, disregarding the carbohydrates ?

How many

pounds protein

in a bushel of barley?

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

98

With barley form

in this 3.

44 cents per bushel, what does protein

at

cost per

Wliich

pound ?

How

the cheaper feed at these prices?

is

much ? 4.

What

pound

the cost per

is

of protein in rye at

60 cents per bushel? 5.

What

the cost per

is

pound of protein

in corn at

35 cents per bushel? 6.

7.

At the above prices which is the cheapest feed? Which is probably the best feed for fattening

purposes ? 8.

Why

Suppose

?

all

kinds of hay

What

of $8 per ton.

is

in each of the four kinds of 9.

Which

How

why? ration 11.

pound

hay given above?

is

the best kind of straw to feed, and

do we find the "nutritive ratio"?

the nutritive ratio of clover hay?

is

the uniform price

the cheapest feed?

is

What

10.

sell at

the price of protein per

Is

it

What

a balanced

?

Find the

nutritive value of all the feeds given

in the tables. 12.

Which

are most nearly "perfect" feeds

which have a ratio of about 6 18.

Which

lowest ratio of protein ? 14.

Which

i.

?

—

i. e.,

which have the

,

?

Are any

of the feeds given in the table so poor

that, in themselves, they are practically worthless? so,

e.,

are the feeds having the largest propor-

tion of proteins 15,

to 1

are the poorest feeds

—

name them.

If

EATIONS FOE FARM ANIMALS Illustration.

— One

protein and 880

Let us mix

up

it

lbs.

ton of mixed hay contains 88 carbohydrates.

Its ratio is 1 to 10.

We

shall try peas.

ground peas with every hundred lbs.

hay contain

60

lbs.

peas contain.

lbs.

mixed contain.

We lbs.

44

4.4 .

.

.

shall feed

of hay.

Carbohydrates.

Protein.

Feed.

100 160

lbs.

with some other feed to bring the ratio

to ahout 1 to 6.

1 bu. of

99

.'

10.

32

.

14.4

76

Dividing weight of carbohydrates by that of protein (76 by 14.4) we get a ratio of about 1 to 5. We have more protein than we need. Let us try again with i/^ bu. of peas instead.

Feed.

Carbohydrates.

Protein.

100

lbs.

hay contain

4.4

44

30

lbs.

peas contain. ...

5.

16

130 lbs. mixed contain. 9.4 60 Again dividing (60 by 9.4) we get 6.3, about right, and a much cheaper feed. Now, how much of this ration shall we feed to a dairy cow? The table shows us that a cow needs about 2 lbs. protein daily, so this will be about enough for five days. One-fifth of each feed will .

give us as a result 20 lbs. of

.

hay and

6 lbs. of peas for

the daily ration. 16.

With

the ration given in the illustration,

how

long will a ton of hay last a cow? 17.

How many

bushels of ground peas will be re-

quired in the same time? 18.

What

will it cost to feed the

with hay at $7 per ton and peas

cow for

at $1

this time

per bushel?

LE8S0NS IN AGETCULTURE

100

Suppose she gives 25 pounds of milk daily on

19.

this

With milk

ration.

gained 20.

at $1.20 per

what

cwt.,

is

1

Make

a ration of clover hay and corn in the

same way and figure

its cost.

LESSON

XXX

THE DAIRY Dairy products. butter,

and

—The products of the dairy are milk,

cheese.

There

child in the civilized world in

is

scarcely a man,

who

woman, or

does not use every day

some form the products of the dairy. The farmer who

has only one cow, and uses her milk for butter or for drinking, has a dairy, but as places

we usually think of dairies in stables and fed all their

where cows are kept

feed in mangers and milked to supply a city popula-

However, most of the milk is produced on farms, and a large part of the butter is made there also. The use of the cream separator is increasing on the farm. By this machine the cream is separated from the milk soon after it is brought from the cow, and only the cream need be hauled to the factory, if the farmer is selling it. The cream separator enables the farmer to get more butter than by any other method. Cleanliness. In the dairy the most important item is cleanliness. There is probably no other item of food more difficult to keep clean than milk. The dirt which we eat in milk and butter would astonish us, if we

tion.

—

could see

it

separated. Good, pure, sweet milk

is

essen-

THE DAIRY tial

101

both for health and for profit on the market.

Bad

and bad odors in milk are caused by the cows and

flavors

eating improper food and drinking impure water,

by uncleanliness on the part of the dairyman in handling the milk.

Essentials milk.

—In

in

speak of

shall

caring

for

we

another lesson

plants

little

which live at the roots of the legumes and take nitrogen from the air called bacteria,

make

to help

In

learn

the plant food.

lesson

this

of

we

another

are

kind

bacteria living in milk

causing

it

first place,

to

sour.

to

of

and

In the

milk sours because

bacteria from the air fall into it,

begin

to

grow,

and

soon change the sugar of the

Fig. 33.

A Cream Sefabatob

milk to an acid.

These bacteria are in the

on

air, in

water, in barn dust,

and on the cow. They are most plentiful in sour milk, and if we should pour a little sour milk into the fresh milk the latter would sour more quickly. The same thing happens when people put fresh milk bits of hay,

into poorly cleaned pails.

It follows that all utensils

used in the dairy should be thoroughly scalded so as to Mil all the germs that cause the milk to sour quickly.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

102

Not only do these germs, which cause the souring of the milk, get into it, but the germs of consumption and typhoid fever will also live in milk, and thus endanger the health and lives of all who drink it. The following precautions in the care of milk should be

who supply 1.

known

to all

us with this valuable food:

Avoid pitching hay or making beddings or sweep-

ing in the barn soon before milking time,

if

the cows

are to be milked in the barn, for more germs fall into the milk if the air 2.

is full

of dust.

The milker should wear clean clothes, should have and should never wet his hands with

clean hands,

the milk.

For greater

and safety the milkman should curry the sides of the cow, and moisten the parts nearest him to prevent dust from falling from the cow 3.

cleanliness

into the milk.

The

few streams of milk from each teat should be thrown away, because the milk at the mouth 4.

first

of the teat has been exposed to the air,

and 5.

is full

of germs,

will cause the rest of the milk to sour sooner.

Every

vessel used in the handling of the

milk

should be scrupulously clean.

The surface of the milk should not be left exposed any place where dust and germs may fall into it. 7. To test for formalin in milk, add a few drops of ferric chloride, then pour sulphuric acid into the milk, letting it run down the side of the glass. A purple 6.

to the air of the cellar, living rooms, or

THE DAIRY

103

and

color at the junction of the milk

acid,

indicates

the presence of formalin. 8.

Promptly

cool

and aerate the milk

to prevent de-

velopment of bacteria. 9.

The cows should be healthy,

especially as related

to tuberculosis.

10.

The

stables should be well lighted

and

ventilated.

Courtesy Edgewood Farm. Fig. 34.

A Model Cow Barn

Testing and selecting the cows.

— The

butter that

milk will produce comes from the butter-fat that tains.

It

is,

each cow of a herd test well in butter

abundant in quantity. her board

bill

it

therefore, important that the milk fat,

as well as be

In general, no cow

whose milk

tests

much

one which

less

con-

from

is

paying

than 3 per cent

giving less than

of butter-fat; neither

is

twelve pounds daily.

Every farmer should own a good

is

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

10-i

in order to get the maximum amount and butter-fat that the herd produces, and of cream also a Babcock tester, to ascertain whether his cows are

cream separator,

A

yielding the highest percentage of butter-fat. cussion of the

Babock

dis-

tester will follow in the practical

exercises. Practical Exercises

Note

.

The practical

exercises for this lesson follow

as separate lessons in the series.

LESSON XXXI COMPOSITION OF MILK Learn the following

facts about milk:

Milk consists of about seven-eighths water and oneeighth substances in solution in the water, or floating in

it

in very small particles.

to learn that so large a

This

is

true

ilot

You may

be surprised

proportion of milk

only of milk but of

many

is

water.

of our most

important foods.

The constituents of milk are often referred water and ash.

A

total solids

;

fat, casein,

to

as

albumen, sugar, and

chemist can separate these substances with great

accuracy, but by the following methods

we can make

a

gross analysis: 1.

in a

Leave a

warm

little

place.

milk in a saucer for a short time

The water

will evaporate

and leave

the solids in dry form. 2.

Separation of

fat.

Let a quart of fresh milk

quietly stand in a shallow pan, in a cool place, until

a layer of cream gathers at the top.

This cream

is

COMPOSITION OF MILK

105

formed by the rising of tiny globules of butter-fat, which were distributed evenly through the fresh milk. The fat is so much lighter than the liquid in which it in about floats that it will rise in the cream layer This fat

twelve hours.

a constituent of butter and

some forms of cheese.

of

Separation of casein.

3.

<^^

o o ;

»

is

oo

o

Add

a few drops of acid,

o ^^ 6-/^-6s6 8&-;o°°°ofc^ Oo'°-t::^' o

o

/6

o °-^

?

^ Pure. PIG. 35.

'-°

bo

°o

Cuunenu a.

«•

uf B. F..Johnson b.

'^

^

Pub. Co.

Bacteria.

Pure and Impure Milk

Soon it will vinegar will do, to the skimmed milk. hundred one Gently warm it now to about thicken. degrees and carefully break the thickened surface with a knife, and the skimmed milk will be seen to separate

and whey. Now strain through a cloth, and the casein will remain in the cloth, while the whey, into curd

passes through.

This casein

is

one of the principal

parts of cheese. 4.

to

Separation of albumen.

160 degrees Fahrenheit.

Slowly heat the whey

It will

become cloudy and

soon a soft jelly-like substance will collect on the sur-

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

106

face.

This

is

the albumen.

This can

now

be separated by straining. 5.

men

whey from which

the albu-

has been separated, place in a saucer

and warm gently evaporated.

This

Take a small

Separation of sugar.

quantity of the

is

A

until the water has been

dry

substance

remains.

about seven-eighths milk-sugar and

one-eighth ash.

i:;

6.

Separation of ash.

not be

It will

and sugar in Heat the mixture in a dish or on the stove cover, and allow to burn as

possible to separate the ash

pure form.

Fig. 36.

87 per cent 29.93 oz.

a Quart of Milk Sugar Albumen

The Constituents of

Fat

Water

4 per cent 1.38 oz.

Casein 2.6 per cent .89 oz.

.7

per cent .24 oz.

5 per cent 1.72 oz.

.7

Ash per cent .24 oz.

it will. The small residue left is the milk ash. (Adapted from Cornell Rural School Leaflet.)

long as

THE BABCOCK TEST

107

LESSON XXXII THE BABCOCK TEST Babcock The lesson

If the school can not be provided with a tester, this lesson will is

have to be omitted.

such an important one, and the ownership of a Bab-

cock

by

tester

would

such

be

valuable

thing for the whole nity, that the teacher

make every

school

the a

commushould

effort to get the

material for this lesson.

Because of

simplicity,

its

accuracy, and ease of operation, the

Babcock

come the standard

test

has beOpCQ.

test for de-

termining the value of milk

and cream

as delivered to the

cheese

factories,

and

milk stations over this

all

creameries,

country.

Complete

directions

for

using come with every machine,

and

it

will not be nec-

essary to give

them

here.

Closed.

Ob-

serve great care for accuracy.

FIG.

37.

A Babcock Tester

Have some pupil bring a sample of milk from one of the cows at home. The sample should be taken after the milking is done, and the milk has been poured two or three times

from one

vessel to another so as to be

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

108

Take about a half cupful as a samand put it into a clean bottle. From this bottle the sample is drawn for testing, after mixing the contents thoroughly mixed.

ple

of the bottle thoroughly.

Having determined the per cent of butter-fat in the sample, an estimate can be made of the total amount of butter-fat in a gallon of milk. (A gallon weighs 81/4

pounds.)

Make many its

richness.

tests of the

A

pound

same cow's milk

to

determine

of butter-fat should make, in

ordinary practice, about 1.1 pounds of butter, and the pupils can compare the price paid for butter and for the butter-fat,

if sold at

which method of If the school

the creameries,

and determine

sale is better. is

in a dairy district, this lesson will

furnish work for several weeks, and be profitable to

patrons as well as to pupils. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletins. No. 29.— Souring of Milk and Other Changes Products.

No. 42. No. 55. No. 57. No. 63. No. 151. No. 166. No. 201.

— Facts about Milk. — The Dairy Herd: Its Formation —Butter Making on the Farm. — Care of Milk on the Farm. —Dairying the South. — Cheese Making on the Farm. — The Cream Separator on Western

in

Milk

and Management.

in

Farms.

Problems 1.

How many

pounds of butter-fat

in 5,000

pounds

of milk that tests 4 per cent? 2.

A

farmer owns a herd of 15 cows that average

24 pounds of milk per head daily. of milk does he get in six

How many

pounds

months (thirty days each)

?

THE BABCOCK TEST

and butter-fat

If this milk tests 3.5 per cent,

3.

109 is

worth 25 cents per pound, what does he receive monthly How much per head? for his milk?

A

4.

farmer has a herd of 20 cows.

the

week weighs

422

lbs.,

417

420

as follows:

432

lbs.,

lbs.

and 423

The milk for

418

lbs., lbs.,

lbs.,

408

tests 5 per cent of butter-fat, the price of which

How much

cents per pound.

lbs.,

respectively. is

It

30

do the cows average per

head in money for this week. 5.

A

farmer hauls 43,250

per cent to a factory. cents per pound. 6.

A

•

How

farmer owns

Bos, Kate

lbs.

of milk that tests 3.8

The price of butter-fat is 26 much money should be receive? six

cows: Bess, Spot, Brindle,

and Red.

Bess

gives 22 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 3.8%,

Spot

gives 15

lbs.

of milk daily, which tests 4.2%,

Brindle

gives 30

lbs.

of milk daily, which tests 3.0%,

Bos

gives 20

lbs.

of milk daily, which tests 3.0%,

Kate

gives 14

lbs.

of milk daily, which tests 3.2%,

Red

gives 24 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 5.2%.

Figure out the dairy value of each.

cow ?

The poorest one ?

Classify

Which

them

is

the best

in order of dairy

value. 7.

Figure out the number of pounds of milk given

by each cow in a month, and the value of fat at 25 cents 8.

it

in butter-

per pound.

Three herds of ten cows each are compared The lbs. of milk each daily and the :

Friesians average 30

scrub herd averages 10

;

lbs. daily.

The Jerseys

test 5.4

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

110

per cent; the Holstein-Friesians test 3.2 per cent; and the scrubs test 3 per cent.

Which

the more valuable

is

herd? 9.

With

butter-fat at 30 cents per pound,

what

is

the monthly average per cow of each herd?

LESSON XXXIII POULTRY Poultry-raising as a business.

—Much

is

being writ-

ten in the farm journals and popular magazines about

poultry

raising,

and

many

"get-rich-quick" schemes

are proposed through various systems.

poultry interest comes to naught.

Much

of this

Nevertheless, poul-

try, if properly handled, will yield large returns,

on the farm and

in

the

city

has not been given sufficient attention on

can farms.

both

Poultry raising

lot.

many Ameri-

Fresh eggs and well-fattened young fowls

are always in demand, and bring a high price on the

The proceeds from the sale of eggs and poultry are no small item of the farm income. Poultry raising is a profitable business when thoughtfully and market.

intelligently pursued.

Care of poultry.

— The care of poultry, as in the case

of other farm animals,

ing and shelter.

When

must include the proper feedfowls are left to roam and seek

their food at will, they will get a balanced ration

the seeds and insects, and need but this line.

little

among

care along

If they are confined, however, the food

be studied and properly provided.

must

They must be fed

POULTEY

111

They must have access to grit, oyster shells, charcoal, sand, ground bone and the like, to be used in grinding their food, and out of which to make egg shells. They must have food rich enough in protein, such as meat scraps, skim-milk, alfalfa meal, scratch-food, and table-scraps. Green foods like beets, cabbage, turnips, and silage should be given them in the winter. They should have an abundance of fresh egg-producing foods.

Fig.

water.

38.

Hens fed

because corn

is

Colony Poultry Houses

entirely on corn will not lay well,

a fat

and heat-producing

food,

and eggs

made mostly of protein food. The poultry houses. Two systems of housing fowls are in use by poultry men and farmers ( 1 ) The colony house, and (2) the continuous apartment house. Each are

—

:

system has

its

advantages.

Expensive poultry houses

are not necessary for success with poultry.

The

chief

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

112

A

requirements are: (1) should

face,

well-drained

soil.

are thus shut otf and the most sunshine Cleanliness

Houses

(2)

the south or southeast, as the coldest winds is

secured. (3)

Houses should be

absolutely necessary.

is

constructed so that they can be sprayed or whitewashed

The

easily.

best

method

is

to

have every thing remov-

and sunshine can be used as cleansing agents when necessary. Feed hoppers, nest racks and other appliances should hang on the wall able so that scalding water

or stand on blocks.

(4)

Ventilation should be secured

by open-front houses or by some ventilator of approved design. (5) There should be no draft on the either

Perches should be placed in the most

fowls at night.

protected parts of the

house.

Since exercise

(6)

and for

necessary, both for egg production

place for scratching should be provided

they can get to dry dirt and wallow in a sort of insect powder, filling pores,

up the

and thus keeps the chickens

chickens

may

is

health, a

— a place where

it.

Dust

acts as

insects' breathing

free

from

lice.

The

be forced to exercise by scratching in

chaff or straw for their food, or

jumping for

bites of

cabbage or beets hanging over them.

will

—

The varieties of fowls selected for depend largely on the purposes for which

Breeds of fowls.

farm use

they are grown.

Breeds such as the Leghorns and

Minorcas are desirable for their laying qualities; the

Brahmas and Cochins,

for their

meat and the Plymouth ;

Rock, the Wyandottes, and the Orpingtons, for general purposes, giving good returns both as layers and for

meat production.

The

bulletins

named below

will be

POULTRY of value to the student,

and

to

113 the practical poultry

raiser.

Free Bulletins, U.

S.

Dept. of Agriculture

Farmers' Bulletins. No. 51. Standard Varieties of Chickens. No. 64. Ducks and Geese, Breeds, and Management. No. 141. Poultry Eaising on the Farm. No. 177. Squab Raising. No. 200. Turkeys, Varieties, and Management.

— — — — —

Fig. 39.

Hens Need Shade During Hot Summer Problems

A

1.

flock of 60

With eggs worth 15

hens average 80 eggs a year each.

what

cents per dozen,

is

the value

of these eggs? 2.

How many

cents per bushel 3.

of oats

Suppose

?

it

bushels of corn will this

Of

oats at 25 cents

buy

at 40

?

takes only 12 bushels of corn, 5 bushels

and $7 worth of other food

to

keep this flock for

one year, besides what they pick up for themselves.

What

is

the profit over

and above the

cost of the feed?

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

114

What would have

4.

been the profit

laid 120 eggs each, instead of 80

Ask pupils

5.

if

they had

?

furnish data for at least twenty-

to

other similar problems.

LESSON XXXIV 1.

Have lesson

many

A STUDY OF FEATHERS

a fowl in the schoolroom a few hours before the

is

Encourage the children

given.

to find out as

facts as they can for themselves before the school

opens for work.

Direct the observations of the pupils

by a few questions, as the kind of feathers the location of the different kinds any part of the body not covered :

;

;

with feathers.

which boy or

from

At

Suggest a girl

his observation of the feathers of the fowl. class time, the teacher

the coop and hold

and injury. 1.

competition by asking

little

can give the greatest number of facts

Have

it

should remove the fowl from

firmly by the legs to prevent fright

Allow the children

to

come near.

the pupils feel the difference between the

heat of the fowl's body beneath the feathers and on the

Explain.

outside of the feathers.

Bring out the point

that the feathers are non-conducting.

does this serve the fowl 2.

Spread the wings and

feather sections

and

tail,

may

What purpose

?

tail

be seen.

so that the different

Note that in the wing

one feather overlaps the other so that eacn

feather braces the other in flight. 3.

Observe

the

lighter

wing

feathers

(the

sec-

STUDY OF FEATHERS

115

ondaries) tucked under the heavier feathers (the pri-

What

maries).

Fig

Showing 2.

Breast.

primary. 10.

their

Main

The Feathers

40.

relative

size,

Wing shoulder Wing secondary.

3. 6.

11.

tail.

Are

kind of feathers are in the tail?

Fluff.

shape

covert. 7.

of a Chicken

and position. 4.

Wing

Wing covert.

1.

Neck hackle.

tlight covert. 8.

Back.

9.

5.

Wing

Cushion.

12. Thigh.

they different from those of the wing?

What

use do

the tail feathers serve? 4.

Why

Notice this

how

the back feathers overlap each other.

arrangement?

If the

feathers shed easily

without pain to the fowl, take out a feather from each

LESSONS IN AGRICULTUEE

116

of the following places for comparison:

Wing

;

6.

Cushion;

Wing

;

4.

feather;

Wing

secondary

Main

10.

and fasten on

Neck

shoulder covert

primary 9.

1.

;

7.

2.

a sheet of

Breast feather;

flight covert

Wing

tail; 11. Fluff;

paper

covert

and

12.

5.

;

Wing Back

8.

;

3.

Thigh. See

figure for corresponding numbers. 4. 5.

Make drawing sketches of these feathers. Make a drawing of a large primary feather, and

name

the parts:

fluff,

tip, quill,

barb,

and web.

LESSON XXXV THE EGG

2.

Each pupil

in the class should bring a

few eggs to

form, a collection for this lesson. 1.

Tabulate in the note-book the record of the

collec-

tion as follows

(Number each egg with ink on The Brped

weight

Size I

Forn,

the shell.)

^^'^

^,"^6^

|

I

I

I

"e^"'

After this data has been recorded, a small hole 2. might be broken in each end of the egg, the blow pipe or straw inserted, and the contents blown out, so that the egg shell

may

an interesting

be preserved in a neat box as part of

collection.

might be encouraged

From

to get the

time to time, pupils shells

from the eggs

THE EGG that are used at

home

to

add

117

The

to the collection.

contents of the eggs, blown, should be held in saucers,

one to each pupil. 3.

Observe the structure of the raw eggs in the

yolk.

Find the ''germinal disc" which appears as a on the upper surface of the This germ spot contains the life principle of the

egg.

Note the whitish cords of denser albumen which

saucers.

light colored spot, usually

serve to keep the yolk properly suspended in the white of the egg.

Note the

clear,

watery appearance of the white of

This

is the albumen, the food in liquid form upon which the young chick lives while in the shell. (If the contents do not come out whole, another egg must be

the egg.

broken for this part of the lesson.)

The chemical composition of the dry substance the inside of the egg is ( Snyder Poultry Book. )

4.

of

:

White (albumen) Yolk 5.

Make

6.

If

:

Protein. 88.92 20.62

Fat, .53

64.43

a drawing of the egg shell obtained above.

it is

not possible to boil the eggs at the school,

ask each pupil to bring a boiled egg for this part of the study.

Carefully remove the shell piece by piece.

Observe

and the two membranes beneath the shell. Cut the egg lengthwise through the middle, and make a drawing of the section, showing all the points mentioned in paragraph 3.

the air space,

DECEMBER On

the farm.

farmer

—December

to balance his

ment has been

is

month

a good

books and see whether his manage-

The

profitable or unprofitable.

ful farmer will

for the

know whether each

He

field is

success-

yielding up

know whether his farm animals are paying their board. He will know how much money he should spend and how much he to

the standard every year.

should save to be progressive.

will

To be

able to

manage

the farm as a successful merchant does his business, the

farmer must keep records and books in some simple and accurate way.

LESSON XXXYI FARM ACCOUNTS Keeping accounts. is

received

accounts.

Often

it

is

—Every

quire two columns.

this.

keep

should

know how much

and paid out during the

cash account will show

side,

farmer

desirable to

year.

A

cash

simple

All kinds of accounts re-

The columns may be placed

side

by

with double ruling down the center of the page,

This method will be used in this lesson. The following explanation of the cash account system is taken from Hatch's Elementary Agriculture with Pracdividing them.

tical

Arithmetic

Cash accounts. cash

is

first

—In keeping a cash account the word

written across the top of the page. 118

All

FARM ACCOUNTS cash received

hand

side,

is

and

119

placed in the cash space in the

all

cash paid out

space in the right-hand side.

is

At

left-

placed in the cash the extreme left of

and between the date and the cash space the item, for which cash has been received or paid, is written. The total amount of cash received, or paid out, is easily found by adding the amounts on each side, and the difference of these two sums represents the cash on hand. Cash on hand should each side the date

is

placed,

be carried over into the received side at the top of the

next page, is

desired,

when any page the totals

is filled

may

respective columns instead,

exactly the same there

is

way

to do.

1

If

and the new page kept

as the preceding page.

For example Cash

1905

entries.

it

be carried over into their

in keeping a cash account.

and easy thing

Date

up with

It is a

This

in

is all

very simple

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

120 the record

is

Whenever made receives

kept as in the cash account.

the person against

whom

anything, an entry

is

the account

made on

is

the left-hand side under

and when he pays anything on this account, this entry is made on the right-hand side under the word creditor. The following example is taken from

the

word

debtor,

Hatch 's Agriculture

Fig.

41.

Good Materi.\l fok

a

John Smith Date 1905

I'roduce

Account

FAEM ACCOUNTS of your chickens.

The word chickens

the top of the page. tures

made

hand

side of the

131 is

written across

AVhenever there are any expendi-

for the chickens, this

is

entered on the

left-

page under dehtor. Whenever the chickens return an income in the form of eggs or young chickens, this entry

word

creditor.

is

made on

The account below

book: Chickens Date 1905

Item

the right, under the is

taken from Hatch's

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

122

Cash Date 1905

1

1

Item

CEOP EECOEDS

123

Seeding and Cultivation

Date

Cost of fertilizer....

of seeding. Amount of seed. Cost of seed Fertilizer used

.

.

Dates of cultivation.

Implements used Cost of cultivation

.

Cost of harvest Total cost of the crop. Insect injury Fungous injury

:

.

.

.

Quality of the harvest. grain fodder Yield per acre Net profit per acre....

Date of harvest

Note

.

Yield, Yield,

In connection with this lesson

it

would be a

valuable supplementary exercise to establish a school

The pupils of the school should elect a president, The teacher board of directors, cashier, and clerk.

bank.

should provide a suitable receptacle for

money

deposits

and the proper bank books, checks, etc. Encourage the pupils to make deposits, keep bank books, and draw out money only with properly signed checks. Our boys and girls

should become familiar with these simple business

proceedings.

LESSON XXXIX EECORD OF A GOOD CEOP ROTATION

3.

Compare the data given in the ten-acre rotation below, with prices and conditions in your home vicinity. The figures below are the actual record of

an

Illinois field

under standard conditions of cultivation

A 1.

2.

Good Typical Ledger Ruling

Clover sown in wheat in March Number of bushels Cost of seed Cost of labor

Wheat

cut in July. bushels

1 $6.50 $1.25

Threshed and maiketed

Yield,

Value of yield Total cost of labor

200 $160.00 $17.50

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

124 3.

Pasture in clover

Number Number

4

the Fall

in

head months Income from pasture Clover hay harvested next June of of

5 2

$12.00

Number of tons Price per ton Cost of labor 5.

12 $5.00 $12.00

Husked and marlieted

Clover seed crop in the Fall.

Number

bushels yield

15

Value of yield

$90.00 $20.00

Cost of labor 6.

Plow

for corn the folloyifing Spring, and plant Cost of labor Cost of seed C 1 y2 bushels) Four cultivations cost of labor for cultivation

$10.00 $1.00 $7.50

—

7.

Seeding wheat in the corn in September Cost seed 1 % bushels per acrei Cost of labor

$12.00 $4.00

1

8.

Corn harvest

Number

in the Fall

of bushels

500 $200.50 $15.00

Value of the vield Cost of labor

Calculate the total cost and receipts of this rotation,

and the net gain on one acre for one year. The last census shows that the average annual crop per acre in this country this

is

valued at $11.

How

does

annual crop compare with the average?

What

does the farm upon which you live yield per

acre?

What

crops yield the highest net returns per acre in

your locality? Problems 1.

A

months

farmer's boy hires out to a neighbor for at

$22 per month.

with $7.35 cash on hand.

end of every month.

April

2,

April 20, 25c for a straw hat. for a coat.

May

31, he

five

He begins work April 1, He receives his pay at the he pays $2.75 for shoes.

May

buys a

3,

he spends $1.25

colt for $42.

July

1,

CROP RECORDS he pays $14.75 for more clothing. $2.35.

July 20, he

125

July

4,

he spends

August

sells his colt for $55.

15,

he

pays $6.50 for a watch, and, during the summer he spends $4.85 for sundry small

articles.

Write out his account and determine how much cash he has on hand when his time is out. 2.

Two

boys rent for $4 a half acre of land on which

They allow themselves 75c each per day them $2 to get this piece of land fertilized and plowed. They each spend ten days' time planting and cultivating their onions, and four days more each when harvesting time comes. They sell $14.30 worth of green onions, and harvest 142 bushels more. For 100 bushels they get 75c per bushel, and 60c per to plant onions.

for their time.

It costs

bushel for the remainder.

Write out their onion account, and find their

profit.

A

farmer runs an account with George White, a merchant. July 7, he buys a pair of shoes for $2.40 and 3.

has them charged on account.

July

20,

he takes in

twelve dozen of eggs at 11 cents per dozen and gets 50c

worth of sugar.

August

of butter at 20 cents per calico at 6 cents

3,

he takes in twelve pounds

pound and

gets nine yards of

per yard, one pound of tea at 50 cents,

four pounds of coffee at 18 cents per pound, and a barrel of salt at $1.25.

August

14,

he gets a pail of

75 cents and 100 pounds of sugar at

pound, and pays $2 in cash. on August 151

Write out

this account

How

5i/2

fish at

cents per

does his account stand

with Geo. White.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

126

LESSON XL 4.

COMPARISON OF AGRICULTURE PRODUCTS

Take the data from the Year-book of the Department of Agriculture for 1905, and fill out the tabulation below

ASSESSMENT FARM VALUES

127

LESSON XLI AN ASSESSMENT OF FARM VALUES

5.

Make

(a)

a

owned by your

list

of the real

Use the form given below, and

received from sale.

make

and personal property-

parents, with values such as could be

a neat record of the assessment in the notebook: Assessment Record

Name

Farm.

of

PROPERTY 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

I

Number

|

Valuation

Acres 01 land Buildings Horses Cattle

Sheep

Hogs Poultry

Farm machinery Oats Wheat .

.

.•

Corn Household furniture

.

.

.

.

Hay

Money

in

bank or notes.

Total Rate of taxation Total tax

(b)

Use the above form and

fill

out the assessment

record of our forty-acre farm as you think

it

should be

equipped.

LESSON XLII FARM MACHINERY The drudgery of farm life is gradually being reduced by the invention and improvement of farm tools and machines. Improvement in kitchen machinery comes

upon the farm, but with the progress of we may look for much improvement equipment. The following comparisons show in kitchen the great development in farm implements. slowest of all

domestic science,

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

128

THE OLD WAY The The The The The The The

THE NEW WAY The The The The The The The

hoe.

grass sickle. grain cradle. single plow. corn knife.

"up and down churn open crock.

"

horse-drawn cultivator. horse mower and rake steam-drawn harvester steam gang plow. corn reaper and husker. "quick coming"' churn

cream separator.

Points in the care of farm machinery 1.

:

The farmer must know how

to

Farm machines must

left in the field to

manage

his

ma-

chine. 2.

rust

and

not be

rot.

3. As soon as any tool or machine has finished its work for the season it should be carefully cleaned, oiled and housed.

Every machine, implement, and

4.

vehicle

should

be properly oiled. 5.

All needed repairs should be promptly made.

6.

"Such

care,

which

many

some, will add

is

neither costly nor burden-

years to the

life

of a machine."

Practical Exercises

If the school

is

in

a

town, the teacher should go

with the class to an implement store and observe the

farm machines,

different

Make

a

reapers,

know

list

tools,

and implements.

of the different kinds of plows, harrows,

planters,

and

grain

separators

that

you

of.

Each pupil should make a

list

of the different farm

implements at his home, and the make of each implement.

Note,

—Some

farm machine or implement, such as

the plow, should be brought to school, to be taken apart

and

set

up again by the

pupils.

OUTLOOK— WEST VIRGINIA TYPE STATE

139

LESSON XLIII OUTLOOK—WEST

AGRICULTURAL

VIRGINIA

AS

A

TYPE STATE Geographical and climatic conditions seem to indicate that there are three principal agricultural operations

which would pay the farmers of West Virginia

to

develop

Fruit-growing.— Many

hillsides, poorly adapted would produce profitable orchards of apple, peach, cherry, and other smaller fruits. Some 1.

to grain cultivation,

of the best fruit plantations of the United States are in

West

Virginia,

and what has been done

many

can be done in

in one place

other parts of the state, for the

conditions of successful fruit culture are similar.

would be better for the the purses of

to fruit trees, filled 2.

soil

many

farms, and for

their hillsides planted

rather than to grain fields with weed-

washouts.

Dairying, grazing, and stock raising.

ginia has ranked

among

the

tion of fine-wooled sheep, this

of

many farmers were

It

first states

and there

is

rank should not be maintained.

produce the

—West Vir-

in the produc-

no reason that

The hills will and clover,

finest of blue grass, timothy,

and there are many natural advantages which may be The inused in the winter protection of the flock. creased

demand

for dairy products should encourage

grazing and cattle raising.

With

the improvement of

country roads, and the extension of the railroads and trolleys, the sale of milk, butter,

and

live stock will be

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

130

greatly facilitated,

and the dairy business become a

profitable agricultural operation in the state.

—

Truck g-ardening. As the mines, and wells of oil and gas are developed throughout the state, more and more laborers leave the farm and become consumIn the ers of farm products rather than producers. sprung in all parts many mining towns which have up of West Virginia are thousands of laborers who do not even have a kitchen garden. The homes of these men must, be supplied with the vegetables and prodIf West Virginia farms and garucts of the farm. 3.

dens do not furnish these, those of other states

There are many

and

will.

fields

near these

industrial centers that could produce far

more than

they

now

do,

fertile

valleys

toward supplying the demand for food

products. Practical Exercises

Students of other states using this book should write similar their

type.

paragraphs upon the agricultural outlook of

own

state,

using this lesson on West Virginia as a

JANUARY On

the farm.

