Al-farabi Fusul Al Madani

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AL-FARABI -

IN THIS SERIES

FUSUL AL-MADANI

Averroes' Commentary on Plato's (Republic' E. 1. ]. ROSENTHAL

APHORISMS OF THE STATESMAN

FitzGerald's (Salaman and Absal' A. ]. ARBERR Y

EDITED WITH AN

The Japanese Fami(y Storehouse G.

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ENGLISH TRANSLATION, INTRODUCTION

SARGENT

AND NOTES

The Avestan F[ymn to Mithra

BY

I. GERSHEVITCH

D. M. DUNLOP M.A., D.LITT. LECTURER IN ISLAMIC HISTORY IN THE

Published for the Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Cambridge

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

Archaeological Studies in Szechwan T.-K. CHENG

CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

1961 •• """'iI*w •

~903,1~ PUBLISHED BY THE SYNDICS OF THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Bentley House, 200 Euston Road, London, N.W. 1 American Branch: 32 East 57th Street, New York 22, N.Y.

CONTENTS

© INTRODUCTION

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

1961

page

I

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

23

ENGLISH TRANSLATION

27

NOTES TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION

79

ENGLISH INDEX

96

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y

F3 t q,/'•.' i :~i

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ARABIC TEXT

1°3

ARABIC INDEX

173

VARIANTS AND READINGS IN THE HEBREW VERSION

Printed in Great Britain at the University Press, Cambridge (Brooke Crutchley, University Printer)

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197

INTRODUCTION 1.

PHILOSOPHY AMONG THE ARABS

IN spite of important recent contributions, the study of the rise and development of philosophy among the Arabs remains fraught with a thousand difficulties. In broad outline the facts are fairly clear. After the promulgation of Islam the Arabs were exposed, partly owing to the transforming influence of the new religion and still more perhaps through contact with higher cultures in the conquered lands, to a civilizing process which according to Ibn Khaldun had already begun by the time of the Caliph 'Abd al-Malik (685-705).1 We may assume that the Arabs were at first impressed by the material aspects of the older civilizations to which they had served themselves heirs. Where the sciences are concerned, it was the more practical branches of which they first saw the value. Medicine was represented from the early days of Islam by men like Ibn Kaladah, who had studied at the Sasanid medical school of Jundishapur,z and the Christian Tayadhuq (?Theodokos), physician of al-Hajjaj,3 Alchemy is mentioned in connection with the Umayyad princes Khalid b. Yazid4 (a minor in A.D. 683) at Damascus and Bishr b. Marwan 5 (before 694) in Iraq. I Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, ed. Cairo, 244=translation of F. Rosenthal (London, 1958), II, p. 22. 2 See Ibn ]uljul, Tabaqat al-Atibba' wa'l-Ifukama', ed. Fu'iid Sayyid (Textes et Traductions d'Auteurs Orientaux, x, Cairo, 1955), p. 54, and the literature there cited. 3 Ibn abi U~aibi'ah, 'Uyiin al-Anba', ed. A. Muller, 1, 121-3. 4 The historian of science ]ulius Ruska in Arabische Alchemisten (Heidelberg, 1924), I, was unduly sceptical about Khiilid b. Yazid, though he had a predecessor in Ibn Khaldun, who finds the attainments ascribed to Khiilid b. Yazid impossible in that age (Muqaddimah, 5°5 = tr.ansl. F. Rosenthal, Ill, pp. 229-3 0). Yet Khalid was contemporary with the celebrated scholar St Joh.n. of Damascus, who in early life had been his father's intimate friend (Phllip K. Hitti, Histo,:y ofSyria (London, 1951), p. 499), and the case of Bishr b. Marwiin (see next note) shows alchemy in Iraq about the same time. 5. See Ibn Qutaibah, Kziab al-Ma'arif, ed. Wustenfeld, 180; al-Imamah wa' s-Szyasah (Cairo, n.d.), II, 55.

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THE FU~fJL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

The intellectual traditions of both Persia and Byzantium contained also philosophical elements, to which, at first no doubt along the line of theological enquiry, since the new circumstances raised all kinds of questions in regard to the ~r'anic revelation, I some of the Arabs began to turn their attention. Practical and theoretical interests combined to make desirable the translation of foreign books into Arabic, and the production of such translations was not long delayed. Masarjawaih, a Jew of Ba~rah, translated the medical Pandects (Kunnash) of a certain Aaron of Alexandria from Syriac, apparently as early as the time oL\1arwan (Caliph 683-5).2 If a relatively late tradition3 may be relied on, the translation was found in the Umayyad archives by the pious Caliph 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Azlz (717-20), and published by him only after he had exercised himself in prayer for forty days, as to the propriety of making known a possibly heretical work to the Muslims. Under the later Umayyads and the early 'Abbasids, especially al-Ma'mun (813--33), the intellectual movement gathered momentum. By the tenth century of our era, the century in which al-FarabI lived, philosophy at Baghdad had reached a high level and at this time or later was cultivated in other parts of the Muslim world. A philosophical school arose in Spain, whose leading representatives in the twelfth century, Avempace (Ibn Bajjah) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd), may stand comparison with the greatest names in the East earlier. 2.

BEGINNINGS OF POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

Mas'udI, writing in 956, mentions as a singular fact that he had seen at I~takhr (Persepolis) a large work in Arabic, apparently compiled from local sources, containing an expose of the sciences of the Persians, with a history of the Persian kings and their statecraft (siyciscit), which had been translated for the Umayyad Hisham b. 'Abd al-Malik in 73 1. 4 The work seen by Mas'udI was At least as early as Mu'iiwiah II (A.D. 683). Cf. Hitti, loc. cit. Ibn abi U ~aibi'ah, op. cit. I, 163-4. 3 Reported by the Spaniard Ibn al-Qutiyah to Ibn Juljul; see Tabaqiit alA,tibbii' )J/a'I-J:Iukamii', 62. 4 Mas'udi, Tanbih, 106. I

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2

INTRODUCTION

different, he tells us, from the Khudcii Ncimah and A'inNcimah, Pehlevi books on Persian history and administration, which about this time were translated into Arabic by the celebrated Ibn al-Muqaffa' (executed by al-Man~ur in 759). It is doubtless in such works as these that we have to see the beginnings of what came to be political philosophy in Arabic. The Greek contribution was, it seems, made only later, though eventually it was the more important. The Republic of Plato and other Greek works were put into Arabic by the famous translator !:Iunain b. Is1;aq (ninth century), and al-KindI (c. 800-66) wrote a dozen short treatises (riscilcit), described as political. I The titles are as follows: "On Government"; "On Facilitating the Paths to the Virtues"; "On the Warding off of Griefs "; "On the Government of the Common People"; "On Morals"; "On Direction to the Virtues"; "Account of the Virtue of Socrates"; "On the Words (alfciz) of Socrates"; "On the Conference between Socrates and Archigenes;2 "Account of the Death of Socrates"; "On what passed between Socrates and the !:Iarranians";3 "Account of the Intellect". The Greek inspiration of most of these is obvious.4 The so-called political works of al-KindI, of which two have now been published 5 from the Aya Sophia MS. discovered by Professor Ritter, might, it seems, equally well be described as I By Ibn an-Nadim in the Fihrist, where he gives the titles (ed. Flugel, p. 260). 2 If this is the physician of Apamea, the work evidently rests on a serious anachronism. Archigenes of Apamea (cf. Hitti, History of Syria, p. 32 1 ) flourished in the time of Trajan. 3 Again evidently an anachronism. A connection between the historical Socrates and the people of I:Iarran (Carrhae) in Mesopotamia is not credible. 4 As-Sarakhsi, a pupil of al-Kindi, also wrote a Kitiib as-Siyiisah al-KaMr and a Kitiib as-Si)'iisah a.f-$aghir (F. Rosenthal, Abmad b. a.t-Tayyib as-Sambs!, American Oriental Series, XXVI (1943), p. 56). 5 H. Ritter and R. \Valzer, "Uno scritto morale inedito di al-Kindi (Temistio nEpi O:Avnlos)", R. Accademia nazionale dei Lineei, lvlemorie della Classe di Scienze morali, storiche e filologiche, ser. VI, vol. VIII (193 8-9), fasc. I, p~' 1-6 3 (=" On the Warding off of Griefs"); and Mul.lammad Abu Ridah, Rzsiilat al-Kindi fi'l-'Aql, in Rasii'il al-Kindi al-FalsafiJ!ah (Cairo, 13 69/ 1 95 0 ), pp. 353-5 8 (=" Account of the Intellect ").

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THE FU~UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FAIL~BI

ethical. I The same applies to another work of general s!'ydsab type, the Kitdb as-Sa'ddab lJJa'I-Is'dd (" Book of Happiness and ;VIaking Happy") of Abu'I-I:Iasan b. abi Dharr, recently studied by Professor Arberry, which cites al-Kindi and refers apparently to al-Farabi as a contemporary.2 Apart from this book, which survives in a single ;VIS., now in the possession of Sir Chester Beatty, nothing hitherto was known of the author. He has now been identified by Professor M. Minovi3 as Abu'l I:Iasan Mu1;lammad b. abi Dharr Yusuf al-'Amiri of Nishapur, who was a pupil of A1;lmad b. Sahl al-Balkhi (ob. 322/934) and died at an advanced age in 381/992.4 Al-'Amiri displays an extensive knowledge of Greek philosophy, especially Plato. Inter alia he gives a long quotation from an epitome of the Republic which is remarkable for its retention of the original dialogue form.5 At the same time al-'Amiri cites numerous Persian authorities, principally, it would seem, from translations made by Ibn al-Muqaffa' (see above). All this indicates a different line of development from that represented by I:Iunain b. Isl;1aq-al-Kindi-al-Farabi, the theories of the last of whom (assuming the identification of the I Or psychological in the case of the" Account of the Intellect". The fact is that in Arabic at all times the usage of siyasah fluctuates and is not confined to \vhat we call politics. Cf. the Risalah fi's-Si)'asah of al-Farabi mentioned in the Introduction, § 3, and the Kitab fi's-Si)'asah of al-~Iusain b. 'All alMaghribi, rendered by its editor, Dr Sami Dahan, De l' Ethique (Institut Frans;ais de Damas, 1949). 2 A. J. Arberry, "An Arabic Treatise on Politics", Islamic Quarterly, II (1955), pp. 9- 22 . 3 See his transcript of the Chester Beatty MS., As-Sa'adah lIJa'I-Is'ad, University of Tehran Publications, No. 435 OVIahdCllJi Fund Series, No. 5), Wiesbaden, 1957-8, Introduction, p. iv, and the earlier 'Az Khazayin-i Turkiyah, Part II', Bulletin of the Tehran Faculty of Letters, Year 4, No. 3 (pp. 9 ff. of the offprint). 4 For al-'Amiri: cf. Muntakhab ,fiJvan al-I:likmah (:,'yIS. Murad ;\Iullah 14°8, 67 b~68 b); ivIiskawaih, jallJidan Khirad (Sapientia Perennis), ed. 'Abdurral;1man Badawi (Cairo, 1952), pp. 347 ff.; Abii Haiyan at-Taul;1idi, iVluqabasat ed. Hasan as-Sandiibi, p. 202 n. and indices; M. J'yfinovi's long article referred to in the previous note; and F. Rosenthal, "State and Religion according to Ablll-Hasan al-'Amirl", Islamic cQuarter!y, III (1956), pp. 42-52. 5 A. J. Arberry, "Some Plato in an Arabic Epitome", Islamic Quartero', II (1955), pp. 86-99·

4

INTRODUCTION

unnamed "modern philosophaster"l with al-FarabI) on the subject of the ideal ruler, which are shortly to concern us since they come in the Fttf141 al-Madani, al-'Amiri professes not to understand. There is no reason to suppose that the Kitdb as-Sa'ddah wa'l-Is'dd, evidently written after al-FarabI's characteristic ideas had been made public, had any effect on his development. The case is somewhat different, as already indicated, for the "political" writings of al-KindI. 3.

AL-FARABI'S WORKS ON POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

It has become increasingly plain within recent years that the real founder of political philosophy among the Arabs was al-Farabi. His debt to the Greeks and to their Arabic translators is indeed such that without them his work would have been impossible, but qua political philosopher he appears to have had no immediate predecessors. Al-Kindi's influence on al-Farabi seems to have been limited. To judge by the titles of his books already given, al-Kindi was interested in the figure of Socrates, but his appreciation of political and kindred problems and the questions and solutions put forward by the Greek thinkers does not appear, though a final decision on this will have to wait for further MS. discoveries. (Al-KindI's real flair was probably for natural science.) It is unlikely that al-FarabI was not familiar with al-Kindi's works, which "were in every hand, and to be found in every place",2 but his obligations to them in his own political writings seem to have been restricted to externals, such as the use of the risalah form.3 \ve may also note that there is a coincidence of title in the case of the Risdlab ft' s-Sivdsab of the two authors, and that al-KindI like al-Farabi has also a Tanbih. 4 There is no Arberry, "Arabic Treatise", pp. 15, 16; cf. Minovi, As-Sa'adah, p. 194. iVIuntakhab ,fillJan al-Ffikmah (of Abii Sulaiman as-Sijazi), MS. Murad Mullah, 14°8, fol. 59 a. Cf. D. M. Dunlop, "Biographical Material from t~e ,fiJvan al-I:likmah", Proceedings of the 23rd Intertzational Congress of OrimtaIlStS, pp. 352-3; Journal of the R!!J!al Asiatic Society (1957), pp. 82-9. 3 According to the Muntakhab ,fiJvan al-Ijikmah (see previous note), al-Kmdi introduced the scientific risalah. 4 For these works of al-Farabi see below. AI-Kindi:'s Tanbih 'ald'I-Fadd'il has already been mentioned as "Direction to the Virtues". . I

2

THE FU~UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

possibility that al-Farabi was preceded by Ibn ar-Rabi', author of the Kitdb Stt/iik al-Mdlik fi Tadbir al-2\1amdlik, though this has been stated by Brockelmann to be the oldest surviving work on political philosophy in Arabic. I It was convincingly demonstrated by Jurji Zaidan that the Kitdb Suliik al-ivMlik fi Tadbir aliVlamdlik, which bears on the title page and in the course of the work that it was written for the Caliph Mu'ta~im (833-42), a contemporary of al-Kindi and long anterior to al-Farabi, cannot belong to this early time. 2 Jurji Zaidan pointed out that the honorific" Shihab ad-Din" applied to Ibn ar-Rabi' is impossible for the ninth century, since this style of nomenclature was introduced much later, and concluded that there is confusion between al-Mu'ta~im and al-Musta'~im, the last Abbasid Caliph (1242-58). Other considerations were raised by Martin Plessner against the early dating,3 and Brockelmann's later volumes embodied the correction. The matter was again put in doubt by Professor H. K. Sharwani, who attempted to meet Jurji Zaidan's arguments and restore the ninth-century date. 4 To what has already been said against this it may be added simply that Ibn ar-Rabi' quotes alFarabi, mentioning an ideal ruler, and then giving almost verbatim the twelve or thirteen qualities which according to al-Farabi the" first chief" or ideal ruler must possess. 5 These Ibn ar-Rabi' transfers in terms of extravagant flattery to the reigning Caliph. 6 There can be no question on which side the originality lies. The apocryphal Kitdb as-Siydsah li-Ajld!iin of Ibn ad-Dayah 7 I Brockelmann, Geschichte del' arabischen Litteratur, 1St ed. (Weimar, 1898), p. 209. 2 JurjI Zaidan, Ta'rlkh Adab al-Lughah al-'ArabiJ'ah (Cairo, 1912), n, p. 214. 3 Plessner, Del' Oikonomikos des Neupythagoriiers Bryson (Heidelberg, 1928), pp. 3I if. 4 Sharwani, "A Muslim Political Thinker of the Ninth Century A.C.; Ibni (sic) Abi' r-Rabi''', Islamic Culture, xv (1941), pp. 143-5 6. 5 See below, note on § 54. 6 Ibn ar-Rabi', Kitab Suliik al-Malik ji Tadblr al-Mamalik (Cairo, A.H. 1329), pp. 8 if. 7 This has been edited by Jamil Bek al-'A?m (Beirut, n.d.) (Brockelmann, op. cit., Supp. I, p. 229, gives Jamil Bek al-'Aziz, apparently in error) and by 'Abd al-Rahman Badawi, AI- U.fiil al- Y iinaniJ'ah li'n- N a:;.arl)'at as-SipIsiJ'ah ft' 1-

I,

6

INTRODUCTION

(died 951) points to contemporary interest, apart from al-Farabi, insiydsah, which we have already noticed in the case of al-'Amiri.

Ibn ad-Dayah, a meritorious writer upon many subjects,1 scarcely made a very important or influential contribution to political philosophy, and he appears to remain unquoted by later writers. 2 The works of al-Farabi on politics were esteemed by later generations,3 and, as we can now see, he had a stimulating effect on the Spanish school of philosophy centuries after his death.4 As to the works themselves, some of them seem to be of little account, in particular, if they are really his, the Tanbih,5 in effect a plea for the study of logic, and the Risalah ii' s-Siydsah (" Treatise on Government ")6 which deals, in spite of the title, with a man's conduct towards superiors, equals, etc., after a more or less familiar pattern. In the more important works, the Ta!;J!il,7 the Kitdb as-Siydsah al-Madan[yah 8 and the iVladinah Islam (Cairo, 1954), I, pp. 3-64, under the title Kitab al-'Uhiid al-YiindniJ'ah al-Mustakhrqjah min Rumiiz Kitdb as-Styasah Ii-Afta/un. I Yaqut, Mu'jam al-Udaba', ed. D. S. Margoliouth (Gibb Memorial Series), n,

pp. 157-60. 2 With the exception ofIbn al-Khatib of Granada, in the 8th/14th century. See D. M. Dunlop, "A little-known work on politics by Lisan ad-Din b. alKhatib", in Misceldnea de Estudios Arabesy Hebrdicos, Universidad de Granada, 1960. 3 Cf. ~a'id b. ~a'id, Tabaqat al-Umam, ed. Cheikho, 54= R. Blachere's French translation, Livre des Categories des Nations, 109. The original work was written in 460/1068, and is quoted on al-Farabi by Ibn abi U~aibi'ah ('[[yiin al-Anba', ed. Miiller, n, 136). 4 Cf. Introduction, 4(c). 5 In full, Kitab at-Tanblh 'ala Sabll as-Sa'ddah ("Direction to the Way to Happiness"), (Hyderabad, 1346/1927). 6 Ed. Cheikho, al-Mashrlq, IV (1901), pp. 648-53, 68 9-7°°. 7 In full, Kitdb Tap.fll as-Sa'adah (" Attainment of Happiness "), (Hyderabad, 1345/ 1926 ). A new edition of this important text is a desideratum. The Hyderabad editions, in spite of their merit in making available works otherwise only to be found in widely scattered libraries, fail to provide the reader with information about the MSS. used, variant readings, etc., and this greatly reduces their scientific value. S Translation by Dieterici-Bronnle, Die Staatsleitung von Alfarabi (Leiden, ~904); text, Kitab as-Siyasat (sic) al-MadaniJ'ah (Hyderabad, 1346/1927). This IS apparently an old mistake. Ibn abi U~aibi'ah (op. cit. n, 139) already lists a Kitab as-Siya.rat al-MadaniJ'ah wa-yu'rafu bi-Mabadi' al-Maujtidat, but it is a duplicate entry. The work is conveniently referred to as the Siyasah.

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THE FU~UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FAR1\BI

Fd(iilab 1 we find him dealing with a real and for al-Farabi evidently central philosophical problem, since he returns to it repeatedly: that is, the end of political association. In these works, under Platonic inspiration, he lays down that the aim is the good, i.e. virtuous or happy, life, these terms being in effect the same, and that it is to be attained under the aegis of a ruler who is himself good, and therefore alone capable of providing virtue and happiness for his subjects. Combined with this is an appreciable amount of Aristotle, e.g. al-Farabi's analysis of the virtues, which are rational (intellectual) as well as ethical and are means between opposite extremes, together with (especially in the last-named two works) an elaborate metaphysical structure derived from Neoplatonism, intended to show that all things, including the" active intellect" which operates directly on man's intellect and produces the objects of intelligence, emanate from the Deity, who is the first mover and cause of all. The ideas involved bear on psychology, theory of knowledge, ethics and metaphysics, and in effect form a philosophical system. If the ingredients appear somewhat incongruous (their combination may have been suggested by later Greek texts available in Arabic, though rather more probably it was al-Farabi's own), from them he was able to produce an account of man's place in the world and action in society which still possesses a good deal of interest. It can scarcely be doubted that the ideas expressed in al-Farabi's principal works on politics had never before appeared in Arabic together. It is for this reason in the long run that his claim to be the founder of political philosophy among the Arabs seems solidly based, if we are not indeed entitled to regard him as the first and perhaps the only system-builder in Islam. I In full, Kitab Ara' Ahl al-iVlad1nah al-Facjilah (" Opinions of the People of the Ideal City"), ed. Dieterici (Leiden, 1895), (there described as a risalah= short treatise, but elsewhere as a book, kz"tiib); translation by Dieterici, Der i\lusterstaat (Leiden, 1895), and more recently by R. P. Jaussen, Youssef Karam and J. Chlala, Idees des I-Iabitants de la Cite Vertueuse (Textes et Traductions d'Auteurs Orientaux, IX, Cairo, 1949). This French translation is sometimes markedly better.

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INTRODUCTION

4.

THE "FU~OL AL-MADANI"

(a) Natttre and date oj tbe n'ork The Ftt.f111 al-kIadani, to call the book by a convenient title,r represents on the face of it yet another attempt of al-Farabi to formulate his ideas on politics and what he considered to be allied matters, on the lines especially of the Kitdb as-S[ydsab and the JVladinab Fd(!ilab. The range of ideas is the same as in the other works. The definition of happiness, its pursuit and realization on earth, at least in part, under the rule of a virtuous king, the characterization of the states and rulers which fall short of the ideal, and the same metaphysical structure, recur again here, at greater or less length and with more or less emphasis. If we knew for certain the relation between the other works, it would evidently be easier to place the Ftt!ul. One difference in the latter seems to be a wider application to the art of government of the metaphor of medicine, which is worked out in considerable detail and appears throughout the whole book; also the metaphysical matter comes in the second half, not the first. The most striking external feature of the new work are the sections (jtt!ul), from which it derives its name. Works in the ju!ul form are to be found in Arabic literature I So in MS. B only. MS. A has (fo1. I a) al-FuJul al-{likmlJ'ah. Neither of these titles comes in the enumerations of al-Fiirabi's works in al-Qifti, Ta'r1kh al-Ijukama' (ed. Lippert, 279-80) and Ibn abi U?aibi'ah, 'Uyun al Anba' (ed. Miiller, II, 138-40), nor in the comparatively meagre lists in the Fihrist (ed. Fliigel, 263) and Tatimmah $iwan al-Ijikmah (ed. Mul!ammad Shafi', 17). MS. A has the further title (fo1. I b) FU.ful muntaza'ah min aqalv11 al-qudama, f1 tadb1r al-mudun wa-ma taJlihu bihi, which may be brought into connection with one or other of those mentioned by Ibn abi U?aibi'ah: lvlukhta.far fU.ful falsaflyah muntaza'ah min kutub aljalasifah; Kitab ft'lju.ful al-muntaza'ah li'l-ijtima'at; FU.ful lahu mimma jama'ahu min kalam al-qudama'. These may possibly refer to a single work, viz. our FU.ful al-iVladan1, to which also the last item in al-Qifti's list could apply: al-Fu.ful al-muntaza'ah min al-akhbar, which Dieterici appears to mistranslate as "Einzelne /!,eschichtliche Abschnitte" (Aljarabi's philosophighe Abhandlungen (Leiden, 1892), p. 192). The Ft/.fltl af-Madan1 passed into Hebrew in an existing version, entitled in MS. ~ Peraq1m lz-Abu Na.fr, etc. and in MS. ~ Pirqe Abz! Na.fr, ete., i.e. simply SectioilSor Aphorisms-by/of Abii Na?r, ete. Cf. the Hebrew variants.

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THE FU~ih AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

INTRODUCTION

before the time of al-Farabi, as well as later. Thus we have the medical FUfitl of Ibn Masawaih (died 857), of the celebrated Rhazes (ar-Razi, died 925) and of Ibn al-Jazzar (died 1004), the original of all of which is doubtless the F ufitl or Aphorisms ascribed to Hippocrates, which had been translated by I:Iunain b. Isl:;aq. The Arabic word is rendered correctly "aphorisms" or "axioms". Maimonides (II39-1204) in the introduction to his own medical FUfitl explains the meaning of the term in Arabic literature and makes direct reference to al-Farabi in the following passage. I

'The Book of the Ideal City, the Ignorant City, the Unrighteous City, the Altered City and the Deluded City. I He (se. al-Farabi) began the composition of this book in Baghdad and took it with him to Syria at the end of the year 330 A.H.1941-z A.D. He completed it in Damascus in the year 33 1/94 z -3, and wrote it out fair, after which he examined the MS. and divided it into chapters (abwab). Then someone asked him to give it sections (fu[iil), which would show the division of its subjectmatter, so he made the sections in Egypt in the year 337/948-9. They are six in number.

It is plain to anyone who gives the slightest attention to the matter that all those who have composed fu[iil in any science have not done so on the assumption that these fu[iil are sufficient in that science, or include all its principles (u[iil). Everyone who has composed fu[iil after this method has done so on meanings (ma'ani) which he saw must all be present to the mind but are disregarded, or afford most of what is needed, and in general the aim which all who have written fu[iilhave had in mind is not to include everything needed in the particular scienceneither Hippocrates in his Fu~iil, nor Abl1 Na~r al-Farabi in all that he wrote in the form of fu[iil, Z nor anyone else.

It is clear from this that to write fupil on a subject is in theory a convenient way of treating the salient points of an existing body of knowledge. In the case of al-Farabi's political FUfitl, some or all of his other works mentioned above had in all probability already been written. In subject-matter, as already mentioned, the FUfitl al-Madani bears a close resemblance to the Madinah Fci(lilah and the Kitdb as-Siyasah, and also the Ta!Nil, which in at least one instance it actually quotes.3 We may expect some light on the relationship of these works from an important passage in Ibn abi U~aibi'ah, as follows. 4 ,~

Maimonides, FU.ful, ed. P. Kahle, in Galeni in Platonis Timaeum Commentarii Fragmenta (Corpus Medicorum Graecorum Supplementum (1934), I, 94)· 2 Al-Farabi wrote fU.fiil on logic, which I published with an English translation as "Al-Farabl's Introductory Sections on Logic", Islamic Quarterly, II (1955), pp. 264-82. Cf. also n. I, p. 9. 3 See notes on §§ 89, 90. 4 In 'Uyiin al-Anbii', ed. Muller, II, 138-9. I

10

The" Book of the Ideal City, the Ignorant City, the Unrighteous City, the Altered City and the Deluded City" is apparently the Madinah Fa(lilah-or perhaps strictly, if the view which has recently been maintained by Dr 'Umar Farrukh, that the iVIadinah Fa(lilah is composite, is rightZ-the second, political half of that work. This is virtually certain, since "the Ignorant City, the Unrighteous City, the Altered City and the Deluded City" are the main types of divergence from the Ideal City only in the iVIadinah Fa.dilah.3 The natural assumption is that the fUfitl of which Ibn abi U~aibi'ah is here speaking are those of the FUfitl al-iVIadaniwhich, since it deals with the same subject as the iVIadinah Fci(lilah in schematic form, may reasonably be supposed to have been written later, and on other grounds appears to have been a late work of al-Farabi. 4 There are, however, serious objections to this view. In the first place, the number of fupil in the present Arabic text is ninety-five, not six as in the notice of Ibn abi U~aibi'ah. The disparity is insuperable. Not all of the ninety-five appear in any one MS. and some may be additional, but in round figures ninety or so is the total. We could indeed suppose that "ninety" has somehow slipped out from Ibn abi U~aibi'ah's text-though there is no MS. record of this-and that ninety-six was intended, but the suggestion is not very plausible. No MS. of the Ft/fitl al-Madani, Arabic or Hebrew, contains that number of sections. There is no evidence that the original number was ninety-six. I

2

3

For these terms see note to § Z 5. 'D. Farrilkh, AI-Fariib[yrin (Beirut, 1369/1950), p. 13. Cf. note on § 25. 4 See below, pp. 13 If.

II

THE FU~UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FXRABI

INTRODU CTION

But further, in Ibn Khallikan we find the following: 'Abu (se. al-Farabi) mentioned in his book entitled as-Siydsah al-AIadaniyah that he began its composition in Baghdad and completed it in Egypt."I The sentence is not found in Dieterici's translation of the Si)'dsah, nor in the Hyderabad text. Like the passage just quoted from Ibn abi U~aibi'ah, it appears to be taken from the colophon of an ancient MS. which has not been recopied subsequently. Is the work which was begun in Baghdad and completed in Egypt the same as the work begun in Baghdad and afterwards divided into six sections in Egypt? If so, we get the results that the process described by Ibn abi U~aibi'ah has nothing directly to do with the Fu!ul al-AIadani as such, and that the JVIadinah F#ilah and the Siydsah AIadaniyah represent different forms of the same work. The JVIadinah F#ilah as we have it (i.e. including the metaphysical and political parts, in view of a passage in Mas'udi,· which appears to give a synopsis of both taken together and was written in 956) was completed in Damascus in or after 942-3, and the Siydsah JVIadaniyah was apparently made from it in Egypt in 948-9. There is at least no doubt that the general content and arrangement of these two works is very similar, and that the affinities of the Siydsah JVIadaniyah with the ilIadinah Fdr/ilah are much closer than, for instance, with the Tab!il, which appears to belong to another stage of al-Farabi's thinking. It has also to be added that the Hebrew version of the S[)'dsah J\1adan[}ah is called the "Six Principles" (Shesh Hathbdloth),3 from an expression

which occurs at the beginning of the work. Though the Siydsah lvIadaniyah in Dieterici's translation is in eleven sections, not easily reducible to six, there may be some relation, not necessarily the obvious one, between these" six principles" and the six ju!ul mentioned by Ibn abi U~aibi'ah. As to the Fu!ul al-AIadani we have as yet, on this view, no satisfactory dating. Apart from close resemblance to the Madinah Fdr/ilah and the Siydsah AIadaniyah already noted, there are indications of late date in the allusive character of its references to the states or cities opposed to the ideal (§§ 25, 28, 88). (The quotations from the Tab!il, especially that in § 90, which is found in all the MSS., are also to be noted, though they may be later additions.) Further, al-Farabi in the Fu!ul al-Madani introduces two important terms, which apparently occur nowhere else in his political writings and seem to be new. In § 54 he says of the "first chief", or ideal ruler, that he is to have "power to fight the holy war (jihtid) in person", and also, with some tautology apparently, "that there should be nothing in his body to prevent his attending to the matters which belong to the holy war". The "qualities" and" conditions" of the" first chief" are given in the Madinah Fdr/ilah, but there his functions are not envisaged as specifically military, though he must be sound of limb and have the physical strength necessary to carry out his task (AIadinah F#ilah, 59). Also in § 54 a "king according to the law" (lJlalik as-sunnah), who is to rule in default of the ideal king and the true aristocracy, is given characteristics similar to those which are involved in the "six conditions" of the "second chief" in the Madinah Faf/ilah (60-I), one of which is that he is able to go on the holy war. In the lvIadinah Fdr/ilah the "second chief" should have bodily strength to attend to the duties of war simpliciter (barb). That the jihtid was distinctly in al-Farabi's mind in the Fu!ul al-JvIadani is clear from a long passage in Part II, where he speaks about the JJztijdhid (warrior for the faith). These striking references to jihdd are surely not due to mere inadvertence, but rather correspond to a substantially different point of view. We naturally enquire what may be supposed to be meant by

Na~r

Ed. of A.H. 1275, IT, II3=translation of De Slane, III, 308. Mas'iidI, Tanbih, I I 7- I I 9. The passage should be compared with a table of contents at the beginning of the Arabic text of the Madinah F#ilah (ed. Dieterici), 1-4, headed: Ikhti!dr al-abwdb allatZ fi kitdb al-Madinah al-F#ilah ta'/if abi Na!r Mupammad b. Afupammad b. Tarkhdn b. Uzlagh al-Fdrdbi atTurki, and apparently forming an integral part of the work. If this is from the hand of al-Farabi himself, it would follow that the division into nineteen ablvdb there envisaged (not marked in Dieterici's text) is that recorded by Ibn abI U~aibi'ah as having been made by al-FarabI some time after 942 or I

2

943·

3 M. Steinschneider, Al Farabi, )\lUJJloires de I'Academie Imperiale des Sciences de St.-Petersbourg, VIle serie, tome XIII, 4 (1869), p. 64·

12

13

THE FU$UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

INTRODUCTION

jibad, in its ordinary sense, in al-Farabi's lifetime. Similarly we may ask if the other term "king according to the law", which al-Farabi seems to have derived from study of the La2vs or the Politicus of Plato (see below), has also a contemporary reference. These questions can only be answered by considering the course of events. If they can be answered satisfactorily, we shall get a dating for the Fu!ul al-Aladani, which has so far escaped us. It has already been assumed that the work is late, post the Ta1)$il and probably also post the ivladinab Fd(lilab. AI-Farabi left Baghdad and went to Syria in 330/942, according to Ibn abi U$aibi'ah. There was great confusion in the Muslim empire at this time, and in the same year the Caliph al-:Muttaqi was forced to apply for help to the I::Iamdanids of Mosul. Na$ir ad-Daulah, the I::Iamdanid, and his brother Saif ad-Daulah escorted the Caliph back from Mosul to Baghdad and received their honorific titles for so doing. Saif ad-Daulah, for a time governor of Wasit, occupied successively Aleppo and Homs in 333/944-5 and Damascus the following year, and by so doing became the leading political figure in northern Syria. Already he had been engaged against the Greeks, and after a check in 337/94 8-9 in 339/95 0 he raided Greek territory. This aggressive campaign, most unusual in the declining state of the Muslim empire, was the prelude to further severe fighting, and eventually in 962 the Greeks under Nicephorus, a future Emperor, took Aleppo and forced Saif adDaulah to flighe AI-Farabi did not live to see this disaster, having died in December 950 (Rajab 339).z The circumstances of his death are given in one source in the following terms: 3

me go". But they refused and determined to kill him. Seeing that there was no escape, Abli. Na~r (al-Farabi) dismounted and fought till he was slain, with his friends. This greatly displeased the rulers of Syria (se. the I:Iamdanids), who pursued the thieves and buried Abli. Na~r, and crucified them on tree-trunks close by his grave.

