+ancient, Medieval & Modern History- Chronicle Ias

ANCIENT INDIA

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CH IA R S O AC N I AD CL E EM Y

CONTENTS 1.

INDIAN PRE-HISTORY..........................................................................3-7

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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION ............................................................ 8-12

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THE VEDIC CIVILIZATION ................................................................ 13-18

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BUDDHISM AND JAINISM ................................................................ 19-22

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THE MAHAJANAPADAS .................................................................... 23-25

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THE MAURYANS ............................................................................. 26-30

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POST MAURYAN KINGDOMS ........................................................... 31-34

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EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA .................................................. 35-45

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THE GUPTA PERIOD ........................................................................ 46-50

10. LATER GUPTAS (7-12 CENTURY A.D.) .............................................. 51-56 11. POST-GUPTA PERIOD IN SOUTH INDIA ........................................... 57-63 12. ART & ARCHITECTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA ...................................... 64-91











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INDIAN PRE-HISTORY

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Man during this period used tools of unpolished, undressed rough stones and lived in caves and rock shelters. They had no knowledge of agriculture, fire or pottery of any material and mainly used hand axes, cleavers, choppers, blades, scrapers and burins. Their tools were made of a hard rock called ‘quartzite’ and hence Palaeolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite Men’. Homo sapiens first appeared in the last of this phase and the Palaeolithic man belonged to the Negrito race. Sir Robert Bruce Foot discovered the first Palaeolithic stone tool in the Indian sub-continent near Madras in 1863 A.D. The discovery of Indian Pre-history got a boost after the Yale-Cambridge expedition in 1935 under De Terra and Patterson. The Paleolithic stage has been divided into Lower Palaeolithic (250,000-100,000 B.C.), Middle Palaeolithic (100,000-40,000 B.C.) and Upper Paleolithic stage (40,000-10,000 B.C.) primarily based on tool typology and technology and also according to the nature of change in the climate. The tools of the lower Paleolithic stage are mainly hand axes, cleavers, choppers and chopping tools and covered the greater part of the Ice Age. In this period the climate became less humid. The middle Paleolithic age tools are mainly based on flake industries. The upper Paleolithic stage is characterized by burins and scrapers and a warm and less humid climate. Agewise the lower Paleolithic extended upto 100,000 years ago, middle Paleolithic extended upto 40,000 years ago and upper Paleolithic up to 10,000 BC. The Son and the adjacent Belan valley (Mirzapur, UP) provide a sequence of artifacts from lower Paleolithic to Neolithic. Situated around Bhimbedka hill, in central India near Hoshangabad on the Narmada River, the caves and rock shelters have yielded evidence of Paleolithic habitation. At Bhimbetka near the Narmada, a series of rockshelters have been excavated from caves. This site lacks in Chopper and Abbevillian hand axes. During middle palaeolithic age, Pithecanthropus or Homo erectus evolved. But this cultural stage was dominated by Neanderthal Man.

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The idea of pre-history is barely 200 years old. And so is the word pre-history; it was first used by M. Tournal in 1833. Dr. Primrose rediscoverd Indian pre-history by discovering prehistoric implements (stone knives and arrow heads) in 1842 at a place called Lingsugur in Karnataka. Robert Bruce was another person who enriched our knowledge about Indian prehistory when he discovered a large number of prehistoric sites in South India and collected Stone Age artifacts. These early efforts could not place India on the prehistoric map of the world. Sir Mortimer Wheeler's efforts in 1921, resulted in our knowledge of the entire pre historic culture sequence of India, putting India firmly on the world map of prehistory. As regards the early man; no fossils of early man have been found in the entire subcontinent, but their presence is indicated by stone tools dated around 250,000 BC. Earliest traces of human activity in India go back to the second Inter-Glacial period between 400,000 and 200,000 B.C. From their first appearance to around 3000 B.C. humans used only stone tools for different purposes. Based on the tool mining traditions, this period is therefore known as the Stone Age and the entire Stone Age culture has been divided into 3 main stages i.e. Paleolothic (early or Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age).

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Palaeolithic Age (500,000 B.C.–8000 B.C.)

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The Palaeolithic Age commenced from the time when the earliest man learnt the art of making stone tools. The greatest achievement of the earliest man could be traced to his learning as to how to make a fist hatchet, the spear and the fire. In India, the Palaeolithic Age developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age and was spread in practically all parts of India except the alluvial parts of Ganga and Indus. Food gathering and hunting were the main occupations of the people of this phase and Palaeolithic men learnt to use animal skins for wrapping their dead bodies.

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The upper Palaeolithic culture belongs to the last phase of the Ice Age. This culture is marked by the appearance of new flint industries and the evolution of Homo sapiens or the modern man. At Chopani-Mando in the Belan valley of the Vindhyas and the middle part of the Narmada valley, a sequence of occupation from all the three stages of the Paleolithic to Neolithic stage have been found in sequence. Chopani Mando is an important site where fossil animal bones have been found. Mesolithic Era (8000 B.C.–6000 B.C.)

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Although major changes began to appear around 10,000 B.C. the Mesolithic era seems to have started around 9000 B.C. and 8000 B.C. with the folding up of the Ice Age and continued at certain places till 4000 B.C. In this age, climate changes brought about changes in the fauna and flora and made it possible for human beings to move to new areas. Since then there haven’t been major changes in the climate. The Mesolithic era is characterized by the reduction in the size of well established tool types from the archaeological point of view with a decrease in size of some artifacts and the presence of a higher proportion of ‘geometric’ microliths. Microliths, first discovered from the Vindhyan rock shelters by C.L. Carlyle in 1867; are the characteristic tools of the era comprising of pointed, cresconic blades, scrapers, etc. all made of stone. These are very small in size with their length varying from 1-8 cm. Blackened blade, core, point, triangle, lunate and trapeze are the main Mesolithic tools. However some tools used earlier like choppers, burins and scrapers continue. The hunting implements are spears with multiple barbs apparently obtained easily by attaching microliths. The crude material is chert, agate, carnelian and quartz. Bagor, a Mesolithic site in Rajasthan on the river Kothari is the largest Mesolithic site in India also from where systematic burials of skeletons have been found. Tapti, Narmada, Mahi and Sabarmati river basins in Gujarat have yielded many Mesolithic sites. Langhnaj in Gujarat is the first discovered site in the arid zone to demonstrate the development of a Mesolithic culture. The site of Chopani Mando in Allahabad provides a continuous sequence from late upper Palaeolithic to late Mesolithic stage with crude handmade pottery. Here round hut floors were found. In Peninsular India the Mesolithic industry is based on milky quartz. A new feature in the tool industry

Lifestyle • The age represents the hunting-gathering nomadic pastoral stages of human social evolution as the people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering. At a later stage, they also domesticated animals. • The people of this age achieved their special adaptation as early as 8000 B.C. which coincides with the same in both Europe and Africa. • The last phase of this age saw the beginning of plane cultivation. • The Palaeolithic age does not yield any information about the religious practices of the people but with the Mesolithic age the first archaeological information about them becomes available. The burials and rock paintings give us ideas about the development of religious practices. • Some Mesolithic sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh and Mirzapur are famous for their rich art and paintings. Animals are the most frequent subjects of all these paintings with the most frequently represented ones being deer or antelope whereas paintings of tigers and monkeys are rare. • Animal headed human figures also appear. • This is also the period when we find evidence of carefully burying the dead, which shows the beginning of belief in life after death.

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is the appearance of ‘D’ shaped, transverse arrowhead. • A large number of animal bones were found in the rock-shelters of Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh which indicate domestication of animals only, not a pastoral economy.

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Neolithic Era (6000 B.C.–1000 B.C.)

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In the world context, the Neolithic age began around 9000 B.C. but in the Indian context it began in 7000 B.C. Mehrgarh in Baluchistan is the only site belonging to that period. Regular Neolithic attributes have been found from around 5000 B.C. and in South Indian context Neolithic settlements appeared around 2500 B.C. The principal features of Neolithic culture are crop cultivation, animal husbandry and settled life. The last two coming into existence in the last phase of Mesolithic culture. During this period people depended on stone implements but used stones other than quartzite for making tools which were more lethal, more finished and more polished. The phase is known for grinding and polishing of tools. The stone tools can be studied under two groups: (a) Ground and polished stone implements and (b) small and chipped stone tools. ANCIENT 4

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there was a pattern of subsistence based on wheat, barley, sheep, goats and cattle. The remains of charred grains of paddy husk and wheat are quite visible at Chirand in Bihar, the hand-made pots as well. The people of Kachar Hills of Assam lived in mudwalled houses and their hand-made pots were decorated with basket impressions. Koldhiwa and Mahagara lying south of Allahabad have thrown evidence of many strata of circular huts alongwith a crude handmade pottery. The most interesting find is evidence of rice suggested around 5440 and 4530 B.C. which is the oldest evidence of rice not only in India but also anywhere in the world. Instances of earlier cave dwelling have also been discovered with walls decorated of scenes of hunting and dancing. Neolithic man also knew the art of making boats and could weave cotton and wool to make cloth. In the later phase of the Neolithic stage people led a more settled life and lived in circular and rectangular houses made of mud and reed.

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Ground and polished stone implements are associated with the Neolithic culture because of their links with food-producing stage and domestication of animals. Small and chipped stone tools had been continuing from earlier Mesolithic levels which are generally termed as microliths. The Neolithic people at certain point of time started making potteries. On this basis Neolithic culture has been divided into aceramic Neolithic and ceramic Neolithic ages. At certain Neolithic levels we get the evidence of use of metal (copper being the earliest metal). Such levels are termed as Chalcolithic level. Important sites of this age are Burzahom and Gufkral in J&K (famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyards in houses), Maski, Brahmagiri, Tekkalakota in Karnataka, Paiyampatti in Tamil Nadu, Piklihal and Hallur in Andhra Pradesh, Garo hills in Meghalaya, Chirand and Senuwar in Bihar (known for remarkable bone tools), Amri, Kot diji, etc. In Baluchistan , sites of Neolithic age include Kili Ghul Muhammad, Rana Ghundai, Anjira, Siahdamb and Mundigak. In the Indus system the most Neolithic site is at Mehrgarh in the Kacchi Plain regarded as the ‘bread basket’ of Baluchistan. The Neolithic stratum at Mehrgarh seems to have emerged from a locally established Mesolithic substratum.

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In the northern Himalayas, the best known Neolithic site is Burzahom in Kashmir where the earliest occupation was characterized pit dwellings with conical roofs. The site also gives evidence of a rectangular chopper of a kind not known in India. In Burzahom sometimes dogs and wolves were found buried with their owners. Later on, there comes evidence of mud brick houses, copper arrow heads and a number of burials and graves with goods. This phase also yield a stray painted pot showing a typical early Indus buffalo deity. Gufkral, literally ‘the cave of the potter’ is another important Neolithic site in Kashmir where the earliest seize yield pit dwellings without pottery. However in subsequent phases coarse grey pottery was used and a large number of bone tools occur. People domesticated sheep, goats and oxen and animal remains of early periods corroborate it. Cultivation of wheat, barley, fruits, corn like ragi and horsegram and lentils have been reported from the beginning and between 6000 B.C. and 5000 B.C.

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Chalcolithic Period

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The end of the Neolithic period saw the use of metals of which copper was the first. A culture based on the use of stone and copper arrived called the Chalcolithic phase meaning the stone-copper phase. The first full-fledged village communities evolved in the Chalcolithic phase which was chronologically antecedents to Harappan people. Rafique Mughal of Pakistan named there settlements as Early Harappan culture. Though some Chalcolithic cultures are contemporary of Harappan and some of preHarappan cultures but most Chalcolithic cultures are post-Harappan. Though Chalcolithic cultures mostly used stone and copper implements, the Harappans used bronze (an alloy of copper and tin) on such a scale that Harappan culture is known as a Bronze Age Culture. Apart from stone tools, hand axes and other objects made from copperware were also used. The evidences of relationship with Afghanistan, Iran and probably Central India and visible at Mehargarh. The Chalcolithic culture at many places continued till 700 B.C. and sometime around 1200 B.C. the use of iron seems to have begun in the Chalcolithic level itself. The use of iron subsequently revolutionized the culture making progress and by 800 B.C. a distinct Iron Age came into existence. ANCIENT

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The Chalcolithic people used different types of pottery of which black and red pottery was most popular. It was wheel made and painted with white line design. The Chalcolithic people were not acquainted with burnt bricks and generally lived in thatched houses. It was a village economy. They venerated the mother goddess and worshipped the bull.

Sites

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Important sites of this stage are spread in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, etc. The Chalcolithic culture in Rajasthan is known as Banas culture after the river of the same name and is also known as Ahar culture after the typesite. In the Malwa region the important Chalcolithic sites are Nagda, Kayatha, Navdatoli, and Eran. Mud-plastered floors are a prominent feature of Kayatha. The Kayatha culture is characterized by a sturdy red-slipped ware painted with designs in chocolate colour, a red painted buff ware and a combed ware bearing incised patterns. The Ahar people made a distinctive black-and-red ware decorated with white designs. The Malwa ware is rather coarse in fabric, but has a thick buff surface over which designs are made either in red or black. The Prabhas and Rangpur wares are both derived from the Harappan, but have a glossy surface due to which they are also called Lustrous Red Ware. Jorwe ware too is painted black-on-red but has a matt surface treated with a wash. The settlements of Kayatha cutlure are only a few in number, mostly located on the Chambal and its tributaries. They are relatively small in size and the biggest may be not over two hectares. In contrast to small Kayatha culture settlements those of Ahar cultures are big. At least three of them namely Ahar, Balathal and Gilund are of several hectares. Stone, mud bricks and mud were used for the construction of houses and other structures. Excavations reveal that Balathal was a wellfortified settlement. The people of Malwa culture settled mostly on the Narmada and its tributaries. Navdatoli, Eran and Nagada are the three best known settlements of Malwa culture. Navadatoli measures almost 10 hectares and is one of the largest Chalcolithic settlements. It has been seen that some of these sites were fortified and Nagada had even a bastion of mud-

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bricks. Eran similarly had a fortification wall with a moat. The Rangpur culture sites are located mostly on Ghelo and Kalubhar rivers in Gujarat. The Jorwe settlement is comparatively larger in number. Prakash, Daimabad and Inamgaon are some of the best known settlements of this culture. The largest of these is Daimabad which measured 20 hectares. From Mesolithic culture onwards, all the culture types coexisted and interacted with each other.

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The Chalcolithic people built rectangular and circular houses of mud wattled-and-daub. The circular houses were mostly in clusters. These houses and huts had roots of straw supported on bamboo and wooden rafters. Floors were made of rammed clay and huts were used for storage also. People raised cattle as well as cultivated both Kharif and Rabi crops in rotation. Wheat and barley were grown in the area of Malwa. Rice is reported to have been found from Inamgaon and Ahar. These people also cultivated jowar and bajra and so also kulthi ragi, green peas, lentil and green and black grams. Religion was an important aspect which interlinked all Chalcolithic cultures. The worship of mother goddess and the bull was in vogue. The bull cult seems to have been predominant in Malwa during the Ahar period. A large number of these both naturalistic as well as stylised lingas have been found from most of the sites of Chalcolithic settlements. The naturalistic ones may have served as votive offerings, but the small stylised ones may have been hung around the neck as the Lingayats do today. The Mother Goddess is depicted on a huge storage jar of Malwa culture in an applique design. She is flanked by a woman on the right and a crocodile on the left, by the side of which is represented the shrine. Likewise the fiddle-shaped figurines probably resembling Srivatsa, the symbol of Lakshmi, the Goddess of wealth in historical period represent a mother Goddess. In a painted design on a pot, a deity is shown with dishevelled hair, recalling Rudra. A painting on a jar found from Daimabad shows a deity surrounded by animals and birds such as tigers and peacocks. Some scholars compare it with the ‘Shiva Pashupati’ depicted on a seal from Mohenjodaro. ANCIENT 6

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in kiln, it was fired at a temperature between 500700°C. In metal tools we find axes, chisels, bangles, beads, etc. mostly made of copper. The copper was obtained, perhaps, from the Khetri mines of Rajasthan. Gold ornaments were extremely rare and have been found only in the Jorwe culture. An ear ornament has been found from Prabhas in the Godavari valley also. The find of crucibles and pairs of tongs of copper at Inamgaon in Maharashtra shows the working of goldsmiths. Chalcedony drills were used for perforating beads of semi-precious stones. Lime was prepared out of Kankar and used for various purposes like painting houses and lining the storage bins, etc.

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Two figurines from Inamgaon, belonging to late Jorwe culture, are identified as proto-Ganesh, who is worshipped for success. Several headless figurines found at Inamgaon have been compared with Goddess Visira of the Mahabharata. Fire-worship seems to have been a very widespread phenomenon among the Chalcolithic people of Pre-historic India as fire-altars have been found from a large number of Chalcolithic sites during the course of excavations. The occurence of pots and other funerary objects found along with burials of the Malwa and Jorwe people indicate that people had a belief in life after death. The Chalcolithic farmers had made considerable progress in ceramic as well as metal technology. The painted pottery was well made and well fired

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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION Origin and Phases

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The Indus Valley civilization was an ancient civilization thriving along the Indus river and the Ghaggar-Hakra river in what is now Pakistan and north-western India. Among other names for this civilization is the Harappan civilization in reference to the first excavated city of Harappa. An alternative term for the culture is SaraswatiSindhu civilization based on the fact that most of the Indus Valley sites have been found along the Ghaggar-Hakra river. R.B. Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa (on Ravi) in 1921. R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro or ‘Mound of the Dead’ (on Indus) in 1922. Sir John Marshal played a crucial role in both these. Harappan civilization forms part of the proto history of India i.e. the script is there, but it cannot be deciphered and belongs to the Bronze Age. The Indus valley civilization gradually developed to a full-fledged civilization which has been established through a continuous sequence of strata named as Pre-Harappan, Early Harappan, Mature Harappan and Late Harappan stages or phases. The long term indigenous evolution of this civilization which obviously began on the periphery of the Indus Valley in the hills of eastern Baluchistan and then extended so far into the plains, can be documented by an analysis of four sites which have been excavated in recent years: Mehargarh, Amri, Kalibangan and Lothal which reflect the sequence of the four important phases or stages in pre and proto history in the north-west region of the Indian sub-continent. The sequence begins with the transition of nomadic herdsmen to settled agriculturists in eastern Baluchistan (First Phase), continues with the growth of large villages and the rise of towns in the Indus Valley (Second Phase), leads to the emergence of the great cities (Third Phase), and finally, ends with their decline (Fourth Phase). Mediterranean, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloids and Alpines formed the bulk of the population, though the first two were more numerous. More than 100 sites belonging to this civilization

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have been excavated. According to radio-carbon dating, it spread from the year 2500-1750 B.C. Copper, bronze, silver and gold were known but not iron.

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Geographical Extent

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Covered parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and some parts of Western U.P. It extended from Manda in Jammu in the north to Daimabad in the south and from Alamgirpur in western U.P. to Sutkagendor in Baluchistan in the west. Major sites in Pakistan are Harappa (on river Ravi in west Punjab), Mohenjodaro (on Indus), Chanhu-Daro (Sindh), etc. In India the major sites are Lothal, Rangpur and Surkotda (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banawali (Hissar) and Alamgirpur (western U.P.) The largest and the latest site in India is Dholavira in Gujarat. Dr. J.P. Joshi and Dr. R.S. Bisht were involved in it. Town Planning

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The Indus Valley people were primarily urban people. Elaborate town-planning following the Grid System. Roads were well cut dividing the town into large rectangular or square blocks. Lamp posts at intervals indicate the existence of street lightening. Flanking the streets, lanes and by-lanes were well-planned houses. The streets were quite broad varying from 9 feet to 34 feet in breadth. Burnt bricks of good quality were used for building material except in Rangpur and Kalibangan. Elsewhere in the contemporary world mud bricks were used. No pottery-kiln was allowed to be built within the four walls of the city. Houses were often of two or more storey, of varying sizes but were quite monotonous – a square courtyard around which were a number of rooms. The windows faced the streets and the houses had tiled bathrooms. It is especially noteworthy that almost every house had its own wells, bathrooms, courtyards, drains and kitchens. There was a good drainage system and drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum and covered ANCIENT 8

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but elephant was. Remains of horse at Surkotda and dogs with men in graves in Ropar have been discovered. Produced sufficient to feed themselves. There was no exchange of foodgrains/export or import. Food grains were stored in granaries. Eg. In Harappa and Mohenjodaro.

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Well-knit external and internal trade. There was no metallic money in circulation and trade was carried through Barter System. Weights and measures of accuracy existed in Harappan culture (found at Lothal). The weights were made of limestone, steatite, etc. and were generally cubical in shape. 16 was the unit of measurement (16, 64, 160, 320). Flint tool-work, shell-work, bangle-making (famous in Kalibangan), etc. were practiced. Raw materials for these came from different sources: gold from north Karnataka, silver and Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan and Iran, copper from Khetri and Baluchistan, etc. Bead making factories existed in Chanu daro and Lothal. They were items of export. A dockyard has been discovered at Lothal. Rangpur, Somnath and Balakot functioned as seaports. Sutkagendor and Sutkakoh functioned as outlets. The inland transport was carried out by bullock carts. Every merchant or mercantile family probably had a seal bearing an emblem often of a religious character, and a name or brief description, on one side. The standard Harappa seal was a square or oblong plaque made of steatite stone. The primary purpose of the seal was probably to mark the ownership of property, but they may have also served as amulets. The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 B.C. onwards refer to trade relations with Meluhha, the ancient name of the Indus region. Harappan seals and other material have been found at Mesopotamia. There were also instances of trade with Sumer, Babylonia, Egypt, etc.

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with large brick slabs for easy cleaning which shows a developed sense of health and sanitation. Every house had its own soak-pit which collected all the sediments and allowed only the water to flow into the street drain. House drains emptied themselves into the main drains which ran under the main streets and below many lanes. There were special trenches constructed outside every city for the rubbish to be thrown in them. The towns were divided into two parts: Upper part or Citadel and the Lower part. The Citadel was an oblong artificial platform some 30-50 feet high and about some 400-200 yards in area. It was enclosed by a thick (13 m in Harappa) crenellated mud brick wall. The Citadel comprised of public buildings whereas the lower part comprised of public dwellings. In Mohenjodaro, a big public bath (Great Bath) measuring 12 m by 7 m and 2.4 m deep has been found. Steps led from either end to the surface, with changing rooms alongside. The Great Bath was probably used for ritual bathing. Lamp posts at intervals indicate the existence of street lighting. There were special series constructed for the travelers and a system of watch and word at night also existed.

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Political Organization/ Municipalities

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There is no clear idea of the political organization of the Indus valley people. Perhaps they were more concerned with commerce and they were possibly ruled by a class of merchants. Also there was an organization like a municipal corporation to look after the civic amenities of the people.

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Economic Life

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The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April, before the advent of the next flood which indicated agriculture and knowledge of calendar reading. The people grew wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesamum, mustard, rice (in Lothal), cotton, dates, melon, etc. The Indus people were the first to produce cotton in the world. In Kalibangan, fields were ploughed with wooden ploughs. Domestication of animals was done on a large scale. Besides the cattle, sheep, pigs, camels, cats and dogs were domesticated. Horses weren’t in regular use

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The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age and bronze was made by mixing tin and copper. Tools were mostly made of copper and bronze. For making bronze, copper was obtained from Khetri in Rajasthan and from Baluchistan and tin from Afghanistan. The people of this culture were not acquainted with iron at all. ANCIENT

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The Indus Valley people had achieved a great skill in drawing the figures of men, animals and various other objects of nature and were fully conversant with the art of craving with figures on ivory, soapstone, leather, metal and wood proving their artistic acumen. Cotton fabrics were quite common and woolens were popular in winter. One male figure or a statue shows that generally two garments were worn and the female dress was more or less like that of a male. The Indus valley people were very fond of ornaments (of gold, silver, ivory, copper, bronze and precious stones) and dressing up. Ornaments were worn by both men and women, rich or poor. Women wore heavy bangles in profusion, large necklaces, ear-rings, bracelets, figure-rings, girdles, nose-studs and anklets. The Harappans were expert bead makers. They were fully conscious of the various fashions of hair-dressing and wore beards of different styles.

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Phallus (lingam) and yoni worship was also prevalent. Many trees (pepal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon) and stones were worshipped. Unicorns were also worshipped. However no temple has been found though idolatry was practiced. At Kalibangan and Lothal fire altars have been found. Although no definite proof is available with regard to disposal of the dead, a broad view is that there were probably three methods of disposing the dead – complete burial (laid towards north), burial after exposure of the body to birds and beasts, and cremation followed by burial of the ashes. The discovery of cinerary urns and jars, goblets or vessels with ashes, bones or charcoal may however suggest that during the flourishing period of the Indus valley culture, the third method was generally practiced. In Harappa, there is one place where evidence of coffin burial is there. The people probably believed in ghosts and spirits as amulets were worn. Dead bodies were placed in the north-south orientation. It appears from excavations that the people of this culture were well-versed with surgery. For example, some evidences have come from both Kalibangan and Lothal hinting at head surgery. Otherwise, they used to take recourse to black magic, amulets etc.

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Potter’s wheel was in use. The Indus Valley Pottery was red or black pottery and the people indulged in dice games, their favorite pastime being gambling. The Harrapans most notable artistic achievement was their seal engravings especially those of animals. The red sandstone torso of a man is particularly impressive for its realism. However the most impressive of the figurines is the bronze image of a dancing girl (identified as a devdassi) found at Mohenjodaro. Maximum number of seals discovered is made of steatite with the unicorn symbol being discovered on the maximum number of seals. For their children, the Harappans made cattle-toys with moveable heads, model monkeys which could slide down a string, little toy carts and whistles shaped like birds all of terracotta. Religious Life The main object of worship was the Mother Goddess or Shakti. But the upper classes preferred a God – nude with two horns, much similar to Pashupati Shiva. Represented on the seal is a figure with three horned heads in a yogic posture, surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros and below his throne is a buffalo. Near his feet are two deer. Pashupatinath represented the male deity. The elaborate bathing arrangement marking the city of Mohenjodaro would suggest that religious purification by bath formed a feature of the Indus Valley people.

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The script is not alphabetical but pictographic (about 600 undeciphered pictographs). The script has not been deciphered so far, but overlaps of letters show that it was written from right to left in the first line and left to right in the second line. This style is called ‘Boustrophedon’. End/Decay

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The Harappan culture lasted for around 1000 years. The invasion of the Aryans, recurrent floods (7 floods), social breakup of Harappans, Earthquakes, successive alteration in the course of the river Indus and the subsequent drying up of the areas in and around the major cities, etc. are listed as possible causes for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Important Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization

1. Harappa Harappa is situated in Montogomery district of ANCIENT 10

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they never tried to shift to a safer place. Rather, they came back to the original site whenever the water table receded. Nor did they ever try to build strong embankments to protect themselves from floods. 3. Alamgirpur •

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The famous Harappan site is considered the eastern boundary of the indus culture. Although the caves found here resemble those at other Harappan sites, other findings suggest that Alamgirpur developed during the late-Harappan culture. The site is remarkable for providing the impression of cloth on a trough.

4. Kalibangan Kalibangan was an important Harappan city. The word Kalibangan means ‘black bangles’. A ploughed field was the most important discovery of the early excavations. Later excavations at Kalibangan made the following specific discoveries: • A wooden furrow • Seven fire altars in a row on a platform suggesting the practice of the cult of sacrifice. • Remains of a massive brick wall around both the citadel and the lower town (the second Harappan site after Lothal to have the lower town also walled. • Bones of a camel. • The skull of a child found suffering from hydrocephalus. • A tiled floor which bears intersecting designs of circles. • A human head with long oval eyes, thick lower lips, receding forehead and straight pointed nose. • Evidences of two types of burials:  Burials in a rectangular grave and  Burials in a circular grave.

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Punjab (Pakistan). Excavations at the site have led to the following specific findings: Two rows of six granaries with brick platforms; 12 granaries together had the same area as the Great Granary at Mohenjodaro. Working floors, consisting of rows of circular brick platforms lay to the south of granaries and were meant for threshing grain. Evidence of coffin burial and cemetery ‘H’ culture. The dead were buried in the southern portion of the fortified area, called cemetery R-37. Single room barracks just below the walls of the citadels for the labourers and factory workers. It has been identified with Hari-Yupiya which is mentioned in the Rigveda. Evidence of direct trade and interaction with Mesopotamia. Discovery of a red sandstone male torso and Stone symbols of female genitals. Almost 36% of the total seals excavated in the Indus Civilization are excavated from Harappa alone. Other discoveries include Bronze image of an ‘ekka’ (vehicle) and a seal with the representation of the sign of ‘swastika’ on it.

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2. Mohenjo-daro

Also known as the ‘Mound of the dead’, it lies in Larkana district of Sind (Pakistan). Some of the specific findings during the excavations of Mohenjodaro include: • A college, a multi-pillared assembly hall. • The Great Bath • A large granary (the largest building of Mohenjodaro) which suggests extreme centralization as the ruling authorities must have first brought the agricultural produce here and then redistributed it. • A piece of woven cotton alongwith spindle whorls and needles. • Superficial evidence of a horse or an ass. • A pot-stone fragment of Mesopotamian origin. • Evidence of direct trade contact with Mesopotamia. • A bronze dancing girl. • Evidence of violent death of some of the inhabitants (discovery of human skeletons put together). • A seal representing Mother Goddess with a plant growing from her womb, and a woman to be sacrificed by a man with a knife in his hand. • A bearded man • A seal with a picture suggesting Pashupati Mahadev. • This city is also an extreme example of conservatism, as despite having been flooded almost nine times, © Chronicle IAS Academy

5. Kot-Diji Kot-Diji is known more as a pre-Harappan site. It gives the impression of a pre-Harappan fortified settlement. Houses were made of stone. The remains of Kot-Diji suggest that the city existed in the first half of the third millennium B.C. Excavations at the site suggest that the city was destructed by force. 6. Lothal Lothal was an important trade centre of the Harappan culture. The town planning in Lothal was different from that of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The city was divided into six sections. Each section was built on a wide platform of unripe bricks. Each platform was separated by a road with width ranging from 12 feet to 20 feet. Excavations at Lothal led to some specific discoveries which include: ANCIENT

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Remains of rice husk (the only other Harappan city where the rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmedabad). An artificial dock yard. Evidence of a horse from a doubtful terracotta figurine. Impressions of cloth on some of the seals. Evidence of direct trade contact with Mesopotamia. Houses with entrances on the main street (the houses of all other Harappan cities had side entries). A ship designed on a seal. A terracotta ship. A painting on a jar resembling the story of the ‘cunning fox’ and the ‘thirsty crow’ narrated in Panchatantra. Evidence of double burial (burying a male and a female in a single grave) found in three graves whereas in Kalibangan one such grave has been found. Evidence of games similar to modern day chess and An instrument for measuring 180, 90, 45 degree angles (the instrument points to modern day compass).

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Ropar is a Harappan site from where remains of pre-Harappan and Harappan cultures have been found. Buildings at Ropar were made mainly of stone and soil. Important findings at the site include pottery, ornaments, copper axes, chert blades, terracotta blades, one inscribed steatite seal with typical Indus pictographs, several burials interred in oval pits and a rectangular mud brick chamber. There is also an evidence of burying a dog below the human burial (Though the practice was prevalent in Burzahom in Kashmir, it was late in the Harappan context.

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Amri also gives evidence of pre-Harappan settlement. However it lacks the fortification plan of the pre-Harappan phase. A spectacular feature of Amri is that it gives the impression of existence of transitional culture between pre and post Harappan culture. Important findings at Amri include the actual remains of rhinoceros, traces of Jhangar culture in late or declining Harappan phase and fir altars.

8. Chanhu-daro • Excavations at Chanhu-daro have revealed three different cultural layers from lowest to the top being Indus culture, and the pre-Harappan Jhukar culture and the Jhangar culture. • The site is especially important for providing evidences about different Harappan factories. These factories produced seals, toys and bone implements. • Through excavations, the evidence of bead maker’s shops has come to light. • It was the only Harappan city without a citadel. • Some remarkable findings at Chanhu-daro include bronze figures of bullock cart and ekkas, a small pot suggesting an inkwell, footprints of an elephant and a dog chasing a cat. © Chronicle IAS Academy

10. Banawali • Situated in Hissar district of Haryana, Banawali has provided two phases of culture during its excavations: the pre-Harappan (Phase I) and the Harappan (Phase II). • Though Phase II belonged to the Harappan period, chess board or grid pattern of town planning was not always followed as in other Harappan sites. • The roads were not always straight nor did they cut at right angles. • It also lacked another important feature of the Harappan civilization – a systematic drainage system. • High quality barley has been found in excavations. • Other important material remains include ceramics, steatite seal and a few terracotta sealing with typical Indus script, ear rings shaped like leaves of a peepal tree and terracotta bangles. 11. Surkotda • Situated in Kutch (Bhuj) district of Gujarat and excavated by J.P. Joshi in 1972, Surkotda was an important fortified Harappan settlement. • This site is important because it provides the first actual remains of horse bones. • A cemetery with four pot burials with some human bones has also been found. • A grave has been found in association with a big rock (megalithic burial), a rare finding of the Harappan culture. 12. Sutkagendor • •

Sutkagendor situated in Sindh (Pakistan) was an important coastal town of the Indus civilization. Excavations of Sutkagendor have revealed a twofold division of the township: the Citadel and the Lower City, it is said that Sutkagendor was originally a port which later cut off from the sea due to coastal uplift. ANCIENT 12

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Four rivers of Afghanistan are clearly described in the Rigveda. These are: Kubha, Krumu, Gomati (Gomal), Suvastu (swat). It consists of ten Mandala or books of which Book II to VII is the easiest portion. Book I and X seem to have been the latest additions. In the Rigvedic period, the dead man’s soul is said to depart to the waters of the plants. Since the Aryans came through the mountains, which were considered the dwelling places of their gods, these are repeatedly mentioned in the Rigveda. Meru, a mountain beyond the Himalayas, is a happy divine abode in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The Rig Veda has many things in common with the Avesta, which is the oldest text in the Iranian language. The two texts use the same names for several Gods and even for social classes. The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts which were compiled after the age of the Rig Veda. These include the three Vedas – Samveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda and the Brahamanas, the Aranyakas, the Upanishads and the Sutras. The collection of the Vedic hymns or mantras were known as Samhitas. For purposes of singing, the prayers of the Rigveda were set to tune and this modified collection was known as the Samveda Samhita. The Yajurveda contains not only the hymns but also the rituals which have to accompany their recitation. The Atharvaveda is completely different from the other three Vedas. It contains charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. Its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans. Atharvaveda is the most valuable of the Vedas after the Rig Veda for the history and sociology. All the Vedic literature is together called the Shruti and they include apart from the four Vedas, the Brahamanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. The Brahamanas are a series of texts that followed the Vedic samhitas. Each Veda has several bhramanas attached to it. These are ritual texts. Brahamanas attached to the Rigveda are Aitareya, Kaushitaki (composed by Hotri priest). Brahamanas

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We know about the Aryans in India from the various Vedic texts, especially the Rig Veda, which is the earliest specimen of the Indo-European language and the chief source of information on the history of this period. Many historians have given various theories regarding the original place of the Aryans. However, the Central Asian Theory given by Max Muller, is the most accepted one. It states that the Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia. They entered India probably through the Khyber Pass (in the Hindukush Mountains) around 1500 B.C. The holy book of Iran ‘Zend Avesta’ indicates entry of Aryans to India via Iran. The early Aryans did not have to look routes to Indian sub-continent; for the Harappans had crossed the high passes of the Hindukush and reached the middle course of the Amu Darya where they had set up a trading post at Shortughai. In the Rigvedic period, the nobles were advised to eat from the same vessel as the vis for success. Metal came to be known as Ayas and Iron as Krishanayas (Black Metal). The Vedic texts may be divided into two broad chronological strata: the Early Vedic (1500-1000 B.C.) when most of the hymns of the Rig Veda were composed and the Later Vedic (1000-600 B.C.) when the remaining three Vedas and their branches were composed.

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Early Vedic or Rigvedic Period (1500-1000 B.C.)

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The Rig Veda is a collection of prayers offered to Agni, Indra, Varuna and other gods by various families of poets and sages. From Rigveda, we come to know that there were 33 gods that time who were divided into three categories viz., heavenly gods, atmospheric god, and earthly gods. Varuna, Surya, Aditi, Savitri were heavenly gods. Indra, Rudra, Maruts etc. were atmospheric gods. Agni, Soma, and Prithvi were earthly gods.

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in India is called the Land of Seven Rivers or Sapta Sindhava (the Indus and the five tributaries and the Saraswati). Political Organization •

The political organization was of monarchial form. The tribe was known as Jan and its king as Rajan. He was the leader in battle and protector of the tribe. His office was not hereditary and was selected among the clan’s men. The Rajan was not an absolute monarch, for the government of the tribe was in part the responsibility of the tribal councils like sabhas, samitis, gana and vidhata. Even women attended gana and vidhata only. Many clans (Vish) formed a tribe. The basic social unit was the Kula or the family and the Kulapa was the head of the family. The king was assisted by a number of officers of which Purohita was the most important. Next important functionary was the Senani (leader of the army) even though there was no regular or standing army. The military technique of the Aryans was much advanced. The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariots driven by horses. There was no regular revenue system and the kingdom was maintained by voluntary tribute (Bali) of his subjects and booty won in battle.

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attached to Samveda are Jamini, Tandyamasha, Panchavis, Chhandogya (composed by Udgatri priest). Brahamanas attached to Yajurveda are Satpatha Brahmana (composed by Adhvaryu priest). Brahamanas attached to Atharvaveda are Gopatha Brahamana. The Brahamanas throw light on the socio-political life of the Aryans and form a sort of explanation of their religion, especially sacrifice. They also contain ritualistic formulae for the respective Vedas and its priests. The Aranyakas are forest books that are treaties on mysticism and philosophy and are concluding portion of the Brahamanas. They explain the metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice. They lay emphasis not on sacrifice but on meditation. They are infact opposed to sacrifice and many of the ritualistic practices. Their stress is on moral virtues. They form a bridge between the way of the works (karma-marga, advocated by the Brahamanas) and the way of knowledge (gyan-marga, advocated by the Upanishads). Some important Aranyakas are Aitreya Aranyaka, Kaushitaki Aryanka and Taittiriya Aranyaka. The Upanishads contain philosophical speculations. They are generally called Vedanta which means the end of the Vedas. One reason is that they came at the end of the Vedic period or that they were taught at the end of the Vedic instruction. These texts were compiled around 600 B.C. and criticized the rituals and laid stress on the values of right belief and knowledge. They emphasized that the knowledge of the self and the atma should be acquired and the relation of atma with Brahma should be properly understood. The ten Upanishads are: Ishopanishat, Kenopanishat, Kathopanishat, Parshnopanishat, Mandukopanishat, Koushikopanishat, Thaittariyopanishat, Chandogyopanishat and Brihadaranyaopanishat. These are commentaries appended to the Aranyakas and deal mainly with philosophy and religion. The Smriti are the auxiliary treatises of the Vedas or their supplements. It refers to that literature that has been passed on from one generation to the other. Manusmriti written by Manu is the oldest of all the Smritis. The Puranas are 18 in number, of which the Bhagawat Purana and Vishnu Purana are the most important. Geographical Spread The early Aryans settled in eastern Afghanistan, modern Pakistan, Punjab and parts of western U.P. The whole region in which the Aryans first settled

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The term Varna was used for colour, the Aryans being fair and the Dasas dark. Family was the basic unit of society and was patriarchal in nature. But women enjoyed equal power with men. Marriage was usually monogamous and indissoluble, but there are a few instances of polyandry, levirate and widow marriage. There are no examples of child-marriage. The marriageable age seems to have been 16 to 17. Both dowry and bride price were recognized during the Early Vedic period. The word ‘Arya’ came to refer to any person who was respected. Aryans were fond of soma, sura, food and dresses. Soma was drunk at sacrifices and its use was sanctified by religion. Sura was purely secular and more potent and was disapproved by the priestly poets. Throughout the Vedic period, education was imparted orally. Unlike the Harappans, the Aryans do not seem to have a system of writing. The Aryans loved music and played the flute, lute and harp. There are references to singing and dancing girls. People also delighted in gambling. ANCIENT 14

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From Brihadaranyaka Upanishad we get the first exposition of the doctrine of transmigration of soul. Later Vedic Period/Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000-600 B.C.)

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They reveal that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western U.P. covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab. In the beginning, they cleared the land by burning; later with the use of iron tools which became common by 1000-800 B.C. In Later Vedic period, many great cities like Videha, Kaushambhi, Kasi, Ayodhya, Hastinapur and Indraprashtha etc. had sprung up.

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Economy Their bronze smiths were highly skilled and produced tools and weapons much superior to those of Harappa culture. There were artisans like carpenters, weavers, cobblers, potters, etc. Aryans followed a mixed economy – pastoral and agricultural – in which cattle played a predominant part. Most of their wars were fought for cow (most important form of wealth). Cattle were in fact a sort of currency and values were reckoned in heads of cattle (man’s life was equivalent to that of 100 cows), but they were not held sacred at the time. The horse was almost as important as the cow. Standard unit of exchange was the cow. At the same time coins were also there (gold coins like Nishka, Krishnal and Satmana). Gavyuti was used as a measure of distance and Godhuli as a measure of time. Reference to money lending first occurs in Shatapatha Brahmana, which describes a usurer as Kusidin. Lived in fortified mud settlements. Physicians were then called ‘Bhishakas’. The staple crop was ‘yava’ which meant barley.

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Religion The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings. The most important divinity was Indra who played the role of warlord (breaker of forts – Purandar and was also associated with storms and thunder). The second position was held by Agni (fire-god). He is considered an intermediary between gods and men. Varuna occupied the third position. He personified water and was supposed to uphold the natural order (Rta). He was ethically the highest of all Rigvedic gods. Soma was considered to be the god of plants. Maruts personified the storms. Some female deities are also mentioned like Aditi and Usha, who represented the appearance of dawn. Didn’t believe in erecting temples or idol worship. Worshipped in open air through yajnas. Aryans didn’t worship animals – only gods in man’s form. The Asvamedha sacrifice concluded with the sacrifice of 21 sterile cows.

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Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms. The earliest legend on the origin of kingship occurs in the Aitareya Brahmana, one of the Later Vedic texts, perhaps of the 8th or 7th century B.C. During the Rigvedic period the Aryans had built only small kingdoms, as they were always busy fighting the non-Aryans. But now they had crushed the resistance of the non-Aryans and had established such powerful kingdoms as Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Magadha, Kasi and Anga. Powers of the king who was called the Samrat increased. Importance of assemblies declined. Women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies and the term ‘Rashtra’ indicating territory first appeared in this period. The establishment of vast empires led to the growth of the royal power. The Sabha and the Samiti were now not powerful enough to check the power of the kings. The office of the monarch had now become more or less hereditary. A regular army was maintained for the protection of the kingdom. In the Rigvedic period we hear of three main assistants of the king, i.e., the Purohita, the Senani and the Gramini. But now in addition to these officials many new assistants of the king were present. References of Priest (Purohita), Commander in chief (Senapati), Charioteer (Suta), Treasurer (Sangrihita), Tax collector (Bhagdugha), Chief queen (Mahisi) and the Great companion (Aksavapa). ANCIENT

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The centre of gravity was the king and not the priest. If there was any difference between the ruler and the priest, it was the priest who yielded. Kings of various grades are mentioned in the Vedic hymns. For example, the Rajaka was inferior to a Raja who in turn was inferior to a Samrat. Political affairs, religious and social matters were discussed by the speakers in the local assemblies. These speakers sought the help of spells and magic herbs to stimulate their eloquence in debate (Pras) and overcome their rival debaters (Pratiprasita).

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The four fold division of society became clear initially based on occupation which later became hereditary; Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (agriculturists, cattle-rearers, traders) and Shudras (servers of the upper three). Women enjoyed freedom and respect but their status deteriorated compared to earlier time. The institution of gotra appeared in this age first time. Gotra signified descent from common ancestors. In this age also Chariot racing was the main sport and gambling the main pastime. The excavations at Hastinapur in Meerut, dating back to about 900 B.C.-500 B.C. have revealed settlements and faint beginning of town life. It may be called a proto-urban site. Later Vedic period, especially from around 800 B.C.- 500 B.C., is also the Sutra period. Sutra means formula. Grihasutra contained social rituals including sixteen sanskaras through which individual had to pass from conception to cremation. Woman was now gradually losing her position of importance in the religious and social sphere. The king and the nobility had now begun to marry more than one wife and the birth of a daughter was now regarded as source of misery. Higher education was, however, imparted to women. The re-marriage of a widow was prevalent and the practices of sati, child-marriage, purdah and child infanticide were not heard of. Now in place of four main varnas many new castes were born, leading to the complexities of the caste system. The life of an ordinary man was now, however, divided into four stages popularly known as the four Ashramas.