— There

the farm this month.

is little

It is a

outdoor work to do on

good month in which

read and to plan for the coming year. farmers' days of leisure

when

the

demands

ing are not so exacting as usual, of his household of the year.

culture

will not waste his

Live stock are to be fed and cared

worked

may

those

enjoy the accumulated fruitage

farm conveniences are

of cropping

of his call-

when he and

But the wise farmer

time even now. for,

may

to

These are the

out.

to be planned,

and systems

In school the class in agri-

profitably study soils

and

fertilizers this

month.

LESSON XLIV COUNTRY LIFE CONVENIENCES Stay on the farm. the

farm

—Why

in such great

haps the boys and

do the young people leave numbers to go to the city ? Per

girls

who read

these pages could

give a better answer than the statesmen

who

are trying to answer this question.

and professors The usual an-

swer given and the one most nearly correct, perhaps,

young people leave the farm because they cannot make enough money there, and because the social Allife and home conveniences are not attractive. is

that

though the country people do not receive for their prod131

LESSONS IN AGRICULTUEE

132

what the consumer pays, there are and with better legislation, closer organization, and more education for the farmer, the country boys and girls are going to have as good a ucts a just share of

brighter days ahead,

chance to enjoy the best things of

life

as their city

cousins have.

Conveniences in the country.

—

iences are already coming,

Country life convenand from the kitchen to the

church the work and

life

of the country

more interesting and

attractive.

why

the country

There

home can not have

its

is is

becoming

no reason

hot and cold

water supply with sanitary plumbing. It would cost no more than a good team of horses or an automobile. Progressive farmers are lighting their homes with elec-

They are equipping their kitchens and fields with conveniences to save labor. Into every community there has come the rural free mail delivery and the telepTione, and we can tricity or gasolene.

as well as their barns

safely prophesy that the parcels post, the postal savings

bank, the interurban car service, good public roads, con-

and live country churches are soon and enlarge the life in the open country.

solidated schools, to enrich

Great forces for rural progress. stitutions,

—Many

strong in-

and men of mind and money are devoting

themselves to the interests of country

life.

State de-

partments of education are providing supervisors of rural schools

and encouraging the teaching of

ture and domestic science in these schools. colleges are sending extension schools, tutes,

and instruction trains

agricul-

Agricultural

farmers'

insti-

into every corner of their

COUNTEY LIFE CONVENIENCES states.

the

The national grange

men and women who

tending

its

work

is

133

developing leaders

live

of education

among

on the farms, and ex-

and organization

into

The national department of agriculture is sending expert men and helpful literature to every farm and rural institution, organizing and making more effective all the forces for rural progress. every state in the union.

Practical Exercises

Pupils

may make

special

topics as relating to the 1.

2.

reports on the following

community

in

which they

live:

Modern conveniences on the farm. Community improvement clubs.

3.

Consolidation of rural schools.

4.

Rural mail delivery.

5.

Postal savings banks.

6.

Parcels post.

7.

Rural telephones.

8

Interurban car

9

Automobiles.

lines.

LESSON XLV THE FARMERS' READING The farmers'

library.

— The

to-day finds time to read,

and

progressive farmer of his library

is

supplied

not only with good books and periodicals of general literature,

but with the latest books, bulletins, and farm

papers as well. profit

Men

in all other vocations find both

and pleasure in keeping up with the times by

attending meetings, and reading the literature of their

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

134 profession.

This could not be said of the farmer until

very recently.

—

Who best

are writing farm books? The writers of the modern books and periodicals of agriculture are

men who

not only have the theoretical knowledge of

their subjects, but the practical experience;

and they

have thus gained the confidence of the farmers, because they are in the

field,

wearing overalls with them.

The

progressive farmer no longer speaks lightly of "book

farming," for he knows that good farmers have written, as well as wrought, successfully in agriculture.

Farm

— There

are many good farm papers, and every progressive farmer is a subscriber to one or more periodicals relating to the work in which he is interested. He reads and experiments and thus finds greater interest and profit in his work. Farm books. The follov/ing vocational books should

papers.

—

should be in every farmer's library:

Chapters in Rural Progress, Butterfield.

The State and the Farmer, Bailey. The Education of the Farmer, Bailey. The Country Home, Powell. Practical Farming, McClennan. Encyclopedia of Agriculture, Bailey.

Checking the Waste, Gregory.

The Country Life Movement, Bailey. The Country Church and the Rural Life Problem, Bailey.

The Rural Life Problem of the United kett.

States, Plun-

SOIL

135

Most of the above are supplied by the Orange Judd

and Macmillan companies,

New York

City.

Practical Exercises

Pupils should bring copies of farm papers from

1.

their

homes and

start a reading table in the school.

Send for copies of farm papers for the reading

2.

table.

Each pupil

3.

.should report

some interesting

article

he has read in a farm paper.

Write

4.

circle books,

to the Coljege of Agriculture for reading

and try

to organize a

reading circle among

the farmers of the community.

LESSON XLVI SOIL

During some mild day

this

month,

let

us go to vari-

ous places on our farm, gather samples of

make

a

more careful study of them

in our

soil,

and

farm labora-

tory.

Since the

soil is

the place where all our plants must

grow, and since our animals must be fed from the plants

we

raise,

our

soil is

the real foundation of our

farm.

How

soils

are formed.

— Geologists

tell

us that

at

one time a great rock mass formed the surface of the earth. this

Earthquakes probably made great breaks in

rock mass, then by the decay of the rocks, the

grinding of the water and sediment,

soil

was formed.

ice,

and the depositing of

Water has been continually

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

136

away and depositing

dissolving to

form

winds, rains, running streams,

Frosts,

soil.

particles of the rocks

plant roots, burrowing animals, and other forces

nature are constantly changing the rocks to

of

soil.

—

Since all soils come from rocks, the must therefore depend on the kind of rock from which it was made. Sandy soil must come from

Kinds of

kind of

Fig. 42-

soil.

soil

— Drawing,

sandstone, lime

— Drawing,

showing how

rod? gradually breaks up and decays from the top downward.

soil

Fig. 42acial

cirift

showing

gla-

deposited on top of the

solid rocis.

from limestone, clay

soil

from clay

stones, etc.

Humus.

— Ilumus

plant and animal colored.

Humus

because in

its.

is

the decaying and partly decayed

life

in the

soil.

It is usually

dark

greatly improves the soil for plants, set free which help disand because it improves making clay less and sand more

decay acids are

solve plant food in the

the quality of the

soil,

soil,

compact, thus increasing the water-holding capacity

The loss of humus makes hillside land wash and unless the farmer is careful, his sloping fields

for plants.

badly,

are soon

"worn out."

All weeds, stubble, clovers,

etc.,

SOIL

13^

should be plowed under to form humus, and thus keep the soil in good condition.

Clay

soil.

and the

—Most

class to

contain both sand and clay,

soils

which a

soil

belongs

is

determined by

the relative amounts of these of which it is

A

composed.

soil

very

grit soils

particles,

fine

when

which,

seem

clay

composed of

is

dry,

no

contain

to

Clay

or sand.

retain water

a

and become very hard in long

time,

drying.

Sandy

soil.

— Sand

varies greatly in fineness.

are

have

Sand

particles

very hard, and sharp

edges,

giving a gritty feeling in handling. ter

sand

very

Sandy quickly

Wa-

through

passes

freely.

Courtesy of D. W. Working

Fig.

43.

Under

The Weatheiung the

— heating and solid ing — tlie

of Rock

influence of the weather cooling, wetting and dryrock is then broken into

fragments.

soils

are

warmed by

the sun in the spring badly and are not durable under tillage

and clay may contain organic matter; that plant or animal

life.

They wash Both sand is,

decaying

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

138

Loam. in

—Loam

is

a mixture of sand, clay and

such proportions as to be easily

Good

soil

supply of moisture and

air.

for most crops.

nor too in the

fine to allow the best

must

tilled,

humus suitable

have a constant

also

Loam

and

neither too coarse

is

supply of air and moisture

soil.

Practical Exercises

(Use notebooks and record results and observations) 1.

With samples

Comparison of Soils

of clay, sand,

and humus loams, spread

on sheets of paper before each pupil,

the student

let

fill

out the following table Color.

Soils.

Clay

Loam

.

.

Size of particles.

Weight.

Feeling.

.

Sand Loam. Humus Loam. .

,

The use of a hand 2.

lens will help in this study. Composition of Soil

Carefully weigh a small handful of rich black

soil.

Then dry it thoroughly, being careful not to burn it, and weigh again. The difference is the weight of the water content of the

soil.

What

per cent of this

soil

was water? Now place the dry soil in a dish or iron pan and burn it. Cool, weigh again, and examine carefully. The loss is the weight of the humus or organic matter.

What

Do you

per cent of this

soil

is

organic mat-

believe that you could burn all of the The portion remaining is the mineral matter. What per cent is mineral matter? We shall learn what

ter?

soil?

SOIL matter consists

this mineral

of.

and write answers

this exercise

139

Record the result of

to all the questions.

Water-holding Capacity of Soils

S.

Fill three small earthen flower pots

verized

with

soils,

humus

with finely pul-

one with clay, one with sand, and one loam.

Weigh these, and if possible make Then slowly pour water into soils are saturated and the water

them weigh the same. each pot until the

Pig.

44.

Apparatus to Test the Capacity of Soils to Take in Rainfall

begins to run out from the hole at the bottom of the pot. is

Weigh

the pots of wet

holding the most water.

most rapidly? soils

soil,

and determine which

Which

soil

Which most slowly?

took in water

Which of Which

could absorb the heaviest shower?

continues to drip longest?

Which

the soil

drains most readily?

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

140

Does

experiment

this

practice?

any

have

Capillarity of Soils

4.

Fill three soil tubes respectively with fine clay,

and loam.

tied over one in a rack as

reach

down

soil is

end of each of the tubes.

Observe the it

In which

rise of

rises soil

ends

equal heights

Diagram Showing Action of Watek

takes.

rapidly?

Set the tubes

in the figure, so that the cloth

Note how high it

dry sand,

held in the tubes by a cloth

into the tumblers, filled to

with water.

time

The

shown

Fig. 45.

soils.

farm

on

bearing

What?

in Soil

water in the different

in each

tube,

and the

does the water rise most

In which to the greatest height?

Which

draws up the greatest amount of water? This power of soils to draw water up from below is called soil

capillarity,

and the water

is

called

capillary

water.

Because of this capillarity, plants are able to get moisture from the sub-soil in times of drought.

How may

SOIL

141

the farmer increase the amount of humus in his soil, and thus the drawing and holding capacity for water be

increased ? 5.

Fill

two

tin

Soil

Mulch

pans or cans with the same kind and

and thoroughly saturate each pan of Then cover the wet soil of one pan with an inch or more of dry earth, finely pulverized, and leave the other pan unmulched. See that both pans of soil now weigh the same, by transferring soil from one to the other as necessary. Set the pans aside for twenty-four hours, then weigh again. Weigh the

amount of soil

soil,

with water.

pans every twenty-four hours for several days, and record the comparative weights of the two pans of

soils.

The dust mulch prevents evaporation, and enables the soil to retain its

moisture.

Wliat bearing does this ex-

periment have upon any farm operations? 6.

Field Observations

Take a walk to a suitable field near the schoolhouse. Take pencil and notebook and answer the following questions 1.

How

does the weathered surface of rocks compare

with the freshly broken surface 2.

?

Are the boulders and pebbles you find of the to be found in the

same material as the rock ledges neighborhood ? 3.

How

do the pebbles in the bed of a stream com-

pare with those back from the stream, in

size

and shape ?

Explain the difference. 4.

Find some

rich soil

and dig a hole about 18x12

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

142 inches,

and about 2 feet deep. Describe the difference soil and sub-soil. Repeat this experiment

between the

by digging the hole on a steep

slope.

Account for

the difference between the soil of the two places.

do you think will grow the better crop the

soil in

How

deep

-is

both places?

Name

5.

?

Which

the places at which you see soil forming,

and explain agency

in each case.

7. Soils on the Home Farms Each student in the class should bring samples of soil from the home farm. Place the samples in separate vessels on a table where all can observe them, and fill

out the following outline

Free Bulletins, U.

Bureau of

S.

Dept. of Agriculture

Soils

Circular No. Circular No. Circular No.

4.— Soils

Lake Valley, Utah. Marsh Lands. 13.— The Work of the Bureau of Soils. 8.

of Salt

—Eeclamation of Salt

Table showing fertilizing substances in average soils: Pounds per Ton. Soil.

•

Loam Clay

Sand

Nitrogen.

Phos. Acid.

7 lbs. 3 lbs.

3 lbs. 3 lbs. 2 lbs.

1

lb.

Potash 8 lbs.

15 5

lbs. lbs.

(Adapted from Stockbridge.)

Problems 1\

Suppose

How many of area

?

soil is

cultivated to the depth of 4 inches.

cubic feet of cultivated soil per square foot

Per square yard ?

Per square rod ?

Per acre ?

SOIL If a

2.

cubic foot of

many pounds square rod

of cultivated soil per square yard?

and phosphoric acid the soil

If

inches,

is

pounds of nitrogen, potash

soil.

cultivated to the depth of each of the

per acre in each of the

tilizing substances

of eight

three

soils

fer-

given in

?

How many

5.

of

how many pounds

the table

Per

in the cultivated soil per acre for

each of the four kinds of 4.

weighs 75 pounds, how

soil

Per acre ?

?

Find the number

3.

143

pounds of nitrogen, potash and phos-

phoric acid are used, annually, per acre, by a crop of

20 bu. of wheat?

In how

many

the nitrogen in clay be used

years will one-half of

up by

this crop feeding to

the depth of eight inches? 6.

How

7.

Work

8.

Use a 50 bu. corn crop per acre and work prob-

lem

7.

will this affect future crops?

the same problem for other

Also a 60 bu. oat crop.

A

soils.

120 bu. potato crop.

LESSON XLVII PLANT FOODS While we are waiting for spring to come, when we busy on our farm to read, we shall

shall be almost too

continue our studies of soils and plant foods.

Elements of the earth. all

— Chemists

have found that

the substances of the world can be separated into

about eighty different things.

These are called elements.

Iron, gold, silver, tin, carbon, sulphur,

etc.,

are elements.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

144

No

one has been able to separate them into different

Gold cannot be separated into anything but For centuries men tried to make gold out of other things, but they failed. Water is not an element; it is a compound. A chemist can separate it into two gases,

things. gold.

hydrogen and oxygen. Elements and compounds.

made up

—All

things

living

are

The compounds of elements. compound of carbon, hydrogen, and

different

of

starch of corn

is

a

Only a few of the eighty elements are necessary for the growth of plants and animals. The following elements are commonly found in plants, and the first oxygen.

ten

are

absolutely necessary

for

good plant growth: potassium,

oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, iron,

phosphorus, calcium, sulphur, magnesium, sodium, chlorine,

and

silicon.

invisible gases, so

phur occur

Oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are

we do not

Calcium

as free elements.

seen, but ordinary quicklime

Gold and

see them. is

magand oxygen

either calcium or

is

nesium combined with oxygen.

Silicon

combined make up the large part of sand.

compound

of

sul-

not ordinarily

sodium and chlorine.

A

Salt

is

green plant

a is

makes up nearly one-half; nitrogen comes next; and there are smaller amounts of other elements. Essential elements for plants. No plant can grow mostly water.

substances, carbon

Of the other

—

unless supplied with the above.

The

soil

sodium, chlorine,

first

ten elements mentioned

furnishes iron,

and

silicon

;

a

to give special attention to these.

sulphur, magnesium,

farmer does not need

The carbon dioxide

PLANT FOODS

145

gas of the air furnishes carbon; water furnishes hydro-

gen and oxygen; and the remaining elements, nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, and calcium, are often

and must be supplied

cient in the soil,

So

to grow.

if

Soil elements.

— The

position of a typical

fertilizers.

following table shows the com-

soil,

containing 100 pounds of mat-

be noted that

It will

is

these, particularly the first three, are the

elements that the farmers buy in their

ter.

insuffi-

a good crop

all these

elements and com-

pounds enter into the plant as food Water Carbon

12.67 lbs.

.

71.55 6.94 5.17 1.08

Silica

Aluminum Iron

Magnesium Soda Sulphuric acid

43 04

Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash

12 43 35

85.21

Lime

lbs.

1.22

2.12 lbs.

The or less

and second groups given above are more constant in the soil and in sufficient quantities

first

that the farmer need not concern himself about supply-

ing them.

The third group, nitrogen, phosphoric

acid,

potash and lime, although constituting so small a portion of the

soil,

must be held up

to a

good standard

amount and proportion or the plant cannot grow. These elements are often used up in the tificially

soil

and must be

ar-

supplied by fertilizers of various kinds.

—

Elements in a wheat plant. The following table shows the composition of 100 pounds of wheat plants

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

146 Carbon Water

47.69 45.86 93.55 lbs.

Sodium Magnesium

09 20 31 04 06

Sulphuric acid Iron Chlorine Silica

2.75

Nitrogen Phosphoric Potash

1.60

3.45 lbs.

45 66 29

acid

Lime

3.00 lbs.

This table

interesting

is

in

that

it

shows that so

small a per cent of the composition of the plant

up

of the nitrogen, phosphorus, potash

made

is

—the

and lime

elements that exist in so small a proportion in the yet

it

is

soil

this small proportion of these elements with

which the farmer must concern himself in intelligent practice.

Plant starvation.

— Now,

if

in sufficient quantity in the

and

Again, the

finally dies.

plant food, but

it

may

may

soil

the plant grows slowly

may

contain plenty of

not be in a form readily soluble

by the water, and the plant just as one

these foods are not found

soil,

suffers

from a lack of

food,

starve within ten feet of plenty of food

is securely locked up so that he can not get at it. One problem which the farmer is called upon to solve is, how to make the plant food in the soil of his farm more easily soluble. From what we have learned it is Soil exhaustion.

that

—

clear that, if the farmer raises grain on his

and never returns manure

to the soil,

farm

to sell,

he will rob

it

of

PLANT FOODS plant food, and

its

of being

147

will soon begin to

it

"worn out." Plant

show evidence

foods are being continually

used up by the growing plants, and removed with them,

and none are returned

the crop the greater will be the

much

crops, being so

The heavier Tobacco and root

to take their place. loss.

heavier, exhaust the soil faster

than small grains.

But worn-out the

different kinds

fact, soil

does not

mean

in

soil

which

of plant foods are used up.

usually contains

all

all

In

plant foods in inexhaust-

with but three exceptions, namely: pot-

ible quantities

ash,

soil

phosphoric acid and the nitrogen found in am-

monia.

To

restore the fertility of the soil

means only

to restore these three substances. Practical Exercises 1.

Collection of Plant

Foods

Place specimens of the following plant foods in small bottles

and

label properly:

Lime, muriate or sulphate

of potash, phosphoric acid, nitrate of soda, iron-rust,

magnesia, sulphur, and pure sand. 2.

Experime7it with Plant

A plant food tablet has been

Food Tablets

prepared which contains

the food essential to plant growth.

Each

tablet

is

com-

posed of the following ingredients:

Common

salt

(sodium chloride), 2^^ grains.

Plaster of Paris (calcium sulphate), 2i/^ grains.

Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate), 21/2 grains. Phosphate of lime (calcium phosphate), 2l^ grains. Salt-petre (postassium nitrate), 5 grains.

Compounds 1-10 grain.

of iron

and chlorine

(ferric

chloride),

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

148

To demonstrate the in these tablets, fectly clean

fill

effect of

plant foods as prepared

two cans or flower pots with per-

sand which has been heated

point of water.

Keep one pot

grains of corn in each pot.

with rain water.

to the boiling

Plant six grains of wheat and three

Keep

of sand moist

the other in the same condition

as to moisture, to which has been

added plant food

to

the proportion of two tablets to each pint of water.

At

first

there will be no difference perhaps in the

growth of the plants, but in two or three weeks, when the food stored up in the grain ference in vigor and growth

is

is

exhausted, the dif-

substances as those contained in these tablets, plied to the

soil,

known

are

Such

clearly evident.

when

ap-

as fertilizers.

Table showing proportions of fertilizing substances in farm crops:

Ounces per Bushel. Crop.

Nitrogen.

Wheat Rje Corn, shelled

Barley

Buckwheat Oats Potatoes Root crops, average Cotton seed

Phos. Acid.

oz.

8

oz.

o

oz.

oz.

oz. oz.

5 3

oz.

oz.

9 5

oz.

6

oz.

4

oz.

oz.

4

oz.

3

oz.

2 2

oz.

oz.

3

oz.

1

oz.

4

oz.

3 oz. 13.8 oz.

1

oz.

oz. 2 5.4 oz.

5.8 oz.

Ounces per 100 Cotton

Potash.

20 17 14 12 12 10

3.8 oz.

lint

oz.

oz.

lbs.

1.6 oz.

8

oz.

Pounds per Ton. Nitrogen.

Crop.

Timothy or red top hay. Clover hay Tobacco (leaves) Straw (average) Sugar beets Cow-pea hay Soy Bean hay

.

Phos. Acid.

20 40 60 10

lbs.

9

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

10 13 4

lbs.

3

lbs.

1-5

lb.

lbs.

47.2 lbs. 46.4 lbs.

lbs.

10.4 lbs. 13.4 lbs.

Potash. 30 40 80 20 4

lbs.

lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs.

29.4 lbs. 21.6 lbs.

PLANT FOODS

149

Problems

How many

1.

pounds of each of the three impor-

tant fertilizers in a crop of wheat that yields 20 bu.

per acre 2.

A

3.

An

A A

4. 5.

25 bu. per acre

?

?

corn crop of 50 bu. per acre

barley crop of 40 bu.

?

60 bu.

?

oat crop of 40 bu. per acre

?

45 bu.

75 bu.

?

50 bu. f 60 bu.

?

?

1

50 bu.

potato crop of 110 bu. per acre?

?

120 bu.

150 bu.?

A

6.

clover

hay crop of

3i/^

tons per acre?

4 tons?

5 tons?

A

7.

tons

?

8.

meadow hay crop

3 tons

A

of 2 tons per acre?

2i/2

?

tobacco crop of 1,500

lbs.

per acre?

1,800

lbs.? 9.

Compare

hardest on the 10.

lems.

Pupils Tell

the

results

and notice which crop

is

soil.

should furnish data for similar prob-

how many

acres of corn, wheat, hay,

etc.,

were raised on the farm at home, the number of bushels

or tons per acre,

and

find the

amount of the three

essential fertilizers taken off with the crop.

LESSON XLVIII FERTILIZERS During

this

month we

ing on our farm. tilizers in

other

We

shall begin the shall

of fertiliz-

mix the commercial

fer-

Barnyard manures and must be spread upon the orchards,

our farm laboratory.

fertilizers

work

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

150

and gardens,

pastures, fields

as

we

shall learn in this

lesson.

Important elements of the

—As

soil.

was suggested

in the last lesson, the three elements likely to be lack-

are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash. we use must, therefore, contain these elements. The crop will usually tell the farmer

ing in our

The

essential

by

soils

fertilizers

its

appearance the kind of food

Fig. 46.

fertile,

well-drained

most needs.

it

Good,

Waste of Manure

soil,

properly cultivated, usually

produces healthy, dark green plants with strong, good-

and numerous, well-filled seeds. Nitrogen. The growth of the stalks and foliage of the plant is largely due to the nitrogen, providing the sized stalks,

—

heat, light, air,

and moisture conditions are

If the plant has a yellow, sickly appearance,

cultivation

refuses to grow,

want of nitrogen. always giving best right in

amounts

The

it

is

likely

best fertilizer,

results, is

favorable.

and under

starving for

and the one nearly

barnyard manure.

of nitrogen, phosphoric acid,

forms readily available to the plant.

It

has

and potash, Especially

FERTILIZEES will

151

barnyard manure improve yellow and sickly plants.

Besides acting as a fertilizer, barnyard manure improves the texture of the pacity,

and

its

increases

soil,

its

water-holding ca-

decay sets free humic acids which ren-

soil more available. and other like legumes, also serve because they have the power of using the

der mineral foods of the Clovers, cow-peas, as fertilizers,

way

nitrogen of the air in a later lesson.

they take from the

and

air,

when mature, they add as large

that will be explained in a

These plants store up the nitrogen that if

they are plowed under

this nitrogen to the soil, as well

quantities of humus, which in decaying lib-

erates other mineral foods already in the

soil.

The principal commercial nitrogen fertilizers are cottonseed meal, nitrate of soda, dried blood and tankage,

and refuse from slaughterhouses. Nitrate of soda is and quickest acting of all these fertilizers. It dissolves quickly when applied to the soil, and is at High grade once available as food for the plants. Two hundred nitrate of soda contains 15% nitrogen. the best

pounds per acre

is

Phosphoric acid.

pound

a heavy application.

—Phosphoric

acid

is

the one com-

in our soils soonest likely to be wanting,

one which in the future

it

will be

most

and the

difficult to pro-

Undeveloped and shrunken seeds usually indicate shortage of phosphoric acid in the soil. Barnyard mavide.

nure contains a good percentage of phosphoric acid.

Ground bones and phosphate rocks are the commercial sources of this fertilizer.

There are great deposits of

phosphate rock in Tennessee and the Carolinas, and

it

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

152 is

being rapidly rained away,

taken to European countries.

quantities being

large

In the manufacture of

high grade phosphates, the rock

is

ground

fine

then treated with sulphuric acid, which makes

and thus available phates

pounds per acre Potash.

as a plant food.

15%

contain

is

—Potash

it

and

is

soluble,

High grade phosTwo hundred

phosphate.

acid

an average application. especially essential in the pro-

is

duction of fruits, potatoes, and root crops.

Other con-

and imHere again

ditions being favorable, undersized, shriveled,

perfect fruits are due to a lack of potash.

barnyard manure will supply a good percentage of the element needed.

Wood

source of potash.

The principal commercial potash

tilizers are

ashes are also valuable as a fer-

muriate of potash and sulphate of potash.

They contain about 50% of available potash, and are in excess of one hundred pounds per

seldom applied acre.

Lime.

—Lime

is

not a fertilizer in the same sense as

those discussed above, but fertilizers

because of

Lime sweetens the plant food

is set

its

soil,

it is

used in connection with

chemical effect upon the

soil.

breaks up combinations so that

free for the use of the plants,

and im-

proves the physical condition of both clay and sand soils.

The subject of study, needs.

fertilizers is a large

and important one

much thought and careful and each farmer must work out his own farm

to the farmer.

It requires

FERTILIZERS

153

Practical Exercises 1.

Expcrimcnial Tests

iviih Fertilizers

Fill ten five-inch earthen flower pots

and add

with clean sand,

fertilizers to the different pots as follows

1.

Nothing.

2.

Nitrate of soda (one-half teaspoonful),

3.

Acid phosphate (one teaspoonful).

Fig. 47.

4.

Liming the Soil

Muriate of potash (one-fourth teaspoonful).

5.

Nitrate of soda and acid phosphate.

6.

Nitrate of soda and muriate of potash.

7.

Acid phosphate and muriate of potash.

8.

Nitrate of soda, acid phosphate, and muriate of

potash. 9.

10.

Same

as No.

8,

but double the amount of each.

Stable manure.

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

154

Mix

the fertilizers into the soil;

then plant about

a dozen grains of wheat in each pot.

names of the window or light

Avith the

in a

Label each pot Place the pots

fertilizers used.

and keep the soil moist the wheat seedlings come up, thin out

ened.

When

to the

same number

place,

Note the difference

in each pot.

Which

in the color of the leaves in each pot. izers give the greatest increase in

Make

fertil-

growth?

a complete record of this experiment in the

note-book.

Lime on

Soils

see the effect of lime on clay

soil,

Effects of

2.

To balls,

clay

In a few days examine and see which

set aside to dry. is

make two

one with water, and the other with lime water, and

more mellow. Repeat the experiment with water and humus-water

and note the Is lime

result.

used on

your neighborhood?

soils in

Fertilizers

Showing average amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in fertilizers:

Pounds per Ton, Substance. Clover hay

Nitrogen.

Straw Barnyard manure

Wood

40 10 10

lbs. lbs.

lbs.

Phos. Acid. 10 lbs. 4 lbs. 6 lbs.

60 500 400

ashes

Burned bones Ground bones

lbs.

Potash.

40 20

lbs. lbs.

9 lbs.

160

lbs.

lbs. lbs.

Problems 1.

ton.

Suppose a load of barnyard manure weighs a

How many

phoric acid?

pornds Of potash?

of nitrogen in it?

Of phos-

FEKTILIZEES

How much

2.

of each of the above in 15 loads?

20

50 loads?

loads? 3.

I55

How many

your land

last

loads of

year?

manure were hauled onto

How much

of each fertilizing

substance was supplied? 4.

you put 15 loads on an

If

each fertilizing substance per acre 5.

how much

Suppose you harvested 50 bu. of corn per

How much off

acre,

of each fertilizing substance did

with the crop

of

?

acre.

you take

?

6. Was your soil richer or poorer after the corn was harvested? Did you take off more than you put

on ? 7.

is

How much of each kind How much of each of these

taken

off

bu. crop of barley 8.

How many

9.

is

A

40

?

loads of

to restore the fertility lost

crop

fertilizing substances

with a 25 bu. crop per acre of wheat ?

manure per acre are necessary when a 25 bu. per acre wheat

harvested?

If $5 per acre spent in fertilizer increases the

yield of potatoes 50 bu. net.

Find the gain per acre by

fertilizing. 10.

A

farmer who uses

grows 560 fertilizer

lbs.

fertilizer costing .$6

of cotton per acre;

grows 350

lbs.

per acre.

ket price of cotton which plan

How much 11.

is

is

At

an acre

one who uses no the present mar-

the more profitable?

gained on 80 acres?

The usual prices of the common

follows

Nitrate of soda, $57.00 per ton.

fertilizers is as

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

156

Acid phosphate, $12.50 per

ton.

Muriate of potash, $42.00 per ton.

How much

would a pound of each

"When a farmer speaks of a he means that

it

contains

2%

and 10% potash. How would 2000 pounds made up?

cost?

fertilizer as

being 2:8:10,

8%

nitrogen,

phosphoric

acid,

Assume

Note.

soda contains

of fertilizer of this type be

in the above

15%

problem that nitrate of

nitrogen, the acid phosphate

phosphorus, and the muriate of potash

termine how

much

50%

14%

potash, de-

of these commercial fertilizers

would

be required to furnish the essential amount of pure elements. 12. sity,

At the College of Agriculture, Cornell Univertwo tons of manure that had been weighed and

analyzed were 22,

left

exposed from April 25 to September

with the following results

Total weight

Nitrogen Phosphoric Potash

What was tember 22?

was

lost

Sept. 22.

1,730 lbs. 7.72 lbs.

19.6 lbs. 14.8 lbs. 36. lbs.

aoid

and potash

April 25. 4,000 lbs.

7.79 lbs. 8.65 lbs.

the value of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, in this

manure on April

25,

and on Sep-

(Use the values given above).

How much

?

There are two ways

to

prevent such losses

—the

ma-

nure may be hauled and spread on the land every

few days, or 13.

A

it

good

may

be kept in covered sheds.

fertilizer for

to be one containing

timothy hay has been found

200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 100

FEETILIZEES

157

pounds of acid phosphate, and 50 pounds of muriate of potash, per acre.

How much What

would

this cost

per acre?

percentage of each would this fertilizer con-

tain?

About how much hay hood would be worth

this

at the price in

much ?

your neighbor-

FEBRUARY On

the farm.

—During

month we shall have a work to engage our There are fences to repair and this

variety of interests and plenty of attention on the farm.

build, hotbeds to prepare, tile ditches to dig, spring

orders to make, and live stock to feed and care for.

one great work

is

to claim

our time, but

many

No

different

plans and preparations are to be made.

LESSON XLIX DRAINAGE Plan for draining our forty acres.

— A period of open

weather has come, the ground has thawed out, and we

have seen that drainage. shall

fields

If the

run two

numbers

ground

is

1

and 2 of our farm need in, we

dry enough to work

ditches, each forty rods long, across the

centers of fields

numbers

Spring Hollow.

We

1

and

shall

2,

and connect each with

use five-inch

tiles,

twelve

and they will cost us 5c each. We should have a bookkeeping account of our year on the farm, and record the expense of our tile drainage. inches long,

Values of drainage. water.

—Removes the

Plants cannot grow without

in the soil keeps out the air.

The

and much water

level of the

ground water must be below the depth 158

excess of surface

air,

to

under-

which the roots

DRAINAGE

159

of the crops ordinarily penetrate the

drainage lowers this water

on low,

soil.

Good

tile

both

Stiff clay soils

level.

land and upon hillsides often hold an ex-

flat

and need drainage. Aerates the soil. As was stated above, plants require The air at the roots as well as about their foliage.

cess of surface water,

presence of air in the

soil

promotes the action of bac-

germs that aid in breaking up the humus, as

teria, the

was shown

in a previous lesson,

nitrogen in legumes.

and

in the fixation of

Air circulating through the

tends to draw the air through the

soil

tiles

from the surface

above and thus to aerate the whole root-feeding area of the plants.

Warms and heat

is

sweetens the

soil.

In wet

soils so

much

used in evaporating the water that these

never become warm.

and and Well drained land warms up

Often such

soils

cannot become sweet until the water the heat

and

soils

air let in.

is

are sour,

drained

off

earlier in the spring, facilitating earlier planting, thus

extending the growing season of the crop. Conserves moisture.

We

were told a moment ago

that drainage removes the excess of moisture,

may seem

and

ii

a contradiction to state that drainage con-

serves the moisture, but this fact can be shown.

Soils

and tilled, as good drainage permits, are more porous and are in better condition physically both to receive and hold the rainfall and to promote capillarity from the table water below. Methods of drainage. The tile system of drainage is better than the open ditch, though more expensive. The that are aerated

—

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

IGO tiles

should be placed about three feet below the sur-

face, so that the

water

level in the

ground

ered to this point, and that the ground

of

Fig. 48.

will be low-

be cultivated

The size of the the mains and branches

without interfering with the

and the distance apart

may

tiles.

tile

will

Laying Tile

depend upon the slope of the land and the nature of the

soil.