Al-Farabi was journeying from Damascus to Ascalon, and was met by a company of the thieves called" the Lads" (fityan). Al-Farabi said to them, "Take what I have of riding animals, arms and clothing, and let I Marius Canard, Histoire de la Dynastie des H'amdanides de Jazira et de Syrie, I (Paris, 1953), pp. 809-8 I 7. The other dates in the career of Saif adDaulah are from Ibn al-Athir (ed. Tornberg), VIII. 2 Ibn abi U~aibi'ah, op. cit. II, 134· 3 Tatim1tJah $iJnln al-J:likmah, ed. MuJ:.1ammad ShaH', 19·

14

Another account says that Saif ad-Daulah and fifteen of his courtiers performed the funeral prayers for al-Farabi. I These events form a framework into which various matters mentioned in the Fu!ul al-Aladanimay easily be fitted. At the end of § 88 al-Farabi, after speaking of the disasters brought on the world by misrule, of which he must certainly have seen sufficient in Baghdad under al-Muttaqi and his immediate predecessors, goes on to say: "Therefore it is wrong for the virtuous man to remain in the corrupt polities, and he must emigrate to the ideal cities, if such exist in fact in his time. If they do not exist, then the virtuous man is a stranger in the present world and wretched in life, and to die is preferable for him than to live." Similar ideas are expressed in the Aladinah Fac)ilah and the De Platonis Pbilosophia z by al Farabi, but here in the Fu!ul he speaks emphatically of the duty of emigration (hijrah). The word has important religious associations for every Muslim. It may well be that al-Farabi regarded his departure from Baghdad as his personal hijrah.3 It certainly looks also as if the enemies of the faith, whose existence seems to be implied in the Fu!ul al-Aladani, and among al-Farabi's extant political writings only there, were the Byzantine Greeks, against whom under the vigorous rule of Saif adDaulah the Muslims were again taking the offensive, as we have seen, in the last years of al-Farabi's life. When he first made the acquaintance of Saif ad-Daulah is uncertain (perhaps already in Baghdad after the I::Iamdanid entry),4 but it is evident that at the Ibn abi U~aibi'ah, 'Uyiln al-Anba', II, 134. ZEd. F. Rosenthal and R. Walzer, Corpus Platonicum A1edii Aevi, Plato Arabus, II (London, 1943). 3, Avempace (Ibn Biijjah) speaks in one place (Tadbtr al-Mutawabbid, ed. ASln Palacios, 78) of the obligation upon his solitary sage to emigrate (Yuhijir), evidently under the influence of al-Fiiriibi. Cf. below, 4(C). 4 Referred to above. I

15

THE Fu~DL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

time of his death al-FarabI enjoyed that ruler's high esteem. It is not at all unlikely that the" king according to the law" who in the Ft/,fill al-Madani is in certain circumstances to take the place of the "first chief" is Saif ad-Daulah himself, especially if the" king according to the law" may be equated with the autocrat in the Arabic summary of the LaJ1Js who forcibly establishes the divine law in the state with the philosopher's approval. I How as a ShI'ite presumably, like the rest of the I:Iamdanids, he qualifies for the title malik as-sumzah may not be perfectly clear, but, apart from this, Saif ad-Daulah who assumed in Syria the power which the Caliph was incapable of exercising and became the active champion of Islam, is extraordinarily well adapted to the role of "second chief". These and the foregoing considerations seem to be sufficient to allow us to place the FU,fill al-il1adani at the end of al-FarabI's literary career, when the Aladinah Fdrjilah and the Siyiisah had been completed and the first engagements of the long war between Saif ad-Daulah and the Greeks were already being fought. It cannot be conceded that the Tab,fil was later. The TaNil, quoted in the FU,fill al-Aladani (§§ 89, 90) but rarely if ever referred to by subsequent Arabic writers, was evidently eclipsed by the ilIadinah Fdrjilah and seems to belong to an earlier period of al-FarabI's development. In the Tab,fil al-FarabI promises to describe separately the philosophy of Plato and ofAristotle. 2 This intention he afterwards carried out in the De Platonis Philosophia and its companion treatise on Aristotle, both of which are extant. There is certainly no room for all this literary activity in the period after 337/94 8-9, in which the composition of the Ft/,fill al-ivladani seems most naturally to fall. Tentatively, we may arrange al-FarabI's main political writings in the following order: the Tab,fil, written in Baghdad (the De Platonis Philosophia and its companion treatise later, probably in Baghdad); the Madinah J'drjilah, begun I Cf. F. Gabrieli, Alfarabius: Compendium Le/;um Platonis, Plato Arabus, III, Arabic text, 22 (quoted by E. 1. ]. Rosenthal, "The Place of Politics in the Philosophy of Al-Farabi", Islamic Culture, XXIX (1955), p. 17 8, n. I). 2 Ed. Hyderabad, 47.

16

1."lTRODUCT10N

in Baghdad and completed in Damascus, as Ibn abI U~aibi'ah tells us, in 331/942-3; the Styiisah completed in Egypt in 337/9489; the FU,fttl al-Aladani, before al-FarabI's death in Rajab 339 (December 95 0). If this scheme is correct, the Ft/,fill al-Aladani is to be regarded as the last of al-FarabI's extant political works, and perhaps the last he ever wrote, before his career was abruptly and unexpectedly terminated.

(b) Relation to the Politicus

of Plato

Al-FarabI certainly knew the general contents of the PolitiCtts, which he describes as follows in the De Platonis Philosophia: I Then (Plato) investigated afterwards the practical art which gives the desired way of life, disposes actions aright and leads men's souls to happiness. He showed that it is the art of the king and the statesman, and showed the meaning of king and statesman. Then he showed that the philosopher and king are one, that both are perfected by a single craft and faculty, that both have a single craft which gives the knowledge desired from the first and the way of life desired from the first, and that it is that which effects, in those who acquire it and in all the rest of mankind, the happiness which in truth is happiness.

It is noticeable that the name of the dialogue is not mentioned here. Perhaps al-FarabI did not know it. The name Politict/s, however, occurs in Arabic earlier than al-Farabi in a passage of I:Iunain b. Is1).aq relative to Galen's Synopses of the Platonic Dialogt/es, which he translated. 2 No Arabic translation of the Politict/s itself seems to be recorded. We can hardly expect to find in the FU,fill al-Aladani anything like a systematic exposition of the Politicus, yet evidently alFarabI had a wider acquaintance with its contents than is shown in his work just quoted. That the 'statesman and king' of the FUfill al-Aladani (§§ 3, 4, cf. I I) is TOV TIO!l.lTlKOV Ked ~ao-l!l.IK6v of the Politicus (266E, cf. 3I I c) is beyond doubt. The De Platonis lEd. F. Rosenthal and R. Walzer, § 18. G. Bergstrasser, I}unain b. Ispaq iiber die S)'rischen und arabischen GalenUbersetzungen, Abhandlungen ft"ir die Kunde des lvlorgenlandes, XVII (1925), Arabic text, p. 50. •• 2

2

17

DAF

THE

FU~UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

Philosophia has a similar expression, but nothing like the famous sentiment of Politicus 259 B is found there. This comes in § 29 of the FupII al-Afadani, where it is said that the king is king by virtue of the kingly art" whether he rules over people or not, whether he is honoured or not, whether he is rich or poor". The idea of measurement as applied to the ruler, directly or by implication (cf. §§ 17, 89, etc.), and with reference to one of the subordinate classes in the ideal city in § 53, where the unusual term "measurers" or "assessors" (muqaddiriin) covers the "accountants, geometers, doctors, astrologers and the like", seems traceable to the "art of measurement", as expounded by Plato in Poldicus 283 B-287B. Again, the collocation of secretaries and priests, which catches the eye in § 62, may derive from a similar collocation in Politicus 290 A-E. The expression "king of, i.e. according to, the law" (malik as-sunnah) in § 54, which is difficult to explain as it stands and, as already mentioned, seems to occur nowhere else in al-Farabi's political works, probably derives from Politicus 301 A-B: "But when one man rules according to the laws, imitating him who possesses knowledge (sc. the ideal king), we call him king, not distinguishing in name between him who rules alone by knowledge and him who rules alone by opinion according to the laws." I The same idea of obedience to law as a second-best, when the ideal has been set aside, comes again in Politicus 297E. From the instances where the FU!iil ai-Madani shows points of contact with the Platonic dialogue we may infer that al-Farabi knew it, not directly, but perhaps in some such compendium as that of Galen mentioned above. (c) Subsequent influence Something has already been said about later knowledge of al-Farabi's political works. As far as the FU!iil al-.Madani is concerned, there is not a great deal to add. It does not appear to have been at any time as highly regarded as some of the others, I

This seems nearer than the passage from the Arabic summary of Plato's I on p. 16.

Laws, referred to in n.

18

INTRODUCTION

yet it was undoubtedly read and transcribed. It is cited by Joseph b. 'Aqnin, the pupil of Maimonides, I and referred to inclusively by Maimonides himself in his Aphorisms.], The F upil al-Aladani appears also among the sources of Averroes in his Paraphrase of Plato's Republic, as has already been pointed out by Dr E. 1. J. Rosentha1.3 It may have been known to Avempace (Ibn Bajjah), though this is scarcely demonstrable. Two passages of the Fupil al-ivfadani are relevant here. The first of these is in § I I: "The ancients named this man (sc. the possessor of all the virtues) divine (ildhi), while his opposite ... they sometimes named wild beast (sabu')." The same antithesis comes in the Tadbir al-Mutawal;l;id ("Rule of the Solitary").4 It is perhaps due to a common source, cf. Aristotle, Eth. Nic. VII, I (114 p). The second passage, at the end of § 88 of the F upII al-Madani, has already been referred to (4 (a)). Here al-Farabi speaks emphatically of the duty of the virtuous man to leave the corrupt polities and of the unenviable condition to which he may be reduced if there is nowhere for him to go. The Tadbir alMutawaN;id may be said to offer a solution of the predicament in which such a man finds himself, by recommending withdrawal from all society as a means to the good life, even in existing conditions. In one place Avempace envisages" emigration to the polities (sryar) in which are the sciences" ,5 making use of the same striking expression as here (§ 88). The work continued to be read long afterwards. Not to speak of the MSS. listed below, the Hebrew translation is cited by Joseph b. Shem Tab as late as the fifteenth century.6 Steinschneider, Al Farabi, p. 70. In the passage quoted above. , 3. "The Place of Politics", pp. I 74ff., with reference to jihad (§ 54) and the 'king of, according to, the law" (ibid.). See also Dr Rosenthal's Averroes' Commentary on Plato's 'Republic' (Cambridge, 1956),208,283' , 4 Ed. Asin Palacios, 16-17, Spanish translation, 47-9, also D. M. Dunlop, 'Ibn Bajjah's Tadbiru'I-Mutawa1:.J.1:.J.id (Rule of the Solitary)", Journal of the R~al Asiatic Society (1945), pp. 71-2, English trailS!., 8o-I. 5 Tadbir al-Mutawaf;f.lid, 78, cited above, p. 15 n. 3. 6 Steinschneider, Hebriiische Obersetzungen, 29 2 • I

2

19

2-2

THE FU~fJL AL-:~JADANI OF AL-FARABI

5.

THE MANUSCRIPTS

In preparing this edition the following MSS. have been used: B=Bodleian :\is. Hunt. 307= Uri I02, fols. 91 b-109a. This MS. was collated by Margoliouth for Dieterici's edition (p. vii) of the Madinah Fdrjilah. Used in Bodleian photostats. Professor Beeston of Oxford kindly supplied the information that the MS. is without date or name of scribe or place of copying, but from the appearance of the paper and ink it can hardly be later than the seventh/thirteenth century. This MS. contains only the first part of the work, i.e. to the end offafl61 in the present text. From it a translation was made, which appeared in 1952· See D. M. Dunlop, "AI-Farabi's Aphorisms of the Statesman", Iraq, xlv,93- I I 7. (The translation is there given from MS. B only and is in consequence very defective.) A= Chester Beatty MS. 3714. Identified by Professor Arberry in the Chester Beatty collection. This MS. appears to have been completed in the first Rabi' 704, corresponding to October 13°4, by Ibrahim b. Mu!).ammad b. Ya!).ya at Damanhur in the district of Bu!).airah, i.e. in the north-west of the Nile delta. It contains Part I of the text (omitting §§ 26, 27 and 47 and running together §§ 25 and 28) and Part II, complete as here, i.e. a total of ninety-one fUfiil, twenty-nine folios in all. The MS. has no other contents. Parts I and II have separate headings and colophons. Used in original MS. These are the only known Arabic MSS. ~= Bodleian MS. Mich. 370= Neubauer, Catalogue of Hebrew MSS. in the Bodleiatl Library, No. 1424, fols. 102 b-120a. Undated, but apparently older than :J=Bodleian MS. Poc. 280= Neubauer, No. 1270, fols. 69 b-9 1 a. Dated on fol. 91 a A.:\1. 5223 =A.D. 1463.

INTRODUCTION

of the two Arabic MSS., wherever possible, but to admit readings from B occasionally, where they seem clearly better. In Part n of course A is the basis of the text. The Hebrew version, principally in ~, has been helpful in two directions, for computing the original number of ft/fill and for controlling A in Part n. The number of additions from the Hebrew, some of them of considerable importance, practically all in Part n, calls for special remark. It may be noted here that while the Hebrew version is evidently nearer to A, which it repeatedly follows in major omissions, as well as in many readings, it occasionally offers the readings of B. The prevailing fault of all the MSS. is gratuitous omission owing to homoioteleuton. Band:J, to judge from the few folios of the latter which have been collated, are the worst offenders, but the others are by no means exempt from blame on this head, as may readily be seen in the case of ~ by glancing at the table of Hebrew variants. A itself is little better. It is clear that each of these MSS. offers a widely different text. In the attempt to recover what al-FirabI wrote eclecticism has seemed the only recourse. 6.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The two last-mentioned MSS. contain the same Hebrew version, made by an unknown translator, which is better preserved in ~. MS. ~ has been collated throughout, MS. :J in part, from Bodleian photostats. ~ contains Part I (omitting with A §§ 26, 27 and 47) and Part n (omitting §§ 89 and 92), ninety fupil. It has no separate colophon for Part I or heading for Part n. :J also contains both Parts (omitting §§ 89 and 92), eighty-nine ft/fiil. (The other data mentioned for ~ have not been checked.) The procedure adopted has been to adhere to A, as the better

It is a pleasant duty to thank Professor A. ]. Arberry for allowing me to make use of the complete text of the Fupil al-2\1adani discovered by him (see 5: "The Manuscripts "), as well as for helpful suggestions in regard to the presentation of the work, and Professor A. F. L. Beeston of Oxford, who has been kind enough to answer a number of questions about MS. Huntington 307. For a better understanding of al-Firabl's political philosophy I owe a special debt to Dr E. 1. ]. Rosenthal. If I have not always found myself in agreement with him, I have constantly felt the benefit of the rather frequent consultations which he has permitted me. I am grateful also to Dr Richard Walzer of Oxford for a number of pertinent criticisms of errors and omissions, which would otherwise have escaped notice. Dr ]. L. Teicher has kindly provided the explanation of the anagram in the colophon of ~IS. :J (see Hebrew Variants). I have also

20

21

THE FU~DL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

to thank the publications committee of the Faculty of Oriental Studies, who over a considerable period spent time and pains in seeking a medium for bringing out the work, the authorities of the Bodleian and the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, and finally the University Press, who have carried out the printing with the maximum of efficiency.

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS PART I 1 2

3 4

5 6 7 8 9 10 I I

12

13 14 15

16

17 18 19 20

21 22

23 22

Analogy of soul and body. Virtues and vices are states of the soul. Analogy ofstatesman and doctor. Analogy continued. The extent and limits of what the statesman needs to know. (This fa,rlis programmatic for the rest of the work.) Matter and form. Parts or faculties of the soul. Ethical and rational (intellectual) virtues and vices. Ethical virtues and vices the result of habit. Psychological account of the growth of a virtue or vice. Analogy of the virtues and the arts. Effects of habit. Extremes of virtue and vice. Effects of habit. Natural dispositions may be modified. Virtue and self-discipline differ. Use of each in states. Moral opposites are possible in the individual. Virtues are means between opposite extremes. The mean in itself and the relative mean. Analogy of ethics and medicine. Analogy of statesman and doctor resumed. The city and the household. The parts of the household. Analogy of city or household and the body. Analogy continued. The part affects the whole. 23

~

24

25 26 27 28

29 30 31 F

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

43 44

45 46 47 48 49

50

Analogy continued. Partial application of the medical or political art. The ideal state and the absolute good, viz. happiness. The mean is aimed at to attain happiness. The true view of kingship. Wrong views of kingship and the state. The kingly craft or art. Division of the rational part of the soul. Speculative intellect. Knowledge for the speculative intellect. Real, i.e. true, knowledge. Wisdom. Practical intellect. Practical wisdom and other intellectual faculties. Analogy from medicine. Types of practical wisdom. True opinion. Discernment. Excellence of ideas. Principles of deliberation. Simplicity= defect of experience. Confusion = defect of imagination. Folly = defect of deliberation. Readiness of wit. Practical wisdom, etc., need to be employed in the right way. Practical wisdom is not wisdom. Wisdom and practical wisdom both needful for man's perfection. Rhetoric.

THE FU~UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

5I

Excellence in producing an imaginative impression and excellence of persuasion. 52 Poetry. 53 The five classes in the ideal city. 54 The four types of constitution. 55 Rulers and subjects. 56 Determination of rank in the ideal city.

57 58 59 60 6I

Kinds of love. Mutual love in the ideal city. Justice in the ideal city. Views on injustice and punishment. Justice, general and special. Differentiation of function in the ideal city.

ENGLISH TRANSLATION

PART II

62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

8I

Provision for non-profit-making classes in the city. War, justified and unjustified. The metaphysical categories. The three orders of existent things. The metaphysical categories revised. Defective existence. To have a contrary is a defect in existence. Nature of evil and good. Passions are neither good nor evil. The true nature of happiness. The virtuous man does not fear death. Wrong views of death. Motives of the virtuous man who risks his life. True view of the death of such a man. Views on the separation of the soul from the body. To be composite is a defect of existence. To be moved in producing something else is a defect. To produce a delayed effect is a defect in the agent. Views on intelligence (intellect.) Views on how the First Cause intellects.

82

83 84

85 86 87 88 89

90 91

92 93

94 95

Views on providence. Doctrine of special providence refuted. Polity strictly is not a genus. The situation of both ruler and ruled in the ideal polity is the best possible. Existing ignorant polities are mixed. Theory can only ideal with the unmixed types. Different types of the ignorant polities. Analogy from medicine. Corruption of the noblest faculties in corrupt states. The speculative part of the soul is necessary to the practical part. Ascent through the lower degrees of knowledge to speculative knowledge. Speculative knowledge is different from revelation. Reflective virtue. Analogy from medicine. Limit of the duty of the ideal ruler. Human nature made up of diverse elements. The speculative sciences alone will not make a man a philosopher. Associates disagree unless virtue is the aim of the association. The careless man and the man who affects carelessness.

24

ft,

THE APHORISMS OF THE STATESMAN PART I

The asterisks refer to the notes starting on p. 79

These are detached aphorisms* which include many basic considerations from the sayings of the ancients on how cities must be ruled and rendered prosperous and the lives of their people reformed, and how they must be directed towards happiness. [I] To the soul as to the body belong health and sickness. The health of the soul is that its states and the states of its parts are those by which it always does good and noble deeds and fair actions. Its sickness is that its states and the states of its parts are those by which it always does wicked and evil deeds and ugly actions. The health of the body is that its states and the states of its parts are those by which the soul does its actions in the most complete and perfect manner, whether the actions done by the body or its parts are good or wicked actions. Its sickness is that its states and the states of its parts are those by which the soul does not do its actions, which are by the body or its parts, or does them defectively or otherwise improperly. [2] The states of the soul by which a man does good deeds and fair actions are the virtues, and those by which he does wicked deeds and ugly actions are the vices, defects and base qualities. [3] He who treats bodies is the doctor, and he who treats souls is the statesman, who is also called the king. But the doctor's aim in treating bodies is not to make their states those by which the soul does good or evil deeds. He aims merely at making their states those by which the actions of the soul performed by the body and its parts are the most perfect, whether these actions are evil or good. For the doctor who treats the hands does so simply that the man's power of grasping by their means may be excellent, Whether he employs the excellent power of grasping in good or

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evil deeds, and the aim of him who treats the eye is that by its means the sight may be excellent, whether it is employed in what is right and good, or in what is wrong and bad. Therefore it is not the business of the doctor qtta doctor to consider the health or sickness of the soul in this way, but of the statesman and king. For the statesman by the political art and the king by the royal art estimates *where it is necessary to employ his art, and upon whom and upon whom not, and what kind of health it is necessary to provide for bodies and what kind it is necessary not to provide. Therefore the situation of the royal art and the political art among the other arts in the cities is that of the master-builder among the builders, because the other arts in the cities only operate and are employed that thereby the aim of the political art* and the royal art may be completely attained, just as the arts of the builders are employed to complete the purpose of the art of the master-builder. [4] Just as the doctor who treats bodies needs to know the body as a whole, the parts of the body and their relation to the whole, the diseases which are liable to affect the whole body and each of its parts, whence they occur and from what amounts of a thing, the method of their removal and the states which when they appear in the body and its parts, the actions existing through the body are perfect and complete, so the statesman and king who treats souls needs knowledge of the soul as a whole, the parts of the soul, the defects and vices which are liable to affect it and every part of it, whence they occur and from what amounts of a thing, what are the states of the soul by which a man does good deeds, and how many they are, how the vices are to be removed from the people of the cities, the device for establishing them (se. the virtues)* in the souls of the citizens* and the method of proceeding for their preservation among them, so that they do not cease. But it is requisite for him to know about the soul only as much as he needs in his art, just as the doctor requires to know about the body, the carpenter about wood and the smith about iron, only as much as he needs in his art. [5] Physical objects are eithe~ artificial or natural. Exatnples of 28

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the artificial are a couch, a sword, glass, and the like. Examples of the natural are man and the other animals. Each is made up of two things, matter and form. The matter is, for example, the wood of a chair, and the form is, for example, the shape of the chair, i.e. its squareness, roundness, ete. The matter is potentially a chair, and by the form it becomes a chair actually. [6] The main parts and faculties of the soul are five:* the nutritive, the sensory, the imaginative, the appetitive and the rational. A. The nutritive, in general, operates in, with, or from the nutriment. Nutriment is of three types, first, intermediate, and last. The first type is such as bread, flesh-meat, and all that has not yet begun to be digested. The last is that which has been digested completely, so that it has become like the member which is nourished by it. If the member is flesh, it is by this nutriment becoming flesh;* if bone, it is by its becoming bone. The intermediate type is subdivided into two, viz. that which has been concocted* in the stomach and intestines till it is ready to produce blood, and the blood itself. To the nutritive belong the various sub-faculties: the digestive, the growing, the generative, the attractive, the retentive, the distinguishing and the expulsive. Strictly, the nutritive process is that which breaks down the blood accruing in the separate members till it becomes like that member, and the digestive process (a) is that which breaks down the first kind of nutriment in the stomach and intestines till it is ready to produce blood. Then it concocts * this preparation in the liver, for example, till it becomes blood. (b) The faculty of growth is that which through nutriment increases the size of the member in all its parts, as it develops, till it reaches the maximum size possible for each member. (c) The generative faculty is that which produces from the excess of the nutriment which is near to the last type, viz. the blood, another body alike in species to the body from whose nutriment the excess appeared. This faculty is of two kinds, the female, which gives the matter of the new birth, and the male, which gives its form. From these two an animal comes into existence from another alike in species. (d) The attractive faculty is that which

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draws the nutriment from place to place, till it reaches the body which is nourished, * so that it may be in contact with it and mingle with it. (e) The retentive faculty is that which preserves the nutriment in the vessel of the body into which it has accrued. (f) The distinguishing faculty is that which distinguishes excessive amounts of the nutriment and the kinds of nutriment, in order to transmit to each member what is suitable to it. (g) The expulsive faculty is that which expels the different kinds of excessive nutriment from one place to another. B. The sensory faculty is that which perceives by one of the five senses known to all. C. The imaginative faculty is that which preserves the traces of the objects of sense after they have passed from the operation of the senses upon them. It combines some of them with others in various combinations and separates them from each other in many different ways, some true, some false, in waking and dreaming both. This faculty and the nutritive may be active in sleep, unlike the rest of the faculties. D. The appetitive faculty is that by which the animal is drawn to a thing, and in consequence there come into existence desire for the thing and dislike of it, seeking and fleeing, preference and avoidance, anger and pleasure, fear, boldness and cowardice, cruelty and mercy, love and hate, passion, lust and the other accidents of the soul. The instruments of this faculty are all the faculties by which are facilitated the movements of all the members and the body as a whole, e.g. the faculty of the hands to grasp, of the legs to walk, etc. E. The rational faculty is that by which a man intellects. By it comes deliberation, by it he acquires the sciences and arts, and by it he distinguishes between the fair and ugly in actions. It is partly practical and partly theoretical. * The practical is partly a matter of skill and partly reflective. The theoretical is that by which man knows the existents which are not such that ,pe can make them and alter them from one condition to another, e.g. three is an odd and four an even number. For we cannot alter three so that it becomes even, while still remaining three, nor four so that it ,

becomes odd, while still four, as we can alter a piece of wood so that it becomes round after being square, remaining wood in both cases. The practical is that by which are distinguished the things which are such that we can make them and alter them from one condition to another. What is a matter of skill and art is that by which the skills are acquired, e.g. carpentry, agriculture, medicine, navigation. The reflective is that by which we deliberate on the thing which we wish to do, when we wish to know whether to do it is possible or not, and if it is possible, how we must do the action. [7] The virtues are of two kinds, ethical and rational. * The rational virtues are the virtues of the rational part, such as wisdom, intellect, cleverness, readiness of wit, excellence of understanding. The ethical virtues are the virtues of the appetitive part, such as temperance, bravery, generosity, justice. The vices are similarly divided into two classes. [8] The ethical virtues and vices result and are established in the soul, simply by repeating the actions which proceed from a particular disposition many times over a certain period and becoming accustomed thereto. If these actions are good deeds, what results to. the soul is a virtue, but if they are wicked, what results to it is a vice, just as in the case of the arts, e.g. writing. For by our repeating the actions of writing many times and becoming accustomed to them, there results to us and is established in us the art of writing. If the actions of writing which we repeat and accustom ourselves to are bad actions, bad writing is established in us, but if good actions, good writing is established in us. [9] A man cannot be created from the beginning naturally endowed with a virtue or defect, just as he cannot be created naturally a weaver or a secretary. But it is possible that he should be naturally disposed to the conditions of a virtue or vice, * by its actions being easier for him than the actions of anything else, just as it is possible that he should be naturally disposed to the actions of writing or another art by these being easier for him than the actions of anything else, so that he is moved from the first

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towards doing what is naturally easier for him, when there is no outside force working in the opposite direction. This natural disposition is not spoken of as a virtue, just as the natural disposition towards the actions of weaving is not spoken of as weaving. But when a natural disposition is towards the actions of a virtue and those actions are repeated, become habitual and are established by habit, till there appears in the soul a state from which precisely those actions proceed, the state established from the habit is said to be a virtue. The natural state is called neither a virtue nor a vice, even if there proceed from it actions of the single type only. The natural state has no name, and if anyone calls it a virtue or a vice, this is simply because of homonymy, not that the meaning of the one is the meaning of the other. It is for the state which is due to habit that a man is blamed or praised. He is neither praised nor blamed for the other. [10] It is unlikely and improbable that anyone exists who is by nature completely disposed to all the virtues, * ethical and rational, just as it is unlikely that anyone exists who is by nature disposed to all the arts. Similarly it is unlikely and improbable that anyone exists who is by nature disposed to all wicked actions. Yet both cases are not impossible. Most commonly, each man is disposed towards a certain virtue or a certain definite number of virtues, or a certain art or certain definite arts, so that this man is disposed towards a first virtue or art, another to another, and a third to a third. [I I] When to the natural states and dispositions towards virtue and vice there are annexed the ethical qualities resembling them and they become established by habit, the man is perfected therein, and the disappearance of such states as have once been established in him, whether good or bad, is difficult. \Vhen at any time there exists someone who is by nature completely disposed towards all the virtues and they become established in him by habit, this man is superior in virtue to the virtues found in the most of mankind, so that he almost passes beyond the human virtues to what is a higher class than man. The ancients named this man divine, while his 0p9osite, the man disposed to all

wicked actions, in whom the states of those wicked acts have become established by habit, they almost removed from human wickedness to what is yet worse than it. He had no name among them because of the excess of his wickedness, though sometimes they named him" wild beast", * and the like. These two extremes are found but rarely among mankind. When the first type existed he was in their opinion of higher rank than to be a statesman, serving the cities, but should rule all cities as the true king. As for the second type, if it happened that he existed, he neither ruled any city at all nor served it, but was driven out from all cities. * [12] Of the states and natural dispositions towards a virtue or vice some may be made to disappear and be altered by habit completely, being replaced by states contrary to them. Others may be broken down and weakened and impaired in force without disappearing completely. Others again cannot be made to disappear and be altered, nor to have their strength impaired, but may be opposed by resisting and by restraining the soul from their actions and by contending and striving, so that the man always does the opposite of their actions. Similarly when the qualities are bad and are established in the soul by habit, they also are subject to the same division. [13] * Between the man who restrains himself and the virtuous man is a difference, viz., that the man who restrains himself, though as doing good deeds he does virtuous actions, likes and desires wicked actions and contends with his liking. In his action he does the opposite of what his state and desire prompt him to. He does good deeds, yet suffers in doing them. * The virtuous man* in his action follows what his state and desire prompt him to, and does good deeds, liking them and desiring them, not feeling pain but finding pleasure in them. It is like the difference between enduring a violent pain from which one suffers and not being pained or feeling pain at all. And similarly the temperate man and the man who restrains himself. The temperate man simply does what the law (stlJ717ah) lays down in matters of food, drink and sex, without desire or longing for anything else, other 3