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Daiva: Marriage in which the father gave his daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his fees. Arsa: Marriage in which a token bride price of a cow and a bull was paid to the daughter’s father. Prajapatya: Marriage in which the father gave the girl without any dowry and without demanding bride price. Gandharva: Marriage often clandestine, by the consent of the two parties. Asura: Marriage by purchase. Rakshasa: Marriage by capture. Paishacha: Marriage involving the seduction of a girl while sleeping, etc. Anuloma marriage: was the marriage of higher varna man with a lower varna woman. Pratiloma marriage: was the marriage of a lower varna man with a higher varna woman.

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Types of marriages • Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same class. © Chronicle IAS Academy

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Asvamedha: A king performed this sacrifice which meant control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony lasted for three days at the end of which the horse sacrificed was performed. The Asvamedha sacrifice concluded with the sacrifice of 21 sterile cows. Vajapeva: A chariot race was performed in which the king must win the race (it was fixed). It was meant to re-establish the supremacy of the king over his people. Rajasuya: A sacrifice ceremony which conferred supreme power on the king. Ratnahavimsi: A part of Rajasuya ceremony where different royal officials (ratnins) invoked different gods and goddesses. Upanayana: An initiation ceremony to confer dvija status to boys of the higher varnas in their eighth year. Pumsayam: A ceremony to procure a male child. Garbhadhana: A ceremony to promote conception in women. Culakarma: A ceremony, also known tonsure performed for boys in their third year. Semontannayam: A ceremony to ensure the safety of the child in the womb. Jatkarma: A birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord.

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Though the Later Vedic phase has been identified with the Painted Grey Ware pottery culture, but the fact is that this type of pottery constitutes only about 3-15% of the total pottery found. ANCIENT 16

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The later vedic people used four types of pottery: black and red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware and red ware. Red ware for commoners was most popular and has been found almost all over western U.P. However, the most distinctive pottery of the period is known as Painted Grey Ware which comprised bowls and dishes, used either for rituals or for eating by upper classes.

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Vedas are also known as ‘Shruti’ (to hear) as they were passed from generation through verbal transmission. Harappa is known in Vedas as ‘Haryupriva’. They are four in all – rigveda, samaveda, yajurveda and atharveda. The first three Vedas are known as ‘Tyari’ or ‘trio’. Each veda is further subdivided into Samhitas. The phrase ‘Arya’ and ‘Shudra’ appearing in the Vedic literature perhaps meant only to distinguish those who were theoretically qualified for the firecult from those who were not.

Rig veda

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Economy • During Later Vedic period, Krishnala berry was unit of weight and this probably led to the use of coinage. The Nishka replaced cow as a unit of value. The Satamana mentioned in the Brahmanas was a piece of gold weighing a hundred Krishnalas. • Rigveda mentions only gold and copper or bronze but Later Vedic texts mention tin, lead, silver and iron. • In addition to the cultivation of barley, wheat and rice, many new grains such as sesame (Tila) and beans began to be cultivated during this period and great progress was doubtlessly made in the methods of cultivation

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Rituals and formulae became prominent in the cult of sacrifice. According to the scheme of four stages, life did not begin with one’s physical birth, but with the second birth which was after the investiture ceremony or Upanayana. The age of Upanayana was 8 years for Brahmanas, 11 years for Kshatriyas, and 12 years for Vaishyas. Shatpatha Brahmana says that east, west, north, south; all should be given to priests as fee. Indra, Varuna, Surya and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati (the creator) became supreme. Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people. Some of the special orders came to have their own deities e.g. Pushan responsible for well being of the cattle, became the God of the Shudras. Towards the end of the period, began a strong reaction against the sacrificial cults and rituals with the composition of the Upanishads which valued right belief and knowledge more than anything else. The Vedic Literature

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The Vedas •

The word ‘veda’ comes from the root ‘vidi’ signifying knowledge.

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Oldest religious text in the world. Must have been composed around 1700 B.C. A collection of hymns. Were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion. Contains 1028 hymns (1017+11 valakhilyas) and is divided into 10 mandalas. II to VII are the earliest mandalas, each of which is ascribed to a particular family of seers (rishis) – Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bhardwaj and Vashistha. VII Mandala is ascribed to the Kanvas and Angiras. IX is the compilation of Soma hymns. I and X are considered the later additions. The X Mandala contains the famous Purushsukta which explains that the four varnas (Brahmans, Ksatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the creator, Brahma. Words in Rig Veda: Om (1028 times), Jan (275 times), etc. 250 hymns are dedicated to Indra while 200 are dedicated to Agni. The third Mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra (addressed to the sun/Savitri – goddess associated with Surya). Saraswati is the deity river in Rig Veda and is referred to 8 times while the Sindhu/Indus is referred to 18 times. There is a reference to prison (urva) in the Rigveda and also to fetters of iron. Ordeal of the red-hot axe is mentioned only once in the Chhandogya Upanishad as part of criminal procedure.

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Contains ‘Dhrupada Raga’ which is the oldest of the ragas.

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Deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. There are two main texts of Yajurveda: White Yajurveda (or Shukla Yajurveda) and Black Yajurveda (or Krishna Yajurveda). The former contains mantras and the latter has commentary in prose.

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Smritis • Explains rules and regulations in the vedic life. • Main are Manusmriti, Naradsmriti, Yagyavalkyasmriti and Parasharsmriti. • Dharmasutras contain social laws popularly known as ‘Smriti’. Earliest Dharmasutra is the Manusmriti which is also called Manav Darshan.

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Atharvaveda • Entirely different from three other Vedas. • Divided into 20 kandas (books) and has 711 hymns – mostly dealing with magic (along with personal problems of people). • Atharvaveda refers to king as protector of Brahmanas and eater of people. • From the point of view of Vedic rituals, Atharvaveda is the most important.

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Vedangas •

The Brahamans • • •

They explain the hymns of the Vedas in an orthodox manner. Each Veda has several Brahmans attached to it. The most important is ‘Satpatha Brahmana’ attached to Yajurveda which is the most exhaustive and important of all. It recommends ‘One Hundred Sacred Paths’.

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Called ‘forest books’, written mainly by the hermits living in the jungles for their pupils. These are the concluding part of the Brahmanas. Deals with mysticism and philosophy. Opposed to sacrifice and emphasized meditation. Form a bridge between ‘Way of Work’ (Karma Marg) which was the sole concern of the Upanishads and the ‘Way of Knowledge’ (Gyan Marg) which the Brahmanas advocated.

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The word means ‘to sit dowm near someone’ and denotes a student sitting near his guru to learn. Called Vedanta (the end of the Vedas) firstly because they denote the last phase of the vedic

Six Vedangas are Shiksha which deals with pronunciation, Kalpa which deals with rituals, Vyakarana which deals with grammar, Nirukta which deals with etymology or phonetics, Chhanda which deals with meter and Jyotisha which deals with astronomy.

Epics

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period and secondly because they reveal the final aim of the Vedas. They are the main source of Indian philosophy. There are 108 Upanishads. They also condemn the ceremonies and the sacrifices. They discuss the various theories of creation of the universe and define the doctrine of action (karma). Mandukyu Upanishad is the source of ‘Satya Mevya Jayate’.

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The period that lies between the Rigvedic period and the rise of Buddhism in India i.e., 2000 to 700 B.C. has been designated by some as the Later Vedic Period and by some as Epic Age. Though the two epics – the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were compiled later, they reflect the state of affairs of the later Vedic Period. The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa is considered older than the Ramayana and describes the period about 1400 B.C.; compiled from the tenth century B.C. to the fourth century A.D. It is also called Jaisamhita and Satasahasri Samhita and has one lakh verses and is divided into eighteen books with the Harivansa attached to it at the end. The Ramayana attributed to Valmiki has 24,000 verses. Its composition started in the fifth century B.C. and passes through five stages; the fifth stage ending in the 12th century A.D.

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BUDDHISM AND JAINISM Causes for the Growth of Buddhism and Jainism The Vedic rituals were expensive and the sacrifices prescribed were very complicated and had lost their meaning. The caste system had become rigid. Supremacy of the Brahmins created unrest. All the religious texts were in Sanskrit, which was not understandable to the masses.

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truth (also called ‘Mahabhinishkramana’ or the Great renunciation) and wandered for 6 years. He first meditated with Alara Kaiama. But he was not convinced that man could obtain liberation from sorrow by mental discipline and knowledge. His next teacher was Udraka Ramputra. He then joined forces with five ascetics – Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mahanama and Assagi, who were practicing the most rigorous self-mortification in the hope of wearing away their karma and obtaining final bliss. For six years he tortured himself until he was nothing but a walking skeleton. But after six years he felt that his fasts and penance had been useless so he abandoned these things and the five disciples also left him. Attained Nirvana or Enlightenment at 35 at Uruvela, Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree. Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath at Deer Park where his five disciples had settled. His first sermon is called ‘Dharmachakrapravartan’ or ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’. Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of U.P.) in 483 B.C. at the age of 80 in the Malla republic. His death is said to have been caused by a meal of pork (sukramad-dava), which he had taken with his lay disciple Chunda at Pavapuri. His last words were: “All composite things decay. Strive diligently!” This was his “final blowing out” (Parinirvana). His body was cremated and his ashes were divided among the representatives of various tribal societies and King Ajatshatru of Magadha.

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Buddhism

Buddhism is the middle way of wisdom and compassion. It stands for three pillars: • Buddha – its founder • Dhamma – his teachings • Sangha – order of Buddhist monks and nuns.

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Five Great Events of Buddha’s Life and their Symbols • • • • •

Birth – Lotus and bull Great renunciation – Horse Nirvana – Bodhi tree First Sermon – Dharmachakra or wheel Parinirvana or death – Stupa

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The Buddha •

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Also known as Sakyamuni (the Sage of the Sakyas), Jina (the Victorious) or Tathagata (one who has reached the truth). Born in 563 B.C. on the Vaishakha Poornima Day at Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in Nepal. His father Suddhodana was the Saka ruler. His mother (Mahamaya, of Kosala dynasty) died after 7 days of his birth and he was brought up by his stepmother Gautami. Buddha was married at 16 to Yashodhara and enjoyed married life for 13 years and had a son named Rahula. After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer. Left his palace at 29 (with Channa, the charioteer and his favourite horse, Kanthaka) in search of

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The Dhamma

The Four Great Truths • • •

Dukkha – The world is full of sorrow and misery. The cause of all pain and misery is desire and attachment. Pain and misery can be ended by killing or controlling desire. ANCIENT

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Desire can be controlled by following the Eight Fold Path.

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The central theme of Buddha’s teachings is the eight-fold path (Astangamarga) prescribed by him which consist of: • Wisdom – Right Faith, Right Thought, • Moral Discipline – Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Speech, • Mental Discipline – Right Effort, Right Remembrance and Right Concentration. Belief in Nirvana •

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When desire ceases, rebirth ceases and nirvana is attained i.e. freedom from the cycle of birth and death by following the eight-fold path. According to Buddha the soul is a myth.

Belief in Ahimsa

One should not cause injury to any living being, animal or man. Law of Karma

Man reaps the fruits of his past deeds. The Sangha • • •

Fourth Council – At Kashmir (Kundalvan) in 72 A.D. under Vasumitra (king was Kanishka). Vice Chairman was Ashwagosha. Divided into Mahayana and Hinayana sects. In Mahayana, idol worship is there. It became popular in China, Japan, Korea, Afghanistan, Turkey and other South East countries. Hinayana became popular in Magadha and Sri Lanka. It believed in individual salvation and not in idol worship. Apart from these two there is third vehicle called Vajrayana, which appeared in the 8th century and grew rapidly in Bihar and Bengal. They did not treat meat, fish, wine, etc. as a taboo in the dietary habits and freely consumed them. Fifth Council – In Mandalay, Burma (now Myanmar) in 1871 and was presided over by Theravada monks in the reign of King Mindon. Sixth Council – In Kaba Aye in Yangoon in 1954, was sponsored by the Burmese Government.

Consists of monks (Bhikshus and Shramanas) and nuns. Bhikshus acted as torch bearer of the Dhamma. Apart from Sangha, the worshippers were called Upasakas.

Buddhist Councils

The monks gathered four times after the death of the Buddha and the effect of these events had their effect on Buddhism. • First Council – At Rajgriha, in 483 B.C. under the Chairmanship of Mehakassaapa (king was Ajatshatru). Divided the teachings of Buddha into two Pitakas – Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka. Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka and Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka. • Second Council – At Vaishali, in 383 B.C. under Sabakami (king was Kalasoka of Shishunaga Dynasty). Followers were divided into Sthavirmadins and Mahasanghikas. • Third Council – At Pataliputra, in 250 B.C. under Mogaliputta Tissa (king was Ashoka). In this the third part of the Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language. © Chronicle IAS Academy

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Buddhism after Buddha • Of all the religious remains of between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. so far discovered in India, those of Buddhism far outnumber those of any other religion viz., Hinduism, Jainism etc together. • Hieun Tsang (the Chinese traveler), in the 7th century A.D. found that the Lesser Vehicle or Hinayanism is almost extinct in most of India, and only flourishing in a few parts of the west. • From Nalanda, the missionary monk Padmasambhava went forth to convert Tibet to Buddhism in the 8th century A.D. • In the 6th century AD, the Huna King Mihirkula destroyed monasteries and killed monks. • A fanatical Shaivite king of Bengal, Sashanka, in the course of an attack on Kannauj in the beginning of the 7th century A.D., almost destroyed the Tree of Wisdom at Gaya. • As late as the 5th century A.D., written scriptures were rare and the pilgrim Fa-hien was hard put to find a copy of the Vinay Pitaka. Buddhist Literature Buddhist literature in Pali language is commonly referred to as Tripitakas i.e. ‘Threefold Basket’. • Vinaya Pitaka are the rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries. • Sutta Pitaka is the largest and contains collection of Buddha’s sermons. • Abhinandan Pitaka is the explanation of the philosophical principles of the Buddhist religion. ANCIENT 20

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His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan. His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchhavi Prince Chetak of Vaishali. Mahavira was related to Bimbisara. Married to Yashoda and had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first discipline. At 30, after the death of his parents he became an ascetic. In the 13th year of his asceticism, outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme knowledge (Kaivalya). From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira and his followers were named Jains. He also got the title of Arihant i.e. worthy. At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna in 527 B.C. Mahavira survived the death of his chief rival Gosala and probably also that of the Buddha, and died of self-starvation at the age of 72 in the little town of Pava, near the Magadhan capital Rajagriha. It is said that at the time of Mahavir’s death at Pavapuri, the kings of the two clans viz., the Mallas and the Lichchhavis, celebrated the lamp festival in his honour. After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of King Chandragupta, a severe famine led to the great exodus of Jain monks from the Ganga valley to the Deccan, where they established important centres of their faith. This migration led to a great schism in Jainism. Bhadrabahu who led the emigrants insisted on the retention of the rule of nudity which Mahavira had established. Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monks who remained in the north allowed his followers to wear white garments, owing to the hardships and confusion of the famine. Hence arose two sects of the Jains: the Digambaras (sky-clad i.e. naked) and the Svetanbaras (white-clad). Our knowledge of Jainism after Mahavira is meager. There were eleven ‘Gandharas’ but only one of them named Sudharman survived the master and became the first pontiff. He died 20 years after Mahavira.

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Mahayana and Deepvamsa are other Buddhist texts. They provide information about the then Sri Lanka. Jatakas are the fables about the different births of Buddha. The fundamentals of Buddhist teachings are contained in the “Dhammacakka-Pavattana Sutta (Sermon of the Turning of the Wheel of Law). Buddha first taught this to his first disciples at Benaras. This contains the Four noble truths and the Noble eight-fold path, which are accepted as basic categories by all Buddhist sects. Among the chief Mahayana texts is the Lalitvistara, a flowery narrative of the life of Buddha. This test was utilized by Sir Edwin Arnold for The Light of Asia, a lengthy poem on the life of Buddha, which enjoyed much popularity at the end of the last century.

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It succumbed to the Brahmannical rituals and ceremonies such as idol worship, etc. which Buddhism had earlier denounced. Revival of reformed Hinduism with the preaching of Shankaracharya from ninth century onwards. Use of Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals in place of Pali, the language of the common people. Deterioration in the moral standards among the monks living in the Buddhist monasteries. Attacks of Huna king Mihirkula in the sixth century and the Turkish invaders in the 12th century A.D. which continued till the 13th century A.D.

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Jainism

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Founded by Rishabhanath, the first Tirthankara. There were 24 Tirthankara (Prophets or Gurus) and all of them were Kshatriyas. Rishabhanath’s reference is also there in the Rigveda. But there is no historical basis for the first 22 Tirthankaras. Only the last two are historical personalities. The 23rd Tirthankara Parshwanath (symbol: snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Benaras. His main teachings were: Non-injury, Non-lying, Nonstealing, Non-possession. The 24th and the last Tirthankara was Vardhman Mahavira (symbol: lion). He added celibacy to his main teachings.

Vardhman Mahavira •

He was born in Kundagram (district Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 599 B.C.

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Teachings of Mahavira •

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Rejected the authority of the Vedas and do not attach any importance to the performance of the sacrifices. He believed that every object even the smallest particle possesses a soul and is endowed with consciousness. That is why they observe strict nonviolence. ANCIENT

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The Second Council was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in the 5th century A.D. under the leadership of Devridhigani. It resulted in final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

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Jainism reached the highest point in Chandragupta Maurya’s time. In Kalinga it was greatly patronized by Kharavela in the first century A.D. Various factors were responsible for the decline of Jainism in India. They took the concept of Ahimsa too far. They advised that one should not take medicine when one fell sick because the medicine killed germs. They believed that there was life in trees and vegetables and so refrained from harming them. Such practices could not become popular with the common man. Lack of patronage from the later kings. Jain literature is in Ardh-Magadhi and Prakrit dialects. Due to the influence of Jainism, many regional languages emerged out, like Sauraseni, out of which grew the Marathi, Gujarati, Rajasthani and Kannada languages.

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The Jains reject the concept of the Universal soul or a Supreme power as the creator or sustainer of the Universe. Jainism does not deny the existence of Gods but refuses to give Gods any important part in the universal scheme. Gods are placed lower than the Jina. Universal brotherhood (non-belief in the caste system). In Jainism, three Ratnas (Triratnas) are given and they are called the way to Nirvana. They are Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct.

Jain Councils • According to a Jain tradition, an oral sacred literature had been passed down from the days of Mahavira, but Bhadrabahu was the last person to know it perfectly. On Bhadrabahu’s death, Sthulabhadra called a Great Council at Pataliputra which was the First Jain Council held in the beginning of third century B.C. It resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the former 14 Purvas. The Digambaras rejected this canon and declared that the original one was lost. Thus, there was a great urgency to devise new scriptures.

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THE MAHAJANAPADAS

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Ware); a glossy, shining type of pottery. This marked the beginning of the Second Urbanization in India. Haryanka Dynasty The Haryanka Dynasty was originally founded in 566 B.C. by the grandfather of Bimbisara, but the actual foundation in the true sense is credited to Bimbisara.

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From the 16th century onwards, the widespread use of Iron in eastern U.P. and western Bihar created conditions for the formation of large territorial states. The new agricultural tools and implements enabled the peasants to produce more and the extra produce was collected by princes to meet military and administrative needs. With this the ‘Janapadas’ started giving way to ‘Mahajanapadas’ and the land between the Himalayas and the Narmada was divided into 16 Mahajanapadas which are mentioned in the Buddhist literature ‘Anguttar Nikaya’. These are Kamboj, Gandhara, Kuru, Panchal, Chedi, Avanti, Matsya, Sursena, Koshla, Vatsa, Malla, Vajjis, Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Asmaka. Of these, Magadha, Kosala or Avadh, Vatsa and Avanti were more important. Some of these were ruled by hereditary monarch but others were republican or oligarchial states, ruled either by representative of the people as a whole or by nobility. Of the non-monarchial clans, the most important was the Vajjis confederacy of eight clans, the most powerful of which were the Lichchavis ruling from their capital at Vaishali. There were matrimonial relations between the rulers of Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti, but they did not prevent them from fighting with one another for supremacy. Ultimately the Kingdom of Magadha emerged as the most powerful and succeeded in founding in empire.

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Magadha Empire (6-4 B.C.)

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Magadha embraced the former districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad and grew to be the leading state of the time. It’s success was attributed to its geographical position i.e. proximity to rich iron deposits which yielded effective weaponry and the benefits of the fertile Ganga soil. Also elephants were first used in war. Archaeologically 6th century B.C. marks the beginning of the NBPW (Northern Black Polished

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Bimbisara (544 B.C.-492 B.C.)

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A contemporary of Buddha, he conquered Anga (east Bihar) to gain control over the trade routes with the southern states. His capital was Rajgir (Girivaraja) and he strengthened his position by matrimonial alliances with the ruling families of Kosala, Vaishali and Modra (3 wives). The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was called ‘Giriraja’ at that time. His capital was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings of which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajgir impregnable. Ajatshatru (492 B.C.-460 B.C.)

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Bimbisara’s son who killed his father and seized the throne. Annexed Vaishali and Kosala (annexed Vaishali with the help of a war engine which was used to throw stones like catapults. Also possessed a chariot to which a mace was attached, thus facilitating mass killings). Kosala was ruled by Prasenjit at the time. Udayin (460-444 B.C.)

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He founded the new capital of Pataliputra situated at the confluence of the Ganga and the Son. It is said that Udayin was among the five successor kings who had acquired throne by patricides; the people of Magadha finally outraged by this, deposed the last of the five in 413 BC and appointed Shishunaga, a viceroy of Benaras, as king. Shishunaga Dynasty

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Founded by a minister Shishunaga who was succeeded by Kalashoka. The dynasty lasted for two generations only. ANCIENT

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Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of Avanti and its final incorporation into the Magadhan empire. The most famous event was, the capital was shifted to Vaishali. Nanda Dynasty

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It is considered first of the non-Kshatriya dynasties. It was founded by Mahapadma Nanda who added Kalinga to his empire from where he brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy. He claimed to be the Ekarat – the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes. That the Nandas controlled some parts of Kalinga (Orissa) is borne out by the Hathigumpha Inscription of King Kharavela, assigned to the middle of the first century B.C. Alexander attacked India during the reign of Dhana Nanda who was called Agrammesor Xandrammems by Greek writers, in 326 B.C. The Nandas were fabulously rich and extremely powerful; maintaining an infantry of 2,00,000 soldiers, 60,000 cavalry and 6,000 war elephants which supposedly checked Alexander’s army from advancing towards Magadha. They had developed an effective taxation system, built canals and carried out irrigation projects and had a strong army. Nandas are described as the first Empire builders in India. The first Nanda king is described in Puranas as the “destroyer of all Kshatriyas and a second Parasurama or Bhargava etc”. The Nandas were overthrown by the Maurya Dynasty under which the Magadhan empire reached the apex of its glory.

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Alexander was the son of Philip of Macedonia (Greece) who invaded India in 326 B.C. At that time North-west India was split up into a number of small independent states like Taxila, Punjab (kingdom of Porus), Ghandara, etc. Except Porus who fought the famous Battle of Hydaspas (on the banks of Jhelum) with Alexander, all other kings submitted meekly. Ambhi (Omphis), the king of Taxila, submitted to Alexander in about the same time. Later, impressed by Porus, Alexander reinstated him in power. Then Alexander captured the tribal republic of Glauganikai (Glachukayanaka) with its 37 towns.

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When Alexander reached Beas his army refused to go further, forcing him to retreat. To mark the farthest point of his advance, he erected 12 huge stone altars on the northern banks of the Beas.

Foreign Invasions and Persian Conquests of India

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Herodotus, the famous Greek historian, considered as father of history, mentions Gandhara as the 20th satrapy or province, counted amongst the most populous and wealthy in the Achaemmenid Empirre. The Indian provinces provided mercenaries for the Persian armies fighting against the Greeks in the years 486-465 B.C. Alexander came to India in order to reach the easternmost parts of Darius’s empire, to the ‘problem of ocean’, the limits of each were a puzzle to Greek geographers and to add this fabulous country to his list of conquests. Herodotus mentions about a naval expedition dispatched by Darius under Skylax (517 B.C.) to explore the Indus. Herodotus says: “the population of the Indians is by far the greatest of all the people that we know; and they paid a tribute proportionately larger than the rest”. Xerxes utilized his Indian provinces to secure an Indian contingent to fight his battles in Greece. There were ‘Gandharians’ as well as ‘Indians’ in his contingent. The former bore bows of reed and short spears for fight at close quarters, while the latter, clad in cotton also bore similar bows and arrows tipped with iron. These Indian troops were the first Indians to fight in Europe. The Persian Empire set the model for Mauryas as far as Imperial pretensions are concerned. The prevalence in the North-West of Kharosthi script which is only a localized adaptation of Aramaic and written from the right was perhaps a vestige of Persian rule.

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During 6th century B.C. northwestern India had been isolated from the developments in the rest of India and closer connections with Persian Civilization, being politically a part of the Achaemenied Empire. A little before 530 B.C., Cyrus (the Achaemenid emperor of Persia) crossed the Hindukush mountains and received tributes from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara, and the trans-Indus region. During the lifetime of Buddha, the powerful Achaemenian emperor of Persia Darius I (522-486 B.C.) captured a portion of Punjab and Sindh. The Behistun Inscription of 519 B.C. states that Gadara (Gandhara) was a province which sent teak.

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But the immediate effect of this expedition was the destruction of tribes, which had survived from earlier times. The earliest instance of ‘Jauhar’ in recorded history occurred when Alexander encountered the Sibis (a rude tribe clad in skins) and the Agalassoi (Agrasrenis). The latter suffered terribly for daring to resist the invader. The people of one town to the number of 20,000 men, women, and children set their dwellings ablaze and threw themselves into the flames.

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Remaining in India for 19 months, Alexander finally died in Babylon in 323 B.C. Alexander’s invasion opened up four distinct lines of communication (3 by land and 1 by sea) thus exposing India to Europe. Due to this cultural contact, a cosmopolitan school of art came up in Gandhara which was characterized by sensuous art and continued till the Gupta Age. It also paved the way for the unification of north India under Chandragupta Maurya by weakening the small states.






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THE MAURYANS

Rise of the Mauryans

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Closeness to the source of natural resources like iron ores enabled the Magadhan princes to equip themselves with weapons. Agricultural tools of iron, which increased production and added to royal taxation alongwith the alluvial soil of Gangatic plains and sufficient rainfall which were very conducive for agricultural practices. Rise of towns and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce, which increased royal revenue. Use of elephants on a large scale in its war supplied by the eastern part of the country added to the military power. The unorthodox character of the Magadhan Society as a result of racial admixture. Historical Sources

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The history of Mauryas, unlike that of the earlier ruling houses, is rendered reliable by a variety of evidences drawn from such sources as the Buddhist and the Jain traditions; the Kalpasuta of Jains and the Jatakas, Dighanikaya, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa of Buddhists respectively. The Arthashastra of Kautilya, the Greek accounts, the first decipherable inscription of Ashoka (deciphered by James Princip in 1837) and the archaeological remains. The Puranas and Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadutta though belong to a later date, throw light on the history of the Mauryans alongwith Patanjali’s Mahabhashya. Chandragupta Maurya

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to Justin, a Greek writer, he overthrew Nandas between 325-322 B.C. According to Plutarch, he met Alexander in Punjab and implicitly invited him to attack Nandas but offended him by his boldness of speech. Chandragupta occupied Magadhan throne in 321 B.C. with the help of Chanakya (Kautilya). He had allied with a Himalayan chief Parvartaka. He defeated Seleucus Nicator, then Alexander’s governor in 305 B.C. who ceded to Chandragupta the three rich provinces of Kabul, Kandahar and Heart in return for 500 elephants. Seleucus probably gave one of his daughters to Chandragupta and sent his ambassador, Megasthenes to the Mauryan Court, who wrote an account (Indica) not only of the administration of the city of Pataliputra but also of the entire Mauryan Empire. The Greek writer Justin calls Chandragupta’s army as a “Dacoits gang”. According to the Jain work Parishista-parvan, Chandragupta converted to Jainism in the end years of his life and went to south near Sravanbelgola with his Guru Bhadrabahu. It is said that he starved himself to death here. According to the same text, Chanakya made Chandragupta enter into an alliance with Paravartaka (king of Himvatakuta) and the allied armies besieged Pataliputra. Vishakhadatta wrote a drama Mudrarakshasa (describing Chandragupta’s enemy) and Debi Chandraguptam in 6th century A.D.

Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of Mauryan dynasty. Also known as Sandrocottus (kind towards friends) by Greek scholars. Brahmanical sources (Mudrarakshasa) say that the name Maurya was derived from Mura; a Shudra woman in the court of Nandas, and Chandragupta was son or grandson of the woman. Vishnu Purana also mentions him of low origin i.e. a Shudra. But the Buddhist and Jain sources ascribed him a Kshatriya status. His early career is shrouded in mystery. According

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Bindusara

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Bindusara was the son of Chandragupta and was known as Amitraghata (slayer of foes), besides the master of the land between the two seas – Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Succeeded Chandragupta in 297 B.C. He continued friendly links with Syrian king Antiochus I and is stated to have requested him for a present of figs and wine together with a sophist to which Antiochus sent figs and wine but replied that Greek philosophers were not for export. He also received a Greek ambassador Daimachos from Antiochus I. ANCIENT 26

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Ashoka’s Hellenistic contemporaries were Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt, Magas of Cyrene, Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia and Alexander of Epirus. These are mentioned in his thirteenth Rock Edict. Ashoka was the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions, which seem to be the earliest specimens of Prakrit language in India. They are mostly engraved on rocks and found not only in Indian subcontinent but also in Afghanistan. These inscriptions communicate royal orders. These inscriptions were composed in Prakrit and were written in Brahmi script throughout the greater part of the empire. But in the north-western part they appear in Aramaic and Kharoshthi script. In his inscriptions following languages have been used: Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Aramaic, Greek, etc. The Ashokan inscriptions were generally placed on ancient highways and threw light on the career of Ashok’s policies and the extent of his empire. Tarai pillars show Ashoka’s respect for Buddhism. Ashoka in his fifth rock edict mentions that he had several brothers and sisters. Two of these brothers are named in Divyavadana as Susima and Vuigatasoka, whom the Sinhalese chronicles, name as Sumana and Tishya. The former was step-brother of Ashoka. Ashoka’s mother was Subhadrangi. Ashoka does not call himself by his personal name Ashoka in any of his inscriptions except two: these are Maski and Gujarra inscriptions. Ashoka died in 232 B.C. and with him departed the glory of Mauryan Empire.

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Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt also sent an envoy Dionysius to Bindusara’s court. History credits him with the suppression of a revolt and further for the redressal of grievances against the misrule of wicked bureaucrats (dustanatyas). According to Tibetan Lama Taranath and Jain legends, Chanakya was the minister of Bindusara. There was a council of ministers of 500 members in the court of Bindusara, which was headed by Khallatak. Bindusara did not make any territorial conquest and towards the time of his death he joined the Ajivika sect. Ashoka

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Ashoka (273-232 B.C.) had served as governor of Taxila and Ujjain previously. Ashoka is called ‘Buddhashakya and Ashok’ in Maski edict and ‘Dharmasoka’ in Sarnath inscription. He was also known as ‘Devampriya’ i.e. beloved of the Gods and ‘Piyadassi’ i.e. of pleasing appearance. His empire covered the whole territory from Hindukush to Bengal and extended over to Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the whole of India with the exception of a small area in the farthest south comprising of Kerela. Kashmir and Valleys of Nepal were also included and was the first empire to do so. Assam was not included in his dominion. The Kalinga War fought in 261 B.C. and mentioned in XIII Rock Edict changed his attitude towards life and he became a Buddhist. He inaugurated his Dharmayatras from the 11th year of his reign by visiting Bodhgaya. In the 14th year of his reign he started the institution of Dhamma Mahamatras (the officers of righteousness) to spread the message of Dhamma. During his reign the policy of Bherighosha (physical conquest) was replaced by that of Dhammaghosha (cultural conquest). In course of his second tour in the 21st year of his reign he visited Lumbini, the birth place of Buddha and exempted the village from Bali (tribute) and the Bhaga (the royal share of the produce) which were reduced to one eighth. He organized a network of missionaries to preach the doctrine of Buddhism both in his kingdom and beyond. He sent them to Ceylon, Burma (sent his son Mahindra and daughter Sangamitra to Ceylon) and other South-east Asian regions notably Thailand.

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Ashokan Edicts

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These are related to administration and ethics. 1st Rock Edict: It puts prohibition on animal sacrifices in festive gatherings. Interestingly, only three animals (2 peacocks and 1 deer) could be used for the royal kitchen as well instead of hundreds of them used earlier. 2nd Rock Edict: It mentions about the medical missions sent everywhere for both men and animals by Ashoka. It mentions Chola, Chera, Pandaya and Satyaputra and has also a list of herbs and trees to be planted in different areas. 3rd Rock Edict: In the 12th year of Ashoka’s inauguration the edict enjoins a quenquennial humiliation. 4th Rock Edict: In the 12th year of Ashoka’s reign ANCIENT

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officer will tour every five years to see that men are never imprisoned or tortured without good reason. The prince of Ujjain shall send out a similar group of officers, but at intervals not exceeding three years, similarly at Taxila. Second Separate Edict: Addressed to the prince at Tosali and the officials at Samapa, it states that the officers shall at all times attend to the conciliation of the people of the frontiers and to promoting Dhamma among them. • Minor Inscriptions Queen’s Edict: On the Allahabad pillar, the gift of the second queen, the mother of Tivara, Karuvaki for dispensing charity or any other donation.

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compares the past condition of the kingdom with that of the present. 5th Rock Edict: It, for the first time, mentions about the appointment of the Dhamma-mahamatras to look after propagation of Dhamma. They were appointed in the 13th year of Ashoka’s consecration. 6th Rock Edict: It shows his concern for the people’s grievances for round the clock consultations or any type of appeal and that the mahamattas should communicate to him all the matters concerning public business even if he is in his harem. It announces the appointment of pativedakas, custodies morum and criminal magistrates. 7th Rock Edict: It contains the kings desire to obliterate diversities of religious opinions and tells us that Ashoka, after ten years since his consecration, visited Bodhi tree, ended all pleasure tours and instead, concentrated on the Dhamma tours. 8th Rock Edict: It contrasts the carnal enjoyments of former rajas with the harmless enjoyments of the king – visits to holy places, almsgiving, respect to elders, etc. 9th Rock Edict: It shows the uselessness of all other ceremonies except the Dhamma as it includes ethical concepts within its fold. It basically continues the Dhamma discourse. 10th Rock Edict: In this edict, Ashoka shows the lack of any worldly desire except the desire to propagate Dhamma and to see people following it. 11th Rock Edict: It suggests to people that the gift of Dhamma is the best gift or the chiefest of charitable donations as it brings gain in this world and merit in the next. It is at Dhauli and Girnar. 12th Rock Edict: It expresses Ashoka’s concern for the well-being of all other sects. In this he prefers to advance the essence of all the doctrines. He also requests all the officers to internalize this basic philosophy behind propagation of Dhamma. 13th Rock Edict: In this edict, Ashoka shows his remorse for the devastation caused by his Kalinga War. The killing of so many families made Ashoka take resort to cultural conquest (Dhammavijaya) rather than even think in the future about any war and aggrandizement. It is incomplete. 14th Rock Edict: It states that this inscription of Dhamma was engraved at the command of the beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi. It exists in abridged, medium length and extended versions for each classes has not been engraved everywhere. It summarises the preceeding and is complete in itself. • Separate Edicts First Separate Edict (Dhauli and Jaugada): Addressed to officers of Tosali and Samapa. One royal © Chronicle IAS Academy

Barabar Cave Inscription:

(i) In 12th year the Banyan cave given to Ajivikas. (ii) In 12th year cave in Khalitika mountain given to Ajivikas. (iii) The king Piyadassi, consecrated since nineteen years. Kandhar Bilingual Rock Inscription: Greek version - king refrains from eating meat and his hunters and fishermen have stopped hunting. Aramic version - very few animals were killed by Ashoka. Fishing prohibited. Bhabru Inscription: The king of Magadha, Piyadassi shows deep respect for the faith in Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. This edict confirms Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism. Rummindei Pillar Inscription: In 20th year Piyadassi visited Lumbini and here exempted people from land tribute (udbalike) and fixed contribution at 1/8 (atthabhagiya). Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription: On 14th year the stupa of Buddha Kanakamuni was enlarged to double in size. Schism Edict: At Kaushambi (Allahabad pillar), Sanchi and Sarnath. All dissenting monks and nuns to be expelled and made to wear robes and the laymen and officials are to enforce this order on confession (upostha) days addressed to officials of Kausambi and Pataliputra. • Pillar Edicts

1st: On 27th regional year. His principle is to protect thorough Dhamma to administer according to Dhamma, to please the people with Dhamma to guard the empire with Dhamma. 2nd: Dhamma is good and what is Dhamma? It is having few faults and many good deeds: mercy, charity, truthfulness and purity. 3rd: One only notices one’s good deeds, does not ANCIENT 28

     

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Panyadhyaksha: Super-intendent of Commerce. Pautavadhyaksha: Super-intendent of weight and measures. Sulkadhyasha: Superintendent of tolls. Samsthadhyaksha: Super-intendent of market. Akaradhyaksha : Super-intendent of mines. Rajuka : Superintendent to look after Justice. Except the capital Pataliputra, the whole empire was divided into four provinces controlled by a viceroy either a prince or a member of the royal family. Provinces were sub-divided into districts and had three main officers. Pradesika responsible for the overall administration of the district. Rajuka was responsible for revenue administration and later judicial particularly in rural areas and was under Pradesika. Sub-district consisted of a group of villages numbering 5 to 10 and was administered by ‘Gopa’ (accountant) and ‘Sthanika’ (tax collector). The villages were administered by the village head man who was responsible to the Gopas and Sthanikas. The administration of capital Pataliputra has been described by six boards consisting of five members each being entrusted with matters relating to industrial arts, care of foreigners, registration of births and deaths, regulation of weights and measures, public sale of manufactured goods and the last with collecting toll on the articles sold, this being one tenth of the purchase price. Mauryans had a big army and there is no evidence of its reduction even by peace loving Ashoka. According to Pliny, Chandragupta maintained 600,000 foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry and 900 elephants. According to Megasthenese, the army was administered by six committees consisting of five members each taken from a board of 30 members. The six committees or the wings of army were: the army, the cavalry, the elephants, the chariots, the navy and the transport. Spies operated in the guise of sanyasis, wanderers, beggars, etc. and were of two types ‘Sanstha’ and ‘Sanchari’. The former worked by remaining stationed at a public place and later by moving from place to place. These spies were integral to the Mauryan administration. They collected intelligence about foreign enemies and kept an eye on numerous officers. The ‘prativedikas’ were the special reporters of the king. Land revenue was the main source of income of the state. Peasants paid ¼ of the produce as Bhaga and extra tax Bali tribute. According to Arthashastra,

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notice one’s wicked deeds, one should notice this and think. Cruelty, harshness, anger, pride and many are indeed productive of sin. 4th: In the 26th year, appointment of Rajukas over hundreds and thousands, with independent authority over judgement, there should be uniformity in judicial procedure and punishment. Men who are imprisoned or sentenced to death are to be given three days respite. 5th: In the 26th year, prohibition of killing specific animals and burning forest; cattle and horses are not to be branded. Twenty five releases of prisoners have been made. 6th: Mention of major rock edicts, which have been issued in 12th year, to honour all sects. 7th: Only in the Delhi-Topara pillar, Rajuka, Ajivikas and Nirgrantha (Jainas) were mentioned in this edict. Dhamma is better advanced by persuasion than by legislation.

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The Mauryan Empire after Ashoka

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A vast and highly centralized bureaucratic rule with the king as fountain head of all powers. The king claimed no divine rule, rather it was paternal despotism. Kautilya called the king Dharmapravartaka or promulgator of social order. The highest functionaries at the centre called tirthas and were paid fabulously. They were Mantri, Purohita, Senapati and Yuvaraja. Besides the two chief officers at the Centre were Sannidhata (treasurer) and Samaharta (tax collector). Kautilya again and again emphasized the importance of Mantriparishad. Kautilya mentions 27 superintendents (adhyakshas) mostly to regulate economic activities. The famous were as follows. Sitadhyaksha: Super-intendent of crown land.

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the land belonged to the king, irrigation tax was also levied by the government. •

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Besides other taxes like Pindakara (assessed on group of villages), ‘Kara’ (levied on fruits and flower gardens), Hiranya (paid only in cash) were also collected. Industrial arts and crafts proliferated as a result of swift communication through a network of good and long roads and incentives given by the government. A striking social development was the employment of slaves in agricultural operation on a large scale.

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No banking system but usury prevailed. It seems that the punch-marked silver coins, which carry the symbols of peacock and hill and regent formed the imperial currency of the Mauryas.

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Megasthenes noticed the absence of slavery. But it is contradicted by Indian sources.

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Kautilya recommends the recruitment of Vaishyas and Shudras in the army, but their actual enrolment is extremely doubtfull. In addition to the four regular castes, he refers not less than five mixed castes by the general name Antyavasayin who lived beyond the pale of Aryan society.

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The position of Shudra improved somewhat for hitherto agricultural laborers and domestic slaves. They could now own land. In the Mauryan period, stone culture emerged as the principal medium of Indian arts. Tamralipti was one of the most important maritime trading centres during the Mauryan times. It was situated on the Eastern coast. The animals, which are carved on the Mauryan pillars, are: Bull, Lion, Elephant. According to Arthashastra, a man could be slave either by birth, by voluntarily selling oneself, by being captured in war or as a result of judicial punishment. Megasthenese did not find slaves in India. Puranas have called Kautilya as ‘dvijarshabh’ i.e. superior brahmana. Chanakya spent last days of his life doing meditation in the forests near Magadha. ‘Sishtas’ were learned men during Mauryan times. The trade links between India and Egypt were so developed that Ptolemy had established a port named Bernis on the Red sea. India exported turtle skin, pearls, precious and semi-precious stones, cotton and costly wood to Egypt.

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POST MAURYAN KINGDOMS The Age of the Sungas and the Satvahanas

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In eastern India, Central India and the Deccan, the Mauryans were succeeded by a number of native rulers such as the Sungas, Satvahanas, etc. In north-western India they were succeeded by a number of ruling dynasties from Central Asia.

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The Chetis of Kalinga The Hathigumpha inscription (near Bhubhaneshwar, Odisha) of Kharavela, the third ruler of the dynasty gives information about the Chetis. Kharavela pushed his kingdom beyond the Godavari in the South. He was a follower of Jainism and patronized Jain monks for whom he Constructed udayagiri caves. The Satvahanas or the Andhras In Deccan and in central India the Mauryans were succeeded by the Satvahanas around first century B.C. and ruled for about 300 years with its capital at Paithan or Pratisthan on the Godavari in Aurangabad district. The Matsya Purana gives a list of 30 kings in the Satvahana line and states that their rule altogether lasted for 460 years. The Vayu Purana gives a shorter list of about 300 years of the Satvahana rule. Bana describes the Satvahanas as the ‘Lord of the three oceans- Trisamudradhipati Simuka was the first important ruler and founder and the greatest competitor of the Satvahanas was the Sakas. The fortunes of the family were restored by Gautamiputra Satakarni, who defeated Sakas and set up the capital at Paithan. The name of the mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D. 30-104) was Gautami Balasari. She has recorded in glowing terms in an inscription at Nasik the achievements of her son. It was a matrilineal society. Saka-Satvahana conflict was very frequent in these centuries and they fought with each other to have control over the important trade routes in north India. Trade particularly with Roman empire was very brisk, as is indicated by numerous Roman and Satvahana coins. The Satvahanas may have used gold as bullion, for they did not issue gold coins; they issued mostly coins of lead. They also used tin, copper and bronze coins. The Satvahanas were the first rulers to make land grants to the Brahmans. The called themselves

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The Sunga dynasty was founded by Puhsyamitra Sunga, a brahman of the Sunga family. His dominion extended up to Narmada river in the south and included cities of Patliputra, Ayodhya and Vidisha.The capital was Patliputra Divyavadana and Taranatha depict Pushyamitra as a veritable enemy of the Buddhists. A short Sanskrit inscription from Ayodhya mentions two Ashvamedhas performed by Pushyamitra and one of his viceroys who was also his relative. He also defeated the Bactrian king Demetrius. The Sungas are mentioned by name in a brief inscription found at Barhut. In this they are clearly associated with the kingdom of Vidisa. Perhaps they inherited from the Mauryas a small part of their empire. The Yajnas marked the revival of Vaidika Dharma in India. The fifth king was Bhagabhadra, whose court was visited by Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador. A Sunga king Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram. Patanjali’s classic Mahabhasya was written at this time. The last ruler of Sunga dynasty, Devabhuti was killed by his minister Vasudeva in 73 B.C.

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The Kanva dynasty was founded by Vasudeva, a Brahman who killed the last Sunga king Devabhuti in 75 B.C. After a span of 45 years Kanvas were overthrowned by Andharas or Satvahanas of the Deccan. Susaraman was the last ruler.