Farmers' Bulletins No. 40. Farm Drainage. No. 187. Drainage of Farm Lands.

— —

Table showing average cost of drainage

tile

tities:

3 in. tile

4 in. tile 5 in. tile 6 in. tile All sizes are 12 inches

cost about cost about cost about cost about in lensth.

3c 4c 5c 6c

each. each. each. each.

in large quan-

DRAINAGE

161

Problems

A

1.

farmer owns a plat of low ground 80 rods

long and 50 rods wide

A

2.

;

how many

acres in this plat

?

The

creek runs lengthwise through this land.

level of the water in the creek

Can

of the land.

it

is

be drained

4 feet below the level

?

Will the creek answer as a channel to carry

3.

off

the water from the tiles?

Suppose he puts the

4.

tiles

crosswise of the

4 rods apart, so that they open into the creek.

many

rods of tiling will

How many What

5.

4

it

take?

How many

field,

How feet?

in. tiles?

will be the cost of these tiles according to

the above table?

What

6.

tiles at

What

7.

used ?

tile

3 in.

What

8.

will

it

cost to dig the ditches

and lay the

20 cents per rod ? will be the ?

6 in.

entire cost if 4 in. tiles are

?

will be the cost per acre for each kind of

?

Suppose open ditches costing twenty cents per

9.

rod will answer. cost

How much

more

will the tile system

than the open ditches?

10. If the farmer is able to grow only 11/2 tons of marsh hay worth $4 per ton on this land before draining and can grow 60 bu. of corn worth $0.35 per bu. after draining, what is the increase in the value of the

crop due to drainage? 11.

In how

many

years will this increase alone pay

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

162

For the 4

for the open ditch?

the 6

in. tile

12.

Suppose the open ditch In how

annually for repairs. ditch cost as 13.

much

tile

system?

For

costs 5

many

cents per rod

years will the open

as the tile drain?

If the above

a true example of the cost

is

value of drainage, does 14.

in.

system?

What would

it

and

pay ?

it

cost

to

dig an open ditch on

each side of a slough 10 rods wide and 100 rods long at $0.25 per rod 15.

ing?

IMeasure

mate the 16.

?

Is there a place it.

on your farm that needs drain-

Draw

a plan for ditches and

esti-

cost of both systems.

Estimate the cost of the drainage suggested at

the beginning of this lesson.

LESSON L FENCES Good

—

We shall have a few spare would be well to look to our The construction and care of the farm fences

fences

and

thrift.

days this month, and fences.

it

are indications of thrift or shiftlessness of the farmer. If the fences about the yard, gardens,

and

fields

are

neatly kept, and the weeds and bushes are cut from the rows

and

corners,

it is

a sign that the farmer takes

home and farm, and that he is The scarcity details of his business.

pride in his in the is

necessitating the use of wire, hedges,

successful of timber

and cement for

FENCES Wire

fencing purposes.

163

fences, supported

by the

locust

or catalpa posts, are perhaps the best fences to construct at the present time.

—

The Ferguson fence. When the fence rails get old and broken, farmers sometimes utilize them in building what is known as the Ferguson fence. In this arrangement posts are set in the ground and the fence rails are attached to the posts by means of fencing wire and staples.

This

a very economical fence, not only from

is

the standpoint of materials, but also on account of the

saving of space in the fence row.

Osage hedge fence.

— Some

years ago there was a

great deal of enthusiasm over the Osage hedge fence, but

waning now, in fact, many up and burned. The chief objection to the hedge is that the extensive network of roots saps the life and nourishment of the soil to such an extent that farm crops can not be grown within

the interest in these fences

is

of the hedges are being pulled

twenty or thirty Since 1870

quiring every

feet of the fence.

many states have passed stock laws reman to fence in his own stock, instead of

fencing out those of his neighbors.

The

result has been

a great saving to farmers in every case. Practical Exercises 1.

Make

a

list

Fences on

Home Farms

of all the different kinds of fences that

you have on the home farm. made,

tell

how

Explain how they are

long they have been constructed, and in

what condition they are

at present.

LESSONS IN AGETCULTUEE

1G4

Excursion to Observe and Eepair Fences

S.

At the conclusion

of this lesson, go to observe some

fence near the school.

Make

note of the fence, tilling

out the following table

Kind of Fence. Materials Used. State of Eepair. Attention Needed.

any fences needing repair about the school it would be an excellent an application of this lesson, to repair them

If there are

yard or

in the neighborhood,

thing, as

and

to

put them in as good condition as

3.

possible.

Cement Fence-posts

Since recent fence-post and walk construction have

made use

of the Portland cement about the farm,

it

would be valuable exercise to make a few cement posts or blocks at the school. The following formula is used

Cement Sand

1

part.

2 or 3 parts.

Stone (from one to two inches diameter) 5 parts. Moisten and mix until the mortar slides easily and smoothly from the shovel.

FENCES

1G5

Problems

How many

1.

a

160-acre

rods of fence will

farm?

Estimate

for

it

take to fence in

differently

shaped

farms.

How many

2.

locust ^posts

would be required

to

fence the 160-acre farm with wire?

What would

3.

this

farm?

4.

How

be the cost of woven wire fence for

long should such a fence last ?

LESSON

LI

KNOT TYINa IN ROPES

A

rainy day has come.

until

we

Having read our farm papers and

are tired, let us go to the farm laboratory

practice tying knots in ropes. 1.

The tying of useful knots, rope splicing, making halters and other useful things of kind, are industries that belong to the farm, and

of hitching ropes, this

should be included in a course of agriculture for the schools.

The teacher should provide a rope and make

models of each of the eight knots shown in the

figure,

and hang them up before the class. 2. Each pupil should have a piece of rope about one yard in length, and practice making these knots until he can do

it

with ease.

LESSORS lA AGRICULTURE

166

Names

3. a.

b. c.

of the useful knots

The single loop. The overhand knot. The overhand knot repeated.

Fig. 49.

Used

to

keep the

Useful Knots

rope from slipping before making the square knot in tying bundles. d.

The square or reef

will not untie

and

knot.

A

strong knot which

by pulling, but which can be

easily

broken

untied. e.

The loop

knot.

Used

will not slip. f.

The

figure of 8 knot.

in

making a halter that

A HOTBET GAEDEN g.

The

slip

167

Commonly used

knot.

in

hitching

horses to racks. h.

The bowline

knot.

Used in tying the anchor

of ships.

Note. harness,

Practical exercises in splicing ropes, riveting

and sewing

may

halters, etc.,

LESSON

be given.

LII

A HOTBED GARDEN During the to

latter part of this

month we must begin

plan for our hotbeds and cold frames for our early

vegetables

and

flowers.

pjven in school the teacher

and pupils ifinay well un-

dertake to work out this lesson together.

Proceed as

follows

Making of

the hotbed.

—Select a place at the south side Dig an oblong space and eighteen inches deep.

some building for the hotbed.

three feet wide, six feet long, ]\Iake a

wall of posts and boards, fitting close to the

sides of the bed.

Make

the back wall three feet high and

A

eighteen inches above the surface of the ground. piece of two-by-four joist set in across the middle, will

make

from back

a support for the

sashes which are to cover the bed.

ready, put in a layer of strawed piled for some time,

fill

nure and tramp

down

it

layer of nine inches,

When

manure

to

front

window

the bed

is

that has been

in about nine inches of the

ma-

Then add a second firmly. and tramp firmly as before.

Then spread four inches of

rich garden

loam over

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

168 the manure,

and the bed

is

the pupils can bring whole to cover the beds.

Two

make the necessary

cover.

ready.

window

Perhaps some of sashes from

home

sashes three feet square would

Plants for the hotbed.

— Early lettuce, radishes, early

Jersey Wakefield cabbages,

tlie

Earliana tomato, onions,

and other vegetables may be sown thickly in rows about

Fig. 50.

four

inches

apart,

A Hotbed

in

Wintee

and by the time warm weather

comes, the school will have plants to supply the neigh-

borhood, the children will have seen things,

and the school

will

many

interesting

have found a new source of

co-operation with the home.

Ventilating the hotbed.

warmed frame.

the

The

soil,

soil

—In

and the

the hotbed the

manure

glass kept the heat in the

should be watered every few days, and

on the bright days the sash should be raised to admit fresh air to the

Draw

little seedlings.

the plan

of

the

preparation and planting.

hotbed,

and

describe

the

EUEAL FEEE MAIL DELIVEEY

LESSON

169

LIII

RURAL FREE MAIL DELIVERY Using the free delivery.

we begin

agricultural

of the latest

—As

the spring approaches

to think of catalogs of seeds

bulletins,

and

plants,

and

which will give us the

information to help us in our work.

We

are for-

tunate in having a rural free delivery at our door, and

we

shall

make use

of this service.

—

Rural free delivery and good roads. There is no of greater importance to the coun-

modern convenience

try people than the rural free mail delivery.

not self-sustaining, and

it is

Although

costs the people large

sums

has come to stay, for the farmer sees that

of money,

it

service

a great necessity in the promotion of his wel-

fare.

is

its

In order to promote the greater efficiency of the

rural delivery service, and at the same time render effective aid in the

improvement of roads throughout the Office Department, and the Of-

United States, the Post fice

of Public

Roads have entered

into a plan of co-op-

eration looking to the betterment of all roads where the

rural service

is

extended.

Through

this co-operation, re-

cently a county in Indiana spent $85,000 for the im-

provement of the rural mail routes. Upon the advice of the Post Office Department, the Office of Public Roads sends

its

engineers to inspect and advise as to the con-

struction of local roads.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

170

1.

Practical Exercises Information About the Local Carrier

Find out from your local carrier the following points and write them up in the record of this

of information lesson

How many miles does the carrier travel in What is the carrier's salary? What is the condition of the roads? How many daily and how many weekly

1.

2. 3.

4.

a

day?

papers

are delivered on the route?

What

5.

route 6.

is

the average daily stamp cancel on this

?

Does the postage of the route pay expenses? 2.

Row

Each pupil

to

Use the Rural Free Delivery

in the class should write a letter to the

Department of Agriculture, addressed of Agriculture, Washington, D.

C,

to the Secretary

or better

still,

to

your Congressman or Senator at Washington, and ask for at least ten of the following

(Copy

Farmers

lesson.)

Farmers Bulletins The Feeding of Farm Animals. Weeds, and How to Kill Them. '

No.

'

Bulletins

this letter neatly in the note-book record of this

Potato Culture. Fowls: Care and Feeding. Facts About Milk. Sewage Disposal on the Farm. Commercial Fertilizers. Sheep Feeding. Standard Varieties of Chickens.

Some Common

Birds.

The Dairy Herd. Bee-keeping.

Marketing Farm Produce. Meadows and Pastures.

No.

LESSONS IN AGKICULTUBE

172

Seed of Eed Clover

No. 260. No. 265. No. 266.

in Its Impurities. for 1906. Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture.

Game Laws

Note. The first rural route ever established was from Charlestown, West Virginia, by W. L. Wilson, Postmaster General, under President Cleveland. Sample Letter for Bulletins 22 Perry

St.,

Morganto\Yn, West Va..

February

22,

1911.

Secretary of Agriculture,

Washington, D.

C.

— Please send me the following Farmers' Bulletins distribution — address as above: No. 109. — Farmers' Reading Courses. No. ]34. — Tree Planting on School Grounds. No. 161. —Practical Suggestions for Fruit Growers. No. 173. — Primer of Forestry. No. 185. — Beautifying the Home Grounds. No. 199. — Corn Growing. Dear Sir:

for

free

No. 218.— The School Garden. No. 247.— The Control of the Codling Moth. No. 41. Fowls, Care and Feeding. No. 35.— Potato Culture. Also put me down to receive the Monthly List of Publications.

—

I

am

a student of agriculture in the

Yours

School. sincerely.

LESSON LTV AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES Organization of boys and girls '

— In the school, early in the year,

'

agricultural society.

let

a Friday afternoon

be devoted to the organization of an agricultural society.

All boys and girls should selves, for in this

way

is

know how

to organize

them-

learned that great lesson of co-

operation so vitally needed to-day in rural

life.

Let one of the older boys, at the suggestion of the

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES Then

teacher, call the meeting to order.

and say "Mr. Chairman,

I73 let

some hoy

rise

nominate John Reihle

1

ample) for president."

I

Another

rises

(for

ex-

and says:

"Mr. Chairman, I second the nomination." Then let some one rise and say "Mr. Chairman, if there are no other nominations, move that John Reihle be declared elected president

of this society."

Some one says, "I second the motion," then the boy who is acting chairman says: "It has been moved and seconded that John Reihle be declared president of this society.

remarks?" say,

'Aye'

Hearing none, he ".

posed say, 'no'

"All those

He

estimates the vote.

".

If he receives

the chairman declares that t

says,

John

Are there any in favor

"All those op-

more for than against, is elected.

John then takes the place of the chairman, and conducts the meeting.

A

secretary

is

then elected as

among the girls. The following and By-Laws should be read by one of the Constitution

above, preferably from

pupils,

and adopted by the

society as a tentative work-

ing plan Constitution and

By-Laws of the Green Valley School Agri cultural

Article

The name of

Club 1.

this society shall be the

Green Valley

School Agricultural Club. Article

;

The

2.

objects of this society shall be to encourage the

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

174

study of Agriculture in the school and home contests

work,

etc.

in ;

plant

and

growing,

animal

to cultivate a love for the

Article

;

to

raising,

promote literary

farm and home.

3.

All the boys and girls of the school over eight years of age are eligible for

eight

may

and under

membership.

fifteen, in the district

Any

person over

and not

in school,

be elected to membership by a majority vote. Article

The membership nual dues,

4.

fee shall be ten cents,

five cents,

and the an-

payable at the beginning of the

school year.

Article

The

5.

officers shall consist of President, Vice-president,

Secretary, Treasurer, Speaker, and Usher. Article It is the

6.

duty of the President

to preside at all meet-

and command obedience to all a red ribbon worn on the lapel of his coat. The Vice-president assists the President and presides in his absence. His emblem is a blue ribbon. The Speaker wall assist the President and Secretary in arranging the literary program for the regular meetings. His emblem is a green ribbon. The Secretary will keep a record of all meetings, receive the fees and dues of the members, pay the same to the Treasurer, take and keep his receipts therefor. His emblem is the white ribbon. The Treasurer shall take charge of and keep all the money of the society, and pay out the same only upon ings,

preserve order,

rules.

His emblem

is

AGRICULTUEAL SOCIETIES orders signed by the President and Secretary.

blem

is

175

His em-

the yellow ribbon.

The Usher guards the door, shows members and ors to seats,

emblem

and

helps the President preserve order.

visit-

His

a blue rod.

is

Article

7.

This society shall meet every two weeks at the school house, either in the afternoon or evening as the teacher decides.

IMeetings

may

be held at the homes of members. Article

The order of business

8.

at the regular meetings shall

be as follows: 1.

Roll

2.

Reading the minutes of

3.

Report of committees.

4.

Proposals for membership.

call.

last

5.

Voting on new members.

6.

Literary program.

7.

Miscellaneous business.

8.

Adjournment.

1.

The

meeting.

By-Laws literary

program prepared by the Speaker,

and Secretary,

President,

shall consist of music, recita-

tions, readings, essays, orations,

gram

shall be

and

debates.

The pro-

announced by the Speaker, two weeks

in

advance. 2.

An

annual exhibit should be arranged, perhaps

best in the

autumn, in which the boys

or garden products they have

will exhibit field

grown, and the

girls.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

176

flowers, vegetables, or cookery.

In preparing for this

exhibit, the boys should each select in the spring the

plat of ground, not to exceed one acre, nor less than

1-10 acre, prepare, plant or sow sire.

Send

any crop he may deDepartment

for the best seeds, either to the

of Agriculture at Washington, D.

Agricultural College. pupil

may

From

get liulletins on

C, or

to the State

either of these places the

any crop he chooses

to

grow

for the exhibit.

The teacher and the club shall organize committees to solicit prizes to award at the exhibit for the best vegetables, grain, animals, cookery, etc., brought by the 3.

pupils.

The club shall take an annual excursion, visiting the farms and homes of the district. This may take the form of a picnic and be the happy ending of the school 4.

term. 5.

This constitution and by-laws

may

be amended at

provided the proposed

any meeting by

a two-thirds vote,

amendment

posted in the school rooms two weeks

is

before adoption.

(To the teacher:)

Grange

is

This society

may

be,

and

if

a

in the district, should be developed into the

Juvenile Grange, a national order, recognized by the

Patrons of Husbandry.

The Juvenile Grange is a most excellent organization young people of the country. It has just enough secret work about it to make it attractive to young folks, and the ceremonies are beautiful and full of good lessons which every boy and girl should heed. In changfor

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES

177

ing the above society to the Juvenile Grange, write to Prof. T. C. Atkeson,

Morgantown, W. Va., Overseer of

the National Grange, or to C. City, Ohio, Secretary, for the

Grange.

M. Freeman, Tippecanoe

Manual

of the Juvenile

Juvenile Granges must be organized under the

special charge of a Subordinate Grange.

LESSON LV THE GRANGE Let US learn something of the greatest farmers' organization in the world

—the

Grange, or the Order of

Patrons of Husbandry.

The following facts about the Grange were submitted by Prof. T. C. Atkeson, Master of the West Virginia State Grange and Overseer of the National Grange:

Origin of the grange,

— "The

idea

fraternal organization originated in the

H. Kelley,

a oNIinnesota

a

farmers'

mind

of Oliver

of

farmer, while on a trip through

the southern states in 1867, soon after the close of the

great Civil

Johnson

War, where he had been sent by President what might be done to rebuild the dev-

to see

astated agriculture of that

great agricultural region.

Mr. Kelley was a high degree Free Mason, and naturally his idea of a farmers' organization took the

secret society.

Soon after

where he reported paid a

to the

visit to his niece,

his return to

form of a

Washington,

Department of Agriculture, he Miss Carrie A. Hall, who

re-

sided in Boston, and outlined to her his proposed farmers'

organization.

Miss Hall suggested that farmers'

LESSONS IX AGRICULTUEE

178

wives and daughters be admitted on full equality with

and from the first, the organization which followed has made no distinction on account of sex. Mr.

the men,

Kelley unfolded his plans to a number of gentlemen in the

Department of Agriculture and elsewhere, who

came

be-

interested in the matter.

Patrons of Husbandry.

—

' '

The

first

meeting was held

William Saunders, the horticulturist of the Agricultural Department at Washington, on the evening of December the fourth, 1867, which has ever in the office of

since been

known

as the birthday of the order.

The

or-

ganization was named, 'Patrons of Husbandry,' and the word, 'Grange,' which

means

a

farm home, was

substituted for 'lodge' as used by other organizations.

— "There

are Subordinate, Pomona, State, and National Granges, each one of which is represented by delegates in the next highest body up to the National Grange which is the supreme authority. All Granges have the same officers as follows: Master, Overseer, Officers.

Lecturer, Steward, Assistant Steward, Chaplain, Treasurer,

Secretary,

and Lady

Gate Keeper, Ceres, Pomona, Flora,

Assistant Steward.

Purposes of the grange. ization

is

legitimate

to

— "The purpose of the organ-

promote the interest of agriculture in every

way

possible, educationally, legislatively, co-

and socially, with a view to develop a betIn ter manhood and womanhood on American farms. its forty odd years of history, the Grange has accomplished a vast amount of good for American farmers, and practically every advancement made by agriculture operatively,

THE GEANGE in that

179

time originated with the Grange or has been

ef-

The Grange was an important factor in the establishment of agricultural colleges and high schools, and originated the idea of teaching elementary agriculture in the public schools. Experiment stations are mainly the product of Grange advocacy. Rural mail delivery, the Department of Agriculture, the Interstate Commerce Commission, and hundreds fectively

promoted by

it.

of other measures of state or national legislation orig-

inated with the Grange or were promoted by

value to agriculture

Work tion. is

is

— "The

grange

education.

business agency. in the rut.

work

is

on cultural

It is

It

organization, co-opera-

party nor a

nor forever

It is neither ultra-radical

Its chief

of a

is

a live institu-

It is neither a political

eludes the entire family.

growth

is

satisfying a great need in rural society.

based on correct principles:

tion,

Its

beyond computation.

of the grange.

It is

it.

lines.

It in

now growing, and

its

permanent character.

"The Grange

is

ambitious to take

its

place beside

and the church, as one of the trinity of forces that shall mold the life of the farmer on the broadest possible basis material, intellectual, social, and

the school

—

ethical. is

Is there

not worthy, or

any good reason why

why

its

this ambition

goal should not be

won?"

(President Buttertield of the Mass. Agricultural College,

from

his

Chapters on Rural Progress.)

LESSORS IN AGEICULTURE

180

Why

Fanners Should Join the Grange

(By the authority

of the Master of the National

Grange. 1.

Because

it is

2.

Because

it

inexpensive.

is

the farmer's only organization, na-

tional in character.

Because

3.

it

has stood the test for more than forty

and has never been found wanting

years,

any

re-

has exerted greater influence in

se-

in

spect.

Because

4.

it

curing state and national legislation in the interest of agriculture than any other agency in the country.

Because

5.

ers,

it

is

officered

by those engaged in

who know from experience

culture,

and are sincere

agri-

the needs of farm-

in their desire to aid

them

in every

possible way. 6.

Because

it

with one another,

is

the duty of farmers to co-operate

if

they would successfully meet the

and secure what the harvest

influence of organization in every direction, for wife

and home a

fair share of

yields. 7.

Because

known in

it

has exerted the greatest

in breaking

making farm

up the

life

isolation of

life, and and girls, the farm home

farm

attractive to the boys

bringing sunshine and happiness into to such

influence

an extent as has never before

existed.

After the teacher has discussed this lesson with the pupils, all the text-books should be laid aside,

and the

pupils asked to write a brief essay in their note-books

on the Grange,

and work.

its history,

plan of organization, purposes

MARCH

—

On the farm. With the coming of the spring months we begin to get interested in seeds and growing plants. This month on the farm we shall select our seed corn more carefully, make germination tests, spray our fruit trees against scale, prune the grape-vines, bushes, and fruit trees, sow clover seed in the wheat, sow oats, and begin planning for the com crop. It is to be a busy

month.

LESSON LVI STRUCTURE OF SEEDS Possibilities in seeds.

— Seeds

are such

common

ob-

farm boys and girls, that I fear sometimes we appreciate what wonderful things they are. I not do

jects to

say wonderful, because no one understands them, because from them come nearly

all

all

about

our plants,

and upon them we depend for most of our food. Within the little seed is wrapped up all the possibilities of size, color,

flavor,

shape

—in

fact,

all

the

qualities

of the

grown up plant it is to become. Value of seeds. Seeds are a great deal like yourselves. They are little plants, dressed up, carrying dinner baskets, and sent forth by their parents into the world to grow up as nature intended them, into perfect plants. Ought we not to be interested in them since they do so much for us ? What can we do for the seeds ? We

—

181

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

182

can care well for them, plant theui and nurture them.

—

But we must learn more about them learn how they are made, and why every part of the seed is formed as it

is.

Plants live to produce seed.

and

stem, flower,

a seed.

Why

of a seed?

the

— Plants grow, bear

fruit for the sole purpose of

does the plant do so

Because in the seed

food to start

it,

well

is

much

the

protected against drought,

when winter comes, on and produce a new plant again.

old plant should die live

for the sake

young plant and

and other forces that might injure

cold,

leaf,

producing

it,

and

if

the seed

the

may

In the practical exercises which follow, we shall see

how

the seed

is

made. Practical Exercises 1.

To

facilitate the

Stady of the Luna Bean

study of seeds they should be

left

in Vv'ater over night.

Observe the following points of the bean, and make a sentence note of each of the words in black type. 1.

Markings on the surface Scar or hilum where the seed was attached to

(a)

the pod.

Near" the hilum a small opening, the micropyle.

(b) 2.

Remove

the coat or testa.

Near the hilum a small

pointed body, the caulicle, will be seen.

Separate the halves or cotyledons, observe that the

two small leaves, the plumule. The cotyledons, caulicle, and plumule constitute the

caulicle bears

ambryo.

STRUCTUEE OF SEEDS

183

^lake a drawing of the whole bean showing these parts,

and of^the

single cotyledon with the caulicle

and

plumule in place. 2.

Study of the Grain of Corn

Soak a few grains of corn in hot water for twenty minutes or use grains that have soaked in water over night.

With

a sharp knife remove the tip cap at the

end of the kernel.

Fig. 51.

Beginning at the end where the

Kernels of Corn in Sections Showing the Germ

from The part immediately under Carefully remove the hull is called the horny gluten. off with sharp knife. Now remove the a it by shaving it

hull has been l)roken at the tip cap, remove the hull

the entire grain in strips.

germ or embryo. Make out the caulicle and plumule After the tip cap, hull, as you did in the Lima bean.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

184

horny gluten, and germ have been removed, there remains only starch, of which there are two kinds the

—

horny starch and the white starch.

The horny starch lies at the back and sides of the kernel. The white starch is at the crown end of the kernel above the germ, and nearly surrounds the germ toward the tip of the kernel. Separate as far as possible the horny starch and the white starch. ]\Iake an enlarged drawing of the front view of a grain of corn, showing and naming the parts. Note.

All seeds except the seeds of conifers, are of

one of these two types.

In the bean, there are two

cotyledons, and the food material of the seed

is

stored in

these cotyledons.

In the corn there food material

is

is

only one cotyledon, and the

stored outside of the embryo, in a part

called the endosperm. 3.

Study of a Grain of Wheat

Soak a few grains of wheat

in

warm

water.

With a

sharp knife try to remove the covering of the grain.

There are four of these coverings on a grain of wheat,

and one

three epidermic layers

testa or true seed coat.

These coats constitute the bran and make up about of the grain.

dosperm.

Immediately under the

is

11%

the en-

This makes up a large part of the seed and

the flour of commerce. size

testa

of the embryo.

is

Note the position, form, and

Make

a diagram representing a

cross section of a grain of wheat,

showing

these parts.

all

Note to Te.vchers. Send for "School Set of Ecoto Edgar Brown, Seed Laboratory, De-

nomic Seeds,"

partment of Agi'iculture, Washington, D. C.

GEEMINATION SEEDS, GROWTH SEEDLINGS

185

LESSON LVII GERMINATION OF SEEDS AND GROWTH OF SEEDLINGS Plant-food in seeds.

— Plants, like animals, must have

food and drink, and like animals they perish without

Fig. 52.

them.

We

Growing Corn

have told what some of these plant foods

and now we

shall find out the

plants get their

first food.

way

You

will

are,

which the young remember the little

in

bean plant which you saw snugly tucked between the two halves of the seed. These two fleshy cotyledons, as

LESSORS IX AGKICULTURE

186

they are called, serve as a storehouse for the food of the little

bean plant.

In the kernel of corn the same kind

was

of a little plant

storehouses of food, there

is

only one cotyledon.

are often told that the plant stores

for our

up food

and although we do use

for our use,

own

food in

many

cases,

its

own growth

until

it

food for itself directly from the Essentials to plant growth.

is

We

outside help.

ground

it

its

stored

up food

nature intended this little

plant, to

large enough to get

soil.

— The

little

bean plant

between the cotyledons of the seed cannot begin or germinate with

We

in the seeds

this stored

food matter, not for man, but for the use for

two cotyledon

seen, but instead of

up food alone

;

it

to

grow

must have

usually plant the seed, and in the

finds the

needed help.

Of

course,

we know and air,

that in the ground the seed finds moisture, heat,

and these are the essentials of germination. These we shall try to prove in the practical exercise. Good seed and proper conditions of soil, moisture, air, heat, and light are essentials to plant growth, and a points

part of the study of agriculture consists in determining

how

to control these conditions. Practical Exercises 1.

Essenikds of Geriiiination

Place a dozen good seeds of any kind on a woolen cloth or blotting

the seeds in the pletely covered.

paper in each of two

first

tin pans.

Cover

pan with water and keep them com-

In the second pan keep the cloth or

paper on which the seeds are placed always moist, but

GEEMINATION SEEDS, GROWTH SEEDLINGS do not allow water to stand around the seeds.

Which

other tin pans over these seed pans.

187

Invert

seeds ger-

Why?

minate?

Prepare two pans of seeds as you did the second one above.

Place one pan out of doors in a cold place, and

Courtesy of D. W.

Fig. 53.

leave the other in the house where the difference in the germination.

To Show

2.

Remove insert the

it

is

warm.

Note

Explain.

the Function of Cotyledons

the two cotyledons of a germinating bean,

and

growing roots through a piece of mosquito

netting, tied over a tumbler into the water with

the glass

WorMng

Germinating Corn Showing Root Hairs

is

filled.

which

Insert another germinating bean

from which the cotyledons have not been removed. Note the comparative grow^th of the

two

seedlings.

Explain.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

188 3.

Send

Testing Seeds for Germination and Purity

to the

Extension Department of Purdue Agri-

cultural College, at Lafayette, Indiana, enclosing 35c,

mounted weed seeds. This is a very valuable collection, and will serve in a practical lesson. Get samples of clover seed from the stores or from home, and spread out a quantity of the seed on a sheet of white paper. Examine it very carefully with for their collection of

mi"

GEEMINATION SEEDS, GKOWTH SEEDLINGS with

all its

impurities,

how much

189

does the farmer pay

for the pure seed? 4.

Absorption of Water in Germination

Fill a bottle with

dry pea

water as the bottle will hold. the stopper

and add as much Cork tightly, and secure

seeds,

by means of a wire.

aside for a few hours

Set the bottle of peas

and note the

result.

Explain.

Table showing legal weight per bushel of farm products:

Wheat

lbs.

Peas Beans

lbs.

60 60 60 Irish Potatoes 60 Sweet Potatoes 50 Onions 56 Corn (shelled) 56 Corn in ear, shucked .... 70 Eye 56 Barley 48

lbs. lbs.

lbs.

lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs.

lbs.

Buckwheat

lbs.

Oats

lbs.

50 32 Clover Seed 60 Cotton Seed 28 Millet 50 Orchard Grass Seed 14 Peanuts 23 Red Top Grass Seed .... 14 Timothy Grass Seed 45 Italian Rye Grass Seed 20 .

.

lbs. lbs.

lbs. ibs. lbs.

lbs. lbs. lbs.

Handy Values

A A

bushel requires about

li/^

cubic feet of space.

bushel of corn in the ear requires about 2 cubic feet

of space.

A barrel of water requires about 4 cubic feet of space. A ton of hay fills about 512 cubic feet of space, or 8x8x8 cubic

A

feet.

cubic foot of water weighs 621/4 pounds.

Note.

I

Note

II

All the above should be memorized.

:

:

Pupils should also memorize table of avoir-

dupois weight, dry measure, liquid measure, long measure, square measure,

and cubic measure, with

necessary abbreviations.

all

the

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

190

Problems

How many

1.

pounds of wheat are grown on an acre

yielding 25 bushels?

How many pounds are grown on eight acres at ? How many tons ? How many square rods in an acre? How many

2.

the same rate 3.

pounds would that be per square rod ?

What

4.

is

the value per acre of the above at 80c

per bushel?

At the same rate what is the value of all the wheat grown on a piece of land containing 240 square 5.

rods? 6.

At 90c per bushel what

grown on an acre 7.

Which

is

the yield

if

acre,

is

the value of the wheat

20 bushels?

the more valuable, the crop in problem

4 or that in problem 6

?

If 20 bushels of 90c

8.

is

wheat can be grown on an

how many pounds is that per acre? What is the pound? How many pounds are grown on a

price per

What

square rod?

is

the value of the wheat

grown on

a square rod? 9.

At

the wheat

the same rate

grown on

and

price,

a piece of

what

is

the value of

ground 14 rods wide and

20 rods long ?

How many

10.

acres in a field 40 rods long

and 24

rods wide? If a

11.

will it

it

man

can plow 2 acres per day, how long

take him to plow the above field?

cost at $2

per day ?

What

will

GEEMINATION SEEDS, GROWTH SEEDLINGS

What

12.

If a

13.

will

it

14.

15.

16.

man and team

will

will be the cost of cutting

?

will cost about $0.25

Find the AVhat

is

Find the entire 17.

What

per day?

At 50c per acre what It

can seed 8 acres per day

take to seed a 40 acre field?

it

cost at $2

this crop

grain.

be the cost of plowing a 40 acre

same rate 1

field at the

how long

will

191

per acre to stack the

cost of stacking.

the threshing

bill at 2

cents per bushel

?

cost of the crop.

If the yield has been 20 bushels per acre,

90 cents per bushel,

how much has

the farmer

worth

made

over and above the entire cost of labor? 18.

How much

has he

made

if

the crop has yielded

25 bushels per acre, worth $0.80 per bushel? 19.

Have any items

wheat been omitted? for

them ?

20.

acre,

of the cost of producing this

what?

If so,

Should we allow

Let us do so and find the result.

With

a crop of 50 bushels of shelled corn per

worth $0.40 per bushel, work the same

series of

problems, omitting such as do not apply to corn raising.

LESSON

LVIII

JUDGING AND SCOEING SEED CORN Selecting seed corn.

—We

must now make a careful away last autumn. It

selection of our seed corn stored is

our plan to plant ten acres

—

field

number

1,

on our

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

193

it will take about 150 ears of corn to make we have enough. It is now time to find out what a good ear is, and to determine this it is necessary Not knowing the germinating to see it in all its parts. quality without actual trial, we shall have to be content in this first step of corn judging with what might be termed a good show ear. The object of corn judging

farm, and

sure that

is

to

determine the corn of highest quality, either for

feeding

market,

or

and which

is

consequently most

profitable to grow.

The score teristics of

card.

— The

study of the desirable charac-

corn has led to the formulation of a stand-

ard scale of points or "corn score card."

The use of means of

the score card has been adopted as the best

comparing samples of corn, and

is

a valuable guide to

the student of corn judging in estimating the merits of

points in samples of corn.