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than what the law lays down. The man who restrains himself has a desire for these things which is excessive and contrary to what the law lays down. He does the actions of the law, but his desire is opposed to it, except that in many things the man who restrains himself is similarly situated to the virtuous man. [14] Wicked acts disappear from the cities either by the virtues which are established in the souls of the people, or by the latter being made subject to self-imposed restraint. When the evil coming from any man cannot be removed either by virtue being established in his soul or by self-imposed restraint, he is driven out from the cities. [15] It is unlikely, or rather impossible, that a man exists created with a disposition towards certain actions, and is then unable to do the opposite of those actions. Rather any man created with a state and disposition towards the actions of a virtue or vice is able to resist and do an action issuing from the opposite disposition. But that is difficult for him, until it is facilitated by habit and becomes easy, just as in the case of what is established by habit. For leaving off what he has become accustomed to and doing the opposite is possible, though difficult till he accustoms himself to it, as we have said. [16]* Actions which are good deeds are the moderate, mean actions between two extremes, both of which are bad, the one excess and the other defect. And similarly the virtues, for they are mean states and qualities of the soul between two other states, both of which are vices, the one excessive and the other defective. For example, temperance is a mean between greed and non-perception of pleasure, where one, viz. greed, is excessive, and the other defective. Generosity is a mean between parsimony and extravagance. Courage is a mean between rashness and cowardice. Wit is a mean in jesting, play and so forth between impudence and folly, and dullness. Being respectful is a middle quality between pride, and base behaviour and familiarity. Courtesy is a mean between haughtiness, boasting and vain-glory, and self-abasement. Forbearance is a mean between excessive anger and the state in which one never becomes angry at any-

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thing. Modesty is a mean between shamelessness, and bashfulness and confusion. Friendliness is a mean between surliness and flattery. And so on. [17] The expressions" mean" and" moderate" are applied in two ways: (a) the mean in itself; and (b) the mean compared and related to something else. Of (a) an example is six being a mean between ten and two, for the excess of ten over six is like the excess of six over two. This is a mean in itself between two extremes, and similarly for every number resembling this. It is the mean without increase or decrease, for what is a mean between ten and two is not at any time other than six. (b) The relative mean increases and decreases at different times and with reference to the difference of the things to which it is related, e.g. moderate food for a boy, and moderate food for an adult, labouring man, which differs with reference to the difference of condition of their two bodies. The mean in one of them is different from the mean in the other in amount and number, in roughness and smoothness, in heaviness and lightness, and, in general, in quantity and quality. Similarly moderate temperature is relative to the bodies. That is also the case of the moderate and mean in foods and medicines, * for they increase and decrease in quantity and quality according to the bodies which are treated with them, according to the patient's previous custom, according to the time of year and according to the strength of the actual remedy, so that in the case of one sick man one remedy differs in its quantity according to the difference of the time of the year. It is this latter mean which is employed in actions and in morals. For the quantity of actions must be measured by number and amount and their quality by strength and weakness, according to the relation to the agent and the object* and cause of the action and according to the time and place, e.g. anger, in which the moderate has reference to the condition of him against whom one is angry, the cause of the anger and the time and place involved. Similarly beating and punishments are measured in quantity and quality with reference to the beater and the beaten,

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the crime for which the beating takes place and the instrument which is used. And so in other actions. The mean in every action is what is measured with reference to the circumstances of the action. * The things with which the different actions are compared in order to be measured are not the same in amount in every action. On the contrary, this action, for example, is measured in relation to five things, and another action in relation to things fewer, or more, than five. [18] Just as the mean in foods and medicines is a mean and moderate for most men most of the time, is sometimes moderate for one group to the exclusion of another at a particular time, and sometimes moderate for individual bodies at individual times, long or short, similarly the mean and moderate in actions is sometimes moderate for all or most men most or all of the time, sometimes moderate for one group to the exclusion of another at a particular time and sometimes moderate for a man at one time and not at another. [19] He who brings out and produces the mean and moderate of whatever kind in foods and medicines is the doctor. The art by which he brings it out is medicine. He who produces the mean and moderate in morals and actions is the ruler of the city and the king. The art by which he brings it out is the political art and the kingly craft. [20] By "city" and "household" the ancients did not mean the dwelling simply, but the dwelling which contains people and the people whom the dwellings contain, of whatever kind the dwellings, of whatever material and wherever they are-under the earth or on it, of wood or clay or wool and hair, * or anything else of which dwellings which contain men are made. [2 I] * The household consists of and is rendered prosperous by parts and definite partnerships. These are four in number: (I) husband and wife; (2) master and servant; (3) parent and child; (4) property and owner. The ruler of these parts and partnerships, who combines some of them with others and joins each individual to the other, so that from them together there come partnership in actions and mutual help towards the perfec-

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tion of a single aim and towards the complete establishment of the household with good things and their preservation to them, is the lord and ruler of the household. He is called the householder, and in the household he is like the ruler of the city in the city. [22] The city and the household may be compared with the body of a man. Just as the body is composed of different parts of a determinate number, some more, some less excellent, adjacent to each other and graded, each doing a certain work, and there is combined from all their actions mutual help towards the perfection of the aim in the man's body, so the city and the household are each composed of different parts of a determinate number, some less, some more excellent, adjacent to each other and graded in different grades, each doing a certain work independently, and there is combined from their actions mutual help towards the perfection of the aim in the city or household, except that the household is part of a city and the households are in the city, so the aims are different. Yet there is combined from these different aims, when they are perfected and combined, mutual help towards the perfection of the aim of the city. This again may be compared with the body, since the head, breast, belly, back, arms and legs are related to the body as the households of the city to the city. The work of each of the principal members is different from the work of the other, and the parts of each one of these principal members help one another by their different actions towards the perfection of the aim in that principal member. Then there is combined from the different aims of the principal members, when they are perfected, and from their different actions, mutual help towards the perfection of the aim of the whole body. And similarly the situation of the parts of the households with respect to the households and the situation of the households with respect to the city, so that all the parts of the city by their combination are useful to the city and useful for the continued existence of the one through the other, like the members of the body. [23] As the doctor treats any sick member only in accordance

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with its relation to the whole body and the members adjacent to it and connected with it, since he treats it with a cure by which he affords it health whereby the whole body benefits, and the members adjacent to it and connected with it benefit, so the ruler of the city must necessarily rule the affair of each part of the city, small, like one man, or great, like a household, and treat it and afford it good in relation to the whole city and each of the other parts of the city, by seeking to do what affords that part a good which does not harm the whole city nor any of its parts, but a good from which the city as a whole benefits, and each of its parts according to its degree of usefulness to the city. And just as when the doctor does not observe this, aims at providing health to a particular member and treats it without regard to the condition of the other members near it, or treats it with what is bad for all the other members, and affords it health but thereby does something which does not benefit the body as a whole nor the members adjacent to it and connected with it, that member is impaired, as well as the connected members, and the evil permeates the other members, till the whole body is corrupted, so the city also. [24] It is not disallowed that there is a man who has power to produce the mean in actions and morals as far as he himself is concerned, just as it is not disallowed that a man has power to produce the mean and moderate as regards the food with which he alone is nourished. The latter is a medical action, and he has power over a part of the art of medicine. So he who produces the moderate as regards morals and actions, as far as he himself is concerned, does so because he has power over a part of the political art, except that he who has power to produce the moderate for a particular one of his members, when he is not careful that what he is producing is not prejudicial to the other parts of the body and it is not made useful to the whole body and to its parts, operates with a part of a corrupt medical art. Similarly the man who has power to produce the moderate for himself in particular, with reference to morals and actions, if in what he produces he does not seek the advantage of the city

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nor of the rest of its parts, not perceiving it, or perceiving it and not minding the disadvantage to them, operates with a part of a corrupt political art. [25] The city is sometimes "indispensable" and sometimes ideal. * The indispensable (or" minimum") city is that in which the mutual help of its members is restricted to attaining merely what is indispensable for the continuance of man, his livelihood and the preservation of his life. The ideal city is that in which the inhabitants help each other towards the attainment of the most excellent of things by which are the true existence of man, his continuance, his livelihood and the preservation of his life. Some think that this most excellent thing is the enjoyment of pleasures. Others think that it is riches. Yet others think that it is the combination of both. * But Socrates, Plato and Aristotle thought that man has two lives. The continuance of the first is due to nourishment and the other external things which we need today for our continued existence. It is our first life. The other is that of which the continuance is in its essence without its requiring for the continuance of its essence things external to it, but it is sufficient in itself for its continued preservation. It is the afterlife. Man, according to them, has a first and a last perfection. The last results to us not in this life but in the after-life, when there has preceded it the first perfection in this life of ours. The first perfection is that a man does the actions of all the virtues, not that he is merely endowed with a virtue without performing its actions, and the perfection consists in his acting, not in his acquiring the qualities by which the actions come, as the perfection of the secretary is that he performs the actions of writing, not that he acquires the art of writing, and the perfection of the doctor, that he performs the actions of medicine, not that he acquires the art of medicine merely, and similarly every art. This perfection affords us the last perfection, * which is ultimate happiness, i.e. the absolute good. It is that which is chosen and desired for itself and is not chosen, at any time whatever, for the sake of anything else. All else is chosen for its use in the attainment of happiness. Everything is good when it is useful for the

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attainment of happiness, and whatever interferes with happiness in any way is bad. The ideal city according to them is that whose inhabitants help one another towards the attainment of the last perfection, i.e. ultimate happiness. Therefore its inhabitants in particular are endowed with virtues above the other cities, because in the city whose inhabitants aim at helping each other to attain riches and enjoy pleasures they do not need for the attainment of their end all the virtues, or rather perhaps do not need even a single one. That is because the harmony and justice which they may employ among themselves is not truly justice, but only something resembling justice, not being so, * and similarly the other pseudo-virtues which they employ among themselves. [26] Moderate, mean actions, measured in relation to the circumstances which attach to them must be, among other conditions, useful in attaining happiness, and he who produces them must make happiness the mark for his eyes. * Then he must consider how he is to measure the actions so that they may be useful either to the people of the city as a whole or to single persons among them, in the attainment of happiness, just as the doctor makes health the mark for his eyes when he tries to produce the moderate in the foods and medicines with which he treats the body. [27] The true king is he whose aim and purpose in the art by which he rules the cities are that he should afford himself and the rest of the people of the city true happiness, which is the end and aim of the kingly craft. It is quite necessary that the king of the ideal cities should be the most perfect of them in happiness, since he is the cause of the happiness of the people of the city. [28] Some think that the end and purpose in kingship and the rule of cities is greatness and honour and domination and commanding and forbidding and being obeyed and made much of and praised, * and they choose honour for its own sake, not for anything else which they obtain by it. They make the actions by which they rule the cities actions by which they may attain this city laws by which they may aim, and they make the laws of the I

attain this aim from the people of the city. Some of them attain it by employing virtue towards the people of the city, doing good to them, bringing them to the good things which in the opinion of the people of the city are goods, preserving the good things for them and preferring them above themselves therein. They thus obtain great honour. These are chiefs of honour and the most excellent of chiefs. * Others of them think that they merit honour on account of riches. They aim at being the richest of the people of the city and at being unique in wealth that they may obtain honour. Some of them think that honour is given for descent alone. * Others seek to obtain it by forcing the people of the city, dominating over them, humiliating and frightening them. * Yet others of the rulers of cities think that the aim in the rule of cities is riches. * They make their actions by which they rule the cities actions by which they may attain riches, and they make the laws of the people of the city, * laws by which they may attain riches from the people of the city, and if they choose a good or do anything of that kind, they choose and do it that riches may accrue to them. It is well known that between the man who chooses riches that he may be honoured for them and the man who chooses honour and the obedience of others that he may be wealthy and attain riches there is a great difference. The latter are called people of base headship. * Others of the rulers of cities think that the end in the rule of cities is the enjoyment of pleasures. * Others again think that it is all these three, honour, riches and pleasures, and they monopolize them and make the people of the city as it were their tools to obtain pleasures and riches. Not one of these was called king by the ancients. [29] The king is king by the kingly craft, * by the art of ruling cities and by the power to employ the kingly art, at whatever time he has come to be chief over a city, whether he is known for his art or is not known for it, whether he has found implements to use or not, whether he has found people to receive from him or not, whether he is obeyed or not, just as the doctor is doctor by the medical craft, whether men know him for it or not, whether

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artificial implements are ready for him or not, whether he has found people to serve him in carrying out his orders or not, whether he has met with sick persons to receive his words or not, and his medicine is not deficient if he has none of these things. Similarly the king is king by the craft and the power to employ the art, whether he rules over people or not, whether he is honoured or not, whether he is rich or poor. Some people think that they should not apply the name of king to him who possesses the kingly craft without his being obeyed and honoured in a city. Others add to that riches, while others think to add rule by force, subjection, terrorizing and fear. None of these belong to the essential conditions of kingship, but are things which may be useful to the kingly craft, and are thought on that account to be kingship. [30]* The rational speculative part (se. of the soul) and the rational reflective part have each a corresponding virtue. * The virtue of the speculative part is speculative intellect, knowledge and wisdom. The virtue of the reflective part is practical intellect, practical wisdom*, discernment, excellence of idea and correctness of opinion. [3 I] Speculative intellect is a faculty to which comes by nature, not by search and not by analogy, the certain knowledge of the universal necessary premisses which are the principles of the sciences, e.g. our knowledge that the whole is greater than the part, that quantities equal to the same quantity are equal to one another, and the like premisses. It is from these that a man begins, and he goes on to the knowledge of the rest of the speculative existents, which are such that they exist without man's contrivance. This intellect is sometimes in potency, when these first principles do not occur to it, but when they do occur, it becomes intellect in act, and its disposition is strong enough to produce what is prepared for it. This faculty cannot be in error in regard to what occurs to it, but all the species of knowledge which reach it are true and certain and cannot be otherwise. [32] The word "knowledge" is applied to many things, but the knowledge which is a virtue of the speculative part is that

there comes to the soul certainty of the existence of the existents whose existence and continuance do not depend on the contrivance of man at all, what each of these is and how, from proofs composed of true premisses, necessary and universal-first principles* in which is certainty and which occur known to the intellect naturally. This knowledge is of two kinds: (a) where there is certainty of the existence of the thing, the reason for its existence, and the fact that neither it nor its cause can by any means be different; and (b) where there is certainty of its existence and the fact that it cannot be different, without attending to the cause of its existence. [33] Real knowledge is what is true and certain at all times, not at some time rather than another, and (not) what exists at a particular time and may not exist afterwards, for in that case we should know something existing now, but when some time has passed, it has possibly ceased to exist, so that we do not know whether it exists or not and our certainty turns to doubt and falsehood. And what may be so is not knowledge and certainty. On that account the ancients did not make perception of what may alter from one state to another knowledge, e.g. our" knowledge" that this man is now sitting down. For it may be that he will change and come to be standing up after he was sitting. Rather they made knowledge certainty of the existence of a thing which cannot change, e.g. that three is an odd number. For the oddness of the number three does not change. Three cannot in any case become even, nor four odd. If the example cited is called knowledge or certainty, it is by a metaphor. [34]* Wisdom is knowledge of the remote causes by which exist all the rest of the existents and the proximate causes of the things which are caused, i.e. there is certainty of their existence,* and we know what and how they are, and that, however many they are, they ascend in order to one Existence which is the cause of the existence of those remote causes and the proximate causes below them; that that One is the First in truth, and its continued existence is not due to the existence of anything else, but it is sufficient in itself, not deriving existence from an;ther;

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that it can by no means derive existence from another and can by no means be body or in body; that its existence is a different existence, outside the existence of the other existents, sharing not at all with any of them in meaning, but if it shares, this is in name only, not in the meaning understood from the name; that it can only be one; that it is the One in truth and that which affords to the rest of the existents the unity by which we come to say of any existent that it is one; that it is the First Truth, affording truth to other things and self-sufficient in respect of its truth, not deriving it from another; that it is impossible for greater perfection to be imagined, much less exist, and no existence is more complete than its existence, no truth more (true) than its truth, no unity more complete than its unity. And we know (se. by wisdom) at the same time how the rest of the existents have derived existence, truth and unity from it, what is the share of each of them in existence, truth and unity, and how other things have derived from it their significance.r* We know all the classes of the existents, that among them are first, intermediate and last, and the last have causes but are not causes of anything lower, while the intermediate have a cause above them and are causes of the things below them, and that the First is the cause of what is below it but has no other cause above it. And we know at the same time how the last ascend to the intermediate and how the intermediate ascend variously till they reach the First, then how the rule begins from the First and is transmitted through each individual of the rest of the existents in order, till it reaches the last. This is the true meaning of wisdom. The name is sometimes applied by metaphor, so that those who excel and are perfect in the arts are called wise. [35] Practical intellect is a faculty by which a man from much experience of things and long observation of the data of sense attains certain premisses by which it is possible for him to take account of what should be chosen and avoided in the individual things within our power. * Some of these premisses turn out to be universal, subsuming things which should be chosen and I Or "and how other causes have derived from it their causality". Cf. the Hebrew variants.

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avoided, while others are isolated and partial, to be used as examples for what the man has not seen and wishes to take account of. This intellect is only intellect in potency, so long as the experience has not come. \'Vhen the experience has come and is remembered, it becomes intellect in act. This intellect in act increases with the increase of the experiences in all the occasions of a man's life. [3 6] Practical wisdom* is the power of excellence of deliberation* and production of the things which are most excellent and best in what is done to procure for a man a really great good and an excellent and noble end, whether that is happiness or something which is indispensable for obtaining happiness. Cleverness is the power of excellent production of what is finest and best for attaining certain minor goods. Astuteness is the power of correct deliberation in the production of what is most excellent and best for a large amount to be realized of the riches, pleasure or honour regarded as good. Deceit, slyness and dissimulation is excellence of production of what is most effective and best for a paltry amount to be realized of the base gain or base pleasure regarded as good. All these things merely lead to the end but are not the end, and similarly all deliberation. For a man merely sets up the end which he desires and longs for as the object of his thought, then after that he deliberates on the number, nature and quality of the things by which he may attain that end. [37] Just as the sick in body are led to imagine by the derangement of their sense that what is sweet is bitter, and what is bitter, sweet, and they conceive a thing to be wholesome when it is not* and unwholesome when it is wholesome, so wicked and vicious men, being sick in their souls, are led to imagine that wicked deeds are good and good deeds wicked. The man virtuous with the ethical virtues desires and longs always for the ends that are good in reality and makes them his aim and purpose. The wicked man desires always the ends that are wicked in reality, but imagines them good, on account of the sickness of his soul. Therefore the man of practical wisdom must be virtuous with the ethical virtues * (and so the clever man, the astute and the deceitful 45

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man being wicked and vicious), * in order that the man of practical wisdom may get the end right by the virtue which is in him, and get right what leads to the end by excellence of deliberation. [3 8] Practical wisdom is of many types, including excellence of deliberation on that by which the household is ruled, which is domestic practical wisdom. Also it includes excellence of deliberation on the most effective method of ruling cities, which is political practical wisdom. Or again it includes excellence of deliberation on what is best and finest for the attainment of excellence of livelihood through acquiring human goods, such as riches, greatness, ete., after its being good and being indispensable for obtaining happiness. Another type is consultative, viz. what is produced not to be employed by the man for himself, but to give advice thereby to another, either in the rule of a household or a city or otherwise. Another type is special, viz. the power to produce a true and excellent idea with which to resist the enemy and the opponent in general, or ward him off thereby. It is likely that a man needs some practical wisdom in all that he is concerned with, either little or much. This depends on the business he handles, for if it is much or important, he needs stronger and more complete practical wisdom, while if it is little or unimportant, he has enough with little practical wisdom. Practical wisdom is also that which the common people call intelligence. \Vhen this faculty is in a man, he is called intelligent. [39] True opinion is that whenever a man sees a thing, his opinion always finds the truth of how the thing seen must be. [40] Discernment is the power to find the true judgement in regard to that on which the customary opinions are at variance, and the faculty of being right. It is excellence in producing the opinion which is right, and is therefore a kind of practical wisdom. [4 1 ] Excellence of idea is that a man should have ideas or excellent ideas, i.e. that a man should be good and virtuous in his actions, then that he should have ideas, and his words, ideas, and counsel should have been tested many times and found sound and right, bringing the man, when he employs them, to approved 46 •

results,. and that his words should therefore have come to be welcomed, I mean, because of the truth which is commonly witnessed in him, so that his well known virtue, sound judgement and counsel can dispense him from having to say or point out anything by way of argument or proof.. Evidently when a man gets the idea right and takes account of the truth of it, he does so only by practical wisdom. This then is a kind of practical wisdom. [42] The principles used by the person deliberating in producing the thing which he deliberates on, are twofold: Ca) the well-known presuppositions taken from all or most people, and Cb) the facts which come by experience and personal observation. [43] The simple man is he whose imagining of the common form of what should be chosen and avoided is sound, except that he has no experience of the practical things which should be known by experience. A man is sometimes simple in one class of things and not simple in another class. [44] The confused man is he whose imagination is always, in what should be chosen and avoided, the opposite of the wellknown things and the opposite of what the custom is. Sometimes it happens to him besides that he imagines the opposite of what is well known in the other existents, in many of the senseperceptions. [45] Foolishness is that his imagination of the well-known things is sound, he has stored experience, his imagination of the ends which he desires and longs for is sound, and he possesses deliberation, but it is deliberation which always causes him to imagine in what does not lead to the end that it leads to it, or causes him to imagine in what leads to the end that it does not lead to it, so that his action and counsel are always according to what his impaired deliberation causes him to imagine. For that reason the fool at first sight has the form of the intelligent man. His purpose is sound, but often his deliberation brings him into trouble, when he did not intend to fall into it. [46] * Readiness of wit is excellence of conjecture about a thing quickly, without any time, or in a short time. [47] Practical wisdom and cleverness both need a natural 47

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employment for which a man is created. When a man is created disposed to complete practical wisdom, and then becomes habituated to the vices, he is changed and altered and there come into existence, instead of practical wisdom, astuteness, dissimulation and trickery. * [4 8]* Certain people call the practically wise of mankind wise. But wisdom is the most excellent knowledge of the most excellent existents. * Since practical wisdom merely attains things human, it need not be wisdom, unless indeed man is the most excellent thing in the world* and the most excellent of existents. But since man is not so, then practical wisdom is not wisdom, except by metaphor and simile. [49] Since wisdom is particularly knowledge of the ultimate causes of every last existent,* and the ultimate end on account of which man exists is happiness, * and the end is one of the causes, * then wisdom is that which acquaints one with what is true happiness. Also, since wisdom alone possesses knowledge of the One, the First, from which the rest of the existents derive virtue and perfection, and knows how each one derives these from it and how much each takes as its share of perfection, and man is one of the existents which derive perfection from the One, the First, then (wisdom) knows the greatest perfection which man derives from the First, viz. happiness. Wisdom then acquaints one with true happiness, and practical wisdom acquaints one with what must be done to attain happiness. These two then are the two ingredients in the perfecting of man, so that wisdom is that which gives the ultimate end, and practical wisdom gives that by which the end is attained. [50] Rhetoric is the power of address by which comes excellence of persuasion in regard to each of the possible things which are to be chosen and avoided, except that the virtuous man who possesses this faculty employs it for good deeds, and so the man of practical wisdom in good [and evil] deeds, while astute men employ it for evil deeds. [5 I] Excellence in producing an imaginative impression is not excellence of persuasion. The difference between them is that

excellence of persuasion aims at the hearer doing the thing, after a conviction of truth, while excellence in producing an impression of this kind aims at the soul of the hearer rising up to seek the thing imagined or flee from it, and be drawn to it or dislike it, even without a conviction of truth, just as a man is disgusted with something which, when he sees it, resembles what really calls forth disgust, though he is certain that what he sees is not what calls forth disgust. Excellence in producing an imaginative impression is employed in what causes anger and pleasure, fear and trust, in what softens the soul and hardens it, and in all the passions of the soul. * With excellence in producing an imaginative impression the aim is that the man should be moved to do the thing and rise up towards it, even though his knowledge of the thing necessitates the opposite of what is represented to his imagination. Many people, when they love and hate, and choose and avoid, do so by the imagination not deliberation, either because they have not deliberation naturally or have rejected it in their affairs. [52]* All poetry has been invented to produce an excellent imaginative impression of the object. It is of six kinds, three of which are praised and three blamed. Of the three which are praised one is that by which are aimed at the improvement of the rational faculty, and that its actions and thought should be directed towards happiness, the production of an imaginative impression of divine matters and good deeds, excellence in producing an imaginative impression of the virtues and approving them, the reprobating of evil deeds and the vices, and holding them in scorn. The second kind is that by which are aimed at the improvement and correction of those accidents of the soul which are related to strength, and the breaking of them down till they become moderate and cease to be excessive. Such accidents are anger, pride, cruelty, effrontery, love of honour and domination, greed and the like. Those who possess these qualities are led (se. by this kind of poetry) to employ them in good, not evil deeds. The third kind aims at the improvement and correction of the accidents of the soul related to weakness and softness, viz.

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desires, base pleasures, falseness and slackness of soul, pity, fear, anxiety, grief, shame, luxury, softness, and the like, that they may be broken down and cease to be excessive, till they become moderate, and (the possessor) is led to employ them in good, not evil deeds. The three kinds which are blamed are the opposites of the three which are praised. For the former ruin all that the latter correct, bringing it from the moderate state to excess. The different kinds of tunes and songs follow the different kinds of poetry and have the same divisions. [53] The parts of the ideal city are five: the most virtuous or excellent, the interpreters, the assessors or measurers, the fighting men, and the rich. The most excellent are the wise, the men of practical wisdom and those with ideas on great matters. Next come the bearers of religion* and the interpreters, who are the orators, the eloquent, the poets, the musicians, the secretaries and the like, belonging to their number. The measurers* are the accountants, geometers, doctors, astrologers and the like. The fighting men are the army, watchmen, and the like, reckoned with them. The rich are the gainers of wealth in the city, such as the farmers, herdsmen, merchants, and the like. [54] * The chiefs and rulers of this city are of four descriptions. * A. The king in reality. He is the first chief,* and it is he in whom are combined six conditions:* (a) wisdom; (b) perfect practical wisdom; (c) excellence of persuasion; (d) excellence in producing an imaginative impression; (e) power to fight the holy war (jihtid) in person; (j) that there should be nothing in his body to prevent him attending to the matters which belong to the holy war. He in whom all these are united is the model, the one to be imitated in all his ways and actions, and the one whose words and counsels are to be accepted. It is for this man to rule according as he thinks right and as he wishes. B. The second case is when no man is found in whom all these are united, but they are found separately in a group, * since one of them provides the end, a second provides what leads to the end, a third possesses excellence of persuasion and excellence in producing an imaginative impression, another possesses the I 5°

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power to fight the holy war. This group then together takes the place of the king. They are called the best chiefs and the virtuous men. Their system of rule is called the rule of the most virtuous. C. The third case is when these are not available either. The chief of the city is then the man* in whom are united: (a) that he should possess knowledge of the ancient laws and traditions which the first generations of imains acknowledged and by which they ruled the city; (b) that he should have excellent discrimination of the places and conditions in which those traditions must be employed, according to the purpose of the earlier generations therein; (c) that he should have power to produce what is not found explicit in the old traditions, oral and written, imitating therein the model of the ancient traditions; (d) further, that he should have excellence of idea and practical wisdom in the events which happen one by one and are not such as to be in the ancient traditions, in order to preserve the prosperity of the city; and (e) that he should possess excellence of rhetoric and persuasion and in producing an imaginative impression. At the same time, (j) he should be able to go on the holy war (jihtid). * Such a one is called the king according to the law, and his rule is called lawful kingship. D. The fourth case is when no man is found in whom all these are united, but they exist separately among a group, and they together take the place of the king according to the law. This group are called the chiefs according to the law. * [55] In every part of the city is a chief, with no chief above him among the people of that group, and a subject who has no rule over any men at all, also one who is chief of those below him and subject to those above him. [56] The classes in the ideal city take precedence over each other in different ways. A. When a man performs an action to attain thereby some end but employs something which is the end of an action and that end is a good which another man arranges and produces, then the first is chief and takes precedence over the second in the city, e.g. the art of horsemanship. Its end is excellence in the use of 51

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arms. Its exponent is a knight, who employs the reins and the horse's furniture, which are the end of the art of making the reins. He is therefore chief, taking precedence over the maker of the reins, and likewise over the trainer of the horse. And so in other actions and arts. B. \'Vhen two persons have the same end and one of them is better able to produce an imaginative impression of that end, and more perfect in virtue, possessing practical wisdom to produce all that will bring him to that end and better adapted to employ another in realizing the end, then he is chief over the second, who does not have this. Below him is the man who imagines the end spontaneously, but does not have perfect deliberation to accomplish all by which the end is attained. Yet when he is given a beginning of deliberation, by there being sketched out to him something of what he must do, he imitates in what is given him the pattern of that which has been sketched out to him and produces the rest. Below him is the man who does not imagine the end spontaneously and has no deliberation also, but when he is given the end and it is represented to his imagination, and then he is given a beginning of deliberation, he is able to imitate in the remainder the pattern of that which has been sketched out to him, and he goes to work or sets another to work therein. Below him is the man who does not imagine the end and has no deliberation, nor even if he is given a beginning of deliberation can he produce the rest. But if he is charged with what has to be done to attain the end, he remembers the charges and is always humble and obedient, swift to perform all that he is charged with, even if he does not know to what end the action will lead him, and is well adapted to do the thing as he has been charged. This man is always a servant in the city, not a chief, or rather he is naturally a slave, while the others are subjects and chiefs. Everything the slave and servant is skilled in doing, the chief must be skilled in employing another therein. C. The third case is when two men are both performing an action where a third employs their action in completing some end, except that of the two one does the thing more nobly and more

indispensably for completing the third man's end. The man whose action is nobler and more indispensable takes precedence in rank over him who is responsible for an action which is baser and less indispensable in regard to that end. [57] The parts of the city and the classes of its parts are united and bound together by love. It is controlled and maintained by justice and the actions of justice. Now love is sometimes natural, as the love of the parents for the child, and sometimes willed, by its beginning being in voluntary things followed by love. Voluntary love comes in three ways: (a) by sharing in virtue; (b) on account of advantage; and (c) on account of pleasure. Justice follows upon love. Love in this city first occurs on account of (a) sharing in virtue. This sharing is connected with thoughts and actions. The thoughts which they must share in are threefold : (a) in regard to the beginning; (~) in regard to the end; and (y) in regard to what lies between. Agreement of opinion in regard to the beginning (a) is the agreement of their opinions about God and spiritual beings, * about the good men who are the pattern, how the world and its parts began, and how man came into being, then (about) the classes of the parts of the world, their mutual relation, their station with reference to God and spiritual beings, and man's station with reference to God and spiritual beings. This is the beginning. * The end is happiness (~). What lies between are the actions by which happiness is attained (y). W~hen the opinions of the inhabitants of the city* are agreed on these things, and that has been completed by the actions by which happiness is mutually attained, there follows mutual love, of necessity. Then because they are neighbours of one another in one dwelling-place, some of them needing others and some being useful to others, there follows (b) the love which exists on account of advantage. Then on account of their sharing in the virtues and because some of them are useful to others, some of them take pleasure in others, and that again is followed by (c) the love which exists on account of pleasure, so that through it they are united and bound together. [58] Justice is tlrst of all in the division of the good things

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shared by the people of the city among them all, and next in the preservation of what is divided among them. * These good things are security, wealth, honour, dignities, and the other good things which they can share in. For each one of the people of the city has a portion of these good things, equivalent to his deserts. His decrease and increase therein are injustice, his decrease injustice against him, his increase injustice against the people of the city, and perhaps his decrease also is injustice against the people of the city. When the division has been made and each man's portion has been fixed, it must next be preserved to him, either by its not passing from his hand, or, if it does, by safeguards and conditions, securing that thereby no injury attaches either to him or to the city. When a man's portion of the good things passes from his hand, it is either voluntarily, as in a sale and gift and exchange, or involuntarily, as when he is robbed or forcibly constrained. In both cases there must be safeguards by which the good things in the hands of the people of the city remain preserved to them. That can only come about by the return of a substitute for what has passed from his hand voluntarily or involuntarily and an equivalent to it, either of the same kind as that which has passed from his hand, or of a different kind, and what returns, returns either to the individual man or to the people of the city. In whichever of these two ways the equivalent returns, justice is that by which the good things, having been once divided, remain preserved to the people of the city, and injustice is that there should pass from a man's hand his portion of the good things, without the equivalent returning either to himself or to the people of the city. Further, the return must, when it is to the individual, be either beneficial to the city or not hurtful to it. He who causes to pass from his own hand or from the hand of another his share in the good things, when it is hurtful to the city, is also unjust and is prevented. In many cases of prevention pains and penalties are needed. The pains and penalties must be measured, so that every injustice may be confronted with a commensurate punishment. When the doer of the injustice is requited with an equivalent portion of evil, justice is done. When he is

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requited with more, it is injustice against him as an individual, when with less, injustice against the people of the city; and perhaps when with more, it is injustice against the people of the city. [59] Some rulers of cities think in the case of all injustice occurring in the city that it is injustice against the people of the city. Others think that injustice specially concerns him to whom the injustice has been done. Some divide injustice into two categories, the first, injustice which specially concerns individual persons, though they make it at the same time injustice against the people of the city, and the second, injustice regarded as specially concerning the individual and not passing over him to the people of the city. Some therefore of the rulers of cities do not think that the guilty should be pardoned, even if he to whom the wrong was done has pardoned him. Some think that the guilty should be pardoned when he to whom the wrong was done has pardoned him. Others think that part should be pardoned, and part not pardoned, viz. that the penalty deserved by the guilty party, when regarded as personally due, to the exclusion of the people of the city, to him to whom the wrong was done, and this man pardons him, cannot be required by anyone else; but when regarded as due to the people of the city and to all men, the pardon of him to whom the wrong was done is not considered. [60] The term "justice" is sometimes applied in a more general sense, viz. a man's employment of acts of virtue in relation to others, whatever the virtue. The justice which consists in making a division and in preserving what has been divided is a species of the more general justice, and the more special is called by the name of the more general. [61] Everyone in the ideal city must have assigned him a single art with which he busies himself solely and a single work to which he attends, either in the class of servant or master, nor must he go beyond it. None of them is left to pursue many works nor more than a single art, for three reasons. Ca) Every man is not always suitable for every work and art. Rather one

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man is sometimes better than another, for one work rather than another. (b) Every man who attends to a work or art does so more perfectly and excellently and becomes more proficient therein and skilled in the work, when he devotes himself to it and from his childhood grows up to it and not to anything else besides. (c) NIany works have particular times. When these are left late, the works are not performed. It sometimes happens that there are two works to be done at the same time and if a man is occupied with one of them, he has no time for the other, nor is it overtaken on a second occasion. For this reason there must be assigned to each one of the works one man, that each one of them may be overtaken at its own time and not fail to be performed.

for themselves apart from others, when they do not know it of themselves and do not submit to those who know it and invite them to it; or (d) war on those who do not submit to slavery and servitude, of those for whom it is best and most fortunate that their place in the world should be that of slaves; or (e) war with men who are not of the people of the city, and against whom the city has a prescribed right, and they withhold it from them. * This is a matter involving two things, one of which is the acquiring of the city's good (b), and the other is that they are brought to render justice and equity (i.e. c or d). As for making war on them to punish them for some crime which they have committed lest they repeat the crime, and lest others venture against the city and hope to overcome them, this combines acquisition of a good for the people of the city (b), bringing those people to their own shares and the best for them (c) and warding off an enemy by force (a). As for making war on them to destroy them as a whole and extirpate them because their continued existence harms the people of the city, that also is acquisition of a good for the people of the city (b). The war of the chief with any people merely that they may be humbled and submit to him and honour him for nothing else save the running of his writ among them and their obedience to him, or merely that they may honour him for no other reason save that they honour him, or that he may be their chief and rule them as he sees fit and they assent to all his commands in anything he pleases, whatever it may be, is an unjust war. Similarly if he makes war for nothing else save that conquest is his end, that too is an unjust war. Similarly if he makes war or kills to appease rage, or for pleasure which he takes in victory merely, that likewise is injustice. And similarly if those people have enraged him by injustice and what they deserve for that injustice comes short of war and short of killing, war and killing are undoubtedly unjust. Many of those who intend by killing to appease rage kill not those who have enraged them but others who have not, because such a man aims at removing the annoyance which the rage caused him.