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The Greeks were followed by the Sakas, who controlled much larger part of India than the Greek did. There were five branches of the Sakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan. They were full-fledged independent rulers. Curiously enough called themselves Kshatraps, a sankritised form of Persian Satrap or Governor. The King of Ujjain in 58 B.C. is said to have defeated the Saka and styled himself Vikramaditya. An era called the Vikram Samyat is reckoned from the time of his victory over the Sakas. The most famous Saka ruler was Rudradaman I (130-150 A.D.), who ruled in western India and is famous for repairing the Sudarshan Lake in Kathiawar, built during the regin of Chandragupta Maurya. It is recorded in the first ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit in Junagadh which was issued by Rudradaman and highlighted his achievements.

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Brahmans and worshipped gods like Krishna, Vasudeva, etc. and performed vedic rituals. However they also promoted Buddhism by making land grants to the monks. The two common constructions were the Buddhist temples that were called ‘Chaitya’ and the monasteries which were called ‘Viharas’. The most famous Chaitya is that of Karle in western Deccan. The districts were called ‘Aharas’ as in Ashoka’s times and similarly their officials were known as ‘Amatyas’ and ‘Mahamatras’. They started the practice of granting tax free villages to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks. The official language was Prakrit and the script was Brahmi as in Ashokan times. A Prakrit text Gathasaptasati or Gathasattasai is attributed to a Satvahana king Hala.

With the decline of Mauryan empire a series of invasions from Central Asia began around 200 B.C. The first to cross the Hindukush were the Indo Greeks, who ruled Bactria. Demetrius, the king of Bactria invaded India about 190 B.C. and arrested considerable part of Mauryan dynasty in the north–west. The most famous Indo–Greek ruler was Menander (165–145 B.C.), who is said to have pushed forward as far as Ayodhya and reached Pataliputra. His capital was Sakala (Sialkot). Menander, who was also known as Milinda, was converted to Buddhism by famous scholar Nagasena (Nagarjuna). The conversation between the two is recorded in a book named Malindapanho (Questions of Milinda). The Greek introduced features of the Hellenistic art in north-west part of India which is also known as Gandhara art. They also introduced practice of military governorship. They appointed their governors called Strategos. The Greek ambassador called Heliodorous set up a pillar in honour of Vishnu at Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh). The term Horshastra used for astrology in Sanskrit had been derived from the Greek term horoscope.

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The Sakas were followed by Parthians. Special interest is attached to Gondophernes, in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India to propagate Christianity and converted him to his faith. The Parthians originally lived in Iran and invaded in the beginning of the Christian era, from where they moved to India. In comparison to the Greeks and Sakas they occupied only a small territory in north-west India in the first century.

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The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas who were also called Yuchis or Tocharians. Wima Kadphises established the Kushana authority as far as Varanasi in the east, credited for issuing a large number of gold coins. Kanishka (78-144 A.D.) extended his empire from Oxus to the eastern borders of U.P (Benaras) and Bokhara in north to Ujjain in the south. He was a great patron of Buddhism and the 4th Buddhist council is said to have been held under his patronage. He patronised Asvaghosa, the writer of Buddhacharita, the biography of Buddha and Sutralankar and also patronised Charaka, the great authority in Medical Science who wrote Sasruta alongwith Nagarjuna who wrote Madhyamik Sutra. ANCIENT 32

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India received a huge amount of gold due to its Central Asian contacts that actually came from the Altai Mountains. The control of the silk route by the Kushanas in the first century of the Christian era was very significant from the point of view of the increasing prosperity of India in these centuries. Indian traders took great advantage of the Kushana control over the area through which the West Asia bound goods had to go through. The Central Asians introduced better cavalry and better technologies to be used by the Indians later. As is evident from the contemporary sources, the Sakas, Kushanas, etc. were excellent horsemen and thus Indians were familiarized with the use of toe stirrup, etc. The Jain Prakrit text the Kalakacharya kathanak states that the Saka kings used to be called Shahi. In the period between 2nd centuries BC to 2nd century A.D., craft working made great progress, and so did cloth making, silk weaving, making of arms, etc. Mathura was known for a special type of cloth called sataka. The Kushanas issued largest number of copper coins in north and north-west India. Most important town in this phase was Ujjain, as it was at the nodal point of two most important routes; one came from Koshambi and the other one from Mathura. Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins that can be directly attributed to kings or dynasties as before this the coins could not be attributed to any dynasty with surety. They were also the first to issue gold coins in India that increased in number during the period of the Kushanas.

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Purushpura (Peshawar) was the capital of Kushanas. Mathura seemed to be their second capital. Kanishka controlled the famous ‘silk route‘ in Central Asia, which started from China and passed through his empire in Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran and Western Asia which formed the part of Roman empire. Kanishka started an era known as Saka Era which commenced from 78 A. D. The Kushanas were the first ruler in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale with higher degree of metallic purity than is found in the Gupta period. The Gandhra school of art received the royal patronage of Kushanas. There is a Buddhist story which says that the King of Pataliputra, unable to raise the large indemnity imposed on him by Kanishka, surrendered to him the alms-bowl of Buddha, the poet and philosopher Ashvaghosha, and a marvelous cock. According to a legend, the Buddhist philosopher Ashvaghosha was especially invited from Oudh to attend the fourth Buddhist Council for systematizing and codifying Buddhist texts. The fourth Buddhist Council was held under the patronage of Kanishka at the Kundalavana monastery in Kashmir, but there is another account, which locates it in the Kuvana monastery at Jallandhar. According to Hiuen Tsang, the council was summoned by Kanishka on the advice of the venerable Parsva and he made Vasumitra its President and Ashvaghosa its Vice-President. This council prepared an encyclopedia of Buddhist philosophy called the Mahavibhasha, which survives in a Chinese translation. The language employed was Sanskrit.

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The Greek sailor Hippalus discovered monsoons in the year 46-47 A.D. and this discovery proved a boon for South Indian merchants as it accelerated the trade activity of south India with the western world. Manu’s code, which is perhaps the most important code of conduct of the Hindus, belongs to these centuries of post-Mauryan phase only. The guild system was reaching its peak during these centuries due to opening of many trade routes for the merchants and also because of great demand of Indian products in the western world in these centuries. The kings also preferred to have deal with the guild heads, as that would permit the kings to have regular sources of income.

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The post Mauryan period is an epoch of great sculptural achievements that marks the freedom from the overpowering influence of the court in the history of the Indian art. The reliefs on the gateways of the Stupa at Bharhut were executed during the reign of the Sungas. Here, the Bodhisattvas were represented in the human forms according to the needs of the stories. But Buddha is represented only in terms of the symbols viz., Bodhi tree, the vajrayana, the footprints, the wheel, the parasol, etc. At Sanchi, the human figures become much more graceful and the power of the composition and the narration is more advanced than at Bharhut. The Sanchi sculptures include the Jataka stories and many historical themes like Bimbisara leaving ANCIENT

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The great period of the Mathura art also begins with the Christian era, and its most prolific reached its zenith under the Kushanas. It is at Mathura that we for the first time come across making of images of the various Indian divinities. The cult image gets introduced. It is the first art form in India that was quite dominant in its Indian ethos unlike the Gandhara art, which had a lot of influence from the Greeco-Roman features. The central Asian contact introduced the use of burnt bricks for flooring and that of tiles for both flooring and roofing. The Sakas and Kushans introduced turbans, tunics, trousers, heavy long coats, caps, helmets and boots used by warriors. In the religious field, the Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up a pillar in honour of Vasudeva near Vidisa in M.P.

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Rajagriha to meet Buddha, or Ashoka’s pilgrimage to the Bodhi tree, etc. The caryatids of Sanchi are among the finest renderings of the feminine figurines. The Barhut stupa, Amravati stupas were created during this phase. The stupa implied a place where the relic associated with Buddha was kept. The purpose of the Hathi-gumpha inscription was to record the construction of residential chamber for Jaina ascetics on the top of the Udyagiri hills. Semi-divine or divine status of the kings also occurs in these centuries. Kushanas introduced this practice. Both Gandhara schools of art and the Mathura school belong to this phase. The Gandhara art was completely influenced by the Greek and Roman styles while the Mathura art form had completely indigenous origins.

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ANCIENT 34

EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA connection with South India comes into prominence.

Megalithic Culture and the Pre-Sangam Era The Neolithic-Chalcolithic amalgam which seems to have been round about 2000 B.C. continued upto about the middle of the first millennium B.C. It was then overlapped by the Megalithic culture inhabited by the megaliths builder. They are known not from their actual settlement which is rare but from their graves, these are called megaliths because they were encircled by big pieces of stones. About the beginning of the Christian era the Megalith culture in South India was overlapped by what has been called ‘Andhra culture’ on account of the occurrence of Andhra coins. This is the time when south India had a large volume of trade with Roman world. Again the culture and economic contacts between the north and the south paved the way for the introduction of material culture brought from the north to the Deep South by traders, conquerors, Jainas, Buddhist and some Brahaman missionaries. The Vindhya Range was recognized as the southern limit of the Aryan land. Manu states distinctly that the country between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas and between the eastern and western oceans comprised Aryavarta, the abode of the Aryans. The Suttanipatta of the Buddhist canon records that teacher Bavari left Kosala and settled in a village on the Godavari in the Assaka country in Dakshinapatha. His pupils are said to have gone north to meet Buddha and their route lay through Patitthana (Paithan) in the Mulaka country, Mahishmati (Mandhata) on the Narmada, and Ujjain. Bavari is said to have been learned in the Vedas and performed Vedic sacrifices. Kautilya speaks of the pearls and muslins of the Pandyan country. The name of the Pandyan capital Madura recalls Mathura of the North, and Greek accounts, as we have seen, narrate the story of Herakles (in the context, Krishna) setting his daughter Pandaia to rule over the kingdom bordering on the southern sea. In the Mahabharata, the story of Rishi Agastya’s

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In later Tamil tradition, Agastya’s southerly march is accounted for by the interesting legend that on the occasion of Shiva’s marriage with Paravati, Agastya had to be sent to the South to redress the balance of the earth which had been rudely disturbed by the assemblage of all the gods and sages in the North. In the Ramayana, as they are on their way to Agastya’s ashrama, Rama tells his brother Lakshmana how Agastya intent upon the good of the world, overpowered deadly demon, thereby rendered the earth habitable. A beam of Indian cedar found in the place of Nebuchadnezzar (604-562 B.C.), the teak logs found in the temple of the Moon God at Ur at levels belonging to about the same age or a little later, and the Baveru Jataka which relates the adventures of certain Indian merchants who took the first peacock by sea to Babylon, all confirm the existence of active maritime intercourse between South India and its western neighbours. The Assyrian and Babylonian empires traded with India by sea from their ports on the Persian Gulf and continued to receive gold, spices and fragrant woods from India. In Chinese history, there are many references to maritime traders bringing typical Indian products to China as far back as the seventh century B.C. The Arthashastra of Kautilya gives some information of value about the trade between the North and the South in the age of the early Mauryan Empire. The kingdoms of South India, together with Ceylon, are mentioned in the second and thirteenth rock edicts of Ashoka. The list in the second edict is the more complete and includes the names of Chola, Pandya, Satiyaputa, Keralputa and Tambapanni (Ceylon). The short Damili inscriptions found in the natural rock caverns of the South have many features in common with the similar but more numerous records of Sri Lanka and are among the earliest monuments of the Tamil country to which we may assign a date with some confidence. The stories of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana

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were well-known to the Tamil poets, and episodes from them are frequently mentioned. The Tolkappiyam states that marriage as a sacrament attended with ritual was established in the Tamil country by the Aryans.

Sangam States

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1. Chera Kingdom The monarchies of the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas were believed, at least in subsequent ages, to be of immemorial antiquity, and the poems of the Sangam attest the anxiety of all of them to connect themselves with the events of the Great War between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The first Chera monarch we hear of is Udiyanjeral (AD 130) who is said to have fed sumptuously both the armies of Kurukshetra, and thereby earned for himself the title ‘Udiyanjeral of the great feeding’. The son of Udiyanjeral was Nedunjeral Adan who won a naval victory against some local enemy on the Malabar cost, and took captive several Yavana traders whom for some time he subjected to harsh treatment, for reasons that are not clear, but subsequently released after obtaining a heavy ransom. He is said to have fought many wars and spent many years in camp with his armies. He won victories against seven crowned kings, and thus reached the superior rank of an Adhiraja. He was called Imayavramban –‘He who had the Himalaya for his boundary’- a title explained by the claim that he conquered all India and carved the Chera emblem of the bow on the face of the great mountain- an instance of poetic exaggeration not uncommon in these poems. His capital is called Marandai. He fought a war with the contemporary Chola king in which both the monarchs lost their lives and their queens performed Sati. Adan’s younger brother was ‘Kuttuvan of many elephants’ who conquered Kongu and apparently extended the Chera power from the Western to the Eastern sea for a time. Adan had two sons by different queens. One of them was known as ‘the Chera with the Kalangay festoon and the fibre crown’, the crown he wore at his coronation is said to have been made of Palmyra fibre and the festoon on it contained Kalangay, a small black berry. It was not altogether to be despised for the crown had a golden frame and festoons of precious pearls, but why the king had to wear such an extraordinary tiara is not explained anywhere. He is said to have won successes against the contemporary Adigaiman chieftain Anji of Tagaddur and to have led an expedition against Nannan whose territory lay to the North of Malabar, in the Tulu country. He too was an Adhiraja wearing a garland of seven crowns. The other son of Adan was Senguttuvan, ‘the

Righteous Kuttuva’ (c.180), celebrated in song by Paranar, one of the most famous and longest lived poets of the Sangam Age. Senguttuvan’s life and achievements have been embellished by legends of a later time of which there are no traces in the two strictly contemporary poems, both by Paranar - the decade on the king in the ‘Ten Tens’, and a song in the Purananuru. The only material achievement they celebrate is a victorious war against the chieftain of Mohur. Paranar also says that Senguttuvan exerted himself greatly on the sea, but gives no details. He was given a title for driving back the sea, and this is taken to mean that he destroyed the efficiency of the sea as a protection to his enemies who relied on it. If this is correct, he must have maintained a fleet. For the rest, we only learn that he was a skilled rider on horse and elephant, wore a garland of seven crowns as Adhiraja, and was adept in besieging fortresses, besides being a great warrior and a liberal patron of the arts. The epilogue to the decade adds a number of new articulars, the most important bearing on the establishment of the Pattini Cult, i.e., the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife. The stone for making the image of Pattini, the Divine chaste wife, was obtained after a fight with an Aryan chieftain and bathed in the Ganges before being brought to the Chera country. All these events are narrated with numerous embellishments and in epic detail in the Silappadikaram, though whether this poem derives from the epilogue to decade, or the epilogue from the epic, is more than we can say. The antiquity and popularity of the story of Kannagi and Kovalan and the probable existence of other and earlier versions of the Kannagisaga which preceded the Silappadikaram are fairly well-attested, and it is not unlikely that Senguttuvan took the lead in organizing the cult of Pattini, and was supported in his effort by the contemporary rulers of the Pandya and Chola countries and of Ceylon as the Silappadikaram says. Altogether five monarchs of the line of Udiyanjeral belonging to three generations are mentioned in the Padirruppattu, the number of years they are said to have ruled totals 201, while another three monarchs of the collateral line are said to have reigned for a further 58 years in all. Their reigns surely cannot have been successive, and we must therefore postulate a very considerable degree of overlapping. The Chera Kingdom must have been a sort of family estate in which all the grown-up males had a share and interest what Kautilya calls kula-sangha, a family group, and considers a very efficient form of state organization. A similar clan-rule might also have prevailed in Chola and Pandya kingdoms in this period. Such an assumption for the Cholas would be the best means

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of explaining Senguttuvan’s interference in a war of succession in which nine Chola princes lost their lives, it would also furnish a natural explanation for the occurrence in the Sangam poems of so many royal names, all to be accommodated within four or five generations.

The fertility of the land, the strength of the hill, and the ruler’s liberality are praised in many charming poems, not only by Kapilar. Kapilar stood by Pari through thick and thin when his hillock was closely intercepted by the three crowned kings of the Tamil land. Kapilar’s intelligence went far to aid Pari’s heroism in prolonging the resistance, for instance, several other poets say that Kapilar trained a large number of birds (parrots according to one) to fly out from Pari’s beleaguered fortress into the open country behind the enemy’s lines and bring in corn to feed the city and the army for several months! But the inevitable end came, and in a short poem Pari’s two daughters thus bewailed the occurrence: ‘in those days we enjoyed the moonlight happily with father, and our enemies could not take our hill. Now, this day, in this bright moonlight, kings with victorious war-drums have captured the hill, and we have lost our father.’ The reference to the victorious drum is ironical, as Pari was not killed in open fight but by treachery. After Pari’s death, Kapilar took charge of his two unmarried daughters and tried without success to get them suitably married. Of what happened subsequently there are different accounts. A note at the end of one of the poems in the Purananuru records that Kapilar, after the death of Pari, left his daughters in the charge of Brahmins and committed suicide by starvation. The tradition recorded in a Chola inscription of the eleventh century, however, is very different, it mentions only one daughter who Kapilar had given in marriage to the Malaiyaman before the former entered the fire to attain heaven. And there exist many songs by Kapilar on Malaiyaman Tirumudikkari of Mullur, the excellence and easy defensibility of his country, and his liberal patronage of poets and minstrels. Whatever may be the truth about the marriage of Pari’s daughter or daughters, it is certain that Kapilar neither committed suicide by starvation nor by entering fire soon after the death of his friend and patron. In fact, he repaired to the court of the Chera Prince Selvakkadungo Vali Adan, the son of Anduvan, because he was reputed to possess all the great qualities of Pari. Kapilar celebrated Adan in song and was sumptuously rewarded for his effort. Adan’s son was Perunjeral Irumporai (c. 190) renowned for his overthrow of the stronghold of

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Contemporary Chera Rulers The heroes of the last three decades of the ‘Ten Tens’ and their ancestors must be taken to have ruled contemporaneously with the kings of the house of Udiyanjeral. The first to be heard of among them are Anduvan and his son Selvakkadungo Vali Adan, both praised by the poets in general terms for their valour and liberality, the father is said to have been a well-read scholar and the son performed many Vedic sacrifices. Famous among the minor chieftains who were their contemporaries were Ay and Pari, both celebrated in several poems by a number of poets. Ay was the patron of a Brahmin poet from Uraiyur, and Pari befriended and patronized another Brahmin, Kapilar, who repaired to the Chera court only after Pari’s death. There he was welcomed by Anduvan’s son whom he praised in the seventh decade of the ‘Ten of Tens’. Ay was one of the many Vel chieftains ruling in several parts of the Tamil country. The Vels claimed to have issued from the sacrificial fire pit legends of their connection with Vishnu and Agastya, and of one of their ancestors having shot down a tiger which was about to attack a sage in the midst of his penance legends, very similar to those of the Hoysalas in later times. The country he ruled lay round about the Podiya hill, the Southernmost section of the Western Ghats, and the Greek geographer Ptolemy says that one ‘Aioi’ was ruling in the country which included Cape Comorin and Mount Bettigo. Ay seems to have been a dynastic name borne by all the kings of the line as a prefix to their personal names. The patron of the Brahmin poet of Uraiyur was also called Andiran, a Sanskrit word meaning hero. His country is described as fertile and teeming with elephants, which he presented liberally to his cloth of very fine texture given to him by a Naga chieftain Nila. Andiran seems to have been a man of peace, while the excellence of his country and his liberality from the theme of a large number of poems, there is only one casual reference to his success in the battlefield when he is said to have once pursued the Kongar to the Western Sea. On his death, the poet says, Andiran was welcomed in the abode of the gods and the drum in Indira’s palace reverberated at his arrival. Pari, the life long friend and patron of Kapilar, was another Vel chieftain also noted for heroism and generosity. His principality lay in the Pandya country

round the hillock known as Kodungunram or Piranmalai. The fame of Pari’s liberality was echoed in a later age in the Shaiva saint Sundarmurti’s lament: ‘there is no one ready to give, even if an illiberal patron is exalted in song to the level of Pari’. Pari’s country is said to have comprised three hundred villages round the fortified hill at the centre.

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have brought to the ancient city of Vanji much booty from these campaigns. The mention of the Vani River flowing near the Chera capital shows that Karuvur was in fact Vanji. The discovery of Chera inscriptions near Karur, and of thousands of Roman coins in Karur and its neighbourhood and Ptolemy’s statement that the inland city of Korura was the Chera capital also point to the same conclusion. The recent arch aeological excavations at this site, especially the find of Roman amphorae pieces conclusively prove the identity of modern Karur with the Vanji of the Sangam Age. The attempts to locate it in at Tiruvanjaikkalam in Kerala may now be discarded. Another Chera prince deserving mention is ‘Sey of the elephant look’ who had also the title Mandaranjeral Irumporai (c. A.D. 210). After one battle, he was captured by his contemporary Pandya ruler Nedunjeliya, the victor of Talaiyalanganam, but regained his freedom in time to prevent his enemies at home from deposing him.

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Tagadur (Dharmapuri in Salem District), the seat of the power of the Adigaiman chieftains. He is also said to have subjugated a rebellious shepherd leader named Kaluvul and captured his fortress. He was learned, performed many sacrifices and begot heroic sons worthy of succeeding him. His wise and righteous conduct was such as to induce his Purohit to renounce the things of the world and retire to a life of asceticism. Adigaiman, also called Neduman Anji, the opponent of Irumporai and Lord of Tagadur, was one of the ‘seven patrons’ and the supporter of the celebrated poetess Auvaiyar who has left many songs about him and some about his son Pogutteline. Evidently patron and poetess did not get on well at first start, for one poem gives expression to Auvaiyar’s vexation at having waited a long time for a present. Soon, however, a perfect understanding grew up between them, the poetess is all praise for the hero and his achievements in the field, and undertakes a diplomatic mission to the Tondaiman on his account. On his side, Anji showed his devotion by many valuable presents, including a rare myrobalan fruit believed to prevent the ailments of old age and to assure longevity. According to Auvaiyar, Adigaiman was born of a family, which honoured the gods by puja and by sacrifices, which introduced into the world the sweet sugarcane from heaven, and ruled the world with great ability for a very long time. Adigaiman fought with success against seven opposing princes and destroyed amongst other rebellious strongholds that of Kovalur. The Chera invasion of Tagadur, however, is not mentioned by Auvaiyar in her poems, evidently because she did not like to advert to the misfortunes that befell her patron, the event formed the theme of a poem of later times, the Tagadur Yattirai, now known only from quotation in other works. Adigaiman was aided by the Pandya and Chola monarchs against the Chera, but their help made no difference to the result. The war led to Adiaman’s acknowledgement of the suzerainty of the Chera on whose behalf he subsequently led an expedition against Pali, the capital of Nannan, where, after inflicting great losses on Nannan, known as Nimili or Minili. Auvaiyar laments his death without mentioning its occasion, and bewails the desolation of the days that remained to her after Adigaiman had earned his title to a hero-stone, a clear statement that he fell on the battlefield. The last Chera prince mentioned in the extent portions of the ‘Ten Tens’ is Kudakko Ilanjeral Irumporai (c. A.D. 190), a cousin of the victor of Tagadur. He is said to have fought a battle against ‘the two big kings’ (Pandya and Chola) and Vicci, to have captured five stone fortresses, to have defeated the big Chola who ruled at Potti and the Young Palaiyan Maran, and to © Chronicle IAS Academy

2. Chola Rulers Among the Cholas, Karikala ( A.D. 190) stands out pre-eminent. He is described in a poem as the descendant of a king (not named) who compelled the wind to serve his purposes when he sailed his ships on the wide ocean-possibly a reference to the early maritime enterprise of the Cholas. Karikala’s father was Ilanjetceni ‘of many beautiful chariots’, a brave king and a hard fighter. Karikala means ‘the man with the charred leg’, a reference to an accident by fire, which befell the prince early in life. Other explanations for the name were invented in later times, however, and it has also been taken to be a compound word in Sanskrit meaning either ‘death to kali’ or ‘death to (enemy) elephant’. Early in life he was deposed and imprisoned. The plucky war in which Karikala escaped and re-established himself on the throne is well portrayed by the author of Pattinappalai, a long poem on the Chola capital Kaveri-Pattinam, in the Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls). One of his early achievements was the victory in a great battle at Venni, modern Kovil Venni, 15 miles to the east of Tanjore. This battle is referred to in many poems by different authors. Eleven rulers, velir and kings, lost their drums in the field, the Pandya and the Chera lost their glory. The Pandyan ruler was wounded severely on his back which was the greatest humiliation for a warrior, and from a sense of profound shame he sat facing the north, sword in hand, and starved himself to death. Venni, thus, marked a turning point in the career of Karikala. His victory meant the breaking up of a widespread confederacy that had been formed against him. Another important battle he fought was at Vahaip- parandalai, ‘the field ANCIENT 38

There is no hint anywhere of his being related to Karikala or of his political subordination to the Chola power. Nor is it clear whether it was to him or to some other member of his line that Auviaiyar went as Adigaiman’s ambassador. Ilandiraiyan was himself a poet, and there are four extant songs by him, one of them on the importance of the personal character of the monarch in the promotion of good rule. This understanding of the political conditions of the Sangam age may not be closed without the mention of two other Chola rulers, both opponents of the Cheras in war. One was Ilanjetceni of Neydalanganal who captured two fortresses from the Cheras known by the names of Seruppali and Pamalur. Another was Senganan, the Chola monarch famed in legend for his devotion to Shiva, figures as the victor in the battle of Por against the Chera Kanaikkal Irumporai. The Chera was taken prisoner, asked for drinking water when he was in prison, got it rather late, and then, without drinking it, confessed the shame of his position in a song. Subsequently, Poyagaiyar, a friend of the Chera monarch, is said to have secured his release from the Chola prisons by celebrating the victory of Senganan in a poem of forty stanzas the Kalavali. According to this poem, the battle was fought at Kalumalam, near Karuvur, the Chera capital. Senganan became the subject of many pious legends in later times. It is possible that this monarch who, according to Tirumangai, built 70 fine temples of Shiva, lived somewhat later, say in the fourth or fifth century A.D.

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of vahai trees’, where nine minor enemy chieftains lost their umbrellas and had to submit. As a result of his victorious campaigns, says the poet of Pattinappalai ‘the numerous Oliyar submitted to him, the ancient Aruvalar carried out his behests, the Northerners lost splendour, and the Westerners were depressed conscious of the might of his large army ready to shatter the fortresses of enemy kings, Karikala turned his flushed look of anger against the Pandya, whose strength gave way the line of low herdsmen, was brought to an end, and the family of Irungovel was uprooted’. The Aruvalar were the people of Aruvanad, the lower valley of the Pennar, to the North of the Kaveri delta. Karikala is said to have prevented the migration of people from his land to other regions evidently by offering them inducements to stay. Karikala’s wars thus resulted in his establishing a sort of hegemony among the ‘crowned kings’ of the Tamil country and in some extension of the territory under his direct rule. The description of Kaveri-pattinam and its foreshore, which takes up so much of the Pattinappalai, gives a vivid idea of the state of industry and commerce at this time. Karikala also promoted the reclamation and settlement of forestland, and added to the prosperity of the country by multiplying its irrigation tanks. The poems also bear evidence that the king, who was a follower of the Vedic religion, performed sacrifices and lived well, enjoying life to the full. In later times, Karikala became the centre of many legends found in the Silappadikaram and in inscriptions and literary works of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of whole of India upto the Himalayas and the construction with the aid of his feudatories of the flood banks of the Kaveri. The famous scholar Naccinarkkiniyar, probably follows a correct tradition when he says that Karikala married a Velier girl from Nangur, a place celebrated in the hymns of Tirumnagai Alvar for the heroism of its warriors. More open to suspicion is the story in the Silappadikaram about a supposed daughter of Karikala’s, named Adi Mandi, and her husband, a Chera prince called Attan Atti. Earlier poems which mention their names and some of the incidents attest only the relation between Adi Mandi and Atti, but not that between her and Karikala, nor the Chera descent of Atti. Both husband and wife were, according to the early testimony, professional dancers. Tondaiman Ilandiraiyan, who ruled at Kanchipuram was a contemporary of Karikala and is also celebrated by the poet of the Pattinappalai in another poem in the ‘Ten Idylls’. Ilandiraiyan is said to have been a descendant of Vishnu and belonged to the family of Tiraiyar given by the waves of the sea. © Chronicle IAS Academy

3. Pandyan Kings

The Pandya king Nedunjeliyan distinguished by the title ‘he who won the battle at Talaiyalanganam’ may be taken to have ruled about A.D. 210. This ruler was celebrated by two great poets Mangudi Marudan alias Mangudi Kilar and Nakkirar, each contributing a poem on the monarch to the ‘Ten Idylls’ (Pattuppattu) besides minor pieces in the Puram and Abham collections. From the Maduraikkanji of Mangudi Marudan and elsewhere, we learn something of three of Nedunjeliyan’s predecessors on the Pandyan throne. The first is an almost mythical figure called Nediyon (‘the tall one’), whose achievements find a place in the ‘Sacred Sports’ of Shiva at Madura and among the traditions of the Pandyas enumerated in the Velvikudi and Sinnamanur plates. He is said to have brought the Pahruli River into existence and organized the worship of the sea. The next is Palsalai Mudukuduni, doubtless the same as the earliest Pandya king named in the Velvikudi grant and about whom there are several poems. He is a more life like figure than Nediyon, and is said to have treated conquered territory harshly. He ANCIENT

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brother of Nalangilli. In one poem, Kovur Kilar says that if he claimed to be virtuous, Nedungilli should open the gates of the fort or if he claimed to be brave, he should come into the open and fight. He did neither, but caused untold misery to the people of his beleagured city by shuting himself up in a coward manner. Another poem dealing with the siege of Uraiyur by Nalangilli himself, once more Nedungilli being the besieged, is more considerate and impartial, it is addressed to both princes and exhorts them to stop the destructive war, as whoever loses would be a Chola, and a war to the finish must necessarily end in the defeat of one party. A third poem relates to a somewhat piquant situation. A poet, Ilandattan by name, who went into Uraiyur from Nalangilli, was suspected by Nedungilli of spying. As he was about to be killed, Kovur Kilar interceded with his song on the harmless and upright nature of poets and thus saved him. Another poem hints at internal dissensions in the royal family at Uraiyur, which induced Nalangilli’s soldiers to rush to war in utter disregard of women. Civil war seems, indeed, to have been the bane of the Chola kingdom in this age: Senguttuvan, as we have seen, was called upon to intervene in another war at an earlier time. A thorough change in the political map of South India and the definite close of an epoch seem to be clearly implied in the Sirupan-arruppadai by Nattattanar, one of the Pattupattu (‘Ten Idylls’). The poem has Nalliyakkodan for its hero and he may be taken to stand right a territory, which included Gidangil, a village near Tindivanam. We may assign to him a date about A.D. 275, and in his day the poet says that charity had dried up in the capitals of the three Tamil kingdoms, and all ancient patrons of learning and the arts were no more! There may well be some exaggeration here, but clearly Vanji, Uraiyur and Madura must have passed the meridian of their prosperity and entered on a period of decline.

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also performed many sacrifices, whence he derived his title Palsalai meaning ‘of the many (sacrificial) halls’. It is not possible to say what distance in time separated these two kings from each other or from their successors. The third ruler mentioned in the Madduraikkanji was another Nedunjeliyan, distinguished by the title ‘he who won a victory against an Aryan (i.e., North Indian) army’. The tragedy of Kovalan’s death at Madura occurred in his reign, which according to the Silappadi-karam caused the king to die of a broken heart. A short poem ascribed to this king puts learning above birth and caste. Nedunjeliyan of Talaiyalangam came to the throne as a youth and soon after his accession, he proved himself more than equal to a hostile combination of his two neighbouring monarchs and five minor chieftains. There exists a simple poem of great force and beauty in which the youthful monarch swears an oath of heroism and victory in the ensuing fight. Despising his tender years and hoping for an easy victory and large boot, his enemies invaded the kingdom and penetrated to the heart of it, but, nothing daunted, Nedunjeliyan readily took the field, pursued the invading forces across his frontier into the Chola country and inflicted a crushing defeat on them at Talaiya-langanam, about eight miles North- West of Tiruvalur in theTanjore district. It was in this battle that the Chera king ‘Sey of the elephant eye’ was taken captive and thrown into a Pandyan prison. By his victory Nedunjeliyan not only made himself secure on his ancestral throne, but also gained a primacy over the entire state system of the Tamil country. He also conquered the two divisions (Kurram) of Milalai and Mutturu from Evvi and a Velier chieftain and annexed them to his kingdom. The Madduraikkanji contains a full-length description of Madura and the Pandyan country under Nedunjeliyan’s rule. The poet gives expression to his wish that his patron should spread the benefits of his good rule all over India. He makes particular mention of the farmers and traders of a place called Muduvellilai (unidentified) as among his most loyal subjects for many generations. He also refers to the battle of Alanganam, calls his patron Lord of Korkai and the warlord of the Southern Paradavar hinting that the people of the pearl- fishery coast formed an important section of his army. Passing over the many contemporaries of Nedunjeliyan-Pandya and Chola princes and the poets who mention them and their achievements, we must now notice a rather protracted civil war in the Chola kingdom mentioned by Kovur Kilar and other poets. This war was between Nalangilli (also called Sectcenni) and Nedungilli. The latter shut himself up at Avur, which was being besieged by Mavalattan, the younger © Chronicle IAS Academy

Sangam Polity Hereditary Monarchy: Hereditary monarchy was the prevailing form of government. Disputed successions and civil wars were not unknown, as we have seen, and sometimes caused grave misery to the people. The king was in all essential respects an autocrat whose autocracy, however, was tempered by the maxims of the wise and the occasional intercession of a minister, a poet or a friend. The sphere of the state’s activity was, however, limited, and in a society where respect for custom was deep-rooted, even the most perverse of autocrats could not have done much harm, indeed it must be said that the general impression left on the mind by the literature of the age is one of containment of the part of the people ANCIENT 40

religious complex of village life was the Manram. Each village had its common place of meeting, generally under the shade of a big tree, where men, women and children met for all the common activities of the village, including sports and pastimes. There may also have been a political side to these rural gatherings, the germ out of which grew the highly organized system of village government, which functioned, so admirably in later Chola times. Revenue System: Land and trade were the chief sources of the royal revenue. The Ma and Veli as measures of land were already known. Foreign trade was important and customs revenue occupied a high place on the receipts side of the budget. The Pattinappalai gives a vivid account of the activity of customs officials in Puhar (Kaveri-Pattinam). Internal transit duties on merchandise moving from place to place were another source of revenue, and the roads were guarded night and day by soldiers to prevent smuggling. Moderation in taxation, however, was impressed on the rulers by many wise saying of the poets. If their word may be trusted, booty captured in war was no inconsiderable part of royal resources. The king’s share of the produce of agriculture is nowhere precisely stated. War Policy: The streets of the capital cities were patrolled at nights by watchmen bearing torches, and the prison formed part of the system of administration. Each ruler maintained an army of well-equipped professional soldiers who no doubt found frequent employment in those bellicose times. Captains of the army were distinguished by the title of Enadi conferred at a formal ceremony of investiture where the king presented the chosen commander with a ring and other insignia of high military rank. The army comprised the traditional four armschariots (drawn by oxen), elephants, cavalry and infantry. Swords, bows and arrows, armour made of tiger skins, javelins, spears and shields (including a protective cover for the forearm) are among the weapons of offence and defence specifically mentioned. The drum and the conch were employed on the field for signaling and the former to summon soldiers to arms. Each ruler and chieftain certainly had a war drum among his insignia. Not only was it carefully guarded, but also it was bathed periodically and worshipped with loud mantras. The occasions for war were numerous, but we need not suppose that the refusal of one king to give his daughter in marriage to another was as a frequent cause of the war as capturing enemy’s cattle. Brahmin messenger might be sent with a formal declaration before hostilities started. The military camp was often an elaborate affair, with streets and roads and a separate section for the king guarded by armed women. In this camp the hours

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who were proud of their kings and loyal to them. As the people took the king for their model, it was his duty to set up a high moral standard by his personal conduct. In many poems he was exhorted to keep a strict mastery over his passions in order to rule successfully. He was to be liberal in his patronage of religion, arts, and letters. He was to show paternal care for his subjects and to be impartial as among different sections of them. He held a daily durbar (nalavai) at which he heard and set right all complaints. The onerous character of the royal task is emphasized by a poet who compares a king to a strong bull, which drags a cart laden with salt from the plains to the uplands, another affirms that the king, much more than rice or water, is the life of the people. Brahmins were assigned an important role in the state. They were the foremost among those (surram) on whose assistance the king relied in his daily work, and the highest praise of a monarch was to say that he did nothing, which pained the Brahmins. Agriculture was the mainstay of polity and the basis of war, and a good king was believed to be able to command the course of the seasons. The ideal of the ‘conquering king’ (vijigishu) was accepted and acted on. Victory against seven kings meant a superior status, which the victor marked by wearing a garland made out of the crowns of the seven vanquished rulers. The most powerful kings were expected to undertake a digvijaya, which was a conquering expedition in a clockwise direction over the whole of India. The idea of a Chakravarti, ‘wheel-king’, whose digvijaya was led by the march of a mysterious wheel of gold and gems through the air, is mentioned in one of the poems in the Purananuru. Another poem in the same collection mentions the companions of a king who committed suicide when the king died-an early anticipation of what later became a widespread institution under such names as Companions of Honour (Abu Zayd), velaikkarar, garudas, sahavasis, apattudavigal and so on. General Administration: The Sabha or Manram of the king in the capital was the highest court of justice. The sons of Malaiyaman were tried and sentenced, and later released by the intercession of Kovur Kilar, in the Manram of Uraiyur, and Pottiyar, after the death of his friend Kopperunjolan, could not bear the sight of the same Manram bereft of him. The elders were doubtless expected to have laid aside their personal quarrels when they attended the sabha to help in the adjudication of disputes. We may infer that the assembly was used by the king for purposes of general consultation as well. The Kural, clearly a post Sangam work, definitely regards the Sabha as a general assembly dealing with all affairs. Even less specialized, and more entangled in the social and © Chronicle IAS Academy

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dia and made their way into the South during the period of its Aryanization and later. It is doubtless that there was a profound fusion or cultural synthesis between the Sanskritic culture of the North and the Tamil Culture of the South in this period. The contemporary literature affords unmistakable evidence of the friendliest reception accorded in the Tamil country to the rich and varied culture of the North. The fertility of the lands watered by the river Cauvery is a recurring theme in the Tamil poetry. The literary text ‘Purananooru’ retains the trace of the society before it was Aryanized. It says that there were no other Kudis (Tribes) than the four viz., Tudiyan, Panan, Paraiyan and Kadamban, and no God worthy of worship with the offering of paddy. The stories of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were well-known to the Tamil poets and episodes from them are frequently mentioned. The claim of each of the three Tamil kings to feed the opposing forces on the eve of the Great Battle has been noted already. The destruction of the three metallic forts of the Asuras (Tripura) by Shiva, King Sibi giving away the flesh of his body to save a dove that was pursued by a vulture, and the struggle between Krishna and the Asuras for the possession of the Sun are among other legends alluded to by the authors. The presence of a great fire underneath the ocean, Uttara-Kuru (the Northern country) as a land of perpetual enjoyment, Arundhati as the ideal of chastity, the conception of the threefold debt- Rinatraya with which every man is born, the beliefs that the cakora bird feeds only on raindrops and that raindrops turn into pearls in particular circumstances, are instances of other Sanskritic ideas taken over bodily into the literature of the Sangam period. The Tolkappiyam is said to have been modelled on the Sanskrit grammar of the Aindra School. • Forms of Marriage: The Tolkappiyam states that marriage as a sacrament attended with ritual was established in the Tamil country by the Aryans. It is well-known that the earliest Dharmashastras mention eight forms of marriage as part of the Aryan code itself, the result of a blend between Aryan and preAryan forms that prevailed in the North. These eight forms are mentioned in the Tolkappiyam and other works and much ingenuity is spend in accommodating them to Tamil forms. The Tamils had a relatively simple conception of marriage, they recognized the natural coming together of man and woman, and the natural differences in the manifestations of love, possibly due ultimately to differences in the physical conditions of the different parts of the country. Natural love between a man and a women, along with its different forms of expression was designated as the five tinais. They

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of day and night were announced by watchers of water clocks, the gnomon was employed to indicate midday and a drum beaten early morning. Campfires kept off the cold when necessary, and there were towers at important points from which a regular watch was maintained against surprise from the enemy. Death in battle was welcome to the soldier and even to his mother, for it was held to lead him straight to heaven. To the warrior, a peaceful death in bed was looked upon as a disgrace, and in the families of ruling chieftains the body of a man who died otherwise than in war was cut with the sword, and laid on darbha grass, and mantras were chanted to secure him a place in the warriors, heaven (virasvarga). Soldiers who fell in war were commemorated by hero-stone which bore inscriptions detailing their names and achievement, these stones were often worshipped as godlings. Wounded soldiers were carefully attended to, their wounds being cleaned and stitched where necessary. Kings often took the field in person and delighted to rejoice with the common soldiers in their successes. On the other hand, if a king was killed or even seriously wounded in the midst of the fight, his army gave up the struggle and accepted defeat. The vanity of the victor often inflicted deep personal humiliations on his vanquished foe, the memory of which rankled and brought on further strife. The crown of defeated kings furnished the gold for the anklets of the victor, while a woman’s anklet and a garment of leaves were forced on the defeated party who was compelled to wear them, his guardian tree was destroyed and its trunk converted into a war-drum for the victor. The conquered country was at times ruthlessly laid waste, even cornfields not being spared. The Kalavali is one of the most detailed descriptions we possess of a battlefield in the Tamil country, and the poem supplies in a casual way much interesting information of military affairs. The soldiers, infantry and cavalry alike wore leather sandals for the protection of their feet. The nobles and princes rode on elephants, and the commanders drove in pennon chariots. The poet says that women whose husbands were killed bewailed their loss on the field of Kalumalam, unless this is more rhetoric, we must suppose that women, at least of the higher orders, sometimes accompanied their husbands to the fields. Society & Economy • Cultural Fusion : The most striking feature of this age was its composite character, it is the unmistakable result of the blend of two originally distinct cultures, best described as Tamilian and Aryan, but it is by no means easy now to distinguish the original elements in their purity. Some of them may be recognized, however, to have clearly originated in Northern In© Chronicle IAS Academy

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betel leaves with lime and areca nut perhaps came into use only after the Sangam Age. • Position of Widows: Women are said to have given up eating greens and bathing in cold water when their husbands fell in battle. The lot of widows was a hard one; they had to cut off their hair, discard all ornaments, and only eat the plainest food. No wonder, perhaps, that some wives preferred to die with their husbands and earn fame as satis. The tonsure of widows, it may be noted by the way, like the tying of the tali and the marriage ceremony, was obviously a pre-Aryan Tamil custom taken over and perpetuated into later times. The heroism and devotion of the sati were doubtless applauded by public opinion, but the practice was certainly not encouraged, much less enforced. The perfect wife was held to be one who, at the death of her husband, entered the burning pyre with as little concern as if she were entering cool water for a bath. • Other Social Activities : In the sphere of religion and ethics the influence of Northern ideas is most marked. The practice of walking some distance to escort a departing guest was observed by Karikala who went on foot for a distance of ‘seven steps’ (saptapadi) before requesting him to mount a chariot drawn by four milk-white steeds. The slaughter of a cow, the destruction of a foetus, and the killing of a Brahmin were accounted heinous offences, though ingratitude, according to the established code, was held to be even worse. • Funeral Rituals: No single method was adopted for the disposal of the dead; both cremation and inhumation with or without urns are freely mentioned. A widow offered a rice-ball to her dead husband on a bed of grass (darbha) and the pulaiyan had a part to play in this funeral ritual. Sati was fairly common though by no means universal. • Life Style & Culture: The richer classes dwelt in houses of brick and mortar, the wall often bore paintings of divine figures and pictures of animal life. Royal palaces were surrounded by gardens tastefully laid out. Houses and palaces were constructed according to rules laid down in the shastra, care being taken to start at an auspicious hour carefully determined before hand. The Nedunalvadai, one of the ‘Ten Idylls’, contains a detailed description of the women’s apartments in the palace of Nedunjeliyan, their walls and pillars and artistic lamps manufactured by the Yavanas. This is followed by an account of the equipment of the bedroom in the palace, its ivory bedsteads and superior cushions. High life even in those early days was thus no stranger to refined luxuries. The wife was highly honoured and was held to be the light of the family. The common folk dwelt in humbler structures in the towns and villages,

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had also names for unilateral love, Kaikkilai and improper love, perundinai. Although the people of South India were fully acquainted with eight forms of marriage, yet they did not paid special attention to Vedic rituals and sacrements. Monogamy was the approved form that a common man had to follow. However, persons of prosperous status could marry and keep more than one wife. Tamil damsels enjoyed the liberty to marry persons of their choice. • Social Groups: Differences in status and economic conditions were accepted by all as part of the established order, and there is little evidence of any tendency to protest or revolt against them. The poets describe with equally intimate touches the unlettered Malavar who thrive on robbery in the Northern frontier of the Tamil land, the hunters (eniyar) with their huts full of bows and shields, the homes of shepherds who produced full quantities of curds and ghee for sale, and those of learned Brahmins versed in the Vedas and performing their daily ritual duties, including the entertainment of guests. Apparently, Brahmins ate meat and drank toddy without incurring reproach. One poem in the Purananuru affirms that there are only four castes (kudi), viz. tudiyan, panan, paraiyan and kadamban, and only one god worthy of being worshipped with paddy strewn before him, namely the hero-stone recalling the fall of a brave warrior in battle. These castes and this worship were of very great antiquity, perhaps survivals from pre-Aryan times. The practice of erecting hero-stones and of offering regular worship to them continued throughout the Sangam Age and many centuries after. Foreigners (Yavanas) were numerous in the ports on the seacoast like Tondi, Musiri and Puhar (Kaveri-pattinam), which they visited for trade. Although unable to speak Tamil, they were employed as palace-guards in Madura and on police duty in the streets. Curiously, wrought lamps and wine in bottles figure prominently among the articles of trade brought to India by the Yavanas. • Food & Beverages: No occasion was lost for holding feast and the poets are most eloquent in their praise of the sumptuous fare to which they were so often asked. One poet declares to his patron: “I came to see you that we might eat succulent chops of meat, cooled after boiling and soft like the carded cotton of the spinning women, and drink large pots of toddy together.’ Another speaks of wine poured into golden goblets by smiling women decked with jewels in the court of Karikala. Among drinks particular mention is made of foreign liquor in green bottles, of munnir (‘triple water’) a mixture of milk from unripe coconut, palm fruit juice and the juice of sugar-cane, and of toddy, well-matured by being buried underground for a long time in bamboo barrels. The habit of eating © Chronicle IAS Academy

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India and the Roman Empire. He mentions the ports of Naura (Cannanore), Tyndis – the Tondi of the poems, identified with Ponnani – and Muziris (Musiri, Cranganore), and Nelcynda very near Kottayam, as of leading importance on the west coast. Muziris abounded in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia and by the Greeks. Nelcynda was part of the Pandyan kingdom. Bacare (Porakad) was another port on the same coast. This trade increased in volume after Hippalus, an Egyptian pilot showed the possibility of large ships sailing with the monsoon straight across the ocean instead of small vessels hugging the coast and exposing themselves to many risks. Other ports of South India mentioned by the author in order are Balita (Varkalai), a village by the shore with a fine harbour (Korkai) where were the pearl fisheries of the Pandyan kingdom worked by condemned criminals; Camara (Kaveripattinam), Poduca (Pondi-cherry, Arikamedu) and Sopatma (Markanam). There were three types of craft used on the east coast, ships of the country coasting along the shore, other large vessels made of single logs bound together, called sangara, and those which made the voyage to Chryse and to the Ganges which were called Colandia and were very large. He mentions Argaru (Uraiyur) as the place to which were sent all the pearls gathered on the coast and from which were exported muslins called Argaritic. About the ports on the east coast he adds: ‘There are imported into these places everything made in Damirica, and the greatest part of what is brought at any time from Egypt comes here.’ He notes further that a great quantity of muslins was made in the region of Masalia (Andhra country), and ivory was a special product of the country further North, Dosarene (i.e. Dasarna, Odisha). The large quantities of gold and silver coins struck by all the Roman emperors down to Nero (A.D. 54-68) found in the interior of the Tamil land testify to the extent of the trade, the presence of Roman settlers in the Tamil country, and the periods of the rise and decay of this active commerce. Its beginnings may be traced to the reign of Augustus, if not to an earlier time, as a phenomenally large number bearing his stamps (and that of Tiberius) have been found. In that reign, despite ‘emphases’ from the Pandya ruler, this commerce was by no means extensive or economically important. Soon, however, it assumed new and unexpected proportions and ceased to be a mere trade in luxuries. After the death of Nero, the trade was not so much confined to the Tamil land as before, but spread more evenly along the Indian coasts, and was conducted by barter rather than with money, the emperors subsequent to Nero not being so well represented in the coin finds.