Samples for scoring.

—In

corn-judging contests or in

schools, ten ears of corn are usually scored as a single

sample. ten

may

Each ear may be scored

separately, or the whole

be averaged in one grade on each point of the

score card.

For we

school lesson

and

for our

judge each ear separately.

Study

practical planting purposes shall

and note make a perfect

carefully the illustrations of prize corn,

as best

you can what may be required

ear.

to

Note. This lesson may be given in the nection with Lesson 14, if so desired.

The following

score card

Growers' Association.

is

fall

in con-

used by the Indiana Corn

The number opposite each of the

twelve points represents the perfect grade

JUDGING AND SCOEING SEED CORN ^fame of variety

Name 1.

of scorer

Table

193 No

Sample No

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

194 4.

Vitality or seed condition.

10 points perfect.

The ear should be well matured, firm, and sound. The germ should be large, fresh, and vigorous looking. 5.

The

Tips of ears.

5 points perfect.

tip should be regular

and not

too tapering.

Tip

should be well covered, with straight rows of regular kernels. 6.

Cut one-half point for

Butts of ears.

Fig. 05.

The rows

tips

exposed one inch.

5 points perfect.

Prize Ears at

West Virginia Corn Show

of kernels should extend in regular order

over the end of the cob, leaving a depression the shank 7.

is

when

removed.

Kernel uniformity.

10 points perfect.

The kernels should be uniform in size, color, shape, and identation, and true to the variety type. 8.

Kernel shape.

10 points perfect.

The kernels should be deep and so shaped that their edges touch from tip to crown. The tips of the kernels should be full and strong. 9. Length of ear. 5 points perfect.

JUDGING AND SCORING SEED CORN The length should conform

From

variety used.

to the

195

standard for the

eight to ten inches

is

the usual

Cut one-half point for each inch of

standard length. deficiency. 10.

Circumference of

ears.

5 points perfect.

The circumference should be

Fig.

length, that

is,

.56.

proportion to the

Proportion- of Corn to Cob

about three-fourths the length, measured

at one-third the distance

deficiency or excess, cut 11.

in

from butt

to tip.

For each inch

% point.

Space between rows and kernels.

10 points per-

fect.

The furrows between rows should be wide enough

to

allow the ear to dry out readily, but not so wide as to lose in

kernels

proportion of corn to cob. is

highly objectionable.

Much

space between

LESSONS

196

There sluniUi be not

IN

less

ACilxMCULTUKK than 16 rows, and 6 or

7

grains to an inch in each row.

Proportion of corn to cob.

12.

The proportion shonUl be

15 points perfect.

by weight. The

ileterniined

proportion of eorn to eob shouUl not be

Cut

U^ss

than 86%.

for each per eent beUnv the standard.

l^,i.>%

Practical Exercises 1.

Copy book.

Scoring Seed Corn

the foregoing score card in your permanent noteSelect

ten

ears of

corn,

keeping the idea of

"mates'' in mind. The ears should look as much alike in every the

way

as

it

is

possible to tind them.

Find ears

all

same kuigth, the same circumfereuee, the grains the size and shape, without any indii'atious of mix-

same

ture, the

rows running straight from

measuring up

tip to butt,

to the standard of the score card as

and

much

as possible.

Grade each ear of corn on each of the points, and down on the score card your estimate of how the

put

up to the perfect grade. It is not expected that you will become expert in one lesson, but you will enjoy the improvement you make in this work. ear measures

S.

Selecting Seed Ears

Using the ear of corn which you have graded the higha model, look over your entire and select one hundred ears which acyour judgment most closely resemble this Number all these ears from 1 to 100, by

est

on your score card as

lot

of seed corn,

cording to

sample

ear.

tying to each a numbered tag, or by sticking a numbered

TESTING SRFF) TORX peg into the butt of each

away

197

These are

eob.

now

to be laid

for the germination test described in the next les-

son.

LESSON LIX TESTING SEED CORN

We

have now selected the ears of corn with which to

We have numbered and we are now ready

plant our ten acres on the farm.

each ear and jjlaced to

by

it

make the germination

itself,

we wish

for

test,

to be sure that

every grain we plant will germinate vigorously.

Value of good seed.

modern movements

— One

for the

of the

improvement of agriculture

in this country consists in the

proper selection, care, and

testing of the seeds to be planted.

that the seed carries with

most important

it

When we remember

all

the characteristics of

it

came, we want to be

the parent plants from which

sure that these parent plants are just as nearly perfect as possible.

When we remember

that the seed

is

a

liv-

ing thing, containing a young and tender plant, we see the necessity of properly caring for the seed during resting period.

And when we grow

or dead seeds cannot

no longer be willing

we expect

to

its

understand that sickly

into valuable plants,

we

shall

put them into the ground, which

to cultivate,

and from which we expect

to

gather a full harvest.

Testing seed corn for

life

and

vigor.

—

It

has come to

be true that almost every farmer and country school

boy now understands the importance of testing seed corn before planting

—and

testing

it

in the ear rather

than

LESSONS

198

AGRICULTURE

Ix\

But many farmers

after shelling.

fail to

they know in this matter, as well as in ters,

because

it is

say that they can

"too much trouble." tell

do

many other matMany farmers

whether a kernel of corn will ger-

minate by cutting or biting the germ.

do as well as

No doubt most

the tip cap

off

and examining

experienced corn growers can

but even by this simj^le method they can not

this,

tell

which ears of corn will germinate most vigorously, and it is

the sure

and healthy germination that counts most

throughout the entire

of the growing corn plant.

life

The boys and girls of the school will want surer and better method of testing seed corn.

to use the

Practical Exercises

The Germinating Test Box

1.

Make

a shallow box about two inches deep inside,

teen inches wide and twenty-three inches long. fill

the box with fine sand.

fif-

Partly

The box may now be

di-

vided into small squares by a checkboard lacing of wire or twine across the top.

It is

convenient to have these

squares about IV2 inches on a side, ten of them in a

row across the narrow way, and fifteen the other way. Another way to obtain the squares, is to place over the sand a cloth which has been checked into 100 squares

by an

indelible pencil, or better

still,

with ink.

ber each square from one to one hundred.

The

Numfigure

below shows the manner of wiring and numbering when the

first

Now

method

is

used.

take each ear separately, and with the point of a

pocket knife remove

five

kernels from the ear.

The

kernels should be taken in succession from about an

TESTING SEED COBN

199

inch above the base of the ear to the same distance be-

low

its tip,

passing spirally around and lengthwise of

the ear, so that no two grains are taken from the same

Place the kernels in the square corresponding in

row.

number

to the

number

of the ear, place the

the kernels against the wet cloth or sand,

ear

away

in its place.

i!

^M

When

germ side of and lay the

the box has been planted

KS^SlEr-

P^3EISIti

l

Fig. 57.

A Germinating Test Box

the sand should be thoroughly watered.

If the cloth

has been used, the corn should be covered with a second

wet

cloth,

and

of evaporation.

where

it

with a dry cloth to prevent excess The box should be kept in a warm room

this

will not be disturbed until the test is finished.

The planted tray should not be allowed to dry out until young corn plants are an inch or two above the sand. The ear that does not show all five kernels germinating

the

LESSONS IN AGRICULTUEE

200

vigorously should not be planted in the

field.

•

Every

poor ear planted spoils about one-fifteenth of an acre in the cornfield

—and

yet some farmers would blame

on the crows or the weather, or something they could not help. get a bird,

to

' '

stand

'

'

This

is

'

of corn than to plant

'

which

else

certainly a better

it

way

to

one for the black-

one for the crow, one for the cut-worm and two

grow." After selecting the ears that will be used as seed,

place them where they will be protected from freezing,

Each pupil should bring samples of seed corn from his home and make the germinating test at school, or have a box of his own at home and test the seed corn there and report the results at school. Keep a note-book record of the results of these tests. Note. The practice of smoking the seed corn before shelling and planting has proven an effective preventive against the corn-root louse and other insect pests of the moulding, or getting wet.

sprouting grain. References:

Farmers' Bulletin, No. 253, No. 409.

LESSON LX THE PLANT AND WATER

We

are

now ready

from the seed stand

how

to study the

into root, stem

the plant gets

its

growth of the plant

and food.

leaf,

We

and

to under-

have already

learned that the seed furnishes the food for the plant until

it is

large enough to get food from the

little soil.

THE PLANT AND WATEK

We

also learned in a

former lesson that the most imWater, lime, iron oxide, soda,

portant plant foods are:

ammonia,

silicon,

phoric acid,

Water

as

201

magnesia, potash, carbon dioxide, phos-

etc.

a plant food and solvent.

most important plant food

is

—

Perhaps the Every one knows

water.

that plants cannot live without water, but few persons

amount of water consumed by an acre of growing vegetation. Plants make In the first place they use use of water in two ways. In the secit as a food, just the same as animals do.

stop to think of the enormous daily

ond place a plant cannot eat solid food. It has neither mouth nor teeth, and it must take in its food in liquid form through its roots, or in gaseous form through its leaves.

The

ter, just as

solid foods

mentioned above dissolve in wa-

sugar dissolves in

and

coffee,

in this dissolved

condition they are easily taken in by the plant roots.

The plant The sap.

fluid containing these dissolved foods

is

called

solid food and some of the water taken up by the plant roots and carried through the stem to the leaves is used by the plant for growth, and the re-

maining water not used for food air

son

through

why

little

is

thrown

pores in the leaves.

plants need so

much

and orchards use up hundreds

water.

off into

This

is

the

:he rea-

Grains, grasses,

of tons of water during

the growing season.

Control of water for plants.

—We have

that the farmer can regulate the

the soil to a certain extent.

amount

If there

is

too

also learned

of water in

much

water.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

203

he can drain the

Fig. 58.

it

away.

possible,

rainfall

If there is

he

can by

need of saving deep

all

plowing and

Diagram of a Plant, Showing Its Most Important Relations Sunlight, Moisture, Oxygen, and Soil :

careful cultivation save a large share of the moisture in a time of drought.

THE PLANT AND WATER

203

Practical Exercises

To Prove that Plants Throw

off

Water

Put the same amount of water into similar vessels

— tumblers

glass

fruit

or

Pull

jars.

up any thrifty growing plant and put

roots

its

into one of these vessels of

Stand both

water.

on a table side by side. Note the dif-

vessels

ference in the

amount

of water in each vessel

What

day by day. caused the in

each

loss of

vessel?

has

water

Why

the difference?

The same shown by placing a clean dry

Where

ing plant.

fact

does the moisture come from that

How

appears on the inner surface of the glass?

you show that ^.

this does not

come from the

can

soil?

Air-derived and Soil-derived Foods

Select a dry plant or a piece of dry wood. carefully.

may be

glass vessel over a grow-

Now burn

it

and weigh the

per cent of the plant burned?

What

Weigh

ashes.

per cent

is

it

What ashes?

The ashes represent the food derived from the soil when was growing, and the part that burned represents the food derived from the air. the plant

LESSONS IX AGRICULTUEE

204

Free Bulletins, U.

S.

Dept. of Agriculture

Farmers' Bulletins No. 46. Irrigatiou in Humid Climates. No. 116. Irrigation in Fruit Growing. No. 138. Irrigation in Field and Garden. No. 158. How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches.

— — — —

Table showing proportions of water in farm crops: One bushel of root crops contains about 55 pounds of water. One bushel of potatoes contains about 45 pounds of water. One bushel of corn (dry, shelled) contains about 5 pounds of water.

One One One One

bushel bushel ton of ton of

of wheat contains about 6 pounds of water. of oats contains about 3 pounds of water. dry hay contains about 300 pounds of water. green feed contains from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds of

water.

Note. This represents only the water left in the plants and seeds as a part of them. By far the greater amount used by the plant passes off to the air through the pores in the leaves.

Problems 1.

If rain falls

cubic inches

is

Per square rod

an inch deep on the

How many

how many

Per square yard

?

cubic feet per square rod

?

that per square foot ?

level,

?

Per acre ? 2.

About how many barrels

of water fall on an acre

with one inch rainfall? 3.

How many

4.

The

ginia

is

tons will this water weigh?

total rainfall

about four

during the year in West Vir-

What

feet.

does the water weigh

that falls during the year on a square yard of ground?

On

a square rod

5. is

?

How many

tons to the acre

Suppose the plants use one-eighth of

?

this,

what

the weight of the water used by a square yard of

vegetation 6.

?

A

square rod

?

An

acre

?

Suppose potatoes contain three-fourths of their

BOOT SYSTEM OF PLANT

How many

weight of water.

205

pounds of water in a

bushel of potatoes? If 150 bushels per acre of potatoes

7.

how many pounds

is

a good yield,

of water in the potatoes

grown on an

acre?

LESSON LXI THE EOOT SYSTEM OF THE PLANT Kinds of root systems.— The root system of the plant group of roots upon the plant.

consists of the entire

There are two kinds of root systems (1)

Tap-root

—central

coming out from beet, radish,

(2)

it.

and turnip.

Fibrous root

Examples

size.

main root with smaller roots Examples may be found in the

—many

roots of nearly the

such as timothy and blue grass. types

may have many

Roots and

same

of this type are seen in the grasses,

tillage.

Either of these two

modifications.

— Methods

of cultivation should

take into account the nature of the roots of the plants.

Tap-rooted plants require depth of

soil,

and

will

permit

deeper and closer cultivation than fibrous rooted plants.

On

the other hand, fibrous rooted plants, such as the

by too deep cultivation during The fibrous roots of such plants are near the surface of the ground, and when destroyed by deep cultivation, much of the food supply of the plant is cut off, and to that extent the plant is injured

corn, are often injured

the growing season.

or retarded in

its

growth.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

206 Root-hairs.

— On the roots of the corn in our germinawe saw

tion test box,

great numbers of fine root-hairs.

These are the principal feeding organs of the plant.

They have the power to transfer the water and the plant food from the soil to the rootlets. If water does not exist as capillary water in the

the root-hairs

soil,

are unable to do their work.

Purpose of

roots.

—The

ifications serves three

(1)

It

root system in

all its

mod-

purposes to the plant

absorbs and conducts water and plant food

dissolved in the water.

Fig. 81.

(2)

Root Systems of Plants

It reaches long distances in the

holds the plant firmly in (

3)

ground and thus

its place.

It furnishes a storehouse for

as in the case of the radishes, beets,

much

food material,

and turnips.

Practical Exercises 1.

Dig up a Observe that the stem.

A

Study of Boots

clover plant it

and remove the

soil

from

it.

has a strong central root which joins

jMake a drawing of the clover root system.

Dig up a

single timothy plant with as

many

of

its

EOOT SYSTEM OF PLANT roots as possible,

serve the

many

and remove the

soil

207

from them.

similar roots projecting

Ob-

from the stem.

Make a drawing of the root system of the timothy. Examine the beet, turnip, or carrot. Observe that these vegetables are a thickened or fleshy tap-root,

and

Make

contain large quantities of stored food material. a drawing of this type of "root.

Make classify

a

list

of the

them as

common

plants of the farm, and

system

to the character of their root

under the following divisions

2.

The Boot System of the Corn Plant

Carefully remove as

much

of the entire root system

of a growing corn plant as possible.

away from the and

separately,

roots.

Wash

all

the soil

Remove and measure each

find the total length of the

root

whole root

system.

Place a corn seedling with of water,

its

root system in a glass

which has been colored with red

ink.

Note

the rise of the colored liquid into the stem and leaves. Explain.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

208

LESSON LXII CLOVER AND OTHER LEGUMES

On some

when the wind is not blowing and the ground is thawing, we shall sow clover seed in our wlieat field, number 2, on the farm. It will mild day in

JNlareh,

require about one bushel of seed to sow the ten acres,

and our seed this

to

We

about $7 or $8.

will cost

must charge

our expense account to be balanced up with

profits later.

Restoring

nitrogen

the

to

soil.

— Nitrogen

is

the

element which under ordinary conditions of farming

The farmer's

likely to be soonest exhausted.

is

tion

must early be turned

gen

to his soil.

all

to

methods of restoring

Of course the

elements of fertility to the

yard manure, but There

is

it

is

nitro-

method of restoring is by the use of barn-

best soil

not always possible to do

this.

a class of plants, however, called legumes, that

have the power of adding nitrogen beans, clovers, alfalfa,

etc.,

to the soil.

belong to this

the purpose of this lesson to discover

add nitrogen

how

class.

Peas, It is

these plants

to the soil.

Nitrogen in the air.— Air gases, nitrogen is

atten-

and oxygen.

oxygen and the other

composed largely of two About one-fifth of the air

is

four-fifths is nitrogen.

It is

the oxygen that causes iron to rust, coal to burn, or

wood

to decay.

On

the other hand, nitrogen does not

combine readily with other substances. It dilutes the oxygen of the air by being mixed with it, and prevents the oxygen from burning

up everything

in the world,

CLOVER AND OTHER LEGUMES and thus makes the

air

fit

bacteria.

soil,

in the air.

is

— Little

germs, called bacteria, live in the

upon

Farm

for animals to breathe.

erops cannot use this "free" nitrogen that

Nitrogen - gathering

209

plant

-

like

and these feed

These germs fasten

this free nitrogen in the air.

themselves to the roots of the legumes, such as clover

and cowpeas, and build that are

colonies

little

These

called tubercles.

about as

are

tubercles

large as pinheads,

may

easily

the

roots

beans,

and

and

be seen on of

clover,

The

peas.

interesting thing about

these germs

do not

is

seem

that they

grow

to

without the clover, and the

clover

thrive

germs.

does

not

without In

most

the soils

Fig.

59.

the germs will find the clover,

but occasionally

soils

to be sprinkled over the

the

young clover

Tubercles on the Roots OF Soy Beans

from old clover

new

fields

have

clover fields in order for

to ''catch."

These germs found in the tubercles on the roots of legumes, in feeding upon the nitrogen of the large quantities of the nitrogen in the plant soil

about the plant.

additional

nitrogen

If this is

crop

added

to

is

air, store

and

in the

plowed under, the

soil,

and

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

210 the

properties

physical

of

the

soil

are

proved by the humus which the clover affords. the

secret

of

clover-growing on the farm.

clover, cowpeas, soy l)eans,

and vetch

also

im-

This

is

Crimson

will serve the

same

to the farmer as the red clover, and each farmer must learn which of these legumes are best suited to his

purpose

locality.

Fig. 60.

Leaves op Legumes

Practical Exercises 1.

Find

Ohservational Studies of the Legumes

in the fields

and bring

the following legumes, or as

to the school for

many

of

them

study

as possible:

Clovers, cowpeas, vetch, beans, alfalfa, black locust, etc.

Be

sure that you find roots of clover showing the tuber-

CLOVER AND OTHER LEGUMES

is

(Make

suggested.

your drawings

in

your notebook)

Make

size,

and

:

shape, and arrangement

a drawing of each kind of legume

you have.

2.

a

all

outline for study

records of your observation

Observe the number,

1.

of the leaves. leaf

The following

nodules on them.

eles or

211

Observe the number and length of the stems from

common

or twining

root.

Are the stems

erect, spreading, trailing,

?

3.

Are there many, few, or no branches?

4.

If in

bloom notice the place,

of the blossom.

Make

size,

form, and color

a drawing of the blossom of each

legume. 5.

If in seed, note the kind,

the seed pods.

and the size and form of a pod, and an enlarged sketch 6.

Observe the form,

Look

roots.

number, and shape of

Note the number of seeds in the pods, single seed.

Draw

a seed

of a single seed.

size,

number, and length of the

closely for nodules

on the

roots.

Make a

drawing of the roots of one legume. 2.

Solving

Legumes

Write a paragraph describing the methods of sowing clover seed, alfalfa, cowpeas, or any other legume which

you have seen sown

at

home

or in the neighborhood.

Problems (See page 1^8.) 1.

in the

How

does clover compare with other kinds of hay

amoant

Potash

?

of nitrogen

it

contains?

Phosphoric acid?

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

212 If

2.

two tons of hay per acre

how much

of each fertilizer

is

is an average yield, removed yearly with the

crop from eight acres of ground?

Wliich kind of hay makes the richest manure?

3.

Why?

How much

4.

more of nitrogen

five acres of clover

in a crop of twenty-

hay, yielding three tons per acre,

than in the same number of acres of mixed hay yielding

two tons per acre ?

Where

does this extra nitrogen come

from ?

How many

5.

raise 6.

on the farm

How many

tons of each kind of hay did you

year?

last

tons of hay did you

sell

last

year?

How many

pounds of each of the three important kinds of "soil fertility" did you sell? How many pounds altogether ? Free Bulletins, U.

S.

— Cowpeas. No. 194.— Alfalfa Seed. 214. —Beneficial Bacteria No. No.

Dept. of Agriculture

89.

for

Leguminous Crops.

No. 215.— Alfalfa Growing.

LESSON LXIII CROP ROTATION Necessity for crop rotation.— The sowing of clover seed on our wheat ground

and the spring planning for

corn, suggests the subject of crop rotation. to

If

we

are

farm wisely and be prosperous, we must study and

The farmer tries to raise those him the largest returns in money.

practice crop rotation.

crops which will give

CEOP ROTATION

213

but in doing this he often loses sight of the future.

He

may

and

my

the crop for

me

reason thus

soil will raise

raise."

to

same

:

"If corn

is

a high price

good corn, then corn

So year after year he

fields until

he finds that his

good crop of corn.

The cause

is

is

on the

raises corn soil will

not raise a

Corn

not far to seek.

requires the same kind of plant food year after year,

and unless

this food is restored in

becomes exhausted of some of

some way, the

soil

So the farmer

its fertility.

needs to consider, not only the returns he will get from his crop this year, but the effect that the crop will

upon the

Cover crops. soil

have

soil.

— On

all

sloping lands,

if

neglected, the

may wash into gullies, and in a few years a fermay be completely ruined. Such lands should kept in grass as much as possible, and when such

tile field

be

lands are cropped, the rows should run lengthwise the

and not up and down the slope, thus checking the One of the best means of preventing washing of the soil is to plant a crop in the fall that will cover the ground thickly before freezing weather, hill

tendency to wash.

and thus not only hold the soil, but prevent its being packed by the rain. Such crops are called cover crops. Rye or the clovers are especially used for this purpose. A system of crop rotation. Crop rotation consists in growing one kind of crop on the ground this year,

—

another kind of crop requiring different plant foods the

next year,

still

another the year following, and so on,

the crops following each other in succession, lar intervals.

For example, our

field

and

number

at regu-

2

(see

LESSOAS IN AGRICULTUEE

214

map

After the wheat

clover will be allowed to

grow

all

is

vantages

mentioned above.

grow

will be allowed to

cut for hay.

A

and we allow

to

cut in July, the

summer and

to go into the winter as a cover crop,

up,

sown

of the farm) at present in wheat will be

clover this spring.

with

fall,

all

and

the ad-

Next spring the clover

and

into blossom,

will then be

second crop of the clover will spring this to go to seed

and

to be thrashed

out in September, or to go into the winter as a cover

The following spring we shall plow under The following the clover, and plant our field to corn. September we may sow the field to wheat, and the next crop again.

spring return to clover again. tion

may

is

This system of rota-

Of

well suited to the central states.

be special reasons

for

modifying

methods of rotation equally good

will

course, there

it,

and other

occur to the

thoughtful farmer. Results of rotation.

—During

this rotation period a

cover crop has been plowed under, and a sod of clover

two years old has been turned into the

soil.

The clover

has added to the food supply for the two grain crops,

and has improved the texture of the it

will produce, besides

it

soil

by the humus

has furnished pasture, hay,

cover crop, and seed in the meantime.

If the clover

sod be treated with lime and phosphoric acid, just be-

turned under for the corn crop, the yield of the corn will be greatly increased, and the wheat folfore

it is

lowing the corn in the rotation, will be favorably affected

by the additional

fertilizer.

CEOP ROTATION

215

Practical Exercises

Systems of Crop Eotations

1.

Copy

the two following systems of crop rotation in

your notebook and memorize them

(a)

Sow

clover seed in the wheat in

March

or April.

Harvest the wheat as usual, and allow the clover to remain as a cover crop for the winter. (b)

(c)

Plow up the

(d)

Plant to corn.

(e)

Sow wheat Sow clover

(f )

clover sod the following April.

in the corn in September.

seed in the wheat again in March.

II If the land

much reduced

is

or of a poor

soil,

the

and proceeds as in (I) above, except instead of plowing up the clover for corn in the

rotation begins at (c),

spring, allow

may

it

to

stand another season.

hay crop

then be harvested in June or July, and a seed crop

in the

following

September, after which proceed as

in (I).

Tabulate the following in your notebook Rotation of Crops Series

A

a.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

216

Crop Eotations on the

2.

Home Farm

Describe the system of crop rotation used on your

Give in detail each step as the outline

father's farm.

suggests above.

Compare the system used at your home with those members of the class. Criticize and discuss the various methods. described by the other

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture No. 289. Practices in Crop Rotation. No. 320. Relation of Sugar Beets to General Farming.

— —

Problems 1.

If corn is planted in rows four feet apart each

many hills to the acre? With hill, how many ears to the acre!

way, how to the 2.

If

it

takes 100 ears to

bushels to the acre 3.

Which

make

a bushel,

how many

?

the better crop

is

three good ears

?

Five stalks to the

hill

that bear ears requiring 200 to make a bushel, or three stalks to the hill that bear ears requiring 100 to make a bushel 4.

1

How many

bushels per acre

is

one crop better

than the other ? 5.

Suppose a ten-acre

field

produces sixty bushels

of corn per acre the first year, but falls off five bushels

per acre yearly

when corn

is

continually grown on

what will be the yield the fourth year 6.

What

will be the total

With corn worth 30

loss

it,

?

in the

cents per bushel, what

four years? is

the

money

loss? 7.

Suppose

this loss can be avoided

by rotation of

SPRAYING FOR SCALES

What

crops.

is

217

saved yearly, per acre, on this basis

from rotation of crops? "What

8.

the value of one acre of tobacco, 1,500

is

pounds, at 8 cents per pound?

What

9. els,

is

the value of one acre of oats, sixty bush-

at 30 cents per bushel?

10.

What

11.

is

the value of one acre of clover, three

$6 per ton?

tons, at

AVhat

is

,

the value

of

one acre of corn,

fifty

bushels, at 40 cents per bushel? 12.

What

is

the value of one acre of peas, twenty

bushels, at $1.50 per bushel?

LESSON LXIV SPRAYING FOR SCALES month we must spray our peach and apple trees to rid them of San Jose and other scale insects, or to insure against them should there be none present. The reason for doing this work in March is because the insecticides we must use against the scale would be During

this

injurious to the foliage of the trees.

San Jose

scale.

— The

San Jose

most dreaded enemies of the it

is

an

scale

fruit trees.

is

one of the

In most states

illegal act to sell fruit trees infested

This insect

is

very minute, yet

it

with

it.

spreads rapidly and

soon covers the branches of the trees with a grayish scale,

beneath which

from the

tree.

is

the living pest, sucking the life

Probably the best thing

to

do when one

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

218

finds that the scale has almost completely covered his fruit trees, is

promptly

to cut

that are in a dying condition. are several insecticides that

down and burn

the trees

If taken in time there

may

be successfully used.

There are a number of reliable firms that put up ready

Coiirtcny of

Fig. 61.

a.

Oyster Shell Scale B. Scurfy Scale, Scale

W. c.

E. Rumsey San Jose

mixed preparations, such as the lime-sulphur solutions, and the miscible oils, and where only a few trees are to be sprayed, it is best to buy the ready-

whale-oil soaps,

made use

mixtures.

Full and easily followed directions for

accompany the

materials.

SPRAYING FOR SCALES Lime-sulphur.

—If

219

one wishes to prepare his

own

spray material, the best insecticide for scale when the plant

is

dormant season

in the

is

the lime-sulphur wash,

prepared as follows

Lime

8 pounds.

Sulphur

16 pounds.

Water

10 gallons.

Boil together for about forty minutes, then dilute one gallon of the mixture with ten of water. is

now ready

for the spray

The

solution

pump.

Practical Exercises 1.

It

may

Spraying for Scale

not seem possible for the school to do the prac-

work suggested in this exercise, but every effort should be made to make it possible. If any farmer in the neighborhood has a spray pump, ask him to loan it for use at the school. He may have tical

a gallon of ready-mixed lime-sulphur solution which he

would

let

you have.

Dilute the gallon to about ten or

twelve gallons with water, place in the spray

pump, and

spray a few trees in the vicinity of the school.

Make

a

notebook record of this lesson. f.

Spraying House-plants against Lice

The following mixture plant

lice

when

is

the foliage

often used for scale is

on the

trees, or it

and

may

be used to rid house plants of the plant lice or scale

Hard soap Water

1 pt.

Kerosene

2 pts.

1 oz.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

220

Shave the soap into the water and heat almost boiling.

Remove

add the kerosene.

Now

sistency.

water, and

mixture

is

it

the soap solution from the Stir the mixture into a

dilute this mixture with is

ready to apply to the

to

and

fire,

creamy con-

two gallons foliage.

of

This

called kerosene emulsion.

Both the lime-sulphur and the kerosene emulsion

de-

stroy the sucking insects by corroding their bodies and

stopping up their breathing pores. Problems 1.

Fifty gallons of properly diluted lime-sulphur

lution will spray about twenty

young

fruit trees.

so-

The

material for a fifty-gallon barrel will cost about $1.

How much 2.

What

will

it

cost to spray 100 trees?

are the proportions necessary to

make up

a

barrel of kerosene emulsion, using the same as suggested in the second exercise given above? 3.

How much

will

it

cost to

spray the

five

acres

of orchard on our forty-acre farm, counting one acre in

peach trees and four acres in apple trees?

apple trees are ten years years old.

old,

and the peach

Determine the number of trees of each that

should occupy the ground. Reference:

The

trees seven

Farmers' Bulletin, No. 127.

PRUNING FRUIT TREES

221

LESSON LXV PRUNING FRUIT TREES

—

Before the buds of the trees begin and the leaves to appear we must prune our vines and fruit trees. Perhaps there are old trees that should be renewed, young trees that have dead or crowd-

Time

to prune.

to swell

ed limbs to be removed, or mild prunings to be on very young trees and vines.

much

skill

and study, and each

made

Proper pruning requires tree

is

a separate problem

in pruning.

Reasons for pruning.

—We

prune for the following

reasons

To modify the vigor of the tree. To produce larger and better fruit. To keep the tree within manageable shape and

1.

2. 3.

limits. 4.

5. 6. 7.

To remove superfluous or injured parts. To facilitate spraying and harvesting. To facilitate tillage. To produce new wood growth.

Mild pruning every year tends to maintain the

bal-

ance of the tree, aids the fruit grower more easily and surely to shape the tree to his ideal, and makes the

more fruitful. Pruning young trees.

tree

—

In pruning very young trees, and two-year-old stock just set out, two methods are usually pursued First, the method of cutting off all the side branches to one or two buds, leaving a straight central stem which that

is,

one-

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

222 is

in

This method

headed back severely.

pruning young peach

is

used especially

trees.

Second, the method of cutting away

all of

the branches

but one leader and three or four main side branches, cut back to four or five buds, left to furnish the bases of the lower spreading limbs.

two-year-old

This method

apple trees in starting the

is

used with

first

main

branches. It is best to leave tiie

down on

branches growing rather low

the trunk of the

young

tree in order to af-

ford shade for the trunk and ground beneath, and to

spraying and the gathering of the

fruit.

Fruit trees are not grown for lumber, but for

fruit,

facilitate the

and peaches and apples

will not

grow on the trunks of

trees.

Renewing- old orchards. to

buy and

to the time

—

young

set out

when they

and careful tending.

will

It is a

fascinating pleasure

and

trees,

to look

forward

repay us for the long wait

But there

is

that long interim

between the planting and the harvesting which we must

Perhaps while we are waiting for the young

expect. trees,

lected,

we

are forgetting the old orchard that stands neg-

though

trying to renew

still

ing of every season.

with the same

our young

skill

wfth the com-

and labor that we are bestowing on

and they yielding us an abundance of trees,

its life

Let us turn to these old trees

will

repay a hundredfold,

fine fruit

before our young

trees have learned to blossom.

The tops

of the trees are old

their unexplored

and unsprayed

and high, and from heights,

only a few

PEUNING FEUIT TREES

wormy

Cut away one-third

apples drop prematurely

or one-half of this top, and

new

the

of the tree will

life

manifest

itself in a

growth

of

water

lower

down

on

These

should

away

vigorous sprouts,

the

then

tree.

cut

be

the next year, except a

few which should be pruned and left to form new All

branches.

surfaces

cut

should be painted with white or red lead to prevent decay.

The

dead

branches,

found in old be

and

dying

which are always

removed,

trees,

and

should

all

such

branches should be cut close

main stem from which branch. The dead branches are a menace to the

to the

they

rest

of the

orchard,

for

in

them live and breed the insect and fungous pests. Perhaps in our old trees there are bad forks. These should

be

bolted

together.

Perhaps there are great rotten cavities. These should be

62. Young Apple Tree Properly Pruned for Setting Out

Fig.

cleaned out, washed with copper sulphate solution, and

LESSONS IX AGE [CULTURE

224

with cement. The rough bark should be scraped and the trunk of the tree washed with lime or soap suds. The trees should then be sprayed for scale, as suggested in the last lesson, and when the blossoms fall filled

off,

next month, the trees should be sprayed for codling

moth, as will be explained in a later lesson. in our old orchard for

many

If the soil

poor and has not been cultivated

is

manure and renew it, and bring

years, a top-dressing of stable

lime worked into the the old trees into

soil will

new

help to

fruitfulness.

Practical Exercises

Bring ples

to

Pruning a Young Apple Tree

1.

'

the schoolroom

and peach

young nursery stock

one and two years old.

trees,

—ap-

Select a

good specimen of apple tree that has grown several side branches

and a strong

branches to four or

Prune back the

leader.

five buds,

side

leaving an outside bud

just below the cut surface on each

pruned branch. Head The little tree

back the leader to six or seven buds. is

now ready

to enter its season of growth.

Next ^larch the portion of the

tree left as a leader

the year before would have to be tree

was

at first,

and

so

stocky branches were formed low the tree.