PART II

[62] The city's provident fund is the provision made for the groups whose business is not that they should acquire wealth. Those who are such, and for whom first and foremost and in the opinion of all the rulers of cities money is to be provided are those divisions of the city the end of whose crafts in the first place is not the acquisition of wealth, such as the bearers of religion, the secretaries, * and the like (for these are among the most important parts of the city, and have need of money), and further, in the opinion of some of the rulers of cities, the cripples and those who have no strength to acquire wealth. Others think that no cripple should be left in the city, and no one who is unable in any way to perform any useful function in it. Others of the rulers of cities think that they should set up in the city two funds, one for those the end of whose crafts is not in the first place the acquisition of wealth, the other for cripples and the like. It must be investigated where this money is to come from, and in what ways. [63] War is either (a) to ward off an enemy who has come against the city from without; or (b) to acquire a good to which the city is entitled* from without from those in whose hands it is; or (c) to bring and force people to what is best and most fortunate I

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[64] The first divisions are three: (a) what cannot not exist; (b) what cannot at all exist; and (c) what can exist and not exist.

(c) to an intermediate degree. Of these the most excellent is what

The first two are the extremes. The third is a mean between them. It is an aggregate which contradicts the two extremes. All ex:stents fall into two of these three divisions, for of the existen ts some cannot at all not exist, and some can exist and not exist. [65] What cannot not exist is so in its essence and nature, and what can exist and not exist is also so in its essence and nature. For it is impossible that what cannot not exist should come into existence and only becomes so because its essence and nature are otherwise and it is an accident that it becomes so, and similarly what can exist and not exist. The kinds of existents are three: (a) the creation from matter; (b) the heavenly bodies; (c) the spiritu:al bodies. * What cannot not exist is of two sorts, one being :such in its nature and essence that it exists at a particular time and nothing else is then possible, the second such that it cannot not exist at any time at all. To the spiritual (bodies) belong;s the second class of what cannot not exist, and to the heavenly (bodies) belongs the first class. To the material (bodies) belong;s the division which can exist and not exist. The worlds are three: a spiritual, a heavenly and a material. [66]* The first divisions are four: (a) What cannot at all not exist; (b) what cannot at all exist; (c) what cannot not exist at a particUllar time; (d) what can exist and not exist. What cannot exist a t a particular time can have existence at another, so the first are two opposite extremes, and what can exist, can not exist at a particular time. The existents are of these three divisions: (a) \\-hat cannot at all not exist; (b) what cannot not exist at one time but can at another; and (c) what can exist and not exist. The most e;xcellent, noblest and most perfect of them is what cannot at all not exist. The basest and most defective of them is what can exist a.nd not exist. What cannot not exist at one time only is a mean between them, for it is more defective than the first and more perfect than the third. \Vhat can exist and not exist does so in thre:e ways: (a) to the highest degree; (b) to the least degree;

exists to the highest degree, the basest what exists to the least degree, and the intermediate degree is a mean between them. [67] If a thing has a lack, it is a defect in its existence. If in its existence it needs anything else, it is also a defect in existence. Everything which has a like in its species is defective in existence, since that is only possible in what does not have sufficiency for it to exist in its species alone and in what is insufficient for that existence to be completed by it alone, so that only a portion of that existence* is completed by it and there is not sufficiency in it for a universal to be completed by it, as is the case with man. For, since it is impossible for the existence of man to be realized by any individual, there is need for more than one at one time. So then whatever contains sufficiency for completing a thing, has no need of a second in the case of that thing, and if a thing has sufficiency for the completion of its existence, quiddity and essence, it is impossible that there should be anything else of its species, and if that were the like of its action, nothing else would share its action. [68] Everything which has a contrary is defective in existence, because everything which has a contrary has a lack, the meaning of contraries being this, that each of them cancels the other, if they meet or are brought together. Thus it requires for its existence the cessation of its contrary. Also there is an impediment to its existence, so that it is not itself alone sufficient in its existence. What suffers from no lack has no contrary, and what does not need anything at all save itself has no contrary. [69] Evil has no absolute existence, nor is it in anything in these worlds, nor in general in anything of which the existence is not by man's will, but all these are good. Evil is of two sorts: (a) the misery which is the opposite of happiness, and (b) everything by which misery is attained. Misery is evil in the sense of the end which is reached, beyond which there is no greater evil to be reached by misery. The second evil is the voluntary acts, which are such as to lead to misery. Similarly the opposite of these two evils is two goods, one of which is happiness (a), which

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is good in the sense of the end beyond which there is no other end to be sought by happiness. The second good is everything which proEts in any way in the attainment of happiness (b). This is the good which is the opposite of (evil), and this is the nature of both. Evil has no other nature except this which we have mentioned. The two evils then are voluntary, and similarly the goods which are their opposites. As for the good in the worlds, it is the First Cause, and everything which is consequent on it, and whose being is consequent on what is consequent on it, to the end of the chain of consequents, whatever it is. For all these are according to harmony and justice with merit, and what comes to pass from merit and justice is altogether good. Some think that existence of whatever kind is good, and nonexistence of whatever kind is bad. They spontaneously fashion imaginary existences, which they then make good, and nonexistences which they make bad. Others think that pleasures of whatever kind are goods, and that pain of whatever kind is evil, especially pain affecting the sense of touch. All these are in error, for existence is only good when it is with merit, and nonexistence (bad) when it is without merit, and similarly pleasures and pain. What exists and does not exist without merit is bad. None of these things exists anywhere in the spiritual worlds, for no one thinks that in the spiritual and heavenly (worlds) anything happens contrary to merit, for possible natural things, by virtue of being natural, do not happen contrary to merit, when they are preserved in them by merit, nor does one seek in them the voluntary merits, for the possible natural merits are either with form or with matter. What anything merits, it merits either to the highest or the least or an intermediate degree, * and what they receive of it does not go beyond these, so they are all good. Good then is of two sorts: (a) a sort of which no evil at all is the opposite, and (b) a sort of which evils are the opposites. Similarly every natural thing, the beginning of which is a voluntary action, is sometirnes good, sometimes bad. \V' e have been speaking here of what is purely natural, with no share of the voluntary. [7oJ Some think that all the passions of the soul, viz. what

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proceeds from the appetitive part of the soul, are evil. Others think that the faculties of desire and anger alone are evil, while others think so of the other faculties in which are the psychological affects, such as jealousy, cruelty, miserliness, love of honour, and the like. These also are in error, for that which is adapted to be employed in good and bad together is neither good nor bad, for it is not more Et for one than the other, or is good and bad together or neither. Rather all of these are evil when they are employed in that by which misery is obtained, but when they are employed in that by which happiness is attained, they are not evil but all of them good. [7 1 J Some indeed say that happiness is not a reward for the actions which are such that happiness is attained thereby, nor is it a recompense for actions which have been given up, which are not such that it is attained thereby, just as the wisdom which is attained by learning is not a reward for the antecedent learning, nor is it a recompense for the repose which the man would have enjoyed if he had not learned and given it up and preferred toil in its place. Neither if pleasure follows the knowledge which results from learning is the pleasure a reward for learning, nor a recompense for the toil and trouble and pain which he obtained, when he chose learning and gave up repose, so that this pleasure should be a recompense for another pleasure which the man gave up, to be recompensed for it by this other. Rather happiness is an end such that it is attained by virtuous actions, as knowledge results from learning and study, and the arts result from learning them and persevering in their actions. And misery is not the penalty for giving up virtuous actions* nor a requital for doing defective actions. Therefore if anyone believes this of happiness, * and thinks at the same time that his recompense for what he gives up is of the same kind as ~what he gives up, that man's virtues will be akin to defects. For instance, the temperate man ,vho leaves the pleasures of sense, all or some of them, simply to be recompensed, in place of what he has left, by another pleasure of the sarne kind as he has left but greater, is led by his greed and desire for increase

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of pleasure to leave what he has left. At the same time he must think that the pleasure which he has left was his, and he has only left it to come to its like and an increase of what he will gain. Otherwise how is he recompensed for what he did not have? Similarly in the case of the justice which he employs in leaving money and not taking it. It too is simply greed and desire for what he will obtain and be compensated with for leaving it. He simply does so out of desire for gain and to be recompensed for what he leaves with something much larger than what he leaves. It is as if he thinks that all wealth is his, his own and everybody else's, but he lets them retain it when he has the power and opportunity to deprive them, in order that he may get many times as much by way of reward. That represents what the rulers of the cities do. So he does not acquire justice and ternperance as good in themselves, nor does he leave what he does leave of illdoing and vice for itself, because it is ugly and he hates it. Similarly the case of the brave man among them. * He thinks that he loses the pleasures for which he desires this transitory life in order to be recompensed with other pleasures of the same kind, far greater than these, and he advances against the evil which he detests for fear of an evil greater still. He thinks that to advance against death is an evil, but bears an evil greater still. For that reason you find that what they suppose to be virtues are nearer to being vices and base qualities than virtues. * That is because their essence and nature are not the nature of the real virtues, nor near it, but are of the kind (genus) of defects and base qualities. [72] The virtuous man loses by death simply the ability to multiply the actions by which his happiness after death is increased. Therefore his anxiety about death is not the anxiety of one who thinks that by death a very great evil will overtake him, nor the anxiety of one who thinks that by death he will lose a great good, which has come to him and will pass from his hand. Rather he thinks that by death no evil at all will overtake him, and he thinks that the good which has come to him up to the time of his death is with him and is not separated from him by 62 •

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death. Rather his anxiety is the anxiety of one who thinks that what he loses is a gain which was coming to him, but when it was added to him, would be like a remainder additional to the good which had already reached him, and near to the anxiety of one who thinks that what he loses is not his capital but a gain which he was measuring and hoping for. So he does not fear at all, but loves life, in order that he may increasingly do the good by which he has increased happiness. [73] The virtuous man must not hasten death. Rather he must seek means to survive as long as possible, in order that he may increasingly do what brings him happiness, and in order that the people of the city may not lose his usefulness to them by his virtue. He must go forward to death only when his death is more useful to the people of the city than his survival. When against his will death comes upon him, he must not be anxious but virtuous. He is not at all anxious about it, nor does it frighten him so that he neglects his duty. Only the people of the ignorant cities and the unrighteous* are anxious about death, the former for what they will lose of the goods of the present world which they leave behind-pleasures, wealth, honours or other goods of the ignorant-and the unrighteous man for two reasons: the loss of what he leaves behind of his worldly goods, and the thought that by his death he will lose happiness. The last causes him more pain than is felt by the ignorant, for the ignorant know nothing of happiness after death, * so as to think that they will lose it, but these do know, and at their death are affected, through anxiety and regret for what they think they are losing, with deep repentance for what they have previously done in their lives, * so that they die suffering grief of many kinds. [74] When the virtuous warrior* risks his life, he does so not with the idea that he will not die through that action of his, for that is foolish, nor without regard to whether he dies or lives, for that is rashness. Rather he thinks that perhaps he will not die, and perhaps he will escape. But he is not anxious about death, nor anxious when it comes upon him, and he does not risk his life knowing, or supposing, that what he desires he will obtain

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without danger. Rather he risks his life when he knO\vs that what he desires he will lose and not obtain, unless he endangers himself, and he thinks that if he does so perhaps he will obtain it, or he thinks that the people of the city will without doubt obtain it from that action of his, whether he dies or lives, and that if he survives he will share with them, and if he dies, these will obtain it and he will attain happiness for previous virtue, and because he has now sacrificed himself. [75] When the virtuous man dies or is killed, one must not mourn for him, but rather mourn for the people of the city, in the measure of his indispensability in the city, and admire him for the state which he has attained, according to the measure of his happiness. At the same time it is the special privilege of the warrior killed in battle to be praised for his self-sacrifice on behalf of the people of the city and for his going forward to death. [7 6] Some people think that the man who is not wise becomes wise only by the separation of the soul from the body, * the body remaining devoid of soul, which is the state of death, and if he were previously wise, his wisdom is increased because of that and is complete and perfect, or becomes more perfect and excellent. Therefore they think that death is a perfection, and that the separation of the soul from the body is a necessity. Others think that the wicked man is only wicked by reason of the union of the soul with the body, and by its separation he becomes good. These people would be obliged to kill themselves and kill the soul, * so they afterwards take refuge in saying: "We are ruled by God who is exalted, and the angels and by the )J!aIiJ* of God, and do not of ourselves have power over the union or the separation of the soul. \ve must wait for the loosing of Him who joined them, and not take the loosing upon ourselves, * for those who rule us best know our atFairs." Others think that the separation of soul and body is not a separation in space, nor a separation in idea, nor that the body perishes and the soul remains, or the soul perishes and the body remains devoid of soul, but rather the meaning of the separation of the soul is that it does not need for its continued existence' that

the body should be its matter, and that it does not need in any of its actions to employ the instrument of the body, nor to employ any faculty of body whatsoever, for as long as it continues to need any of these things it is not separated. That only happens to the soul which is special to man, viz. the speculative intellect. For when it reaches this condition, it separates from the body, whether that body belongs to a living creature which takes nourishment and perceives by the senses, or its faculty for taking nourishment and perceiving by the senses is already rendered void. For when it has no longer need in any of its actions for perception and imagination, it has already reached the after-life, and then its representation of the essence of the First Principle is more perfect, since the intellect seizes upon its essence without the need for its representation by analogy or example, nor does it reach this condition except by the previous need to seek the help of the corporeal faculty and its actions to perform its own actions. This is the after-life, in which a man sees his Lord and is not defrauded in the seeing Him. * [77] Everything of which the existence is composition and combination, in whatever sense, is defective in existence, since it needs for its continuance the things of which it is combined, whether the combination is quantitative or the combination of matter and form or any other type of combination. [78] If one thing makes another, this means that the other necessariioy follows from the thing, and the making by a thing of another is the necessitation of that other by the thing. The thing is maker of the other when the other necessarily follows from it, and that which makes the thing is that from which the thing necessarily follows. That by which the other is made is that from which the other cannot necessarily follow, as long as it is not moved. And that includes all which by its movement derives a condition in which it acts alone, or a condition added to what it possessed before, so that it makes that other by the association of the second (condition) with the first, and it is the combination of the two which makes the other. That only happens in something which at first has what is insufficient to act with without the

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addition of the other, and that which only makes another by being moved is in a state of need and insufficient in its essence (substance) for another thing which is such as to be its necessary consequent, to be its necessary consequent, and for that which is such as to come into existence from it, to come into existence from it and for it to make what is such as to be made. Therefore all that is sufficient in its essence (substance) and existence to make another, does not make what it makes, and what necessarily follows from it does not necessarily follow, by its being moved. [79] Any maker of anything knows that his making that thing at a particular time is better or best, or it is worse or worst. What delays his making it is the obstacle to his making it, and the nonsuccess which he thinks and knows will occur if he makes the thing at that time is the obstacle which prevents his making it. He must know what is the cause of the non-success at that time, and what is the cause of success later. If there is no cause of nonsuccess, its non-existence is not preferable to its existence, and why did it not happen? At the same time, has the maker power to stop the non-success which happens through his making it at that time, or not? If he has the power, then its happening is not preferable to its not happening, and (the thing's) coming into existence at some time is not impossible for its maker. But if he has not power to stop the non-success, then the cause of the non-success is stronger, and the maker has not in himself complete sufficiency for the thing to be absolutely his, and at the same tim!.'} there is a contrary in his action and an obstacle to it. In any case then not he alone is sufficient to complete the action, but rather the cessation of the cause of the non-success and the presence of the cause of success. For if he were personally the sole cause of the success, the success of the action should not be retarded in tirne, but both should happen together, and therefore when the agent is sufficient in himself alone for something to come into existence from him, it follows that the existence of the thing is not later than the existence of the agent. [80] It is said of a man that he is intelligent and that he uses intelligence (intellects) when two. things are united in bim: 66

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(a) that he has excellence of discrimination with reference to the actions which should be chosen or avoided;* and (b) that he employs the most excellent of all that he becomes aware of by excellence of discrimination. For when he has excellence of discrimination and does in what he examines and observes that which is worse and inferior, it is said of him that he is a mocker or deceiver or corrupter. Sometimes we use the expression "Such a man has intelligence now", in place of "He has taken notice of what he was disregarding", and it is employed instead of "He has understood what the allusion of the person addressing him pointed to" or "He has had an impression made on his mind". Sometimes we say that he has used intelligence, meaning that the objects of intelligence have been represented to him and impressed on his mind, and we say of him that he is intelligent, meaning by that that the objects of intelligence have come to his mind, i.e. that he knows the objects of intelligence. For there is here no difference between saying" he uses intelligence" and "he knows", between "the intelligent" and "the knowing", and between" the objects of intelligence" and" the objects of knowledge". The man of practical wisdom is he who possesses excellence of deliberation* in producing what should be done, according to the opinion of Aristotle, of the actions of virtue, in an emergency, when he is at the same time excellent with ethical virtue. * As for what the dialecticians mean by saying that this is necessitated by intelligence or denied by intelligence, they mean what is well known at first sight in the opinion of all, for the first sight which is shared by all or most men they call intelligence. [8 I] Some people say in regard to the First Cause that it does not intellect or know anything but itself. Others assert that all the universal objects of intelligence are present to it at once, and that it knows and intellects them together timelessly, and all of them are assembled together in itself, known to it in act continually from eternity to eternity. Others assert that although the objects of intelligence are present to it, it knows (also) all the partial existences perceived 67

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ENGLISH 'fRANSLA 'fION

by the senses and represents them to itself and they are impressed upon it, and that it represents to itself and knows what is not now existing but will exist hereafter, what was in past time and has ceased to be, and what is now existing. The consequence for them is that truth and falsehood and contradictory convictions follow each other in succession in regard to all the objects of its intelligence, that the objects of its intelligence are infinite, that the affirmative become negative and likewise the negative become affirmative at another time, that it knew in the past things without end, so that among them were what it knew would be in future, what it knew existed now, and what it knew had been, then was existing in times without end before that present time, i.e. the hypothetical time, and afterwards in times without end it knows these objects of intelligence in ways different to what it knew of these same things at another time. An example will show what I mean. Take as the example the time of Hermes* or of Alexander. * What it knew in the time of Alexander as existing at the present time, which is nearly" now" at that time, it knew many ages before would come into existence, then it knows afterwards at another time that it has been. It knows the thing in the time which was in the time of Alexander, as existing in three times in three conditions of knowledge, viz. it knows before the time of Alexander that it will be, knows in the time of Alexander himself that it is now present, and knows thereafter that it has been and is now over and past. Then similarly when the condition of individual times, or years or months or days is examined, in spite of the vast number and the difference of the circumstances, and similarly the condition of persons and the successive changes which happen to each of them, e.g. it knows that Zaid* is a lJ'ali of God, obedient and useful to his lJ'alis, then knows him as an enemy of God, rebellious, and harmful to his IJ!alis. And similarly for the conditions of the various places, the movements of bodies in space, and the passing of one into another. The holders of this view resort to ugly, hateful deeds, * and there arise from it wrong ideas which are the cause of great evils, together with its ugliness and what necessarily follows from it of the different •

kinds of change and alteration in the soul of the knower, the succession of events, and the like. [82]* Different beliefs are held by many people about the care of the Lord for his creation. Some maintain* that he cares for his creation as a king cares for his subjects and their welfare, without conducting personally the affair of any of them, and without connection between him and partner or wife, * but by appointing for the task one* who will undertake it and discharge it, and do in regard to it what right and justice demand. Others think that it is not sufficient unless he undertakes the personal management of each one of his creatures in each one of their actions, and the directing them aright, and leaves none of his creatures to (the care of) others. (Otherwise these would be his partners and aids in his ruling the creation, and he is exalted above the need for partners and helpers. *) It follows that he is responsible for many actions which are defective, blameworthy, ugly actions, errors, and abominable words and deeds, and when any of his creatures aims at attacking one of his l1Jalis-a reversal of a truth by way of argument-he is his helper and responsible for leading him and guiding him, and the man is directed in the way of unchastity and murder and theft and worse than the actions of children and drunkards and madmen. And if they deny that he directs and helps him for some things, they must deny the whole doctrine. Such principles give rise to wrong ideas, and are the cause of vicious and abominable ways. [83] The polity in the absolute sense is not a genus for the other types of polity, but is a kind of homonym for many things, in which they agree though differing in their essences and natures. There is nothing in common between the ideal polity and all the types of ignorant polities. [84] The ideal polity is that in which the ruler attains a kind of virtue which he could not possibly attain except in it-the highest virtue that can be attained byman. The ruled attain in their temporal life and the life of the world to come virtues which could not possibly be attained except in it. As for their temporal life, their bodies are of the most excellent form that is possible

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for the individual natures to possess, and their souls are in the most excellent state that is possible for the nature of individual souls and for what is in their power to attain among the virtues which are the cause of happiness in the life to come. Their life is sweeter and pleasanter than all others. [85] It is unlikely and improbable that the actions of a chief of the ignorant people should necessitate a pure type of the ignorant state without the admixture of other types, since the actions of each of them proceed from his opinion and notions and the impulses of his soul, not from knowledge and acquired art. For that reason what exist are polities combined from these ignorant polities, or from most of them. [86] The ancients laid down only these ignorant polities, because science includes and fixes only general laws, even though what exists of the ignorant polities is mostly mixed polities, because the man who knows the nature of the individual polities is able to hit the mark and know the existing polity and the elements from which it is combined, judging it according to what he finds of its combination and what he already knows of the nature of every kind of simple polity. The case is similar for all scientific and practical matters such as rhetoric, sophistry, dialectic and the art of poetry, for the man who occupies himself with them without knowledge of them, only thinking and supposing that he employs demonstration, is mostly found to employ it mixed in different ways. [87] Each of the types of the ignorant polities includes different and very divergent types, some extremely bad, and some whose harm is slight* and whose benefit is great to certain people. For the condition of the polities and their relation to souls is like that of the seasons and their relation to bodies possessing various temperaments. Just as some bodies are well in temperament and condition in autumn and some are well in summer, while others find the winter best and most suitable for them and others again the spring, so is the condition of souls and their relation to the polities. Yet the principles of which bodies are composed are apt to be more res!ricted than the principles of

the states and ways of life. For the states and ways of life are made up of things voluntary and natural which are apt to be endless and some of them fortuitous, and many of the people of the various ways of life are wretched without knowing it, whereas the sick and those possessing bad temperaments can scarcely fail to be aware of it, as well as those who investigate their conditions. [88] The types of the experiential faculty vary according to the different places in which it is employed, the arts with which it is connected and those who employ it, just as the art of writing varies according to the arts in which it is employed and those who employ it. What is employed of both kinds in the rule of the ideal cities* is excellent to the highest degree. As regards the experiential faculty, the man of practical wisdom employs it in his growing up and activity in the presence of the first chief, while he is being trained in the ideal polity, so that it emerges a very noble faculty, useful in the ideal polity, and attains in the end to rule in the person of him who contains the ideal rule in potency, till it becomes his rule in act. The noblest kind of writing is that which is employed in the service of the first chief and the ideal king, but it is in nobility and excellence below the experiential faculty which the first chief employs. The absolutely noble of the experiential faculty is nobler than the noble of the art of writing. When the experiential faculty is employed in the lowest of the ignorant polities, the conquest polity,* it is baser and worse than in the other places. Similarly when writing is employed in the ways of life of conquest, it is worse and baser than the other kinds of writing employed in the other polities and arts, and what the lowest people employ is nobler than writing employed in the service of conquest. Just as the nobility of writing employed in the service of the ideal king and the ideal rule is superior to the other types of writing employed in the city, so the baseness of writing employed in the service of conquest, its hurtfulness and the increase of its evil and trouble, are greater than the other types of'vvriting, and as the experiential faculty when employed by the man of practical wisdom and the first chief is nobler than the writing he employs, so when employed by the man of

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conquest it is baser than the writing employed by him. In general, every nobility which is superior to what is below it of its kind when employed in the ideal rule, is base and hurtful and increasing in baseness and hurtfulness over the rest of its kind, when employed in the conquest polity, and similarly all the psychological faculties by which man is noble, such as discrimination and the like, which in good men is a cause of all good, and very noble and excellent, but in a wicked man is a cause of all evil and corruption. These things in the case of a king of conquest are a cause of many times the evil which they cause in those who do not rule. Therefore (the ancients) did not call the reflective faculty, * by which what is useful towards a bad end may be produced, a reflective virtue but called it by other names, such as deceit, artifice and stratagem. Those human things which are the greatest of voluntary goods, and the arts, are apt in the conquest state to be evils or disasters and causes of disasters which happen in the world. Therefore it is wrong for the virtuous man to remain in the corrupt polities, * and he must emigrate* to the ideal cities, if such exist in fact in his time. If they do not exist, then the virtuous man is a stranger in the present world and wretched in life, and to die is preferable for him than to live. [89]* On the advantages of the speculative part in philosophy, and that it is necessary for the practical part from several points of view. One is that a deed is only right and a virtue when a man rightly knows the virtues which are thought to be virtues, but are not so, * and has accustomed himself to the actions of the real virtues, until there come to him a certain state and merit and he places them all aright and assigns them their due, which ... and their grade in the classes of existence, and chooses and avoids what should be chosen and avoided. This is a condition which does not come and is not perfected except after experience, perfect knowledge of demonstration and perfection in the natural sciences with what follows them and comes after them in due order, until he attains lastly to the knowledge of happiness which is in truth happiness. It is that which is sought for itself and not for anything else, at any time whatever. • 72

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The speculative and reflective virtues* are sometimes a cause and principle for the coming into existence of the practical virtues and practical arts. All this does not come into existence except by contact with speculation and by passing from stage to stage and from station to station, and can only do so thus. For he who desires to learn speculative philosophy, begins from numbers, then ascends to magnitudes, then to the other things to which numbers and magnitudes essentially belong, like perspectives and moving magnitudes, which are the heavenly bodies, and music, and to weights and mechanical devices. These things are understood and represented without matter. He ascends little by little in the things which need matter to be understood and represented till he comes to the heavenly bodies. * Afterwards he reaches the introduction of principles other than the principles What? and By what? and How?, * to help him to employ the things which are difficult or impossible to be understood, without passing into matter, and he comes later into a region midway between the genus which has no principles of existence except What? and the genus for whose species exist the four (sic) principles. * There appear to him the natural principles in order, and he investigates thoroughly the natural existents and the principles of mathematics belonging to them, till he comes to the principles of existence. What he acquires of the principles of existence becomes for him a ladder and principles of instruction, and the principles of existence which he has acquired are only principles of instruction with reference to two things.... Then he passes to the sciences of the causes of existence of the natural bodies and investigation of their essences, substances and causes. W'hen he reaches the heavenly bodies, the rational soul and the active intellect, he passes again to another grade, * and the observation of the principles of their existence obliges him to study principles which are not natural. What he has acquired of the principles of existence in that third grade becomes again pedagogic principles for these existences which are more perfect in existence than the natural. So he passes again to a middle place between two sciences, the science of natural things and the science 73

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of metaphysics, in the order of enquiry and instruction. He studies also their principles,' on account of which they were brought into existence, and"the end and perfection on account of which man was brought into existence;~and knows that the natural principles which are in man and in the world are insufficient for man to come by them to the perfection, to reach which man was brought into existence, and that man needs therein intellectual principles by which he may run towards that perfection. So the man has by now drawn near to the station and stage of speculative knowledge where he attains happiness, and speculation brings him on in both directions till he reaches an existent which cannot have any of these principles, but is the First Existent and the First Principle of all* the existents which have previously been mentioned, whose existence is by it and through it and for it, in the ways which are without defect, or rather the most perfect ways in which a thing is a principle to existents. There results to him knowledge of the existents with the most remote of their causes, and this is the divine view of the existents. And at the same time he is continually enquiring into the goal for which man was brought into existence-the perfection necessary for man to attain-and into all the things by which man reaches that perfection. So then he is able to pass to the practical part, and it is possible for him to reach and do what he must do. As for the man who is given the practical part by a revelation* which guides him towards measuring each separate detail of what should be chosen or avoided, that is a different way, and if they are both called' knowers', the name of knowledge is a homonym for both of them, just as it is a homonym for the possessor of natural science and the diviner who makes known things to come from the possibilities. For the diviner has no power to know all the individual possibilities, because they are without end, and it is unthinkable that knowledge should embrace what is limitless (he only has the power of uttering the knowledge of what is possible which happened to occur to his mind, or to the mind of the man who asked him the question) and because knowledge of what is possible is knowledge contrary to the naturf' of

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ENGLISH TRANSLATION

the possible. Therefore the diviner does not have knowledge of the nature of the possible, which belongs only to the possessor of natural science. Therefore the knowledge of both is not of one substance, but the two are opposites. Similarly the case of him who has perfected speculative knowledge and him to whom the measuring of the actions of the people of one or more cities has been revealed, without possessing any knowledge of speculative science. Between him to whom a revelation has been made, being perfect in speculative knowledge, and him to whom a revelation has been made, being imperfect in speculative knowledge there is in fact no relation or agreement. The agreement is one in name only. [90] * Reflective virtue* is that by which a man has the power of excellent production of what is most useful for a virtuous end, shared by one or more nations or a city, in case of a shared emergency. One kind of it produces what changes over short periods of time, and this is called the faculty for kinds of partial, temporary rule during the occurrence of the things which come occasionally on nations and on a single nation or on a city. As for the reflective faculty which produces what is most useful for an evil end, it is not reflective virtue. [9 1 ] Just as among bodies there are some in which all kinds of health are not possible, by reason of their temperament, or constitution, or custom, or special condition, or the employment by which the people gain their livelihood, etc.-the case of most bodies-and there are places where the inhabitants are able to gain only a little of the kinds of health, so the condition of souls, because there is in them something which makes it impossible for the soul to acquire the virtues, or most of them, and it cannot realize more than a little. It is not the business of the ideal governor and the first chief to perfect the virtues of one the nature and substance of whose soul are such that it does not receive the virtues. His end is simply to bring souls like these as far as possible for them, and to a point of virtue consistent with the advantage of the people of that city, just as it is not the duty of the ideal doctor to bring the bodies whose condition is as we have described to the most perfect grades and highest levels of 75

THE FU~UL AL-~U_DANI OF AL-FA.RABI

health. It is his business merely to bring them, as regards health, as far as possible with their nature and substance, and consistent with the actions of the soul. For the body is for the sake of the soul and the soul for the sake of the last perfection, viz. happiness, * which is virtue, hence the soul is for the sake of wisdom and virtue. [92] * No man is apt to exist endowed by nature from the first with perfection,* so that there is no discrepancy in him, and that all his actions and way of life and ethical qualities are in accord with justice and equity, not turning aside to any extreme or predominance of one contrary over another. That is because the human disposition is made up of opposites which the combination forces together, and if its natural characteristics were isolated and equalized, there would be no harmony, since they are so dissimilar and so discrepant and different, and, in spite of their forced cohesion, a slighter or more considerable tension may easily cause lack of equilibrium in the constitution. Any disposition where the tension between the elements is slight is nearer to equilibrium, and vice versa, so that the natural temper depends on equal proportions of antagonism and equilibrium in the antagonism and equilibrium of the natures. [93]* We posit two men, one of whom knows what is in all the books of Aristotle on natural science, logic, theology, political philosophy and mathematics, and all his actions or most of them are contrary to what is good at first sight* in the opinion of all, and the actions of the other are all in accordance with what is good at first sight to all, even though he does not know the sciences which the first knows. Then this second man is nearer to being a philosopher than the first, all of whose actions are contrary to what is good at first sight in the opinion of all, and is more able to possess what the first man possesses than the first man is to possess what the second man possesses. Philosophy at first sight and in reality is the coming to a man of the speculative sciences and the agreement of all his actions with what is good at first sight in the common opinion and in reality. If a man confines himself to the speculative sciences, without all his actions •

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agreeing with what is good at first sight in the common opinion, his established custom prevents him doing the actions which are good at first sight in the common opinion of all. Therefore it is more likely that his custom will prevent his deeds being in agreement with what is good in reality. He whose customary deeds are in agreement with what is good at first sight in the common opinion of all will not be prevented by his custom from learning the speculative sciences, nor from his deeds coming to be in agreement with what is good in reality, since first sight necessitates that he does what is good in reality and obligatory more than that he does what is at flrst sight uncriticized opinion. What in reality is opinion is opinion which has been criticized and conflrmed after criticism, and flrst sight necessitates that opinion which has been criticized is truer than first sight. [94] * In the association for virtue there occurs no difference and no disagreement, because the aim of virtue is one, the good which is wanted for itself and nothing else besides. Since the desire and intention of the two is simply towards the end, which is the good in itself, their path to it is one, and their love for the thing in itself is one. They are never at variance so long as their aim is one. Disagreement only occurs through difference of desires and discrepancy of aims. Then there comes the behaviour which makes association impossible, because each has a different aim and a different way. These with their analogy also* are mischievous and wrong, not good like the flrst aim and the flrst association, to seek for truth, attain happiness, and love knowledge and excellent things, and the second association is the association for gain and mutual support in commerce and business affairs-mischievous and wrong, because each of the participants and partners wishes to rob the other of his share, in order to have more than he has, and similarly the other also wishes the same and believes it of the first, so then difference begins. The first two associate for nothing outside themselves and for nothing they need in anyone else, and there is no bond of union with any other. There arises between them no difference as long as their aim is one, just as there arises no association between 77

THE FU~0L AL-:MADANI OF AL-FIRABI

the other two as long as their aim is different. Also, since truth is the aim pursued in everything, and likewise good and virtue, the seekers after truth understood their aim and knew it and did not disagree in regard to it. What is not truth and virtue is a path which cannot be trodden, and when a man walks on it he goes astray and is perplexed. The others did not understand their aim and were at variance because of the diversity of their aim, and they trod a path which did not lead to their goal, even though they did not know it, because in the soul the search for truth is natural, even if it comes short of it. Do you not see that if you asked each one of them to admit the virtue of truth and knowledge, he would admit it, knowing it even if he did not employ it on account of his defect and the passions attaching to him? [95] * What results to the careless man and to the man who affects carelessness is the same, because carelessness leads the careless man to non-success, and the affectation of carelessness leads him who affects it to non-success, so the two agree in the result, which is non-success. It does not profit the man who affects carelessness that he knows what he is careless of, when he has not employed in it what he ought, nor does it harm the careless man that he is forgetful of what he does not know when he has not acted as he ought, because both of them agree in the annexation, and differ in knowledge and ignorance.