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while outcastes and forest tribes lived in huts of sorts, which are also described in the poems. The making of rope charpoys by Pulaiyans and the use of animal skins as mats for lying on deserve to be noted. The Pattinappalai gives a vivid account of the life of the fisher folk of Puhar, the Paradavar, including some of their holiday amusements. Valuable hints on popular beliefs and customs are scattered among the poems. There was much faith in omens and astrology. One song mentions the portents, which preceded the death of ‘Sey of the elephant look’. A woman with disheveled hair was a bad omen. There were fortunetellers who plied a busy trade. Children were provided with amulets for warding off evil, and rites were practiced which were supposed to avert the mischief of demons (pey), to bring about rain, and produce other desired results. The banyan tree was considered to be the abode of gods, while eclipses were held to be the result of snakes eating up the Sun and the Moon. Crows were believed to announce the arrival of guests, and particularly the return of the absent husband to his lonely wife, and were fed regularly in front of royal palaces, as well, perhaps, as in every household. Mass feeding of the poor was also known. • Trade & Commerce: Trade, both inland and foreign, was well organized and briskly carried on throughout the period; Tamil poems, classical authors and archaeological finds in South India all speak with one voice on this subject. The great port-cities were the emporia of foreign trade. Big ships, we are told, entered the port of Puhar without slacking sail, and poured out on the beach precious merchandise brought from overseas. The extensive bazaar of the great city was full of tall mansions of many apartments each with doorways, with verandahs and corridors. The family life of the rich merchants were carried on in the upper floors, while the lower ones were set apart for business. Besides the flags waving on the masts of ships in harbour, various other kinds of flags advertised the different kinds of merchandise as well as the fashionable grog-shops. Saliyur in the Pandya country and Bandar in Chera are counted among the most important ports in the poems. Horses were imported by sea into the Pandyan kingdom, and elsewhere. The repairing of merchants ships after their voyages are mentioned, as also lighthouses. People from different countries gathered in the ports, and life in them was truly cosmopolitan. The Yavanas sailed their large ships to Musiri (Cranganore) bearing gold, and returned laden with pepper and ‘the rare products of the sea and mountain’ which the Chera king gave, so far the evidence of the poems. The author of the Periplus (75 A.D.) gives the most valuable information about this trade between © Chronicle IAS Academy

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not shun manual labour, but worked on their own small farms, as do the peasantry everywhere. Spinning and weaving of cotton, and perhaps also of silk, had attained a high degree of perfection. Spinning was then, as always, the part-time occupation of women. The weaving of complex patterns on clothes and silk is often mentioned in literature and, according to the Periplus, Uraiyur was a great centre of the cotton trade. The poems mention cotton cloth as thin as the slough of the snake or a cloud of steam, so finely woven that the eye could not follow the course of the thread. Scissors and needles were known and employed in cutting hair and in dressmaking; a kind of hair pomade (tagaram) is mentioned also.

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Towards the end of the second century A.D. the direct trade between the Egyptian Greeks of the Roman Empire and India declined, the traffic passing into the hands of the Arabians and, still more, the Auxumites of East Africa. A new era commenced with the rise of Constantinople in the fourth century A.D. Roman coins reappeared in South India, and embassies were received by Constantine from the people of the Maldives and Ceylon among others. Ceylon was becoming important in the trade of the Indian Ocean at this time, but the activities of the Byzantine period bear no comparison with those of the earlier age, which had drained the Roman Empire of much of its treasure and evoked protests from the financiers of the empire as well as its moralists. The trade of the early Roman Empire had wide ramifications and was bound up with much exploration and colonization on the part Greeco-Romans and Indians. When, after a long eclipse, the power of the Chola kings revived in the tenth and eleventh centuries, the seafaring instincts of the people had not deserted them and that, in the favourable conditions then obtaining, they attempted tasks more venturesome than anything they had achieved in the earlier age. Internal trade was also brisk. Caravans of merchants with carts and pack animals carried their merchandise from place to place and from fair to fair. Salt was an important commodity of trade and salt merchants moved with their families in carts provided with spare axles against contingencies. Barter played a large part in all transactions. • Cultivation & Crafts: The land was fertile and there was plenty of grains, meat and fish; the Chera country was noted for its buffaloes, jackfruit, pepper and turmeric. The little principality of Pari abounded in forest produce like ‘bamboo-rice’, jackfruit, valli root and honey. Many rural activities like the cultivation of ragi and sugarcane and the harvesting and drying of grain are described in the Sangam poems in a vivid and realistic manner. Agriculture was the mainstay of the national economy, and most of its operations were carried on by women of the lowest class (kadaisiyar) whose status appears to have differed little from that of the slave. The bulk of the land was owned by Vellarar, the agriculturists par excellence, who commanded a high social rank. The richer among them did not plough the land themselves, but employed labourers to do it. Besides owning land, they held official posts in the civil and military administration, and the titles vel and arasu in the Chola country and Kavidi in the Pandya were applied to them. They not only enjoyed the jus connubi with royal families, but also shared with the king the duties of war and the pleasures of the chase and of the table. The poorer vellalars did © Chronicle IAS Academy

Religious Beliefs

The Vedic religion had struck root in the South must have become clear from the references to the costly sacrifices performed by the monarchs of the age. Brahmins devoted to their studies and religious duties held a high position in society, and a song of Avur Mulam Kirar portrays in much detail the life of Vinnandayan, a Brahmin of the Kaundinya-gotra who lived in Punjarur in the Chola country. The followers of the Veda had often to engage in disputations with rival sectaries, and many are the references to such disputations proclaimed by the flying of flags and carried on with much gesticulation of the hands. The rival sects are not named, but they were doubtless Jainism and Buddhism, which became more prominent in the succeeding age. From all, Hinduism was the dominant creed in this age. The worship of Subramanya (Murugan) and the legendary achievements of that deity are often alluded to. Other members of the pantheon were Shiva, Balarama, Vishnu, Krishna, Ardhanarisvara and Anantasayi. The details of Vishnu worship with tulasi (basil) and bell are set forth in the Padiruppattu, and the custom is mentioned of people starving in the temple to invoke the grace of the god. Women went with their children to offer worship in the temples in the evenings. Asceticism was honoured and tridandi (triple staff) ascetics are particularly mentioned. The worship of Murugan was of ancient origin and embodied some indigenous features like the velandal, an ecstatic dance in his honour. Indra also came in for special worship on the occasion of his annual festival held in Puhar. The epic poems of the post-Sangam period show that music and dancing were intermingled with religious rites from early times, the worship of Korravai by the hunters, of Krishna by the shepherdesses and of Murugan by the Kuravas being the most striking instances of this. A temple of Sarasvati is mentioned in the Manimekalai, which also alludes to the Kapalikas, as austere class of Shaiva ascetics.  ANCIENT

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THE GUPTA PERIOD

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After the breakup of Mauryan empire, the Satavahana and Kushana emerged as two large Political Powers. The Satavahana acted as a stabilizing factor in the Deccan and south to which they gave political unity and prosperity. The Kushanas performed the same role in the north. Both these empires came to an end in the middle of the 3rd century A.D. Kushana power in North India came to an end in about 230 A.D. and after that, a good part of central India fell to Murundas who continued to rule till 250 A.D. The Guptas finally overthrew Kushanas in about 275 A.D. On the ruins of the Kushana empire arose a new empire which established its way over a good part of the former dominions of both the Kushanas and the Satavahanas. This was the empire of the Guptas who may have been of vaishya origin. Little is known of the early Guptas; first known ruler was ‘Sri Gupta’ probably ruling over a small portion of north Bengal and South Bihar. He was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha. Both adopted the title of Maharaja. He married a Lichchavi princes Kumara Devi and had her portrait engraved on his coins.

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Chandragupta I (319-335 A.D.)

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Chandragupta was the first Gupta king who minted silver coins after defeating Saka satraps of Ujjain and also in the name of his queen and the Lichchhavi nation. Chandragupta I seems to have been a ruler of considerable importance because he started Gupta Era in A.D. 319-20 which marked the date of his accession. He emphasized his power and prestige by marrying Kumara Devi, Princess of the Lichchhavi nation of Nepal. He acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj. Samudragupta (335-375 A.D.)

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of India’ by Vincent Smith, enlarged the Gupta Kingdom enormously. The Allahabad pillar inscription composed by Harisena, his court poet enumerates the people and countries that were conquered by Samudragupta, which had been divided into 5 groups. 12 Kings were defeated in course of Samudragupts’s dakshinapath campaign, who reached as far as Kanchi and Pallava ruler Vishnugupta was compelled to recognise his suzerainty. But he reinstated all the 12 kingdoms as tributary states. Virasen was the army commander in the famous Southern campaign of Samudragupta. In Allahabad inscription Samudragupta describes him as the hero of hundred battles. In one of his coins he called himself ‘Lichchhavi duhitra’ (daughter’s son of the Lichchhavis). He performed Asvamedha Yajna to claim imperial title and struck gold coins of yupa type to commemorate the occasion. He maintained the tradition of religious toleration, granted permission to Buddhist king of Cylon, Meghavarman to build a monastry at Bodh Gaya; so, he was called ‘Anukampavav’. He was a great patron of art, adopted the title of ‘Kaviraja’. Poets like Harisena and Vasubandhu adorned his court; on some gold coins he was shown playing the Veena. On one of the coins Samudragupta is represented as playing flute. He also patronized the Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu and studied Buddhism under him. Though a follower of the Brahmannical religion and follower of Vasudeva, he was tolerant towards other faiths. He received a missionary from the ruler Meghavarman of Sri Lanka, seeking his permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya, which he granted.

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Samudragupta (335-380 A.D.), called the ‘Napoleon

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Chandragupta II (380-413 A.D.)

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Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but Chandragupta II killed him and married his queen Dhruvadevi. Chandragupta II was also a great conqueror like his father and his reign saw the high water mark of the Gupta empire. Mehrauli Iron pillar inscription ANCIENT 46

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Kumargupta performed Asvamedha sacrifices, but we do not know of his any military success, though he maintained the vast empire intact. Towards the close of his reign, the empire was attacked by the Pushyamitra tribe. By 485 A.D. the Hunas occupied eastern Malwa and a good portion of Central India. Although the Huna power was soon overthrown by Yasodharman of Malwa, the Malwa prince successfully challenged the authority of the Guptas and set up pillars of victory commemorating his conquest of almost the whole of Northern India. Skandagupta (455-467 A.D.)

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claims his authority over North- Western India and a good portion of Bengal. Chandragupta II’s daughter Prabhavati was married to the Vakataka King, Rudrasena II who died very soon. The sea-borne trade with Europe brought Chandragupta II in close contact with Europe through Egypt. Chandragupta is represented as killing a lion on his coins unlike his father who is shown killing a tiger. Though Fa-hien (the Chinese pilgrim) travelled extensively in Chandragupta’s empire and records the prosperity during this time, it is interesting to note that the Chinese pilgrim never recorded the name of the king because he was totally preoccupied with the study of Buddhism. Chandragupta II Vikramaditya was the first among the Gupta kings to issue gold coins. These coins were modelled on the silver coins issued by the Sakas of western and central India. Virasena’s Udyagiri cave inscription refers to his conquest of the whole world. He defeated the last of the Saka ruler Rudra Simha III and annexed the territories of western Malwa and Gujarat. He was also called ‘Vikramaditya’. He also took the title of Simhavikrama. Chandragupta II made Ujjain the second capital of the empire. He strengthened the empire by matrimonial alliance, married his daughter Prabhavati to a Vakataka Prince Rudrasena II, he himself married a Naga princes ‘Kuber Naga’. He was also a man of art and culture, his court at Ujjain was adorned by ‘Navratna’, including Kalidasa, Amarsinha, Fa-hien, Acharya Dinganaga, etc. Virasena was the Court Poet and Minister of Chandragupta II. Fa-hien, the Chinese traveller, came during the time of Chandragupta II.

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He assumed the title of Mahendraditya. Founded the Nalanda University. He was a worshipper of Lord Kartikeya (son of Lord Shiva). Kumargupta I introduced a new type of coins of gold. One of them figures the God Kartikeya ridding on his peacock on the reverse, and the king feeding a peacock on the obverse. The first Huna attack took place during Kumargupta I. He was very old that time. The aged Kumargupta died when the crown prince was still in the field in A.D. 454 or 455.

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One of the gold coins of the king Skandagupta depicts the king as standing with a bow in one hand and an arrow in the other with a Garuda standard in front of him. To his right is Goddess Laxmi facing the king with a lotus in her hand. He restored the Sudarshana Lake. Skandagupta repulsed the ferocious Hunas twice, this heroic feat entitled him to assume the title of Vikramaditya. Sakandagupta’s successors proved to be weak and could not resist the Huna invaders, who excelled in horsemanship and possibly used stirrups made of metal. Fall of the Gupta Empire

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The weak successors of Skandagupta could not check the growing Huna power and feudatories rose in Bihar, Bengal, M.P., Vallabhi, etc. Mihirkula was the most famous Huna King. Hieun Tsang mentions him as a fierce persecutor of Buddhism. He was defeated by Yashodharman, one of the feudatories of the Guptas in Malwa. Later Guptas of Magadha established their power in Bihar, alongside them the Maukharies rose to power in Bihar and U.P. with their capital at Kannauj, the Maitrakas of Vallabhi established their authority in Gujarat and Western Malwa. In North India the Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar established their power in Haryana and they gradually moved to Kannauj. The Gupta state may have found it difficult to maintain a large professional army on account of the growing practice of land grants for religious and other purposes, which was bound to reduce their revenues. Their income may have further been affected by the decline of foreign trade. Loss of Western India deprived the Guptas of rich revenues from trade and commerce and crippled them economically. ANCIENT

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The migration of a guild of silk weavers from Gujarat to Malwa in A.D. 473 and their adoption of non-productive professions show that there was not much demand for silk. Decline of trade led to decay of towns, the postGupta period witnessed the ruin of many old commercial cities. The later Guptas, though they ruled in Magadha till about the eight-century, were not genealogically connected to the Imperial Guptas. Trade and Economy

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Kalidasa gives good description of the market towns. The volume of trade with China greatly increased during Gupta period and the Chinese silk was called ‘Chinansuka’ in India. Indian muslin was said to have created a great demand in the city of Rome. At Kaveripattinam, the Yavana section of the city overflowed with prosperity. At Arikamedu, a sizeable Roman settlement and a Roman factory was discovered (it was known for Muslin). Barygaza or Broach was the largest port on the western coast. Glass production started in the Gupta period. Indian embassies visited the Roman Empire in the reigns of Aurelian, Constantine, Julian, and Justinian, and Alexandria became an important meeting place for the inhabintants and traders of India and Rome. Varahmihira paid tribute to Greek astronomers by saying that they deserve as much respect as our own rishis. Indians were the first in the world to advocate the internal use of mercury. It is mentioned by Varahmihira along with iron. The Indian surgeon performed lithotomy and could remove the external matter accidentally introduced into the body e.g. iron, stones, etc. Gold coins were called Dinars and silver coins were called Rupyakas. Political Organization

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Kingship was hereditary, but royal power was limited by the absence of a firm practice of primogeniture. Council of ministers existed; evidence of one man holding several posts like Harisena and posts becoming hereditary. The most important officers were Kumaramatyas. The empire was divided into ‘Bhukti’ placed under the charge of an ‘Uparika’. Bhuktis were divided into districts placed under the charge of ‘Vishaypati’. The sub-districts were called ‘Peth’ and the villages were under ‘Gramika’ or ‘Mahattar’. The Guptas did not maintain a vast bureaucracy like that of the Mauryas. ‘Kumaramatyas’ were the most important officers who were appointed by the king in the home provinces. Chariots receded into the background and cavalry came to the forefront. In judicial system, for the first time civil and criminal laws were clearly defined and demarcated. The most salient feature of the Gupta rule is personal liberty. The people were left largely to follow their own ideas and pursue their own intentions. The Vakataka empire in the Deccan was more centralized and united than the Satavahanas, though the Vakatakas continued the same administrative system and practices as it was during the Satavahanas. In the Gupta period land taxes increased in number, and also those on trade and commerce. A large part of the empire was administered by feudatories, many of whom had been subjected by Samudragupta. The second important fedual development in administration was the grant of fiscal and administrative concessions to priests and administrators. Salary was not paid in cash. Religious functionaries were granted land called ‘Agarhara’, free of taxes for ever, and they were authorised to collect from peasants all taxes, which could have otherwise gone to the emperor. Land revenue was about 1/7 of the produce payable either in cash or kind.

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In contrast to the Mauryas, the Gupta kings adopted pompous titles such as ‘Parmeshwar’ ‘Maharajadhiraja’ and ‘Param-bhattaraka’ which signify that they ruled over lesser kings in their empire. Element of divinity in kingship; kings compared with different gods and were looked upon as Vishnu, the protector and preserver.

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Buddhism no longer received royal patronage in the Gupta period. Fa-hien has given the impression that this religion was in flourishing state. But really it was not so important in the Gupta period as it was in the days of Ashoka and Kanishka. Science and Technology

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Gupta period is unparalleled for its achievements in the field of mathematics and astronomy. Brahmagupta in 7th century developed rules foroperating with zero and negative quantities, he began to apply algebra to astronomical problems. He wrote Brahmasphutic Siddhanta in which he hinted at the law of gravitation. Prominent astronomers were Aryabhatta and Varahamihira. Aryabhatta was the first astronomer who wrote Arya-bhattiyam, found the causes of lunar and solar eclipses, calculated the circumference of the earth in Suryasiddhanta, which is still almost correct. Aryabhatta described the value of first nine numbers and the use of zero in Aryabhattiyam. He also calculatd the value of pie and invented Algebra. He was first to reveal that the Sun is stationary and the earth revolves round it. Varahamihira’s well-known work was ‘Brihatsamhita’, it stated that the Moon rotates round the Earth and the Earth rotates round the Sun. He also wrote ‘Panch Siddhantika’ which gives the summary of five astronomical books current in his time. Romaka Siddhanta, a book on astronomy was also compiled and was perhaps influenced by Greek ideas. Vagbhatta was the most distinguished physician of the ayurvedic system of medicine. Palakapya wrote Hastyagarved, a treatise on the diseases of elephants. Dhanvantri was famous for Ayurveda knowledge.

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foreigners into Indian society, and secondly due to absorption of many tribal people in Brahmanical society through process of land grants. Though women were idealized in literature, mother goddesses were worshipped, but in reality they were accorded lower postion viz. pre-puberty marriage, denial of education, treated as an item of property, etc. Though they were allowed to listen to the Epics and the Puranas, like the Shudras. The position of the Shudra somewhat improved but number of untouchables and the practice of untouchability increased. The first example of Sati came from Eran of 510 A.D. Sati system was very rare in the Gupta period, almost the only recorded instance in the age being that of the Goparaja’s wife in A.D. 510. came to light from Eran (M.P.). The Vakataka period (roughly from about A.D. 250-250) coincided with the most creative period of Mahayana Buddhism. Nagarjuna established the Shunyavada philosophy, he infused a new life into Buddhism and helped the eventual development of the Advaita school in the Hindu Vedanta. It is very likely that Kaildasa lived for some time in the Vakataka court, as a part of the ‘Meghadduta’ must have been composed there. Patanjali tells us that the maidservant and the shudra women were meant for satisfying the pleasure of upper classes.

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Religion Many legal text books were written during this period such as the Bhagwad Gita, Yajnavalkaya Smriti, Narada Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti, etc. Hinduism acquired its present shape, Brahma, Vishnu & Mahesh emerged as the supreme deity. Devotional Hinduism got perfection and Bhagvatism became more popular, centred round the worship of Vishnu or Bhagvat. History was presented as a cycle of 10 incarnations of Vishnu. Theory of Karma and idea of Bhakti and Ahimsa became the foundation of Bhagvatism. Idol worship in the temples became a common feature. Concept of incarnations or Avatara of Vishnu preached. Various female deities such as Durga, Amba, Kali, Chandi, etc. came to be regarded as mother goddesses. Four ends of life were enumerated-Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, first three collectively called ‘Triverga’ Six schools of philosophy were perfected.

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Sanskrit language and literature made much headway during this period. This was the language of scholars. From this time onward we find greater emphasis on verses than prose. Although we get a good deal of Brahmanical religious literature, the period also produced some of the earliest pieces of secular literature. ANCIENT

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The greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist of the Gupta age was Kalidasa, his important works were-Meghdutam, Abhijana Shakuntalam, Kumarsambhava, Raghuvamsa, Ritusamhara, Malvikagnimitra, etc. Vishakhadatta produced the ‘Mudrarakshasa’ and the ‘Devichandraguptam’. Apart from Kalidasa others were Sudraka who authored Mrichchakatikam, Bharavi wrote Kiratarjunia, Dandin’s Kavyadarshana and Dasakumaracharita. To this period belong the 13 plays written by Bhasa. Most famous was Charudatta. Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchatantra and Hitopdesh. All the literary works of this period were comedies and character of higher and lower classes did not speak the same language: women and shudra featuring in these plays used Prakrit. Both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata along with various Puranas and Smrities were finally compiled. Amarsimha wrote ‘Amarkosha’.

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This period marks the beginning of temple architecture. Dasavatara temple at Deogarh in Jhansi is the finest square temple with a low and squat shikhara (tower) above. The temple at Bhitargaon near Kanpur is made of brick. Phenomenal development in sculptural representation of divinities at its best. Best example is provided by the stone sculpture of Naranarayan from Dasvatara temple, Deogarh. Metal sculpture of a high degree is testified by the over two metre high bronze image of Buddha recovered from Sultanganj near Bhagalpur. Gupta stone sculptural art was related to the Mathura school. Painting reached its zenith with regard to aesthetic and technical standard as is furnished by the Ajanta Painting. Their themes were borrowed from Jataka stories i.e. previous incarnations of Buddha and from other secular source— ‘dying princes’, ‘Mother and Child etc. Buddha sitting in Dharma Chakra mudra belongs to Sarnath and the Buddha images of Bamiyan, Afghanistan belong to the Gupta period. Images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu gods featured for the first time in this period. The Ajanta painters excelled in the depiction of human and animal figures.

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Art and Architecture The Gupta craftsmen distinguished themselves by their work in iron and bronze. Several bronze images of the Buddha were produced. In the case of iron objects, the best example is the famous Iron pillar found at Mehrauli. It has withstood rain and weather for centuries without rusting.

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LATER GUPTAS (7-12 CENTURY) Varman, who firmly established Maukharis supremacy in Madhya-desha. The next famous ruler of this dynasty was Graha Varman, who married Rajyashri of the Pushyabhuti family of Thaneshwar. The wicked king of Malwa killed Graha Varman and imprisoned Rajyashri. The kingdom of Kannauj was combined with that of Thaneshwar of Harsha Vardhan.

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By the middle of the 6th century a line of Gupta rulers with the same surname, but not connected in the official geneology with the line, ruled in Magadha. In fact, the name ending “Gupta” may have been chosen and cherised by the Later Guptas in an attempt to bring the family closer, in the eyes of the people, to well-established Imperial Gupta dynasty. Krishna Gupta (480-502 A.D.), the founder of the dynasty, and his two successors, Harsha Gupta and Jivita-Gupta may be regarded as feudatories of the main Guptas. The dynasty came into its own with the accession of Kumar Gupta, who made his kingdom more than a mere principality. Malwa was the chief centre of Later Guptas until the rise of Harsha. Mahasena Gupta was the most famous ruler of this dynasty, probably, he defeated the Maukharis. He associated himself with the rising Pushyabhuti dynasty and giving in marriage his sister to Aditya Vardhan, the grand father of Harsha. Thus, Mahasena Gupta, with the help of Pushyabhuti, recovered his kingdom and got victory over Kamarupa (Assam). Mahasena Gupta’s two sons were sent to Thaneshwar to be companions of Harsha and the third son remained at Malwa. Harsha’s empire included Magadha which he entrusted to the Madhava Gupta, the first son of Mahasena Gupta. Thus, actually two lines of Later Guptas came into existence. The Guptas of Magadha continued to prosper. But the story of Malwa is different. The Gupta ruler of Malwa Deva Gupta attacked Maukhari king Graha Varman and killed him. Graha Varman had married Rajyashri, the sister of Rajya Vardhan and Harsha Vardhan. Rajya Vardhan marched to Malwa, killed Deva Gupta and annexed the territory to his dominions. Thus, the Malwa branch of the Later Guptas came to an end.

The Maukharis

In the second half of the sixth century, Kanyakubja (Kannauj) rose to the prominence as the capital of the Maukharis. The first three kings of this dynasty are given the simple title of Maharaja. The fourth king Ishana-Varman (550-560 A.D.) took the title of Maharajadhiraja. He followed an aggressive expansionist policy. After defeating the Andhras, the Sulivas and the Gauda, he came into conflict with the Later Guptas of Magadha. He was succeeded by Sri Sarva © Chronicle IAS Academy

The Pushyabhutis

The first three rulers of this dynasty i.e. Nara Vardhan, Rajya Vardhan and Aditya Vardhan are given the simple title of Maharaja. It shows that these rulers were initially feudal-lords under Gupta Kingdom and subsequently the Huna kings. Aditya Vardhan’s son Prabhakara Vardhan (A.D. 583-605) was the first ruler of the dynasty to assume the title Param Bhattarak Maharaja–dhiraja. He defeated Hunas, Sindhu kings, Gurjaras, the Lord of Gandhara and the kings of Malwa. His desire for conquest was eventually carried out by his younger son Harsha Vardhan. Prabhakar Vardhan had made a matrimonial alliance with the Maukharis by giving in marriage his daughter Rajyashri to Graha Varman. As a result of this engagement, the Maukhari nobles, on the death of their last king Graha Varman, requested Harsha, the reigning Pushybhuti king to unite his kingdom with the Maukhari kingdom and rule from Kannauj. Prabhakar Vardhan was succeeded by his elder son Rajya Vardhan, but shortly he was killed in a battle with Shasanka of Gauda (Bengal). He was succeeded by Harsha Vardhan, his younger brother who was actually elected to the throne by the Mantri parishad.

Harsha Vardhana (606-647 A.D.)

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Hieun-Tsang informs us that Harsha was reluctant to take the responsibilities of kingship. He belonged to the Pushyabhuti family and was the son of Prabhakar vardhan, originally the feudatories of the Guptas. Rajyavardhan succeeded Prabhakaravardhan. Grahavardhan, the Maukhari ruler of Kannauj and husband of Rajyasri (daughter of Prabhakara) was murdered by Devagupta, the ruler of Malwa ANCIENT

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prevalent all over North India. Harsha relied more on personal supervision than on an organized bureaucracy. There seems to have been a council of ministers, which wielded real power on occasions. According to Hieun-Tsang, the officers received their salaries in kind, in grants of land, and were paid according to their work. Treason against the king was punished by lifelong imprisonment. Taxation was light and 1/6 was the royal share of the land revenue from the people. The existence of a department of records and archives shows the enlightened character of the administration. Harsha governed empire on the same line as the Guptas did except that his administration had become more feudal and decentralised. Land grants continued to be made to priests for special services rendered to the state. In addition Harsha is credited with the grant of land to the officers by charters as in case the Agrahara lands. The Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang informs us that the revenues of Harsha were divided into four parts. One part was earmarked for the expenditure of the king, a second for scholars, a third for the endowment of officials and public servants and a fourth for religious purpose. He also tells us that ministers and high officers of the state were endowed with land. The feudal practice of rewarding and paying officers with grants of land seems to have begun under Harsha. This explains why we do not have too many coins issued by King Harsha. In the empire of Harsha, law and order was not well-maintained. The Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang, about whom special care may have been taken by the government, was robbed of his belonging, although he reports that according to the law of the land severe punishments were inflicted for crime. Robbery was considered to be a second treason for which the right hand of the robber was amputated. But it seems that under the influence of Buddhism, the severity of punishment was mitigated and criminals were imprisoned for life. Harsha is called the last great Hindu emperor of India, but he was neither a staunch Hindu nor the ruler of the whole country. His authority was limited to North India, except Kashmir-Rajasthan, Punjab, Utter Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were under his direct control, but his sphere of

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who in alliance with Sasanka, ruler of Gauda and Bengal occupied Kannauj and imprisoned Rajyasri. Rajyavardhan undertook a campaign against Devagupta and killed him but was deceived and killed by Sasanka. Harsha now succeeded his brother at Thaneswar. He brought most of north under his control and assumed the title of ‘Siladitya’. Originally belonged to Thaneswar, but shifted to Kannauj which after his death was won from his successors by the Pratiharas. Brought ‘5 Indies’ under his control – Punjab, Kannauj, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. Harsha used to celebrate a solemn festival at Prayag, Allahabad at the end of every 5 years. He was a great patron of learning and established a large monastery at Nalanda. Banabhatta, who adored his court wrote Harshacharita, Parvatiparinay and Kadambari. Harsha himself wrote 3 plays: Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda.

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Nothing is known of the city of Kannauj after the death of Harsha until A.D. 730, when Yasovarman, who may have been a Maukhari king, was ruling there. Yasovarman was a famous monarch who sent an embassy to China in A.D. 731. Samanta system emerged in the post-Gupta period and by the time of Harshvardhan, it was widely

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beneficiaries, often with administrative rights. The recipients of land grants in north India were empowered to punish thieves and other criminals; in central and western India from the fifth century onwards, they were also given the right to try the civil cases. • The transfer of magisterial and police powers together with fiscal rights to the donees not only weakened the royal authority, but also led to the oppression of peasants and inhabitants of the gift villages who were asked to obey their new masters and carry out their orders. • Several inscriptions indicated the emergence of serfdom, which meant that the peasants were attached to their land even when it was given away. Perhaps this began in South India in the earlier period because a third century Pallava grant informs us that four sharecroppers were asked to remain attached to their land which was given to the brahmanas. Hieun-Tsang’s Account •

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influence spread over a much wider area. It seems that the peripheral states acknowledged his sovereignty. Harsha was unable to extend his power in eastern and southern India. In eastern India he faced opposition from the Shaivite king Shashanka of Gauda, who cut off the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya. But Shashanka’s death in 619 put an end to this hostility. Harsha’s southward march was stopped on the Narmada river by the Chalukyan king Pulkesin II in 620 A.D., who ruled over a great part of modern Karnataka and Maharashtra with his capital at Badami in the modern Bijapur district of Karnataka. Pulskesin II bestowed the title of ‘the lord of the entire north’, on him. Events towards the end of Harsha’s reign are described in Chinese sources. T’ang Emperor of China Tai-Tsung sent an ambassador to Harsha’s court in 643 and again in 647. On the second occasion the Chinese ambassador found that Harsha had died and that the throne had been usurped by an undeserving king. The Chinese ambassador rushed to Nepal and Assam and raised a force with which the allies of Harsha defeated the usurper, who was taken to China as a prisoner. The kingdom of Harsha Vardhan disintegrated rapidly into small states after his death. The three border states of Assam, Nepal and Kashmir resumed their independence. Northern India was divided among several Rajput States. Village was divided into groups of 10 for the purpose of assessment in the Deccan and in the groups of 12 or 16 in the northern region. The power and privileges of the feudatories were clearly on the rises in this period and the biggest casualties were the lower classes and women. The relationship between the village authorities and the feudatories was clearly defined. Brahmanas were granted tax-free lands as well as many privileges along with it. The beginning of the practice of making religious grants roughly synchronizes with the date of the earliest epic and the Puranic description of the Kaliyuga or the age of social crisis. Grants of land were made to the priests and the temples, and later to royal officers, along with fiscal and administrative immunities, which undermined the authority of the state. The fiscal concessions accompanying the land grants included the royal right over salt and mines, which were royal monopolies in the Mauryan period and evidently signs of sovereignty. Now, villages were granted in perpetuity to the

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Hieun-Tsang (or Yuan Chwang) was the most celebrated of all the Chinese pilgrims who came to India. He visited India in the first half of the seventh century A.D. and spent about 15 years (630-645) in the country. During this period he travelled all over the country and observed everything very minutely. No doubt he came to this country with the chief aim of collecting the Buddhist scriptures and visiting all those places connected with the Lord, but his clever eyes left nothing unnoticed. He retuned to his country with a lot of material concerned with the Buddhist faith (such as Buddhist relics, images of Buddha and about 657 volumes of manuscripts), but above all he carried with him the memories of this land. After reaching his homeland, he translated all his memories in the book-form entitled ‘Si-yu-Ki’ or the Records of the Western world. This book is an invaluable source of information regarding Harsha and the political, social, religious and economic conditions of India during his reign (or in the first half of seventh century A.D.). According to Dr. V.A. Smith, this book is a treasure house of accurate information, indispensable to every student of Indian antiquity and has done more than any archaeological discovery to render possible the remarkable re-association (revival) of lost history. From Hieun-Tsang’s account, the following important information is derived regarding Harsha and the condition of India during his time: • Kingdom of HarshaVardhan: Hieun-Tsang spent about eight years in Harsha’s court and consequently he had written in detail about his character and personality. According to Hieun-Tsang, Harsha was a very generous king who used to give a major porANCIENT

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events were recorded and instances of public calamity and good fortune are set forth in detail. HieunTsang says that Harsha had maintained a powerful and well-equipped army which was over two lakhs. It was comprised of 50,000 infantry, 6,000 elephants and 100,000 horsemen. • Socio-economic Condition: From certain casual remarks of Hieun-Tsang, we can form an idea of the social and economic conditions of India during Harsha’s reign. About the dress and general appearance of the people, he writes that they wore simple dress comprising inner clothing and outward garment which did not involve any tailoring work. They were, however, very fond of ornaments. Again, he writes that most of the people go bare-footed and shoes are rare. The food of the people was very simple and pure. They generally took milk, ghee, rice, grain and vegetables. Onions and garlics were rarely used and the use of meat was not so common. About the architecture or house planning of the people, Hieun-Tsang writes that their walls were generally built of brick, and often coated with chunam. The roofs were sometimes made of thatched reed matting but generally there were wooden flat roofed rooms which were often covered with tiles, burnt and unborn. Their floors were purified with cow dung and strewn with flowers of the season. Their houses, in short, were ‘sumptuous inside and economical outside.’ According to Hieun-Tsang, the architecture of public building and Buddhist monasteries was very remarkable. The people in those days had a high sense of cleanliness. According to Hieun-Tsang, “They are pure on their own accord and not from any compulsion. Before every meal they must have a wash, the fragment and remains are not served up again. The food utensils are not passed on.” Persons who followed unclean or disreputable occupations (like butchers, fisherman, executioners and scavengers) had to live outside the city. The people also led a high moral life. They were hospitable, honest, generous and charitable. They were afraid of doing any thing wrong and sinful. According to Hieun-Tsang, they are of pure moral principle. Hieun-Tsang has thrown a good deal of light on the social customs of the people. The caste-taboos had become very rigid and usually the people married within their castes. According to him, ‘Relations whether by the father’s or mother’s side do not inter marry.’ The accursed purdah-system did not exist but the practice of sati was, however, practiced by the people. Harsha’s own mother Yasomati died as a sati. The chief occupation of the people was cultivation of land, domesticating animals, adopting various other

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tion of his revenue in alms to the poor, the needy and religious men. He had built a large number of rest houses, hospitals, stupas, monasteries, and other works of public utility. He was a very dutiful king who never felt tired while serving his people. In the very words of Hieun-Tsang, “He was indefatigable and forgot sleep and food in the discharge of his duties.” Again, “the day was too short for him. He was the busiest of men and devoted all his time to promote the welfare of his people.” About Harsha’s religious views, he writes that in the beginning he was a worshipper of Shiva and the Sun and later on he became a follower of Buddhism. Then, he devoted all his energies for the spread of his faith. Hieun-Tsang writes that Harsha led a very luxurious life and often bathed in vessels of gold and silver. Harsha’s capital Kannauj was known all round for its lofty structures, beautiful gardens, tanks to clear water and museum of varieties collected from strange lands. It was a great cosmopolitan town with one hundred Buddhist monasteries and about two hundred deva temples; it had greatly grown in its importance under Harsha. • Political Condition and Administration: HieunTsang has written in detail about Harsha’s administration and the political condition of India during his times. He has every praise for Harsha’s administration. Harsha fully knew that in order to make the life of his subjects happy, a good deal of personal supervision was most essential, from time to time he himself used to go from place to place in order to punish the evil-doers and reward the good. Harsha’s government was based on benign and generous principles. Hieun-Tsang further writes, “The government is generous, official requirements are few, families are not registered and individuals are not subject to forced labour-contribution”. Taxes were very light. The source of income was the landtax which was 1/6 of the total produce. The royal income was spent in a very systematic way. Its onefourth part was spent on government, one-fourth on the maintenance of the public servants, one fourth to reward the learned and the rest portion was reserved for distributing gifts among holymen. The penal code was very severe and sometimes hands, ears or nose were also cut off. Fines were also inflicted and trial by ordeal was also known, though it was awarded very rarely. Hieun-Tsang, however, writes that roads were not so safe as he himself was thrice looted and once even his clothes were snatched away from him. According to Hieun-Tsang, there was a special department of keeping records of all the important events of the state. In these records, good and bad © Chronicle IAS Academy

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from various foreign countries usually came here for study. There were about 1,510 Professors in all who imparted knowledge to about 10,000 students. No fees were charged from the students and even food, accommodation and clothes were provided free of cost to them. The expenditure of this university was met by the rich donations made by many Indian rulers and rich people. Moreover, about 100 villages and their revenues were attached with this university for meeting out its expenses. Harsha is also said to have made rich endowments to this university. Such a university perhaps did not exist any where else on the surface of the world. • Harsha’s Assemblies: Hieun-Tsang has given a vivid description of Harsha’s assemblies. Harsha called a special assembly at Kannauj to honour Heiun-Tsang and to give wide publicity to the doctrines of the Mahayana faith. In this assembly a heated discussion took place between the Brahmans and Hieun-Tsang. In the end, Hieun-Tsang won the day and a special procession was organized to honour him on his success. Again Hieun-Tsang writes that Harsha used to distribute alms among the learned, religious men, the poor and the needy on a large scale. One of such assemblies was held in 643 A.D. which was attended by Harsha himself. On the first day, Harsha worshipped Buddha, on the second day the image of Sun and on the third day adoration was offered to Shiva. After these adorations to various deities Harsha began his work of distributing wealth and offering gifts to the Buddhist monks, Brahman heretics, and the poor, the orphans and the destitute. He exhausted all his treasury so much so that he had to borrow his personal clothes from his sister Rajyashri.

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occupations including industries, trade and commerce. Trade was carried on both by sea and land-routes with many neighbouring countries, such as China and Persia. The medium of exchange comprised not merely gold and silver coins, but also cowries and small pearls. • Religious Condition: Hieun-Tsang was a religious pilgrim and so he wrote in detail about the religious condition of India in the first half of the seventh century A.D. There were three religions-Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism that were flourishing side by side in India in the seventh century A.D. About Buddhism, Hieun-Tsang nowhere writes that it was on the decline, but from his account that ancient seats of Buddhism like Gaya and Kapilvastu were ruins, historians have derived the conclusion that Buddhism was declining day by day. But still in every big town there were many monasteries where about 10,000 monks lived. There were many Indian rulers (like Harsha) who patronized Buddhism. In addition to the two main sects-the Hinayana and the Mahayana-Buddhism had further been split up into 18 different sub-sects. About Hinduism, Hieun-Tsang writes that it was gaining strength. India was known in China as ‘the country of the Brahmans.’ Hinduism had greatly regained its superior status since the day of the Imperial Guptas. The predominance of Hinduism was further demonstrated by the popularity of Sanskrit which, according to Hieun-Tsang, had begun to be commonly used both in speaking and writing. The Buddhist teacher had also developed a great fondness for this language of the gods. Though Indian people followed different religions according to their likings, yet they practiced complete religious toleration. The followers of different faiths lived peacefully. Harsha, no doubt, had become a Buddhist, but he did not become a religious persecutor. While showering favours and distributing money, he never made any distinction between a Buddhist monk and a Brahman priest. • Educational System: From Hieun-Tsang’s account, we come to know that there was well-organised system of education during the reign of Harsha. Elementary education was given in temples and monasteries where students resided with their teachers. The higher education was provided by some well-known centres of education which resembled more or less the modern universities. Some of the well-known universities then existing were those of Taxila, Ujjain, Gaya and Nalanda. The most important university was that of Nalanda which had its own six-storyed building. It was a university of international fame and students © Chronicle IAS Academy

The Vakatakas

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The Vakatakas came to control parts of the Deccan and Central India till the rise of the Chalukyas. The founder of this Brahmin dynasty was Vindhyasakti. The most important king was Pravarasena I who performed 4 Ashvamedha yagnas. He was succeeded by Rudrasen I, Prithvisen I and Rudrasen II respectively. Chandragupta II married his daughter Prabhavati to the vakataka king Rudrasen II. Rudrasen II was succeeded by Divakarasena, Damodarasena or Pravarasena who composed a Prakrit work titled Setubandha in glorification of Rama, though he was a devotee of Shiva. The Abhiras

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The Shakas of Mahishaka It was founded by Mana after the decline of the Satvahanas in the Deccan. The Traikutakas Appear to be the feudatories of Abhiras at first. First ruler was Indradutta, who was followed by Dahrasena, Vyaghrasena and Madhyamsena. Aniruddhapura was the capital of this kingdom. Vikramsena was the last known king of this dynasty.