See figure S.

Go

pruned as the

little

on until a scaffold of strong,

down on

the trunk of

62.

Pruning an Old Apple Tree

an old orchard where the trees have been negand have grown tall and unshapely. First cut Remove all limbs out all dead and dying branches.

lected

to

PEUNING FEUIT TREES that cross each other

and rub

toward the center of the

down

at

least

leaves on all

the top branches

notice to cut a large limb off just

above a branch that this

all

one-third or one-half of the crown of

Always

the tree.

grow

together, or that

Cut

tree.

225

branch

wounds with

is

may

to be

in order that the

Be careful

paint.

limbs that they do not split

an inch or two

left,

help to heal the wound.

down

into the limb

in

sawing large

Saw

as they fall.

on the under side and

back of the cut which removes the limb.

moved should be cut

Cover"

close to the

All limbs re-

main branches from

which they are taken in order that the wound may heal Experience

properly. l)est

way

has

shown that

to renew the old trees.

after such severe treatment,

if

this

is

the

Within three years properly followed up

with careful pruning of the water sprouts, the tree will bear large quantities of fruit

tree-top.

on a newly formed

(See cut beloAv.)

Eeference:

Farmers' Bulletin No. 181.

Fig. 62a.

Old Apple Trees Pruned

APRIL On

the farm.

—During

busy on the farm.

this

There

month we

shall be very

spring plowing to do, gar-

is

den to make, trees and shrubs to plant, fruit trees to propagate and spray, and corn to plant.

LESSON LXVI GRAFTING FRUIT TREES In the early April when the sap begins to flow in the fruit trees,

we

shall

propagate some new varieties of

apples in the tops of the older trees.

known

we can

as grafting,

a process

There are two common meth-

ferent varieties of fruits.

ods of grafting

By

force trees to produce dif-

—the tongue or whip graft, and the

cleft

graft. Practical Exercises 1.

The Tongue Graft

If the class cannot go to

an orchard for

this lesson,

bring several branches of apple tree into the school-

room.

Choose a stock upon which you intend to graft

the desired variety. sired a twig that tree at the point

is

Then

where you wish

to select the shoot or scion tree.

select

from the variety

de-

about the thickness of the young to graft.

Be

careful

from a healthy part of the

Cut the scion and stock as you would the mouth

parts of a boy's whistle, then the cut surface.

make

a vertical

slit

across

Join the cut end of the scion to the 226

GRAFTING FEUIT TREES cut end of the stock and wrap with cord.

When you

of each

is

a,

cambium

raffia

or

waxed

join them, notice that under the bark

This

a thin layer of soft, juicy tissue.

To make a

cambium.

called the

227

Fig. 63. Whip b, stock c,

Scion

;

;

in the scion

is

successful graft, the

Grafting united

;

d,

tied.

must exactly join the cambium in

the stock. 2.

For the grafting of

scions

of

The Cleft Graft

of larger scions or for the grafting

various kinds of apple

trees

upon the

branches of one stock, the cleft graft method

is

used.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

228

The stock

is

cut square across, and the scions, either

one or two, are cut into wedges at the end, and slipped into a cleft of the stock.

must come

The cambium of the

scions

with the cambium of the stock as in the former method. After the scions are forced in contact

Pig. 64.

Cleft Grafting

Prepared scion c,

graft

;

b,

scions

waxed

in

place

over.

into the cleft of the stock, the whole exposed surface,

and the

cleft left open,

ing wax.

should be covered with the graft-

(See figure.)

and 4 parts

(1 part tallow, 2 parts beeswax,

resin.

Trees may. be budded or grafted upon one another only

when they

are nearly related.

There are some rare

exceptions to this rule.

Have pupils write a description of these methods and make drawings of the grafts. Each pupil in the class should make these grafts for himself, and if possible, the

work should be done

Eeferenees:

in the orchard.

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 113, 161, 154, and

157.

PROPAGATION FROM CUTTINGS

229

LESSON LXVII PLANT PROPAGATION FROM CUTTINGS Purposes of plant propagation. plant propagation

is

to obtain

— The

purpose of

all

more individual plants

or newer strains of plants; to perpetuate a particular

and keep the stock Most farm crops and garden vege-

variety; or to renew the generation

from dying

out.

FiG.

65.

Stem Cutting, or COLEUS

tables reproduce the varieties

Slip,

of

wanted from seeds; but

most fruit trees and shrubs do not, and in such cases the plants have to be reproduced by buds, grafts, layers,

or cuttings.

We

have already learned how plants propa-

gate by seeds, and

how

to the desired varieties

other

known

common method as cuttings.

fruit trees

by grafting.

may

be

made over

There remains an-

of plant propagation to study,

Cuttings

may

be

made from

soft or

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

230

unripe wood, or from hard and fully matured wood.

Of the

soft kinds are cuttings (or slips)

of geraniums,

and the like. Of the hard kinds are cuttings grapes and currants.

fuchsias,

of

Soft cuttings.

which are

—Soft

sufficiently

They are composed plant. The leaves

Fig.

lower end, and

66.

if

cuttings

mature

of

to

are

from one

shoots

of

to three joints of the

of cuttings are

Leaf Cutting

made

snap when bent double.

removed from the

— Whole

Leaf

the upper leaves are large, they should

Sandy

be cut in two to prevent too rapid drying out. soil free

from vegetable matter

Hardwood taken in the

cuttings.

best for soft cuttings.

—Hardwood cuttings are usually

fall or winter.

or more buds.

is

They are composed

of two

If these cuttings are taken in the fall,

they are buried in sand to be kept until spring,

they are set in the ground up to the top bud.

such cuttings

month.

may

when

However,

be taken and placed during this

PKOPAGATION FEOM CUTTINGS

331

Practical Exercises

Soft Cuttings

1.

Provide a neat painted window-box;

sand and keep in a

warm

fill

it

with moist

Bring stem cuttings

place.

of geraniums, coleuses, fuchsias, begonias, or other house plants,

which may be obtained from home, insert the

slips into the moist sand,

the cuttings.

Remove

all

Keep the sand warm and from day to day.

Fig. 67.

and firm the sand well about but two or three of the leaves. moist,

and watch the growth

Guapevine Well Trellised

The leaves of the Rex begonia and wax plant may be propagated by inserting the edge of the leaf or even a piece of the leaf in sand and supplying plenty of moisture and warmth. flat,

A

leaf

may

right side up, on the surface of the sand

tened

down

at intervals

it

with

be laid

and

by splinters through the

fas-

veins.

Plants will spring up at the bottom edges of the leaf or at cut places in the veins. S.

Select a dozen or vines,

Hardwood Cuttings

more freshly made cuttings of grape

taken from the previous year's growth.

tings should consist of three or four buds.

and thoroughly pulverize the

soil

in

The

cut-

Spade up

some warm rich

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

332

corner of the school grounds, making a plot about three Insert the grape cuttings in a slanting

feet square.

bud exposed. very firmly about the cuttings, and cover

position in the fine, loose

Press the

soil

the plot with a

soil,

mulch of hay or

posed buds of the cuttings. well watered all of

lot

leaving one

grass, except the ex-

If the plot could be kept

summer, and free from weeds, a

new grape

fine

plants would grow, ready to be set

permanently the next spring.

may

Poplar and willow trees

propagated

easily be

from hardwood cuttings. Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 157 and 218.

References:

LESSON LXVIII PROPAGATION OF RASPBERRIES Layering'.

— The black raspberry illustrates

of plant propagation,

known

shoot or root, which while is

made

as layering.

still

A

a

method

layer

is

a

attached to the plant,

to take root with the intention that

severed and form an independent plant.

it

shall be

In the case of

the black raspberry, the tip of the stem or the whole

stem

is

bent to the ground and covered with earth.

the tip or the joints, as the case

may

At

be, roots are emit-

The layers are usually allowed to remain one season before they are severed and set out as new plants. Almost any plant having shoots which can be bent to the ground can be propagated by layers; but the best ted.

result

in

layering

rather soft wood.

is

obtained in plants which have

PROPAGATION OF RASPBEREIES

233

Practical Exercises Field Practice in Layering

1.

Go

to

some neighboring garden or berry patch and have bent over during

find black raspberry plants that

the previous

up one

summer and taken

Pull

root at the tips.

of the tips and- note the beginning of a

root system.

See

if

you can

find

new

where a new stem has

already begun to grow from a tip layer.

Cut

off

the

stem that has bent over, about six or eight inches above

where the

tip has rooted.

Fig. 68.

and

3^ou

have a

little

be transplanted.

Dig up the

roots at the tip,

Raspberry Layering

raspberry plant that

j\Iake

some

tip

layers

is

ready to

by bending

down other stems and covering the tips with To prune the raspberry vines, cut away the last bearing canes.

earth.

year's

Cut back the present year's growth

to

about three feet during the month of July. Notice that the red raspberry does not bend over and root at the tip as the black raspberry does, but that

new

stalks spring

up

at intervals

from the root under-

LESSOiXS IN AGRICULTUKE

234 ground. left

to

The red raspberry thus spreads rapidly and spend

will

itself

its

rather than producing berries.

by cutting

off all the

new

if

energy in growing canes This can be prevented

shoots but two or three for

the next year's growth.

Make

a notebook record of

all

these observations,

and

write a paragraph describing the difference between the

methods of propagation of the black and red raspberries.

LESSON LXIX SCHOOL GARDENING

Awakened

interest in school gardens.

interest to the ])oys

and

girls

—

who read

It

may

be of

this lesson to

learn something about the value, the development,

the nature of school garden

has been a tries

common

work

in this country.

practice in several

and It

European coun-

for fully a century to conduct gardens in con-

work of the public schools, and the idea making gardening a part of the school work is rapidly

nection with the of

growing in favor in our own country. In gardening, two practical lessons in agriculture arc

taught

first

hand

:

first,

the thorough preparation of the

seed bed; and, second, the results of good cultivation in

providing the surface mulch and in killing the weeds. Essentials of gardening.

—The ground for the garden

should be of a warm, rich, sandy loam, and be well under-drained.

In preparing the ground for planting,

great care and patience should be exercised in enriching it

and thoroughly pulverizing the top

soil.

The seeds

SCHOOL GAKDENING

235

should be pure and healthy, and not planted too deep,

and the surface of the soil should not be allowed to become too dry while the seeds are germinating. These are fundamental requirements in all gardening. Practical Exercises 1.

Selecting and Preparing the Garden

The size and shape of the school garden will, of course, depend upon the amount of land available. The school garden should not encroach upon the playgrounds. If the school lot is too small, perhaps a farmer whose land

Fig. 69.

School Garden

adjoins would be willing to give or rent a plot for school garden purposes.

If the teacher

and pupils are

willing to have a school garden, there need be no trouble to find

this

land enough for

it.

If the school

month, a school garden should by

is

in session

all

means be

begun. If

it is

not feasible to have a large garden with in-

dividual or group plots, select a corner of the school

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

236

grounds, on which to make a sample garden plot, as a

may

demonstration lesson from which the pupils

how

to

make

similar garden plots at home.

space with rich feet

long,

soil,

learn

Select a

about four feet wide by sixteen

and thoroughly clean away

all

weeds and

trash from this plot.

Spade up the ground as deeply as possible. About pound of commercial fertilizer may now be sprinkled over the plot, or a few shovelfuls of well-rotted manure may be worked into the ground. Rake over the plot and break up all the clods. It is a good plan to go over the ground with the hands, crumbling the soil as fine as meal. Level the bed up slightly higher than the rest of the ground. Stake the four corners and mark off a sharp, clean-cut edge for the bed, and make a neat, clean

a

path around

it.

The garden

is 2.

now ready

for planting.

Planting the School Garden

In plenty of time before this lesson

is

given the teacher

should take a penny collection from the pupils, and send

Home Gardening Association, Cleveland, Ohio, seed packages. Many of the seeds may easily be

to the

for

obtained at the homes of the pupils.

Under the

direc-

tion of the teacher, the garden plot prepared in the pre-

vious exercise should be

marked

off for

planting.

accompanying diagram should be drawn on

stiff

The card-

boards by each pupil, before going to the garden for this exercise.

The

plot,

which

is

four feet wide, should be cross-

furrowed, according to the scale shown above.

Make

SCHOOL GARDENING the furrows about two inches deep. the furrows, as

with the press

soil

down

it

shown by the

237

Place the seeds in

stars in the diagram.

Cover

according to the size of the seeds, and

Now we are ready Each pupil should now make

firmly with the hands.

for the seeds to grow.

Sweet corn, three rows. (Three grains in each place.)

Dwarf bunch beans, two rows. *

t

*

*

*

c

*

*

Potatoes, three

hills.

Cucumbers, three

hills.

Optional.

Optional. Optional. Beets, three rows.

Dwarf •

two rows.

peas,

*«•***** Onion »«•*»••****

sets,

two rows.

Radishes, three rows.

Lettuce, three rows.

Flower seeds. Fig. 70.

Garden Plot.

One-Fourth Inch Equals One Foot

a garden plot similar to this one, at his home,

and

port daily to the class the progress of his garden.

re-

As

the garden grows, weeds must be pulled, insects watched for,

and replanting done,

if

necessary.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

238

The following table should be copied and filled out in connection with the lesson

in the notebooks

exercises of this

:

Plants

I

When

How Deep

Planted

Distance

When

I

Apart

Injuries

Appear

I

I

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Farmers Bulletins. No. 218.— The School Garden. '

Extracts.

No. 113.

— Experimental

Gardens and Grounds.

LESSON LXX HOME GARDENING Importance of the garden. about school gardens garden.

will,

—What

much

of

it,

has been said

apply

to the

home

Every family in the country should have a

garden because of the profit and satisfaction which affords.

The garden

the farm, but

it

is

is,

it

or should be, the best part of

often neglected by the farmer for

other work which he thinks more important.

Every

dweller in town or city could very materially lessen the cost of living as well as

family, by having a ers

and shrubs

By

the use of flow-

in the proper relation to the vegetable

garden, the whole garden of the

promote the health of the

home garden.

home grounds.

may add much

to the

beauty

HOME GARDENING Some

essentials

of

gardening.

—

1.

239

The

soil

of the

garden should be a warm, well-drained, sand loam.

It

should be well fertilized with barn manure.

The ground should be plowed deeply and well, The so that all litter and manure will be turned under. ground should be harrowed and raked until the top soil All sticks and trash should be removed. is fine. 2.

Fig.

3.

71.

Type of Home Garden

Seeds should be pure, fresh and viable.

Small

seeds should be covered only slightly with finely pul-

verized

soil.

Larger seeds should be planted deeper.

Full directions are usually given on seed packages. 4.

Seeds should be planted on a level in rows far

enough apart

to allow for easy cultivation,

and not up

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

240

on elevated beds to dry out more easily during the hot

summer 5.

days.

The time

of planting will

potatoes

may

matoes,

be planted as early as the ground can

Flower

be worked. etc.,

depend upon the nature

Onions, peas, radishes, lettuce, and

of the vegetable.

seeds,

beans, cabbage, melons, to-

should be planted later when the ground

is

thoroughly warmed. 6.

In transplanting tomatoes,

cabbages,

care

etc.,

should be taken that the plants are set deep and are well shaded for a while from the direct sun light.

cloudy days or towards evening

On

the best time to do

is

transplanting. 7.

Seed beds should not be allowed

come through the ground, the stirred, to

dry out on

to

After the plants have

the surface during germination.

soil

should be frequently

provide the surface mulch, and to keep

down

The plants should be thinned out where

the weeds.

they are overcrowding each other. 8.

All vegetables should be carefully watched as they

begin to develop leaves, to protect them from the bugs. Professor Hatch recommends the use of

Hammond's

"Slug Shot," sprinkled dry on such vegetables ons, cucuhibers, cabbages, etc., to

appearing on these plants.

kill

as mel-

the insect pests

The spray

to use

on po-

tatoes will be described in a later lesson. Practical Exercises 1.

To Grow Early Melons

or

Cucumbers

Cut several turfs of sod, about six inches square, as If pieces as you mean to have hills of melon.

many

the grassy side fibers,

is

firmly

matted, slightly loosen the

but not enough to allow the turf to

fall

apart.

HOME GAEDENING

241

Place the sod, bottom side up, in a shallow box of wood or pasteboard;

if

the earth

is

a few handfuls of good mealy

or eight seeds in this

and keep warm and

soil.

first

the germinating seeds will keep

many

Plant about six

soil.

Place in a sunny

window

moist.

This will constitute the

experiment for

not thick enough, add

days.

part of the lesson, but

up the

When

interest in the

the green seed leaves

have freed themselves from the

shell, notice which are and remove all but the best two. Care for these tenderly, and they will thrive well, free from frost and the striped beetle. They may safely acquire three or four true leaves, and be five or six

the thriftiest plants,

inches

tall,

When

before they are planted out of doors.

warm

the

eight inches deep

part of the garden

late

IMay days come, dig holes about

and

six feet apart in the sunniest

;

put in the bottom of each hole a

spadeful of old well-rotted manure;

cover this with

two inches of sand or fine soil; and on this place the sod with the growing melons, so gently that they will not

know they have been moved.

level

The sod should be

with the ground, and well firmed in place.

that the plants never suffer

weeds pulled, and

stir the

from

surface

thirst. soil

See

Keep the

about the

hill

often until the vines begin to run.

When pinch

each vine has set about a half dozen melons,

off all

blossoms that form, and also the tips of

the branches, so that all plant food

melons

first

chosen.

may

go into the

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

242

2.

Growing Cucumbers Intensively

and dig a hole in the ground barrel midway. Knock the bottom out of the barrel, and set it in the hole in the Select a fertile spot

enough

large

ground. rel,

to

sink

Fill the earth in about the outside of the bar-

and mound the

on the outside.

Now

and keep

it

from breeding in

it.

firmly,

a

soil fill

up

to the

rim of the barrel

the barrel with manure, packed

covered to prevent the house

flies

The bed is ready for planting. Plant five or six cucumber seeds in the mound heaped up about the outside of the barrel. Put about ten seeds in a hill, and when the plants get large enough to vine, remove half of them. Pour several pails of water into the barrel of manure each day, and the water leaching through the manure will furnish the best of fertilizer for the plants, and the necessary moisture for their thrifty growth. These few hills will furnish an abundance of cucumhills of

bers,

and upon a very small space of ground. 3.

Learn

when

to

Cultural Requirements for Vegetables fill

out the following table from

the column of vegetables

is

given;

memory

HOME GAEDENING The Vegetable.

Soil

Requirement.

Loose, deep cool, rich soil

Season Requirement. season

Short crop.

243

Care Requirements. Clean

cultiva-

Protect

tion.

from maggot. 2.

loam

Sandy

Beet.

Full

season.

loose

soil,

and Turnip.

Cool moist

4.

Potato.

Deeply Pulver-

soil.

cool

ized,

Sweet

rich

No

Early planting,

Level culture, frequent til-

season.

full

sandy

soil,

surface. 7.

Cabbage.

spray

Long

season.

Sunny.

Clean

tillage,

wood

ashes

fertilizer.

Moist rich soil with loose

Onion.

after

against beetles.

loam. C.

care sowing.

lage,

in

warm

Loose,

potato.

kept

Short season.

potash. 5.

tillage.

down.

3.

soil,

Good

Weeds

rich.

Cool

season.

and

Early

Cool deep

soil.

season.

Full

Good

surface

Good

tilth.

seed

late.

needed.

Frequent age.

till-

Destroy

the worm. 8.

Cool moist

Spinach.

soil.

Spring and Fall

Grow

in

Good

soil

drills.

crop. 9.

moist

Mellow,

Lettuce.

Short season.

10.

Celery.

prep-

aration.

soil.

rich,

Cool,

moist

well

Full

season.

soil, pre-

The

best surface tillage, blanching.

pared. 11.

Light

Pea.

Short season.

soil.

Grown

in

Easy 12.

Bean.

sandy

Light, loam.

Warm

season,

partial.

drills.

culture.

Clean Poles for

tilth. tall

varieties. 13.

Tomato.

Rich.

"quick"

14.

Cucumbers, Melons,

etc.

Long,

warm

season.

soil.

Loose,

rich,

well prepared seedbed.

Long,

warm

season.

Hill

planting.

Careful pruning and frame supports.

Frequent tillage until vines run.

melon 15.

Asparagus.

rich, moist, cool

Deep,

soil.

lize

Fertioften.

Full

season. Perennial.

Cut

in

top

Combat beetles. fall

and

dress

with manure. Caase cutting in

early

mer.

sum-

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

244

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture No. 94. The Vegetable Garden. No. 1-54. The Home Fruit Garden: Preparation and Care. No. 156. The Home Vineyard, with Special Reference to Northern Conditions. No. 198. Strawberries. No. 213. Raspberries.

— — — — —

LESSON LXXI BEAUTIFYING HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS During

month we

this

shall plant trees, shrubs,

other ornamental plants about our lier in

the season,

and

home grounds.

and Ear-

in plenty of time for planting,

we should have ordered our stock from some reliable house, and when the plants arrive, we should plant them at once. Our home grounds on the farm, as shown

in Lesson

tical exercises

Beautiful

little

contain about two acres.

home grounds.

nor rare plants

With

I,

and problems

—

It

to beautify the

good

expense,

See prac-

for further plans.

does not require wealth

home

taste,

a

or school grounds.

knowledge of the

above principles, and a willingness to work, the homes

and schools of our country could be made more atThe woods are full of wild tractive and more natural. shrubs and flowers that could be growing on our home and school grounds, if we would only transplant them there.

On Arbor day

every school should revive the

community

terest

of the

means

of beautifying the

boys and

girls

and other Back yards cans and broken

in tree planting

home grounds.

with barren ground covered with old tin

down chicken coops

in-

are not the surroundings in which

can grow up into beautiful and useful

BEAUTIFYING GEOUNDS

345

Our minds

are influenced by what we conand if we must look upon ugly landscapes, we tend to grow sordid and ugly in spirit; on the other hand, if we grow up in a home and school surrounded by beautiful natural scenes, our lives must characters.

tinually look upon,

grow more

refined

FIG.

and appreciative.

BEAUTIFi:!.

Hume


—

Principles of landscape gardening-. 1. Provide an open unbroken greensward in front of the house. There is

nothing more ornamental than a wealth of green

grass.

It furnishes the

canvas upon which the land-

scape gardener draws his picture.

It

should not be

daubed up with circular flower beds or other things.

artificial

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

246

Plant trees and shrubs in masses at the back-

2.

ground, against buildings, or on the borders of the

Aim

by the trees and shrubs all objec tionable views and to open up pleasing vistas. lawn.

to hide

Plant flowers at the borders of shrub masses,

3.

along the walks and buildings, but not in circular or

square beds in the open lawn. 4.

Avoid the straight

ing in

all

line in tree

Group the

natural designs.

and allow them

to

and shrub planttrees and shrubs,

swing in graceful curves into the

lawn and about the turns of walks.

and shrubs from native

Select most of the trees

5.

plants that are

known

adapted to the

to be

soil

and

climate. 6.

Follow every rule for successful tree planting

known

(See next lesson.)

to the horticulturist.

Setting the Plants.

—In preparation for planting trees

and shrubs the holes should be dug in diameter

and poor,

it

and two

feet

deep.

at least four feet

If the soil

is

hard

should be replaced by good earth, and

the tree should be

mulched with coarse

litter,

after

the earth has been firmed well about the roots of the tree.

Do

very dry. ly

re-cut

not use water in planting unless the

The cut ends of

all

before planting.

soil

is

roots should be smooth-

Probably one-half of the

top should be pruned from the tree or shrub in order to give balance to the roots.

Plants suggested for I.

home and

List of annual flowers:

danger of

frost

is

over.

school grounds.

—

Seed to be sown after the

The

best results are obtained

BEAUTIFYING GEOUNDS if

247

the plants are started in the house in April

out after the tenth of May.

Dahlia, Mignonette, Myosotis, 2.

Annuals

and

set

Salvia.

Seeds to be sown early.

:

and

Aster, Cockscomb, Cosmos,

April or early

May.

Ageratum, Alyssum, Amaranth, Candytuft, Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Dianthus, Larkspur, Mari-

FiG. 73.

Suggestions for a Farmyard (Prof. Waugh)

gold, Nasturtium,

Petunia, Phlox, Poppy, Sweet Pea,

Verbena, and Zinnia. 3.

List of popular perennials:

the previous summer.

Hollyhock,

Poppy (hardy), Rudbeckia, Sunflower, Sweet

William, Delphinium, and 4.

Plants to be grown

Columbine, Campanula, Canna,

all

hardy pinks.

List of shrubs for borders:

Dwarf Cornus,

Elder,

Forsythia,

Flowering Almond,

Bush Honeysuckle,

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

248

Hydrangea, Japan Quince, Lilac in variety. Privet, Roses in variety, Snowball, Spirea, Sumac, Weigelia,

Norway Spruce, and other evergreens. home and school grounds: Sugar Maple, Norway Maple, Box Elder, White Elm, Silver Maple, White Birch, Catalpa bungei. Tulip tree, Deutsia,

List of trees for

5.

Mulberry, White Oak,

etc.

In planting trees about our homes and schools,

6.

we should not berry,

forget to plant a few such as the Service-

Hackberry, Wild Cherry,

etc.,

which furnish

food for the song birds and attract them to our homes to

add their

life

and cheer

to the natural surroundings.

Practical Exercises 1.

Planting Besifin for the School Grounds.

Measure the school grounds, and draw a map scale, locating all buildings, trees,

in the

to a

Indicate

drawing the plantings you would add

to

the

(See diagram in the figure for suggestions.)

grounds.

Phmting Design

2.

Draw

and shrubs.

a

map

of your

for

Home

Grounds.

home grounds, showing

all build-

and flower plots. Criticize the plan of the planting and suggest improvements. Make a list of all the trees, shrubs, and flowers that grow on your home grounds. ings, trees, shrubs,

3.

Have

Beautifying the School Grounds.

a "cleaning

up"

week, during which the school

and ugly objects. Carry homes and enter into competition on beautifying home grounds. This work could be done in preparation for Arbor Day, and the planting of yard

this

is

cleared of

movement

all

to the

trash

FARM FORESTRY flowers, shrubs,

and

249

would be a

trees

fitting

climax to

the whole work. Free Bulletins, U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletins No. 134. Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. No. 185. Beautifying the Home Grounds.

— —

No.

91.

—Lawns

Extracts and Lawn Making.

Problems 1.

as

Draw

shown

in

Lesson

as listed in the IMoon

Keep a record

the

farm

design the planting of trees,

I,

and hedges, and estimate the

shrubs,

2.

home grounds on

a plan of the

Co.

cost of such plants

catalogue,

Morrisville,

Pa.

of the cost.

Estimate the cost of planting the school yard as

you have designed

it

in the exercise above.

LESSON LXXII FARM FORESTRY This month we shall plow up an acre of our old farm

wood

lot,

plant

it

at the

where the trees have

in catalpa trees.

end of the

The

all

been cut away, and

practical exercises given

lesson's discussion will explain the

method of planting. Importance of forests. earth, except the soil,

is

—No of

other resource of the

more importance

to

man

The fact is there would hardly be any soil at all if it had not been for the forests. The forests are our chief source of building material and fuel. They protect and hold the soil and water of the than the

forests.

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

250

Their presence makes our land more attractive

earth.

and

healthful.

Forests necessary for civilization. is

built

on wood.

some shape or or luxury. all

other,

Wood

our houses.

xaHj

From

— Our

civilization

the cradle to the

wood surrounds us

coffin,

in

as a necessity

enters into the construction of nearly

It serves to

ornament them,

to furnish

FARM FORESTRY the cargo safe.

We

with wooden toys,

251

are rocked in wooden cradles, play

wooden chairs and benches, wooden desks, chests and trunks, are entertained by music from wooden instruments, and learn by information printed on wooden paper with black ink made from wood. eat

from wooden

in

sit

tables, use

Forest influences.

—Besides serving the great purpose

as the source of our needed supplies, the forests exercise

a great influence upon the earth and

ants.

its

inhabit-

Forests are often the source of streams, and

here the rains and snows are allowed to sink slowly

and deeply

into the

mould,

run

to

soil,

through the leaves,

gradually

into

the

roots,

streams

and

through

springs and underground levels, preventing excessive

and extremes of drought. The forests break the and temper the climate. In short, the ft^rest is one of man's greatest blessings, and yet it is the one which he has abused with the most recklessIn no part of the world has this ness and ignorance. floods,

force of winds

reckless waste been greater than in the United States.

The use forests

of the forests.

—

It

was not intended that the

be hoarded up as a

they are to be used. ests so wisely that

But

they

miser hoards his gold

it is

may

possible to use the for-

last as

long as the earth

The destructive cutting by lumbermen, and

stands.

the prevalence of forest fires have been the causes of

waste

in

our

great

forest

Roosevelt said that forestry forests

teaches

resources. is

by a wise use of what they

men how

to

Ex-President

the art of saving the afford.

Forestry

keep the forests alive by cutting

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

252

out only the trees that have got their growth, in such a

way

as not to injure or destroy the younger growth

Young trees are given light, air, and room The forest floor of rich leaf-mould is preserved as a means of enriching the soil and holding the

remaining. to

grow.

moisture.

The control best

way

of the forest.

—Forestry also teaches the

of replanting or "reforesting" areas in which

The respon-

the timber has already been destroyed. sibility for

wisely caring for our forests

may

be laid

—

upon three or four agencies the United States Government or the state governments, the large private timThe Forest ber owners, and the American farmer. Service of the United States is doing a great and valuable service to the people in its wise management of millions of acres of forest reserves in the Western States; the large lumbermen of the country are doing little

to save

or use the forests wisely

;

it

is

to

the

American farmer we must turn with high hopes that he

may

realize that he is the

most important trustee

of the nation's wealth of forest resources.

—

The farmers' woodlot. Every farmer who has a and every farmer ought to have one, may practice the principles of forestry, and thus use his timber When our country was new, land had to be wisely. cleared to make room for the crops. Great trees were Wood cut down and rolled into heaps to be burned. was worth little except for fuel. Now all is changed. The price of wood is liigh, and is rising higher every The farmer who has a woodlot on his land has year. woodlot,

FARM FOEESTRT

253

and although it may not of money, it is almost necessity for a successful farming. The up-to-date farmer now values and cares for his woodlot. The follow-

a valuable piece of property,

bring him

ing

are*

1.

much

in turn in the

some points

Give

for growth,

all

to observe in caring for a

young

desirable

and cut out

all

or such use as the farmer can 2.

It is

way

trees

undesirable ones for fuel

make

of them.

injurious to a woodlot to use

The stock will browse on the young them down, and cut up the soil and forest ture.

3.

woodlot

every advantage

it

as a pas-

trees,

tramp

tree roots.

Grass should never be allowed to get started in

the woodlot.

Old and dead trees should be cut down and reAll brush and old logs should be piled and burned, where fire cannot injure the young trees. 4.

moved. 5.

Where bare

spots occur

young

trees

should be

encouraged to grow, either by planting seeds or seedlings. 6.

It

may

be well to plow

up

sections of the old

woodlot and plant seedlings of such trees as Black Locust, Catalpa, or

Osage Orange.

ers in this country that itable proposition,

There are a few farm-

have made the woodlot a prof-

and have even gone

so far as to set

high priced corn lands to young forest trees. Practical Exercises 1.

Transplanting a Tree

young tree to be transplanted. Locate the main roots by striking the spade into the ground parallel to the direction of the roots. Dig out from the Select a

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

254

avoid cutting

tree as far as the roots extend,

much

off too

and secure as many roots as possible in a ball of earth to be removed with them. If the tree is to be carried any distance, wrap tlie roots with a wet cloth or carpet. The roots must main

of the

root system,

not be allowed to dry out before transplanting.

Dig the hole

which the tree

into

deeper than the one from which

room

all

surface

injured and broken roots.

soil

hands work

in the fine

be

is to

came.

Before placing the

for all roots.

neatly

it

bottom of the

soil

a

set,

little

Allow ample tree,

trim

off

Place some fine

hole,

and with the

about the small roots.

earth about the roots carefully, and tramp

it

Fill the

down

ivell.

not best to use water in transplanting unless the

It is

soil is

very dry, and then only a small amount.

up the surface

of the

ground

so that

Round

no water can stand

next to the tree, and cover with a loose, fine mulch of earth.

The inverted sod may be placed on

top.

Now

the tree must be trimmed back so that the disturbed

balance between root and top

may

be restored.

"Who

does his duty Is a question too complex for me But he, I venture the suggestion, Does part of his who plants a tree. S.

'

'

—Lowell.

Planting a Woodlot

Send to Ohio Valley Nursery Co., Lake, Ind., or to The Little Tree Farm Nurseries, Farmingham, Mass., for

1,000

seedlings

of

Catalpa

Speciosa,

will

cost

an acre of ground, plow it and prepare it as for a corn crop. Lay off the ground in furCross furrow these at right anrows, six feet apart. about $5.

Select

FAKM FORESTRY

255

FIRST

THIRD

plenty large and Do not be afraid to bend deep. Leave some pulverized the back. earth in the bottom of the hole.

After the roots are carefully covered then press the earth down Then solid as the hole is filled. the wind as it moves the tree will not disturb the roots.

Dig

a

hole

FOURTH

SECOND and

Leave

there Sift the dark mould with kindly

moisture

may

children

plant

"There gently lay the

roots,

round

the

sleeping

infant's

feet,

We

earth soali

on

in.

top so Let the

nasturtium

seed

and thus cultivate the ground.

care.

As,

loose

softly fold the cradle sheet."

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

256

the same distance apart.

gles,

Plant the Catalpa seed-

lings at the intersection of the furrows. trees will be

six

The

1,000 trees on the acre.

trees

little

must be cultivated

May and

three or four times during

sow

These

apart and there will be about

feet

June.

In July

to cowpeas, vetch, or clover to serve as a winter

cover crop.

Keep up

this

system of cultivation and

cover cropping for three or four seasons, or until the trees shade the entire

ground beneath them.

They

will

probably need some pruning to keep the stems straight

and from forking

If the

too badly.

trees over or they persist in

wind blows any

growing crooked, cut the

ground and new, strong, straight trees grow from the roots. For a school exercise any smaller area planted in this

trees off at the will

manner

will serve.