NOTES TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION The figures in square brackets refer to the farl number [Heading] aphorisms, Arabic fUfl;l, literally" sections", with reference to the subdivisions of the work (numbered in the English translation), each of which is headed in the Arabic simply fa.fl, "section". The same word is found in the titles of many Arabic books, especially in the earlier period, e.g. al-Fu.ful ji'!Tibb of Rhazes (Mul;ammad b. ZakarIya ar-Razi) and a work of the same title by Maimonides (Musa b. Maimun al-Qurtubi). In these two cases the Aphorisms ascribed to Hippocrates doubtless suggested the title. The latter was available in Arabic as al-Fu.ful simply (Fihrist, ed. Fhigel, 288). The works of Rhazes and Maimonides passed into Latin as the Aphorismi of their respective authors (Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur, I, 232, 234), so that, apart from the consideration of securing an agreeablesounding title, we need have no hesitation in rendering here and on the title-page, "aphorisms". See also Introd. 4 (a). PART I

[3 ] estimates. Or "measures". Cf. [17], [89]. the aim ofthe political art. Literally" the aim in the political art". Cf. [22] "the aim in the city" =" the aim of the city".

[4] the device for establishing them (se. the virtues). According to the text, "them" should be the vices, which cannot be right. The Hebrew is explicit: "the device for the settlement and establishment of those good deeds", etc. citizens seems the natural translation here of madanljln (plur. of madanl), rather than" statesmen", i.e. madanl serves for Greek TToi\hTjS as well as TTOi\ITIKOS.

[6] The main parts and faculties of the soul are jive. Cf. Aristotle, Eth. Nic. I, 13 (I Ioza-b). Al-Farabi follows Aristotle in basing the division of virtue into intellectual (rational) and ethical (cf. [7] and following) on the division of the faculties, which he carries further. (Aristotle, loc. cit., within the irrational element distinguishes only the nutritive and appetitive.) Cf. similarly Madlnah Fadilah, 34-6; Siyasah, 43. Al-Farabi's relatively long account here of the nutritive faculty, which is not called for by the argument, is no doubt due to his unwillingness to forgo what was of interest to him.

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If the

member is flesh, it is bJ this nutriment becoming flesh, ete. The translation seems necessary (bi' anyasira distinctly in both MSS.), but "If the member is flesh, this nutriment becomes flesh" would be more natural in the context. Al-Eirabi has just said that a certain kind of nutriment, when digested, becomes like the "member" which is nourished by it. His attention appears to have moved to the "member", i.e. organ or part of the body, which he now says is what it is because the nutriment has been taken. This is no doubt an illustration of the process which he wishes to mention, but the point of view has altered, somewhat awkwardly. has been concocted, "concocts", or "has been cooked", "cooks". till it reaches the body Jvhich is nourished. So in both MSS., but we would expect "the member which is nourished". It is partly practical and partly theoretical. Cf. Madinah Fii4ilah, 47· The distinction is Aristotelian, cf. Eth. Nic. VI, I (113 9a), where the two subdivisions of the rational part of the soul are TO ElTIOlTjl.lovlKOV and TO i\oyIOlIKOV (translated by Sir David Ross as "the scientific" and" the ca1culative"). But the parallel is closer between al-Farabi here and a passage in the Politics, which is usually thought not to have been available in Arabic. There (Pol. VII, 14, 10= 133 p) reason (TO ),oyov EXOV) is divided, as here, into practical and theoretical, or speculative (6 I.lEv yap 'ITpCXl<TIKOS EGTI i\6yos 6 oE 8EWPTjTIKOS). Here the Arabic equivalent of 8EWPTjTIKOS (nazarl) has been rendered "theoretical", elsewhere, as may be seen by consulting the Arabic index, usually" speculative".-The same distinction comes again in the Tanbih 'alii Sabil as-Sa'iidah (for which see Introd. 3), ed. Hyderabad, 1346 A.H., 20: [iirat [inii'at al-falsafah [if/fain . . .an-nazar!Jah . .. wal-'amaII)·ah. [7]

The virtues are of two kinds, ethical and rational. Cf. Aristotle, Eth. Nic. II, I (IIOp), The followingft,[ul (8-19) are concerned with the ethical virtues and vices. The intellectual (rational) virtues and vices are dealt with in [3 0 ]-[49]'

NOTES TO THE TRANSLATION

Mutawa(i(iid, ed. Asin Palacios (Madrid-Granada, 1946), 16-17, cf. D. M. Dunlop, "Ibn Bajjah's Rule of the Solitary", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1945), 72, where the same Arabic words are used. The probable source in Aristotle has been referred to already, Introd. 4 (c). The collocation of beast and god comes also in Aristotle's well-known dictum (Pol. I, 2, 14= 1253 a) that he who is unable to live in society, or who has no need because he is sufficient for himself, must be one or the other. Asfor the second ~ype, if it happened that he existed, he neither ruled afl)! ci~y at all nor served it, etc. The reading of B has been followed. Al-Farabi has just distinguished between the king who rules cities and the statesman who serves, and it is appropriate that he should retain the distinction. Elsewhere he identifies the two, but his point of view varies slightly. Cf. [3] "the statesman by the political art and the king by the royal art", where the identification is not complete. [13] The distinction discussed in this fa[l is the same as that between the continent man of Aristotle (6 EyKpcrrJ1S) and the temperate man (6 GWeppwv). See Eth. Nic. VII, 2= II46a.

He does good deeds, yet suffers in doing them. The same word for "suffers" (ta'adhdhii) is used of the virtuous man forced to do the actions of the ignorant states, Madinah Fii4ilah, ed. Dieterici, 68. The virtuous man practically = the temperate man; cf. below. Al-Farabi follows the Platonic classification of the virtues as temperance, justice and courage, in addition to wisdom. This is nowhere explicit in the present work, but cf. [71]. [16] The doctrine of the mean is of course Aristotelian (cf. especially Eth. Nic. II, 6 and 7). Most of the examples in the present section are already in Aristotle, loco cit. Al-Farabi adopts the doctrine elsewhere; see Kitiib at-Tanbih 'alii Sabil as-Sa'iidah (Hyderabad, 1346 A.H.), II-I2 and 14. In the latter passage a number of the same examples as here are given.

[10] It is unlikel)' and improbable that afl)!one exists Jvho is bJ nature completef), disposed to all the l)irtues, ete. Cf. [92].

[17] That is also the case of the moderate and mean in foods and medicines, etc. Cf. Tanbih 'alii Sabil as-Sa'iidah, 10, where the medical parallel is drawn. the ol?Ject, Arabic alladhi ilaihi al-ft'l, cf. Tanbih, ibid., man ilaihi al-ji'l immediately following man minhu al-ft'l, i.e. the agent. the circumstances of the action, al-ashyii' al-mutifah bil-ft'l. The same expression comes in [26]. Cf. Tanbih, 10, al-a(iJviil al-mu,tifah bihii (sc. al-af'iil).

[II ] The ancients named this man diz·ine, Jl·hile his opposite . .. had no name among them . .. thot(gh sometimes they named him" wild beast". The antithesis of" divine man" and "wild beast" occurs later in "\vempace (lbn Bajjah), TadNr al-

[20] dlve/lings . .. (of) lvool and hair. It is natural that al-Farabi should think of the tents of the nomads, though these are hardly envisaged by the ancient authors, as he states.

[9] disposed to the conditions of a virtue or vice. Perhaps" actions" af'iil for" conditions" a(iwiil is right, and should be read. In any case, in the phrase aj'iil or a(iJviilfa4ilah,fa4ilah is a dependent genitive, not an adjective.

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THE FU~UL AL-MADANI

or

AL-FARABI

[2I ] AI-FarabI elaborates Aristotle's view (Pol. r, 3= 125 3b) of the constituent relations of the household as master and slave, husband and wife, parent and child, by adding the "property and owner" relation. The Arabic version of the Oikonomikos of Bryson mentions wealth (mal) as one of the essentials of the household, with servants, wife and children (cf. Martin Plessner, Der Oikonomikos des Neupythagoriiers Bryson (Heidelberg, 1928), p. 214), but we do not know that al-FarabI had access to this work. The same fourfold analysis as in al-FarabI comes later, in the thirteenth-century Akhlaq-i Nalirl of Na~Ir ad-DIn TtisI (Plessner, op. cif. p. 60). [25] The city is sometimes" indispensable," etc. Cf. Plato, Republic, Il, 369 D: Ji o:vexyKexloTCrTTl TIoi\15. Here the" indispensable" city (al-madlnah a(!-(!arurlyah) seems to be contrasted absolutely with the ideal (al-madlnah alla(!i!ah), but this is in appearance only. AI-FarabI regarded at least three classes of states as opposed to the ideal (see the hladlnah Fii(!ilah, ed. Dieterici, 61-3; Kitab as-Siyiisah al-Madanl)'ah, ed. Hyderabad, 57-74), viz. the" ignorant" city (al-madlnah aljiihillyah; according to Siyiisah, 57, al-madlnah aljiihilah, cf. Madlnah F#i!ah, 71, al-mudun aljiihilah), the" unrighteous" city (almadlnah alliisiqah) , and the" misguided" or "deluded" city (al-madlnah a(!-#llah; a(!-#rrah in Dieterici's text of hladlnah F#ilah, 61 and 63, is a mistake, corrected in his list of variants, p. xiii). Of these, in principal, the "ignorant" city, not knowing the true good, puts false goods in its place; the" unrighteous" city knows the true good, but does not follow it; and the "misguided" city has a distorted vie\v. It is quite plain from the relatively large amount of space assigned to it that the" ignorant" city is the most important, and, unlike the others, it includes a number of distinct types (cf. [87]). In hladlnah F#ilah (ed. Dieterici, 63) al-FarabI admits a fourth class, not very important, al-madlnah al-mubaddalah, the "altered" city, (also, ibid. 6r, al-madlnah al-mutabaddalah) which formerly held the true view but has abandoned it. Of this fourth class and of the third, the "misguided" city, there is no trace in the FUltll, but the existence of the "unrighteous" city is implied in [73]. On the other hand, several types of the "ignorant" city are mentioned or clearly indicated (cf. [28], [73], and [88], with the notes), though the classification is not shown. When therefore al-FarabI here in [25] speaks of the" indispensable" city in contrast with the ideal, he is simply introducing one-the first, cf. lvfadlnah F#ilah, 62; Siyiisah, 58-of many varieties of city which according to his theory, expounded elsewhere, are opposed to the ideal. To all these the general term "corrupt polities" (as-si)'iisatalliisidah) in [88] may evidently be applied, and we are doubtless to see in the allusive character of the remarks on the different types of city in the FuplI another indication of late date. Cf. Introd. 4 (a). the enjO)'ment of pleasures . . .riches . .. the combination of both. Cf. [28]. the last perfection. Cf. [91]. not tru{yjlistice, btlt onb something resemblingjt~tice, not beinl!' so. Cf. [7 I ] end, [89]·

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NOTES TO THE TRANSLATION

[26] must make happiness the mark jor his ~)'es. Cf. Madlnah Fa(!i!ah, 47, and [27] here. [28] Some think that the end and purpose in kingship and the rule of cities is l!,reatness and honour and domination, ete. This is in effect a characterization of the rulers of the "honour" city (madlnat al-kariimah), one of the types of "ignorant" city according to al-FarabI, cf. Madlnah F#ilah, 62; Siyiisah, 59 (there al-madlnah al-kariiml)'ah), and equivalent to the timocracy of Plato. Though domination (ghalbah), which is the leading characteristic of another kind of "ignorant" city, viz. the "conquest" city (madlnat at-taghallub, Aladlnah Fii(!ilah, 62; al-madlnah at-taghallubl)lah, Sf:yiisah, 58; according to Sf)'iisah, 64, madlnah taghallub), is mentioned here, it is only incidentally, and there is no possibility of confusion. (For the "conquest" city or polity, cf. [88]') Some of them attain it by .. . bringing them to the good things which in the opinion of the people of the cif)' are goods.. .. These are ... the most excellent of chiefs. AI-FarabI, following Plato, regarded the "honour" city or timocracy as the best of the" ignorant" polities (Siyiisah, 63), and he here uses for its leaders an expression similar to that in [54] for the leaders of the aristocracy. Cf. also Siyiisah, 62. for descent alone. Cf. Siyiisah, 61. Others seek to obtain it by forcing the people of the cit)', etc. This is conduct proper to the rulers of the" conquest" city (cf. Siyiisah, 64), and the idea is in line with al-FarabI's view that the" honour" city passes into the" conquest" city, when the love of honour is excessive (i.e. the best passes directly into the worst, cf. last note but one and [88]). Yet others of the rulers of cities think that the aim in the rule of cities is riches, etc. Here al-FarabI characterizes the rulers of the" exchange" city (so Dieterici renders al-madlnah al-baddiilah, Mad. Fiid. 62 (Verwechslungsstaat); madlnat an-nadhiilah, the" contemptible" city, Si)'iisah, 58, 59 seems as likely to be correct), which according to his theory is another type of the" ignorant" city and corresponds to the Greek oligarchy. the laws of the people of the cif)'. So both MSS., but perhaps" the laws of the city" is right, cf. above. people of base headship, ahl khasiisat ar-riyiisah. Cf. al-FarabI, Ipsct'al-'Ulum ed. 'Uthman AmIn, Cairo 1350/1931,65 [=ed. Gonzalez Palencia (2nd ed.), Madrid-Granada, 1953, 94]: fa'in kiinat taltamisu alj1asiir summiyat ri'iisat al-khissah. Dr S. Afnan, to whom I owe this reference, tells me that in the Paris MS. of Aristotle's Rhetoric 6i\lyexpXiex is rendered (1365 b3 0 ) madlnat (siyiisat) al-khissah. Elsewhere (cf. next note) baseness is ascribed to another type of city, and this introduces a certain confusion. Others of the rlilers of cities think that the end in the rule of cities is the enjoyment of pleasures. This is the characteristic of the rulers of the" base and wretched" city (madlnat al-khissah u'af-shaqlvah, Madinah Fa(!ilah, 62; cf. Si)'ii.rah, 58-9,

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THE FU~ UL AL-MADANI Cl F AL-FARAn I

al-tIJtldun, al-madinah al-khasisah) , and al-EiriibI's equivalent of the Greek democracy, in one of its aspects. According to his theory, developed elsewhere, it is a special type of the" ignorant" city.

[29] The king is king 0' the kingly craft, etc. As already mentioned in Introd. 4 (b), this repeats a famous sentiment in the Politicus of Plato, 259 B: T o(rTllV (sc. T1)V ~a<JLi\lK1)V ETIlCJTT}llll v) 010 6 KEKTllllEVOC; OUK, av TE apxwv av T' 101c.0TllC; WV TVYXO:V\1, TIO:VTWC; KaTO: yE T1)V TEXVllV OUT1)V ~OCJli\lKOC; 6p6wc; TIPOCJP1l6T}CJET01; i11KOIOV yovv. "The possessor of the kingly craft or science then, whether he is in fact in power or has only the status of a private citizen, will properly be called royal, since his knowledge of the art qualifies him for the title whatever his circumstances? Yes, he is undoubtedly entitled to that name." (Translation of J. B. Skemp, Plato's Statesman, London, 1952, p. 12 5, slightly modified.) Cf. Tapsil, 46.

[3°] AI-FariibI has already ([7 Dgiven a provisional list of the rational (intellectual) virtues, and now within the larger class distinguishes between speculative and reflective or deliberative virtues (cf. [89], [90D. The following fU!171 deal with the rational virtues in detail, first the speculative (3 I -4), then the deliberative (35-4 I), and may be compared with Eth. Nic. VI, 3- I 1. The rational speculative part . .. and the rational reflective part, etc. Cf. [6], where the reflective is a subdivision of the practical. practicallvisdom. The Arabic ta'aqqul has to be distinguished from 'aql, but it will not serve to render" intelligence" and reserve for 'aql the translation "intellect". As will be seen from the passages where it is used, the meaning of ta'aqqul in the Fu!ul is neither intelligence, nor" act of intellection", as elsewhere, but Greek
[34] The sober lyricism of this description of the hierarchy of existence is striking. Cf. [89], where the subjective aspect is treated (the ascent through the lower degrees of knowledge to the highest). certainty of their existence, etc. Cf. [32]. significance, shai'ij'ah, an abstract from shai', "thing". Cf. A.-M. Goichon, Lexique de la lanlf,ue philosophique d'Ibn Sinii (Avicenne), Paris 1938, 172. But perhaps the reading of the Hebrew is preferable, implying sababy.yah, " causality".

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NOTES TO THE TRANSLATION

[35] what should be chosen and avoided in the individual things within our power. Cf. [5 0], "The possible things which are to be chosen and avoided". "Within our power" here represents the Arabicfa'luhii ilainii, literally "their doing is to us", cf. [54] 1vahadhii ilaihi anyudabbira, "it is for this man to rule". This is quite different from the expression in [17], alladhi ilaihi al-fi'l, "he towards whom, that towards which the action is", i.e. the object of the action.

[3 6] Practical wisdom, ta'aqqul. See note on [30]' excellence of deliberation, jcltldat ar-rawij'ah, cf. T anbih, 16.

[37] thry conceive a thing to be wholesome when it is not, etc. Literally," they conceive what is wholesome in the form of what is unwholesome", etc. the man of practical wisdom must be virtuous with the ethical virtues, cf. [80]. and so the c!u'er man, the astute and the deceitful man being wicked and vicious. Al-FariibI refers back to the classification of faculties or" powers" in [36].

[46] Readiness of wit, listed as a rational (intellectual) virtue in [7] but omitted in [30] seems here out of place (at the end of the account of intellectual defects, and before resumption of the discussion of the virtues already mentioned). [47] there come into existence, instead of practical wisdom, astuteness, dissimulation and trickery. These are the qualities spoken of above, [36] and [37]. [4 8] This and the followingfa!l are closely connected with Aristotle, Eth. Nic. VI, 7 (= II41 a and b). the most excellent knowledge ofthe most excellent existents. According to Eth. Nic., loco cit., wisdom is not indeed, but includes, "scientific knowledge of the highest objects which has received as it were its proper completion" (Ross), wCJITEP KE<poi\1)V EXOVCJO EmlCJTT}lll1 TWV TllllWTO:TWV. unless indeed man is the most excellent thing in the world. This is Aristotle practically verbatim: El ll1) TO aplCJTOV TWV EV T0 KOCJllCP av6pwTIoc; EO"T1V (Eth. Nic. VI, 7, 3)· [49] eZJery last existent. Cf. [34] for "last existents". the ultimate end on account of 11Jhich man exists is happiness. Cf. [69]. the end is one of the cames. A reference to the Aristotelian doctrine of the four causes.

[jI ] Excellence in producinJ!, an imaginative impression is empl!!Jed, etc. Al-FarabI's account here obscures the fact that the imaginative impulse is from within, not without.

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i: OF A L-F ;\rd, B i:

[52] For an account of poetry evidently much nearer to Aristotle than what is said here see A. J. Arberry, "Farabi's Canons of Poetry", Rit,ista degli Studi Orientali, XVII (1937-8), 266-78.

[53] the bearers of reli,[1/on, cf. [62]. the measurers, cf. Introd. 4 (b). [54] In this important faIl al-Farabi's views on the question of the source of authority in the state seem to have evolved, not only beyond Plato's, but beyond his own expressed elsewhere in other, presumably earlier works. According to Plato, in the Republic, Book IV, there is one form of right government, monarchy or aristocracy, with four degenerate forms, discussed in Book VIII, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny. Al-Farabi consistently regards these four as the main types of his" ignorant" city or state, and, as we have already seen, this view is implicit in the FU!iil (cf. especially [28] and the notes there). But his conception of the ideal form of government varies. The chiefs and rulers of this cif)' are of four deScriptions. It is to be noted that al-Farabi is speaking of his ideal st:lte (cf. [55]), in which he admits four possible sources of authority. In the lvladinahFrJejilah he had admitted only three (cf. Introd. 4 (a) for the view that the j\fad1nah Fadilah is earlier than the FU!iil), the ideal ruler, a second best ruler, and rule by a group (two or more). ef. below.

l\;OTES TO THE TRANSLATION

qualities" (actually thirteen, as was noted by the authors of the French translation), and there is room for difference of opinion as to what in fact they are. Thus at one point he states that to be able to attain happiness is the ftrst condition of the ideal ruler ([59]). This, however, appears simply to round off his discussion of the second condition listed above (the attainment of happiness is the prerogative of the perfect man) and" first" presumably means no more than" most important". If" first condition" is taken strictly, we are left with only this and the following three, instead of five or six. l\gain, he says ([ 57]) that the ruler of the ideal city is so in virtue of two things, his being adapted for the rule, first, by natural disposition and temperament (bi'l-ft!rah 2va'!-!ab') and, second, by external condition and the state, or quality, of his will (bi'l-hai'ah 1va'l-malkah al-irad!yah). These two qualifications are taken by Dr Umar Farrukh in his exposition of the passage (Al-FarabZ)'an, 2nd eel. (Beirut, 1369/1950),28) together with the conditions listed above, i.e. as among the six, or five, conditions which, as we have seen, are mentioned by al-Farabi later. It would seem, however, that they are in the nature of general considerations set out by al-Farabi at the head of his argument, and developed in the course of the discussion into his innate qualities and external or acquired conditions, respectively. The six conditions in the Alad1nah Facjilah may thus be taken to be as given above, perfection of intellect and imagination counting as two, but the imaginative or prophetic endowment not being indispensable. These conditions, being unsystematically expressed, are somewhat overshadowed by the tabular list of natural qualities, though the description of the ideal ruler which emerges is clearer than in the S[yasah (cf. there on the" first chief" 49, and on the "ruler of the city, who is the king" 54-55). It has to be added that in the iVlad1nah Facjilah the innate qualities and conclitions are not apparently kept quite separate, and that there and here the six conditions are somewhat different.

the first chief The ideal ruler is so called Mad1nah Faejilah, 57, 59; Si)"Jsah, 49. Cf. [88], [91]. in 1JJhom are combined six conditions. In the lVladinah Farjilah (eel. Dieterici, 60) al-Farabi speaks somewhat indistinctly of six, or at least five conditions (shara'i;) which are fulfilled in the ideal ruler. These are at least different from twelve qualities (kha,rlah) which the "first chief", or ideal ruler, must possess (lVladinah Farjilah, 59-60), and they do not simply form part of the list of the latter given by al-Farabl, since the qualities are innate (qad fu.tira 'alaiha, 59), while the conditions do not supervene till after maturity (ba'd an Jakbura, 60). The conditions, al-Farabi tells us, have been mentioned already, and are apparently five, not six, in number, when abstraction is made from what he calls" their imaginative counterparts" (al-andad minjihrlt al-qtl1v!1'ah al-t!J!ltakbtl)')'ziah). All this must refer to what is laid down in Alad1nah Fii~lilah, 57-9, viz. that the ideal ruler must possess an inclusive art (the art of ruling); that he must be perfect, in the sense of being at once philosopher and prophet (i.e., as al-Farabi explains, both intellect and imagination are taken into account); that he must have the power of representing in words what he knows; that he must have the power of guiding men to happiness; and that he must have the power of carrying out actions. Unf'lrtunately al-Farabi does not mention these conditions so clearly as his "twdve

The second caJe is 1vhen no man is found in whom all these (Jc. conditions) are united, but they are found in a /z,rotfp, etc. Al-Farabi in the lVladinah Facjilah distinctly realizes the possibility that no one man will possess all the requisite conditions for ruling, in which case authority will have to be shared: "And if no one man is found in whom are united these conditions, but two are found, one of whom is wise, and the other possesses the remaining conditions, they will both be rulers in this (sc. the ideal) city. If these conditions are shared among a group, one possessing wisdom, a second possessing another of the prerequisites, and so on, and they are in mutual agreement, they will be the most excellent rulers (Aladlnah Faejilah, 61). He does not, ho\vever, make clear whether rule by a group may be a substitute for the rule of the ideal king, as is explicitly stated in the Fu,riil. The context rather suggests that it is a substitute for the rule of the" second chief" (see below), but no doubt the two cases are not differentiated. In the ,ri)'r1Jah also he envisages the rule of a group of" virtuous, good and happy people" (mz-nas aljaejilzln !1'al-akhYrlr 1val-su'ada') in the following

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passage (5 0): "And when it happens that of these kings (mulilk) at one time there is a group (jama'ah) either in a city or a nation or several nations, all their group is like a single king (malik), because of the agreement of their plans and aims, their will and lives", ete. But in neither work is aristocracy distinctly represented in the same way as in the present passage, viz. as the next best alternative to the rule of the ideal king and called into existence by his not being available.-Al-Farabi in the lvfadinah Faflilah (62) speaks of the" group" city (al-madinah al-jama'iJ'ah) as one of "ignorant" cities, and in the S~)'asah deals with the type at considerable length (69-7I). He has developed a characteristic of the Platonic democracy into a separate state (cf. r28]): the purpose of the inhabitants of the" group" city is freedom; and it is of course clear that it has nothing to do with the aristocracy which he speaks of in the present fa,r/.

NOTES TO THE TRANSLATION

This group are called the chiefs according to the law. This seems to be a development original to al-Farabi. Cf. above, "the king of, according to the law". [57] agreement of their opinions about God and spiritual beings. Cf. ivfadinclh Fa(iilah, 69: "The things in common which all the people of the ideal city should know are, first, knowledge of the First Cause and all its attributes, then the things separate from matter, and the special attributes and grade of each, till one comes (sc. in descending order) to the active intellect", etc. The whole passage is illustrative of the present fa.[l. The" spiritual beings" or immaterial things, of which the" active intellect" (al-'aql alja"al) is the type, are called in [65] "spiritual bodies". This is the beginning. \'Ve have here the reason why al-Farabi treats at length of metaphysics in his political works. It is necessary for the inhabitants of the ideal city to have the right views on these metaphysical matters, and especially for the ideal king, whose first prerequisite is wisdom (cf. [54]), i.e. knowledge of precisely this kind ([34]). Without such knowledge the end for which man exists remains unknown ([49 D, and the ideal city cannot be realized. the opinions of the inhabitants of the cit)', ara' ahl al-meidinah, cf. the book-title Ara' Ahl al-lvfadinah al-Fiidilah (lntrod., p. 8, n. I).

The third case is when these are not al)ailable either. The chief of the cif)' is then the man, etc. This is the" second chief" of the iVfadinah Fa(iilah (60-I), for whom "after he is of ripe age" (ba'da kibarihi) six conditions are laid down (in addition, apparently, to the twelve qualities, which he seems to share with the "first chief") closely resembling those mentioned here in the FUfljl. The principal difference is that the" second chief" in the Afadinah Fiidilah, like the "first chief", must possess wisdom (cf. above), whereas nothing is said about wisdom in the FU.[ill, where the third alternative is concerned. The circumstance that here jihad, specifically the holy war against infidels, replaces war simpliciter has already been commented on (Introd. 4 (a)). But perhaps the most significant feature in the present passage of the FUfll1 is the naming of the man who represents the third alternative as malik assunnah, "the king of, i.e. according to, the law, lawful king". This naming apparently comes nowhere else in al-Farabi, and the explanation of its appearance in the FU.[illseems undoubtedly to be looked for in the Politims of Plato. In the Republic it is characteristic of the right government of monarchy and aristocracy alike that the laws of the city are maintained (Book IV, end). It is otherwise in the Politims, where the rule of the philosophic statesman is above all laws (cf. J. B. Skemp, Plato's Statesman, p. 21 I). In particular, we read (301 B) "But when one man rules according to the laws, imitating him who knows (se. the philosophic statesman or ideal king) we call him king, making no difference in name between him who rules alone by knowledge and him who rules alone by opinion according to the laws". It is the latter who is the original of al-Farabi's "lawful king". The idea is adumbrated, we may say, so far as al-Farabi is concerned, already in the Afadinah Faflilah, according to which (60), in defect of the ideal ruler, "the laws and traditions which this chief (se. the ideal ruler) and his like laid down, if such succeeded one another in the city, are taken and confirmed", and the" second chief" is appointed, and it evidently had a place in Arabic philosophy afterwards (cf. Introd. 4 (c)). he should be able to go on the hot)' u'ar. Cf. above, a condition of the" king in reality", and Introd. 4 (a).