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Krishnaraja, the earliest known chief of this dynasty was succeeded by his son Buddharaja. The Gangas Also called Chedagangas of Orissa. Their King Narsimhadeva constructed the Sun temple at Konark. Their King Anantvarman Ganga built the famous Jagannath temple at Puri. Kesaris, who used to rule Orissa befor Gangas built the Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneshwar. The Palas of Bengal In the middle of the 8th century, the Pala dynasty came into power. Its founder was Gopala (750 A.D.) who was elected to the throne as he had proved his valor and capability as a leader. Suleiman, an Arab merchant had termed the Pala kingdom as Rumi. Gopala was an ardent Buddhist. He was succeeded by Devapala. He extended his control over Pragjoytishpur (Assam). He was a Buddhist. Balaputradeva, a King of Buddhist Sailendras ruling Java asked Devapala for grant of 5 villages to endow a monastery at Nalanda. He granted the request and appointed Vikramaditya as Head of Nalanda monastery. Devapala’s court was adorned with the Buddhist poet Vijradatta, the author of Lokesvarasataka.

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Ishvarasena established himself in northern Maharashtra. He started an era in A.D. 249. It is known as Kalachuri-Chedi or Abhira era. According to Puranas there were 10 Abhira kings. From an inscription it seems that Kathika was the family name of the Abhiras.

The Rashtrakutas Founder was Dantidurga. Originally district officers under Chalukyas of Badami. Their king Krishna I is remembered for constructing the famous rock-cut Kailasha temple at Ellora. It was constructed in the Dravidian style and elaborately carved with fine sculptures. Their King Amoghvarsha is compared to Vikramaditya in giving patronage to men of letters. He wrote the first Kanadda poetry named Kaviraj marg and Prashnottar Mallika. He built the city of Manyakheta as their capital. Their king, Krishna III set up a pillar of victory and a temple at Rameshwaram after defeating the Cholas. Rashtrakutas are credited with building the cave shrine of Elephants. It was dedicated to shiva, whose image as Mahesh (popularly known as Trimurti) counts among the most magnificent art creations of India. The three faces represent Shiva as Creator, Preserver and Destroyer, and only Shiva is represented in 3 faces and not Brahma, Vishnu, etc. Kalachuris In early period the Kalachuris were known as Haihayas with Mahishmati as their capital.

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The Senas They ruled Bengal after the Palas. Its founder was Samantasena. His grandson Vijayasena (son of Hemantasena) brought the family into limelight. The famous poet Sriharsha composed the Vijataprasasti in memory of Vijayasena. He was succeeded by Ballalasena. He wrote Danasagara and Adbhutsagara. He was succeeded by Lakshmanasena, Jayadeva. The famous Vaishnava poet of Bengal and the author of Gita Govinda lived at his court. His reign saw the decline of Sena power. The invasions of Bakhtiyar Khalji gave it a crushing blow.






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POST-GUPTA PERIOD IN SOUTH INDIA north. Uttama, son of the previous Chola king Gandaraditya forced Sundara Chola to declare him heir apparent. Uttama Chola’s reign was conspicuous for the lack of any major initiatives and he was replaced by the great Rajaraja Chola in 985 C.E.

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From the middle of the sixth century A.D., the history of South India is virtually the story of mutual conflicts among three powers, each seeking constantly to extend its empire at the expense of its neighbours. This went on for about three hundred years. The three powers were the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai. All of them rose into prominence in the sixth century, but the Chalukyas quit the stage about a century earlier than the two other powers, their place on the political map being more or less exactly filled from the middle of the eighth century by their successors, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (Malkhed). Besides the main house of Badami, the Chalukyas established themselves in two other branches, more or less independent of the main line: the Chalukyas of Lata and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Together with the Gangas of Mysore, the Eastern Chalukyas took sides in the conflicts of the three kingdoms, sometimes with decisive results. The Cholas of the Tamil country had practically disappeared except that a line of Telugu rulers bearing their name and claiming a traditional connection with their capital at Uraiyur ruled in the area now known as Rayalaseema. Political conflict was, however, no obstacle to cultural growth. A vast and many-sided Hindu revival checked the spread of Jainism and Buddhism, created a great volume of soul-stirring devotional literature and advanced philosophic speculations. Under the stimulus of this religious impulse, remarkable advances were registered in architecture, sculpture, painting and music. All these influences overflowed into the numerous Hindu colonies across the sea. Imperial Cholas Vijayalaya Chola, who was probably a Pallava Vassal, rose out of obscurity during the middle of the 9th century C.E. Making use of the opportunity during a war between Pandyas and Pallavas, Vijayalaya rose out of obscurity and captured Thanjavur in 848 C.E.

Sundara Chola The Chola power recovered during Sundara Chola’s reign. The Chola Army under the command of the crown prince Aditya Karikala defeated the Pandyas and invaded up to Tondaimandalam in the © Chronicle IAS Academy

Rajaraj Chola Although the early Chola monarchs had captured parts of Tondai-nadu, Kongu-nadu and Pandi-nadu, the empire had shrunk to the area around the Kaveri Delta in the year 985, when the 7th Chola monarch, Rajaraja, born Arulmolivarman, assumed the throne. Rajaraja immediately embarked on a campaign of territorial expansion and captured Pallava and Pandya territory. He successfully fought the Chera rulers of Kerala and extended his rule over parts of modern Karnataka. He captured the island of Sri Lanka as a province of the Chola empire; it remained under direct Chola rule for 75 years. Rajaraja built temples in his own name in all these areas. He conquered the Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean and sent missions to the Indonesian Shrivijaya empire. He encouraged the Shailendra monarch of Java to build a Buddhist monastery at the Chola port of Nagapattinam. Rajendra Chola Rajaraja’s son Rajendra (r. 1012-1044) further consolidated Chola power. He created a Chola viceroyalty in Madurai, appointing his son as the first CholaPandya viceregal prince. Rajendra next attacked the Western Chalukyas and their allies. Rajendra’s reign was marked by his expedition to the river Ganges (c. 1019 C.E.). The Chola army dashed through the kingdoms north of Vengi and engaged the Pala king Mahipala and defeated him. The victorious Chola army returned with the waters of the holy Ganges. In a series of campaigns he marched to north as to the river Ganga (Ganges). He brought back some of its sacred water in golden pots, emptied these into into a tank named Chola-ganga and adopted the title of Gangai-konda (Capturer of the Ganges). However, he did not assume control over the Ganges region. The relationship with Shrivijaya deteriorated to the point that Rajendra sent a naval expedition against the kingdom in order to enforce acknowledgement of Chola suzerainty. He sent two diplomatic missions to China. ANCIENT

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the Brahmanas and of the and was restricted to the Brahmans of the villages. 3. Nagaram was found in trading centres alone. The ‘Uttaramerur’ inscription (10th Century) describes how the local Sabha functioned. There was a close contact between the Central authority and the village assemblies. The Chola officials had only a supervisory role over these assemblies. The Mahasabha possessed the proprietary rights over community lands and controlled the private lands within its jurisdiction. The judicial committee of the Mahasabha, called the ‘nattar’ settled both civil and criminal cases of dispute. Famous committees of the Mahasabha:  Variyam: Executive Committee of Sabha  Tottavariyam: Garden committee  Pon-Variyam: Gold committee  Eri-Variyam: Tank Committee  Alunganattar: Executive Committee of Ur  Nyayattar: Judicial Committee  Udasin-Variyam: Committee of Ascetics  Samstua-Variyam: Annual Committee

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In 1070, after three of Rajendra’s sons and one grandson had succeeded him, a new line of ChalukyaCholas was established when the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajendra II (r. 1070-1125) ascended the throne. His mother and grandmother were Chola princesses. Rajendra II assumed the title of Kulottunga (Star of the Dynasty). During his reign, Sri Lanka gained independence from the Chola rule. However, trade flourished with Southeast Asia. Another Chola embassy was sent to China, together with 72 merchants. Trade with Shrivijaya was active too. The reign of Rajendra II was one of peace and prosperity. The Chola empire held together well until the end of the reign of Kulottunga III in 1216. However, it was not as extensive as in the days of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I. As the Pandya monarchs to the south increased in strength and a group of feudatory chieftains aggressively pursued power in the 13th century, the Chola Empire shrank to the region around Thanjavur. The Chola dynasty came to an end in 1279 when Rajaraja III died and the Chola territory was easily absorbed into Pandya rule.

Chola Chalukya Wars The History of Cholas from the period of Rajaraja was tinged with a series of conflicts with the Western Chalukyas. The Old Chalukya dynasty had split in to two sibling dynasties of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas. Rajaraja’s daughter Kundavai was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Vimaladitya. Stemming from this Cholas had a filial interest in the affairs of Vengi. Western Chalukyas however felt that the Vengi kingdom was under their natural sphere of influence. Several wars were fought and neither could claim mastery over the other. Cholas never managed to overwhelm the Kalyani kingdom and the frontier remained at the Tungabhadra River. These wars however resulted in a lot of bloodshed and the death of at least one monarch (Rajadhiraja Chola).

Administration The whole empire was divided into ‘Mandalam’(province) and these in turn into’Valanadu’ or Kottam and Nadu. Village was the basic unit of administration. The cholas are best known for their local self-government at village level. Each village had an assembly to look after the affairs of the village. The general assemblies were of three types: 1. Ur- a general assembly of the village consisting of tax paying residents. 2. Sabha or Mahasabha – consisted of a gathering of the adult men in the Brahmana villages called ‘Brahmadeya’ and agarhara village granted to © Chronicle IAS Academy

Chalukyas of Vatapi/ Badami

This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan from the 5th to the 8th century AD and again from the 10th to the 12th century AD. They ruled over the area between the Vindhyachal and the Krishna River. The Chalukyas were the arch enemies of the Pallavas, another famous dynasty of the south. Pulakesin I A prominent ruler of the Chalukya dynasty was Pulakesin I. He founded the city of Vatapi (modern Badami in Bijapur district of Karnataka) and made it his capital. He is said to have performed Ashwamedha Yagna to attain supremacy as a ruler. The kingdom was further extended by his sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa who waged many wars against the Mauryan rulers of the neighbouring Konkan region. The best known specimens of Chalukyan art are the Virupaksha temple, (built by Queen Lokamahadevi in 740 AD to commemorate her husband’s victory over the Pallavas), and the Mallikarjuna temple both at Pattadakal, Karnataka. Pulakesin II

Pulakesin II, son of Kirtivarman was the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty, who ruled for almost 34 years. During his long reign, he consolidated his powers in Maharashtra and conquered parts of the Deccan stretching from the banks of the Narmada to the region beyond the Kaveri. His greatest achievement was his victory in the defensive war against ANCIENT 58

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received one from him. The reception given to the Persian mission is, in fact, depicted in one of the famous Ajanta cave paintings. Visit of Hiuen Tsang – the description given by this Chinese pilgrim of the kingdom of Pulakesin is quite useful in knowing the social and economic conditions under the Chalukya rulers of Badami.

Chalukyas of Kalyani Another branch of the Chalukyas established their supremacy under their ruler Tailpa II (973-997 A.D.), who was probably a feudatory of the Rastrakutas. He fought successful wars against the Latas of Gujarat, Kalchuries of Chedi, Parmars of Malwa and the Cholas of the South. The Parmara ruler Munja died fighting him. Tailpa II died in about 997 A.D. His two immediate successors Satyasraya (997-1008 A.D.) and Vikramaditya V (1001-1016), however, suffered defeats at the hands of Rajaraja Chola and Bhoja Parmara respectively. The next Chalukya ruler Jayasimha II (1016-1042 A.D.) routed Bhoja Parmara but was in turn defeated by the Chola ruler Rajendra Chola I at the battle of Musangi. It was Somesvara who laid the foundation of a new town of Kalyani which henceforth became the capital of the Chalukyas. Vikramaditya VI won a great name for his dynasty by his allround conquests and cultural activities. He defeated the Hoyasala King (Vishnuvardhana) of Mysore and Rajendra Chola II and recovered some of the lost territories of his dynasty. The famous poet Bilhana and Vigyanesvara, the author of the well known work “Mitakshara” flourished during his reign. After Vikramaditya VI’s death in about 1126 A.D. the Chalukya power began to decline rapidly. Many feudatory chiefs asserted their independence and in about 1190 A.D. Somesvara IV, the last ruler of this dynasty, was overthrown by the Yadavas of Devagiri.

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Harshavardhan (A north Indian emperor with his capital at Kannauj) in the year 620 AD. In 641 AD, the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, visited the kingdom and paid glowing tributes to the king for his efficient and just rule. Pulakesin II was defeated and killed by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman in 642 AD. His capital Vatapi was completely destroyed. Pulakesin was succeeded by his son Vikramaditya who was also a noble and just ruler. He renewed the struggle against his enemies and managed to restore the former glory of his dynasty to a certain extent. The Chalukyas were ousted by a chieftain Dantidurga, who laid the foundation of Rashtrakuta dynasty. Considered the greatest of the Chalukya rulers of Badami not only because of the problems he had to face while coming to the throne, but also because of his subsequent military as well as diplomatic achievements. • He had to wage civil war against his uncle, Mangalesa, who refused to hand over the power. • Though Pulakesin succeeded in defeating and killing his uncle, this civil war shook the young kingdom and rebellions began to appear on all sides. But he was quite successful in the suppression of these rebellions. He defeated the rebel feudatory, Appayika, and pardoned his confederate, Govinda, when the latter offered his submission. • Establishment of his suzerainty over the neighbours such as Kadambas of Banavasi, the Alupas of south Kanara, the Gangas of Mysore, and the Mauryas of north Konkan. Apart from the above rulers, the Latas, Malwas and Gurjaras also offered their submission to him because of their fear of Harshavardhana of Kanuaj. • His clash with Harsha, in which he was able to check Harsha’s design to conquer the Deccan. • Conquests in the eastern Deccan-southern Kosala, Kalinga, Pistapura and the Banas of Rayalaseema offered their submission after their defeat at the hands of Pulakesin. • Conflict with the Pallavas of Kanchi-his first expedition against the Pallav kingdom, which was then ruled by Mahendravarman I was a complete success, and he annexed the northern part of the Pallava kingdom. But his second expedition against the Pallavas, however, ended in complete disaster for himself as well as his own kingdom. The then Pallava ruler, Narasimhavarman I, who succeeded Mahendraverman, not only drove back Chalukya armies, but also invaded the Chalukya kingdom, killed Pulakesin II and captured Badami. • Diplomatic achievement-he sent an embassy to the Persian king, Khusrau II, in AD 625 and also © Chronicle IAS Academy

Contribution of the Chalukyas

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They developed the Deccan or Vesara style in the building of structural temples, which reached culmination, however, only under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoyasalas. • It was the Chalukyas who perfected the art of stone building, that is, stones finely joined without mortar. • Under their auspices, the Buddhists, the Jainas and the Brahmins competed with each other in building cave temples. • Though the cave frescoes began earlier, some of the finest specimens belonged to the Chalukya era. The murals that were executed on the walls dealt with not only religious themes but also with secular ANCIENT

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of these Pallavas who ruled form different quarters such as Badami or Vatapi, Ellora and Kanchi. The most powerful dynasty of the Pallavas was the one which had its capital at Kanchi. The earliest Pallava ruler about whom we have some reliable information was Vishnugopa of Kanchi. With Simha Vishnu (575-600 A.D.) begins the most glorious epoch of the Pallava history. He is said to have defeated rulers of the three Tamil States of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas and also the ruler of Ceylon. Mahendra Varman (600625 A.D.) had to fight a deadly and long drawn battle with the Chalukyas. Mahendra Varman was a great patron of art and literature. Formerly he was a Jain by faith but later on he was converted to Shaivism and then he built a large number of rock cut temples at various places (Dalavanur, Pallavaram, Vallam, etc.) in honour of Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma. Mahendra Varman was succeeded by his son Narasimha Varman (625-645 A.D.) in about 625 A.D. He is perhaps the most important ruler of the Pallava dynasty. He defeated the Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II in about 642 A.D. and took hold of his capital Badami or Vatapi. He also fought successful wars against the Cheras, Cholas and the king of Ceylon. It was during his reign, that the celebrated Chinese pilgrim Hieun-Tsang visited Kanchi in about 642 A.D. and stayed there for sometime. Narsimha Varman was a great builder like his father. He built many rock-cut temples and laid the foundation of a new city, which was known as Mahabalipuram. He beautified this city with many wonderful shrines, the chief among them was the Dharmaraja Ratha. After the death of Narsimha Varman in about 645 A.D. the Pallava empire began to fall with a rapid speed. The successors of Narasimha Varman continued their rule upto the end of 9th century A.D. when under Aparajita Varman (876-895 A.D.) their territory was annexed by the Cholas in about 895 A.D. The Pallavas with their capital at Kanchipuram were a hereditary Hindu dynasty. They ruled between the 4th and the 9th Century. Under the Pallavas, their vast kingdom was exposed to increased influence of Sanskrit and the culture associated with it. During this period the cults of Shavism and Vaishnavism became deeply embedded in the Tamilian culture.

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ones. In the first monastic hall at Ajanta, we notice a painting depicting the reception given to a Persian embassy by Pulakesin II. Temples: The temple-building activity under the Chalukyas of Badami can be broadly divided into two stages. The first stage is represented by the temples at Aihole and Badami. Aihole is a town of temples and contains no fewer than 70 structures, of which four are noteworthy. • Ladh Khan temple is a flat roofed building. • Durga temple was an experiment seeking to adopt the Buddhist chaitya to a Brahmanical temple. • Hucimaligudi is very similar to the Durga temple, but smaller than it. • The Jaina temple of Meguti shows some progress in the erection of structural temples, but it is unfinished. Of the temples at Badami, the Melagitti Sivalaya is a small but finely proportioned and magnificently located temple. A group of four rock-cut halls at Badami (three of them Hindu and one Jaina) are all of the same type. The workmanship in the caves is marked by a high degree of technical excellence. Though the front is very unassuming, the interior is treated with great skill and care in every detail. The second stage is represented by the temples at Pattadakal. There are about ten temples here, four in the northern style and six in the southern style. In the Deccan both styles were used. There was even a tendency to combine the feature of the two styles. • The Papanatha temple is the most notable among the temples of the northern style, it also reveals attempts to combine northern and southern features in one structure. • The Virupaksha temple was built by one of the queens of Vikramaditya II. Workmen brought from Kanchi were employed in its construction. Hence it is a direct imitation of the Kailasanatha temple which had come into existence in Kanchi some decades earlier. • The Sangamesvara temple, which was built some years before the above one, is more or less in the same style. Pallavas of Kanchi The Pallavas were the first well-known dynasty which came into power in the South after the fall of the Andharas. But nothing definite is known about their origin. For about two hundred years from 550 to 750 A.D., the Pallavas were the dominant power in the South. Their rule extended over a vast region including the modern territories of Madras, Arcot, Trichnopoly and Tanjore but the whole of the South was under their influence. There were several branches © Chronicle IAS Academy

Art and Architecture The development of temple architecture, particularly Dravida style, under the Pallavas can be seen in four stages. Mahendra Group: The influence of the cave style of architecture is to be seen in this group. Examples; are the rock-cut temples at Bhairavakonda (North Arcot district), and Anantesvara temple at Undavalli (Guntur district). ANCIENT 60

Narasimha Group: They comprise the rathas or monolithic temples, each of which is hewn out of a single rock-boulder. These monolithic temples are found at Mamallapuram. The rathas, popularly called the Seven Pagodas, are actually eight in number. They are (1) Dharmaraja, (2) Bhima, (3) Arjuna, (4) Sahadeva, (5) Draupadi, (6) Ganesa, (7) Pidari and (8) Valaiyankuttai.

Early Pandya Kingdom The Pandya kingdom started its career about the same times as the Pallava or a little later, but we know little of the history of its first two monarchs, Kadungon (560-90) and his son Maravarman Avanisulamani (590-620). There is no doubt, however, that they put an end to Kalabhra rule in their part of the country and revived the Pandyan power. The third, Sendan or Jayanta Varman, imposed his rule on the Chera country and adopted the title of Vanavan. The rock-cut cave temple at Malaiyadikurichi in Tirunelveli district was excavated by him. His son was Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman (650-700), whose inscription has been recently found in the Vaigai bed at Madurai, which points to his long and prosperous rule. He is identical with Nedumaran, the victor of Nelveli, celebrated in Tamil literature. A great soldier, he fought many battles for the extension of Pandya power, among which his conquest of Nelveli is specially mentioned in epigraphs.

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Rajasimha Group: There are five examples of this group – at Mahabalipuram (Shore, Isvara and Mukunda temples), one at Panamalai in South Arcot, and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi. Among all these, the most mature example is the last one.

Education and Learning Education in the early days was controlled by the Jainas and Buddhists. The Jaina institutions were located at Madurai and Kanchi. But soon Brahmanical institutions superseded them. Ghatikas or Brahmin institutions were attached to the temples and mostly confined to advance study. In the eighth century AD the maths also became popular. A math was an omnibus institution because of its being a rest-house, a feeding centre and also an education centre. In all these institutions, Sanskrit was the medium of instruction, because it was also the official language.

Nandivarman Group: This group mostly consists of small temples except the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchi and in no way forms an advance on the achievements of the previous age. But they are more ornate, resembling the Chola architecture. The best examples are the temples of Muktesvara and Matangesvara at Kanchi, the Vadamalisvara at Orgadam (near Chingalput), and the Parasuramesvara at Gudimallam (near Renigunta). The Pallavas also contributed to the development of sculpture in south India. The Pallava sculpture largely is indebted to the Buddhist tradition. It is more monumental and linear in form, thus avoiding the typical ornamentation of the Deccan sculpture. The best example is the ‘Descent of the Ganga’ or ‘Arjuna’s Penance’ at Mahabalipuram.

Religion The Pallavas were orthodox Brahmanical Hindus and their patronage was responsible for the great reformation of the medieval ages. Most of the Pallava kings were devotees of Shiva, the exceptions being Simhavishnu and Nandivarman who were worshippers of Vishnu. Mahendravarman I was the first to be influenced by the famous Saivite saints of the age. Besides worshipping Siva, he also showed reverence to other Hindu gods. Pallavas were tolerant towards other religions like Buddhism and Jainism. However, some of the sects like Buddhism were losing their former glory to Saivism. The Vedic tradition in general bossed over the local tradition. Sankaracharya in fact gave this stimulus to Vedic tradition. Tamil saints of the sixth and seventh centuries AD were the progenitors of the bhakti movement. The hymns and sermons of the Nayanars (Saivite saints) and Alvars (Vaishnavite saints) continued the tradition of bhakti. Saivite saints were Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, and others. Most remarkable thing about this age was the presence of women saints such as Andal (an Alvar). © Chronicle IAS Academy

Political History Arikesari Parankusa was succeeded by his son Koccadaiyan, also called Ranadhira (c. 700-30). This monarch waged aggressive wars against his neighbours and extended the Pandya power into the Kongu country. He also suppressed a revolt of the mountain chieftain Ay who occupied the hilly country between Tirunelveli and Travancore. His reign ended about 730, and his son Maravarman Rajasimha I succeeded him. Early in his reign Rajasimha formed an alliance with Chalukya Vikramaditya II, espoused the cause of Chitramaya, and after inflicting a number of defeats on Nandi Varman Pallavamalla besieged him in a place called Nandigram, i.e., Nandi-puram, near Kumbakonam. The able Pallava general Udayachandra, who encountered the Pandya forces in many battles, raised the siege of Nandigrams, beheaded Chitramaya, and thus made the Pallava throne secure for his monarch. He also dealt with other enemies of Pallavamalla like the Sabara king Udayana and the Nishada chieftain Prithivivyaghra who were probably acting in collusion with the Chalukya, Vikramaditya II. ANCIENT

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Tungabhadra in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Two famous sages Madhav Vidyaranya and his brother Sayana became the main source of inspiration for the foundation of a Hindu empire in the region. Harihar became the first king of the newly founded empire. After his death Bukka succeded him. Bukka sent an emissary to China in 1374 as a diplomatic move. After Bukka’s death, Harihara II (son of Harihar) ascended the throne. He expanded his domains by conquering almost the whole of southern India, including Mysore, Kanara, Chingalpet, Trichinopally and Kanchivaram (modern Kanchipuram). A staunch worshipper of Lord Shiva, Harihara II was fairly tolerant towards the followers of other faiths too. He became the first king of the Vijayanagara empire to assume the title of Maharajadhiraj Rajaparmeshwara (the mighty, sovereign, king of kings). In 1486, Vir Narasimha of Chandragiri, (who belonged to the Tuluva dynasty) took over the reigns of the Vijaynagar empire. His son Krishanadev Raya has been acclaimed the greatest ruler of Vijayanagara and one of the most famous kings in the history of India. A great warrior, he almost invariably won the wars which he waged throughout his period of kingship. He was known to have treated even his vanquished foes with honour. During the period 1511-1514, he captured southern Mysore, Shivasamudram fortress and Raichur (Karnataka), defeated Gajapati, the erstwhile king of Orissa and captured Udaigiri (Orissa), in that order. Still later, he captured Vishakhapatnam and abolished the authority of the rulers of Orissa. His most outstanding achievement was the defeat inflicted on one of the Bahamani rulers, Ismail Adil Shah on 19th March 1520. This landmark event put an end to the Muslim dominance in the southern part of the country. During his later years, Krishnadeva Raya strongly focused on the organization of his empire and improving its administration. In order to maintain friendly relations with foreign powers (who were beginning to gain a foothold in India) particularly the Portuguese, he granted some concessions to the Portuguese governor Alphonsde de Albuquerque. The reign of Krishanadev Raya also witnessed tremendous growth and development in the spheres of literature, music, art and culture. Raya himself was an accomplished poet, musician, scholar and extremely well-versed in Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada. He patronized many poets and authors notably the Ashtadiggajas (literally: poets of a gigantic stature) of Telugu language. The famous scholar and wit Tenali Rama adorned his court. During this period there was also a spurt in art and architecture. The famous Vithalswami

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Rajasimha I was succeeded by Nedunjadaiyan, popularly known as Varaguna Maharaja I, in the year 765 A.D. He gave a crushing defeat to Pallava ruler Nandi Varman II and his allies. He had the credit to annex the whole of the Kongn country. He also defeated Adigaiman of Tagadur or Dharmapuri and sent him into confinement at Madura. He fixed his camp at Idavai in the heart of the Pallava kingdom. Varaguna I had still other successes to his credit. He led an expedition into Venad, South Travancore, attacked the strongly fortified port of Vilinam and brought the country under his rule. He also waged successful war against the Ay chieftain of the intervening mountainous country who had perhaps been friendly to the ruler of Venad. As a result of these wars, Pandya sway extended well beyond Tiruchirapalli into the Tanjore, Salem and Coimbatore districts, and all that lay South was under him. The expansion continued under his son and successor Srimarra Srivallabha (815-62) who invaded Ceylon in the reign of Sena I (831-51), ravaged the Northern province and sacked the capital. Eventually Sena made terms with the conqueror and the Pandya forces quit the island. Srimara had next to deal with a formidable combination formed against him again under the leadership of the Pallavas. But he was defeated on the bank of the River Arisil. Srimara’s defeat at Arisil was, however, not an isolated event. His aggressive campaigns which had earned for him the title Parachakrakolahala (Cofounder of the Circle of his Enemies) naturally roused the hostility of his neighbours. Sena II (851855) of Ceylon, nephew and successor of Sena I, had allied himself with the Pallavas and a Pandya prince who sought his aid. This prince was probably Srimara’s son whose claim to the throne had been overlooked when his step-brother Viranarayana was made yuvaraja (c.860). Sena sent an expedition into the Madura kingdom at about the same time as the battle of Arisil and the invasion was a complete success. The capital was sacked, Srimmara died of his wounds, and his son Varaguna Varman II was enthroned in his place by the Simhalese commander in chief (862). Varguna II had to acknowledge the overlordship of Nripatunga.

Vijaynagara Empire This was the most famous empire in the history of southern India. The Vijayanagara empire lasted for three centuries, thus indirectly checking the expansion of Islamic powers in the region. According to legends as well as historical sources, two brothers named Harihara and Bukka (Sons of Sangama, a chieftain at the court of the Hoysala rulers) had founded city of Vijayanagara on the southern bank of the river © Chronicle IAS Academy

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temple and the Hazara temple (literally a thousand) both at Hampi built during his reign are magnificent specimens of Hindu Temple architecture, executed in the Vijaynagar style of architecture. The Vijayanagar empire witnessed the arrival of European traders (especially the Portuguese) in India. Krishnadeva Raya encouraged foreign trade which necessitated the use of currency. The coins of the Vijayanagara Empire were chiefly made with gold and copper. Most of the gold coins carried a sacred image on one side and the royal legend on the reverse. Some gold coins bore the images of Lord Tirupatis.

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Bahamani Kingdom

One of the major problems faced by Gawan was the unending dispute among the Bahamani nobles, who were divided into Deccanis (old timers) and Afaqis or Gharibs (newcomers). Since Gawan himself was a newcomer (of Persian origin), he failed to win the confidence of the Deccanis. His policy of conciliation failed to stem the ongoing strife amongst the noblemen. In 1482, Gawan,a septugenarian was executed by Sultan Muhammad Shah, the last ruler of the undivided Bahamani Empire. After Gawan’s death, the raging internal factions grew more intense and various governors declared their independence. The kingdom finally got fragmented into five parts--- the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, the Qutub Shahis of Golconda, the Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar, the Barid Shahi of Bidar and lastly the Imad Shahis of Berar. The five kingdoms came together to wage a war against the mighty Vijayanagara Empire and inflicted a death-blow to it in 1565. A few years down the line, the Imad Shahi kingdom was conquered by Nizamshahis in 1574 AD; the Barid Shahi kingdom was annexed by Adil Shahis in 1619 AD.

According to historical records, a rebel chieftain of Daulatabad, near Ellora, Maharashtra, which was under Muhammad Bin Tughalaq, founded the Bahamani kingdom. This chieftain, Allauddin Hassan, who was a man of humble origins, assumed the name of Gangu Bahamani, in memory of his Brahmin mentor. His kingdom comprised parts of present day Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh. South of his kingdom lay the Vijayanagara Empire against which it had to fight continuous wars for political reasons. The most remarkable ruler of the Bahamani kingdom was Firuz Shah Bahamani (1397-1422 AD), who fought three major battles against the Vijayanagara Empire without any tangible results. He was a great scholar, well-versed in religious and natural sciences. He wanted to make the Deccan the cultural centre of India. According to his court poet Ferhishta, Firuz Shah was a true Muslim in spirit, notwithstanding his vices - fondness for wine and music, both strictly forbidden by Islam. Firuz Shah was compelled to abdicate in favour of his brother Ahmad Shah I, who successfully invaded Warangal and annexed most part of it to his empire. The conquest of Warangal proved to be a shot in the arm of the Bahamanis. The kingdom gradually expanded and reached its zenith under the prime ministership of Mahmud Gawan (1466-1481 AD). Mahmud Gawan arrived and settled down in Bidar from Persia in the year 1453. A great scholar of Islamic cultural traditions, he established and funded a Madarassa (college) which was modelled along the lines of the universities of Samarkand and Khorasan (both in Central Asia).

Shahi kings These kingdoms continued to play a dominant role in the politics of the region till they were eventually merged in the Mughal empire in the 17th century. After the death of Shivaji, Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperor, marched southwards, finally annexing Bijapur in 1686 A.D and Golconda in 1689 A. D; this sounded the death knell of the Bahamani kingdom. The Bahamani period witnessed the upsurge of secularism and communal harmony. Hazrat Banda Nawaz (1321-1422 A.D) the great Sufi saint was patronized by the Bahamani kings and his Dargah located at Gulbarga in Karnataka, is a famous pilgrimage for both Hindus and Muslims alike. In the field of architecture, the Bahamani rulers evolved a distinct style by drawing heavily from Persian, Turkey, and Arabic architectural styles and blending it with local styles. One of the largest and most famous domes in the world, the Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the majestic gateway Charminar at Hyderabad and the Golconda Fort near Hyderabad are the hallmarks of Bahamani architecture. The main source of income of the Bahamanis was the cultivated land, with the administration revolving around the assessment and collection of land revenue. The Bahmanis of the Deccan ultimately left behind a rich, composite cultural heritage of Indo-Islamic art, language, besides Islamic faith and traditions.




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ART & ARCHITECTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA parent garments. It is marked by the representation of thick drapery with large and bold foldings. It is also known for rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and complex symbolism. The images of the Buddha were so beautifully made that they look like the image of Apollo, the Greek god of beauty. Now the majority of the scholars believe that the Mathura School stands higher than the Gandhara School and that it was free from the influence of Gandhara Art. Yet the Gandhara School of art has been recognised as one of the best school of Indian sculpture and the images of the Buddha which were built under its patronage are among the best possessions of Indian art. Dr. A.L. Basham comments “The Buddhas of Gandhara School though perhaps lacking in the spirituality of those of the Gupta period, are gentle, graceful and compassionate, while some of the plaques are vivid and energetic.”

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Art of sculpture Ancient India witnessed remarkable progress in the art of sculpture. The three important schools namely- Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati grew and progressed during ancient India. Each of these schools has occupied a commanding place in the field of Indian sculpture and has contributed towards its growth and fulfilment.

Gandhara School The Gandhara Art (50 B.C. - 500 A.D.) has been called by several other names, i.e., Greeco-Roman, Greeco-Buddhist, Indo-Greek etc., because it clearly exhibits the influence of Roman, Greek or Hellenistic art. The patrons of this art were not the Greeks but the Shakas and the Kushanas, who carried on and protected the traditions and culture of their Hellenistic predecessors in this region. The art flourished in the North Western frontier of India, the region called the Gandhara Pradesh and therefore, it has been named as the Gandhara School of Art. And as the Hellenistic influence on this art is undeniable, it has been called the Greeco-Roman or Indo-Greek Art. Besides as it was inspired by Buddhism, it has also been called Greeco-Buddhist Art. Thus the impression of this art was primarily Buddhism and its creators were mostly Indians, though it was influenced by foreign art. The art pieces of Gandhara School have been found at Bimaran, Hastnagar, Sakra Dheri, Shah-ji ki dheri, and at the various sites of Taxila. Most of them have been kept in the museum of Peshawar and Lahore. Amongst these art pieces the image of the Buddha are the best specimens. The other earliest specimens are the headless standing image of Buddha and standing Hariti figure. They were executed in stone, stucco, terracotta and other types of day, and appear to have been invariably embellished with gold leaf or paint. Viewing them from a critical point, it is concluded that the Gandhara School progressed during 150 years of its beginning; it deteriorated in the second century A.D. In its later stage it was affected by the Mathura school and, when finally grown up, it affected the art of sculpture in China and Central Asia. Its chief characteristic is the realistic representation of human figures, distinguished muscles of the body and trans© Chronicle IAS Academy

Mathura School The school of art that developed at Mathura (U.P.) has been called the Mathura School (150-300 A.D.). Its origin has been traced back to the middle of the second century B.C., but it was only in first century A.D. that its genuine progress began. It flourished here for centuries and acquired the highest position in the field of sculpture. It was so popular that at a later stage the images, which were built here, were exported to Taxila and even Central Asia in the West and to Shravasti and Sarnath in the East. It also provided the basis for further progress of the art of sculpture. The art of sculpture of the Gupta Age, has been accepted as a developed form of the Mathura School. The Mathura School was somewhat influenced by the Gandhara School in the first half of second century A.D. The images of the Buddha of the Gandhara Art were copied here but in a more refined way. The Gandhara composition is also evident in certain reliefs and decorative motifs. In turn, it also influenced the Gandhara School of art. The school was directly influenced by Roman art as well because of its direct links with the Roman Empire by sea route. But whatever foreign influence it had, it was slowly given up by the coming of the Gupta Age. It was perfectly free from it. A standing female figure of Amohini, the standing ANCIENT 64

school exerted great influence not only on the later South Indian sculpture but as its productives were carried to Ceylon and South-East Asian countries, it also influenced sculptural art of those countries. The Amravati School serves as a link between the earlier arts of Bharhut, Gaya and Sanchi on the one hand and the later Gupta and Pallava Art on the other. Accepting freely the principle of art for the sake of art, the craftsmen of Amravati School created beautiful human images, of course, images of the Buddha were built and the great stupa of Amravati was adorned with limestone reliefs depicting scenes of the Buddha’s life and surrounded by free standing figures of Buddha, but figures and statues of males and females exceed them in number and quality. The same way, though this school successfully depicted lone, compassion, devotion and sacrifice yet the physical beauty and the sensual expression commanded its art. The figures and statues carved under this school have been regarded as the best among the contemporaries not only from the point of view of their size, physical beauty and expressions of human emotions, but also from the point of view of composition. The figures and images are so composed that they seem to be inter-linked with each other and present before an onlooker not distinct figures and images but a well composed painting depicting a scene or an event. The art of Amravati is frankly naturalistic and sensuous. The female figures in different moods and poses (standing, sitting, bending, flying, dancing etc.) are its best creations. The forms of Yakshinis and the dancing girls have full breasts, heavy lips and living flesh and they exhibit infinite love, grace and beauty. Even men, animals and vegetations have been treated elegantly. And images and figures of even more than sixteen feet in height were built here. Here feminine beauty has been depicted more successfully than compared to Mathura. Its main centres were Amravati, Nagararjuna Konda and Jaggayapeta. Its artists mainly used white marble for the construction of figure and images. The school of Mathura and Amravati closed that chapter in the art sculpture which had started at Bharhut, Gaya and Sanchi. The school of Mathura accepted a human being as a distinct entity and emphasis was laid on the depiction of physical beauty through art. The Amravati school forged ahead it. While the Mathura school failed to exhibit sensuous desires markedly, the Amravati School succeeded in that. Thereby, for the first time, Indian Art of sculpture came closer to the physical and emotional need of man. By now, Indian Art had reached in a new stage in which physical, sensual and emotional elements found expression. Hence, the primary aim of the art no longer served religion but human beings. Art is the mirror of any society. The change

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statue of Kanishka kept in the museum of Mathura, the statue of a slave girl kept in the museum of Benaras and a large member of figures and images in stone of the Buddha and Boddhisattavas, Yakshas and Yakshinis, males and females found at Mathura and its nearby region, have been regarded as the finest piece of the art of sculpture. In the early stages the school was inspired by Jainism. Afterwards the images of the Buddha replaced them, which clearly exhibits the influence of Buddhism on it. Not only were statues of emperors prepared by sculpture, but the great majority of their creation consisted of nude or seminude figures of female Yakshinis or apsaras in erotic attitudes. The Mathura artists also carved out images of Brahmanical divinities. Popular Brahmanical gods, Shiva and Vishnu were represented alone and sometimes with their consorts, Parwati and Laxmi respectively. Images of many other Brahmanical deities like Brahma, Surya, Balram, Agni, Kartikeya, Kubera etc. were also executed in stone. The distinguishing feature of the Mathura School was that the stone which the craftsman used was mostly spotted red sandstone found at Fatehpur Sikri near Agra. The royal statue of Kushana kings were found near Mathura exhibit foreign influence. The most striking statue is that of emperor Kanishka, though it lacks its head. It is drapped in the dress of central Asia, a long coat and quilted boots. It is grand and solid from the physical point of view, though technically it lacks a sense of depth. The same way, the early Buddha and Bodhisattavas of Mathura School are fleshy figures and possess no expression of spirituality. But, afterwards, religious feeling and spirituality were exhibited in them. Then the images exhibited not only a firm, masculine and energetic body, but also one with grace and religious feeling. The attempt to display spiritual strength by a circle behind the faces to the images began with Mathura School. Yet the most remarkable piece of the Mathura Art are its beautiful female figures. Most of these figures are nude or semi nude, have full round breasts, full heavy lips and slender waists. Besides, posture of their body, head and hands and legs are definitely erotic. Thus, their aim is frankly sensual.