The author strongly recommends

the use of this exercise in the rural schools.

D^aw

a plot of the ground

and show the position of

the trees.

—

Note. Black Locust, White Willow, Osage Orange, and Yellow Poplar are good woodlot trees to plant and they yield quick returns. 3.

An

Excursion

t-.

the

Woods

Let the class and teacher take a walk to the woods.

Make 1.

notes of your observations on the following points

The comparative temperature within and without

the woods. 2.

The

the roots

rich

and

vent washing.

soil of the forest floor, and how mould hold the moisture and prePoint out examples of washes where

humus leaf

FARM FOEESTRY the forest has been cut away, is

carried to the streams, and 3.

Find

growth. 4.

If

trees of virgin

a

freshly

cut

and explain how the upon them.

soil

its effects

growth and

Note any dangerous

257

also the second

firetraps.

stump or

log

can be found,

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

258

Make

6.

a

list

in the notebook of the

names

of all

the trees yoii can.

Point out the ironwood, blue-beech, hazel, serul)

7.

and other useless "tree weeds" that should be moved in improvement cuttings. oaks,

By

Book of Forestry, or Primer of Forestry, many valuable lessons

referring to Roth's First

to Pinchot's

may

re-

be continued in this work. Problems

1. At $6 per cord, what is the value of a pile of wood 240 feet long, six feet high and four feet wide? 2. A farmer gets six cords of wood from ten trees. With wood at $5.50 per cord, what is the value of these

trees? 3.

What

is

the value of a single tree at the same

rate? 4.

what 5.

Suppose there are is

the value of the

What

is

fifty

such trees on an acre,

wood on

this piece of land?

the value of a woodlot of fifteen acres

same rate? 6. Suppose a farmer removes the five biggest trees per acre from his woodlot each year. If each tree makes three-fourths of a cord of wood, worth $6 per cord, and it costs 80 cents per cord for cutting, what profit does at the

he make per acre on his woodlot?

8.

Compare Compare

9.

What

7.

this with the profit it

will

on an acre of

oats.

with the profit on an acre of corn. the profit on a twelve-acre woodlot

be at the same rate?

SPEAYING FOR DISEASES If a

10.

259

Catalpa wood-lot contains 1,000 ten-year-old and each tree would make two fence

trees per acre, posts,

what would the

30c a post

trees on five acres be

worth

at

?

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletins No. 54.— Some Common Birds in Their Eelation to Agriculture.

No. 150. No. 173.

— Clearing New Land. — A Primer of Forestry. LESSON LXXIII FOR

SPRAYING

CODLING

AND

MOTH

FUNGOUS

DISEASES Time

to spray.

—

It

is

late in April

blossoms have just fallen from the trees. that the codling

be eating

its

and we know,

and the apple We know now

moth larva or "apple worm"

way

into the blossom

will soon

end of the apples,

we do something to check its ravages, our fruit will fall or be wormy and worthless. Fortunately we do not have to give up to the codling moth, for we may spray our trees, kill the moth, and save the apples. Lime-sulphur and lead arsenate. If any farmer in the neighborhood has a spray pump, he no doubt would be willing to loan it to the school for this lesson. The school should own some good spray pump, such as the Gould's Pomona, and use it for demonstration purposes in the orchards of the district. The spray material usually used is the combined lime-sulphur mixture and lead The lime-sulphur checks the spreads of such arsenate. too, that unless

—

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

260

"frog eye" fungus, brown

diseases as apple scab, etc.,

and the lead arsenate

kills

rots,

the "apple worm,'"

caterpillars, and other chewing insects. Ready prepared lime-sulphur solutions may be purchased from reliable firms for between 10 and 20 cents a gallon, and a gallon and one-half diluted to about

leaf-eating

Fig. 77.

fifty

Spraying a Fruit Tree

gallons with water, will spray about ten average

sized bearing apple trees.

To

this

mixture should be

added about three pounds of lead arsenate, to be used (See Lesson 12 for making against the codling moth. of

Bordeaux Mixture.)

SPRAYING FOR DISEASES

361

Practical Exercises

Preparing and Using the Lime-sulphur Lead-arsenate Mixture

1.

If one wishes to prepare his

The stock solution

64.

is

own

diluted

material, see Lesson

and used as described

above.

Force

the

spray

thoroughly

Courtesy of Fig.

78.

li.

F.

and completely onto

Johnson Pub. Co.

The Codling Moth

and fruit of the tree. When moth larva hatches from the eggs which have been laid on the leaves and the apples, and begins to crawl toward the apples, it may nibble at some of every

twig, stem,

leaf,

the codling

the poisoned leaves, but as

it

it is

sure to get

its last

attempts to eat into the blossom end of the

meal fruit.

If this operation of spraying is repeated in about three

or four weeks after the blossoms

summer

to

fall,

and then in midtrees and fruit

combat the second brood, the

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

262

from the moth and from the fungous and the apple trees may yield a hundredfold.

will be saved eases,

dis-

Applications to the State Experiment Station should be

made

for the latest spray calendars.

This exercise should by

all

means be carried out

in

the public schooJs. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 243.

Reference:

Voin-lvs!/ of

Fig.

79.

Apples

Fitoii

I!

J

/nlni^iiii

I'nh.Co.

Spkaved and Uxspka\eu Bkanches

Problems

Our farm orchard contains four acres of apple trees. How much will it cost to spray the orchard Lime-sulwith the lime-sulphur and lead arsenate? phur at 20 cents a gallon, and lead arsenate at 15 cents 1.

a pound.

The Bordeaux-lead-arsenate mixture, ready prepared will cost $1 per gallon. This will make up fifty 2.

gallons of spray material.

How much

by making our own mixture,

if

lime

is 1

could

we

and copper sulphate 10 cents per pound?

(See Lesson

12.) 3.

Which

is

save

cent per pound,

cheaper, linie-siilphur or Bordeaux?

PLANTING COEN

263

LESSON LXXIV PLANTING CORN Preparation of seed bed.

—Having

selected our seed

and tested it for germination, the next step we must take in corn culture is to prepare the soil to reA rich humus soil, loose, warm, and ceive the seed. corn,

moist,

will

produce a better crop of corn than any

now

other.

If the field has been fall-plowed,

Fig. 80.

Jerry Moore and His 228% Bu. op Corn Raised on One

t'ourtttiij

u{

it

should

Farm and Futmde.

Acre

be double-disked and harrowed in preparation for the planting.

In

many

cases corn follows corn,

plowing must be done in the spring. disking before plowing will cut

up the

and the

In this case a stalks

and pro-

vide a fine layer which will fall into the bottom of the

furrow, and help to restore capillarity.

In

soils

that

are liable to bake, each day's plowing should be bar-

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

264

rowed as soon as

A

possible.

may prevent the times as much trouble

little

extra work at this

formation of clods, and save ten

time

in trying to pulverize

them

later.

Three or four additional harrowings will usually put In our the ground iato first class shape for planting.

farm plan,

as

shown

in Lesson

I,

we

shall plant field

number 1 to corn. This has been in clover for two and by deep plowing, rolling, and through harrowing we shall have a most excellent seed bed for our years,

corn.

Planting the seed.

when growing corn

—

It is

better to check than to drill

for grain, as

it

can be kept cleaner,

For fodder or silage, more tons of dry matter per acre and handled by the corn binder. In some

with a resulting larger yield. drilled corn gives is

more

easily

of the states west of the Ivlissouri River, where the soil is

light

and

rainfall scanty, listing gives the best re-

sults.

The number

of kernels to use per hill depends

the richness of the

soil.

On

three kernels per hill will give the best results. rich soils can support four, while on poor soils

enough.

It

upon

the average corn belt soils

Very

two -are

pays both in appearance and in ease of

cul-

tivating to drive straight while planting and to have

the rows cheek straight crosswise.

Early cultivation.

—As

many harrowings

as possible

should be given the corn between planting time and the

time or

it

comes up.

if it is

If

heavy rains have packed the it will pay to

badly infested with weeds,

soil fol-

low the planter marks with the cultivator before harrowing.

PLANTING CORN

265

Practical Exercises

Entering a Corn Contest

1.

Write

to the

Extension Department of your State Col-

lege of Agriculture test of the

will be one

you

state.

to enter the boys' corn con-

If a contest

is

on,

and there

planned in almost every state in the union,

will be told

to plant

and ask

county or

and

where

cultivate

If the teacher

to get it

your seed corn, and how

for the corn

and pupils wish

contest of their own,

to

show and contest. work out a corn

each pupil should be provided

with one pint of high grade seed corn.

your father's

in

field,

feet apart

and 37

acre plot.

Select

former

in

above.

lessons.

enough

to

1-3 rods long

and

test the

—

Select a strip plant two rows 3l^

this will be a tenth

seed corn as described

Prepare the ground as described

Plant the corn in

hills,

about three kernels to a

and each hill about four feet apart. Cultivate at least once a week (if the ground is dry enough) from the time the corn is big enough until it begins to tassel. (See Lesson 32.) From your plot you may gather the ears which will win the prize. Such a contest should be arranged for and carried out by the Boys' Club of the school. (See Farmers' hill,

Bulletin, No. 385.) 2.

Starting the Ear-to-row Plot for Eaising Seed Corn

Place one hundred of the best ears of corn you can Select from this lot twentyand number them from one to twenty-five. On the test plot of the farm (see Lesson I), prepare the ground thoroughly for planting as find

on a table before you.

five

of the best ears,

LESSOjNS IX AGEICULTUEE

266

Lay

described above.

off

each row from 1 to 25.

number number number 2 in

twenty-five rows, and

Plant about

lialf

of ear

row number 1. Plant one-half of ear row number 2, and so on to number 25. Give all the rows equal and thorough cultivation. At husking time we can judge which row has yielded most, which has the best corn in it, and so on for other desired points. By saving the seed from the best rows for our ear row 1 in

test

we can soon breed up by

next year,

improved strain of

an

selection

corn.

Problems

How

1.

long will

it

take to plow a ten-acre field in

How

preparation for corn planting? it?

If the

long to harrow

work were hired done how much would

it

cost at the usual price of labor? 2.

How much

ten acres

if

seed corn will be needed to plant the

the corn

is

drilled?

How much

if

checked

with a planter? 3.

What

will

it

cost to hire all the labor

and

to

buy

the seed corn? 4.

If the yield of corn

to the acre in

added

your

to the state

were increased

state, how^

five

bushels

much wealth would

by the increase?

(See the Year

be

Book

of 1909.) Eeferences: 385.

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos.

81,

229, 409, 281,

and

MAY On

the farm.

planting,

and

— May

is

month The corn

the

cultivation.

of planting, transto be cultivated

is

constantly; potatoes, cucumbers, melons, beans, to be planted

etc.,

celery are to be transplanted

;

are

and

tomatoes, cabbage, sweet potatoes,

;

and continual warfare

against weeds and insects must be waged.

LESSON LXXV CULTIVATION OF COEN The proper time

to

i)efore it is planted.

the

begin the cultivation of corn

As was

is

said in the previous lesson,

ground should be plowed deeply, the surface harfine, and the corn planted in hills

rowed mellow and or in drilled rows.

Methods of

cultivation.

—As

soon as the rows can If

any

should be the

first

be followed the cultivator should be started.

deep cultivation

to be given

is

two times over, before the After the corn

is

it

soil is filled

with corn roots.

six or eight inches high

some form

of surface cultivator that will not disturb the soil to a

depth of more than two or three inches should be used. In the western part of the corn are large, the two

row cultivator

If the corn is very straight both 267

belt, is

where the

fields

becoming popular.

ways these

cultivators

LESSOxXS

268

work well after the

AGEiCULT URE

man

time over and enable one

first

handle at least half as much more land.

to

The

many

in

of the great corn growing regions of the prairie

has been greatly simplified since the two row

states,

came

cultivator

corn planters be

—

The problem of cultivating a cornhundred acres in extent, such as is found

cultivator.

field several

made

into

now

With the perfect working market the row of corn may

use.

in the

so straight that the

used without

difficulty.

ity of cultivation

in

IiN

many

two row cultivator can be

This has brought about a

which has added largely

parts of the country.

the double

facil-

to the yield

Before the coming of

row cultivator there w^s danger that much

of the land of the western portion of the belt

would

become too weedy for corn culture.

Reasons for cultivation. constant cultivation,

—

Corn is a crop that needs and during the growing season

should be cultivated at least four times. tion

is

To destroy weeds that use up

1.

This cultiva-

for three reasons: the plant food

and

water. 2.

To provide

3.

Because

a soil

mulch

to

prevent evaporation.

tillage is a fertilizer.

Constant stirring

of the soil allows the air to circulate through

it,

and

provides available plant food.

Corn

is

king.

— Corn

is

king of the

cereals,

and the

most important crop of American agriculture. the backbone of farming in this country.

man

It

is

The white

learned the value of this cereal from the Indians,

CULTIVATION OF COEN and

269

since then its culture has kept pace with the won-

derful growth of our country.

—

Boys' corn clubs. The following story, told by one S. A. Knapp's agents in connection with the

of Dr.

Boys' Corn Club movement illustrates

how

the boys

are learning to follow scientific methods in corn culture

"One boy acre in corn.

in our club

was very anxious

to

work an

His father gave him one on condition

that he dig out the pine stumps

and pay

After the boy had gotten out nearly

Fig. 82.

all

all

expenses.

the stumps in

Growth op Corn Roots

and gave him another, The boy went to work, cleaned this new field and plowed it. Then I advised him to plow it again. When the boy wanted some fertilizer his father refused to permit him to buy till I went security and promised to make good all losses, if any. The boy's corn was measured this week and made eightythe

field,

the father took that acre

upon the same condition.

four bushels to the acre. sides of the boy's,

the

His father's corn, on three

made nine bushels per

corn was weighed and the

father's

acre.

went

When to

the

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

270

pigs and the son's sold for seed corn at two dollars

per bushel, the father changed front." Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 199, 229, 385, 281, and

References: 81.

Practical Exercises

The Stand of Corn

1.

Select a field of corn near the school

owner's permission to

visit

and secure the owner to go

Invite the

it.

Let each pupil begin with the

with you.

corn in a row and count to the hundredth corn has been checked and

iirst

hill of

If the

hill.

should be three stalks to

was intended that there the hill, there would be in a

perfect stand 300 stalks.

Now

number

of stalks in the 100

the stand

is

it

count back and find the If there are but 150,

hills.

Each pupil should determine the stand in the row he has counted.

50 per cent.

the percentage of

Each pupil should

find out as nearly as possible the

average stand of corn on the home farm and report to the class for the next lesson.

to parents,

and

in

many

It will be interesting

cases a surprise to them, to

find that they have less than a 50 per cent stand

they thought

it

80 per cent.

In

reasons for the good or bad stand.

farmer does not wish cant

hills,

all

It is clear

to lose his time

when he might

when

cases discuss the

that the

and labor on va-

just as well have a liberal

harvest from them. S.

Go to Examine tion.

Corn Boots

in Cultivation

a corn field where cultivation

the

soil,

Note the stand, health,

the crop.

is

in progress.

and depth of cultivaand general condition of

the method

CULTIVATION OF COEN

271

Carefully remove a few stalks of corn all

—

—roots

and

and take them to the schoolroom to study as follows

Carefully wash the

soil

from the young

spread them out upon a sheet of paper.

Fig. 83.

roots,

and

Get a root

Ohio Coen Field in Shock

from the mature plants and have

before you for

it

comparison.

Note the following points of the corn late

root,

and tabu-

your answer below

1.

Length and number of principal

2.

Amount

3.

Direction in which the roots extend from the base

of branching

roots.

from any one

root.

of the plant. 4.

Amount

5.

How

of cubical space used as feeding ground.

near the surface do the roots

lie?

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

272 6.

Difference

between spur roots and the others.

State reasons. 7. 8.

and root-hairs? Does your observation lead you to any conclu-

Can yon

find root-eap

Explain.

sions about the cultivation of corn? 9.

]\Iake a

drawing of the corn root system.

LESSON LXXVI TILLING THE SOIL Tillage.

— Since

cultivation,

it

May

is

es-

not equal

to,

Tillage

fertilization of the soil.

Value of fed

by the

of soil

seems best to study further into the

sentials of tillage.

the phmting,

month

especially the

next

is

It

if

to,

includes the preparation,

and the cultivation of the land.

tillage.

—As

roots,

penetrating into the

we have

learned, the plant soil,

is

gathering

up the dissolved food and passing it on to the phmt. If the soil is coarse and lumpy these feeding roots cannot get at the food held in the lumps, but must feed from their surface. verizes

Tillage breaks

them and allows the

contain.

Stirring the

up these lumps, pul-

roots to get at the food they

soil also

allows the water to dis-

more readily. Depth of plowing. Dee]) plowing

solve the plant food

—

best.

in

most cases

It brings to the surface plant foods

is

not reached

by shallow cultivation, and it pulverizes the soil so that roots can enter the ground to a greater depth and have more

soil to

feed from.

such root crops as

lieets,

This

parsnips,

is

especially true for

etc..

and

for tubers

TILLING SOIL like the potato.

In

fact,

valuable purpose for

373

deep plowing serves

all plants,

tlie

same

not only in giving more

and better root feeding space, but in catching and holding more of the rainfall. We have already learned that water exists in the soil both as underground water and

Pig.

84.

Deep Plowing

and that the water which supplies is the capillary water drawn up from the underground water below. Now unless the

as capillary water,

the roots of the plants

ground to

is

deeply plowed, there

is

less rainfall

supply this underground water, and hence

caught less

to

supply by capillarity to the plant roots.

Surface cultivation.

— If

the

deep plowing catches

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

274

and holds larger quantities of or shallow plowing, to save as

much

preventing

its

that

if

drying

up.

soil will

of this

no plowing tillage

ground water as possible by

vessel of

water

it

We

know

keeps the sun from

In the same way a cover spread over the

check the evaporation of the capillary water.

The simplest way soil is to cultivate

out rapidly, but moist

rainfall than

becomes the part of good

evaporation from the surface.

we cover a it

it

soil

to

it

get this cover spread over the

The layer

it.

of cultivated soil dries

keeps the air from getting at the

underneath and drying

it

out,

and

breaks the rise of capillary water and prevents ing to the surface.

The surface

it

also

its

com-

cultivation should be

shallow to prevent injury to the plant roots, and

it

should be frequent to provide the dust mulch.

Constant cultivation.— When the writer was a boy, living in the corn belt of Illinois, terrible hardship

when

it

used to seem a

the father announced, after just

finishing the cultivation of a large field of corn, that

we

must now go back to the beginning and go over it all Fishing and swimming never seemed more inagain. viting to the boy, but the father knew what was best for the corn.

the price to

He knew

that constant cultivation

pay for a good

crop.

He

was

paid the price

and got the reward.

Summary.

— To

summarize,

reasons for tillage:

plant

roots

(1)

we may

give four chief

To pulverize the

soil,

can easily penetrate in every

so that

direction

and get at the store of plant food the soil contains. To increase the water-holding capacity of the (2)

TILLING SOIL (3)

soil.

warm

it.

which

will

275

To aerate the soil and thus sweeten and To destroy weeds and form a soil mulch (4) prevent rapid evaporation from the surface. Practical Exercises Field Studies of Tillage

1.

Go done.

where plowing or cultivation

to a field

Make

Method Depth

of

is

being

notes of your observations as follows:

Plowing

Condition of Soil

|

of

Cultivation

|

I

Moisture Condition

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture No. 306. Some Soil Problems for Practical Farmers.

—

Problems 1.

How many

square feet in one square yard?

In

one acre ? 2.

If soil

how many many,

if

is

cultivated to the depth of four inches,

cubic feet of cultivated soil per acre?

cultivated to the depth of six inches?

How If cul-

tivated to the depth of eight inches? 3.

How much

more plant food

is

made

available with

cultivation to the depth of eight inches than with a four-

inch depth of cultivation 4.

How many

?

times as

much

available plant food

in soil cultivated to the depth of six inches as in soil

cultivated only four inches deep? 5.

If a

man and team can plow

one and a half acres

two acres four inches deep in a day, more does it cost per acre to plow land six much how

six inches deep, or

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

276

inches deep than to plow

it

only four inches deep

?

La-

bor worth $2.40 per day. 6.

If a

man and team

can

till

three acres thoroughly

in a day, or five acres in a careless manner,

how much

more per acre does a good job cost, labor being worth $2.40 per day? 7. How much more per acre does it cost to both plow and till well? How many additional bushels of oats worth 36 cents per bushel will

it

take to pay for

the additional labor? 8.

How much

will be the gain if but forty bushels

of oats can be raised with shallow plowing

seeding,

and

How much

careless

work?

worth at 24 cents per

will these oats be

At 30

bushel?

and

fifty-seven bushels with the extra

cents per bushel?

At the present

price

of oats? 9.

A

certain piece of land yields thirty-five bushels

of corn per acre.

By

careful cultivation the farmer

able to increase this yield to sixty bushels.

is

With corn

worth 40 cents per bushel how many additional days' labor at $1 per day will the extra yield pay for? 10.

If he spends but

twenty days' extra time on his

twelve-acre field of corn to produce the increase in crop

shown

in

problem

his extra time 11.

9,

how much

does he get per day for

?

Suppose a farmer

is

able to double the average

from an acre of land days' extra time on it. What wages

yield of 160 bushels of potatoes

by putting

fifteen

does he get with potatoes at 25 cents per bushel 12.

From answers

?

to the following questions

make

1

TILLING SOIL

277

What does labor man plow per

other problems similar to the above.

How many

day?

cost per

How many

day?

many

acres can a

How

acres can he seed in a day?

acres of corn can he cultivate?

increase the yield of corn

?

Will extra labor

etc., etc.

LESSON LXXVII TRANSPLANTING transplanted.

Plants

— Our

growing

plants

in

We

hotbed will be ready to transplant this month.

the shall

transplant tomatoes, cabbage, celery, eggplant, pansies,

and probably some young

trees.

Principles in transplanting.

made

the

at

—If the hotbed

school there will be plenty

has been

of material

It is an important and practical lesson to The following rules will guide to successful trans-

available. learn.

planting 1.

:

Transplant when the weather

is

cool

and damp,

preferably in the late afternoon. 2.

Transplant when the plant

is

young.

Break the roots as little as possible in taking the young plant up, and keep them moist and shaded. 3.

4.

It is well to cut off

some of the top in transplant-

ing,

in order to restore the balance between the root

and

top, since

some of the roots were probably

lost in

transplanting. 5.

The plant should be dipped

moist fertile

soil

in water

packed firmly about the

roots.

and have If water

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

278 is to

all

be used

the soil

should be poured about the roots before

added.

is

The plant should have

6.

in

it

which

as large a space as that

The

originally grew.

it

in first at the bottom of the hole in

are to grow, and the subsoil, is

important to make the It

7.

soil

sometimes well

is

if

should be put

soil

which the roots

any, at the surface.

It

firm about the roots.

to

shade the young trans-

plant a few days from the hot sunshine, or to protect the roots with a mulch of straw or grass.

The pupils in agriculture should by all means get some actual practice in transplanting, if in no other way than by going to the school yard and getting wild plants to transplant in pots or in out-door plots. Practical Exercises

Transplating Garden Vegetables

1.

If there

is

a window-box in the school, in which are

growing seedlings of cabbage, tomato, or other vegetables to be transplanted, let each pupil transplant a

vegetables to the school garden. the principles given in this lesson.

Be

If there

garden, the transplants should be taken in the

home garden, and

reports

few of the

careful to follow

made

is

no school

home and

in school,

set

from

time to time, as to the success of the work. 2.

Transplating Wild Flowers

Let each pupil find some thrifty-growing wild flower

from the

fields or

good

and bring

soil

causes of

its

woods, transplant

it

to

to the school room.

success or failure to live

some pot of Explain the

and grow.

POTATOES In connection with this

379

lesson, each pupil

might bring

some shrub or small tree from home or the woods

to

transplant in the school yard. Reference:

Farmers' Bulletin, No. 245.

LESSON LXXVIII POTATOES

On

our farm plan in Lesson

plant in potatoes.

We

1,

we have one

acre to

are to learn something in this

lesson about potato planting, potato culture,

and potato

pests.

Potato

soil.

—Light sandy

best soils for potatoes.

soils,

Heavy

rich in

clay

humus, are the

soils interfere

with

and often make them small. deeply plowed, and laid The potatoes should off in rows about three feet apart. be planted from four to five inches deep, and about the growth of the potatoes Soil

for potatoes should be

eighteen inches apart in the rows.

Planting potatoes.

— There

is

much

difference

of

opinion as to the method of cutting the potatoes for planting.

Excellent results have been obtained by plant-

ing the whole potato, a single one in a practice

recommended

is

hill.

The usual

to cut the seed potatoes into

halves or quarters, at least two eyes to a piece, using

one or two pieces to a

hill.

The

best potatoes should

be used for seed and not the small discarded ones.

A

handful of bone meal should be dropped into the bot-

tom

of each hill and covered with

placing the seed.

an inch of

soil

before

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

280

—

Potato

culture. After the potatoes have been and before they come up, the surface mulch should be provided, and this may be done by light harrowings. Throughout the whole period of cultivation the weeds should be kept out, the dust mulch provided, and shallow, level cultivation maintained. The old prac-

planted,

tice of

ridging the potatoes serves to expose the

Fig. 85.

excessive

evaporation,

soil to

Spraying Potatoes

and

to

lessen

the

quality

and

(quantity of the crop.

—

Potato pests. The Colorado most troublesome potato insect.

potato It

beetle

is

the

can be easily killed

by spraying with three pounds of arsenate of lead mixed with fifty gallons of water, or four ounces of Paris green and a pound of lime with the same amount

POTATOES

Either poison can be added to Bordeaux mix-

of water.

ture

281

which

is

the

remedy for the potato

diseases.

will be described in

Methods of treating the potato scab the practical exercises. Practical Exercises

Treating Seed Potatoes to Prevent Scab

1.

The day before the

lesson

is

to be given, the teacher

should ask some pupils to bring about a peck of the

The teacher should

scabbiest potatoes that can be found.

see that the other materials are provided for the lesson. Place the potatoes in a burlap sack. Into a tub or

To

barrel pour five gallons of water. one-sixth of a pint of formalin. at

any drug

Fk;

sr,

this

Place the sack of

store at 40 cents a pint.

A Scabby Totato

A (JooD Potato

potatoes in the tub of formalin solution. to

add about

This can be purchased

Allow them

soak one and one-half hours. (Experimental work of this lesson will have

here.

If there is a school garden, the

below should be continued at school should fully explain the

rest,

;

and

if

work

end

none the teacher

call

pupils to complete the experiment at

to

as outlined

for volunteer

home and

report

upon i^.) Remove the potatoes from the solution, and cut into Cut the potato through the long pieces for planting.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

282

way, and then divide each half.

Do

not put the potatoes

back into the receptacle that has had in

The

tatoes.

it

vessel to be used should be

scabby po-

washed with

the solution in the tub.

Plant the treated tubers in rows by themselves, and

mark with

To show the

stakes the rows so planted.

comparative results of the treatment, plant the same

number

of scabby potatoes,

and give both equal care and

cultivation throughout the season.

When

the potatoes are ripe, dig the treated

treated separately. potatoes.

A

Count the increase

and un-

in the treated

careful record of this lesson should be kept,

including the cost of treatment, the price of potatoes,

and the

from the treatment, due

total gain

to the in-

creased value of the yield. It would be a good service to the district if pupils would bring all their scabby potatoes to the school to be

treated, before planting.

Any

tween the school and the home

helpful co-operation beis

of incalculable value

to both institutions. Reference:

Farmers' Bulletin. No.

Problems 1.

If the

average weight of seed potatoes

ounces each," and in

rows three

the row,

if

is

four

they are cut in halves and planted

apart and eighteen inches apart in

feet

how many

bushels of seed will be required per

acre? 2.

How many

tatoes are used? 3.

bushels will be needed

Quarters?

if

whole po-

Eighths?

Select seven potatoes as nearly the

same

size

and

TOMATOES

283

shape as possible, from the same

hill

or similar

hills.

Cut one potato into four pieces and plant each piece in a hill hills

;

this will

"Plat No. 1."

make four

hills.

Mark

these four

Cut the next two potatoes length-

wise into halves; plant each half in a hill and mark Plant the remaining four these four "Plat No. 2." potatoes whole, each one in a

hill,

and mark these "Plat

No. 3." Give the same care and cultivation to each plant and, fully

when they have matured, dig

all

the potatoes care-

and weigh the yield from each plat and tabulate

as follows:

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

284 best varieties,

methods of culture,

etc.,

have been

re-

ported. Girls'

tomato growing and canning clubs.

—Aiken

County, South Carolina, through the leadership of Miss

Samuella Cromer, started the

oii.L./

in this country.

This

first Girls'

Tomato Club

iu.uATO Club

movement

is

only a

little

over

and already there are over four thousand members of the clubs. South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, Mississippi, and a year old

Georgia have Girls' Tomato Clubs.

The clubs are carried on in this manner: Any girl between the ages of nine and twenty years, in the

TOMATOES county organized

may become

385

a

member.

She must

plant one-tenth of an acre in tomatoes, and do

all

of the

work connected with her garden, except preparing the her plants.

soil for

Prizes are offered for the largest

on her garden work, largest and most perfect tomato, neatest and best collection of tomato recipes, etc. Canning yield, the best display in glass jars, best essay

homes

and the whole work becomes an inspiration to the entire comparties are held at the

of the girls,

munity.

Some requirements

in tomato culture.

—A clay

soil is

preferred by some varieties of tomatoes, and a sandy soil

by

others.

Deep preparation and plenty

of ma-

nure will make good tomatoes on almost any kind of soil.

Too much manure on

cause the plant to run to vine.

light soil, however,

Sow

may

the seed in the hot-

beds about the end of IMarch, and transplant the plants into small pots

when about two

inches high.

should not be set out until the temperature stay above 60° F.

is

They

likely to

All the rules of transplanting men-

tioned in Lesson 77 should be observed.

Set the plants

three feet apart in rows three and one-half feet apart.

Thorough weeds,

is

cultivation, loosening the soil

and

killing the

necessary until the plants begin to spread and

soil should then be drawn up two or three inches high. A strawy mulch over the ground, or some support, as a trellis, is necessary to keep the fruit off the ground. The fruit will begin to ripen in August and should be picked as fast as ripe. The plant will usually con-

cover the ground.

The

to the plants in hills

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

286 tiniie

bearing until frost, and

if

full-sized green

matoes are picked and placed on the will usually ripen.

to-

cellar floor, they

Acme, Ponderosa, are good varieties.

p]arliana, Eclipse,

Yellow Prince, and Best of

All,

Practical Exercises 1

Experimenting in Tomato Culture

Procure enough tomato plants from the hot-bed or from any source available to set out a plot on the home grounds, two rods by one rod. Transplant and cultivate as directed above. When the vines begin to branch and blossom, divide your plot into three sections and treat each section as follows 1. Mulch the ground about the plants with straw and allow them to fall without support. 2. Support the plants with some sort of trellis to which they are tied, and prune away most of the lower and side branches. Allow the plants to fall unpruned and unsup3.

ported on the bare ground.

Pick the ripened tomatoes from each section

mer and keep

the yield from each.

Report

results to the school next 2.

Write

sum-

C, or

this

autumn.

Organising Girls'

to the

ington, D.

all

and quality of experiment and tfie

a record of the quantity

Tomato Clubs

Department of Agriculture

at

Wash-

to the State Agricultural College for

plans and details for the organization of a Tomato Growing and Canning Club. Ask your teacher to help organize a Tomato Club in the school.

PLANT LEAVES

28?

LESSON LXXX PLANT LEAVES

Work

of leaves.

— The

main object

to be

in the study of this lesson is the great

brought out

work that

leaves

have to do, and the important relations they sustain

to

the life of the plant. 1.

Leaves spread out a great surface through which

the plant takes in oxygen, necessary for its life

and

growth. 2.

Through

this

expanded leaf-surface the carbon-

dioxide gas of the air enters, and in the sunlight the

green leaf makes plant food out of the carbon-dioxide

and the minerals brought up

As one

in solution

result of this process in the leaf,

from the oxygen

soil.

is set

free. 3.

After the leaf has used

the

all

food-material

needed from the sap-solution brought up from the through the roots and

soil

stem, the excess of water

thrown is

in

by the

leaf.

is

This

called transpiration.

A is

off

amount of water passed out of some plants great

this

way.

In the corn

plant about 275 pounds of Magnified Section 87. OF Under Side of Leaf

Fig.

Showing Breathing Pores

oats almost double this

water

are

passed through

the plant for each

pound

of

dry matter in the corn. In of water is handled by

amount

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

288

These are the three principal uses oi the

the plant.

leaves to the plant.

Leaves make our food.

—Plant food

form of

in the leaves in the

starch,

is

and with other nitrogenous matter

is

manufactured

changed

to sugar,

in solution,

to the various parts of the plant, there to be

again into root, stem, to take

our hats

off to

We

leaf, or fruit.

the leaves, for

is

sent

changed

ought surely

they that make

it is

and flower, all wood and all the food we have, in a word all things useful and beautiful are made by the leaves.

possible all our grain, fruit, vegetable,

the

Practical Exercises 1.

Transpiration

Take a plant that piece of cardboard, to cover the plant.

draw

it

is

well started in a flower-pot, a

around the plant. glass,

it

Seal the

and allow the

inner surface of the glass.

way?

slit

from below.

water of the glass below.

Is all the

Leaf

ilie

and two glass tumblers large enough Cut a slit in the cardboard and

ture can come through

with the

in

so that

roots to extend into the

Moisture will collect on the

Where

does

it

come from?

moisture absorbed by the roots given

How

no mois-

Cover the plant

could you find out?

Why

off in this

do plants need

water ? 2.

Collect

Forms of Leaves

and make drawings of seven

different shaped

leaves.

Leaves

like the locust leaf are

the oak are simple.

compound.

Those

like

Classify your leaves as to whether

they are simple or compound.

THE FLOWER

289

LESSON LXXXI THE FLOWER Use of the

flower.