[62] the bearers of re/ix/on, the secretaries, ete. Both categories are mentioned in [53], as belonging to the second class in the ideal state. A similar collocation (secretaries and priests) comes in the Politicus, 290 A-E. [63] to acquire a good to uJhich the cit)' is entitled. Cf. Aristotle, Politics, I, 8, I 2 = I 2 56 b: 810 Kai Tj TrOAEIJIKT] q>VO"El KTTlTIKT] Tr<JJ5 EO"Tat. or (e) war with men, ete. See Hebrew variants. [65 ] the creation from matter; the heaz!en()' bodies; the spiritllal bodies. The existents are here listed in ascending order, cf. note on [57]. [66] The metaphysical categories have been given in [64] as three. Now in the light of the discussion in the preceding fa.[l, where a distinction has been drawn between what cannot not exist at a particular time and what cannot not exist at all, they are given as four in number.

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[58] the preservation of what is divided amonlz, them. Cf. below. AI-Farabi has already mentioned the conservation of good things as part of the function of the ruler of the household ([2 I]). Even in the" ignorant" city spoken of first in [28] (i.e. timocracy, the" honour" city) "the good things which in the opinion of the people of the city are goods" are preserved for them. PART IT

THE r'U;ilJL AL-MADAl'\I OF AL-FA[L~BI

NOTES TO THE TRANSLATION

[67] insufficient jor that existence . .. a portion oj that existence, i.e. reading lPttjud, "existence" for mattjlid, "existent".

kill themselves and kill the soul. The sense seems right, cf. above" the separation of the soul from the body, the body remaining devoid of soul" with the expression below" the soul perishes and the body remains devoid of soul".

[69] either to the highest or the least or an intermediate degree. For the phrase cf. [66]. [7 I] miser)' is not the penalry jor giving up virtuous actions, etc. Like its contrary, happiness, misery is an end, as al-Farabi has already stated, [69]. Therefore if aJl)'one beliezles this oj happiness, etc. In the following passage the Platonic virtues of temperance, justice and courage are clearly envisaged, though al-Farabi here speaks of those who are not truly temperate, etc. Cf. Plato, Phaedo, 68 D-E. the brave man among them, i.e. in the imperfect cities, the rulers of which have just been mentioned. what thry suppose to be virtues are nearer to being vices, etc. Cf. [25] end, for pseudovirtues.

the walls (i.e. the friends) oj God are in effect the Muslim saints. It is noteworthy that they are several times mentioned in this work of al-Farabi, cf. [8 I], [82].

[73] the people oj the ignorant cities and the unrighteolls. Cf. note to [25]. AI-Farabi's " ignorant" city is of several types, hence "ignorant cities" here and elsewhere. "The unrighteous" arc evidently the inhabitants of his" unrighteous" city. the thought that ry his death he will lose happiness. The last causes him more pain than is jelt bJI the ignorant, jor the ignorant know nothing oj happimss after death, etc. Cf. lvfadlnah Fd(lilah, 61, 62 (The people of the "ignorant" city do not know happiness, and it has not occurred to them to direct themselves towards it, whereas the people of the "unrighteous" city have the opinions of the ideal city and know happiness, the existence of God, and other matters, but their actions are those of the people of the" ignorant" cities), and similarly Si)'dsah, 73 = Dieterici's translation, Die Staatsleitllng, 88. what th~y hazle previollsb done (lit. "sent forward") in their lives. The idea and expression are Qur'anic, cf. Surahs 2, 89; 3, I78; 36, I I; 78, 4I, etc.

[74]

We must wait jor the loosing oj Him who joined them, and not take the loosing upon ourselves. Cf. Dunlop, "The Existence and Definition of Philosophy", 88-9, "it is not permitted to us to loosen this bond, I mean the bond of the soul with the body, but we should trust its loosing to Him \vho tied it". is not defrauded in the seeing Him. AI-Farabi here makes use of a tradition (padl/h) , cf. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, 18 I 7 a.

[80] excellence oj discrimination with reference to the actions which should be chosen or avoided. Cf. [35], etc. The man ojpractical lvisdom is he lvho possesses excellence ojdeliberation, etc. Cf. [3 6], [3 8].

when he is at the same time excellent lvith ethical virtue. Cf. [37].

[8 I] Hermes, i.e. Trismegistus, whom al-Farabi evidently regarded as a historical character. For views of Hermes Trismegistus among the Arabs cf. Ibn abi U~aibi'ah, 'U)'tin al-Anbd', ed. Muller, I, 16ff. Alexander, se. the Great. Zaid. Here, as commonly, for" so-and-so ", without specific reference. The holders oj this vielv resort to Itgb', hateful deeds, etc. If the First Cause knows "the partial existences perceived by the senses" at all times, all things are in effect predestinated, e.g. that Zaid becomes rebellious, and if Zaid believes this, he will make no effort to remain obedient. [82] The doctrine of special providence is for al-Farabi even more pernicious than that of God's foreknowledge, for it involves his participation in wicked acts.

The virtuolls warrior, al-mtgdhid aljd(lil. Cf.jihdd [54] and Introd. 4 (a). [7 6] Some people think that the man lvho is not zpise becomes lvise onb' bJ' the separation oj the so1l1 jrom the borb', etc. Al-Farabi or rather Ibn a~- Taiyib elsewhere criticizes the view, based on the Phaedo of Plato, that philosophy is the study or practice of death (cf. IlEAETll 6CXVO:TOV Phaedo, 8I A), Arabic mu'dndt al-mallt, if by that is meant natural death, which is "separation of the form from the matter, I mean of the soul from the body". See D. M. Dunlop, "The Existence and Definition of Philosophy, from an Arabic text ascribed to al-Farabi", Iraq, XIII (1951), 86, 88-9; S. M. Stern, 'Ibn al-Tayyib's Commentary on the Isagoge', Blllletin oj the School oj Oriental and Ajrican Stlldies, XIX (1957), 419-425.

withollt connection betlPeen him and partner or u'ife. Cf. Qur'dl?, SlirahJ 6, 163; 17, I l l ; 72, 3, etc. ry appointingjor the task one, etc., i.e. on the orthodox view the Caliph, but as al-Farabi had presumably by this time broken with the authorities at Baghdad (cf. Introd. 4 (a», what is meant should rather be any legally constituted Muslim authority.

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Some maintain, etc. This represents more or less the orthodox "Muslim view, and since the only alternative given is decisively rejected, it is probably al-Farabi's.

THE FU~UL AL-MADA~I OF AL-FARABI

NOTES TO THE TRANSLATION

he iJ exalted abOl'e the need for partnerJ and helper.r. Cf. Our'iin, S14rahJ 6, IOO; 7, 190, ete. [87] Jome JJ/hoJe harm iJ Jlight, ete. The" honour" city is the best of the" ignorant" cities according to S!yiiJah, 63, as mentioned in the note to [28], and in the "group" city (cf. note on [54]) it is even possible in the course of time that the ideal type of man should appear (Si)'iiJah, 70-I). [88] the rule of the ideal citin. Cf. the end of the fa.fl. A plurality of ideal cities is also

till he comeJ to the heavenlY bodieJ. Apparently there is repetition, since al-FariibI

admitted [27].

the 10weJt of the ignorant politieJ, the conqueJt polity, i.e. tyranny. Cf. the note to [28]' Aristotle had said the same (Eth. Nic. VIII, 10= II 60 b): KO! qJOVEpWTEPOV En! Ta\lTllS (Jc. TTlS TVpovvioos) ClTI XElpi<JTll, following Plato (e.g. Republic, IX, 576 E; cf. PoliticUJ, 302 E). the reflective faculty, cf. [90]. This is not a synonym for the "experiential faculty" of which al-FariibI has been speaking, but a term covering the activity of the whole of the reflective part of the soul ([30]).

the corrupt politieJ, aJ-J!:yiiJiit aljiiJidah. A general term, cf. note on [25]. he mtlJt emigrate. This is the opposite process to the one al-FarabI has already mentioned, the banishment of the bad man from the cities ([ I I], [14]). The expression used is noteworthy (wajabat 'alaihi al-hi/rah). "Hijrah" is of course the term constantly applied to the flight of Mu1)ammad from Meccah to Medinah, and could not fail to suggest the religious event to readers. The effect is doubtless intentional, and the passage serves to mark some crisis in al-FariibI's life, of which we are imperfectly informed. Cf. Introd. 4 (c) for the present passage as the starting-point of Ibn Bajjah's (Avempace's) theory of the "rule of the solitary" (tadblr al-mutawappid).

[89] The kernel of this fa.fl (from" For he who desires to learn speculative philosophy, begins from numbers ", in the second paragraph, to "all the things by which man reaches that perfection" near the end of the fourth paragraph) is an abbreviation of several pages of al-FariibI's Kitiib Tap.fll aJSa'iidah (cf. Introd. 3, p. 7, n. 7), in the Hyderabad edition of A.H. 1345 pp. 10-15. While this is an advantage for establishing the text of the FU.fzil, in so far as the more complete text provides one or two improvements (duly noted in the apparatus) to the readings of MS. A, on which we principally depend for the whole of Part II of the FU.f14l (cf. Introd. 5) except here and the followingfa.fl ([90]), the positive gain is not great, for the abbreviation (eked out by paraphrase) appears to have been somewhat carelessly done, and the truncated form of the text is unusually difficult to follow. This and the following fa.fl, also based on the Ta!Nll, scarcely formed part of the original FU.f14l. See Introd. 4 (a). the virtun JJ!hich are thought to be l'irtueJ, but are not .10. Cf. [25], [71]. reflectil'e l'ir/tteJ. Cf. [90]'

92

has just told us that the enquirer considers the heavenly bodies along with perspectives, music, etc. In fact, as is clear from intervening lines in the Tap.fll after "understood and represented" which have been omitted in MS. A, he means that the heavenly bodies are now to be considered in a different way, viz. along with matter, i.e. not mathematically but physically.

the introduction ofprincipleJ other than the principln What? and By what? and How?" This is the reading of the Tap.fll and is virtually certain. It has been modified in MS. A to "the introduction of the principles of What? and By what? and How?", in order, apparently, to give the semblance of coherence to the passage. But" the principles of What? and By what? and How?" correspond to the formal reasoning of mathematics (cf. note below), which is the first business of the enquirer, and to make sense of the passage should already have been mentioned. In the complete form of the text in the Tap.fll they have in fact so been mentioned (p. 10, line 2), a little before the quotation in the Fu.f14l begins (from line 7).

into a region midwq)l between the genuJ JJ!hich haJ no princlpleJ of exiJtence except What? and the gemlJ for JJ!hoJe JpecieJ exiJt the four princlpln. The passage is taken verbally from the Tab.fll, but in its context in the FUJzil appears incomprehensible. The" four principles of existence" have not previously been mentioned. At most three principles have (What? and By what? and How?). As in the previous case, the difficulty is met by recourse to an earlier, unquoted passage in the Tab.fll (ed. Hyderabad, p. 5): wamabiidi'

al-wzgiid arba'ah miidhd wabimiidhii wakaif wzgiid aJh-Jhai',ja'inna hadhihiyu'nii bihi (leg. bihii) amr JlJiipid, wa 'ammiidhii wzg14duhu JJ!alimiidhii wzgiiduhu: fa' inna qaulanii 'ammiidhii llJlg14duhu rubbamii dulla bihi 'aid al-mabiidi' aljii'ilah warubbamii dulla bihi 'ala al-mawiidd, fata,riru aJbiib al-wzgozid wamabiidi'hi arba'ah, i.e. "The principles of existence are four: What and By what and How is the existence of the thing? (these mean a single thing) and From what is its existence? and For what is its existence? Our saying From what is its existence? sometimes signifies the active principles and sometimes signifies the materials, so that the causes and the principles of existence are four." This analysis gives in fact the four causes of Aristotle (formal, efficient, material and final) and it is these that are the "four principles of existence" in the Fu.f14l passage. Further, "the principles of What? and By what? and How? are not three principles but one, cf. Tab.fll, p. 10, line 2 (referred to in the previous note): lJ!{yaJta'milu min maMdi' al-11Jt!jzid mrJdhii wabimiidhrJ lJ!akaifdhii wt!i14duhu d14na ath-thaliithah, i.e. " And he employs of the principles of existence What and By what and How is its existence? to the exclusion of the (other) three". This single principle is referred to in the present FU.f14l passage simply as What? It is evidently the formal cause, and what al-FariibI means is the passage of the enquirer from mathematics, where the formal cause alone is investigated, to natural phenomena, where all four causes, material, efficient and final, as well as formal, have to be taken into account, if they are to be understood.

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and he investz;gates thoroughly the natural existents . .. he passes a/!,C/in to another /z,rade. This passage is not clarified by the Ta!Jfil (pp. I I-I2) and contains several expressions not found there. the First Existent and the First Principle of all. Cf. [34] (First Existent), [76] (First Principle). Asfor the man zJ!ho isgiven the practicalpart by a revelation, etc. The contrast in this paragraph is between the philosopher whose progress has just been traced and the non-philosopher who is in receipt of revelation. The other pair, the natural scientist and the diviner, are introduced to illustrate the difference. Each of the latter in a sense knows: the diviner has knowledge of certain possibilities, but only the natural scientist knows the nature of the possible. So the inspired man knows what to do in guiding the affairs of a community, but the wisdom of the philosopher knows the nature of the good which is to be aimed at (explicitly, [49])' Though the position of the inspired legislator, e.g. Mul)ammad, is thus safeguarded, it cannot be doubted that the implied superiority, in the field of theory if not of practice, of the philosopher might easily give offence, and so also the claim brought forward in the concluding words of the paragraph that the philosopher also, no less than the inspired man of religion, receives a revelation. Cf. in this connection the last sentence of [76]. The views here expressed do not differ greatly from what al-FarabI says elsewhere in other, presumably earlier, works. In the Madinah Farjilah (52) he tells us that prophecy of divine things is the most perfect stage which the imc~ginative faculty can attain and the most perfect stage which man can reach by his i,'1Jaginative faculty, and again (58-9) that revelation comes through the agency of the active intellect. By the operation of the active upon the passive intellect a man becomes wise, a philosopher and possessed of practical wisdom in the fullest sense, while by its operation on the imaginative faculty he becomes a prophet, a warner of what is to come and an announcer of the present position of the partial things (perceived by the senses and distinct from the intelligibles, cf. ibid. 50-I). (In the S[)'asah, 49 and again 50, revelation is said to come through the agency of the active intellect but its operation is not differentiated, hence the distinction between philosopher and prophet is not drawn.) In the Tapfil (40-1) understanding of a thing (te/him ash-shai') is said to come either by its essence (nature) being intellected, or by a likeness of it being represented to the imagination. The two kinds of knowledge thus gained arc given the names falsafah, 'philosophy', and, apparently, malakah, "habit!!s, (induced) cond;tion". Both give an account inter alia of the r:irst Principle and First Cause, and the ultimate cnd for which man was created (contrast Fztsfil, r49]). But falsa/ah alone provides proofs (bC/rhatza), and the inferior status of malakah in al-FarabI's vie,,, seems clear when wc read that malC/kah represents as ends instead of the true good, happiness, "other goods which arc thought to be the ends" and" imitates the happiness which is truly happiness by what is thought to be happiness", i.e. in effect makes the same kind of mistake as the rulers of the ignorant cirjes (cf. Iz8] and

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NOTES TO THE TRANSLA'rrON

notes). The views suggested rather than developed in the presentfafl, though their orthodoxy may have been suspect, remained influential, and determined a significant part of the work of the "Spanish school" ofArabic philosophythe pukama' al-Andalus, as Ibn Khaldun called them (lVluqaddimah, 414 = transl. F. Rosenthal, n, 371 )-notably Avempace (Ibn Bajjah) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd). Sce E. I. J. Rosenthal, "The Place of Politics in the Philosophy of AI-Farabi", Islamic Culture, XXIX (1955),161, n. 5 for a similar statement.

[9°] This fafl is found practically entire in al-FarabI's Tapfil (ed. Hyderabad, 21-2), but the arrangement is altered in the FUffil. Cf. [89]. Reflective virtue, etc. This involves practical activity, sec [6] end and 30, also

[88], [89]. [9 I] the last perfection, viZ. happiness. Cf. [25]. [9 2 ] This fafl is headed in the MS. "Section by Abu

Na~r (sc. al-FarabI) found noted down in the handwriting of al-KhanabI on the outside of a book". It appears to be additional to the original FUffil. I:!amd (Al)mad) b. Mul)ammad b. Ibrahlm al-KhanabI, (Brockelmann, Geschichtederarabischen Littercztur, I, 165), author of Gharib al-lfadith, al-Bayan Jz I'jaz ai-Qur'an (cd. Dr. 'Abd al-'AlIm, Aligarh, 13721 I 953) and other works, was a younger contemporary of al-FarabI who in later life withdrew to a religious community at Bust in Sijistan, but there is nothing to show that he is intended by the nisbah. No man is apt to exist endowed by nature from the first with perfection. Cf. [IQ].

[93] This fafl is headed in the MS. "And of the doctrine of Abu Na~r-may God be pleased with him ". first sight. Cf. Tapfil37, for the phrase (already supra [80]) and for the opinion that the kha!!ah, i.e. the most excellent or virtuous, are not restricted to what in effect is "common sense", the" first chief" least of all. [94] Headed "And of the doctrine of Abu Na~r also-God's mercy upon him". These with their analogy also, ete. I.e., apparently, the aim and way of one of the associates with their counterpart, the aim and way of the other, which are no longer the same. The translation of the rest of the sentence assumes a parenthesis (" and the second association ... business affairs "), with the words" because each of the participants", etc. depending on "mischievous and wrong" in the first part of the sentence. This is a little awkward, but the alternative seems to be more, not less, objectionable: with a full-stop at "excellent things" it becomes necessary to assume a lacuna, in both A and Heb., after "business affairs ". [95 ] Headed again simply" Fafl", like the great majority of the fore-goingfijfztl, but it is doubtful if it belongs to the original form of the work.

95

ENGLISH INDEX

ENGLISH INDEX The number refers to sections of the translation Affirmative, 8I After-life, 76 Alexander, 8I Ancients cited as authorities, main heading, colophons, I I, 20,28, 33, 86 See also Aristotle, Plato, Socrates Aristocracy, 54 Aristotle, 25, 80, 93 Artificial and natural, Classes in the ideal state, 53, 56-7 Conquest, made the end in one kind of state (= tyranny), 88 Courage nature of, 16, 72-5 the pseudo-virtue so called, 71 (Democracy), 28 Dialecticians, 80 Divine man, I I Emigration to the ideal states, 88 Evil has no real existence, 69 is of two sorts, 69 Existents belong to two of three metaphysical categories, 64 form three orders, 65 belong to three of four metaphysical categories, 66 Existence defective, 67-8, 77 view that all existence is good refuted, 69 Existences, imaginary, 69 Final cause, 49 First Cause, 69, 8I, cf. 34, 49

96

First chief, identified with the ideal ruler, 54, 88,9 1 First Truth, 34 Form and matter, 5 Formal cause, 89 Four causes, Aristotelian doctrine of, 89 Good the absolute, 25 has real existence, 69 is of two sorts, 69 Habit, 8-15, 89 Happiness the last perfection, 25, 9I the goal, 26 the end and aim of the kingly craft, 27 the ultimate end, 49 no end beyond it, 69 not a recompense for something which has been given up, 71 misery the opposite of, 71 an end attained by virtuous actions, 71 after death, 72-3, 75, 84 a reward for virtue, 74 sciences of, 89 is virtue, 9 I Hermes,8I Honour, made the end in one kind of state (=timocracy), 28 Household, 20-3 Ideal ruler qualifications of, 54 attains the highest human virtue, 84 ,trains another in the ideal policy, 88

Justice in the ideal state, 57-8 general and special, 60 the pseudo-virtue so called, 7 I See also Punishment

duty of, 91, cf. 3 See also King, First chief Ideal state contrasted with the "indispensable" or minimum city, 25 is for the attainment of what is most excellent, 25; which is happiness, 25-7; and neither honour, riches, pleasures, nor the combination of these, 28 has five classes or parts, 53 its rule is either true monarchy, true aristocracy, monarchy according to law, or aristocracy according to law, in that order of preference, 54 precedence of classes in, 56 mutual love in, 57 justice in, 58 differentiation of function in, 6I ruler attains the highest virtue, 84 ruled attain the virtues of which they are capable, 84 life in, the pleasantest of all, 84 See also Ideal states Ideal states, 27, 88 Ignorant states, 73, 86, cf. 28 essentially different from the ideal state, 83 rarely unmixed, 85 some less bad than others, 87 tyranny the worst type, 88 Imagination, 5I defect of, 44 Imaginative faculty, 6 Imtims, 54 Individual, cannot realize man's existence, 67 Intellect speculative, 3I, 76 practical, 35 active, 89 Intelligence, objects of, 80-1

King identified with the statesman, 3-4 true king, I I, 27, 54 produces the mean in morals and actions, 19 cares for his subjects, 82 See also Ideal ruler Kingship true view of, 27, 29 wrong views, 28 See also Monarchy Knowledge results from learning and study, 71 speculative, 89 Man perfection of, 25, 89, 91 not the most excellent thing in the world,48 derives perfection from the One, 49 Mean in itself, 17 relative, employed in actions and morals, 17 Measurement, 17, 89 end, cf. 3, 26 Measurers, 53 Monarchy, 54 Natural and artificial, Negative, 8 I Orators, 53 Passions proceed from the appetltlve part of the soul, 6, 70 view refuted that all passions are evil, 70 Plato, 25

]ihad, 54, cf. 74-5 7

97

DAF

THE FU~UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

Platonic classification of defective states, 28, 88 Platonic virtues of temperance, justice, courage, 7 I Pleasures made the end in one kind of state (=democracy), 28, cf. 25 view refuted that all pleasures are good, 69 Plutocracy (oligarchy), 28 Poetry, six kinds of, 52 Poets, 53 Political art, 3, 19, 24 Possible, nature of the, 89 Potency and act, 5, 3 I, 35, 88 Providence views on, 82 doctrine of special providence refuted, 82 Practical wisdom an intellectual virtue, 30, 36 the man of, possesses the ethical virtues, 37, 80; is trained under the ideal ruler, 88 types of, 38 needs a natural employment, 47 differs from wisdom, 48-9 Pseudo-virtues, 25, 7 I, 89 Punishment preventive, 58 retributive, 59

Soul and body analogy of, 1-4, 91 separation of, 76 States mixed,86 vicious, 88 ideal, see Ideal states ignorant, see Ignorant states Statesman, 3, 4, I l See also King Sunnah, 13, 54

Wicked man, I I, 37, 76 Wisdom one of the rational (intellectual) virtues, 30 scope of, 34 different from practical wisdom,

48-9

acquaints with true happiness, 49 alone possesses knowledge of the First Cause, 49 is partially attainable in this life, 76 See also Practical wisdom Zaid, 81

Temperance nature of, 13 the pseudo-virtue, 13, 71 Time, 81 (Timocracy), 28 True king, see King (Tyranny), the worst of the ignorant polities, 88 Tyrant, 88 Vices, intellectual, 43-5 Virtue involves knowledge, 89 is happiness, 91 Virtues ethical, 7, 8, 10,37,80 rational (intellectual), 7, 10,3°-41-

46

Rational faculty, 6, 52 Revelation, 89 Rich, form a class in the state, 53 Riches, made the end in one kind of state (= plutocracy or oligarchy),28

mean states between two extremes, 16 reflective, 89-90 speculative, 89 practical, 89 See also Courage, Justice, Temperance, Wisdom, Pseudovirtues

Saints, see Walls Self-sacrifice, 74-5 Self-sufficiency, in the agent or maker, 78-9 Social security, 58, 62 Socrates, 25 Soul, parts or faculties of the, 6

Walls, wal1, 76, 81-2 War when justified, 63 not to be conducted for private interest, 63 honour to the fallen in, 75 , See also Jihad

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A fol. 29 b

THE FU~UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

•~ L

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t L...! ~~ J..9WI ~-:! ':1., • '-:-:'7. L .y

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J-9

ARABIC INDEX

I~.l .~{,

Numbers refer to sections of the text I

after

p

t \...1 words omitted cf. Hebrew variants

.a.l ~:; L.~ 0..1..11 ..r.:;J•.: ;

2

J .,l.. J...AJ1 ~~l..9i 0~ ~fl.ll J.J~I ...:.:..is

.!.

~ JI ~:';...Q.J' ..l.;! ~ .a.~ .uJ1 :i.a-J iJ.GU.J1

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colophon in A

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01

J....s:

J....s:

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29:

56

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5

)'T 25, 28, 35, 43, 44, 50, 51, 80, 89:

5

...

&.

J~!.I 6: yJ:r..

25

.r""::u iJ.1 iL.:J1

0', ~.tly.1 ~ .a..ijl

jt 6,

50

y::-i (J::-i)

71

J~~ 73

-

,

Crd) y:'i 61; ;t;. (I~i)

l,)"'.;J1

uI~~i

79:

;l..

49, 79, 89

56

«(,$'~i)

(,$';i 36, 45, 69, 94; (,$';t:; 23

«(,$'~i)

(,$'~t:;

13:

~l..

13;

(,$'~i 63,

69

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25,80,93 81

~:i 73

r1 (J.,:>i)

;;:

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34:

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0

83 i

)\..,.,1 25, 32, 34, 55, 64, 66, 7 2, 73, 7 8, 89: JJ-'>"I main heading, colophons, 42, 83,87; J.,:>L.I 63

0,,1)\JI (--.iJi)

25

--LJt:; 77,

G ... i:

fJI

13;

92:

fh 13 ~

J.,

(.a.J I)

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J.. t

plur.

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5

38 ;

52, 89;

'if 90; ;;"':';i 54

26

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JJL 32; ...;1;:;122,57: J)\::;I 25, 92: Jij'~" 22

JW148, 88 173

:J1

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THE FU$UL AL-MADANi OF AL-FARABi 50~

J

~I

o~

main heading, 28, 55: :l...:-:!..ul J-Jt>1 26, 27, 28, 58, 59, 63, 73, .n

!

Joji

JJ

•

101

74, 75: 0..111 J-Jt> I 4: ~~J--4.J ~J--4 jJ.1 89: :y"lb 411 0..111

J-ll>!

73; ~LI 28, 63: JLg;.;:...1 58, 69, 89

•

(....;T)

.:;"l;T

88

,

8I;:uT 17,76, plur. .:;,,~T 6,28,29; j,J1.J! 31, 32: J~i 64, 66:

JT

J;~I

34, 49:

0.JJ;~1

54: or f

J;f Cr'

9, 9 2

0~1 74, 80, 81

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(~)

tl~

~

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70

(~)

~..I 28

(f~)

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31, 34,57;

L:-..

56, 57, 69, plur.

76, 89; ~I ~..)l:-11 89

j.>.;

12,

0'>';

I, 3, 4, 18,

(I~) , -: ...

tJ.i

J1

5

22,

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.J

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88

89

(t4)

:l.d! 53

(04)

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95:

0-.l:-;

94:

U:.l:-::..

94

Cl

3, 17,37, 87, 91

;;J~ 94

.Di

61

....AJ-j

76

~~

•

.

36:

5'

,

,

tlJ 4, 47, 79: "~f 34, 56; ~; 21, 56 ..:..

-

+~ 74, 75

~)'. 65

5

O~

36, 56; .. lOll 53: ell 38

J'...k:-; 16

(!)'.)

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28;

•

(Jt)

..

OJ

86, 89, plur.

U;A> I)'.

~ 86

(P)

;;)t;.

(~)

J~! 3

,

0:':"

32

5

(~)

82: ;lyLI ;;)l:-~ 6

•

36

j~)f 89 1:::. 6, 16

0~~ 80

(Y~':")

y~l,:" 6; y~l,:"

(Y.1':")

3, 6

;;.Jf

(J~)

(1.1':")

•• #

Jki

5

tY-I

CcY) cl;:.. 89

J 1)'./ 57

~

58: .. ~ 63,7 2,73

(~)

...

16

. (y.)

0 k )'.

01~f

81

56:

(ff)

23, 24, 26, 54, 76, plur.

6

89; J?JI fJ..;l1

6, 90

\Sf) 1 \S..)4 80, 93

5

(J.J.: )

47, 58, 8o;

~..)l.:--- 31,

10, 34, 85

~

jl!

•

ARABIC INDEX

.

.

Jkif

\S.J':"

68 174

12

I.i::- I 63 w 2 b Y.J':" 41: l>-~ff 88; ~ff 35, 43, ::0'"

33, 7 6 ;

-,

13: ~~l~

-

53,69, 9 2; \S.1~ 53, 69 175

...

plur. YJ~ 35, 42, 45

-

THE FU~fJL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

(1.;d

J."c <-.1;

89:

-5y(.; <-.17" 30:

Jl:U <-.1-:- 7, 30:

:S-)ii <-.1~ 30, 32, 89; 0J."7J1 :1.1:-1. 4,22:

~J.l1

!i

t~~

73, 74:

(is.1~ )

<-I.1~ 7 1

'0

r~

(J~)

(J.o-:) •

t:"·~

P..

4, 6

il~:-i 5; ~;l ...~) il~i 65: i;.~~ il~:-i 65, 89:

(~) • 0

~

lS':'"

25:

t~~

t?

16, 25, 3 I, 56, 58, 89:

64, 7 8; t ..·. . ::-::- I 54, 80:

t

L •....::-:- 1 7 8, 9 2, 94;

:i..cLo:

54;

e i 54, 89

:U~ 4, 22, 23, 24: ~_?J.l1 ~~ 23: :U~l! :i.L.~1 ~ 38: :i.L.;i.' ~ j.;..1.) 63; J~ I, 2, 6, 93

6, 17, 63, 69:

() l~)

6;

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(~)

71

if'"

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5.)

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J.::,

l~ 54, 74, 75

-

95: i)::.l;l\ 73, 85: 4::.1;l10.:J1 73: 4"'1;l'

d~l"....J1 83,85,86,

~-.; 8, 41: ~J-;i 36, 63; 1~~~1 ;;.)~~ 36, 40 90: ;;.)~ p-W'JI 50, 51, 54: ~JI ;;.)j-~ 51,5 2, 54: ~JI ;;.)j-~ 54,80: L • 52;

oD~

51; oD) 9, 78:

y) L..

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63

89;

~;.

6, 78, pIur.

.::.e:;. 81

88

J.,=-

w

iSf'"' elat, 93; is.;i- 23, 24, 28 ~

a

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5"

13,76: (,)"L.. 6: (.)""~ 6,35,44,71; (.)""1....,..1 16; ~ 37,69,7 6 :

u-U 1 J86;

~l':':"

69; ~I ~1yl16

~

69; ..;. : ::. 28;

~ J~

23, 24, 86, 87, 88, 9 1 :

38, 45, 54 '~ . .52 ,''::'t:...:..: 3: 3,

tJ

~""':i 56

6,25,28,31,35, 7 2 :

J~

69, 7 1 :

J~

95;

~

56

~

(.,..,;..... )

)~ 79

(J1..)

l;)h 63

()h)

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63

iS1)1 o.)j-~ 30, 41, 54: ~~)I o.).r:- 36, 37, 38, 80: ~1 o.).r:- 7

jb.

;l~

9: )L.. 9

.fu.':

6,28,35, 58:

0""

59, 89, 94: J;~!I .jJ-1 34; :io,.b 34: ~4 25, 89: ~1 ~ 27,

58:

~;.;

58, 59, 63;

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23

.•.

65, 67, 7 1, 7 8, 89, 9 1

C (~)

~~

~

63: (Jl;ll) 0~ 59; :i.,:l~ 63 ::

;.r:- ~f'" 63;

0.f..f'" 36

~

71, 83, pIur. (.)""l~~i 65; .ri~ 16, 25

~

63, 75:

Of'")

35,43,44, 50,80,89

.)l~ 54: is.)~ 54:

:i.,:;' 16

50'"

~-

~.

0

.J

o•

5" 0 ..

y::'.r:-

(~)

(iSf'")

87, 88 .)l...

34: J~L.. 56: Jl:..1. 61 '0 .Jl:.. 54, 56; iSh I 56; .\.;1,).:<7 58

~

38

5 0 ...

~

Jl:..

(oDf'")

0.>..)1

5"

(~)

78: 6~ 1-,",," 54, 8 I

Yf'"

J;

10, 22

.).J~

6J....

(Il:..)