Amravati School In the region between the lower valley of the rivers Krishna and Godavari in the South are the districts of Amravati and Guntur where another school of sculpture called the Amravati School (150-400 A.D.) flourished. The region had become an important centre of Buddhism as early as 2nd century B.C. and it provided the first incentive to this school. By the middle of the 2nd century A.D. the school matured itself and beautiful sculptural pieces were created. The © Chronicle IAS Academy

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of attitude in art was a part of change in attitude of society in general. Cave Architecture

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Ajanta Caves Concurrent with the emergence of the production of Hindu structural temples throughout the Gupta domains, Mahayana Buddhists entered into an extraordinarily active period of cave excavation at a number of sites, primarily in the Western Ghat mountains of the Deccan. The initial resurgence of cave monastery excavations occurred under the Vakatakas. Under their ambitious and successful King Harisena (c.460-478), these princelings of Central India became powerful contenders in the constant struggle for political supremacy. The king was probably not a Buddhist and it is not known whether or not he actively patronized the creation of monastic establishments, but his ministers and some of his feudatory princes were devoted followers (upasakas) who lavishly provided for the sangha. Harisena, having secured much of the Western Deccan, established a peaceful set of conditions for a brief but spectacular florescence at the site of Ajanta, where more than twenty caves, many of them major achievements of architecture, sculpture and painting in their own right, were excavated during the Vakataka period. Dramatically cut into the curved mountain wall above the Waghora River, the caves constitute virtually complete monastic entities, including living quarters, devotional areas and assembly halls. Although the ephemeral objects used by the monks in their daily lives are gone, the caves provide important insights into Buddhist theory, practice and religious expression in art of the period. Except for the few caves belonging to an early phase of activity, all the caves belong to the Vakataka period. Walter Spink, the leading authority on Ajanta’s later phase, argues convincingly that other writers are erroneous in their contention that such extraordinary achievements must have taken many decades, if not centuries, to produce; instead, he suggests that a brief intense period of fervent activity corresponding primarily to the relatively short span of Harisena’s reign accounted for the production of all the later caves. In general, the earliest Vakataka artist activity occurred near the centre of the site (the pre-Vakataka nucleus) and the latest activity took place towards the two extremes. Only two Chaitya halls were excavated during the Vakataka phase at Ajanta. Since one of them, cave 19, was primarily completed towards the beginning of the Vakataka resurgence and the other, Cave 26, towards the end, they may be used to demonstrate the general artistic direction during this brief span

of time. Cave 19 is fairly securely dated to the first part of the Vakataka florescence on the basis of an inscription on the veranda of Cave 17 that refers to gandhakuti (fragrant hall) to the west of it, which must be Cave 19. The Cave 17 inscription also refers to Harisena as the ruling prince, clearly indicating that the excavations were carried out while he was in full power, in contrast to the inscription in the later apsidal chaitya hall, Cave 26, which suggests that Harisena’s position was considerable weakened. The epigraph further describes the donor’s lavish expenditure on Cave 17 as “such that little should men (the poor?) could not even grasp in their imaginations, “ and indeed, this statement might be used in general to describe the munificent patronage that Ajanta enjoyed during the latter half of the fifth century. Cave 19 consists of a courtyard with accompanying cells as well as the chaitya hall itself. Its elaborate façade contains a single entrance into the cave, marked by a pillared portico that projects from the wall of rock. The large circular window above the portico with its rock-cut rafters reveals the heritage of early chaitya halls that had been based on wooden proto-types, Cave 9 at this very site must have served as a model. However, the decoration around the opening, with its ornamented crest and the “flaps” at the side, reveals that the window is in the form of the fully developed chandrasala seen frequently on Gupta temples. Little trace of the earlier Chaitya hall façade is visible on the rest of the exterior, however, for its decorated pilasters, cornices and other architectural features create a kind of grid within which are numerous sculptures, primarily of Buddha figures. Symmetrically placed attendants flank the arched window. Delicately posed and beautifully dressed, the figures suggest the highest achievements of fifth century art. Below, two panels to each side of the door are created by carved pilasters, the two inner compartments and two outer niches containing comparable but not identical subjects. Nearest the entrance the cave on the right, a large representation of Sakyamuni Buddha offers his rightful inheritance (that is, the promise of Buddhahood) to the small figure of his son, Rahul. To the left of the door, a comparable Buddha makes a similar gesture, again offering the promise of Buddhahood. However, in this case, the identity of the scene is not certain. It may depict the Buddha’s descent from Trayastrimsa, and thus the promise of Buddhahood to Utpali, the female nun turned male devotee who was the first to greet the Buddha upon his descent. Or, it might represent Dipamkara Buddha, a Buddha of the remote past who predicted to the future Sakyamuni, then a youth named Sumedha, that he

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carved with foliated and architectural motifs. All of these were originally fully polychromed, as was the entire interior of the cave. The decoration of Cave 26 demonstrates the final burst of exuberance at Ajanta. An inscription identifies the donor of the cave as the Bhikshu Buddhabhadra who dedicated it to the deceased Bhaviraja, a Minister of the Asmaka feudatories of the Vakatakas. The reference to the Asmakas in the inscription and the lack of mention of the Vakatakas suggest that while these ambitious rivals had perhaps not yet overthrown the Vakatakas, they were on the brink of doing so, thus putting the date of the dedication of this cave very near to the end of Ajanta’s florescence. Much larger and more elaborate than Cave 19, Cave 26 anticipates the Buddhist and Hindu monuments that were created later in Western India during the sixth century with their colossal scale and dramatically ambitious schemes. Sprink has shown that the cave itself was only part of a much grander conception, for it served as the focal point of a scheme that included two upper wings and two lower wings. The façade of Cave 26 has suffered considerable damage, but it is still possible to reconstruct something of its original appearance. Instead of a portico like that at Cave 19, a series of steps leads upto a low plinth and what would have been a covered veranda (now largely destroyed) serving as a transition between the courtyard preceding the cave and the chaitya hall itself. A chandrasala window and rows of carved figures decorate the façade and are similar to those elements of Cave 19. The interiors of the two caves also reveal major differences. Scale alone creates a vastly granduer impression on the visitor to Cave 26, while the treatment of the pillars, carved frieze, and beamed ceiling are highly reminiscent of similar features in Cave 19; the grander scale permitted even greater richness. Carved representations of Buddhas and bodhisattvas and architectural features decorate the stupa, in contrast to the plain (but perhaps once painted) surfaces of the stupa in Cava 19. The Buddha on the front of the stupa sits in pralambapadasana, the so-called “European pose” characterized by the pendant legs. This pose seems to be associated with the figures carved towards the end of the Vakataka phase at Ajanta, although the reasons behind the introduction of this form remain unclear. It is possible that such figures are depictions of Maitreya, the future Buddha, who is characteristically shown in this pose when serving as a major icon. An examination of the frieze above the pillars confirms the greater elaboration and detail of this cave as compared to that of Cave 19. A relative reduction in the scale of the Buddha figures and

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would attain Buddhahood in a future life. In either narrative, the underlying message in the promise of Buddhahood, a poignant message to the monk worshipper whose life was devoted to attain the state. In their positions flanking the door and facing inward, the figures seem to offer the same gift the right to Buddhahood to the devotee entering the cave. A crown held above the head of each of the two Buddhas indicates their nature as manifestations of the Universal. The figures themselves are gracefully posed in relaxed attitudes of the type seen in Gupta formulations of approximately the same date at other sites. Like Buddhas at Sarnath and Mathura, they wear clinging, diaphanous garments revealing the forms of the bodies beneath. Huskier and fuller bodied than their north Indian counterparts, however, these figures reflect a Western Deccan convention and figure type. Next to these compositions are reliefs that also portray comparable although not identical subjects. The scene to the right of Rahula’s inheritance shows a similar architectural construction containing another standing Buddha, but in this case, instead of rounded from the stupa above, there is a seated Buddha. This interchangeability or equivalency between the Buddha and the stupa was seen in Andhra Pradesh at Nagarjuna-konda, where paired chaitya halls contained respectively a Buddha and a stupa. The interior of the cave appears lavish compared to the stark interiors of early Chaitya halls. Thick pillars, closely set and carved with vertical or diagonal flutes, crowd the interior, while above sculpted panels showing Buddha figures rim the hall. Rafters, still suggestive of the structural prototypes of the rock-cut halls are carved in the ceiling above. The main objective of veneration, the stupa, differs greatly in form from those of earlier periods, which where generally simple domes atop a one-or-two-stepped drum. Much more vertical in appearance and with an almost spherical dome, the stupa rests on a base with offset sides. At the front, a pilastered torana encloses a sculpted representation of a standing Buddha, while the remaining surface of the stupa is carved into units that may have once contained painted representations. Above the dome, the harmika contains a depiction of seated Buddha and above are three chattras that in turn support a miniature stupa. Around the hall, the Buddha figures in the frieze and in the centre of the bracket capitals of the pillars may represent some of the Buddhas of the various buddhalokas (Buddha worlds) presumed by Mahayanists to exist throughout the universe. Orderly in their arrangement, the figures are part of a highly decorative scheme, elaborately © Chronicle IAS Academy

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windows, doors, beautiful picture-galleries, ledges, statues of the nymphs of Indra and the like, which is ornamented with beautiful pillars and stairs, and has a temple of the Buddha inside, [Resembles] the places of the lord of gods [Indra] and is similar to a cave in the lovely Mandara mountain. The comparison of the vihara to a palace, especially that of Indra, which is located significant, for the paradisiacal metaphor of the viharas is carried out in their decoration, especially in painted ceilings.Even within the brief period of the Vakataka florescence at Ajanta, the vihara underwent a number of modifications. Cave 17, approximately contemporary with Cave 19 on the basis of the Cave 17 inscription and the internal evidence of style, is a standard Mahayana vihara, having a pillared veranda as a transition between the exterior and the interior and a squared central space surrounded by cells. The slight irregularity of the disposition of the monk’s cells seems to reflect the cave’s chronological position at the start of Ajanta’s Vakataka phase, as does the fact that the enshrined Buddha is completely detached from the walls so that it could be circumambulated. While essentially similar to Cave 17, the plan of the later Cave 2 demonstrates the modifications that took place during this brief but active period. Here, the arrangement of the walls has become standardized and the Buddha in the main shrine is now set against the rear wall of that chamber, precluding circumambulation. Growing complexity, perhaps associated with the religious functions, is also seen in the multiplication of cells at the front of the cave where double-chambered shrine areas are created in place of the single cells as in the Cave 17. The culmination of these developments is visible in the plan of the upper storey of Cave 6, which has the essential features of Cave 2, note the increasing ritualism in religion had led to the creation of shrine areas, complete with antechamber and interior cell, in the of the side walls. Other cells have also been converted into shrines, such as at the right front and right rear of the hall where sculpted Buddha groups have been added to the cells although there is no doubling up of cells. The increased complexity of the religious message is also visible in the main shrine of this cave where, in addition to the central Buddha image and his bodhisattvas and other attendants, representations of the six manusi Buddhas who preceded Sakyamuni in his final incarnation are now placed along the side walls of the interior of the shrine so that the devotee is virtually surrounded by large Buddha figures. An interior view of Cave 2 shows the general

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their niches allowed for greater multiplicity of the figures as well as increased ornamentation of the surrounding elements. The walls of the ambulatory passage around the perimeter of the cave are also resplendent with numerous carvings, many of which probably constitute votive offerings by individual donors. The most impressive sculpture in the pradaksinapatha is a reclining figure showing the Buddha’s great decease (parinirvana) extending for seven meters along the left sidewall. This colossus, surrounded by mourners, has a profound effect on the visitor to the cave and anticipates the increasingly grand scale that dominates cave architecture of subsequent centuries. Another impressive scene from the life of the Buddha in the ambulatory passage is a depiction of the Maravijaya. In contrast to the more simple compositions seen at Cave 19, this scene is filled with numerous subsidiary details. Mara’s hosts surround the central Buddha figure, who is, curiously, depicted with his right hand in varadamudra, not the expected bhumisparsa. Undoubtedly more costly than Cave 19, Cave 26 with its ubiquitous carving and plentitude of detail is indicative of the final phase at Ajanta, which was brought to a close due to the declining fortunes of the Vakatakas and clearly not a diminution of vigor in the art. Like the chaitya hall, the vihara was transformed during the Vakataka phase at Ajanta. In contrast to early Buddhist viharas, the later examples display a wealth of sculptural and iconic forms. The most notable addition to the vihara concept is the creation of shrine areas at the rear of the viharas that contain impressive images of Buddha figures. The incorporation of the Buddha shrine into the vihara format transforms the excavation from a mere dwelling place for monks into a metaphor for a Buddhist paradise in which a Buddha preaches the dharma to the resident bodhisattvas who are in the process of attaining perfection and are awaiting their final rebirths. In Mahayana Buddhism monks take the vow of a bodhisattva (relinquishing their own attainment of Buddhahood until all sentient beings are saved) and progress through the various stages of bodhisattvas (which they have become through the process of taking the vows), reside listening to the teachings of the Buddha. This interpretation is supported by certain passages in the veranda inscription of Cave 16, a vihara, which states that Varahadeva, the minister of Harisena, realizing that life, youth, wealth and happiness are transitory. For the sake of his father and mother, caused to be made this excellent dwelling to be occupied by the best of ascetics (the dwelling) which is adorned with © Chronicle IAS Academy

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than indicating that the painting was done at different periods, however, the variety of styles suggests individual hands of artists. In general, significant differences exist between ceiling paintings and wall paintings in format, coloration and even technique. The central spaces of the vihara ceilings that have survived are painted in grid-like patterns containing floral and abstract motifs as well as some animal and human scenes. The stylized format is probably a reference to the paradisiacal realms, laid out in garden-like divisions. White is abundantly used in the ceilings, although not on the walls, and this may have been to help reflect light in the dim interiors. In contrast to the predominance of earth tones used in the wall paintings, the ceilings are more brightly coloured. The animal and plant forms depicted on the ceilings are frequently painted in a flat manner, with little modeling or shading, and the forms thus appear almost as silhouettes against the background. Directly above important images, in antechambers, and at certain other specified locations round mandalic patterns with concentric bands of foliated and floriated patterns are found. An especially fine example from Cave 2 bears pairs of vidyadharas at the four corners. The programs of wall paintings include, in various caves, scenes of Buddhas, attendants and jataka tales. In general Buddhas are represented in or near the ante-chamber to the shrines, while Jatakas occur in the main hall. A scene showing Buddhas with groups of devotees located in the antechamber to the shrine in Cave 17 suggests a strict hierarchic arrangement created by the use of three registers like divisions. The Buddhas may be identified as forms of Maitreya: in the top register, he is shown preaching in his heavenly paradise, Tusita, in the centre, he is depicted descending from Tusita and welcoming his de votees into his earthly paradise, Ketumati; below, he is seen preaching in Ketumati. As in other ante-chamber paintings, this composition appears more formal than those of the more free-flowing Jataka scenes of the main cave area, a feature that may relate to their greater iconic rather than narrative function. Light coloured figures are silhouetted against the dark background and a separation between the Buddha’s space and that of the attendant figures is maintained. An interesting feature visible here and in numerous other painting at Ajanta is the treatment of landscape, especially mountain forms, in crystalline, cubical shapes similar to those seen approximately contemporaneously in sculpture. These, however, seem to project into the viewer’s space rather than recede behind the picture plane, creating a dynamic relationship between the viewer and the painted world. In contrast to the more formal arrangement of the

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appearance of a Mahayana vihara at Ajanta. Lavishly carved pillars and doorways decorate the interior and carry out the iconographic message. All architectural features, including walls, ceilings and pillars were fully painted. The shrine doorway, carved with panels containing mithuna couples, ressembles in format those found on contemporary Hindu temples, even to the presence of river goddesses at the top of each jamb. The enshrined Buddha sits in vajraparyankasana and displays. The specific form of the mudra has the thumb and forefinger of the right hand forming a circle that joins the little finger of the left hand. By analogy with mudras of a slightly later date, it may be suggested that the little finger on the left hand pointing to the circle formed in the right indicates the fourth, or most esoteric, level of the teachings. Like other Buddhas from Ajanta’s late phase, the figure suggests ties to Gupta modes at Sarnath, Mathura and other sites, but has the very full, rounded body proportions typical of the Central Indian and Western Deccan modes. An interesting feature of Cave 2 is the presence of sculpture groups in the shrines flanking the main Buddha shrine along the rear wall of the cave. The shrine at the right rear of the cave bears large sculpted images of Pancika and Hariti, while that to the left contains figures of two male yakshas. These small shrines demonstrate the complete integration of the architectural, sculptural and painted realms at Ajanta, for not only were the carved images fully polychromed with the same paint used in the murals on the side walls, but the murals themselves depict subjects that complement the sculptured forms. In this case, the painted figures on the sidewalls seem to approach the central carved figures. This somewhat illusionist use of the painted walls creates a dramatic effect on the human visitor to the shrine, who feels himself an active participant in the drama being portrayed by the painted and sculpted forms. Nowhere is it more clear that paint served a vital role in completing the iconographic programs and decorative schemes of South Asian monuments, in spite of the fact that it has rarely been preserved. Because of the preservation of its paintings, Ajanta is a virtually unique document in the history of pre-Muslim Indic art. Enough painting remains in many of the caves to indicate that the iconographic program of the paintings was systematic and an integral part of the overall scheme of the cave and not simply decorative. A number of styles of painting may be discerned in the caves, demonstrating that a variety of techniques and methods were employed by the artists. Rather © Chronicle IAS Academy

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arched brows and elongated lotiform eyes, resemble the treatment of the bodhisattva at the rear of the cave and may reflect an ideal based on contemporaneous concepts of beauty. The forms of the body are outlined with a darker chroma of the same hue as the body itself. The animated positions and stances of the figures lend liveliness to the composition, typical of the Jataka representations at Ajanta in general. Often, scenes at Ajanta take on an almost secular character, although all may be justified as being part of a Jataka or other Buddhist context. A woman on a swing in Cave 2 belongs to a depiction of the Vidhurapandita Jataka and may be identified as Irandati, the Naga princess central to the story. Here, the highlighting technique used freely at Ajanta creates the impression of a glow over the surface of her skin. The narrow waists, full breast and hips of the women in the composition display the same feminine ideal that is found throughout most periods and styles of Indic art. As is true throughout most of the Ajanta paintings, the three quarter facial view is preferred in this composition, creating a suggestion of depth and volume for the forms. The brownish red back ground strewn with flowers serves as a conventionalized landscape in this and other scenes, but as in most of South Asian art, the artist depends on the figures to tell the story, to create a sense of life, and to carry the mood; architectural and landscape elements are employed only to add a setting or structure to the scene, not to create an ambience or to stimulate the physical world. In addition to walls and ceilings, virtually every portion of the caves was painted, including doorframes and pillars. Flat surface without carving were often completed in paint, which, when lost, leads us to forget that these portions were important parts of the decorative scheme. A Pillar from Cave 17 shows a pair of music making dwarves inhabiting the square base. Different in treatment from the figures already discussed, these dwarves are created by the use of a prominent black outline that defines the contours and details of their forms. Such line drawings are found throughout the Ajanta paintings, sometimes appearing in compositions that make use of the shading and highlighting techniques and thus it seems that such a method was simply one of the techniques available to artists to use as they chose. The skill of the Ajanta artist as draftsmen is evident in compositions such as this. As vital documents of Buddhist art, the Ajanta caves can hardly be overestimated. In a short burst of incredible artistic activity, the patrons, together with the sculptors, painters and iconographers, provided a concise illustration of the general tendency

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ceilings and antechambers, the walls of the main halls are alive with very free flowing compositions and figures arranged in asymmetrical, crowded groupings. Earth tones, many of which were derived from local minerals found in the region around Ajanta, harmonize the forms and provide the main totality. Several means of creating form seem to have been available to the Ajanta artist. For example, the body of the bodhisattva to the right of the entrance to the antechamber to the main shrine in Cave I, is created primarily by the use of modulation of colours rather than through use of line. Highlighting of certain areas, such as the nose or brow, helps to bring forth the form of the dim interior although light and shadow are not used in what might be called a scientific manner or to elucidate three-dimensionality. That is, shading and highlighting were used at will by the artists to enhance their creations without regard for light as a phenomenon of the physical world, subject to certain empirical laws. Even the forms of the bodhisattva’s body are beyond the rules of the material world, and indeed, by freeing the figures from such regulation, the artists seem to capture the essence of the Buddhist religion, with its skepticism toward phenomenal existence. While clearly human in inspiration, the part of the bodhisattva’s body are likened to other objects; his brow, for example, takes the shape of the archer’s bow, his eyes are like lotus petals, and his torso is shaped like that of a lion. Such metaphors appear in textual descriptions and were often quite literally translated into visual terms. Similar metaphors are sometimes used in the creation of parts of the body of Buddha figures. Numerous Jataka tales are represented on the walls of the Ajanta caves. Some, which must have been important in the specific sectarian beliefs of the monks in residence, are repeated a number of times in the various caves and many of them treat human rather than animal incarnations of Shakyamuni Buddha. Often, several episodes from specific stories are shown, although these are generally not arranged in sequence on the walls. A detail from the Mahajanaka Jataka depicted in Cave I shows Prince Mahajanka surrounded by a bevy of beautiful women, crowned and bejewelled and thus representing the epitome of princely life and possibly reflecting contemporary patterns of dress and life during Gupta and Vakataka times. However, the Buddhist message of the story is clear, since Mahajanaka relinquishes his princely life in favour of the life of a recluse. With his hands in gesture of discourse similar to Dharma-chakara mudra, he is depicted announcing his intention to give up his kingdom. The facial features of the figures, with the highly © Chronicle IAS Academy

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in Indic art towards embellishment and elaboration of the highest quality.

Kanheri Caves During the late fifth and sixth centuries, artistic activity at Kanheri was resumed. A number of old caves were modified and many new excavations were begun, bringing the total number of caves at the site to over one hundred and making Kanheri the most extensive caves site in India. It is likely that the resurgence of artistic activity was initiated due to patronage by the Traikutakas, who came into control of the region upon the collapse of their former overlords, the Vakatakas, as a copper plate inscription found in front of Cave 3 and datable to around 494 A.D. suggests. A pair of colossal Buddhas, one at either end of the verandah of this great second century chaitya hall, was part of the refurbishing of that cave during the late fifth century, a date suggested by the style of the images as well as the paleography of an associated inscription referring to one such dedication. More than seven meters in height, each figure stands in an arch with vidyadharas bearing garlands above, and each displays veranda mudra, the gesture of gift bestowal or offering, which may be interpreted as an invitation to enlightenment. Stylistically, the figures reflect the massive, full form of Ajanta representations and it is possible that artists who had worked at Ajanta, or their descendants had moved to Kanheri to begin work there. While architecturally many of the new caves excavated during this phase at Kanheri are rather plain, a number of extremely important images were produced, serving as vital documents of developments in the Buddhist religion. Cave 90, a monument of perhaps the early to middle sixth century is a simple, single, chamber abundantly carved with sculptures and could have been donated for merit rather than as a hall for initiations or rituals. The original shrine images are lost, but on the side walls two important sculptures show in graphic form arrangements that had been developing for a long time. On the viewer’s left wall is a Buddha scene, while on the right wall is a depiction of Avalokitesvara as protector of the faithful. As an iconographic statement, each marks a significant departure from earlier examples. Properly speaking the composition of the Buddha scene is a specific schematization through which the religious practitioner achieves both understanding

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Bagh Caves A closely related and contemporaneous group of cave at Bagh provides further evidence of Mahayana cave architecture. Although some distance away in the Narmada Valley, architectural, sculptural, and painting affinities, with the caves at Ajanta are probably much more than purely coincidental since, according to the Dasaku-maracharita (the ten princes) written by Dandin in the seventh century, the Vakataka King Harisena had a son who ruled over the Bagh region. Spink claims that this son must have ruled prior to 480 A.D., for by that time, one Maharaja Subandhu, who is known from a copper plate inscription found at Bagh, was ruling the region and the Vakataka line had collapsed. Spink estimates period of florescence at Bagh to have occurred between 470 & 480 A.D. Much ruined due to water seepage and rock falls affecting the soft, friable sandstone, the caves preserve little of their former beauty. In plan, Cave 2 greatly resembles Mahayana viharas at Ajanta, although four central pillars are present, undoubtedly included for structural purposes due to the weakness of the rock. The central pillars, much more massive appearing than pillars at Ajanta, are treated differently from others in the cave, having a spiraled fluting and being round rather than being square or consisting of square and round sections. The specious antechamber to the shrine bears sculptures of Buddhas and bodhisattvas on the side and rear walls. In style, these figures are part of the broadly defined Gupta mode, but differ from their Ajanta counterparts in their more slender bodies and more attenuated appearance. Instead, they seem more closely allied to northern and north-central Indian styles of the Gupta period. This is not surprising considering Bagh’s location nearer to the epicentre of the Gupta art traditions. A very important characteristic of this and other caves at Bagh is the presence of a stupa rather than a Buddha image as the main object of veneration in the shrine. This feature has led some scholars to conclude that the Bagh excavations predated those at Ajanta and that they represent a state of transition between the use of a stupa and that of a Buddha image as an object of veneration. However, it is clear from images such as that in the shrine of Cave II at Ajanta, where a representation of the Buddha is part of a stupa, that the symbols are identical and interchangeable and do not necessarily have chronological implications, at least by this date, when both Buddhas and stupa’s abundantly survive as part of the standard, artistic vocabulary. The paintings at Bagh, known today only in frag-

ments and from copies, bear a great deal of resemblance to their contemporary counterparts at Ajanta. Indeed, Subandhu’s inscription found in the debris of Cave 2 calls the monastery Kalayana (Abode of Art), suggesting something of the original splendour of the site.

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numerous subsidiary figures. Above the head of the central figure is the primo generic source of the entire icon, the dharmakaya, in this case Vairocana, attended by two bodhisattvas. Avalokitesvara is flanked by his two female consorts, Tara (to his right) and Bhrkuti (to his left). Tara, whose name means “star,” and the North Star implicitly, represents the fixed point of universality towards which the devote progress, while Bhrkuti name, ‘abundantly full hall,’ refers to the achievement of the fully enlightened mind. In this litany, Avalokitesvara offers the devotee promise of salvation from the various perils depicted on the sides of the composition, including attack by elephants, lions, robbers and similar disasters. While the lay worshiper might accept these perils in a literal sense and invoke Avalokitesvara for protection against the specific threat, an advanced practitioner would understand these on a metaphorical level, each danger representing a potential hindrance on his path to Buddhahood. The wild elephant, for example, would be seen as the wild mind in need of taming, that is, the mental discipline necessary to achieve the Buddhist goal. Such litany scenes served as proto-types for examples found in Inner Asia, China, Japan, and the Himalayan regions. A representation of a highly unusual form of Avalokitesvara attending a seated Buddha in Cave 41 indicates advanced and esoteric Buddhist practices at Kanheri. Dating from approximately the late fifth or early sixth century, the images show the bodhisattvas in an eleven headed (ekadasamukha) form which while found frequently in later Buddhist art outside of South Asia as in Nepal, Tibet, China and Japan, is not known in the Indic realm except at a rather late date in Kashmir and the eastern regions. This image is thus the only artistic documentation for the view that this iconographic type originates in India. It may be inferred from art as well as literature that the eleven heads, consisting of ten bodhisattva heads topped by a Buddha head, represent the dasabhumikas, or the ten stages of achievement of the bodhisattva along with the final attainment of Buddhahood.

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and reintegration with the Universal. In this case, the central figure demonstrates the dharmakaya aspect of Buddhahood, the Universal, and is perhaps properly called Sarvavid (universal knowledge) Vairocana. This identification does not negate the interpretation of this figure as the historical Buddha Sakayamuni as well, since the two are identical in the ultimate sense. In the four corners of the composition, four smaller images identical to that in the centre represent the four Jinas who, together with the central Buddha, comprise of the five Jina mandala (panchajina). These Buddhas are the personifications of the essence of the Universal (jnana) who emerge from the four quarters (that is, all directions) to impart knowledge to the initiate. They represent the so-called sambhogakaya (or bliss body), which together with the nirmanakaya and the dharmakaya comprise the three kayas of the Buddhist trikaya system. As imparters of knowledge, they represent the teaching modality of Buddhism. These Buddhas, in later art differentiated by specific mudras and vahanas, are Aksobhya (east), Ratnasambhava (south), Amitabha (west), and Amoghasiddhi (north), each shown here in dharmachakra mudra and pralambapadasana. Along each vertical side of the composition is a row of four Buddhas, together representing the eight manusi Buddhas, the nirmanakaya, who are charged with the responsibility of teaching the Buddhist religion to the beings of the mundane world. Beneath the central figure, attending the stalk upon which his lotus pedestal reset, are depictions of Indra and Brahma with female consorts, and nagas and nagins below, both groups shown as essentially subordinates of the main figure. Flanking the Buddha is a pair of bodhisattvas, each also having a female companion. By the sixth century, female images had emerged as an important part of Buddhist Mahayana iconographic conceptions, at Kanheri as well as at numerous other sites in South Asia. In Buddhist theory, the female personifies the concept of prajna, or transcendental knowledge, while the male denotes upaya, the practice necessary to lead the practitioner to the attainment of that knowledge. The combination of two is the Buddhist enlightenment, symbolized in later Buddhism by yuganaddha (sexually joined) couples. Thus, the concept of mithuna, which had long been a motif in Buddhist art, is integrated into an expression of one of the most essential and fundamental beliefs in the religion. The icon of Avalokitesvara as protector of the faithful is of a type that occurs widely in the western caves in a similar format. However, this version is unique in that it depicts Avalokitesvara as protector against ten perils (rather than the usual eight) and includes © Chronicle IAS Academy

Aurangabad Caves Not far from Ajanta, at Aurangabad, a number of Buddhist caves were carved during different periods, while two of these caves (1 and3) belong to the Vakataka period and were excavated contem-poraneously with the late Mahayana phase at Ajanta, others were created in the latter half of the sixth century and thus represent a stylistic and iconographic advancement from the earlier monuments. Spink suggests that these caves (6,7 and 9) were carved when the ANCIENT 72

It may be noted that the vidyadharas are set against clouds that are indicated by a scalloped form that is seen widely throughout the Deccan in the sixth century and is especially a characteristic of Early Western Chalukya sculptures. In some respects, the female figures are also very close to those seen in Early Western Chalukya Art. The presence of prominent female imagery, especially females as attendants to bodhisattvas or Buddhas, demonstrates the growing importance of sexual symbolism in Buddhism, associated with Tantric or Vajaryanic sects. The group to the left of the central shrine door shows Tara, the principal consort of Avalokitesvara, accompanied by two female reflections or aspects of her who are in turn accompanied by dwarves. The dwarf at the left is very similar to the Saivite dwarves attending the Maheshvara image at Elephanta reinforcing the suggestions of the approximate contemporaneousness of two monuments. This figure, the only male in the entire composition, has a hair arrangement consisting of five topknots that represent the five bijas (sound essences) of the panachajina mandala (the mandala of the five Buddhas). In both his maleness and his ascetic quality, he represents upaya, the action necessary to attain Buddhahood, and the other dwarf, a female to Tara’s left, personifies prajna (wisdom), which is part of jnana, the knowledge needed for Buddhahood. The image thus reiterates the basic Mahayana concept, but it is one step further removed, since the practitioner must unite Tara with Avalokitesvara to achieve karuna, and only then can he integrate Avalokitesvara with Vajrapani to reach bodhi. In another sense, the central figure of Tara is not different from a Buddha, with garland bearing vidyadharas above and personifications of knowledge and compassion at her side. The spectacular female group consisting of a dancing woman accompanied by six female musicians on the left wall of the main shrine is dramatic evidence for female and sexual symbolism in Buddhism. The shrine is based on the type that was developed in the last phase at Ajanta with the central Buddha figure accompanied by sculpted depictions of the six manusi Buddhas, but goes beyond the earlier formulation with the addition of this important panel and the figures on the opposite wall consisting of a Bodhisattva, his female companion and a dwarf. In one accepts the musicians in the group on the left wall at face value, as accompanists to the dancer, the main figure that needs interpretation is the dancer herself. Bharatnatyam, the classical form of Indian dance was in advanced stages of development by the sixth

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region had come under the control of the Kalachuris, who, he believes, were also responsible for the major Hindu excavations at Jogesvari, Manda¬-pesvara and Elephanta. Cave 7, dating from around 560, seems to combine the ritual need for circumambulation seen in the early Vakataka phase at Ajanta with the preference for placing the shrine Buddha against the rear wall of the chamber by creating an ambulatory passage around the entire shrine. The sidewalls of the passage-way open into a series of cells while the rear wall contains two subsidiary shrines. The ground plan suggests that the principal shrine had simply been moved forward into the main hall of a typical Mahayana vihara, although this may not in fact be the way in which this form evolved. The shrines at the rear of the prakadsinapatha, as well as the primary shrine, each contain a sculpture of a Buddha seated in pralamabapadasana and displaying dharmachakara mudra. The caves of the post-Vakataka phase carry out the iconographic program and larger monumental figures. The front wall leading into the circumambulatory passage from the veranda, for example, bears a sizable panel of a litany of Avalokitesvara to the left of the central door of another bodhisattva to the right. These figures demonstrate a stylistic departure from the earlier Vakataka style, having a new tautness to the contours of their bodies, fuller shoulders and swelling hips. They are best compared to figures such as the dvarapalas from Mandasor, the sculptures at Elephanta or others of the sixth century. The hair style of Avalokitesvara, with its tendril like curls and high piled up appearance, is characteristic of sixth century conventions, further showing departure from Gupta and Vakataka trends, in addition, the treatment of the lintel of the doorway with its multitude of miniature shrines anticipates the architectural elaboration seen in several later North Indian regional styles. Similar stylistic developments may also be seen in the treatment of female figures, as in the important panel of the left of the door to the central shrine or the figure group inside the shrine, along the left wall. The voluptuous figures are full breasted, round hipped and have swelling thighs. In the group inside the shrine, the figures seem life-like, a feeling enhanced by the suggested movement and animation of their poses, which marks a departure from the quietude of figures in the Gupta and Vakataka periods and anticipates the active, dynamic figures of subsequent centuries. The elaborate coiffures are again characteristics of the sixth century. © Chronicle IAS Academy

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Chalukyas had achieved supremacy in the Deccan, though not necessarily in this region. A number of the Buddhist caves at Ellora seem to recapitulate some of the basic architectural and iconographic formats found at other sites, but others suggest innovative and advanced Buddhist thinking. Cave 5, the earliest Buddhist cave at Ellora, is a large rectangular hall, about thirty-five meters in length, with surrounding small cells, a shrine in the centre of the rear wall, and two other shrine areas in the centres of the side walls. The expansion of the two side shrine areas may be seen as further development of the plan of Cave 6 (upper) at Ajanta, although here the main hall has become elongated. Both the rectangular, axial format and the addition of cross-axis shrines are features that developed in Hindu monuments of the preceding century, such as the Shiva cave at Elephanta. The treatment of the pillars with their cushion capitals further suggests such a connection. A key feature in this cave (found also in a similar cave at Kanheri, but preserved nowhere else in South Asia) is the double row of stone benches extending almost the full length of the hall, within the rectangle of pillars. Such benches are typical of the seating pattern used in ritual recitation in later Tantrism and Zen Buddhism outside of India and suggest that benches made of ephemeral materials might possibly have been used in vihara and chaitya type caves or free standing buildings for centuries, but that their memory is preserved only in the rockcut examples at Ellora and Kanheri. The vast scale and ambitiousness of the later Buddhist caves is seen in Cave 12, the so-called Tin Thal, a three storey excavation, each floor of which is larger than any single cave at Ajanta. Its plain and austere façade belies the richness of sculptural decoration within. This cave complex, one of the last Buddhist excavations to be carried out at Ellora, may have been created in the late seventh or even the early eighth century. It is entered through a rock-cut gateway that leads to a spacious courtyard preceding the cave. Each floor of the cave is different in plan and format. The first floor consists of a rectangular pillared hall entered on the long side with a large pillared antechamber and shrine extending on axis with the entrance to the rear. Small cells are placed at the sides and rear of the main hall. While the second storey is essentially similar in concept (although not in details such as the number of pillars or cells), the cross-axis leading from the front centre of the cave to the shrine at the rear is emphasized by the treatment of pillars and the addition of an extension of that axis towards the façade side of the cave. A veranda has also been

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century and already included an extensive vocabulary of gestures, each with a relatively explicitly meaning to be interpreted by the audience. According to Bharatnatyam literature, the gesture made by the left hand of the Aurangabad dancer is ardha pataka, ‘half flag,’ with the palm upwards, a sign that has a dual meaning: at one level, it represents two, both, or any sort of duality, but on another, it symbolizes a long or tall, slender object that would be known from the context of the story line being portrayed in the dance. Since the gesture is directed towards the genital area, it may be intended to suggest the male member and perhaps the sexual act itself. In light of this and other evidence at the site, it is clear that tantric forms of Buddhism were in practice at Aurangabad in the sixth century. Sexual imagery, which eventually culminates in the representation of figures in inter course (yuganaddha) was long misunderstood by scholars as a degeneration of Buddhist ideals. However, the total emotional and physical involvement of the individual with the partner during sexual activity is a metaphor in Indic religious thought for the mystical union with the Universal; the combining of the male and female into a totally integrated unity was seen to symbolize the active path to enlightenment. In practice, sexual activities did become part of the religious rituals of certain Buddhist and Hindu sects, but these were kept secret and were restricted to esoteric practices since it was feared that imitations would lack understanding and might misinterpret the activities as simple orgiastic pleasure seeking. Indeed, it was recognized that one of the pitfalls of the path of yuganaddha was to sink into a lustful quest for pleasure. It is appropriate that the female figure is dancing, since, in Indic thought, dancing is one of the arts necessary for the accomplished sexual partner and constitutes one aspect of sexual foreplay. The full-fledged forms of the females suggest their desirability, the intensity of desire being likened to the fervor with which the religious goal should be pursued. In texts, the female partners are described as being sixteen years of age and in the full bloom of youth. It is evident that the artists attempted to convey such a notion in their sculpture. Ellora Caves The final phase of development of Buddhist caves in Western India is seen at Ellora, a site near Ajanta and Aurangabad that had already become an important Hindu centre in the last half of the sixth century. Although the specific patronage of the Buddhist caves is not known, they were probably excavated during the seventh century, when the Early Western © Chronicle IAS Academy

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One example shows a typical figure, deeply carved so that it is almost in the round, surrounded by a tableau of figures, including bodhisattvas and vidyadharas. Increasingly, after the painted caves at Ajanta, sculpture was used to create a greater effect on the devotee who was literally surrounded by human size and much larger religious images as he moved through such caves. To either side of the entrance to the shrine antechamber are representations of the manusi Buddhas. In contrast to the earlier Vakataka depictions, these figures have a stiff, dry, inanimate quality characteristic of much of the later Mahayana sculpture at Ellora, thus representing the crystallization of form that characterizes many post-Gupta artistic idioms, and indicating that perhaps something had been sacrificed in the fervor to achieve gigantic scale.

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included along the front of the cave to provide access from the staircase at the front left to the centre of the cave for proper entrance. The top floor has pillars arranged in a transverse manner, lacks subsidiary cells, and has a relatively small antechamber preceding the shrine. The main shrine on each floor contains the now familiar set of images, a Buddha attended by two bodhisattvas (Avalokitesvara on his right and Vajrapani or Manjuvajra, a form of Manjusri, a bodhisattva who personifies wisdom, who carries a vajra on a lotus, on his left). But in addition, the eight bodhisattvas often grouped together in a configuration known as the eight-bodhisattva mandala (astabodhisattva mandala) also appear in the shrines, four on each side on the central Buddha. Each bodhisattva is clearly identified by the attribute held in his left hand. Other representations of the eight bodhisattvas, identical in meaning, but taking on a much more mandalic appearance, are found in other locations in the cave. In these, the eight bodhisattvas surround a central Buddha in a nine square diagram. The presence of three storeys or levels is one of the most significant features of this cave. While earlier excavations in the Western Deccan might have had multiple storeys, these were not necessarily harmonized into a single scheme. Cave 6, at Ajanta, for example, consists of two separate excavations that are different in date and may have had little inherent unity. In Ellora Cave 12 and its neighbour Cave 11 are the result of single, unified, pre-planned arrangements, possibly related to Buddhist practices in which three stages might be identified: an initiation or introductory phase, as more advanced practice, and finally, the stage for the true acharyas, or highly developed spiritual masters. Such use of levels in architecture is found in Nepali Buddhism, and it is probable that the Nepali practice was based on an Indic precedent such as this. The full range of the iconographic program that is richly carved on all three levels of the cave can only be sampled in a brief survey such as this; the complexity and richness is an indication of the late phase of Mahayana cave architecture and developments that had been occurring in the Buddhist religion. For example, the upper story of Cave 12 has large images of Buddhas along the side walls representing the Buddhas of the ten directions (four cardinal directions, zenith, nadir and the four intermediate points) a standard reference in Buddhist literature to the universality of Buddhahood- who comes to an initiate during abhisheka (“head sprinkling,” or initiation) to confer jnana on him. © Chronicle IAS Academy

Temple Architecture

Stone Temples As part of the growing popularity of Hinduism, temples dedicated to various Hindu deities were constructed throughout northern and north-central India during the Gupta period. Usually, these structures are classified according to certain physical characteristics as well as their relationship to later forms. Regional patterns may have accounted for some of the differences between temple types, but, in addition, ritual needs of growing Hindu religion, as well as sectarian differences, necessitated the development of individual types. Some of the forms reflect structures that must have existed prior to the fifth century but which have been lost, and others may have been completely innovative. A few selected examples suggest the richness of the developing forms. One such example is the Vishnu temple at Deogarh commonly (and mistakenly) called the Dasavatara because it was originally thought that the iconographic program referred to the ten incarnations (dasavatara) of Vishnu. Although the patrons and donors involved in its erection are not known, on stylistic grounds, the structure may be dated to the early sixth century. In many ways, the form of the temple shows considerable advancement in the development of Hindu temple architecture, a factor that has led some to conclude that its date is much later. The form of the tower is one of the most interesting and highly debated features in this regard, since it’s tall apparently curvilinear shape anticipates the developed northern style sikhara. Its damaged state, however, precludes full analysis, and thus the place of this temple in the development of the northern style sikhara may never be known. ANCIENT

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Ganesha, the elephant-headed God, on a pilaster to the left of the Anantasayana relief. As the ‘Overcomer of Obstacles,’ Ganesha is invoked at the start of worship, and became a standard element in the iconographic programs of Hindu temples and painting cycles throughout South Asia. The Ananatasayana subject itself signifies the beginning, for it is concerned with the birth of Brahma from the navel of Vishnu. Since Brahma is the creator of the universe, his own birth signifies the beginning of the creations of the creator. In this form, Vishnu is called Narayana (Moving on the waters, or abode of man) as He rests on the serpent in the primeval waters, and He is described as older than the oldest. In the relief, the four-armed Vishnu seems to rest comfortably on the coiled body of the serpent Sesa (Remainder), who is also called Ananta (endless), and whose hood arches behind Vishnu’s head like a halo. The God’s wife Lakshmi (Goddess of fortune) is considered to be the mediator between the devotee and the Lord. Garuda stands just to the viewer’s right of Lakshmi, wearing his snake ornaments. In the centre, above, Brahma can be identified his antelope skin garment, his three faces (the fourth is implied) and his sitting atop a lotus after having just emerged from Vishnu’s navel. He is flanked by the airborne figures of Indra and Karttikeya to his right, respectively mounted on their vahanas, the elephant and peacock, and to his left, Shiva, with his wife Parvati on his vahana Nandi and another unidentified figure. Below, a separate slab bears deeply carved representations of five males and one female. These are Madhu and Kaitabha at the left with the four personified attributes of Vishnu at the right. Madhu and Kaitabha were two demons that sprang from Vishnu’s ear, while he was asleep, and were about to kill Brahma (who was emerging from Vishnu’s navel), when Vishnu destroyed them. In this relief, the four personifications of Vishnu’s weapons (ayudhapurusas) are juxtaposed with the two demons as if to show Vishnu’s might against them, although the elegant positioning and grace of the figures hardly suggest an impending battle. From the right, the personified weapons are Gadadevi, (the female, recognized by the mace emerging from the top of her head), Chakrapurusa (recognized by his chakra (wheel) hair ornament), Dhanuspurusa (who positions his right arm as if it were a bow), and Khadgapurusa (who prepares to draw his sword). On the east, the major reliefs show two saints Nara (viewer’s right) and Narayana (viewer’s left), who bring the message of divine love and devotion as an instrument of spiritualization.

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The main shrine occupies the centre of a square plinth that is accessible on all four sides by staircases with semicircular base sometimes referred to as moonstones. Originally, four smaller subsidiary shrines were present, one at each corner of the plinth, so that the temple is of the panchayatana (five-shrine) variety. Each shrine was probably dedicated to a different Hindu deity, although their identities are unknown because the structures are totally destroyed except for their bases. Further, it is impossible to determine the original forms of the buildings, although they may have been miniature versions of the main temple. The temple is oriented to the west, where the impressive, decorated doorway to the shrine is located. In contrast to the early Gupta-type entrance seen at Udayagiri, the Deogarh doorway is a greatly elaborated ensemble. The lintels and jambs have been multiplied, and these are replete with well-ordered foliate motifs, mithunas, guardian figures, and the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna placed respectively at the top left and right of the doorway and clearly defined by their makara and tortoise vehicles. At the centre, above the entranceway, is a panel showing Vishnu in an unusual form, seated atop the coiled body of a serpent with the open serpent hood behind his head while Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu massages his foot, and two other forms of Vishnu himself appear, the man lion or the Narasimha and the dwarf or the Vamana. The multiple figures in this small relief demonstrate the growing complexity of Vaishnavite iconography, and perhaps provide a clue to the original dedication of the temple. Before entering the single-celled shrine through the decorated doorway, ritual practice probably required the devotee to circumambulate the temple to view the three major sculptural panels on the exterior. Each of the three relieves decorating the main body of the temple is placed in a niche that consists of decorated lintels and jabs flanked by pilasters. The subject matter of the sculptures reveals of the order in which the devotee would view them. In this case, the viewing order of the major sculptures would be the relief of Vishnu Narayana as Anantasayana or Sesasayana on the South, that of Nara and Narayana on the east, and the sculpture of Gajendramoksa on the North, thus moving the devotee in a counter clockwise direction (Prasavya). This assertion, which is contrary to the commonly held belief that in Hindu worship circumambulation is always performed in a clockwise manner (pradaksina), is based on the internal message of the reliefs, their accompanying elements, and an analysis of circumambulation practices in Hindu rituals. An indication that the devotee began his worship on the South is clearly seen in the depiction of © Chronicle IAS Academy

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which represent a high point in the development of Indic art, reflecting what has come to be known as the Gupta ideal. Smooth body contours, relived by moderate amounts of jewellery, peaceful facial expressions, graceful poses and elegant hairstyles characterize the figures. Each composition is carefully balanced, and seems to come alive with the deep, three-dimensional carving. The so-called Parvati temple at Nachna-Kuthara is approximately contemporaneous with the Vishnu temple at Deogarh, c. A.D. 500 or perhaps slightly later, and like it, is a notable achievement of Gupta Art. The name Parvati is undoubtedly a late appellation, for the temple was probably originally dedicated to Shiva, its forms offer insight into a completely different temple format in use at the time, however, for it is a double-storied structure resting on a plinth with an enclosed passage, the outer walls of which are lost. This building is apparently the earliest surviving example of a structural temple with an enclosed circumambulatory passage, and thus it is the oldest known temple of the sandhara class of Hindu temples that are in fact characterized by this feature. Light was admitted into the ambulatory by three windows, one on each side except that of the entrance, which was open, and some light was also admitted into the main shrine through windows in the ambulatory passage wall. The second story covered only the temple shrine (not the passageway) and may have contained a representation of a deity. Perhaps specific ritual needs necessitated the double story form. No signs of a sikhara or other high superstructure exist although the original forms of the roofs of the temple are unknown. The doorway of the structure, which is oriented to the West, is among the finest in all Gupta Art, and in general, the trellis like carved windows and miscellaneous sculptures found at the site testify to a high quality of workmanship. An interesting feature of the plinth is the deliberately rusticated blocks of stone that have been carved to resemble a rocky landscape, complete with animal life. The depiction of such stylized landscape, although unusual in this location, is also seen in the paintings of Ajanta and in carved renditions of stylized landscape, for example, in the Nara-Narayana relief at Deogarh. Here, a reference to the temple as a replica of Kailasha, the mountain abode of the God Shiva, seems to be implied.

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These two, who are considered to be the fourth of the twenty-two minor incarnations of Vishnu, were the sons of Dharma (Righteousness) and his wife Ahmisa (Non-violence). They performed austerities as part of their devotions, and their ascetic nature is indicated in the relief by their lack of jewellery and by the wearing of their hair in topknots (jatamukuta). Like other ascetics who have forsaken the comforts of society, they appear in a wilderness setting suggested by the rocky landscape with deer and lions beneath and bowers of tree above. The figures hold peaceful attributes in their hands, including the rosary, as symbols of their devotion. A female figure in the centre above is Urvashi, who was created when Narayana struck his thigh to demonstrate that he could not be tempted by celestial nymphs and that he was steadfast in his devotion. The niche on the North depicts the story of Gajendramoksa, concerning a king who had been changed into an elephant (Gajendra) as a curse. One day, while wadding in a lotus pond, a water beast seized the leg of the elephant and a tug of war ensued between them that lasted for a thousand years. Finally, the elephant invoked Narayana and was saved. The moment just after deliverances is depicted clearly in the relief, for the water beast (here a naga accompanied by his nagini) is depicted in anjali mudra, paying respect to the victors. Essentially, the story is a parable about a devotee who had been cursed because his untrained intellect was like an elephant’s and his subsequent deliverance through faith, which represents the attainment of moksha and serves as a model to the worshipper at the temple. A crown born aloft by vidyadharas above signifies this final achievement.