—-However

serve to beautify the world

ment, that

is

not their chief

much

the

flowers

and increase man's enjoyuse. The fruit of the plant

bears the seed, and the flower produces the fruit. is

the chief duty of the flower.

That

Every plant that pro-

duces seed has flowers.

Structure of the flower. is.

Take

the violet.

for

— Let

us see what a flower

example a buttercup, cherry blossom, or

You

will find

leaves enclosing the flower

on the outside a row of green

when

it is still

a bud.

These

r-AnTHiR

mm Ot/ARy~.

FILAMC.NT-

Fig. 88.

A Stamen A

Pistil Vertical Section of Tomato Blossom

leaves are called sepals.

colored leaves, or petals.

Next on the inside

Arranged

is

a row of

inside of the petals

are some threadlike parts, each witli a knob on the end.

These are the stamens.

On

the tip of

fully opened,

its

Examine one stamen

knob you should

some

fine

closely.

find, if the flower is

grains of powder.

This sub-

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

290 stance

is

is

borne

very important to

is

But there

be no seed. is

and the knob on the end in which called the anther. The pollen is the flower. Without it there could

called pollen,

the pollen

is

another part to each flower that

This part you will find in the center

of equal value.

of the flower, inside the circle of stamens.

the

The

pistil.

tip of the pistil

of the pistil forms the ovary. this ovary,

you

will find in

In the corn flower and pistils are

is

If

it

It is called

the stigma.

The base

you carefully cut open

very small unripe seed.

many

others, the

stamens and

In some plants

separate on the same plant.

these parts occur on separate individuals.

Now

no plant can bear seeds unless the pollen of

the stamen falls

upon the stigma.

The wind and the

insects help to carry the pollen to the stigma.

Staminate

and

pistillate

have both stamens and

flowers.

—Flowers

that

pistils are called perfect flowers.

Those having only stamens are called stamenate flowers. Those having

Some

onlj^

pistils are called pistillate flowers.

varieties of strawberries

have individual plants

that contain the stamenate flowers and other individuals,

the pistillate flowers.

In planting such varieties

it

is

evident that both kind of flowers would have to be provided, otherwise the plants

In

many

would produce no

berries.

plants, such as the clovers for example, the

grow into the pistil of the same flower, but the pistil must get its pollen from some other flower before the young seeds will develop. The seed of corn is often mixed because the wind or bees carry pollen from different varieties to the silks at the growing ear. pollen will not

«

PLANT STEMS The silks,

tassel of the corn is the

291

stamenate flower, and the

the pistillate flower. Practical Exercises 1.

The Structure of the Flower

Get specimens of three or four different kinds of flow-

and

fill

out the following table from your observation

of each flower: "*

'

Name

i

I

of

|

Flower

Make

|

|

No. of Sepals

i

I

j

No. of Petals and color

!

|

No. of

Stamens

I

|

No. of Pistils

Seeds

many

or few

a drawing of each of the parts of the flower and

of the whole flower.

LESSON LXXXII PLANT STEMS

—

Purposes of stems. In our studies of the parts of growing plants we shall learn something more about

As

the root develops from the base of the embryo of the seed, the plumule, or first shoot, develops from the other end and becomes the main stem of the plant. Stems serve the plants three purposes: They support the branches and hold (1)

plant stems.

caulicle in the

up to the light. (2) They conduct the water and mineral food up from the ground to the leaves, and the starch and other manufactured food materials from the leaves

the leaves

down

to

the roots

plant wherever needed.

(3)

and other parts of the They serve in some cases

as storehouses for the reserve food of the plant.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

292

Man M^ays. fuel.

has made the stems of plants serve him in other

They provide him with lumber, posts, They serve in man.y cases as food, and

poles,

and

indirectly

furnish materials both for food and clothing.

Stem oped

structure.

— Unlike

the root, the stem

sections, similar in a

in

Each

building.

way

is

devel-

to the stories of a

more The

section or story consists of one or

leaves attached to the farthest end of the section.

part of the stem to which the leaves are attached

is

called

and the part between the leaves is called the internode. The nodes are the points where the lateral buds are formed, and the internodes elongate causing the growth in length of the stem. The structure of the the node,

inside of stems will be seen in the practical exercises to follow.

Habits erect,

port

of

growth.

—Plants

have

stems

that

are

standing above ground, and strong enough to supall

the leaves

and branches.

plants are twining, or

lie

The stems of other upon the ground.

prostrate

The stems of some plants are

entirely

underground,

either condensed into short bulbs or running like rootstocks for a considerable length, bearing leaves above

ground from their nodes.

Still

other plants are with-

out stems, bearing their leaves from the root crowns. Practical Exercises 1.

Types of Stem Structure

Each pupil should have sections about six inches long, and of a twig from a tree. Compare the cross sections of the two stems. Note

of corn-stalk

1

PLANT STEMS woody

that in the corn-stalk the

irregularly through the pith, the

wood

is

arranged in

circles

293 fibres

are scattered

while in the tree stem

around the

drawings of the cross sections to show

Cut the stems into longitudinal

pith.

Make

this.

sections,

and make

drawings to show the arrangement of the wood and pith.

These two kinds of stems represent the two great

groups of flowering plants having closed seed vessels monocotyledons and dicotyledons. longs to the former, grasses, trees,

palms,

lilies,

Go 1.

The corn stem

tree stem to the latter.

be-

The

are monocotyledons, and the

etc.,

most of the weeds and grains are dicotyledons. 2.

tions

and the

Field Study of the Corn Plant

to the nearest corn field,

and note your observa-

on the following points

How many

and how many blades have

joints

formed on the corn stems? 2.

Would you

Why Why do

nodes ? 3.

prefer stalks with short or long inter-

?

stalks

grow

tall

and slender when planted

too thickly? 4.

If the ear has formed, count the

above and below 5.

What

number

of nodes

it.

height above the ground would you think

best for the ear to be? 6.

Note how the blade

7.

Note the stem above the

into the tassel.

is

attached to the stem. last node.

It

develops

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUBE

294

Habits of Stem Growth

3.

Fill out the table

below with several examples of the

kinds of stems indicated Stems on the Basis of Habit of Growth I

I

Twining-

|

Prostrate

|Undergr'und|

I

Condensed bulb stem

1

|

Stcmless

1.

What

2.

For what purposes do plant stems serve man!

3.

Name

the stem.

purposes do stems serve to the plant?

the other parts of the plant attached to

JUNE On

the farm.

—June

the year on the farm. is

is

one of the busiest months of

The work

urgent and laborious.

is

not so varied, but

it

There are persistent, vigor-

ously growing weeds to contend with, insects to combat,

corn

truck patches, and gardens to cultivate, and

fields,

and

clover

alfalfa to cut.

LESSON LXXXIII WEEDS Weeds, a great

pest.

—The farmer's

life is

ual battle against the enemies of his crops.

work hard harder

to

still

He must

combat insect pests and plant-diseases, but

to eradicate the weeds.

where the farmer does not want a weed.

a contin-

Weeds

it

Any

plant growing

might be considered

are objectionable because they rob other

plants of their food, moisture, and sunlight.

Classes of weeds.

—annuals,

—Weeds may be divided into three and perennials.

are those plants that go to seed every year,

Annuals and die,

coming up from the seed year after year.

Pigweed,

classes

biennials,

wild mustard, and ragweed are examples of this

class.

To destroy such weeds, prevent them from going to seed. Biennials are plants that live for two years. They grow up from the seed one year and produce a heavy root. The next year they grow up from this root, pro295

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

296

duce seed and then

die.

To destroy

this class of weeds,

them up by the roots the first year or prevent them from seeding the second year. Burdock, bull thistle, and mullein belong to this class. Perennials are those pull

plants that seed every year but whose roots live on from

The only way to eradicate the perennials them root and branch. These are the hardest of all to kill. The Canada thistle, ox-eye daisy, the fleabanes, sorrel, and common sour dock belong to this class. When such weeds are allowed to spread they soon year to year. is

to destroy

take possession of the farm. Practical Exercises 1.

Gather stem, leaf,

for study.

of Field Collections of

Studjj

Weeds

six or seven different kinds of

and

all

weeds

—and take them into the

Answer

—

school

roots,

room

the following questions regarding

each of the weeds you have collected

Name 1.

Kinds of

2.

Calculate

soil in

How are the When ripe?

5.

At what time

3.

which

number

4.

of the it

Weed thrives best.

of seeds.

seeds scattered

in the

?

growing season do they

ger-

minate ? 6.

7. 8.

Does the young plant grow rapidly or slowly? What kind of roots does the plant have ? When you cut it off does a new plant come from

the same place? 9.

their

Does plowing through a patch of weeds increase

number ?

WEEDS

297

Does the weed have any natural check, such as

10.

birds, insects or live stock eating the foliage?

Weeds can be

11.

killed either

by preventing the

formation of seeds, or by preventing the growth of the

Which

foliage.

weed

in

is

better suited to the

hand?

What garden

12.

How

of these methods

does

it

injure

or field crop does this

weed injure ?

it ?

Write the names of twelve different kinds of weeds

and

classify as to

whether they are annual, biennial, or

perennial. 2.

Spraying

to Kill

Weeds

Dissolve two pounds of iron sulphate (copperas) in a gallon of water, and spray over a patch of grass and

weeds.

Observe results after twenty-four hours and

note which weeds are killed. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Fanners' Bulletins No. 28.— Weeds and How to Kill Them. No. 188.^Weeds Used in Medicine. Extracts No. 133. Birds as Weed Destroyers.

—

Problems 1.

If a clean field produces 60 bu. of corn per acre

and a weedy one only 35 bu. per acre, what is the loss caused by weeds with corn at 35 cents per bushel? What would be the loss on a 20-acre field at the 2. same rate?

For how many days' labor at $1 per day amount of money equal to this loss pay? Suppose it required only four days' work 4. 3.

will

to

an

keep

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

298

an acre free from weeds, what would be the gain per acre? 5.

"What would be the gain on a 24-acre

6.

Is the quality of

^

from a weedy

H

the corn field

ever

so

good

field ?

as

that from a clean field?

Why? clean

Suppose

7.

oats produce 65 bu. per

weedy

and

acre

oats

produce only 48 bu. per acre,

with

oats

at

is

30

what

cents per bushel,

the loss from weeds?

What

is

the loss on a

16-acre field?

a

8. Are oats grown weedy field as good

?

9.

sons

Explain.

Give several rea-

weedy

for

Can weeds easily

in

grown

quality as clean oats

in

in

oats.

oats

destroyed

be

after

Weed Lesson.

FiG. 89.

the oats are sown? 10.

Will

tion prevent

crop

A

Amaranth weed

b,

;

;

d,

crab grass pigeon grass.

;

c,

rag

rota-

weeds in oats?

oats to follow? 11.

i

What

is

a good crop for

Why?

yield of 300 bu. of potatoes per acre would

be an excellent crop. The land would need to be well cul-

TRUCK CROPS and kept

tivated

from weeds

free

to

299

produce

pose but 140 bu. are grown instead, what

At 25

from lack of labor?

cents per bushel

money value of this loss? 12. For how many days' an amount of money equal to 13.

this. is

Sup-

the loss

what

is

labor at $1.25 per day will this loss

pay ?

Suppose only twelve days' extra labor were

FiG.

90.

the

re-

Grain Weeding Plots

quired to give the larger yield,

how much would

be

gained ? 14.

If the

himself,

farmer did these extra twelve days' work

what would he get per day

for his time

?

LESSON LXXXIV TRUCK CROPS During the month

of

June the harvesting of truck

crops again calls our attention to the vegetable garden.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

3G0

On

our forty-acre farm we are not specializing in truck

gardening, and we shall have

little

for the

market per-

haps, hut our tables will be abundantly supplied with

new and

fresh vegetables.

Profit in truck crops.

—Vegetables grown for market Many

are called truck crops.

able than

any

other.

sections profit-

well

Oxion Harvest

with general farming, for

and

all

Truck gardening combines

Fig. 91.

before

farmers in

"truck farming" more

of the country are finding

it

may

after the standard

bring money returns

farm crops mature.

To-

matoes, cabbage, strawberries, cantaloupes, onions, endive, beans, sweet corn, asparagus, peas, all

and

beets have

been found profitable, and there should be larger

developments in the trucking business in the future.

General

requirements.

earliest vegetables,

—In

and thus

order

realize

to

obtain

the

most profit in the

1

TRUCK CROPS trucking business, the

soil

301

should be

light,

warm and

Truck crops require heavy applications

quick. tilizers.

of fer-

Cabbage and tomatoes succeed best on lands

humus, hence it is best to practice and include a cover crop of cow peas or clover to turn under, or to apply annually an ample Low lands are usually supply of barnyard manure. richer in humus than uplands, and if properly drained, make the better sites for truck gardens. Every truck crop demands special attention and treatment, and details cannot be given here. The following

that are rich

in

rotation of crops

bulletins

from the Department of Agriculture

treat of

special truck crops

The only

Note.

practical suggestion to offer in con-

nection with this lesson

who reads

it,

is

to advise

every boy and girl

seriously to try out some garden vegetable

for the profit there

is

in

growing and marketing

it.

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletins No. 35. Potato Cultnve. No. 354. Onion Culture. No. 52.— The Sugar Beet. No. 60. Methods of Curing Tobacco. No. 82.— The Culture of Tobacco. No. 83.— Tobacco Soils. No. 120. The Principal Insect Affecting the Tobacco Plant. No. 129.— Sweet Potatoes. No. 61. Asparagus. No. 94. Cabbage. No. 220.— Tomato. No. 282.— Celery. No. 359. Canning Vegetables.

— — —

— — —

—

Problems 1.

all

A

sugar factory agrees to pay $4.50 per ton for

beets testing 14 per cent, or

less,

of sugar.

They

LESSONS IX AGEICULTUEE

302

an additional 25 cents per ton for

also agree to give

each additional

1

per cent of sugar or fraction thereof

over 14 per cent,

What

cent.

14 per cent? cent?

14.3 per cent?

15.2 per cent?

14.7 per cent?

15.6 per cent?

15 per

15.8 per cent?

Mr. Smith's beets yield fourteen tons per acre

2.

and

the fraction exceeds one-half per

if

the price of beets testing 13.7 per cent?

is

test 15

per cent.

How much

does he get per acre

for his crop? 3. On two acres of ground Mr. Jones raises 73,680 pounds of beets which test 14.8 per cent. How much do his beets bring him in money per acre? 4. If Mr. Jones spends $56 worth of labor on his

crop of beets, what

How many

5.

an acre

in

is

his net profit

per acre?

onion plants will be required to set

rows two feet apart, plants four inches

apart in the row? If a

6.

will

it

7.

many

boy can

take

set nine plants

to set

If these onions

per minute, how long

them? average four ounces each,

bushels are raised on an acre?

six ounces? 8.

him

What

Twelve ounces? is

how

If they average

One pound?

the value of the crop in each case, at

60 cents per bushel? 9.

If

it

requires fifty days of a boy's time, worth

75 cents per day, to raise an acre of onions, what will be his profit on an acre of four-ounce onions ?

VALUE OF BIRDS TO AGRICULTUEE

303

LESSON LXXXV THE VALUE OF BIRDS TO AGRICULTURE Bird

life,

—We

can not be long upon the farm

June without noting the joyous

dawn

are busy from

life

of the birds.

in

They and

to dark, building their nests

Nothing disturbs them except and the occasional thoughtless boy, who

feeding their nestlings. the heartless cat

has not yet learned the great service the birds render

The native birds are one

to the farmer.

most valuable

If the birds

assets.

of the nation's

were destroyed, in a

very few years the insects would have multiplied to such

an extent that our trees would be defoliated, and our crops destroyed.

This

Birds and insects. tion

is

—

not fancy, but plain facts.

has been found by observa-

It

and dissection that a Cuckoo consumes daily from

50 to 400 caterpillars, and that a Chickadee will eat from

200 to 500 insects or up to 4000 insect eggs. dred insects a day

consumed by

One hun-

a small estimate of the quantity

and most of our birds Not only do they destroy great numbut they eat great quantities of weed

insect eating birds,

are insect eaters. bers of insects, seeds as well.

is

The State

of Illinois loses annually about

$20,000,000 by the ravages of insects. It

is

the duty,

every citizen to do uable birds, and to

homes.

and

it

should be the pleasure, of

power encourage them

all in his

to protect these valto

remain about our

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

304

Practical Exercises 1.

Observational Studies of Birds Abovt the

Each pupil

in the class should take

Farm

a walk alone.

along the lanes and about the fields and orchards at

home.

Take a note-book and pencil and walk quietly and

unconcernedly looking among the

trees, bushes, fences.

Black-Throated

Fig

Warbler

and on the ground for the birds. Prepare the following you in your observations, and from

outline to guide

which

to

make report

to the school for this lesson:

Birds observed. W^hat the bird was doing.

What It eats. Color. Where it nests.

y^p^^

FARMERS' FRIENDS

VALUE OF BIRDS TO AGEICULTURE 2.

305

Bird Boxes

Each pupil should make a bird box, according to some design of his own choosing, and bring it to school to show the teacher and the rest of the class. Take the box home and put it up out of reach of the cat in some attractive place

Fig.

would be well yard

to

where the birds can build in

93.

it.

It

Maryland Yellow-Throat

make some bird boxes

for the school

also.

Problems 1.

state

Suppose that the damage from is

25c an acre.

whole state?

How much

insects in your would that be for the

LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE

306 If there

2.

were three birds on every acre, how many

birds would there be in this state? 3.

It"

each bird eats 25 insects a day (a very low

mate), how state

many

insects

would be destroyed

esti-

in this

during the months of June, July, and August ? If 120,000 insects

4.

fill

how many during the summer

a bushel basket,

bushels of insects would the birds eat

from the above estimate? Suppose that one-fourth of the birds in

5.

as calculated above,

of seed daily,

would

eat one-fourth of

how many pounds

this state,

an ounce

weed seeds would

of

our birds destroy in three months?

The are:

forces that

man;

work against the increase

of bird life

the climatic elements; accidents; cats; other

How

animals; birds of prey, and snakes.

can we help

the birds in their struggle against these enemies?

Each

one of us can do something, and every time we save the

we have not only done a kindness to the creatures we should love, but we have rendered service Have you read Longfelto the cause of agriculture. low's poem entitled, "The Birds of Killingworth"?

life

of one bird,

Reference:

Farmers' Bulletin, No.

54.

LESSON LXXXYI THE TOAD, THE FARMER'S FRIEND The toad and

insects.

—lu

about which we studied in the another valued friend in the the

summer

the toad

is

addition

the

to

last lesson, the

common

toad.

birds,

farmer has

All through

eating the harmful insects from

our yards, gardens, truck-patches, and

fields.

The toad

THE TOAD— FARMERS FRIEND

307

'

does more to rid the garden and field of noxious insects than any one species of bird, and he has solved the prob-

lem of insecticides better than

man

with

all his

bungling

spray-machines.

—

The home of the toad. The toad has a "homeing and should be placed in yards, gardens, and

instinct,"

Courtesy E. F. Bigelov, Sound Beach, Conn. Fig. 94.

fields,

mals.

The

To.\d ix

IIi.s

Home

and become one of our most valued domestic

A

little

ani-

stone house, containing a shallow jar of

water will furnish an attractive home for the toad in the garden, and he will go forth at night like the lubber fiend, to

do our tasks while we

The toad a harmless

sleep.

creature.

—Laws

should

passed preventing the small boy from killing toads he cares

to.

The toad

the old wart superstition

is

is

be

all

the

absolutely harmless,

and

mere "bosh," and

its ugli-

LESSONS IN AGRirULTUEE

n08 ness,

becomes transformed into real beauty,

so-called,

when we The

see its great service in the

on the

flects

wells

his

of nature.

man

methods of the man who leaves

thriftless

open,

rather

poor toad, which the

economy

fact that the toad sometimes gets into wells, re-

than

falls in, in its

should provide for

ing insect pests,

it.

upon the

thirst

of

search for the water that

In these days of increas-

behooves us to encourage and protect

it

the natural enemies of our plant destroyers,

all of

a few toads

garden

in a

the

and

toward controlling and the leaf -eating beetles. The toad is an animal full of will go far

the cut worms, caterpillars,

A

plea for the toad.

vital interest

from

its

—

egg stage, through the tad-pole de-

velopment, to the adult, and the horror and disgust with

which

this

harmless beneficial friend

is

viewed by many

boys and girls should be changed to intelligent sympathy

and

active appreciation in its behalf. Practical Exercises

Watching

1.

The day before

the

Toad Eat

this lesson is to be given, the teacher,

with the pupils' assistance, should have a box about a cubic foot in

with

some

may

common sort

size,

screened

door-screening,

off

on two opposite sides

and a

little

hinged door of

made, through which the toads and insects

be put into the box.

Place two toads in the box on the evening before the lesson,

and they

hungry enough to "show off" Announce the plan beforehand, and

will be

well for the class.

ask the pupils to bring in pillars,

worms,

beetles, etc.

flies,

bugs, butterflies, cater-

CUTTING CLOVER AND ALFALFA

When

the lesson

is

309

ready to begin, place the box be-

fore the class, put all the insects in with the toads,

watch them seldom

see.

snapped

in

rapidity.

and Such an interesting sight the pupils The insects disappear as if by magic, by the toad's long tongue with lightning eat.

Have some pupil count how many

insects the

toad eats during the recitation time. Place one toad in the glass tumbler, cover with a

mosquito netting and pass

it

around among the pupils,

so that all can see the beautiful eyes

—"the fabled jewel"

in the toad's head.

LESSON LXXXVII CUTTING CLOVER AND ALFALFA It is

during the second year of our red clover

field,

and the third or fourth year of the alfalfa stand, and we must begin to harvest these crops this month. Values of clover. Next to alfalfa, red clover is one

—

of the most valuable forage crops for stock feeding.

most every farm animal red clover.

is

Its merits in this respect are not fully ap-

preciated as a farm crop. soiling crop,

der the

soil

and

as a green

It is valuable as hay, as a

manure crop

;

its

roots ren-

open and porous, and richer in nitrogen.

Making- clover hay.

— Clover should be cut when free

from moisture, and when about one-third of the

soms have begun will

to turn

brown.

At

make the most nutritious hay.

and allowed

Al-

benefited by the feeding of

to lie

blos-

this time the clover

The clover

in the swath until almost dry,

is

cut

when

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

310 it

is

raked into windrows, and allowed to dry more.

Then the windrows are gathered into piles or hay-cocks. may stand in the field a day or two or be hauled It should be the aim of to the stack or barn at once. These

the farmer to save all the leaves of the clover possible, for they contain

much

Rains and dews

food material.

are injurious to the crop while curing, quickly changing the color of the leaves to a dark brown,

FiG. 95.

and

attractive.

de-

Alfalfa

stroying the rich aroma from the so palatable

and soon

oils

Red

which make clover

clover furnishes ex-

cellent pasture for stock of all kinds, but the result of this practice is usually the destruction of the plants.

Harvesting a similar

manner

fifth of the

growth

alfalfa.

— Alfalfa

to clover.

is

and

in a

when about oneAs soon as cut new

It is cut

heads are in blossom.

starts up,

harvested for hay in

few weeks

it

can be cut again

AGRICULTUEAL IMPROVEMENT for hay.

311

Usually three or four crops «an be cut from

The hay is cured in the same more care needs to be taken to save

the same field in a season.

way

as clover, but

the leaves, as they drop off easily as soon as dry.

Problems

Ask some farmer how many

1.

tons of clover hay an

acre should yield, and calculate the yield for ten

What

price would the clover

if sold at

the market rate?

Find the number of tons

2.

acres.'

hay from ten acres bring in a rick of clover hay,

25 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 40 feet over?

Find the number

3.

of tons in a

mow, 40

feet long,

25 feet wide, and 12 feet high.

How many

4.

tons of hay will your father's barn on

home hold? To find the number

the farm at

Note.

In moiv. breadth in

of tons of

height, length

and

and divide the product by 450

for

]\Iultiply together the feet,

hay

timothy, and by 600 for clover hay.

In

rick.

Multiply the length by the breadth and that

product by one half the difference between the breadth

and the distance

over.

as above to find the References: Wallace.

This will give cubic

number

Farmers'

Divide

feet.

of tons.

Bulletin,

No.

278.

Clover

Farming,

LESSON LXXXVIII FIVE LINES OF AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT Out-line Beview

Since June

is

one of the best months for

many

of the

improvements suggested by the outline given below.

LESSONS IN AGRICULTUEE

312

this lesson is inserted at this point as a

review outline.

Pupils should study the following outline until they are able to reproduce it: Seed Improvement

1.

1.

Selection for: a.

Purity.

b.

Trueness to type.

c.

Viability.

d. 2.

General vigor.

Testing for: a.

Germination.

b.

Vigor of growth.

3.

Plant breeding.

1.

Use of pure breeds.

2.

Proper care and feeding.

Live Stocl: Improvement

2.

Soil Culture

3.

1.

Drainage.

2.

Tillage.

3.

Manuring.

4.

Fertilizing.

5.

Liming.

6.

Crop

1.

In fruit-growing by:

rotation. 4.

2.

Improvement

a.

Spraying.

b.

Pruning,

ChecMng

tillage, etc.

In forests by: a.

Checking

fires.

the

Waste

AGEICULTURE IMPEOVEMENT

3.

b.

More

careful lumbering.

In

field

crops by

a.

Use of good

313

:

seed.

Good cultivation. In manures 'and fertilizers by a. Spreading manures often

b. 4.

or

preventing

its

leaching away.

5.

b.

Using only the

In

live stock

a.

Having pure-bred

b.

Intelligent care in handling.

fertilizers needed.

and feeding by stock.

Feeding balanced rations of good standards and

c.

not buying patent medicines and feeds. 6.

In a.

human efforts by Knowledge and practice of

scientific agriculture.

Country Life Organkaiion:i

5.

1.

Boys' and

2.

The grange.

3.

Consolidated schools.

4.

Country churches.

girls' agricultural clubs.

JULY On

the farm.

— This

and hay-making.

is

the

Tlie orchard

month of wheat harvest is to

be sprayed again to

cheek the second brood of codling moths and spread of

The catalpa grove and young orchard Such

various fruit rots.

should be sown to cow peas or some other legume.

succession crops as beans, cabbage, peas, lettuce, radishes, turnips,

etc.,

may

be planted in the garden this month.

LESSON LXXXIX ROADS AND EOAD-MAKING Perhaps the best time of the year improve the old ones

is

to

make roads and

in the spring season, but there

are certain improvements which can profitably be in July

and August.

or in winter settled,

and

is

Working

not advisable, because they will not get

will

remain bad

Good roads and country have good roads.

winter.

all

life.

will never be as attractive as

young people them to grow

the roads late in

made autumn

— Our it

Bad winter

in their

homes

for

life in

the country

ought to be until we roads that

many

keep the

months, cause

and to join that humanity moving steadily toward the Will not the young people who love their councities. try homes enter into this crusade for better roads?

throng of

to dislike the country,

restless

314

ROADS AXD ROAD MAKING

315

All industrial interests are affected by the nature

and condition

of the

country roads, over which the

products of the farm are transported to market, but is

the farmer

—which

who

suffers

it

most from the inferior roads

constitute so large a percentage of the road

system of the United States.

Fig. 96.

Over our country roads

A Bad Road

there are annually hauled at least 250,000,000 tons.

A

system of better roads would reduce the cost of hauling this

now

volume of freight one-half or two-thirds of what it Following are some of the values of good costs.

roads.

2.

A A

3.

Makes country

1.

direct saving in dollars

and

cents.

How?

saving of time. life

more

desirable.

How?

LESSOXS IN AGEICULTUEE

316 4.

Makes

school

and church attendance more con-

venient.

humane

5.

JMore

6.

Helps every industry of the

As

a part of the

to horses. city.

"Why?

preparation of this lesson, each

.

pupil should write a brief essay upon one of these topics.

Fig. 07.

An Improved Road

Points in the Construction of a Good Road 1.

A

level

road or gradual grade, whenever pos-

sible. 2.

The road

to each side,

bed, highest in the middle

having a

fall of

and sloping

one inch to three or four

feet. 3.

Under-drains

in

wet

places,

and

side-ditches

EOADS AND EOAD-MAKING to

carry

necessary

off

317

surface water should furnish the drainage

for

ning, in roads

good roads. is

Water, standing or run-

the great destroyer of good roads.

The surface should be hard and smooth. A good is made by putting a layer of larger stones at the bottom, a layer of smaller stones next, and crushed 4.

surface

stone or gravel as the top layer.

Ordinary earth roads can be improved

5.

b.y

proper

grading and drainage.

The best time to do this is in the spring after the ground is settled. 6. Drains should be kept open, and all depressions filled.

Pupils should write a paragraph on one of these topics in their note-books. Practical Exercises Constructing a Eoad

1.

For the second part of

this lesson

sible at the school to construct a

liouse to

it

might be pos-

path from the school'

some desired point a few rods away, accord-

ing to the best principles of road-making. If

some of the larger boys or some school patron

would furnish a few loads of coarse

stone, a

few loads

plow and a team for a few hours, an interesting and profitable demonstration of good road-makof gravel, a

ing could be

made

at the school.

1.

Select the line for the road or walk.

2.

Measure

length

off

a

space six feet wide,

of the walk to be constructed,

the entire

and mark

it

with

stakes. 8.

Plow up the whole

area, turning

it

toward the

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

318 middle. is

large,

Then with spades or a scraper, if the space grade it up from the sides to the center, so

that the center of the

is

about one inch higher than the level

ground where

it

is

not plowed.

Place a layer of coarse stones over this surface

4.

and

next,

a layer of gravel or finer stones over the

coarser stones.

Smooth

it

over so that the walk

all

gradually slopes from the center to the ditch

left

at

by the plow's furrow. 5. The walk is now ready for use. The side ditch or drain should be kept open, and the roadbed properthe side

ly graded.

Eeferences

:

Farmers' Bulletin, Nos. 136 and 338.

Problems

Find out how much tax your father pays

1.

roads of the county.

What

is

for the

the rate of road tax in

your county or state?

Learn from some

2.

citizen

or

from your Road

Commissioner his estimate of the cost of constructing a mile of gravel or crushed stone road in your section,

and then determine what it would cost to build such a road on all the main lines of the school district.

LESSON XC TIMOTHY HAY Time for vest

We

is

harvest.

— Very

soon after the wheat har-

over the timothy hay will be ready for cutting.

have

five acres

least three tons

on our farm, and we shall expect at

per acre.

Some farmers say

that timothy

TIMOTHY HAY hay should be cut just as

coming into blossom, others

it is

say to wait until the blossoms have cut our hay

when

319

General requirements for meadow.

on muck

Fig.

in

Timothy Hay at West Five Tuns

98.

autumn with wheat

timothy occupies the hay. if

soils,

It

may

but

it is

\ii;.i;.!..

1'eu

or rye.

field,

i

humus

likely to

The seed of timothy

too coarse stemmed.

shall

fall.

—Timothy

well on rather heavy soils like clay and. It also does well

We

all fallen.

the blossoms are beginning to

is

does

loams.

become

usually sown

i

i

.

^ion

—

Avuh

After the grain

and the next year

is

is

cut the

cut for

be used several years for hay, especially

top dressed in the spring with stable manure. Timothy

may

be sown alone in the

bushel of seed

is

fall

on well prepared land.

used for about six acres of land.

A In

grown with red clover. A recent practice of many farmers is to sow both timothy and

practice timothy

is

often

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

320

clover seed together late in the summer. in this way, a fall crop of

hay

is

When sown

secured the following

season.

Meadow

grasses.

mower, allowed rows,

and

—Timothy

hay

to cure in the swath,

later into

hay -cocks, from which

Fig.

or stowed in the

is

9tf.

mow.

chard grass, red top,

cut

with

a

raked into windto be stacked

A Haying Scene

Other good hay grasses are millet, etc.,

and

all

or-

these are en-

The legumes in help to maintain hay grasses, combination with the other the meadow's fertility, and to bring it to a higher yield.

riched by the legumes in combination.

PASTURES

321

Problems

How much

1.

bring

if

would the hay from our

five-acre field

placed on the market at the prevailing price ?

how much stable manure should be spread upon our meadow as a top dressing after the hay Ascertain

2.

is cut. 3.

Write a

list

and legumes

of the different grasses

used as hay.

LESSON XCI PASTURES Pastures

need attention.

—While

we

are

working

with meadows and hay we shall try to learn something about pastures.

It is well

known

that the ordinary pas-

ture throughout the country receives very tion

and

is

of little value

little atten-

when compared with

other

farm lands. With proper seeding and care the pasture might be made as valuable as any other part of the farm. Mr. McClennan, of the New York States College farm, states that in several of the European countries

land valued at from $2,000 to $3,000 per acre has

been kept in pasture for generations and at a cause is

it is

intelligently seeded

and properly

entirely practical to re-seed pastures with

grass desired without breaking

up

profit, be-

treated.

It

any kind

of

the soil or injuring

the sod.

Grasses for pasture.

— Good

pasture land should be

seeded with such variety of grasses as will supply plenty

LESSONS IN AORICULTUEE

322

of food for the stock

from early spring

to late fall.

Mr.

iMcClennan gives the following grasses for permanent pasture

:

"A

mixture of seed containing 4 pounds of

or-

chard grass, 4 pounds of meadow fescue, 3 pounds of tall oat grass, 2 pounds of timothy, 2 pounds of alsike

DRY FARMING Philippi,

West

333

Virginia, has been of great service to

farmers of this country through his Pasture Clubs,

or-

ganized for mutual helpfulness in the improvement of pastures.

Problems 1.

How much

seed would be needed to renew the pas-

ture on our forty-acre farm, using the

above on each acre 2.

How many

amount quoted

?

head of stock should we allow on our

pasture, if in good average condition of growth

?

Examine the pastures at home and report how much stable manure it will require to cover the bare and poor spots, at the rate of six tons per acre. 4. J\Take a list of the pasture grasses grown in your 3.

community. References:

Than

Grasses.

Farmers' Bulletin, No. 66. Forage Crops Other Elements of Agriculture. Warren,

—

— Shaw.