0

).#;

(~)

5"

52, 7 2, 73

~1, il~1 89; jl--:- 76 • :U)\~ 28, 38; 93

•

:,..~y <-.1-~ 7, 70: JI :I.1~1. 57: :1.1-::-1

.....

6, 34, 76, pIur.

50'"

e

~I ~I.1~i

23, 25,53, 57:

ARABIC INDEX

~1.

5I 72;

~

C~I 82;~':"

6, 57: U)(JI

~

52, 70:

r

J1

~

58:

l;~ 25,45,

34, 36, 37, 49, 7 1, 89, 93: 94

57, 58;

~...i.J-1 ~

~I

51, 54;

23, 24,69

• ~

27, 33 (~)

41

~ 4, 21,

ylb.f 81

I

17 6

12

177

DAF

25,

ARABIC INDEX

THE FU~DL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

F

5"

.J

4)

., F'

•

73, 74:

~

16

l.Y

45; 0"..., 45, 74

~

76

jb.

:u......

Lr_JJI

~"j.;..

~

3, 6, 17,

22,

23, 33, 7 1, 75, 76, 7 8, 89, plur. J I~I' 33, 58;

89; Jb.:::-I 47: :i.Jb.:::-1 81;

73; ..;.Jl..::.

:~ ~

12,

13, 15, 17:

Ji::~

~

4,88, plur.

k

89;

J~ J~

0.1::' ~I

5

";l::.

71 :

";y:.. 6, 52, 7 1 ; -...4.y£ 29

() l::')

.J':f-

50'"

50'"

~ 5~

iJ.::.

II,

(y.~)

29:

~:l::.

56;

II:

0

5.>

~

5"

22, 56, 66 75:

"tk:;:

31

rfY'P-~ 38;

:L,';.l::. 25, 69: J......A.i

(ud::.)

7,

92

.10'"

I,

2, 3, 4, 8, 13, 16, 28, 36, 38, 50, 52, 58, 5",.

4.>b l:L1 u1.J':f- 73: ) ~ I

37, 45, 51:

jJi 51,

54

52, 54, 56:

Sw

~l::. J 58

;Z~lk;.. 50, 54; ~l~ 50; .. ~ 53; ~tk;L1 9 2 ...Jl:-! .1k::. 89;

~ ).l::.

74:

16 ;'Jl::. 85;

~ 85 17 8

;~ main heading,

~

51;

11, 23,27,28,38, 54, 63:

(~~)

:u.:':L1 J j::.1~ 63: ~ j::.1~ 64

(y)~)

y)J-j' 88

(i::Y)

J;r 37,

44, 56:

~J-:;

4, 28, 29,

J.-:-)~ 89, 9 1

o):l~

74

5 ~

50 ...

V")~

(!J) ~)

5'" ..

j>.::'

~

~ 52; ()""""t;:: 16; :i.....l-_..::. 28; ~ 36, 52: ~l-::' 2: ~I

•

()~.::.)

0 .)

28, 62 5

j:.

~~l::. 25, 63; ~';::'I 52; ~.;c::...1 19, 52: ~~ 19, 26

5

ua.::.

(~)

a

Jl::'

34, 82, 88: ;J-", 21, 54, 59,76: ~.>ll ;J-... 19,21, 23: 0.>l1 .J.i~J-...

:i...l: 61, 63

5"

-

82, 87

~

36,47, 88 16

~

17;

~ 43,44,45, 76 : ~'" 6

c

...

~I

23,28, 36,41,69, 70,7 2, 76, 94: J)\l:.~1 J~ .."J-I 25:

II,

69, 70, 73:

(Jl::')

93;

5

0"

....

(~)

cl::.

92

0 1';';' 69: ..::..1';';'

16, 52

~l~

82; ~ 8, 16, 92, plur. J"j.;..' 11, 12, 17, 19, 24, 92;

:v.

0~J-1 25, 76, 84: J.J~I o~J-I 25: :il-:-L..JI olJ-1

51:

36 ; ...,.....:. 37

~

~.1""

22,

J~

to

50,}

~::-

6, 17,

5" O.J

(J::.)

30: 0'" :ut';: 'j 74

o~ 25, 73: 7 1;

J::.

16

8, 10, 37, 80; :i:.iJ,::. 82;

53, 62

89

22,

;, ...,........

(t::.)

50'"

JO ,

Jl~ (\5-"")

1l-~ 86

(-..Ai::.)

~

~

(.hi.;.)

J)\;:;.I 17, 94:

50,}

.

__

~

~

(J.?-)

5

63, 86: ~ 40, 4 1; ~ 7, 30, 34, 4 8, 49, 54, 76, 9 1; ~~"" 76 , plur... I..£i. 34, 4 8, 53: 61

--

c.S)~

(~~)

---

71

!J)~i

.JG~l

48:

33

33 ~I ~I.p 85

-

•

~

~

~~

6; :WIJ-... 12: ~IJ-... 6

J~

39, 80; J::J~ 4 1

•

179

12-2

THE FU~fJL AL-MADANI OF AL-FIRIBI 0'

W;,

(L!';' )

...

0'

i!;'

(0 1;,)

~!;,

(.......jj)

5.J~

6, 25,28,34,51,52,55,56,59,61,62,63,75:

~l.J~1

...

01 0.J~

88 0

(j~)

jh..

56;

j')l~1 28, 29

73: J.ll>~ 95

~Lz:.J.I 82

(~)

~) (~)I) 6

(if)

;;l.~J 53; ~) 82 ol..ij 52

Cl)~

diJ)1 34, 89

(.......ll»)

~j 28, 29

JI..

&0

iJ"'1)

5"

~

(-S.J) )

;;;,1)1 57, 58, 69: <s;,GI 57, 69, 87 89

-S;) 6, 36,42:

,

~

~

51, 56, 80

~.J

0

1

'

70, 71,72, 74, 76 : -SI) 71, 93: -S)I -S;,I! 80, 93: "r "I} 81,

~

76

";:')1 76, 82 50

c..!J

;.1" (-S;)I) 4 2; :4,J) 6,3 6, 37,3 8,45,

72; (.)"~) 55,56,63,88, pIur. "Lw.J) 28, 54, 56:

52

~j)

71; J\..:..,J) 57, 65, 69

)

t

j

(u..j)

81, 82

01..j 17, 18, 67, 79, 81, 87, pIur.

01...)

~

JG ;: jl,Jj ;,G 6; .l.,>.l w

(..;:.)

w

5

88; (.)".J.J.1" 55, 56

82;

iZ

~j 6, 77: ~> 86; ~j 87

(;,1)

J;~(~~)I 54,88, 91; :i....1~) 28, 29, 54,55,61,88: JJ.,.;Li.JI :i....1~)1

-si;

5"

(..,..s)

5

)

5"

,

(ol..i)

(c.G) :hG

"I)~I .J.J1 53: :i.:...J~1 .J.J 1 53: J~I.,;,..JI .J.J~ 54

22:

tr; 6; ~i·.1" 80

5

3°,40

2,

56;

( ••1.•:)

iG iJ"'G

:-S;,) 12, 82, 87, 88; ;;,,1;,) 87

5"

0

(.J~ )

0

5~

50 ...

ull>;'

lM

72

~

25,68,76,79,81, 89: ~JI~ 'oI.JIJ.! 25,34,79: ol.JIJ.J 25,28,

,,5"~ 7, 46

5

5

~j 34, 69, 89: ....... j..1.. 22; ~J) 56, 63; ~j'.1" II, 23, 61, pIur.

0.J\";") 52

(if-)

r)

5

~.;, 53, 62

(S~)

I,:")

(;~;)

~

"I.J;' 17, pIur. ~.J;" 17, 18, 19, 26

7 1 : c.I.J~ 34, 83

~~

t}j 5: ~r 6

.......J1.1.. 22, 34, 56, 57, 58

76

~

c.I~

5~

5"

!i~

J'...J,),j' 5: ).J,)," 6

5"

(0 1;,)

(~)

(L!'I..0I) 37, pIur. olll>; 50; "Ill>;' 36,47

1;J.1" 23

..b:-J) 23, 57: !i

29, 78, 89; (-s.J;' )

(~)

73: -S.JW;, 84

5"

()I;,)

ARABIC INDEX

l;j

7 1 : Ci), 7 1, 7 2 180

81;

~..j

0Ljl 87: .,..,.;LJ-I 0 1..)1 81:

62, pIur. ,,\;'..j 62

II, 12: 68, 79;

J,JG g

38, 61:

;iJ~I; 54; ;iJG1 .J

79 (I ~

35; ;,I;'jl 72,76: ;,I... ;,jl 35; ;;;,yj 58,71; .L:!jl 16,34;

81 181

ARABIC INDEX

THE FU$UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

(~) V'"

(~~)

5"

;...; 27, 34, 89, pIur. yl:.. ,J 61:

J;~' '-:-'~\ 69,

81:

o~ yl~J

~ "'

~

34: ~j y~~f 34: c.S~ yl:-,",f 49

"'•...

r

!i,J-

c:;

11

C_J~)

0i

(t;",..)

..t;",.. 7, 16

"' (..\.0) .>-.....

~be..;;; . 7,

16·,

81, pIur.

~~f

0'"

t'l~ .

71

81, 89

51 14,16,25,58, 59,69,7°,71,72, pIur.j.Jr

II,

13, 14, 37, 50, 52, 58, 70;

oU::z:

~:L

(~)

J.::z- J'"

l.. 43, 5I, 54:

~..l....)'

main heading, 52, 89:

82:

J~ 4'"

82; ;1..\.0 41:

59

~..\.o 41

(er) -J....i

r (.:Dr )

27: ;;~b main heading, 25,26, 36 , 3 8,49, 52, 57, 69, 70, 7 1, 72,73,74,75, 84, 89,91,94:

:i.~.~..;;-L.I ;;~L....JI 27: ~J-I J o~t....~JI

54

88:

J.)..:::

1.)":::

88;

J..)..::: 36,

.:Djl"::: 34, 67, 74:

88:

37, 7 6, 88;

J)J

56, 66, 88

.llj~~ 34; .:Dp..:;;1

~\)J

2, 8, 10,

37

57, 58: JIp..:;;1 21, 57:

...

II,

o!i

J~..

58,63,80,83,90, 93; r)/I .:Dlp..:;;\ 9; ~ 83; cl:!.)"::: 82, pIur. .. ~ 82

r)

(1

49, cf. 89: c.S.".,...jjJI ;;~L....JI 25

2

~.;..:::

I,

1,; I.)..::: 26, 29, 54, 58

5 .......

bl.)~

0.)":::

25

(~~) ~\~

t"

;:

81

~L

74: 4-.y...... 58;

r!

(~)

43,45

,;.. 33, 80;

(,~)

:i.:..... 13, pIur. r:.:f.... 28, 54; :i..MJ1 ~J..\ .. 54; ~ 54

. ~)

(

5

(..r L )

34, 89; -S.JL-. 65, 69, 89 ~.J.J

-,J

:;. 81, 82;

CJ~

I,

...

~I.OI.J

3

5

..r~~ 84: ..r~ 84; J.,;\..Q.JI ..r;UI 91; :i.l,.;WI ~WI 83, 84, 88:

J)\1~1

J'"

~WI 83: yk:JI :L...l-::- 88: ;('[;··JI :i......,l~\ 88;

:z.jr CJ~l::-", o..\.o\..Q.)1

24; .. I~ 53;

86: 4.t>l:L1 CJLl;:--J1 83, 85,86, 87, 88:

CJ~WI

cl.;

33, 63

~

5;

-F l..:::

6:

.

c.S~ 63,

-

94;

J..t>l..::: 39,41, 45:

(~)

)~ .. 42, 43, 44, 80: dj~1 45; .)~1 4 1

(~)

;;~ 6,

;;~l';";"~ 4 2

13, 94, pIur.

J:

(.. W)

..

~l:::

l.r" !J

(y)

!i!i

...... 0J:

jl

~.;";..' 48; yl 5,25, 3 8, 51; ~..::: 6; ol~1 52, 70

182

•

52;

~..

25;

• JI~ E ..

7°

0

JWI 38, 41; ;;j~" 41, 45, pIur. CJG~.. 4 1; c.Sj~. 3 8 l.ll

J""'::: 6; J~)' 13,45; Jl::..:::1 36 , 37 :i.l,.;lAJI .. ~)l1 94;

5I0Il 0"

J.:.. ::

34

eJ' 12, 13

w.....

(~)

63

d~

0

50 ...

J:-P

.'.

:ziw~ 92

(~)

J:

:I~ 76

II:

CJl",t:...::: 81

(JW)

66, 69;

J'~..

(~)

() W)

88

:i.."i.J: 88

(c.S.J~) .Jl~)·

52

.. l;z..::: 69, 70, 71, 87

!i 0'"

(J~)

~t......:::f

•

(L-.)

u:i,J

16, 52, 71

5

!J

~

J:

1,01

L>:.p 37, 4 1 , 93: ~;' 4°; L~ 38,40 : C-.,.:o! 93; ~ 26, 36, 91 18 3

I,

3, 23,

THE FU~DL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

(~)

ARABIC INDEX

~4.0 89, pIur. ybe.,..i 52, 81

(y~)

()J..p)

(wJ..p)

~

)ol4.0 65 Wol4.0 29, 39: :i;~L,.:..~ 40

(....;1.,.;.)

5 0

JJ..p

~~f 6

50 "

5

41, 81; Jol\.,.:> 6, 31, 32, 33;

J!.J..,.:.J

jl.,.;.

51

52; JL..,;f 71, 88 "";I.,.;.f 29: JJI.,.;.! 17, 95; "";l.,a.jl 78

76

.6

5~

(~)

~54

(w.)""')

....;.)""-:; 88, 94

~

s~

53:

~

(j.)""')

&0 JC

j.)""-:; 81 5

..

,J'"

main"heading, 52, 61, 70 , 87: C~ 52, 79; 76

0

&'

36, 38, 79;

(c).)

t~ 92; 41.:.,., 4, 9,

31, 32: 64.0 79:

la, 19, 24, 25, 27, 29,

56, 61, 91, pIur. c.1~1.:.,., 3, 6, 8, 56, 88, pIur. c:~l"':'..,., la, 34,

:ij..l.

41.:.,., 24: 41.:.,.,

;( ). 24: .;-.kJ\ 41.:.,., 24: ~\ 4~1 29: cl.lll 41.:..p 3: 41.:.,., :\"l;,(JI8 . ,88' .

4

o\;;:l."

1, .

85,:U..J1 L~~\ 89'' U.e~I,"-'P. 5, 6, 29

'-1""..

50

(y4.0)

3, 6, 43, 59, pIur. Jl.:.,.,f 6, 52, 54, 65

~I."'"

~I."'" 40 :

39, 4 1 : fJ.'

~

() 4.0)

~ 24, 29 5

:::

0

...

91, pIur. t~ 9 2 : lA-:-J, 94: ~Jl-1 9, la, II, 31, 32,51,5 6, 57;

~

69, 89;

16

~ 3,4, 19, 23,25,26, 29, 9 1, pIur...(1f

65, 69, 71, 89, pIur.

2~

92;

~

5, 9, 11, 12,47,

c.~hJl 89: c.4J1 ~ I.. 89

.- "'0 ..

71, 87, 88, 89; 4JJ.\ 4~! 3, 19,24:

...A.:..p

~

~

e:L,a...

50

t:"

6, 19, 24, 25, 29;

J;.1I

~I."'"

37, 76,

(J):,) •

0

cJ....).

Cb

89:)y.a::... 80

II, 16, 64, 66 0~.,..,;1,

94',

4..,;1, 94

16

~11 6: JJ.l ~1, 94 (~)

30

5~

).J+j'

J~b

C).I 5I

J)U,~I J~ 25, 79, 83, 88

63

(t\1)

~\1

81;

tu:.

29

L4.0

69

("";\1)

~~ .. ~f 17, 26; ;US\1 18, 55, pIur. """;SI.,,1 62

)4.0

(..t.:"") 5, 31,76, 89: JI)4.0 63;;'" 14

(lS.,,1)

lS."lU\ 35 1;

So'"

"";j;

if ~

e

...I.,.:>

86:

.b;; 12,

14:

.b,1.,.;. "

13, 15, 68, 79, pIur. 5

;L,a.::..

(:"')

~I;

13, 14

u

36, 69, 73, 74; yly,.::.JI 01;.JI 39: :,W\ yl."'" 30

5

oll~f 12,15,44, 92; ~~ 11, 12, 52, 89;

81, 89

!'i 0'" r.

; ; 58, 63, 87, 88;

16

~I.,.;.

58,81, 88;

25, 3 1 , 32, 89 18 4

~.h,;,1

89;

~)J;

r.

27, 57;

~)J)

~

(~)

56;

:4ol~ 63

t

C) 1:->, 80

18 5

ARABIC INDEX

THE FU~UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

(J,,:,,~)

(~)

•

~

J~l~ 7 1; ~~I 73 ~

IAl

2

5"

~I 62: ~1~! 10,

II:

5

.1

..l.. 6,

10, II,

31,47, 62; ~1~1 9, 15, 31,

J~

l:!j ~~ 6: ~) ~~ 6; ~I~ 53; ;;~ 10; :i.:.<....ul 25,57,5 8,60,63,69, 92;

J...\::~I

52:

Jl...\::~1

;;J-:.

,f.J~

4, 44, 65, 71, 79; ,fJ l~

~

.J.-$.

15;

(1.5"'"~ )

J 80;

~..:Jl ,fJ I.J-~ 6, 51, 52, 70=

89, 95

;ij.J"-"

~2

(Jb)

V"'~ (~l~)

(~) ~

J1...' 23 o~

f~1 56;

5

~

W

5 0 ...

t:.

6, 43, 89

~l~

33, 58;

0~

f: 6, pIur. i lful 89: J..)y dl ilfu~1 89; f~ 6

~

29,45, 52;

~~I 25, 28, 4 2, 50, 51,

41, 80, 82; J\~ 38; ~ l.:.~ 82; ~ .. 9, 34, 68, 7 6

..J\~ 5"

j~1

JlA 61, 62;

rY

(,f~)

(0\~)

~~

•

~\;:,....

40;

47, 89; ;;~~

~.:;.,.,

9,

8, 15;

~\;:~I

93, pass.

~~I

9,15:

~l;;~1

12, 15, 17, 44, 93

II,

JL..;.:~I 34: ;;).,.;...1 33,4 8

,f;" 71;

,f\;:~\

71;

J~

58, 7 1

5I 25, 54: •

J~l~

68, 79

>

~ ... 89; 0.J\'"

.-

•

22, 25: 0.J\'" 22

.;\~

74: ~~ 25; u;;.\,. .. 38

.hi

75

59 93:

...,...~...

93; ...,...9\,.;' 81;

~y~

...\A:.:~I

71, 82;

c.l~lji;:~1

(11.:.)

81, 82

50'"

6, 56, 80, 81: J;;~ 7, 32, 35, 38, 80; 47, 48, 49, 54;

~)ii ~ 38:

Jp.,.

&l~

38, 45, 80;

30, 31,76 :

j...,

38;

J...eJi"

~...

t

58, plur. c.l!y... 58, 7 1;

~1y. 41

Ji"

J..e 6, 56,61, pIur.

(J\~)

81

~ 13, 71; ;J.. 7, 16, 7 1

(...,.....~) y1.i' (~)

56;

8:

• > ~ 6, 23, 24, pJur... l.,a.~i 6,23, 24; ~y,a.~ 22: J ~ .. l..,a.~1' 22

-'

(ffu)

JJ"

10, 15

~

(l#)

;;}J' 21, 54

56, 71, 76 :

,

~

"' .J...".' 45 21;

0 ...

;'11 ;;.'.J'"' ~

(~~)

89: r-JL..;.:JI 89,

r-L:

./

~-

,fJ I..,...J I 52, 94 4: ..JJ l~ 54;

fL

-' ...

($..l..' 59, 6I;.J~ 38, 63, 81

..J.J~

r-::h'

80, 81;

69: ~l:...J)\ (lyJl 69 (~)

(I~)

5"

7 1, ~9' 93; ~l~.80, 81, 89, 93: f...L~1 76 ;

89:

52,9 2 : J...\::....... 16,

16, 67, 68; ;.J..l..... 88 ~

i~'" .~I: c.~.... "wl

~JI r--J1 89; ~JI iP-JI 89: ~)2':'JI pLJI 89: iP-J1 ;;~Ul! (?r--J1) 89; ~~ 86; ;;l~ 4 8, 57, 63, 88, pIur. ~Iy. 65,

62

17, 18, 19, 24, 26; :UI~ 7, 71

tAt

74, 79, 81, 93:

30, 3I, 32, 33, 34, 5I, 7 1,81, 85, 86, pIur. i."k 6,3 1; c.4JI f~ 89: c.~JI ~ l... f~ 89: ~)i.:.JI r--J\

5"" ...

i~

7~,

93: ~;' 89;

pIur. d~I..L.....::_~1 11, 12; ~..;:.; 17, 22,67,81, pIur. ~I~i 89;

.. -

6, 34, 49,

5~

Jb.;'

3°,35: Jt:s

;9, 24, 25, 26

30, 36, 38, 40, 4 1,

37, 4 8, 50, 53, 80, 88;

Ji"

J~ 89: c.')Iy....11 80, 81

89;

j...\.. J-i-....;.

~li. «($~Wl) 6; ($l:i.1 6, 24, 76; .. Ij,i. 6, 17, plur. ~li.i 17, 18,

5 ......

,f.Ji. 5"

0

3, 21,

22,

27, 28, 37, 94, pIur. )1.JJi 22

..

. --

~

71; ~ 58

~

6,16,52, 70; ~ 16

I

186

18 7

THE Fu~DL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI ,

(~)

(~i-)

(.b.Li.) '"•

5

-y.. \i.

9 "'0 ...

80, 95; J~ \;;... 95; :i.W. 95

!J~

ARABIC INDEX

J.,a.i

~. 88: ,-;-"l.A::.. 88; ~JI :L~...Jl 88; ~1 28, 52

.bJ\i- 69, 70

f

52;

ri-

43

F" 73

(y\i-)

~ ..

.-

36, 38, 56, 75; ;.:

J\i-f 52

-bj .J

70

(~)

:L,: \i. 27, 28, 36, 45, 54, 56, 69, 71, 89, 91, pIur. u\~ \i- 37,

63

C)A.i)

.J~" 25, 68

(i..lS)

U..IS 16

P

".J

6; ~.;. .. 35; ~~I 61; ;;~) 33

5 .....

56; ;)\i 56;

~.J) 56

(.....;...li)

13: J-~~J\

15, 58,7 8,79;

•

•

36, 52: ~.fJ 6, 30, 88, 89, 90

~';.i

53

:i.i..Jj 89,93·.

i...J1ii

:i.i..Jj 89,.

J~ -

I;

93

-f.J';'" 81

11)1

'-'

16, 52

- >-

~

'-..

81

13)

13,28,51,80; 13)I.i 7 2 :

t~

72 ;

tJ 73

J....J

52:

~\,j

j;J

(eU)

•

V

(13"';)

IO, II,

;;'~~')l J~i 69: plur. pIur. ~ul 57; J:li 4; L....A.i u'J' L....i.i I 70; J-o..AJ II 5, 3I, 35, 8I, 88

82; ) ..... li 82

5" 0'"

~

Jwf 89: ~ Jwf I, 2: ~ Jt...if I, 2: :i.:~~) Jwf 8: ;;~~ Jwl 8: JJ.,.;l.i Jwl 13,71: Jt...if

u~

(1)

5

-

'" 87 73; ...w.y

(-f)

9

J....i 35,51,56; J....i 15,17,22,24,45, 56, pIur. JWI 3,4,

6,82:

...l.i.i

U'")

:u:a; 6

5" "

81

5'"

op

9,15,47: )yb.A... 15, 9 2 ;

80; ).JrJ1

u ~

~li~1 53; • 2

6,9, 12,15, 16, 17, 18, 19,21, 22, 24, 25,26, 28, 52, 57, 76,

45,62; ll.,;li ~\i- 36, 90; i,Sy.a1J1 ~\;jl 49

'"

•

50'"

J....i

~.Jli:.JI J~l.,a...iJI 89; J.,a.il 22, 25, 28,

IO:

36,48, 61,76, 80, plur.

6

8I; 0;;'

;.\;.j'

(l;.;.~) 4 1;

o~

.J

IN

90: ~JI J~l.,a...i.J1 7,

~

~

~)

14, 25,

~1 7, 8, 10, 37, 80: ~J' J~\.,a...i.J1 89: ~.Js::;,JI J~l.,a...;.JI 89,

(t\i-)

50'"

IO, II, 12,

88, 90; ~.J~ 9,25: J~L.,.Q...i .JJ~ 25: J;~JI J.J~ 54; J~\.,a...;.Jl ...,

=~i-

5" " .J

13, 25, 26,3 6 , 37, 4 1, 50, 53, 56,61,7 1,

pIur. J~L.,.Q...i 2,7,11,14,16, 91; ~d-I ~\ 80: :0..7(.;,JI ~JI

'•"

(~)

(~)

~li

28, 30, 32, 4 1, 49, 50, 56, 57, 73, 74, 80, 84, 89, 9 1, 94,

9".:) .J

() \i-)

34;

72,73, 74, 75, 84, 88, 90, 9 1; ~ 8, 9,

ww

5w

~

6; tf

~~

7 6;

37,79,88: l..\i 24, 45;

-J);:..

~14j'

54

(~)

)..1.9

separate headings, plur. J~ main heading, colophons; ~ 6

,

188

.J

OJ:

3: ~ 81; ~y 52; L-~ I, 2, 6, 7 1, 81: ~I 82; L~Y 82

JJ 78; d

~ u"

JyJI J~.. 4 1, cf. .u~.Jl3i J.r.Al' 54; 66; ~....... 73

77;

JlA::..

JilS

• ..... 6

~I

71,89, 90:

~~

~\.i 73, plur. 13W 73

9'

5

69: -1li. 69;

(J3) 94

50.1

26;

plur.

~:lS

I5;)'J:i 3, 17,26, 58, 7 2

o)J 24, 29,

y"~li.

36, 38,40, 54, 57,

3I 18 9

:

~...\jjj'

89:

79J~

~.J)':;:JI

53:

4, 17, 49,75,

THE FU~UL AL-:MADANI OF AL-FARABI

(i.A9)

~~-A-"

i JJ 73:

i~-i.::..

56; i'>-..31 73, 75:

0.J.,,~1

54, 74, 76 :

heading,

II,

~1'>-..3!6, 7 1,

75:

ARABIC INDEX

i~-'

<s~

20, 28, 33

6:

() J} ~

94;)1 54:

~A.:~I

86

Sj

76;

J.j~ l~~

..)....:i

92

I~~

:

~

34, 49, 58, 67 58; 59:

~r-A"

58; f...-:iJI 12;

~~

65, pIur. i l....:il 52, 64, 66;

~ 7,12,5 8

;;~ 6,52,7°

...\.,aJ

3, 23, 51, 52,63: !i

IM

~~ 3,

27, 28, 37, 54;

~

3, 25;

...\..,.a.~JI J.c

... " ...

JJ~I 62; ...\..,.a.i.. 45 (~)

~~189

(~)

~164

(e) ........

" ...

0.r:J

(~)

:~J

(~)

if ~;

:;-

(J0)

~

86; ~I~ 86

d~ (~~.,,)

21;

~

21

71;

(Jl9)

i 19

63: ~l~ ... 56

J~ 29, 41, plur. main heading, colophons, 4 1 61:

88, 90:

:K"~\.. ;;~

22,

16;

6, 52:

~.. ;;~

;;-.r9

6: ;;.; ;;.J9

;Z;~JY ;;~ 6: :i.....,.;~ ;;~

23, 26, 3 I, 94

!J 88;

~rs- 53,

62;

U"""'J\1.Jk~JI ~ 93

~J..s- 17

~~D 6

i)-I

29; U ; 28, 36, 52, 58, 70, pIur. .:,,\.,,1; 73

71; •.lS(;:~1 63; :i.lb I ; 6, 5I; 5

9:

;;.J..3 70:

16

81;

~

l~Y 73

5

~i' 94; ~I 62; y\.....;:)1 62, 63

....iD 67, 68, 78; J:S'I 34, 3 8 : ..;5... 34, 79; :i.< W 67, 69 ::

r.

...

~.s:::_i·

21, 22,49;

j...1>" 22; J..S2...1 89; J\f"" 25, 34, 49, 76, 89, 92;

J;~I JL...>::JI

22,34,76,89:

25:

28, 29 ~l;u\

;;~

iJ I,~

1

!i 0-

(~l9)

17,

~ \;:)" 9,

~

..)~9

70: :i.;.fj

;;.J..3 6:

:i.~~\-:- ;;-.r9

88:

cj·q ~I 31; J.s-- 3 ,32,35; ~ 67 (() If 6, 17

tt:'9! 50, 5 I, 54

25:

(..r?)

(~)

;lk91 6

~I

;~

~1--' 33,

0-

(l....:i)

(yk3)

(V" \9) 76, 9 2

0

.h....9

;;~ 76: :i.~l.. ;;~ 6: w 1~

~.. ;;~ 6: ;;.>-J.J-4 ;;~ 6: :i.;u'U ;;~ 6; 4\""'<'; <s~ 88; <s;.]l elat. 79

76

;;-.r9

5,31,35,63, 88; (-:--<.If'

6:

58

-0--

~}

•

94;

;;~Jl~

4; L....-:-

~

<s..\:.:i.. 54; ;;J.A9 57

• )~

31; ;;~ 6, 17,3 1, 35, 3 8, 40, 50, 52,76,88,90, pIur. <s~ 6, 12;

86; ':"LJ,;;." 3 1, 32, 35; .. l.".>-ill main

o

(1.A9)

::.J

l1li

25, 56:

~~ 61; ~~_..

41;

~~

25, 29,59,62,81, 87;

32, 34, 7 6 , 77 19°

~~

22,25,

~ ~I

(~)

~"'D89 -

(0 D)

0.:;s- 89;

(~D)

;;.y::..

J,.;D 4,

56;

Jl...(J\ 25, 91;

0.,s- 57,

~ 57,

Jfl 3,

91 ;

27, 56, 61, 7 6, 89, 9 1

.

59;

01>'.. 7 1, 76, 80, plur. :z.:..(..l 54; J~ 81

88

(V"D)

;;t 7, 36, 47; ~ 37

(....iD)

W ....

17 19 1

THE FU~UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

ARABIC INDEX

(:UI~JI J.~..ul) 28; u..,.;UJI 0.l.11 27, 88: ~J> \;LI 0..u1 73;

J (i~)

~~)\~

M-)

~Jl 76

0:1-

73

(u:l-) (5J)

37;

(~:w.;): ~ ':1

0L:lf

52;

J~:

r J1 21, 57

~~

(cl......)

94

9"

(..::...il)

;:J (JiJ)

(.':1

5"

.)

37, 69, 7 6, 7 8, 79, 81: iJ':1 7 8 ; ij I.J.UI 69; iJ) 7 8

(~)

~~)\

..;;....i;JI 59 (~

.

~

(~I) ~ .,~. U.. 56, 63, 69

..

..)

....... ~

..

89

...

u::J52

C!:'j'

16

69

(;..)

;;~\.. 5, 6, 65, 69, 76, 77, 89, plur. ~I.J.. . 89 ~..\.

12,

u't..,

I I, 12,

8, 9,

14, 15, 73: 15, 7 1 :

I I,

19,20,21, 22, 23,25,26,28, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 62,

63,88,89, plur. 0~ main heading, colophons, 3, 11, 14,25, 27, 28, 29, 38, 59, 62, 89; JJ..,.;\A.l1 ~..u, 25, 53, 56, 61: ~..ul

:4)J;"JI 25:

(1;".11 :i..:.~..ul

~ 15, 89: ..:;,,\...:.S:.-- 89; a:f.,.,:;

cJ::..::.... 93

s~

~j' III

16 5...

...

l.'l

...

76; ~l.,\... 3,4,19,29,82: J-.,;LUI ~I 88: ~JI ~l.,\J\ 88:

-

1-

;Z;;..,;,LJ.I

J.c ~I

54:

J::L 19, 27, 29;

-

...

25

sUi.J

(t'")

~

10,79

(J.8. )

j.;

46

(~

4 . . plur.

)

88: (4.I,}J1 ~..u, ,U;:.l1 ~..\..) 28:

u~ 6:~... 6; i;,5::J:i1 ~I 19, 27, 29

67 5 0 ...

..:;,,\...

74, 75; ..:;"".. 7 1, 7 2, 73, 74, 75, 7 6

Jl..

62, plur. J1.r- f 53, 58,62,7 1,73; 0;JUI 53

~.r-

89

(j \...)

..t.:'"

.... 6 ? ..

•...