The overall message of the temple is thus clearly indicated in the sculptural program, revealed through a sequential arrangement of the reliefs, for the Anantasayana represents the beginning, Nara and Narayana denote the means through which moksha may be achieved, and the Gajendramoksha story expresses the final result. In contrast to earlier Gupta temples, sculpture has a much more important role in the overall scheme of the monument, including the major reliefs as well as the decoration of the doorway. Still, sculpture is confined to certain areas of the temple and a balance is struck between ornamentation and the simplicity of the architecture. The rather large blocks of stone used to construct the temple are easily visible, as there has been no attempt to disguise them with the temple decoration. The beauty of the monument is carried out in the grace and delicacy of the sculptures themselves, © Chronicle IAS Academy

Brick Temples & Terracottas Although brick and terracotta have been popularly used since the early discovery of pottery techniques in ancient India, the fragile nature of the material has led to the construction of a number of important monuments, some of which have survived. ANCIENT

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fully modelled facial features suggest a departure from the more tranquil, delicate forms of Gupta stone sculpture. Each goddess, now easily recognized by her respective vahana, the makara and the tortoise, holds a water vessel and is attended by a diminutive figure holding chattra aloft. Other terracotta recovered from Northern India hint at what must have been the widespread and highly develops art of terracotta sculpture in the Gupta period. In contrast to the surviving terracotta’s from the prehistoric and early historic periods, Gupta terracottas are often large (though not always as large as the two river goddesses from Ahicchattra). Many formed panels that were used as decoration on temples. One such architectural fragment shows the God Vishnu riding atop his winged vehicle, the birdman Garuda. Only Vishnu’s two left arms are preserved, one holds a bow while the other brings his characteristic conch to his lips, as if the god is blowing it like a trumpet. The conch, whose fleeting sound sometimes serves as a symbol of the transience of the physical world, here probably indicated a war call, for the god and his companion seem to be in battle ready positions that suggest that the relief represents an attack on an unseen adversary. Although its find spot is not known, the piece is of a type generally identified with the Uttar Pradesh region, and such works are generally attributed to the site of Ahicchatra or, alternatively to Bhitargaon, two of the most well known and well preserved sites that have yielded Gupta-period terracottas in Northern India. But it is likely that the monuments at these two centres were not unique at the tie of their creation, and that sculptures like this may document a broadly-based style and art from current throughout North-Central India. The curly hair-style of Garuda suggests aesthetic associations with stone art of the Gupta period, though the techniques used by the terracotta artist differ considerably form those of his fellow craftsmen who worked in stone. The outlines of the eyes and eyebrows, for example, have been created simply by using a sharp tool to incise in wet clay, creating a sense of dynamism and calligraphic line that is not apparent in works produced by the slower and more pains taking process of stone carving. A second terracotta sculpture also probably intended to be used as architectural adornment and also probably from the Uttar Pradesh region, shows Rama, the hero of the Ramayana and his younger brother, Lakshmana, as if in conversation. Rama came to be considered the seventh incarnation of Vishnu and stories narrating events involving him are commonly included in the repertoire of subjects adorning

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The bricks temple at Bhitargaon is one of the bestpreserved examples, in spite of the fact that it was damaged by lightning in the last century. Its date is difficult to fix as there is no inscriptional or other evidence of its dedication, but on stylistic ground, a date of the first half of the fifth century might be suggested. Burnt bricks joined by mud mortar were used in the construction of the building, and the walls reached a thickness of more than two meters. The temple faces east, as may be determined by the remains of a portico on that side, and it rests upon a square plinth (jagati). Each side of the temple has a projecting bay, creating what is known as a triratha (three ratha) design. The number three is obtainend by counting the two sections to the left and right of the bay, which form the wall of the structure itself, as well as the outer surface of the bay, which runs parallel to them. In five rathas, seven rathas, and other systems where additional bays extend out from the centre of each preceding bay, the count expands to include the length of all new parallel wall sections formed. Such offsetting of the walls of a temple became a standard feature in many later schools of architecture. A secondary shrine chamber is present above the main shrine, although this feature is not readily apparent from the exterior because of the rising, vertical shape of the sikhara, which is one of the earliest extent examples of a northern style tower. Niches on the exterior of the body of the temple and the superstructure contained sculpted panels, some of which are missing and many of which are partially destroyed. An interesting feature of the construction in this building is the use of true arches in the shrines and the porch in preference to the usual Indic corbelled vault. From examples like this, it is evident that ancient Indians knew of the arch at an early date, but elected to use it only on certain occasions, preferring trabeated forms. The type of sculptural decoration used in such a temple is perhaps best seen in a number of terracottas that are better preserved from other temples, such as that at Ahicchatra. Most impressive among them are the nearly human size representations of the river goddesses, the entrance to the Shiva temple, probably dating from the late fifth or early sixth century. Although these figures have been heavily restored, their original animation, which perhaps exceeds that seen in contemporary stone carving and may be due in part to the nature of the terracotta medium, is preserved. Their positions, turning inward towards the devotee who would enter a doorway, provide a sense of immediacy to the viewer. The costumes, with the heavy drapery folds and tight bodies, and the very © Chronicle IAS Academy

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has been described by K. V. Soundara Rajan as “The Prayaga of coalescing formal trends in temple styles.” Moreover, the building activities of the period were, as Percy Brown observes, “clearly the result of an enthusiasm which was religious in origin and in intensity of purpose.” The Chalukya monuments are broadly grouped into two classes: (a) the rock - cut halls, and (b) the structural temples. The excavated rock - cut halls are found at Badami and Aihole. There are four such cave temples at Badami. Of them the earliest and the largest is cave No. III excavated during the reign of Mangalesa and dedicated to Lord Vishnu. The other caves are of smaller dimensions, and the Cave No. IV is a Jaina temple. The Badami caves have three common features, namely, a pillared verandah, a columned hall and a small square cellar or Garbhagriha, cut deep into the rock. The cave temples of this age contain some impressive sculptural specimens like Tandavamurti, Harihara, Ardhanarishvara, Nataraja, Mahishasura Mardini and so on. The depiction of Vishnu in his Varaha incarnation is so full of vitality, vigor and charm that Zimmer wrote, “The age in which it was fashioned was one of those rare moments in the history of art in which versatility and restraint were perfectly balanced”. There are two excavated temples at Aihole, one Shaiva and the other Jaina. It is said that the Chalukya genius in excavating cave temples inspired the Pallavas. Structural temples were built in large numbers during this period. The boom in temple building activity, which the Chalukya rule witnessed is said to have continued right up to the 13th Century A. D. The three important centres of Chalukyan architecture are Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. Of these Aihole has been described as “the cradle of the Indian architecture”, and it alone consists of 70 temples. The Gaudaragudi and the Ladhkhan temple are the oldest buildings of the Aihole group. The Ladhkhan temple is a comparatively low, flat - roofed building, fifty feet square. There of its sides are completely enclosed by walls, and from its fourth side, forming its eastern front, there is projected an open-pillared porch. The Durga temple, according to Percy Brown, “is a Brahmanical version of the Buddhist Chaitya hall, adopted to suit the service of the former creed”. It contains a new feature, namely. A vestibule or antarala, which is an intermediate chamber between the cell and the main hall. It also had a shikhara over the Garbhagriha, but now it has fallen. The Huchchimalligudi is something of an abridged form of the Durga temple. There are other important temples in Aihole, which represent various stages of archi-

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a Vaishnavite temple. However, as a cult deity, he never achieved the stature of other depicted in art, and he is generally shown, as here, in a two-armed form that stresses his human, rather than his godly, characteristics. The panel apparently records the period narrated in the Ramayana when, after Rama had been banished from the kingdom to which he was rightful heir, he lived in the company of forest dwellers, rather than princes; their earlobes, stretched from years of wearing heavy ornaments, are unadorned, and their hair is tied into simple topknots. The figures are strikingly naturalistic and life-like, an impression perhaps partly created by the terracotta medium. One of the most dramatic and realistic of all the terracottas surviving from the Gupta period represents a Shaivite deity. The relief, broken at the waist of the figure, is from Saheth-Maheth, Shravasti, Uttar Pradesh, and shows an ascetic whose divine nature is indicated by the presence of four arms. His emaciated body, matted locks and pile up hair style (jata), as well as his lack of jewellery (especially noticeable due to the distended, pierced earlobes that conspicuously lack earrings), all signify his ascetic nature. A very problematic monument that may be discussed along with terracotta remains of the Gupta period is the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya. Much of its present appearance is due to renovations as recent as the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, although the essential elements may have been determined as early as the late-Kushana or Gupta periods. As it now stands, the temple consists of a large central shrine surmounted by a large tower, surrounded by four smaller shrines. These are thought to have been added fairly recently, although certainly, the concept of the panchayatana format was welldeveloped by the Gupta period as demonstrated by the Vishnu temple at Deogarh. The present tower is probably much taller than the original superstructure, and its pyramidal profile, which differs from the typical, curved, northern-style sikhara, is possibly also the result of later modifications. The type of brickwork and use of certain vaulting techniques suggest ties to Iranian methods, possibly introduced into the Indic region by the Kushanas. Chalukya Art The most splendid achievement of the Chalukyas was recorded in the realm of art and architecture. They evolved a new style, which is known as the “Chalukyan architecture”. It has been described as belonging to the Vesara style, a combination of the South Indian or Dravida and the North Indian or Nagara Styles. The Chalukya art zone of Karnataka © Chronicle IAS Academy

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At times, their empire also reached into the Deccan and to the frontier of Orissa. The figure style visible in their art shows clear ties to the earlier Buddhist traditions developed under the Satavahanas and Iksvakus, although the Pallavas were Hindus, primarily Shaivite. The origins of their architectural forms, however, are more difficult to assess, since precedents in ephemeral materials are unknown and earlier stone monuments in the Pallava regions are scarce. It has been suggested that a strong, traditional use of stone as a medium for funerary monuments in the South, as seen in the long megalithic tradition, led to a reticence to employ it in temple architecture prior to the Pallava period. Perhaps a study of some of the caves in the Vijayavada region may some day-shed light on the origins of Pallava stone monuments. The burst of artistic energy under the Pallavas, however, cannot be understood simply in terms of precedents, for the Pallava empire was blessed with a number of strong rulers, several of whom imposed their personalities on the production of art. Religious developments, particularly Bhakti cults, must have played a major role in providing impetus to artistic developments. In particular, the Alvars, a group of Tamil Vaishnavite poet saints, and the Shaivite Nayanars stimulated religious thought, which may have affected the production of art and temple architecture. Four of the Alvars came from the Pallava country and their devotional (bhakti) hymns, which were concerned with the personal experience of the deity rather than metaphysics, must have had great impact on the society.

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tectural evolution, like the Kontigudi, Allibasappa temple, the Meguti temple, Huchchappayya gudi and Tarappagudi. At Badami there are a few important structural temples like the Naganatha temple and the Malegitti Sivalaya. At Pattadakal there are ten temples - four in the northern style and six in the Dravidian style. Important temples of Pattadakal are the Papanatha temple, the Sangameshvara temple, the Virupaksha temple, Mallikarjuna temple, the Galaganatha temple, the Kashi Vishveshwara temple, the jambulingeshvara temple and the Kadasiddeshvara temple. Among them the most famous is the Virupaksha temple. It was built at the orders of Lokamahadevi, the senior queen of Vikramaditya II to commemorate his victory over the Pallavas. It has many features similar to the Kailasanatha temple of Kanchi. The Chief architect of the temple was Sri Gundan Anivaritachari, who held such titles as “Anikapuravastu Pitamaha” and “Tenkanadesiya Sutradhari”. According to Percy Brown, “There is a bold beauty in the appearance of the Virupaksha temple as a whole, which is best seen in the exterior”. The main building measures 120 feet, and the studied grouping of its parts produces a very pleasant total effect. The heaviness of the stone work is relieved by an increase in the amount and quality of the sculpture, which includes the representations of Shiva, Nagas and Naginis and the scenes from the Ramayana. As Percy Brown observes, “The sculpture flows into the architecture in a continuous yet disciplined stream…. The Virupaksha temple is one of those rare buildings of the past in which the spirit still lingers of the men who conceived it and wrought it with their hands”. The scholars have identified a few examples of the Chalukya painting. “The Temptation of the Buddha” and “the Persian Embassy” in Cave No. I at Ajantha have been assigned to this period. The Caves of Badami too have a few fragments of paintings to offer. But they are not well - preserved. Nevertheless, they enrich the proud heritage of Chalukyan art, which has so much to present in terms of variety, novelty, grace and beauty. Pallava Art As in case of many other ruling families in South Asia, the Pallavas were known in history long before they rose to prominence. They may be traced as far back as the second century A.D., but it is not until the latter half of the sixth century that the family and its history become less enigmatic, with both inscriptions and art monuments in stone appearing to initiate a steady tradition that lasted approximately two hundred years. The Pallavas were heirs to the Andhra region, but expanded their territories to include much of the Tamil area to the South. © Chronicle IAS Academy

1. Early Phase It is usually assumed that the early phase of Pallava architecture consisted primarily of rock-cut monuments, while the later phase is dominated by structural buildings. As a general rule, this is true, at least in terms of the surviving examples. However, there is evidence to suggest that structural monuments were produced virtually from the inceptions of the Pallava tradition and perhaps the two phases should be considered shifts in emphasis rather than total abandonment of one from and the supplanting of another. Various stylistic designations of Pallava art and architecture are traditionally associated with specific rulers, who may have been responsible for the inception of certain stylistic changes. In general, the developments of the Pallava period include a progression from rather simple forms to ones of greater complexity. This progression has ANCIENT 80

sectioning is reminiscent of Early Western Chalukya examples and also suggests ties coast of India, such as the Undavalli caves or, further North, much earlier examples from Khandagiri/Udayagiri in Orissa. The simplicity of the cave and lack of decorative carving in general characterizes this early Pallava phase, for the dvarapalas comprise almost the sole sculptural enhancement. These slender, animated figures show stylistic affinities to the earlier traditions of the Satavahanas and Ikshvaku, demonstrating that the Pallavas were indeed the heirs to the Andhraregion traditions. Characteristic of Pallava dvarapala depictions, the difference between the left and right guardians is pronounced, for they are placed in different postures. The near profile positioning of the body of the left guardian, possibly deriving from the highly mobile postures of Ikshvaku representations, anticipates the still more animated and freely moving figures to be seen in the Pallava Art. Also characteristic of Pallava dvarapala type is the fierce appearance of the figures, most easily visible in the bulging eyes of the sample to the left of the façade. Also safely attributable of the reign of Mahendra I on the basis of inscriptional evidence is the upper cave temple at the hill fort in the heart of the city of Tiruchirappalli called Lalitankura’s cave after another biruda of Mahendra’s. Its façade, which faces South, is essentially a refinement of the Mandagappattu type, with an extra pair of pillars, a broader intercolumniation (which makes the pillars appear very slender), and carved medallions decorating the facts of the pillars. Although the devotee enters the cave between two central pillars, the main axis of the temple extends laterally. This was apparently done so that the shrine could be placed on the east, in spite of the fact that the façade was on the south. Such problems in orientation, which were often extremely complex in rock-cut architecture, may have been one of the reasons for the eventual abandonment of cave excavations by the Hindus in favour of structural temples, although not before they went on to produce some of the most remarkable achievements of South Asian Art. The plan shows that the cave consists of two chambers: a larger pillared hall (Mandapa) and a cubical shrine. A pair of dvarapalas flanks the entrance to the shrine, each figure appearing in the animated, slightly twisted posture typical of Pallava examples. At the opposite end of the hall, to the west, located where the entrance would probably have been if this were a structural example is a relief showing Shiva as Gangadhara (Bearer of the Ganges River).

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been attributed to the growing accumulated skill on the part of the artisans over the centuries in working the hard granite stone native to the region. However, it is likely that the increased complexity in style and growing elaboration of detail and iconographic forms were also part of the pan-Indic development of postGupta periods, which in general may be said to be characterized by such a transformation. Compared to northern developments, however, the southern style maintains a much greater simplicity and the changes are subtler. The earliest body of surviving architectural monuments of the Pallava period belongs to the reign of Mahendra Varman I, whose rule in the first three decades of the seventh century coincided with that of Pulakesin II of the Early Western Chalukyas. Originally a Jain, Mahendra Varman was converted to Shaivism by Saint Appar, and this fact is visible in the primarily Shaivite dedications of monuments associated with him. One monument of the reign of Mahendra I is a cave temple at Manappattu, which is called Laksitayatana (temple of Laksita) in its dedicatory inscription. The name Laksita is a well-known epithet (biruda) for Mahendra I, and thus, the royal patron, who is also called Vichitrachitta (curious Minded) in the epigraph, may be identified. The inscription further reveals that the cave was dedicated to the Hindu trinity- Brahma, Vishnu- and Shiva and calls it a brickless, timberless, metalless and mortarless mansion. The latter statement is generally taken to mean that the usual temple would have been a structural building, made of some of the materials enumerated in the inscription, and thus it appears that Mahendra I was the initiator of a new stone tradition. Whether or not this is the case, the use of stone was truly unusual at this time, judging from the lack of extant remains. The façade of the cave has a low wide, rectangular appearance with two central pillars and a pilaster at each side flanked by large sculpted representations of door guardians. The niches in which the guardian figures appear repeat the shape of the space between the columns of the facade with their square bottoms and tops, octagonal central portions and bracket like capitals. A second row of pillars and pilasters within the cave divides the interior of the main hall into two lateral sections, while three identical shrines for housing the images of the trinity (no longer present) to whom the cave is dedicated are placed along the rear wall. The shallowness of the excavation, though not so pronounce as in other Pallava examples, and the lateral © Chronicle IAS Academy

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have been carved into buildings, animals, sculpted reliefs and other forms. In spite of the popularity of the site as tourist resort, and its mention in virtually every general book on South Asian Art, it has never been thoroughly studied, analyzed and examined in order to determine the sequence of monuments and their place in the development of Pallava art and architecture. The vibrancy and animation of Pallava Art is perhaps nowhere better seen than in the Varaha mandapa at Mamallapuram. Thought to belong to the period of Mamalla I, this cave exhibits both the elaboration of sculptural and iconographic elements and the refinement of architectural features associated with the reign. A feature of Pallava architecture seen here, and one, which comes to fruition in Early Chola monuments, is the presence of tank preceding (or later, surrounding) the monument itself. The use of tanks or other artificial reservoirs of water seem to have played an important role in Pallava iconographic. One aspect of such symbolism may have been a reference to one of the practical aspects of kingship, that of providing public irrigation reservoirs. Here, the tank extended across the entire front of the cave, so that when it was full of water, the devotee would have had to cross the water to reach the cave. The façade is based on earlier examples, such as those from the reign of Mahendra I, but here the pillars and pilasters are slandered, providing a more open appearance, and bear cushion-type capitals reminiscent of Early Western Chalukya types. The seated lions at the bases are a typical Pallava characteristic, and may be seen as a precedent for the later animal pillars of South Indian temples. The cave consists of the rectangular hall and a shrine that projects forward into the space of the hall bearing representations of dvarapalas on the front surface, each of which is contained in a niche as is typical of the South Indian style. The simplicity of the architectural features, such as the plain niches with large figures, characterizes the Pallava style, which, in contrast to the usual Northern and Deccan styles, is virtually devoid of subsidiary elements like vine scroll, gem motifs and similar designs. Four major sculptural panels dominate the interior of the cave. Following a pattern visible in Hindu art as early as the Gupta period, the reliefs seem to have double meanings, referring both to the deities represented as well as to achievements of the king, presumably Mamalla I. The left wall of the cave bears a representation of Varaha resting the earth goddess on his upraised knee. Vishnu as Trivikrama is depicted on the right wall.

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As Gangadhara, Shiva is shown receiving in his hair the heavenly Ganges River as it came to earth as a result of the penance performed by one Bhagiratha, who wished to use the holy water to purify the ashes of his deceased uncles. The lengthy inscription in the cave located on the pilasters adjoining the Gangadhara panel suggests through the use of double entendre that the choice of this subject was deliberate and significant. In particular, a play on the word Kaveri, which refers both to the Kaveri river in full view of the cave and to a courtesan, suggests a parallel between Shiva and Mahendra I, for Kaveri is described as the beloved of the Pallava king just as Ganga was the beloved of Shiva. This implies equation between Shiva and Mahendra I and their respective river goddesses is significant in light of other Pallava inscriptional and artistic evidences. 2. Mamalla Phase The most famous phase of Pallava Art was that apparently inaugurated during the reign of King Narasimha Varman I, who is known most popularly by his epithet Mamalla I. This son of Mahendra Varman I succeeded his father around the fourth decade of seventh century. A memorable ruler, Mamalla I sent naval expeditions to Sri Lanka, defeated the Early Western Chalukyas under Pulakesin II, and captured Badami in 642 from the Chalukyas (in retaliation for his father’s earlier defeat by Pulakesin II), in addition to defeating other South Indian ruling families. During his reign, the Chinese pilgrim Hieun-Tsang visited Kanchipuram, then a major Pallava city and capital. Although the seaport city of Mamallapuram was named after Mamalla I, he was not its founder, for Roman coins found in the area and descriptions by early classical writers much as Ptolemy indicate that the town had been famous as a seaport at least since the beginning of the Christian era. In addition, although it has often been assumed that the majority of monuments at the site belong to his reign, this idea has been increasingly challenged. However, he should be credited with stimulating the development of Mamallapuram (City of Mamalla) as a great seaport, vital in the dissemination of South Indian culture to South-east Asia and commercially important in the Indian Ocean trade network. Most of the monuments at Mamallapuram are rock-cut, carved out of the boulders and cliffs that abound in the area. These include caves, monoliths and large sculpted reliefs, although some structural buildings were also erected. The site, which covers several square miles, is virtually a stone city in which boulders and rock faces © Chronicle IAS Academy

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Each of the caves at Mamallapuram is unique. The variety of iconographic types represented in them indicates an already established wealth of imagery. This suggests that these excavations were modelled after structures that no longer exist but which might have revealed the formative stages of architectural development. The Trimurti cave, for example, consists of three similar shrines entered directly from the exterior with no porches or mandapas, but unified by the carving of the exterior of the rock into temple facades with architectural niches containing figurative sculpture. The name Trimutri literally means ‘triple form.’ But here it refers to the Hindu trinity of Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma. Shiva is the most prominent of the three in this conception, since His is the central shrine, flanked by those of Brahma (viewer’s left) and Vishnu (viewer’s right). The slightly larger size of the central shrine and its projecting form emphasize its preeminence. A fourth worship area is designated at the right of the façade where a set of steps leads to an image of Durga, although an excavated shrine is not present. Durga is shown in an eight-armed form standing frontally and atop the buffalo head of the defeated Mahisa in a format typical of Pallava representations of the subject. Each door to the three shrines is flanked by a pair of male figures who serve as dvarapalas. The back wall of each of the small rectangular shrines is decorated with a large relief representing the deity to whom the shrine is dedicated. In the case of the Shiva shrine, a stone linga is also placed on the floor in front of the image. This practice of caving the rear wall of the shrine is typical of Pallava monuments and contrasts with often bare-walled shrines found throughout Northern architecture. In Pallava shrines the linga is usually carved of a different stone than that of the shrine itself, and in the case of cave monuments, the linga is added rather than rock-cut. The façade of this excavation contrasts with that of the Varaha cave in that it is not pillared. Instead, it replicates an actual vimana, that is, a shrine with its superstructures, and is better compared to the freestanding monoliths found nearby at Mamallapuram. The date of this cave is unknown but its form suggests that it was excavated in the middle to late seventh century. A highly unusual cave has been excavated not far from the heart of Mamallapuram about five kilometers away at Saluvankuppam, a village that certainly lies within the ancient boundaries of Mamallapuram. This excavation, the so-called Yali (Vyala) cave is distinguished by the eleven vyala (horned lion) heads

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In the Trivikrama incarnation, Vishnu assumed the form of the dwarf Vamana, who extracted a promise from Bali, King of Asuras, that he could have territorial control over the amount of space he could cover in three paces. Vamana then assumed a gigantic form and covered the earth world with his first stride, the mid-world between heaven and earth with his second and with his third, stepped upon the head of Bali, thereby sending him to the nether world of the Asuras. As metaphors, the Varaha and Trivikrama subjects, while not unique to Pallava Art, might have been deliberately chosen to refer to specific achievements of the king, presumably the defeat of Pulakesin and the avenging of the defeats to the Pallavas under his father. The rear walls of the cave bear images of Gajalakshmi on the left and Durga on the right, suggesting the notions of prosperity (Gajalakshmi) and once again victory (Durga). An interesting aspect of the Durga relief is the figure at the front left of the composition who is in the act of self-immolation by decapitation. Such figures are found during the Pallava period and later in South Indian art, generally in relationship to Durga images and may be related to rituals detailed in at least one Hindu text.

Each relief is characterized by essentially naturalistic scaling, in contrast to what is often seen in Indic sculptures and by considerable special complexity. In this latter sense, strong ties to the Iksvaku tradition are suggested. This earlier Indian dynasty from the Andhra region inherited by the Pallavas used sophisticated devices to imply illusionistic space that were perhaps originally or partially inspired by Roman art, in the Varaha relief, this complexity is seen in the two figures at the left who turn inward and are shown in a rear/profile view. In the relief of Durga, one figure is shown from the rear while another is depicted in profile. Although arbitrary adjustments of scale to suit the hierarchic needs prevail in South Asian Art, essentially naturalistic means are used here to achieve emphasis. In the Gajalaksmi panel, for example, the central figure is emphasized by being placed above the others on a throne but is depicted in the same scale as other figures. In all the reliefs the elements are carved in a fairly three-dimensional manner; space exists around each figure and the effect is almost as if the deities and their attendants were indeed in the presence of the worshipper. The slender figures, with their narrowed, tapered limbs, betray the Andhra heritage of Pallava Art and anticipate the typical style of the South Indian Tamil area to be continued into the reign of the Cholas and even to the still later Vijaynagar kings. © Chronicle IAS Academy

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river, the Ganga itself, in the rainy season, a now lost receptacle is believed to have filled with water, which could then fall down the cleft into a tank as a kind of living reenactment of the sacred descent. Some scholars believe that the tank, at the base of the relief, would have served as a royal bathing pool for the king himself. The arguments for the Arjuna story are less compelling, thought still substantial. In this tale, Arjuna, one of the five Pandava brothers of the Mahabharata, performed served austerities in order to enlist Shiva’s aid (literally, his weapons) in achieving victory in the pending war between the Pandavas and the Kurus. Since Arjuna’s penance was performed on the bank of a river, the arguments can be made that this subject is represented in the Mamallapuram relief. Both the Descent and Arjuna’s Penance interpretations would be served well by the figures at the top of the relief, just to the left of the cleft. The penanceperforming individual, with arms raised and balanced on one leg, could represent either Bhagiratha, whose penance brought the Ganga to earth, or Arjuna, whose penances earned him the aid of Shiva’s weapons. Shiva, who appears next to the ascetic in a four art form, attended by his dwarves (ganas), performs the varada mudra, or gift bestowal gesture, with his front left hand, a gesture that would be appropriate to either story. In each case, too, secondary meanings relating to the Pallavas themselves, of the type inferred in other contexts for Pallava art, might be suggested. A later Pallava inscription mentions that the Pallavas resembled the Descent of the Ganga as it (too) purified the whole world. Considering the prominence already accorded the Gangadhar a murti icon in Pallava art, considerable credibility is given to this interpretation. Alternately, Arjuna, the hero of the Mahabharata and leader of the Pandavas, might serve as a symbol of the Pallavas themselves for just as Arjuna sought Shiva’s aid in the war against the Kurus, the Pallavas sought victory in their continuing competition with the Early Western Chalukyas. In light of such strong but conflicting evidence, it might be argued that both meanings simultaneously were intended by the creators of this remarkable relief. However, this suggestion, too, would need further substantiation. Important features of the relief included the large elephants at the lower right, the small shrine with a representation of a deity, the ascetics worship at the shrine if to converge at the cleft. Considerable naturalism in pose and individuality in facial features is seen in the figures, reflecting some of the concern with naturalism seen elsewhere in Pallava Art.

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that form a kind or ring around the central excavated chamber and its two flanking niches. To the viewer’s left of this area but also on the face of the rock are carved elephants shrines atop their backs. Although the main show no trace of any original images within, these small shrines each bear a much worn depiction of a four-armed deity. The original purpose and meaning of the cave, however, remains unknown. Further, the date of the excavation is uncertain, although it is probably a monument of the late seventh or early eighth century. In addition to the variety of architectural types seen in the caves of Mamallapuram, numerous religious subjects were interpreted anew by the Pallavas in sculpture and other were introduced for the first time. A representation of Durga battling the demon Mahisa in the so-called Mahisasuramardini cave, for example, is unlike any other depiction of this scene known in earlier Hindu art. Durga sits astride her lion vahana while Mahisa, depicted as a human figure with a buffalo head, appears at the right, as if recoiling from her attack. Fallen warriors of Mahisa’s army appear at the right and lean in the direction of retreat, while Durga’s forces advance from the left. The naturalistic rather than hierarchic scaling of the figures, including Durga herself, who is not even as large as her opponent, heightens the sense of emotion and drama of the scene. In addition, the figures are in animated and logical poses that further increase the sense of actuality. In composition such as this, the Pallava sculptors achieved a striking balance between the world of nature and the realm of the divine. The most impressive sculptural composition at Mamallapuram is the famous relief that has been alternately identified as the descent of the Ganga River or Arjuna’s Penance. This striking work is believed to have been carved during the reign of either Mahendrvarman I or that of his son Mamalla. Measuring nearly thirty meters in length and approximately fifteen meters in height, it contains a myriad of figures, animals and other subjects, all of which are carved on approximately life sized scale. A major aspect of the composition is the natural feature, which has been skillfully incorporated into the design and subject matter of the carving. Arguments for the interpretation of this impressive scene as either the Descent of the Ganga River or Arjuna’s Penance are convincing in each case. Both stories are found in Indian literature, although different versions appear in various texts. A strong case for the Descent interpretation is presented by the central cleft of the composition, with its naga inhabitants, as a representation of the holy © Chronicle IAS Academy

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should not be inferred that Mamallapuram examples represent the beginning of the tradition; rather, they are manifestations of what must have been already widespread forms. The smallest and simplest of the group is the Draupadi monolith, which is in fact a shrine dedicated to Durga, distinguished by its curved roof, which is believed to have been modelled after that of a thatch proto-type. Square in plan, this single celled, one story shrine shares a low plinth with the adjacent Arjuna ratha. The exterior wall decoration consists of pilasters at each of the four corners and niches containing image. The two niches flanking the door to the interior contain life-size female door guardians (dvarapalikas). The single niches on the three remaining sides, each contain a representation of Durga. The rear wall of the interior of the shrines bears a panel showing Durga, standing, being adored by worshipers, one of whom is performing a self decapitation like that seen in the Durga relief in the Varaha cave. The freestanding lion vahana of Durga is located outside the shrine. The distinctly feminine nature of the sculptural program of this small temple contrasts with the other monoliths, which are male oriented and suggests the growing emphasis on female imagery. In the Trimurti cave, Durga’s importance is apparent from the fact that a separate niche had been provided for her. Here, an entire shrine is allotted to her worship. Ultimately, South Indian architects create a separate temple dedicated to the female principle within the compound of the main temple, the so called Amman shrine, already visible in nascent form in Pallava monuments. As in Buddhism of post-Gupta ages, Hinduism of the later periods is characterized by increasing emphasis on the female principle or female energy (shakti). Arjuna’s ratha is not much larger than the Durga shrine sharing its plinth but it is significantly different in appearance. The pillared front of this square shrine is reminiscent of the format seen in Pallava cave architecture. However, the super-structure clearly reflects the form of a structural building. The twotiered roof is pyramidal in shape and is capped by a dome-like element called a sikhara, which is, in this case, octagonal. In South Indian architecture, the term sikhara refers only to this crowning member and not, as in northern India, to the entire tower comprising the superstructure of the vimana. Each of the levels of the roof is decorated with a design of miniature barrel vaulted roofs (sala) interspersed with chandrasalas (essentially a rounded arch of the type formed by the end of a sala), as well as plastered niches, some of which contain half-length figures. These figures

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As is generally true in the Indian art, the figures are the principal elements of the compo-sition; it is the figures that create the volumes and dynamism, rather than arbitrary devices, such as systems of perspective or landscape elements, which could be used to render a context. Other monuments at Mamallapuram include the nine freestanding monolithic building scattered throughout the site. A series of five concentrated in one group near the sea gives the visitor the remarkable sense of waling through a petrified city. The origin of the idea of producing complete replicas of structural buildings, complete both inside and outside. But, apparently, this mode never became as popular as the cave format, which did not require the completion of exterior details other than that of the façade. Usually, these monoliths have been called rathas; a complete misnomer since they are clearly not intended to represent temple carts (rathas), but are more properly termed vimanas, for each is a distinctive shrine. The major group of five monoliths has been traditionally named for the five Pandava brothers (two of whom have been assigned to one shrine), and their common wife, Draupadi, although this iconographic interpretation is clearly erroneous. Each monolith is unique, yet the five seem to form a coherent group and must have been carved at about the same time, probably during the reign of Mamalla I. Four of the buildings were apparently carved out of what was once a single outcropping of stone, not separate boulders, as has often been stated. The fifth, which is not in a line with the others, was carved out of a smaller adjoining boulder. Three large animal sculptures of a lion, an elephant, and a reclining bull, are also associated with the vimanas. The highest part of the major boulder was at the South, where the so-called Dharmaraja ratha is located, and then, the form tapers to the smaller, so-called Draupadi shrine at the other end. From unfinished examples of rock-cut shrines at Mamallapurm, it may be inferred that the workmen proceeded from top to bottom, completing each section as they went and using the uncut rock beneath as a platform upon which to work. The buildings are important not only their own right but as documents of what must have been the contemporary freestanding temple architecture of the Pallavas. As such, they provide vital information regarding the genesis of South Indian architectural forms and indicate that within a short time after the Gupta period, clear distinction between northern and southern modes were already present, although all of the stages in these development have not been traced. It © Chronicle IAS Academy

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rel-vaulted shrines decorate the upper levels of the monument. The pillared façade, with seated lion bases, typifies one Pallava architectural format. Even though it is unfinished and contains virtually no sculpture, this monument provides valuable information about a rare form in Hindu architecture. The Dharmaraja ratha is the tallest of the group, but it too remains unfinished. The inscriptions on the shrine present conflicting evidence regarding the date of its excavation, for while the name Narasimha and a number of birudas suggest that the monument was begun during the reign of Narasimha Varman I (Mamalla I), other epigraphs refer to later kings. However, it is possible that the additional names were inscribed after work on the shrine was abandoned, for the rather unified style of the monument suggests that it was the product of a fairly concentrated effort, and thus a monument of the reign of Narasimha Varman I. Similar in concept to Arjuna’s ratha although larger and more elaborate, this shrine also depicts in the rock-cut form what must have been a popular style of free standing monument and demonstrates what was a fully developed southern style of architecture during this period. Each of the four sides, if completed, would have had a pillared façade flanked by niches containing sculptures. The southern style superstructure has three stories that diminish in size as they ascend, forming a pyramidal profile, each roof is decorated with the barrel-vaulted shrines (sala) and chandrasalas and the whole is capped by an octagonal sikhara. Like the Arjuna ratha, this building is a clear replica of the vimana of a southern-style structural temple, which would, in general, be preceded by a mandapa and which might typically be enclosed in a rectangular compound. This form the basis for what will be seen in Chola, Vijyayanagar and Nayak period monuments. While decidedly shaivite in iconography and dedication, the overall scheme of the monument has yet to be established. One image depicts Narasimha-Varman I himself, identified by an inscription. It is possible that his presence was significant in determining the purpose of the building, for although the king appears in a two-armed form befitting his human nature; he stands in the stiff frontal manner appropriate for deities, with no flexion to his body (Samabhanga). Other portraits of Pallava kings, sometimes even accompanied by their wives, occur in the art of Mamallapuram. But those at the Adivaraha cave, more relaxed postures and as accompaniments to the divine subjects carved in the other compositions of the cave.

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give the impression that they are partially hidden due to the viewer’s perspective from below, and like the freely moving figures in the other niches, again show the realism characteristic of Pallava Art. The two sides and rear of the lower story are carved into a series of niches containing figures, each separated by pilasters with bracketed capitals. This format, of figures contained within niches separated by pilasters and in fact, the plastered wall in general, is typical of South Indian temple architecture from this period forward, contrasting strongly with the wall treatment that characterizes North Indian monuments of the later periods. The two sidewalls have six niches each, although in both cases, the panel nearest the front has been left unsculpted, while the rear has only five niches. Male attendants appear at the corners of each, while the central niches contain images of principal deities of the iconographic program: Vishnu in the North, Shiva leaning in Nandi in the South and a male figure riding an elephant in the East. This figure has been traditionally identified as Indra on his elephant mount or sometimes, Subrahmanya (known also as Murugan), son of Shiva, who is associated with the elephant in South India. While both of these interpretations bear some credibility, another suggestion is that the figure represents Aiyanar-Sasta, a hunter god, known only in South India. Not only does Sasta commonly ride an elephant, but also the depictions of Shiva and Vishnu on the shrine reinforce the Sasta, interpretation since the god is believed to be the son of Shiva and Vishnu, a birth which occurred when Vishnu took the feminine form known as Mohini. The suggestion of the union between Shiva and Vishnu, which led to the birth of Sasta, is strengthened by the presence of mithuna couples in the niches flanking the principal niches. While mithunas are common in many other regional schools of South Asian Art, their near absence in Pallava depictions suggest that their inclusion here was for the specific purpose of amplifying the iconographic program of the shrine. Bhima’s ratha is a two storied, oblong building with a barrel-vaulted roof. The main image within, although never finished, was intended to be a representation of the reclining Vishnu Anantasayana for which such an elongated structure is appropriate. Entered on the long side rather than the short side, this building provides a completely different effect than the barrel-roofed Buddhist pillared halls; the somewhat similar roof form may imply only a common architectural proto-type rather than direct influence of one religion upon another. As in the case of the Arjuna ratha, chandrasalas and miniature bar© Chronicle IAS Academy

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sculptures,) and other features all suggest that these forms had been developing in the early Pallava period and earlier, although the complete evolution is not known. Yet, as preserved, like petrified replicas of vanished monuments, they provide important basis for the understanding of South Indian developments to follow. Rajasimha Style Freestanding structural temples of the Pallava period provide further information about religious and artistic developments. The so-called Shore Temple at Mamallapuram is thought to be a product of the reign of Narasimha Varman II Rajasimha, who ruled from about 700 and who is credited with giving a minor impetus to the production of structural temple, consisting as it does of three distinct worship areas, suggest that it was not the product of a unified or added to after its initial construction, although possibly still within the reign of the one king. A plan of the temple shows a small square Shiva shrine, containing a linga and representation of Somaskanda, on the western side of the temple, complex and slightly to the north. The main temple also dedicated to Shiva and containing a linga and relief of Somaskanda in the central shrine, faces east and consists of a rectangular walled enclosure, the main shrine and its antechamber, and a circumambulatory passage between the wall and the central building. A third shrine, dedicated to Vishnu as Anantasayana, is aligned with the central shrine and is located at the western end of the main temple, connecting two Shiva shrines into a single unit. The sculpture of Anantasayana was carved in situ from an existing rock and this may explain part of the peculiarity of the plan. Access to the Vishnu shrine is possible only from the southern side of the circumambulatory passage around the large Shiva shrine. The temple (if this term may be used to describe all three units as a whole) is thus oriented both to the east and the west and is apparently dedicated to both Shiva and Vishnu. Obviously, the east-facing Shiva shrine is the most important as indicated by its size and the fact that it has the highest superstructure. A much smaller tower appears atop the western Shiva shrine, while none is present over the Vishnu shrine. An entrance through the temple wall on the east and another leading into the rectangular temple compound on the west may be proto-types for the monumental gateways (gopura) that will characterize South Indian temples in later periods. The compound itself is much ruined due to the ocean spray and blowing sands that poses a continual threat to

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Here, Narashimha Varman is almost indistinguishable in his general demeanor from the deities carved as part of the same iconographic program. His depiction, then, must have served a role that was integral part of the meaning of the monument as a whole. The placement of his image on the south face of the building may be revealing in this respect, for in Hinduism, South is the quadrant of Yama, the god and judge of the dead. Later South Indian inscriptions of the Cholas reveal that specific funerary monuments called pallippadai were erected for royal personages. Although conclusive evidence is lacking, this Pallava building may be an early example of just such a building. Another important image of the Dharmaraja ratha is a sculpted panel in the shrine of the third storey, which shows Shiva with his wife, Uma (a form of Parvati), and their son, Skanda, in a group known as Somaskanda. Here, images of Brahma and Vishnu flank the figures. The Somaskanda subject becomes a popular Pallava icon that in later contests served as a metaphor for the Pallava royal family. Since this is the earliest Somaskanda image known, it is possible that it was introduced as part of the royal symbolism associated with this monument in general. The roughly carved surfaces of this sculpture seems to indicate that the work would have been completed by plastering and painting as well. The last of the group, the Nakula-Sahadeva ratha, is not in line with the other four, and unlike them, it faces South, not West. Because it lacks figure carving, it is not possible to determine anything about its iconography and how it relates to the other four shrines. However, its forms are extremely important for the understanding of the development of South Indian architecture. Its apsidal shade documents a rare type among the surviving examples of Hindu temples, but one that is clearly related to Ikshvaku proto-types like the temple at Chejerla. That this building is decidedly southern in styles is seen in the plastered walls (here, with empty niches) and in the tiered roof with chandrasalas and barrel vaulted salas. A sala roof caps the whole. It may be noted that although the exterior rear of the shrine is rounded, the interior cell is squared. The rock-cut monuments of Mamallapuram, which have only been sampled here, demonstrate conclusively a well-developed architectural and iconographic vocabulary by the 7th century A.D. This implies a tradition of some long standing that must predate such remains. The variety of architectural types, seen in the different roofs, wall treatments (including plastered wall with and without © Chronicle IAS Academy

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nine smaller shrines, with the two at the eastern end now accessible only through a pillared hall that was added at a later date. A detached mandapa to the east of shrine area was part of the original conception but is now attached to the main building owing to the addition of the intermediary mandapa. An important feature of this temple complex is the presence of gopuras (gateways) and proto-types in the enclosure walls. On the west, the central pavilion is in fact a gateway (although sealed off at present) and is distinguished from the other pavilion in the row by its decoration and sala form. Directly opposite the central shrine in the walled enclosure on the south and north are chapels that are also visibly different from the others in the row in their shape, size and the presence of the sala roof. These are clearly shrines, not gateways, but serve as precedents for what will ultimately be the placement of gopuras in line with the main shrine and for the evolution of the gopura form out of shrines with sala roofs. The largest of all the chapels aligned with the main shrine, Mahendra Varman’s temple on the east, also has a barrel roof and serves as the equivalent of the other three pavilions, although much grander. In contrast to later gopuras, this structure cannot be traversed; instead, the devotee is diverted to one side or the other in order to enter the main courtyard. A small gopura on the east provides access to the fore court of this shrine. The alignment of the four chapels-cum gopuras is clearly with the main shrine of the temple rather than with the centre of the respective walls of the rectangular compound; this practice explains the often asymmetrical appearance of the placement of gopuras in later monuments. In contrast to early Pallava monuments, which are generally rather simple in their architectural and sculptural embellishment; this temple complex is rather lavishly decorated. One major sculptural motif particularly associated with Rajasimha’s reign is the rampant lion, which appears almost ubiquitously as part of the façade decoration of the shrines in the compound wall. Plaster and paint on the chapel walls in particular from post-Pallava redecorations of the temple have obscured much of the other sculptural work. However, a panel showing ganas and other creatures on the base of the temple and only thirty centimeters in height demonstrates the high quality of carving that must have characterized the workmanship at the temple. These animated figures, crisply carved and delicately modelled, may be classed with the finest of Indic sculptures. By far the most common icon enshrined in the walls of chapels is Somaskanda. While this subject

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the monument but enough remains on the west to suggest that water had been channelled into a series of passages and pools. A related use of water was seen at the varaha mandapa, and both of these anticipate Chola-period designs. The Shore Temple is decidedly southern in style, as may be seen in the pyramidal shape of the superstructure and plastered wall treatment. The towers in this case are far taller and slenderer than the superstructure of the Dharmaraja ratha, although this may not indicate a general trend of the period. Sculptures of dvarapalas, lions and other figures were fairly abundant at the Shore Temple, but the sea air has rendered all of them into virtual shadows of their original forms. Another monument, more securely attributable to Narasimha Varman II Rajasimha’s reign, some fortykilometer away from Kanchipuram, is less enigmatic. Inscriptional evidence on this Shiva temple clearly indicates that Narasimha Varman II Rajasimha was the builder of the structure and that he named the deity enshrined in it (and by implication, the temple) after him, calling in Rajasimha Pallavesvara, in keeping with a practice that was to become very popular in South India. Commonly called the Rajasimhesvara, it is also known as Kailashnath (referring to Shiva as Lord of Mount Kailasha), a name that may have arisen from a verse in one of its inscriptions, which states that the temple touches the cloud with its top and robs Kailasha of its beauty. The temple scheme includes a large rectangular enclosure containing more than fifty chapels surrounding the main structure. A second row of small shrines at the east end of the temple compound suggests that at some time, perhaps after Rajasimha’s initial period of construction, a second compound was to have been built, but this was never completed. At the eastern end, aligned with the front of the inner compound wall, a smaller shrine, also dedicated to Shiva, was built by Rajasimha’s son Mahendra Varman III. Like his father, Mahendra Varman named the deity of the structure he had built for himself, and it is called Mahendrasvara or Mahendravarmanesvara in an inscription. Unlike the separate elements of the Shore Temples, this smaller shrine was probably part of the original conception of the temple, for here a clear break has been allotted for it in the wall, and it is probable that the son had the shrine built, while his father was engaged in the original project. Mahendra Varman’s structure is topped by a sala roof, but the main sanctuary, Rajasimha’s dedication, bears a typically tired southern form tower. The main building consists of a principal central shrine with its linga and enclosed circuma-mbulatory passage, surrounded by © Chronicle IAS Academy

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may have been introduced into Pallava art earlier, it was certainly popularized during the reign of Rajasimha. A clue to the importance of Somasakanda in the art of Rajasimha’s time occurs in an inscription at the temple stating that ‘just as Guha (Skanda, also called Subrahamanya or Kumara) took birth from the supreme lord (Shiva)’ thus from lord Ugradanda there took birth a very pious prince (subrahamanyahkumarah), the illustrious Atyantakama, the chief of the Pallavas. This the Pallava king Paramesara I and his son Rajasimha, each referred to by one of his alternate names, are likened to Shiva and his son in what appears to be another Pallava synthesis of the divine and kingly realms. The Rajasimhesvara temple at Kanchipuram displays any of the essential characteristics of the evolving southern architectural style. Some of this contrast sharply with those of the developing idioms of the north and Deccan. The storeyed pyramidal form of the tower above the shrines, the use of a rectangular enclosure wall with gopuras, and distinctive wall treatment using niches with or without figures and pilasters are all-important features. These characteristics form the basis of later southern styles, although their treatment could be elaborated upon and modified. Historically, another aspect of this temple deserves mention. Inscriptions of the pillars of the deatched mandapa record that the Early Western Chalukya king, Vikramaditya II, visited the temple, and was apparently so impressed by it that he did not carry off its treasures as spoils of war but instead allowed them to remain at the temple.