LESSON XCII DRY FARMING The problem. er's crops are

—At

this season of the

most likely

to suffer

year the farm-

from dry weather.

During the summer the plants are making heavy drafts upon the earth's moisture, and the hot, dry atmosphere is

evaporating

all

the water

and moisture exposed

to

it.

In certain semi-arid sections of the country the farmers

have met this problem of conserving moisture by a sys-

tem known as ''dry farming. " that a certain

duce a single

Tt

has been demonstrated

amount of water is indispensable. To propound of dry substance in wheat, 1.200

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

324

pounds of water are necessary. It would, therefore, be impossible to produce a crop year after year on the same dry area. The question is not one of fertility of soil, but of conservation of moisture.

The conservation of moisture.

—By

the system

of

dry farming the solution of the problem consists in sum-

mer fallowing of the

land, which tneans that the

plowed as deep as possible and

is

all

the rainfall

it

A

can.

left to rest

ground and absorb

person with a two-hundred

acre farm would by this method use only one-half of his

land at a time for crops and allow the other half to lie

fallow.

A

crop every year on

hopelessly dry up

all

the

all

the land would

In addition to the deep

soil.

plowing and summer fallowing, a loose surface mulch

must be kept over the evaporating. rainfall,

In this

fields to

way

characteristic

prevent the moisture from

the twelve or thirteen inches of

of

many

semi-arid

regions,

is

caught and held to supply the moisture for the crop of a single season.

Certain crops have been bred up to be adapted to the

dry farming system, among which are the macaroni wheat, Turkestan alfalfa, dwarf Milo maize, and Swedish oats.

At the present time wheat

is

the principal crop in

dry farming. Practical Exercises See Exercise 5, Lesson 46. Hotv Moisture is Saved by the Dry Earth Produced 2. Frequent Shalloiv Cultivation. 1.

Suspend a

tin can

from each end of a small

63/

stick four-

teen to sixteen inches long and balance over a nail driven

through a hole at the middle of the

stick.

DEY FAEMING

325

and the other

Fill one can full of moist soil

to within

about one inch of the top with a portion of the same

Pour dry dust over

soil.

the surface of the soil in the second

can to the depth of about an inch.

Adjust the amount

of soil in the two cans so that the system exactly balances.

Allow the apparatus

to stand over night.

amount of water that must be added

to one

The

can to restore

a balance represents the water that has been saved by

—the

the protective covering of dust

dry earth mulch.

Hold the bar horizontally while adding the water. The effect of mulches of cut straw, leaves, or other material may be studied in the same way.

AUGUST

—This

On the farm. may take a little

the month when the farmer and every farmer should leave

is

vacation,

his farm, if possible, for a short vacation at least once a

year.

There are plenty of things

August,

if

planning to sow an alfalfa his

wheat ground.

field,

or he

If the weather

to dig his potatoes. nips.

do, however,

to

the farmer wishes to find work.

He

will

is

in

Perhaps he

is

may have to break rainy he may have

probably sow a patch of tur-

There will be fence corners

to

mow and

clean out.

Perhaps he may have some melons or cucumbers or other

Of course he should help the housewife

truck to market.

to pick blackberries, peaches or apples, for she is very

busy at canning

month. The teacher and pupils work going on during August.

this

will think of other

LESSON XCIII ALFALFA Essentials in

growing

alfalfa.

—

It is

worth the

trial

for most farmers to begin the production of alfalfa.

There are a few essentials in alfalfa culture that are

re-

quired for success. 1.

2.

The seed bed must be in perfect "onion tilth." The ground should be inoculated with the bacteria

necessary to produce the root-nodules. 326

This

may

be done

ALFALFA by sprinkling the

soil of

327

the field with soil from an old

alfalfa or sweet clover field. 3.

There must be plenty of lime in the

4.

Weeds must

soil.

not be allowed to choke out the young

alfalfa plant. 5.

The ground must be well drained and have a por-

ous sub-soil, for alfalfa has a long tap-root and must

grow deep into the soil. 6. The seed must be pure and viable, and sown at the rate of 25 pounds per acre. With these conditions provided alfalfa may be grown much more widely than at present. Practical Exercises 1.

If the required

An

Alfalfa Plot Test

amount

of land cannot be obtained on

the school grounds, a farmer living near the school will

probably be glad to furnish the land.

Select the site in

any plowed-up ground, lay out the following one rod square

1

plats,

each

LESSONS IM AGRICULTUEE

328

Sow about

eight quarts of lime on plats 2

quarts on each plat, which bushels on an acre.

on the other

plats.

four

soil

from a place where

growing, and scatter a few

is

quarts of this on plats 3 and it

4,

equivalent to about twenty

is

Obtain some

alfalfa or sweet clover

and

This

being careful not to get

4,

is

inoculating the

soil

with

Then sow a light seeding of oats or barley over all the plats, a little more than a quart Then sow about three-fourths of a pound is sufficient. of alfalfa over the four plats and rake it in. Be careful not to rake any of the soil from the inoculated plats the bacteria of the alfalfa.

into the others.

No

further care need be given the plats until the bar-

ley or oats

is

headed

out,

when

it

should be

The

above the tops of the alfalfa plants.

mowed

should not be allowed to mature in the alfalfa.

may

be closed before this experiment

is

off

oats or barley

finished

School ;

but the

teacher should appoint a committee to study and report the

observations of the summer,

and

all

living near

watch the experiment. This is should be encouraged getting lessons from the real source and not from books to

alone.

Draw

the plats in the agricultural note-books,

and an-

swer the following questions

How falfa?

each

soon does the barley or oats come up?

al-

In six weeks observe the roots of the alfalfa in In which plats are swollen nodules found on

plat.

the alfalfa roots ? oculation plats.

The

?

What

is

the effect of the lime

and

in-

Observe the difference in growth in the four

BUDDING FEUIT TBEES

is

329

The surest way to get alfalfa to grow on a poor soil manure the soil, cultivate it, and sow about August

to

and

the 1st, applying lime

This work

may

there are no plats for of these lessons

is

home if The home work

it

near the school.

to be greatly encouraged.

Alfalfa Book.

References:

inoculation, if necessary.

be carried on at the students'

— Coburn.

Farmers' Bulletin, No.

215.

LESSON XCIV BUDDING FRUIT TREES August

is

month when young peach and apple

the

trees

are usually budded.

Purpose of budding.

—Budding

is

such a simple and

important farm operation that every boy and

know how trees

This

girl

should

Think of changing the little applein the orchard to any variety of apples you wish to

do

it.

exactly what budding

is

is for.

This change can be

made on branches as small as lead pencils, or as large as the thumb. The nurseryman buds the little trees a few inches above the surface of the ground. The fruit grower top buds the

little trees,

two or three

feet above the

ground.

And

when, above this apple-tree.

The winter

stars are quivering bright

And winds

go howling through the night,

Girls,

whose young eyes o'erflow with mirth,

Shall peel

And

its fruit

by cottage-hearth,

guests in prouder homes shall see.

Heaped with

the grape of Cintra 's vine

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

330

And

golden orange

The

of*

the line,

fruit of the apple-tree.

—Bryant. Practical Exercises 1.

The

class

may

Budding

the

Peach

go to a young orchard near the school

for this lesson, or several branches of

young

trees

may

be brought into the schoolroom. 1.

Make

Choose the place for the bud.

Fig. 101.

a horizontal

Budding

cut across the stem, just through the bark.

ginning in the middle of the horizontal knife straight b).

down making

cut,

a Vertical cut.

(See figure

Twist the knife sidewise before drawing

order to loosen the bark.

The stock

is

Then bedraw the it

out, in

now ready

for the

bud.

Take the buds from bearing trees of the variety you wish. Cut twigs that have grown this year. The leaves are still on them. At the base of each leaf, and between the leaf and the branch, you will find a little 2.

NO TWO PLANTS ALIKE bud.

This

the

is

bud

33I

which has

to insert into the tree

been prepared as above described. 3.

Cut the

leaf off about a quarter of

an inch above

the bud, thus leaving the leaf stock as a handle for the

bud.

The end buds should not be used.

Beginning with

a sharp knife below the bud, cut upwards just through the bark, beneath the inch.

wood. 4.

Be

bud and above

(See figure

about half an

a.)

Push the bud down

using the leaf stalk as a handle.

entire

bud

is

shoved into the incision.

should project above, cut

The bud

is

it off.

now ready

made Be sure

into the cut

stock,

5.

it

sure to cut through the bark, but not into the

into the

that the

If a piece of

bark

(See figure c).

for tying.

Raffia

is

the best

may be used. Bewound entirely, except

material to use, but ordinary string gin below the

where the bud

is.

Wrap

it

snugly and tightly, and then

(See figure d).

tie securely. 6.

bud and wrap the

In two or three weeks the bud will have "stuck,"

and the string may then be removed. The bud will remain dormant during the winter and begin to grow the next spring. Eef erences

Farmers' Bulletins^ Nos. 157 and 218.

:

LESSON XCV NO TWO PLANTS ALIKE Variations

and

resemblance.

—

It

is

a

common

observation of everybody that no two things are exactly alike.

This

is

especially true of plants.

Plants like ani-

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUBE

333

mals, produce offspring which resemble the parents very closely in

many

If

respects.

it

were not for

this resem-

blance to parents in plants, our crops would not come true to seed, and

we could not depend upon

sired characteristics in improving the crop.

hand,

it is

fixing de-

On

the other

a good thing that no two plants are exactly

might be an improvement over and thus enable the plant breeder to

alike, for the variation

the parent plant, select points for

improvement. Practical Exercises Variations in the Corn Plant.

1.

two corn plants that most nearly resemble each and note the following points in comparison

Select other, 1.

Height of the plant.

2.

Does

it

branch?

How many

secondary stems or

suckers from one root? 3.

Shade or

color.

4.

How many

5.

Arrangement

6.

jMeasure length and breadth of six main leaves.

7.

Number and

leaves? of leaves on the stem.

position of ears.

and number and

Color of

silks.

size of its branches.

8.

Size of tassel,

9.

Stage of maturity or ripeness of the plant.

10.

Has

the plant

grown symmetrically, or has

it

been

crowded by other plants, or been obliged to struggle for light or

room? the unusual marks or features.

11.

Note

12.

Note the comparative vigor.

all

These points

may

slight modification.

be used with any two plants with

WATEE SUPPLY

333

(Adapted from Bailey in the Cornell Rural School Leaflet. Keference:

Farmers' Bulletin, 229.

LESSON XCVI THE WATER SUPPLY

We

are likely to have

attention

is

rainfall in

little

August and our

often called to the quality as well as the

quantity of our water supply.

— There

nothing of more importance and convenience of a farm and household than an abundant supply of pure water. It

Pure water.

is

to the health, comfort,

is

Some

not easy to find absolutely pure water.

impurities in drinking water are harmless

;

of the

others are

The most dangerous impurities in water One kind of bacteria occasionally found in drinking water, causes the typhoid fever. It is impossible to judge by the appearvery injurious.

are the minute plant forms, called bacteria.

ance or

taste,

bacteria.

It

taste,

whether water contains these dangerous

may

be perfectly clear and have the finest

and yet be unsafe

to drink.

Sources of drinking water are: water

is

almost always pure

if

1.

Springs.

the spring

is

Spring

deep and a

good distance from foul places, such as barnyards and

open drains. 2.

Lakes and reservoirs.

Water supplied

to cities is

often taken from rivers and lakes, and purified to a certain extent

and stored

in reservoirs.

If there

is

any

doubt about the purity of the city water, people are advised to boil

it

in order to kill all the dangerous bacteria.

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

334

If wells are on a lower level than the barns

Wells.

3.

or outhouses, they are likely to contain water with the dangeroiis bacteria in into the well

it

it.

If

The land should not

drink.

any surface water can drain

renders the water impure and unfit to slope to the well

from any

house or barn, and the well cover should be perfectly tight to prevent animals

Good

from getting into

rules for drinking water.

—

1,

it.

If there is

doubt about the purity of drinking water

it

any

should be

boiled.

Allow no standing water about the farm premises,

2.

for

may

it

be the source of contamination for the drink-

ing water.

Do

3.

not drink out of the cup at public drinking

places, nor

from the common cup or dipper often used many disease germs are carried

in the schoolroom, for

from one mouth ing vessel.

to another,

through the common drink-

Pupils should have their

own

individual

drinking cups.

Always have clean fresh water for the farm aniand growth depends as much on

4.

mals, for their health

the water supply as does our own. Practical Exercises 1.

Simple Tests of Water

If this lesson is given in a school that has the material

named, the following uable 1.

tests will

prove interesting and val-

:

Test for animal or plant matter

Fill a clean test-tube half full of the drinking water,

Add

a drop or two of concentrated sulphuric acid, and

UNITED STATES WEATHER SERVICE

potassium permanganate solution to color the

.sufficient

Heat gently

water.

335

to the boiling point.

changes to a brownish

tint, it indicates the

If the color

presence of

organic matter. Test for chlorides

2.

To a

add a few drops of and then a few drops of silver nitrate soluthere is any cloudiness, it shows that the water

test-tube half full of water,

nitric acid,

If

tion.

had

traces of chlorides in

To a

test-tube half full of

barium chloride solution. it

it.

Test for sulphates

3.

water add a few drops of

If there

is

a whitish precipitate,

indicates the presence of sulphates in the water.

Test for lime compounds:

4.

To a

test-tube half full of water

add a few drops of

ammonium

A white precipitate

fresh solution of

oxalate.

indicates the presence of calcium or lime compounds.

As

a note-book record of this lesson, the pupils should

write an essay on the facts they

Water Supply, bringing out

the

have learned, and showing the attitude they

have toward the subject.

LESSON XCVII THE UNITED STATES WEATHER

SERVICE

—

Farmers dependent upon weather. There is no submore vital interest to the farmer than the weather.

ject of

Especially

is

this true in the

month

of August,

In the

corn belt the condition of the weather either makes or

mars the

crop.

As

the rain falls

"on

the just

and on the

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

336 unjust,

' '

SO does the

dry weather come

the farmer, to whatever class he

may

to both alike,

belong,

is

and

more

de-

pendent upon the state of the weather for success in his

upon any other force. Department of Agriculture, through the Weather Service, has made provision for

business, than perhaps

Weather

reports.

— The

KEY TO COLORS ^[] WHITE

(blACK

JblUE

Weather service

flags.

BLACK

KEY TO COLORS

S

i1

Wind and storm

United

Fig. 102.

St.\.tes

signals.

Weather Signals

iaily weather reports to all parts of the country.

These

reports are sent out by rural telephones, by bulletins carried

by the rural mail service, by means of signal flags and colors, and by steam whistles

of certain designs

blown

The

sufficiently strong to be

flags

heard some distance away.

used for this purpose are as follows

No.

1.

White

No.

2.

Blue flag indicates rain or snow.

flag indicates clear

and

fair weather.

UNITED STATES WEATHER SERVICE No.

3.

337

White and blue

flag indicates local rain or

flag is a

snow. No.

4.

Black triangular

No.

5.

White

flag

wave

dicates that a cold

When weather

No. 4 is

is

A

is

storm of great violence.

expected.

A

red pennant

an easterly wind, while a white pennant indi-

cates a westerly wind.

placed above other

but

warmer

3,

these signals,

red flag with a black cen-

colder weather

is

and

1, 2,

when placed below

ter indicates a signifies

in-

expected.

placed above Nos.

is

expected;

temperature signal.

with black square in the center

when placed

When

either of these pennants

flags, it signifies a

wind

below, a southern

northern wind, is

promised.

Practical Exercises

Reeving Weather Records

1.

Make

daily weather observations for one

week and

record your observations in the following table Date

II

I

Temperature

2.

Ask your

I

Moisture Conditions

I

II Sky Aspect

I

:

Wind

Direction

Study of the Weather Signals

rural carrier to expose the

Weather Service

Signals on his wagon, and keep a record each day of

what the signals

indicate.

Note whether the report

is

correct or not.

Draw upon flag

the blackboard of the school each day the

shown by the weather

report,

which

weather for the next twenty-four hours.

foretells the

LESSONS IN AGETCULTUEE

338

LESSON XCVIIT CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

—

Study needed. A text-book in agriculture would an essential duty if it did not call attention to the

fail in

great need of the conservation of our natural resources.

In a recent conference, Hon. Gifford Pinchot advised the preparation of text-books on conservation, and strongly

urged that the problem be presented

to the children of

the public schools.

Americans wasteful.

—

AA^e

have been concerning our-

under the sun, while we made merry over the abundance of our natural resources. As a nation we have wasted our substance by riotous living, and now we hear our President selves about every other subject ate,

drank, and

sounding the alarm by saying, that the question of the conservation of our natural resources

is

one of the most

important problems before the American people.

The natural resources.

—Disregarding

the

question

of moral purposes, the prosperity of our people depends directly

upon the energy and

intelligence with

which we

the forests, the mines, and the waters of the

use the

soil,

earth.

Frdm

the sea, the mine, the forest, and the

must be gathered everything that can sustain the man. How stands the inventory of our property

soil,

life of

at the

beginning of the twentieth century?

The sea and

—

The sea furnishes 5 per cent The forests are fast disappearing. "We are consuming wood three times faster than the forforests.

of our food products.

CONSEEVATTON NATUEAL RESOURCES ests

339

grow, aiid without reforestation, the present century

will see the

The

end of our timber.

— The

mines.-

mines of coal, oil, and gas are inThe wealth of these resources can

capable of restoration.

When

be used only once.

we can now air

will suffer as he

would

if

the

One has only casually to note the great waste of coal, oil, and gas that

were gradually withdrawn.

observe to is

man

foresee,

fuel becomes scarce, as far as

continually going on unchecked.

The

—the

soil.

— Our

soil.

How

greatest source of wealth are

we caring

for it?

is

The

the land

last

census

shows that the average annual product per acre of the little more than a respectable where the land is well cared for.

whole country was $11.38, a rental in

We

some

places,

are robbing the soil in order to get the largest re-

We

turns in the shortest time.

ways

We

have done this in two

—by single cropping and by neglect of

fertilization.

need the intelligent treatment of smaller areas,

rais-

ing the productivity to three or four times the present rate.

Thirty-six per cent of our people live directly by

agriculture,

and the

rest

depend upon

200 million people here by 1950.

it.

We

shall

have

Hoav shall they be

clothed and wherewithal shall they be fed?

Time was when the son of the farmer when his father's farm was run down, changed. The son of the farmer, if father's vocation, must make his living farm.

No

This can be done,

wise use of the

Ignorance and

soil

if

could go West,

now

all this 'is

he follows his

on

his father's

the father exercises wisdom.

exhausts

selfishness.

its fertility.

—And,

finally, the

great-

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUKE

340 est

waste of resources

is

the loss that comes to

material development, through ignorant minds skilled hands.

all

our

and un-

ignorance together

It is the old curse of

with the primal sin of selfishness that has led to the waste of the world 's substance.

LESSON XCIX AGRICULTURE AND EDUCATION Educational value.

—The

boys and

who have

girls

been studying these pages and the plants and animals of the

may

farm

to

which we have constantly referred them,

be sure that they have not been neglecting their

We

education in this study of agriculture.

have seen

that the science of agriculture deals not only with the

common

things and processes of everyday

country, but that

it

reaches out and touches

branches of science and learning.

modern education and efficient part.

give one a

a large

Practical value.

In

all

that goes to

—Agriculture

has also its

its

thej,

practical

study enables the

farmer to gain larger profits in his business.

the

in the

the great

of culture, agriculture plays

value as a school subject, in that

may

life all

This value

not be realized at once by the boys and girls in public schools, but in the extension schools and in short courses at the

colleges

of agriculture,

profitableness of studying agriculture

is

the

often concrete

and immediate.

An

actual saving of over $1,000 in horse feed resulted

from the information gained by a prominent business

AGEICULTUKE AND EDUCATION

man and farmer

341

of Salem, Ore., in the winter short

course at the Oregon Agricultural College.

he came himself to the

college,

and

Last year

this year,

unable to attend, sent his ranch foreman.

being

The knowl-

edge gained in the course on feeding of horses alone netted him a saving of over $1,000 in his feed

bills,

and

his animals are in finer condition, he says, than ever before.

Here

is

another concrete illustration of the value

of scientific agricultural information.

—

Moral value. The study of agriculture in the school and on the farm cannot help but make us better men and women. The boys and girls who love and care for plants and animals, surely cannot think or do as

who do not care for them. There is so much to learn, so much suffering and inconvenience because of ignorance, and so much service to be done, evil things as those

looking to the boys and girls in the

that the world

is

public schools,

who

are learning

how

to think

and

things, to render the greatest service for country It

do

life.

remains for you, teachers and pupils, who love the

country

and

to

life

and

intelligence

desire its best interests, in the spirit

with which you have pursued these

lessons, to go forth as leaders,

where leadership

is

so

—

much needed in the open country. Be leaders in the grange. Be leaders in boys' and girls' clubs. Be leaders in country school

and church.

Uphold and advance

every movement that will bring larger measures of justice

and education

to the

farmer and his family.

LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE

342

LESSON C THE FARM HOME Home

industries.

— Our

not do justice to rural

lessons in agriculture

life if

we did not

would

refer to the

country home and

its works and influence. The development of the material and industrial side of the home life has not kept pace with the progress of men's work on the outside. Many of the industries of the early homes have been wisely taken from them and given over to the factories and shops. Two industries yet remain cooking and cleaning. These are not much further ad-

vanced in their development than they were a thou-

—

The time may come it is to be hoped of the home will be relieved from most of the drudgery of cleaning and cooking, and these industries be turned over to specialists who will do them better and cheaper than they are now done, and that the home may become a place of rest and sand years ago.

that

it

will,

when women

culture for the lives within.

It will be

long years be-

fore such ideals can be realized in the country, yet

much

can be done in the country home to lighten the labors of the mother,

and enlighten the members of the house-

hold.

Some

conditions making- for the betterment of the

farm home: 1.

Beautiful natural surroundings, as brought out

in a former lesson. 2.

Absolute cleanliness from cellar to garret.

3.

The absence of

all

carpets,

lace

curtains,

and

FARM HOME

343

bric-a-brac, and their places supplied with smooth, hardwood finish of window and door casings; hardwood, waxed floors; and furniture of plain, uncarved, smooth

type.

Few

4.

pictures,

frames, placed

Good

5.

well

upon walls

selected,

in

modest

plain,

of restful tints.

books, daily papers, magazines,

and farm

journals in the library.

Musical instruments and members of the family

6.

who can appreciate good

music.

Ample, shady porches, screened doors and win-

7.

dows, and well ventilated rooms. Pure, clean food, well prepared and cooked, and

8.

cool, clean

kitchen and dining rooms in which to pre-

pare and eat the meals.

A

9.

bathroom with hot and cold water supplied. telephone and rural free mail service.

10.

A

11.

All the labor-saving machines that can be af-

forded. 12.

Good

roads,

good

schools,

good churches, good

markets available, and good people to

A

stronger and better country

live in the

home

— That

homes.

what we want. That is what we must have. The "New Earth" that is coming, will bring its rural homes of good cheer, of culture and education. In these homes will be strong men, sensible women, and happy children. Love will be law and wisdom chief ruler, and the child that is born in them is sure of all that the highest thought can secure for him in body, soul and spirit. This is the stronger home, and in that home must be !

is

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

344

word happy illumination which, on the inside of the house, correspond to morning sunlight outside, Out of such homes neifalling on quiet dewy fields. seen all the graces and gentleness in thought and

that

make

the

ther knaves in politics, nor tyrants in business competi-

With such homes, the golden age new century opens hastens its the dawning as already

tion can ever come.

steps.

And

for the

woman

in that

home

"A

woman, in so far as she beholdeth Her one Beloved's face;

A A

A

mother

a great heart that enfoldeth

The children of the race body free and strong, with that high beauty That comes of perfect use is built thereof; mind where reason ruleth over duty.

And

A

—with

justice reigns with love

self-poised, royal soul, brave, wise,

No longer blind and dumb A human being of unknown splendor, Is she who is to come. '

and tender,

APPENDIX NOTES

345

APPENDIX NOTES Suggestive List of Materials and Equipment Needed in Using This Book 1.

Three boxes of

soil,

one each of clay, sand, and

humus loam. 2. One dozen Mason pint 3. One dozen tumblers.

fruit jars.

4.

Four lamp chimneys.

5.

Sach's plant food tablets.

6.

Samples of commercial

7.

One-half dozen wide-mouth bottles.

8.

Germination

9.

A fifty-foot tape

fertilizers.

test box. line.

10.

Hoe, spade, rake, axe,

11. 12.

One pint of formaldehyde. One spray pump.

13.

Five gallons of lime-sulphur spray material.

14.

Resin, beeswax,

15.

A

16.

An

17.

A

18.

19.

etc.

and tallow or linseed

oil.

pruning knife and saw. insect cage.

Babcock

tester.

One dozen test tubes. One pound of potassium

cyanide

(deadly

poison). 20.

Window

21.

A

22.

Kitchen

boxes.

23.

economic seeds. weighing to twenty-four pounds. Vessels for dry measure.

24.

Bricker's drainage apparatus.

25.

Animals and plants easily supplied from the

farms.

set of

scales,

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE

346

Cornell University Score-Card for

Farms IStandard Students Score Score I

I

Kind

Farming

of

|

Adaptation as affecting value

|

Size— As adapted to kind of farming to be used..| Shape As affecting shape of fields As affecting' nearness of farmstead Topography As affecting production As affecting ease of cultivation As affecting loss of soil fertility

I

I

|

|

Fertility

Natural Condition Physical Properties

15 5

As affecting economy of cultivation As affecting number of days of labor As affecting loss of soil fertility Drainage Natural Condition

or

artificial

Freedom from stumps, land,

stones,

weeds, waste

etc

Climate

As affecting production of live stock As affecting number of days of labor 10.

Healthfulness

11.

As an economic factor Water-supply Running water and wells

12.

Location Local markets Nei.ghbors

Shipping

facilities

Roadways 13.

Improvements Location of farmstead

House as adapted to farin needs Other buildings as adapted to size and kind of farming

of

farm

Fences, character, condition, arrangement.. Timber, orchards, vineyards, etc Total

The above score card, worked out for the pupils' home farms, would make valuable lessons in Elementary Agriculture,

DIAGEAMS

347

Diagram of Cow Muzzle; 2, Nostrils; 3. Face; 4, Fore-head; 5, Cheek; 6, Jaw; 10, Loin; 11, Pinbone; 12, Rump; 13, 7, Neck; 8, Withers; 9, Back; Hips; 14, Tail; 15, Chest; 16, Brisket; 17, Throat; 18, Shoulder; 10-20, Fore Arm; 21. Knee; 22, Pastern; 23. Foot: 24, Chest; 25, Ribs; 26, Belly; 27, Flank; 28, Milk Veins; 29, Udder; 30, Quarters: 31, Thigh; 32, Escutcheon; 33, Cannon; 34, Fetlock. 1,

12

^

19

'18' Diagram of Sheep

1, Face; 2, Muzzle; 3, Nostrils: 4, Ej^e; 5, Neck; 6, Top of Shoulder; Cheek; 8, Back; 9, Loin; 10, Twist; 11, Rump; 12, Dock; 13, Brisket; Cannon; 15, Fore-leg; 16. Shoulder: 17, Knee; 18, Foot; 19, Toe; 20, Fore flank; 21, Ribs; 22, Belly: 23, Flank; 24, Hip; 26, Leg. 7,

14,

348

LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 1,

INDEX Accounts, farm, 118. Agricultural outlook, 129 products, 126

cover, 218 farm, 65. Cotton seed meal, 95. Cow, beef, 81 ;

;

;

societies, 172.

Agriculture

;

and

education,

78.

Country life conveniences, 131. Cucumbers, 242, 243.

April on the farm, 226. Apples, 57, 59, 60, 63, 221, 259 judging, 62.

;

Arsenate of lead, 41, 259.

Ash

dairy,

340.

Alfalfa, 309, 326. Animals, farm, 67.

Cultivators, 268. Cuttings, 229.

Dairy, 100, 78 barn, 103.

in food, 106.

cow, 78.

;

Assessment of farm values, 127. August on the farm, 326.

December on the farm, 117. Diagram of forty-acre farm, 16

Automobiles, 132.

Drainage, 158.

Babcock

Dragon flies, Dry matter,

107. Bacteria, 103, 105, 209.

Beautiful

test,

home grounds,

Beetles, 39. Bees, 37. Birds, 303. Bird boxes, 305. Books, farmers', 133. Bordeaux mixture, 4i. Boys' corn clubs, 172, Bugs, 34.

244.

Ear-to-row plot for corn, 265. Eggs, 116.

Embryo, 182. Excursion to the woods, 256.

Farm, accounts, 118 books, 133 ;

;

;

home, 342 machinery, 127

329.

fruit trees, Butter, 100, 103. Butterflies, 30.

;

;

buildings, 17 crops, 65 forty acre, 13

269.

Buildings, farm, 17.

Budding

36. 95.

;

;

selecting, 13.

Farming, dry, 333. Cabbage, 243. Carbo-hydrates, 92. Carbon, 144. Catalpa, 253, 254. Celery, 243. Clover, 208, 309.

Conservation of natural resources, 338 Codling 'moth, 259, 261.

Fats, as food, 93. Feathers, 114. February on the farm, 158. Feeds and feeding, 91. Fences, 162. Fertilizers, 148, 149, 154. Flies, 32 dragon, 36. Flowers, 288. ;

Corn contests, 265. Corn, best, 55

;

Food compounds,

94.

Forestry, 249. Forty-acre farm,

13.

Fruit, growing, 57, 129 trees, 221, 226, 329. Fungous diseases, 42, 259.

testing seed, 197 selecting and storing, 49 judging and scoring, 191 planting, 263 cultivating, 267 Crop records, 122 rotation, 123, 213.

;

;

Fungicides,

:

41.

;

Gardening, home, 238 school, 234

;

:

Crops, classification, 65.

landscape, 245.

349

;

INDEX

350 Girls'

tomato chibs, 283.

Grafting. 226

Nitrogen, 144, 150, 209.

November on the farm, Nut crops, 64.

;

wax, 228. Grange. 177.

Grape

67.

Nutrients, 96. Nutritive ratio, 93, 95.

cuttings. 2.31.

Grasses, 320. 321.

Grasshoppers, 27. Grazing, 129.

treatment of, 43. October on the farm, 49. Onions, 243. Orchards, extension of, 57 planting. 58 renewing, 222. Out-of-door school. 22. Oats,

Hav,

alfalfa, 310. clover, 300 :

timothy, 318. Hens, 111, 112. Hogs, 86. Home, farm, 342 gardening, 238 grounds, 244. Horse, draft, 74.

;

;

Oxygen, 144. ;

Paris green, 41. Pastures, 321.

;

Patrons of husbandry, 178. Peaches, 59, 61, 221, 330. Peas, 243. Pecans, 64. Perennials, 247, 295, 296. Phosphorus, 144, 151. Pistil, 289, 290. Plant diseases, 42

driving, 70.

Horses' plea, 77. Hot-bed, 167. H'lmus, 136. Hydrogen, 144. Insects, 24, 308. Insecticides, 41. 219. Improvement, lines of, 312. Iron, plant food, 144.

foods, 143 leaves, 286

;

;

propagation, 229. Plants and water. 201. Potatoes, 279.

January on the farm, 130. Jersey cattle, 78. July on the farm, 314.

Kentucky blue grass.

Poultry, 110. Products, farm, 50. Protein, 92, 93. Pruning trees, 221.

Kerosene emulsion,

Pupa, 25.

96, 321. 41. 22(i.

Knot-tying, 165.

Radishes, 243. Raspberries, 232. Rations, balanced, 92 determining, 95. References, list of, 170. Roads and road-making, 169, 314. Root systems, 205.

Laboratory equipment, 345. Larva, 25.

;

Layering, 232.

Lead arsenate, Legumes, 208.

41, 259.

Lettuce. 243. 152, 326. Listing corn, 264.

Lime,

Root hairs. 206. Rotation of crops, 213, 214. Rural mail delivery, 169. Rural progress, 132.

Machinery, farm, 127.

Magnesium, plant food, 144. Manures, 150, 153. 156.

Map

Studies of

life a-fleld,

22.

March on the farm,

181. May on the farm, 267. Meadows, 320. Melons, 240, 243. Milk, caring for. 101 ;

composition

of,

104

;

testing,

107. conveniences, 343. Mulch, dust, 141. Muriate of potash, 152.

Modern farm-home

Sample letter for bulletins, San Jose scale, 217. School, gardening, 238 grounds, 244 ;

:

out-of-door, 22.

Score card, cattle, 80, 82 corn, 1 93 farm, 346; hogs, 87 horses, 73 ;

;

sheep, 85. Seedlings, growth of, 185. Seeds, structure. 181 ;

germination Natural resources. 338. Nitrate of soda, 150.

of,

185

;

testing, 197.

Separator, cream, 100.

;

172.

INDEX September on the farm,

14.

Sheep. 83. Shrubs, 247. 17, 21. nitrate, 150. capillarity in, 140 elements of. 135, 150. tillage, 272. Spray, lime-sulphur, 41, 217, 259. Spraying for scale, 217 for codling moth, 259 for fungous disease, 259. Stamen, 289, 290. Starch, as food compound, 94. Stock, on the farm, 67 pure bred, 69. Stomata, 287. Stooling, 47. Sugar, as food compound. 94. Suggestions to teachers, 7. Sulphur, 144. Sweet Potatoes, 243. Siios,

Sodium Soil,

351

Tomatoes, 243, 283. Transpiration, 288. Transplanting, 277. Tree planting, 248, 255.

Truck

crops, 130, 299.

;

;

;

;

Vegetables, 243. Variations, 331, 332.

Walnuts, English, 64. Water, supply, 333 in farm crops, 204 ;

;

and the plant, 201. Weather service, 335. Weeds, 295. Weights, for bushel, 189. Wheat, composition of the plant. 146; crop, 44.

Wood,

lots,

252

;

usage, 249.

Wool, 83, 85.

Work

shop, 17.

Toad, the farmer's friend, 306.

Tomato

clubs,

283.

Tear's account, 121.

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