:..J"::.:'>'j 54,80,88: y:!

6

I

19 2

13

4;

76

:i..:.... 62

:(,~ \...

'30"

~

(0..\...)

~f 6, 9,

(u...)

25, 28

..) Jt:;.. 15, 56, 71, 76, 81: ..:;,,':1b 35 0;'

71; .,:..:i....:; 16

9

~

(~

(~)

~... 79

~ 3, 28, 29, 54: ..:;,,\.(],

0~':1 26

5~

(c:")

81;

'JO.J

9

(0':1)

e

J.~:I-\ J ~tUl 11, 27:

9

(13':1)

89

sJJ

0'"

9"

.:.;.,i"

16

69; ~JI 74 "

3, 19,24: J..ul 3,4: 0;i..u1 4

~L\. . 6: cl..l( 57

(e) 0f \..

53

69, 71, 73; ~;LI dIuI 52: :i....~1 dIul 71

~

:l..\~.,.J1

...

er") t.\~

1:J1 57; 1l:...1 13; ;;1J 16, 36, 57, 63, 71, plur. ..:;,,1"';'.1 25, 28,

i~

3,11,3 8 : i;.J1

193

DAF

ARABIC INDEX

THE FU~UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

uai..j

o (~)

("7j )

~~I 24, ~.-. 19

(b:.)

9; ua;liii

1L;...:...::.... I

u-4i

41, 51;

r-::" 53

(~)

~I 56: ~.. 57; ~l~ ~ 81,87

yt. 17, 19, plur. :b:.i 56

(Cl;)

26, 38, 56:

31, 36, 38, 4 2, 54, 56, 80:

"' 80 <1.7-;' wo'

J

:i.Jlli 16

«(i)

tU"~

(Jj')

J}

JU t)l~;'

J)i

40;

~~-,j'

j;~

89;

(..),:"Ib ) 3

20,

21,

22, 23, 38 :

..

Jp..

r-':"Ib

0.-

21, 38; :i...J p ..

~..,a..l

36 ;

~j

~

63;

~

(..)A.i)

..,.......)Ib

2

OJ

I.Iol

IQ

~

1.J

o..)~

88

76 0 ... .)

I.Y'~"

53

6, 5I 81

fllb

6

() lib )

)~:; 16, 74

($.Jlb

36, 37, 45 :

(.. lib)

...

3: );,; 89: l#J~1 )i~JI 89; ($)i; 6, 30, 31, 32, 89; )';l~.. 89

~l~

1yjj 38,40

sd,

~l.,aj! 92

:i.;.;:lb

~~

6

9, 13, 15, 89, plur. ul~1b 1,2,3,4,9, II, 12, 16,84,87,89

69, 89 !;

.J

5"

34; ~A.~;' 29; ,)lA.i! 28

('-;---';"-')

;;)l~~ 92 I,

~-'

3, 4, 6, 12, 13, 14, 17, 25, 27, 3 2, 37, 3 8, 52, 56,7°,74,

76, 81, 89, 94, plur.

t

~L:.JI ~\ 89; l...J1

~

(~Ib)

26; :. .. .a.i 94

iJblj 6, 7, 30, 52; Jiki 7,

5" 0'"

~

y..)1b

~:~: 76

s

(flli)

t

6, 40, 58, 67, plur.

57, 74

5'

6, 88

"'!.i

13

5 .....

(L.;)

'I·:

~i

6,7,7° (1.Y'J..:.1b )

~ •..y:;.;

..):a.)

29:

'~J

~;;j-,,)

11>

57, 89 57;

16, 66;

5'" 0

6,5 1 ;

93;

t;i

~i

4, 37, 52, 7 1

2,

..)~~I 24

(J~j)

(,-,hi)

67,68, 77:

(';:j)

U..I.i 73

(~)

~l;

Jl:Q;;j1 87

(i..l.i)

(~.....j)

16,5 8, 67:

(JAi)

5

(r-~)

~

29, 58:

~j

23, 24, 25, 73: l:'::; 89 :i....A.:.... 57, pIur.

e

'e

• ~l.....A.i 2, 4, 16, 70

U 24, 25,26, 57, 58, 81;

,-;---,;,,;i

13, 80: •

~;..

81;

,-;---,;,,~I

59

J

29: ~-' 41,78, 81: .)r-' 11,25, 32,33,34,66,67,68, 69,77, 88,89; uI.)..r:--' 69: ul.)y-,:,,-, ':J 69;

4, 14, 37, 7 6, 9 1, plur. 1.Y'yA,i 4, 94;

..,...A.i 81;

,-;---,;,,1-, 93;

~-,,--,:,,Y-" 33,

44, 49, 67,69,

78, 81: J;'S'I .)ryll 89; uI.)ry" 6, 3 I, 32, 34,4 8, 49,64, 65,

~jl

66: ~kJI uI.)ryll 88

23;

5" 0 ...

"':--'

3,4,79; I.. "':'Y 25,62, 68; ~ 77, pIur. u~ 73 , ~

195

194 .t

~

13- 2

THE FU~UL AL-1L\DANI OF AL-FARABI

(J..:,.j)

~Iyl

.%..Ij 34, 67:

34, 49;

~j'.

28;

(lll>J:~) .~;

49, 59,67,

VARIANTS AND READINGS IN THE HEBREW VERSION

- 0 -

68; oJ..:,.j 34 ~

0 -

...rj

89

(~j) .))j

!i~

~~jJ

16

Heading in lot: ,.,~lot~~ C':I., C'W.,W ,:\1 C'~'P~ c'p"n .,:ll:3 ,:llot, C'P"~

~-

(hwj

)

lil'W3lot ,:1 ,n":ll:" ,.,W'li'W il~:I' li'3"~il lilmil il'illiW "lot.,w il~:I C'3'~'Pil iln':ll:ilil ,,~ ,lot ,.,W'li" Heading in :I: C'W.,w ,:\1 C'~'P~ C"':l3 C'P"~ ':llot.,~,lot .,:ll:3 ,:llot 'P"~ m:lW'liliW il~:I' ,:1 m3"~il mmil il'illiW "lot.,w il~:I C'3'~'Pil ,.,~lot~~ C':I., iln':ll:ilil ,,~ ,lot ,:1 ,.,W'li" lil'W3lot mlmil mn':ll:m

63;~)j..l.:..c9°

..6~;1

6, 34;

.h;~. .

16, 17, 18, 19, 24, 26, 34, 64, 66

5~

(J...j)

J...Y·82

(J..,oj)

J..,o;1

28, 56;

(l5""j)

~~1

56; l.l.,oj 56

(t!J)

~IY·

16

~1;'

71

(...,....1;j)

o

(~J)

Ch) (J-ij) (J3)

.,.~j

J;~

94

[4]

9

e:..\:::s:: l.. )IJ.i...l.:!J-d-lrf

.1:0.; ["

J:.ij'. 7 1 ;

m:l,tm lli'lot

J

" ~;ll.)...f0"') '" ~J Ij 12-13 ~ lJ.J.lj

6

.j I..,....

~..

)

y.

[6]

94

93; 0"-;·1 57, 6 I:

j t,;; \ 57

3

~L:..,.,

J

mn~il' c'p,nil omitting ~J I= A

.

,'nliil=A C'il lot,il1 c'p,nil l~ i.e... 1~~I

..r.:>- ~I u"

t

5 0 ....

..:;.9j

(L:9j)

c!j ~j

61, 79, plur. ul9jf 61

o•

32, 35, 4 1 ,

..U j

15 ojill .~ll> 17 AJI

!iLo\l

21, 57; ...ulj 57; ...uj'" 6 ~

I.Il

I

J

$0

...

10-1 I (page 108)

o~

(Jj)

JjJ 56, 76; Jj 81; .\..lJ1 .,.l,,)jl 76, 81, 82; Jjl 70, 79

(fll>j)

" ('y.

.J~J I5;~~ u:o.o,·

5

32, 34, 51:

r

0f ..l.:!.i L. 0:'"

~1~)lj ~l..,a.....i.J1

25, 28, 29,

LIJ

(u"')

)lTj

[7-8] 16-17 • :i...-..-:o...JI .~~ f-.:L:..'

" 34: ('.y-.. 69

~

u:o.."J

38;~ 5

32;

uo'"

•

19 6

• J.,d

li,n~il

"lot

C"'il

~'w~

,~, for

'm

"~,

Heb. omits Heb. omits (i.e. including heading offal/ 8)

~ W! 4.:o..L;l1

is (.)"""':\)

Cl

80

t5

[5 .... ...

Heb. omits with A

14 Wj;llj

~

32,59, 79; ~jI29, 45: t l.,, 18 9; t~j 45

u"

l

":lPil '1'1:1, C"~

3 (page 107) "'~jJI

:i..,..19j 16; W 52

Heb. omits with A

J..:,J1

~JI15yJlj .. I~~I

17 i...ul jll>j

m:lW'liil:l

u'"

6 15~~

" 56, 89 Jj

m~:\1il1

36 :

elat.~':'~.128;:~.JA e

31, 32, 33:~'" 31, 33

29

[9]

7

u'" 0L;)l1 p. 0f ~. iJl or1 J j l

)I

lot margin: "" C,lot lot,~ "':\1, xi. 12)

~

1

97

Cl ob

THE Fu~DL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

14-15 ..\IL..::...,.,'j\ 01 If'~;

HEBREW VARIANTS

Heb. omits (homoioteleuton)

[20]

IQ-I I

0(J

01~ d-I Jl...-...3~~ '1' ..kJI

4

.....:1 2

IIO)

:z~~;

[II] 6 :\J l_i"J 1J3..:~J I 6-7 ~~.. I II

"J3

rWlmN;' ~m~

(f

[2

at end of fa~1 0->' c::...:;;;

Heb. continues ,n1i 'Wl:ll cf. Gen. xlix. 6

[12] 13-15 l~~ ~JI J 0~"3 ~~ ..3 ~J

A

,t,

~I

Ji

IQ

[15]

II-I2

12 [29]

Heb. omits

~

h:y":':_.. irS::::.J13

:ZJ 1j,~J 1lY.:13 ;;j,..)"J 13 ..;J...,a.J 13

7'::n (sit) Ni;";'

P

'~::;~N

P

(sit)

'~::;~N "::l:lm

rlm'l;"

'::ll1i;';'

(sit) m~',;,;,'N ",nm rI'::;'il:l;' cf. A [I

7] 4

;iJ Lp "J 13

(,)"" [JJ\: h:y::.. ..::.. ~ 13

A~; J h:,.,c..::'w • o..r..~ IQ

4-5 (page

J::..

Heb. omits (homoioteleuton)

Heb. omits I I

5) ,:,:-9.J-J I ~3

7~ c'P~;' 'l:l:l, = A

19 8

'::l'~'" m"~;, 'WlN C'i'W:II' ";"lZl

m',~;, "~::l

only (homoioteleuton)

7

\~ cl:J 1 oj,~

C,:l c'm~rI;' "N

~! 03~3

Heb. omits

eJI 03Y.. ~yi3

margin comments l'N

in error

C~ 7'N CN

1~~ I']i::;' 'Ni C'inN'

Heb. here = B

'::l.WM;' ,:lW;' rI':II'~'

[30] 15 lSyCJI <-..J:!-I ~3

i.e. ~3

lS..:(lJ I J~...JI [3 I]

[32]

6 0\....;)'1 ~

C'N;' ~:l~::l

7 oJ..\!~~1 lSyi3

1rIl:m ;'Nim

i.e.

d"-I

numbered in error 30 in Heb. instead of 29 (=32-3) J:I

to

•• W~/

13 Jo '3 1 A",~ AB

0\5J1 ~3

C;"

t:lmN in::l"

~..ltl J~1

9 I~!. 01 03y'. 03..::"13

JI

..\3 AJ1

;":lm, c;"

~!...ltl

"~rI'

t j,~JI

'l~~

J~ 1 0' \~I 0yl.,a.!. ~~~!...ltl

Nlm Ni';'

[16] 12 o..:.:J 1 ~ 3

013

6 ~1 J~ 0~.3 Jl_)1 JI

Heb. omits with A

~I

~

1-2 (page 123) r!.1 Iy;y>::!. 01

C;'~ C'N;' ~'~'W N~'

5 ..:~!.

15-16

0yl.,a.!.

13.b.y::!.

lS.)t!. ':13

Heb. omits

0..lt1

17 A;3..\ \~ f~ j"ju

1:1,' "J13j J3j. 01 J:f- 0"

[13] 7-8 \l!l,)J;-d

:Jwl

:z~!...ltl d~ 0~ ~ d,;.JI Ij,~

Eeb. omits with A

~->- ~~,'3 ~,3 r.s:.!.

"J3

A

lacking in Eeb. and A

[281 14-15 Jll~ 0yl.,a.!.

;;..\ L,'::.., .:;., l~~

01

m',~;,

C'i::l';' iNW'

[26-7] C';'P::l,

......:;

15 ....,'ji ~,'

rI'::l;"

in error

C'N;' rI'N'::;~ =

5] 7 ~d-I 0\....;"JI ..\~3 11 ~J\~\ <-\~~I j\~3

i1::l 7':lW' N" =

0..lt1

;'::l'~ ;"'~!:l

[24] 10 1;1, "j....9

Heb. omits with A

t

I.....

i1::;il;'

J\...JI

~ .. ~ 3

~.t)

er'...J I <- l.. ~J 1 J.:.>.

C;'::I

7:lW~;' C'l'~'P;'

f"!.~ lSj,JI (,)""1..:...JI3 \~\..;

Heb. omits with A

..;31 ~ l~ JI

r

oJ.."",3

'::;N

lS.r:: lSj,JI 0(...JI AI~!. ~~il

Jl~!. ()"'~J

(page

AI d"'!. ~J Jjlb ~!...lt\

limWNi 'N rI,,,,:l

199

i.e.

J-~131 3 1 ;(,':5

HEBREW VARIANTS

THE PU$UL AL-MADANI OF AL-FARABI

[33]

2

. ; :... i~":;";J

J I,)~.J. 0I5"l...~

,)~.J'" .J':f- ~ 0i

6 l.J.~ after J L.. IO- I I

[34]

1-2

(Q~ ~ i l.J.~

0~ ~i ,).r-:-.J-J\ ~"'":! 0i 0~ '1 '\;\J o.J':f-

10 (page I27) ~ ,)Li;:~1 ~

il'il' N'tI.' CN il~ l'1:Ii:J N::;~] il'il'tI.' il~'

[43] 7 l... :i.uf

m" 1,'0]=A

N::;~]

[47]

lacking in Heb. and A

Heb. omits in error

[49] 9 01,)~~1

C'N::;~]il

illi~Nil

[50]

cf. A

N'il

il~'"

']1'

J...:,.I~

j' .k.....J

L~ OJ...:,.y-JIJ

~jJ ...i

Heb. omits (homoioteleuton)

~:J-I~ ,)~} 1 0'" 4;... 12

[36]

2

li":JOil li':JOil perhaps rightly liN::;~il ,~ li"::l'il

OjJ.AJI

i.e. omits 0,)~

with A 3-4 •

0

~

L. ul.J'::>-. ~ '. I .... '-"

~ J~

oj..u.J1

.J~

,).r-:-i ~

l... bl~1

o~.i

li'~'il cf. A jJJ"::"

':;~I~ 0y..JJ.I~ ":;"'J.IJ

"i"i'il' il,nil'

7'I::;~il ,::; ,~

[39] 6-7 J ... ~I 0~ 0i 0~ '1 ~ ~~I';';'UI [41] II-I2 ~J

-si) \ ~ ji -sij I~ 0\....;'11 0y," 0i JA.-,::J 1

8-9

s:-y I~I

Ilg.i

m::;',m

(?

(page 138) :4~~I

m~'Nil = ~... ~ I

~~l~jJ

iln'::;ilil :J,1' (for il::;'ilil)

LJ I l.!.~...

t;:j~

N'N ilN']il l']~il il'il' N'tI.' il~ N,m

"'~

Heb. omits (homoioteleuton)

mil' = A

I

~ 14.;

WIl.!.~. i~

O'~']il C'i'~:J = B

i.....JI .. LJj

m"~il 'tI.'N' = A j....o;:"'":!

';:JJ

tI.'~litl.'"

200

mm

cf. B

il~n,~m :J'i'il li"tI.'~

3 c?'-.....JI Jl~~1 3-4 :i.,:li. ~ .;JI

.. , only

6-7 (page 140) ~+-i d~J~i l":iJ

m'tI.'N' ":Ji'~ Cil

. ..r 1.:~6'~

ill

"0' :J,1' N'il li"::lliil 'li'N'

A, B omit

.... l"':JjJ 0.J-~;J''''

mil

C']'tI.'N'il C]~N'

':J~il il'il' ,:J, '::l 'tI.'N"

...I.:-..J1 015"

l..:

O'~']il 1'~ N'i"

Cil'tI.'N"

C"O,~] C"::l'~ 'N'i"

""

~

[56] 16-1 (page 139)

~.J!)

'::ltl.'ilil 1~ C,],~ l::l C~ "N

n::lil ill il'il" = A C':J'1'il C'tI.']Nil 'N'i'"

"

II

m"litl.'il C'::l"::;il C":J'il

j~~1 .. l~~)1 0~~

L:

r"~il

:z,u) 1 0,)Y.':

~,)~;LI .. l~~1

7-8 ~ lk;. 0,)~

Heb. omits

~IJ.JI

"

m"litl.'ilil

C',:J,:J Cil C]~N = A

[37] 5 0~~~ ~I

(page IF) 0'"

'::l::l'li'tI.' = A

[54] 8, 14 ,)~;LI

14-15

(cf. Neh. ix.

li'i',nm mn":Jil'

li,n::;;" il::;'ilil 'tI.']N

I

7 .. ~~I ~ WI

2

"

A.9..iJI~

14 ~l~1 o~ 0~

:i.,:J) \

&i~ .. :.

at end

u:U IJ

Cil']']~:J) Cil']'~:J

[53] I 5-16 .. l.ol..:JI~ .. l.;kJ.I

8-9

Heb. omits

.. l~ . .UIJ

J

[52] 7

for 0~ IJ.J \ (cf. [37])

cm ',nN illi'N C'::l"tI.'~il 1~ Ciltl.' 'N

(leg. 26).

8 J...s::::J

(',,;"JI .. ~~I b~1 o,)y- J~

J l~Y'".;1i 0y~ui

at end

)l.. 11

r"~il

14 ol~ J.J 1

[51]

1'N

il'tI."ilil (mg. il'~tI.'ilil 'N]) in error

~lkJ.1

for il::;'ilil. Cf. [53], [54], [86].

Heb. omits, again = B (cf. [29]) ']~~ ••• 'NtI.'

11

i.e. A

201

T II E F U ~

8 (mase.) oJ::i.

[57] 14-15 :\1;y-A...,:

0L

A L -YI A D A N

I

HEBREW VARIANTS

0 F A L - F AR"l B I

u,!;lwo i1~ !'I"lV~:J

J L..,.;_ 4

J-:-,'j ~L \.,.;;j'j

I

Heb. omits with A

J...\....JI ~1.9t3 JJ.JJl!

2-3

3 (page 141) ~ L, J..u..J Ij

IO-II

!'I~!:J

il:Jil~il

~..\.ll oi~ J ~>Jlj ~..u

il~"~ii

(haplography)

l5J1 JL....i~1 ~ l~:':'l l5J1j

Heb. omits (homoioteleuton)

~

:i..:~..\.ll ~I J.c Cy,b_~1...I,-:":....l• 1...:..,...... r,':" \.:......... r,':"

0'" l~-:-.J J"d~;' .:,

o~

0.c

I

J:.

~

l::.y':" I.. C3y':"

o~ 0.c l::.y':" lSiJ I li..uiJ

II

(page 143)

~j

1-2

Heb. omits with A (homoioteleuton)

~J I 0'" .J.1.~

"~':l~ii i~ ~'ii mii ,,:J!;l cf. A

:i..:.~..\.ll ~I J.c G"'J----:- ,yW 1~ Ij

Heb. omits with A

Gy-

~

"';:""'j

[61] 15 1~1~~ ':J

"!'I'O Y:J'P~

[65] 19-1 (page 148) 0~ ':J .....iU J..:-y. ':J ':"1 ~~ .:,,~~ .:,,1 A

~'lV "lVtl~ ,~tv il~ il'il'lV "lVC~ ,~ ':J

better

C"]~!;l"ilil = A

but the sense is

against it

.' . ("' I 4, 6 ~..H 01 lr''-"''-~ ;. L A

~::l:~' ~'lV "lVtl~ '~lV il~ better

6-7 Jl::JI ~JI

Heb. omits

4.l ~;b.j.,.JlJ ':J .:,,1 J.~ ':J I." "";1..:...,.,1 0'" J..:-y.

t:Ji1!;l C"~'~C'il

8 l-&J ~:J~Jlj

Heb. omits

[66]

I I

(leg. C'~lV~i11) C'~"~i11

Heb. Cil!;l, only i1~ !'I:I7:J ~::l:~' ~'lV .,lVtlN '~lV il~'

A omits

~::t~, ~!;llV' ~::l:~'lV "lVtl~lV i1~' .,j1;)~ "::l:j' ~, 'n'l'~

13 •.. J..:-..J~ ':J

C!'I'~ "~,, ~" i.e. l~!. ':Jj

.

end of Part I and beginning of Part II not indicated m',~'

lV'lV

m"~il

'lV]~~

C]'~lV

Cii~ '!'I'~ '!J]~' p'pn .,:J, Cii":17 ~'ii in~ii

• 202

in'

il~ !'I~:J ~::l:~' ~!;llV

':"1

. i l...sl

13- I 5 :i...:;JJ' oi.lt 0-' 01.)J-:-..J11j ~

Heb. omits (homoiote1euton)

':J ':"1 0-'-'"""" :J I." : ':J .:,,1 ~ ':J Lj ~1 J..:-..J~ J J..:-~ ':"Ij L 0::"" J J..:-Y.

'NlV~ (Num. iv. 49)

14-15 l~..hl L..~

:\~b.j)1

~::l:~'

i'~il

margin: liM~ ii~:Jn !;l:l7:J ~!;l~ '3n::l:~ ~, margin: !;l~, 'lli":J~ ,~ lV'~ lV'~

[63] 14 A omits

(se. !'I'lV'!;llVil) ~'il' the last word apparently for ~ji;,~

7 -...Q;..,a.J I ~J :\~j l.o...J Ij

:i..:.!...\.ll J~I

JI 01~j.. ':J ...;~..

0..J";:'~ ':"1 lSy jl ...J .:,,1 lS..J~ ""~

Cii'!;l~ ,'m"ii!~' "!'I"::l:~ '~"P!'l'lV '!'I!;l:J ,:J' 'ii":J:J'lV ,~ ,!;l C':I7~lV] ";"lV'

[64] 15 ~ji~ t~ ..J~j A

~"ii'

[59] 1-15 (page 144) ~ then J.c

r,l ~U..i lS..J-

o..

Heb. omits (homoiote1euton)

J Ij--""1.j

~

0"

Heb. omits (homoioteleuton)

,b:.i9 oj--';:'!.

4

':"1 1."lj

13-14 jl~"j ",j·.)~1 ~! jl ...,.)1)4

10

Heb. omits with A (homoiotclcuton)

rJ

F.cU?j

Ji-

.,lV"i1'l

J:

[58] 5-6 l....,a.""" 1 ....,a.jij .:,,~~ ':"1 ~j 8-9

llV~~il

J l:,:i

;; .) L..~J 1 I-&! :::1

!;l~

(page 147) L...a.-!.I ~i-9 :i..:.!...\.ll J~~ ~ ,-:-,1~1

L.0::"" ~~~, ~'lV "lVtl~ ,~ "lV~'

17 J..:-y. ':J ':"1 0>:"'~ :J lSiJ Ij 1-2

(page 149) ':"1 0~(-40..~ l-'j J..:-y.

N::l:~' N!;lIO' N::l:~'lV .,C'tlNlV il~'

':J ':"Ij J..:-y.. 2°3

1:' £1 :'I

.F

E f.:

1:' £1 -:'I

.F o n r::

n

n

E

E

J:=

QJ

n

"...,

J:=

D

n r

J'-

1:'

r::

fi

t

--:J

J

.1. :

'1

.'"\

, '1

~

" H

"I H H

I

o

N

:.G

£l

£l

r n

J:=

JJ'

1:'

n

r::

r::

n

r

r:: E

E-

r::.F

.", '"

1:'

~'

:;l r::

J:;{i

:.G

-!: o r::

n

£l

o n

r

r::

n

~

r

J'1:'

F

r:: r::

r.o..

F

r n

~ ~

D

:'I

F

1:'

r-

r::

1:'

D

J'-

E f.:

11

£l

f.: f:r-;;.:: H

J:='--'

Dc....<

:.G

....:>.

t

""j

J

.~

"~

o

<e: o H

u

F lJ ~

'fI I L

10

Cl L

A L - :vi A D A "';

t JI 0.J;" ~ I ol).. 1 t..?'

oj,~-3

I 0 F A L - F ,~ R J'; B I

mp' i\!iN t:liN;' t:ln1N

[77] 14

r

t:l'iliN;-J

HEBREW VARIANTS

t:l"Ii;-J

t:l;, 1'?N1

i.e. avoids the anthropo-

morphism

~-i

[79] 8 ~~ L ~ J.cl3

~i' N'? i\!iN:I ;,'n'\!i '?~1!:l m '1:\

Hcb. omits

20 .)\~\ '-;--;-'" JI-3j

'~!:ln;,

I

1-2

J--..J I

(page 158) 0l.,,) 1 J ) .. L."

i)!. ~.:w ~ . .

d

1~1:1

l'

J...,a..J1

~k J

1'1,1:';' 1'1:10

J;

Hcb. omits 2

0:5"" LS'" J~l";'JI 0y5:" n~

1:1 1N

9 AJ ~kl;,J1 O)~'" 2

6, 7

i':I~1 i~N'

ln1J

;";"tIi

1'11N~i

'?~:I

N1;,tIi

:si'1';'

I

8~ I 9 0l_.~ ...,a.J I

I

i:Ji

Iy-'-i 0l; 3f

?,,-_~i,

L'

.J

• G-::i l~113 <s) :>~~J 1-3

O;J..." d

0S ~.u~ v""'''''-!

~.~ J" ,-:-",,:--3

AJ.c

G~1.

r,} \

t:l~'~:I t:l'tIi~N I;>;,p 'O:J

\f'

i:l1:J

(page 163) ~I 0'" ~~~ l... '" ;z:::-",)~J \ o-,~J \

1'Ni:l~~

l;>~tl1'1~;'

ri11;>1~!:l 1~::J m~ nm~ i1'11' N1;,tIi ;'~1

3-4 (page 164)

'-"I.,)"::; J4.J ,J~

y"~';:;'JI 0U'J1 J3 J,.;l3 \~

~'m~;, N1;,tIi 1.;:si m~ ion i1'11' N1;,tIi

Js:J~~ 12

206

l~; ..J.J \

J

'-:-"".Ji-

;,tlill'tIi ;,~ 1'11:11t1ili

;,1;>1~~;' l1;>~n

;z.....G. A

;'~1 mi:l:si;' '1;>~:11 t:l'i1:JtIi;, t:l'i~~;'

t:lJl1iNtIi;-J :11'1'1:1 i!1:sii11

'tl:l1 t:l'itlim t:l'~~0;' 11'11N 1\!i~'tIi ;'~1 1'11itli:l mi!:lO;'~

J :1..., \,.;:..;(-1 I 0-'" J<>-.....,.;:~ ~l.l11

Heb. omits (homoioteleuton)

\.t9 . ;z,l~5:J\

12-14 \,..... .J. .... ;J. . .:i..! .~I \ .u~~J.. l...'.J, ,,/

J.,.o WI

Heb. omits (homoioteleuton)

2l;.,a.J I ~~

7-8 ;i..cL~ 0'" '-"".J.;:;.JI 0'" .Jy-J

1;>I;>1P~1 iOn N1;,tIi ,~ i~N~

0'"

itliON

1'1:JNI;>~1 n1~~i11 ;'N~~n;'1 ;,~I;>;,;, 1~:J

(page 162) A omits

[88] 20-21 :\:t:;5:JI ;i.-..cl..:._ ~;::

1'tIi:>7~1

J l.-"..il

11'~;' :I'~"tIi

f,g.i\~t, i~ '-:-"~

[87] 7

tliO~:I

t:li1'1'111;>1~0~

l......-3

J,.. Jy 9

11;>N:I t:l'~1~iP;' j':J ~11;>1i;' I;>o~ t:l~~N

~.Jit: 0f 05:...1

41~...l\ ~3 4)

1'Ni:l~~ iliN :l11~' N1;>1 :mp1'11

16

1'111;>~~;, 1':1 ~'tIi;,1;> t:l1i:J:ltIi ;,~ '0:1 ;'11

J3

1~~ i::li~;' 1'1~1;>;,

[82] 12 f,g.;." A

J.;: j 3

u5:,..;' LSJ1 J 13-'" ~ I

~~.

1;':I'tIi' ••• m1N :I'lV'

13

f..,g.......wl 0yS.-;·3

l;>p1;>1P~

~1. ••• ~1.

J

;,tIi~'1

i1'11' N1;'\!i

P1~1'1~

1N

t:l1;>:I t:l'tlin1~;' t:l'\!i1n;'

intrans.

;,~~

~.,

1'11liO .,l",1

.. \1 I, '"v l' I I A~~ ,,:\.6 .::.- ~J:-,::-

5 (page 160) f~l...JI ~

Heb. omits (homoioteleuton)

::::

11;> I'N itliN t:l:l PO~!i~;' ':I i'tIi;'

[80] 7 A omits

I [8 ]

~

[86] 18 o,J..t> 0y... ~\ 0~ \,..il 20

0 liy5::1.

J.c

;;:

ro ~ l..,a.;.J I 0'" 4;'~

i'O~

11'11N

Heb. omits (homoioteleuton)

8-ro l~it: 01 l,g...:...... ...w...13 ...w...1-3

'?~10;'~ 1'111'11N;';' t:l~

0'" C)\"a.Jl;

l... 0.J"=:" ~ 1 J 0l::.:LI-3

:z.,..3 U..0I ..

Ecb. omits

17 <sy~i .)l~";'JI ~...,j

u5:"'1. 'J

r;'~ J l-
[78] 17 .c~JI 0·(;, ••• .c~JI ~-3

2I

7-8

mp:n 1'1:1:1.,;'

<sf

~;m~;, =if~1

[84] 4 if;UI

Heb. omits (homoioteleuton)

l:I"~'i~:I 'i:l~1 i~

2°7

THE FU~0L AL-MADAN"I OF AL-FARABI

[89]

lacking in Heb. Nand ::l

[90] 5 A omits

m',~ '37 'N cf. Tall~il,

[91] 8 ~y.iJ A

C~T~'

10

10-II

l~.t>i

J

7il ::l

~JI ~I J>=..,.,.JI "";l....:...,.,i 0" (j~!.

Heb. omits (homoioteleuton)

~~I J6. ~£

(jt-!

."~:; U. i .;..j,,(.]"'.. . c-.w lS"

'J L

I. :

~

[9 2 ] [93]

22

lacking in Heb. Nand ::l 12

JJJI ~j .1""";

u-: i i"Y0 0"J

Heb. omits

J.:..s;.

JY-i' A

M'))

8 :UJl~

I

I I

m~'~o~

(page

.;.s--i

170)

y. L :.i.~~~J.1

J

Jl...i ,-:-,,-:-I,J A , ',.--

'1'11'

[94] 15 ~j l,.Q.!. I .1..,.,.j d-' i -:AJ 0"J

4 ... 2-3

(page

17 1 )

J.J~I t.l~ 'JIJ

:.i.J.,oLiJI "W~IJ

[95]

I

N ends :

Heb. omits

JJJI

l.gJ... -:'J.,L...!.

'J

r-

Heb. omits

J...

;;..l k...J I E:..y1U J,J.I y-l1

12

il"N' '1'I"37£l' il£l' 1'I~N::l N'illC il~

J1 ~.J

IS,),JI 0!.».JI

il::l ,~" 'lCN

A omits

m'N

'lCN~

1"il

'il37"

"~N~~ C1'I'N N'::;'il 'lCN C'P'£l::l '::IN'£l'N ,::;) '::IN '~N~ C'lC)

"::l'~ "37 7'N il'371'1" ::l, omitting

il' 371'1 "

1'::l1'l' 'N' M::llCil' C'£l'O"'£l;,1 C')'~'Pil and so ::l alone has:

'"'-'

mlC '''N' 71lCN' "lC37::l

'N"::l '" 1'IN 1'::1N (= Ps. lxxxix. 53 l~N' l~N C"::.1' " 1"::1) 208