Points to remember



    

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The Mauryas, and especially Ashoka, built a large number of stupas throughout their empire to enhrine the relics of Buddha. Buddhist traditions credit Ashoka with building of 84,000 stupas. A stupa is a dome- like structure which is resting on a round base and is made of brick or stone. Some of these stupas still survive and rouse our curiosity even upto this day. The most famous are those of Sanchi and Barhut. The Sanchi Stupa is at present 77½ feet high and 121 ½ feet in diameter. A massive stone railing, supposed to be added later on encloses the whole structure. Ashoka is also credited to have built many monasteries and cave dwellings for the monks. The caves were cut out of hard rocks but their walls were softened and polished in such a manner that they still shine like a mirror. According to Kalhan, the author of Rajtarangini, it was Ashoka who laid the foundation of Srinagar. Another town supposed to have been buit by Ashoka was Devapattan in Nepal. The art of sculpture (or stone-cutting) reached a high watermark under Ashoka. The pillars, figures of animals and birds, and statues cut out of solid rocks are also exquisite in their beauty that they have won general admiration throughout the world. Ashoka’s pillars are perhaps the best example of the Mauryan art. These pillars are 50 to 60 feet in height and about 50 tons in weight. How such high and heavy pillars were chiselled out of one single rock is still a wonder. The stone is chiselled and cut with such an accuracy that it is generally said that they appear to have been designed by giants and executed by jewellers. Each pillar is surmounted by a capital or a head which is decorated with figures of animals like the lion, the bull, the elephant or the horse. The high artistic merits of the figures, which exhibit realistic modelling and movements are of a very high order. The Capital of the Sarnath pillar is the most magnificent. The figures of four lions, standing back to back, are so natural and exquisite that they have been praised all over the world. According to Dr. V.A. Smith, “It would be difficult to find in any country an example of ancient animalsculpture superior or even equal to this beautiful work of art, which successfully combines realistic











Under Ashoka (or the Mauryas) all branches of the fine arts — architecture, sculpture, art of polishing, art of engineering and art of jewellery —made a great progress. The buildings that were constructed by the Mauryas put the foreign travellers to mere astonishment, because of their beauty, design and execution. These buildings were mostly that of wood and so most of them could not come down to us but the Greek writers have left us impressive accounts of them. They tell us that the royal palaces constructed by the Mauryas were ‘the finest and grandest in the whole world.’ The Chinese traveller Fahein also remarked, that these palaces are so beautiful and excellent that they appear to be the creation of gods rather than of men.

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The Gandhara art is sometimes called the Greeco Buddhist art because while its subjects and ideas remained Indians, its style, physical features and dress were all after the Greek fashion. It has been pointed out by some historians that the Indians also learnt the construction of caves especially the rock-cut caves from the Greeks. Some of such caves can still be found in this country especially in the North-West of India. The Indian architecture is supposed to be some what affected by the Greeks but nothing definite can be said in this direction because no notable building belonging to the Indo-Bacterian or IndoParthian rulers has yet been unearthed except some ‘unembellished (unde-corated) walls of some houses and a temple at Taxila.’ Some decorative styles were no doubt adopted by the Indian architects and builders from their Greek contemporaries. The Gandhara school of art occupies a high place in the history of the Indian Art. At one time it was thought that India had only one school of art, and that was the Gandhara school of Artd. It is even believed that this school of art produced far-reaching effects on the art of such distant countries as China, Japan and Central Asia. As most of the statues and sculptures made under this school have been discovered in Gandhara, this art has come to be called Gandhara school of Art, after the name of the country of its origin. The Gandhara style might have been originated under the Indo-Bactrian and Indo-Parthian rulers but it was under Kanishka that it made a rapid development. Under this school of art life-like statues of Buddha began to be made in large numbers whereas under the older schools (of Sanchi and Bharhut) no statues and images of Buddha were made. His existence was shown only by symbols such as foot-prints, the Bodhi-tree, a vacant seat or the umbrella. In this school a great care was taken to show the physical features, muscles and moustaches, etc. of a figure in as natural a way as was possible. Much attention was paid in depicting each and every fold and turn of the dress. Rich ornaments, costumes and drapery were used most enthusiastically in this school and much attention was paid to imparting physical beauty to the artistic specimens. A great importance was attached to refineness and polish in the Gandhara School of art.

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modelling with ideal dignity and is finished in every detail with perfect accuracy.” This sculpture of four-lions has been adopted by the modern Indian currency. The walls of the caves, that have been found near Gaya, are so brightly polished that they shine like a mirror. The pillar which now stands in Feroze Shah Kotla bears such a fine polish that some observers have been misled to the belief that it was made of metal rather than of stone. For instance, Bishop Habere remarked after seeing this pillar, “It was a high black pillar of cast metal.” During the reign of Ashoka huge blocks of rocks were cut and chiselled into monolithic and exceptionally fine pillars, some of which were 50 tones in weight and about 50 feet in height. These huge blocks of rocks were perhaps cut from the Chunar hills of hard stone. How these pillars were taken to such distant places is nothing less than a miracle. A high degree of knowledge of engineering must have been required both in cutting these huge blocks and later on removing them hundreds of miles away, sometimes to the top fo a hill. In 1356 A.D. Feroze Shah Tughlak decided to remove the Topra pillar from Ambala district to Delhi. It is said that he had to prepare a special carriage with 48 wheels and employ about 8,400 men to carry this one single pillar. In other words, he employed about 200 men to move a single wheel. This example would clearly indicate that the art of engineering had greatly developed in the Mauryan period. The art of jewellery also made a great progress during the Mauryan period. In the Taxila ruins some very fine specimens of ornaments belonging to the Ashoka’s period were found. Their study revealed artistic beauty of the highest order. The Greeks had a great hand in the development of the so-called Gandhara School of Art which developed on the North-West. Now, in place of symbols for depicting Lord Buddha, his life like statues and images began to be made in large numbers. The later Gandhara school, depicting on stones, scenes from the life of Buddha is beyond doubt inspired by Hellenic ideals.

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solid rocks and shows the Chalukya art at its great height. Another stone temple of great merit is at Meguti. According to Prof. Ghosh “It shows the art of stonebuilding in its perfection.” The Vishnu temple at Aihole is not only the best preserved temple but it is also the most important temples from the historical point of view. It contains the famous Aihole Inscription of Vikramaditya II, which has thrown a good deal of light on the Chalukya dynasty. This temple is also known for its extraordinary fine sculptures and tow superb high flying statues of Devas which are excellent in design. The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, according to Havell, ‘combines the statelines of the classic design of Europe with ferried (burning) imagination of Gothic art.’ This temple also bears an inscription of great importance. The Mahadeva temple at Ittagi also bears an inscription and has elaborately designed pillars. The Kasivisvesvara temple at Lukkundi and Saraswati temple at Gadag are two other elaborately decorated temples of the Chalukyas. An important characteristic of the Chalukyan temples is that every attempt is made to decorate every part of them and consequently there is ‘crowded abundance of minute details which covers the surface.’ The Chalukya rulers also patronised the art of painting. Both Ajanta and Ellora were situated in their dominions, and at least some of the famous Ajanta cave frescoes were probably executed in the time of the Early Chalukya rulers.

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The technique and forms applied were Greek in nature but the ideas, inspirations and subjects were all Indians. Chalukya rulers were not only great conquerors but also great builders and patrons of art. They were mostly Hindus by faith and so they build a large number of beautiful temples in honour of the Hindu gods- Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, etc. Some of these temples have life- like statues of these deities, which are superb both in their design and execution. The Chalukya rulers built various types of temples- some of them are excavated out of soil rocks. Some are brick- temples while there are others which are ‘structural buildings of stone finely joined without mortar. The Vishnu temple at Badami, the Jain temple at Meguti, the Vishnu temple at Aihole, the Shiva temple at Pattadakal, the temple of Kasivivesvara at Lakkundi, the Mahadeva temple at Ittagi and the Saraswati temple at Gadag are some of the most important temples built by the Chalukya monarchs. Almost every little town within the Chalukya empire has got some remains of one temple or the other. According to Prof. N.N. Ghosh “There is hardly a village (within the Chalukya boundaries) that has not some remains of the Chalukyas, both the early and the later ones, were great builders.” All these temples referred to above have special qualities of their own. The one built at Badami presents one of the earliest examples of the Chalukya art. The temple, which was built by Mangalesa Chalukya towards the end of the 6th century A.D. in honour of Vishnu is completely excavated out of



 







  










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HIST OR Y (UPSC QUESTIONS HISTOR ORY UESTIONS)) 1. The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained by (a) Universal Law (b) Universal Truth (c) Universal Faith (d) Universal Soul 2. The "dharma" and "rita" depict a central idea of ancient Vedic civilization of India, In this context, consider the following statements: 1. Dharma was a conception of obligations and of the discharge of one's duties to oneself and to others. 2. Rita was the fundamental moral law governing the functioning of the universe and all it contained.

conditions and culture of India at that time. In this context, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. The roads and river-routes were completely immune from robbery. 2. As regards punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water and poison were the instruments for determining the innocence or guilt of a person. 3. The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations. Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 3. With reference to the history of Indian rock-cut architecture, consider the following statements: 1. The caves at Badami are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India. 2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were originally made for Ajivikas by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. 3. At Ellora, caves were made for different faiths. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 4. The Chinese traveller Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) who visited India recorded the general History IAS Academy ©Chronicle

(d) 1, 2 and 3 5. Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas, while the others are called Viharas. What is the difference between the two? (a) Vihara is a place of worship, while Chaitya is the dwelling place of the monks (b) Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is the dwelling place of the monks (c) Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the cave, while Vihara is the hall axial to it (d) There is no material difference between the two 6. Which one of the following describes best the concept of Nirvana in Buddhism? (a) The extinction of the flame of desire (b) The complete annihilation of self (c) A state of bliss and rest (d) A mental stage beyond all comprehension 7. Which of the following characterizes/ characterize the people of Indus Civilization? 1. They possessed great palaces and temples. 2. They worshipped both male and female deities. 1

3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare. Select the correct statement/ statements using the codes given below. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only

(d) None 11. With reference to the history of philosophical thought in India, consider the following statements regarding Sankhya school: 1. Sankhya does not accept the theory of rebirth or transrmigration of soul.

CH IA R S ON AC I C AD L E EM Y

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) None of the statements given above is correct

2. Sankhya holds that it is the self-knowledge that leads to liberation and not any exterior influence or agent.

8. Which of the following statements is/are applicable to Jain doctrine? 1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance.

Which of the statements given above is /are correct? (a) 1 only

2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul.

3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

9. Consider the following Bhakti Saints: 1. Dadu Dayal 2. Guru Nanak 3. Tyagaraja

Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over? (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 1 and 2

10. Consider the following historical places: 1. Ajanta Caves 2. Lepakshi Temple 3. Sanchi Stupa

2

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

12. In the context of cultural history of India, a pose in dance and dramatics called 'Tribhanga' has been a favourite of Indian artists from ancient times till today. Which one of the following statements best describes this pose? (a) One leg is bent and the body is slightly but oppositely curved at waist and neck (b) Facial expressions, hand gestures and makeup are combined to symbolize certain epic or historic characters (c) Movements of body, face and hands are used to express oneself or to tell a story

(d) A little smile, slightly curved waist and certain hand gestures are emphasized to express the feelings of love or eroticism

13. With reference to the guilds (Shreni) of ancient India that played a very important role in the country's economy, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Every guild was registered with the central authority of the State and the king was the chief administrative authority on them. 2. The wages, rules of work, standards and prices were fixed by the guild.

3. The guild had judicial powers over its own members.

Which of the above places is / are also known for mural paintings? (a) 1 only

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only

(b) 1 and 2 only

(c) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

History

14. With reference to the scientific progress of ancient India, which of the statements given below are correct? 1. Different kinds of specialized surgical instruments were in common use by 1st century AD. 2. Transplant of internal organs in the human body had begun by the beginning of 3rd century AD.

2. Dhrupad is primarily a devotional and spiritual music. 3. Dhrupad Alap uses Sanskrit syllables from Mantras. Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3

3. The concept of sine of an angle was known in 5th century AD. 4. The concept of cyclic quadrilaterals was known in 7th century AD. Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

(d) None of the above is correct

18. With reference to the religious history of medieval India, the Sufi mystics were known to pursue which of the following practices? 1. Meditation and control of breath 2. Severe ascetic exercises in a lonely place 3. Recitation of holy songs to arouse a state of ecstasy in their audience

15. With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the following was/were common to both Buddhism and Jainism? 1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only

2. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas

19. Lord Buddha's image is sometimes shown with the hand gesture called 'Bhumisparsha Mudra'. It symbolizes: (a) Buddha's calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his meditation

3. Denial of efficacy of rituals Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

16. The Nagara, the Dravida and the Vesara are the (a) Three main racial groups of the Indian subcontinent (b) Three main linguistic divisions into which the language of India can be classified (c) Three main styles of Indian temple architecture (d) Three main musical Gharanas prevalent in India 17. With reference to Dhrupad, one of the Major traditions of India that has been kept alive for centuries, which of the following statements are correct? 1. Dhrupad originated and developed in the Rajput kingdoms during the Mughal period. History

(c) 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

(b) Buddha's calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of Mara (c) Buddha's reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve into the Earth, and thus this life is transitory (d) Both the statements (a) and (b) are correct in this context 20. The religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily of (a) Bhakti (b) image worship and Yajnas (c) worship of nature and Yajnas (d) worship of nature and Bhakti 21. What was the immediate reason for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade India and fight the Third Battle of Panipat ? 3

(c) 2 and 3 only

(a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by Marathas of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore (b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg Khan invited him to invade Punjab

(d) 1, 2 and 3 23. Among the following, who was not a proponent of bhakti cult ? (a) Vallabhacharya

(c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal (Gujarat, Aurangabad, Sialkot and Pasrur)

CH IA R S ON AC I C AD L E EM Y

(b) Tyagaraja

(d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab up to the borders of Delhi to his kingdom

22. Why did Buddhism start declining in India in the early medieval times ? 1. Buddha was by that time considered as one of the incarnations of Vishnu and thus became a part of Vaishnavism. 2. The invading tribes from Central Asia till the time of last Gupta king adopted Hinduism and persecuted Buddhists. 3. The Kings of Gupta dynasty were strongly opposed to Buddhism.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct ? (a) 1 only

(c) Tukaram

(d) Nagarjuna

24. There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings ? (a) Bagh caves (b) Ellora caves

(c) Lomas Rishi cave

(d) Nasik caves

25. Mahamastakabhisheka, a great religious event is associated with and done for who of the following? (a) Bahubali (b) Buddha

(c) Mahavir

(d) Natraja

(b) 1 and 3 only

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4

History

HISTORY (UPSC QUESTIONS) (ANSWERS)

CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

1 (a)

14 (c)

2 (c)

15 (b)

3 (b)

16 (c)

4 (b)

17 (b)

5 (b)

18 (c)

6 (c)

19 (d)

7 (c)

20 (c)

8 (d)

21 (a)

9 (b)

22 (a)

10 (b)

23 (d)

11 (b)

24 (a)

12 (a)

25 (a)

13 (c)






History

HIST OR Y (SAMPLE QUESTIONS HISTOR ORY UESTIONS)) 1. Consider the following statements about the taxes charged by Delhi sultans and select the correct answer: (i) Zakat was a tax on the property and land of Muslims. (ii) Jizya was a tax imposed on non-Muslims for the protection given by the state to their lives and property. (iii) Kharaj was a land tax imposed on both Muslims and non-Muslims peasants. Codes: (a) i and ii only

2.

(b)

i and iii only

(c)

ii and iii only

Select the correct answer code from the below: (a) Only I is correct (b) Only II is correct (c) Both I and II are correct (d) Neither I nor II are correct 4. Consider the following statements and select the correct answer: i. Zen Buddhism is a form of Buddhism in China, Korea and Japan that lays special emphasis on meditation. ii. Zen Buddhism places much more emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism.

(d) All of the above

Codes: (a) i only

Consider the following statement select the correct answer: (i) Nyaya is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy based on system of logic.

(b) ii only

(ii) According to the Nyaya School, there are exactly four sources of knowledge -perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. (iii) According to the Nyaya School, knowledge obtained through each of these sources will always be valid. Codes: (a) i and ii only (b)

i and iii only

(c)

ii and iii only

(d) All of the above 3. Consider the following statements: I. Tanjore painting is an important form of classical South Indian painting native to the town of Tanjore in Tamil Nadu. II. These paintings are known for their elegance, rich colours, and attention to detail. The themes for most of these paintings are Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and scenes from Buddhism mythology. History IAS Academy ©Chronicle

(c) Both (d) None 5. Which of the following land classification in Dahsala system developed by Todar Mal under the Mughal rule are correctly matched? (i) Polaj - land cultivated annually. (ii) Parauti- land left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years). (iii) Chachar - land left fallow for 3 to 4 years. (iv) Banjar - land uncultivated for 5 years or more. Codes: (a) i, ii & iii (b) ii, iii & iv (c) i, iii & iv (d) i, ii, iii & iv 6. Consider the following statements: 1. Jainism believes that life is both endless and subject to impermanence, suffering and uncertainty. These states are called the tilakhana, or the three signs of existence. 1

2. According to the Buddhism liberation is achieved by eliminating all karma from the soul. Select the correct answer from below: (a) Only 1 is correct

9. Consider the following statements in the context of Dravida temple architecture: 1. The chief feature of the Dravida style is the Vimana or the storey. 2. Chola temples are famous for their richly ornamented gateways called the gopurams.

(b) Only 2 is correct Which of the above statements are correct? (a) Only 1

CH IA R S ON AC I C AD L E EM Y

(c) Both 1 and 2 are correct

(d) Neither 1 nor 2 is correct

7. Consider the following statements: 1. Kathakali is the only Indian dance form in which the entire body, both skeleton and muscles, down to even the smallest facial muscle are used to portray emotion.

2. The Hastha Lakshandeepika is a classical text and forms the basis of hands and arms movement in Kathakali.

Select the correct answer code from the below: (a) Only I is correct (b) Only II is correct

(c) Both I and II are correct

(d) Neither I nor II are correct

8. Consider these statements regarding 'Mahajanpadas: 1. Ancient Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics (Solas Mahajanapadas).

2. Mahajanpadas had evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region. 3. Each of these Janapadas was named after the Kshatriya tribe (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled therein. 4. The first Buddhist Council was held in Pataliputra,capital of Magadha Mahajanpad. Later on, Rajagriha became the capital of Magadha.

Which of the above statements is/are correct? (a) Only 1 and 2 (b) Only 1, 2 and 3 (c) Only 2, 3 and 4

(d) Only 1, 3 and 4

2

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

10. Consider the following statements in the context of Buddhism: 1. Hinayana is the more orthodox and conservative school of Buddhism which is believed to be more close to the adwaitic tradition of Hinduism.

2. Mahayana is the more advanced and modern school of Buddhism which is believed to be closer to the Dwaita tradition of the Puranic Hinduism. 3. Vajrayana is the Tantric tradition in Buddhism which originated in Tibet and eastern part of India and drew inspiration from the occultist traditions of Vedic Hinduism.

Which of the above statements are correct? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) Only 3

11. Match the following: Department

Function

1. Vazarat

A. Finance

2. Rasalat

B. Religious affairs

3. Diwan-e-insha

C. Military

4. Diwan-e-arz dence

D. State correspon-

Codes: A

B

C

D

(a) 1

2

3

4

(b) 1

2

4

3

(c) 2

1

4

3

(d) 2

1

3

4

History

12. Consider these statements: 1. Kanishka is renowned in Buddhist tradition for having convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir. 2. Kanishka also had the original Gandhari vernacular, or Prakrit, Buddhist texts translated into the language of Vedic (chaste) Sanskrit. 3. Along with the Indian emperors Ashoka and Harsha Vardhana and the Indo-Greek king Menander I (Milinda), Kanishka is considered by Buddhism as one of its greatest benefactors. 4. Kanishka is said to have been particularly close to the Buddhist scholar Mahakshyapa, who became his religious advisor in his later years. Which of the above statements is /are incorrect? (a) Only 1 and 4 (b) Only 2 and 4 (c) Only 1 and 3 (d) Only 2 and 3 13. Find the correct chronology of the following Mughal emperors 1. Farrukh Siyar 2. Jahandar Shah 3. Muhammad Shah 4. Ahmad Shah Bahadur

(c) Both 1 and 2 are correct (d) Neither 1 nor 2 is correct 15. Which among the following books were written by Harshavardhan? 1. Ratnavali 2. Priyadarshika 3. Nagnanda 4. Kavirajmarg 5. Harshacharita Codes: (a) 1 & 2 only (b) All (c) 1, 2, 3 & 4 only (d) 1, 2 & 3 only 16. The Vakataka Empire was the contemporaries of the Gupta Empire. Consider the following statements regarding the Vakataka Empire: (i) They formed the southern boundaries of the north and ruled over an area which roughly forms today's states of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. (ii) Some of the Ellora Caves were built under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers. (iii) They were eventually overrun by the Chalukyas. Which of these statements are true? (a) (i) only

Codes: (a) 2 - 1 - 4 - 3

(b) (i) and (ii)

(b) 1 - 2 - 4 - 3

(d) All of the above

(c) 2 - 1 - 3 - 4 (d) 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 14. Consider the following statements: 1. Pattachitra refers to the folk painting of Odisha, in the eastern region of India. 2. Themes of the Pattachitra are chiefly on Lord Jagannath, Radha-Krishna and Jainism. Select the correct answer code from the below: (a) Only 1 is correct (b) Only 2 is correct

(c) (i) and (iii)

17. Which of the following statements regarding Vedas is/are correct? (i) The seventh mandala of the Rig Veda contains the famous Purushasukta which explains the 4 varnas. (ii) Shatapatha Brahamana literature is attached to Yajur Veda. Codes: (a) i only (b) ii only (c) Both i and ii (d) None of them

History

3

18. Consider the following statements regarding the administrative arrangement during Mughal emperor Akbar's reign, and choose the incorrect ones: (i) The revenue department, headed by a wazir, was responsible for all finances and management of jagir and inam lands.

3. Andal the famous woman poet of south India belonged to the Nayanars tradition. Which of the above statements are correct? (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3

CH IA R S ON AC I C AD L E EM Y

(ii) The head of the military, mir bakshi, was appointed from among the leading nobles of the court. The mir bakshi was in charge of intelligence gathering, and also made recommendations to the emperor for military appointments and promotions.

(following the Vaishnava tradition) and Alvars (following the Shaiva tradition).

(iii) The mir saman was in charge of the imperial household, including the harems, and supervised the functioning of the court and royal bodyguards. (iv) The judiciary was a separate organization headed by a chief qazi, who was also responsible for religious beliefs and practices. Codes: (a) Only (i)

(b) Only (ii)

(c) Only (iii) and (iv)

(c) 1 and 2

(d) 1, 2 and 3

21. Consider the following statements regarding the Vijayanagar Empire: 1. The Vijayanagara Empire was an empire based in South India, in the Deccan Plateau region. It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka I of the Sangam Dynasty. 2. It lasted until 1646 although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates.

3. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site.

(d) None of the above

19. Which of the following statement is/are correct? (i) Aihole inscription is related to Pulakesin II of the Chalukya Dynasty. (ii) Pallavas initiated the Dravida style of temple architecture.

(iii) The founder of the Chalukyas of Vatapi was Jayasimha. Codes: (a) i and ii

(b) i and iii

(c) All of them

(d) None of them

20. Consider the following statements in the context of the Bhakti movement in south India? 1. One of the important regional movements of the Bhakti tradition in Karnataka was founded by Basava who established the Virashaivas sect also called as Lingayats. 2. Under Chola kings two important sects developed in Bhakti tradition - the Nayanars

4

Which of the statements are false? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3

(c) All of the above

(d) None of the above

22. Which is not true of the Mauryan Administration? (a) Pataliputra was looked after by six committees. (b) Government officials used to visit their areas for inspection. (c) Officers were given land for their maintenance.

(d) The heads of various departments were called "Adhyaksha".

23. Who among the following anticipated Newton by declaring that all things gravitate to the earth? (a) Aryabhatta (b) Varahamihira (c) Buddhagupta

(d) Brahmagupta

History

24. Match the following: A. Early Paleolithic

1. Chopper-Chopping tools

(b) 2

3

4

1

(c) 1

4

2

3

(d) 3

4

2

1

B. Middle Paleolithic 2. Blades C. Upper Paleolithic

3. Geometric tools

D. Mesolithic

4. Flake

A

B

C

D

(a) 1

3

2

4

25. Which of the states in India has the largest number of Harappan sites after independence? (a) Haryana (b) Gujarat (c) Rajasthan

(d) Punjab

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History

5

HISTORY (SAMPLE QUESTIONS) (ANSWERS)

CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

1 (d)

14 (a)

2 (a)

15 (d)

3 (a)

16 (c)

4 (a)

17 (b)

5 (d)

18 (d)

6 (d)

19 (c)

7 (a)

20 (a)

8 (b)

21 (d)

9 (c)

22 (c)

10 (c)

23 (d)

11 (b)

24 (c)

12 (b)

25 (b)

13 (c)






History

MEDIEVAL HIS TORY

Add : D-108, Sec-2, Noida (U.P.), Pin - 201 301 Email id : [email protected] Call : 09582948810, 09953007628, 0120-2440265

CONTENTS Sl. No.

TOPICS

Pg. No.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 1.

India Between 750-1200 AD ................................................................... 5-31

2.

Establishment and Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate ........................ 32-51

3.

Emergence of Regional States in India ................................................ 52-63

4.

Religious Movements in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries .............. 64-79

5.

Mughal Dynasty .................................................................................... 80-90

6.

Administration Under Mughals ......................................................... 91-107

7.

Later Mughals .................................................................................... 108-116

8.

The Maratha State.............................................................................. 117-120

9.

European Arrival ............................................................................... 121-128






C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y [4]

Chronicle IAS Academy

INDIA BETWEEN 750–1200 AD

IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

been the founder of the Pallava dynasty. During their reign, the Pallava rulers made Kanchi their capital and extended the kingdom from the Krishna in the south to a region further north of the Arabian Sea. The chronology of the Pallava kings is vague, but texts suggest that they were most powerful between 330 and 550. The noteworthy rulers during this period were: Simhavarama I, Sivaskkandavarma I, Veerakurcha, Shandavarma II, Kumaravishnu I, Simhavarma II, and Vishnugopa. Vishugopa is said to have been defeated in battle by Samudragupta after which the Pallavas become weaker and the Cholas and the Kalahari repeatedly attacked their kingdom and robbed it of its wealth and territories. It was Simhavishnu, the son of Simhavarma II, who eventually crushed the Kalabhras’ dominance in 575 and re-established his kingdom. There also seems have been an enmity between the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms. However, the real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and Chalukya realms. The Pallava history between 600 and 900 is full of accounts of wars between the Pallava and the Chaluakaya rulers.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The period between AD 750 and AD 1200 is referred to as an early medieval period of Indian History. It was earlier treated by historians as a ‘dark phase’. It was so because during this time the whole country was divided into numerous regional states which were busy fighting with each other. But recent studies have indicated that, though politically divided, India witnessed a growth of new and rich cultural activities in the fields of art, literature and language. In fact, some best specimens of temple architecture and Indian literature belong to this period. Thus, far from being ‘dark’ it may be treated as a bright and vibrant phase of Indian history.

CHRONICLE

The political developments after Harshavardhan, can be best understood if we divide the period from AD 750 to AD 1200 in two parts (a) AD 750–AD 1000; (b) AD 1000– AD 1200. The first phase was marked by the growth of three important political powers in India. These were Gurjara Pratiharas in north India, Palas in eastern India and Rashtrakutas in South India. These powers were constantly fighting with each other with an aim to set up their control on Gangetic region in northern India. This armed conflict among these three powers is known as ‘Tripartite struggle’. In the second phase we notice the breakup of these powers. It resulted in the rise of many smaller kingdoms all over the country. For example, in northern India, the disintegration of the Pratihara Empire brought to the forefront various Rajput states under the control of different Rajput dynasties such as the Chahmanas (Chauhans), Chandellas, Paramaras. etc. These were the states which fought and resisted the Turkish attacks from northwest India led by Mahmud Ghaznavi and Mohammad Ghori in the 11th and 12th centuries, but had to yield ultimately as they failed to stand united against the invaders.

MAJOR DYNASTIES The Pallava dynasty emerged in South India at a time when the Satavhana dynasty was on the decline, Shivaskandavarman is said to have

Chronicle IAS Academy

In 670, Parameshwaravarma I came to the throne and restricted the advance of the Chlukyan king Vikramaditya I. However, the Chalukyas joined hands with the Pandya king Arikesari Maravarma, another promients enemy of the Pallavas, and defeated Parameshwaravarma I. Parameshwaravarma I died in 695 and was succeeded by Narasimhavarma II, a peaceliving ruler. During his reign, clashes between the Pallavas and chalukyas were few. He is also remembered for building the famous Kailashanatha temple at Kanchi. He died grieving his elder son’s accidental death in 722. His youngest son, Parameshwaravarma II, came to power in 722. He was a patron of arts and had little interest in fighting. He proved to be a very soft opponent to his contemporary Chalukya king, Vikramaditya II, who had the support if the Ganga king, Yereyqppa. He died in 730 with no heirs to the throne, which left the Pallava kingdom in a state of disarray.

[5]

kingdom by annexing the entire Andhra kingdom. His reign is remembered as the greatest period in the history of Karnataka. He defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada. In the north, pulakeshin II subdued the Latas, Malavas, and Gurjara. He also annexed the three kingdoms of Maharashtra, Konkan, and Karnataka. After conquering the Kosalas and the Kalingas, and eastern Chalukyan dynasty was inaugurated by his brother Kubja Vishnuvardana. This dynasty absorbed the Andhra country by defeating the Vishnukundin king Vidramendravarman III. Moving south, pulakeshin II allied himself with the Cholas, Keralas, and Pandyas in order to invade the powerful Pallavas. By 631, the Chalukyan empire extended from sea to sea. However, Pulkeshin II was defeated and probably killed in 642, when the Pallavas, in retaliation for an attack on their capital, captured the chalukyan capital at Badami.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Nandivarma II came to power after some infighting for the throne among relatives and officials of the kingdom. He waged war against the Pandyas and crushed them at a time when they got no support from the Chalukyas; Instead, the Chalukyan king Deertivarma (son of Vidramaditya II) waited for the defeat of Pandyas at the hands of Pallavas, and immediately afterword waged war against the war-torn Pallava army and defeated it. However, Nandivarma married the Rashtrakuta princess Reetadevi, and reestablished the Pallava kingdom. He was succeeded by Dantivarma (796-846) who ruled for 54 long years. Dantivarma was defeated by the Rastrakut king, Dantidurga, and subsequently by the Pandyas. He was succeeded by Nandivarma III in 846. Accounts in the Tamil book Nandikkalubalakom say that the Pallava kings who followed were powerful. Nandivarma III was succeeded by Nrupatungavarma, who had two brothers, Aparajitavarma and Kampavarma. The Chola king provoked Aprajita varma into waging a civil war in the Pallava kingdom. Subsequently, Aprajita Varma captured the throne but had to pay heavy costs to the Cholas for their help. Later, incompetent kings and political instability reduced the Pallavas to petty kingdom. This brought the Cholas to formidable position in the south Indian political stage.

THE CHALUKYAS

History of the Chalukyas, the Karnataka rulers, can be classified into three eras: 1) the early western era (6th -8th century), the Chalukyas of Badami; 2) the later western era (7th - 12th century), the Chalukyas of Kalyani; 3) the eastern chalukya era (7th - 12th century), the chalukyas of Vengi. The Chinese traveler, Hieun Tsang, gives an elaborate account of the Chalukyas in his travelogue. Pulakesin I (543567) was the first independent ruler of Badami with Vatapi in Bijapur as his capital. Kirthivarma I (566-596) succeeded him at the throne. When he died, the heir to the throne, Prince Pulakesin II, was just a baby and so the king’s brother, Mangalesha (597-610), was crowned the caretaker ruler. Over the years, he made many unsuccessful attempts to kill the prince but was ultimately killed himself by the prince and his friends. Pulakesin II (610-642), the son of Pulakesin I, was a contemporary of Harshavardhana and the most famous of the Chalukyan kings. He increased the size of his

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The Chalukyas rose to power once again under the leadership of Vikramaditya I (655-681), who defeated his contemporary Pandya, Pallava, Cholas and Kerala rulers to establish the supremacy of the Chalukyan empire in the region. He was succeeded by his son Vinayaditya(681-696), who was an able administrator. He had many victories to his account, prominent among them credit against Yashovarma being the once (king of Kanauj). He was succeeded by his son Vijayaditya (696-733), who was succeeded by his son Vikramaditya II (733-745) who defeated the Pallava king Nandivarma II to capture a major portion of the Pallava kingdom. However, Vikramaditya II’s son, Kirtivarma II (745), was disposed by the Rastrakuta ruler, Bhantidurga, who established the Rashtrakuta dynasty as a force to reckon with in Karnataka’s Political scenario.

THE PANDYAS OF MADURAI (6TH TO 14TH CENTURY)

The pandyas were one of the most ancient dynasties to rule south India and are mentioned in Kautilya’s Arhasastra and Megasthenes’ Indica. The Sangam age started from a Pandya king and, as per Sangam literature, there were at least twenty kings in this dynasty. The most prominent among them was Nedunzalian, who made Madurai his capital. Pandya rulers exercised a clan-rule under several Lineages, each bearing Tamil names ending with suffixes

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dynasty who conquered Orissa, Bengal, Burma and the Andaman and Nicobar Island. The Cholas dynasty was at its zenith during his reign. The last ruler of the Chola Dynasty was Rajendra III (1246-79). He was a weak ruler who surrendered to the pandyas. Later, Malik Kafur invaded this Tamil state in 1310 and extinguished the Chola empire. Rajaraja I (985-1014) who was known by a variety of titles such as mummadi choladeva. Jayandonada, and chola-martanda, began the most glorious epoch of the Cholas. He used his military powers to rebuild the Chola empire and raise himself to a position of supremacy in the south. One of the earliest exploits of Rajaraja I was the subjugation of the Cheras, whose fleet he destroyed at Kandalur. He then took Madurai and captured the panday king, Amarabhujanga. At this time the affairs of Srilanka were in a state of disarray; hence, he invaded the island and annexed its northern part which became a Cholas province under the name Munnadi colamandalam. Rajaraja I then overran the eastern Chalukyan country of Vengi. The conquests of Rajaraja I included Kalinga and “ the old islands of the sea numbering 12,000”, which have been generally identified with the Laccadives and the Maldivas. Rajaraja’ is also famous for the beautiful siva temple which he constructed at Thanjavur. It is called Rajarajeswava after his name and is specially admired for its huge proportions, simple design, elegant sculpters, and fine decorative motifs. On the walls of the temple, is engraved an account of Rajaraja’s ecploits.

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such as Valuti and Celiyan. The Pandyas acquired their resources in inter-tribal conflicts with the cheras and Cholas, and luxury goods from their maritime trade with countries further west. The Pandyas founded a Tamil Literary academy called the Sangam, at Madurai They adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests. Their power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras. After the Sangam Age, this dynasty lost its significance for more than century, only to rise once again at the end of the 6th century. Their first significant ruler was Dundungan (590620) who defeated the Kalabars and brought the pandyas back to the path of glory. The list known Pandya king, Parakramadeva, was defeated by Usaf Khan, (a viceroy of Muhmmad-bin-Tughlaq when the Tughlaq dynasty was in process of extending their kingdom up to Kanyakumari.

THE CHOLAS (9TH TO 13TH CENTURY)

The Chola dynasty was one of the most popular dynasties of south India which ruled over Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka with Tanjore as its capital. Rock edicts II and XII of Ashoka rare the earliest historical documents to refer to the Cholas. Early Chola rulers were the karikala Cholas who ruled in the 2nd century. After them, the Chola dynasty remained insignificant for centuries before resurfacing when, in 850, Vijayalaya captured Tanjore during the Pandya-Pallava wars. To commemorate his accession, he built a temple at Tanjore, The king was the central head who was helped by a council of ministers. However, the administration was democratic. Land revenue and trade tax were the main sources of income. Society was divided into Brahmins and nonBrahmins. The temple was the cultural and social centre, where art and literature flourished. The giant statue of Gomateswara at Shravanbelagola was also built during this period. Vijayalaya’s son Aditya I (871-901) succeeded him to throne. Aditya died in 907 leaving the throne to his son Parantaka I (907-955) who was king for the next 48 years. But it was Rajaraj I (985-1014) who was the founder of newly organized Chola kingdom. He snatched back lost territories form the Rashtrakutas and become the most powerful of the Chola rulers. Rajendra Chola (1014-144), son of Rajaraja I, was an important ruler of this

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Rajendra I gangaikonda (1014-44) secceeded Rajaraja I. A few years after coming to the throne, he annexed the whole of Sri Lanka's, northern part having been previously conquered by RajarajaI. The following year he reasserted the Chola supermacy over the kings of Kerala and the Pandyan country. Rajendra I also directed his arms towards the North, and his armies marched triumphantly as far as the Ganga and the dominions of the Pala king Mahipala. It was doubtless an audacious campaign and to commemorate it he adopted the title of gangaikonda, Rajendra I invited a number of Hiavas form Bengal in to his kingdom. The chola monarch’s achievements were not invited to land. He possessed a fowerful fleet which gained successes across the Bay of Bengal. It is said that he vanquished Sangramavijayottungavarman and conquered kataha or Kadaram (Sumatra).

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Presumably, the expediton was undertaken to further commercial intercourse between the Malay peninsula and South India. Rajendra I founded a new capital called after himGangaiknoda-Cholapuram, indentified with modern Gangakundapuram in the Tiruchiraplli district of Tamil Nadu. It has magnificent place and a temple adorned with exquisite granite sculptures.

The organisation which was responsible for the continuity of life and tradition in the midst of frequent political changes in south India was the village, and the vitality of this institute is attested by hundreds of inscriptions from all arts of south India. The degree of autonomy at the south Indian village level was quite remarkable. Participation of royal officials in village affaris was more as advisors and observers than as administratiors.

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Kulottunga I (1070-1122) was another significant Chola ruler. Kulottunga I united the two kingdom of the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Cholas of Thanjavur. Kullottunga I introduced certain reforms in the internal administration of the kingdom. Of these, the most important was that he got the land resurveyed for taxation and revenue purposes. Despite being a devout Shaiva by faith, he is known to have made grants to the Buddhist shrines at Megapatam. After a long reign of about half a century, Kulottunga I passed away sometime in 1122 and was succeeded by his son, Vikrama Chola, surnamed Tyagasamudra, who had earliar held the viceroyalty of Vengi. Vikrama Chola (1118-33) and his immediate successors, Kulottunga II (1133-47), Rajaraja II (1147-62) and Rajadhiraja II (1162-78), were all weak rulers under whom the power of the cholas rapidly declined and their place was taken by the Hoysalas of Dwarsamundra and Pandyas of Madurai.

SOUTH INDIAN VILLAGE SYSTEM

The Cholas (like the Pallavas) undertook vast irrigational projects. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, they built mighty stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut out channels to distribute water over large tracts of land One of the most remarkable achievements belongs to the time of Rajendra I. He dug an artificial lake which was filled with water form the Klerun and the Vellar rivers near his new capital, Gangaikonda Chlapuram. The Cholas also constructed grand trunk roads which served as artorvals along important roads, and public ferries were provided across rivers. The Chola rulers were mainly worshippers of Siva, but they were not intolerant of other prevaints faiths. Rajaraja I, and ardent Saiva himself, built and endowed temples of Vishnu and made gifts of the Buddhist Vihara at Negapatam. Kulottuga I, also a Shaiva, is recorded to have granted a village to a Buddhist vihar. The jains also appear to have pursued their faith in peace and harmony.

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Type of Villages

The village with an intercaste population, paying taxes to the king in the form of land revenue, was the most frequent type. Brahmadeya or agrahara villages were villages granted to Brahmins and inhabited entirely by them. These were less common than the first type, but much more porsperous, because of their exemption from tax. Devadan were villages granted to god, they functioned more or less in the same manner sa the first type except that the revenues form these villages were donated to temple, and, hence, received by the temple authorities and not by the state.

During the Pallava period, the first two type were predominant, but under the Cholas when temples become the centres of life, the third of the last type gained more popularity.

The emperor was the pivot on which the whole machinery of the state turned. He discharged his onerous duties and responsibilities with the advice and help of ministers and other high offcers. The inscriptions of the Cholas prove that there system of administration was highly organise and efficient. Public revenue was derived mainly from land and collected in kind, or in cash, or in both, by village assemblies. Land was possessed by individual and communities. There were peasant proprietorship and other forms of land tenure. The state’s demand of land revenue seems to have been one third of the gross produce in the time of Rajaraja I. The other items of public income were customs and tolls, which were taxes on various kinda of professions, mines, forests. salt, etc. There were occasional famines, general or local; the visitation of 1152 evidently belonged to the former category, though there is evidence of the sympathetic

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administration of the tax system-Kulottunga I earned fame by abolishing toll some cases of oppression are on record. The chief items of public expenditure were the regular expenses of the king and his court, army and navy, civil administrative staff, roads, and irrigation tanks and channels besides temples and religious endowments.

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The village assembly held society together through its unique feature of an autonomous selfsufficient village. The village was the primary unit of society and polity. From inscriptional records we are able to trace the presence of at least three types of assembly held society together through its unique feature of an autonomous self-sufficient village. The village was the primary unit of society and polity, from inscriptional records we are able to trace the presence of at least three types of assemblies which played a regular part in local administration, namely (a) the ur, (b) the sabha or mahasabha and (c) the nagaram. The ur was evidently the more common type of assembly of the normal villages. Land was held by all classes of people who were, therefore, entitled to membership in the local assembly. The sabha was apparently an exclusively Brahmin assembly of the brahmadeya villages where, all the land belonged to the Brahmins.

were made whenever necessary. The Uttaramerur Inscription, behinging to the reign of Parantaka I (10th century), gives us detail about the functioning and constitution of the local sabha. It mentions not only qualifications, ranging from property and education to honesty, but also disqualification of the local sabha. It mentions not only qualifications, ranging form property and education to honesty, but also disqualifications such as lunacy and corruption. Other inscriptions also give similar information, though there are a few variations. The assembly generally met in the premises of the temple. The assemblies collected the assessed land revenue for the government or the temple (assessment could be either joint or individual). They levied additional tax for a particular purpose such as the construction of a water tank. They settled agrarian disputes such as conflicts over tenures and irrigation rights. They maintained records, particularly those pertaining to charities and taxes on larger assemblies.

The nagaram was an assembly of merchants and belonged to localities where traders and merchants were in a dominate position.

Functioning and constitution of assemblies

The functioning of assemblies differed form place to place according to local conditions. The ur was open to all the tax paying adults of the village, but in effect, the older members played more prominent role with some forming a small executive body, the ur had an executive body, called alunganam, whose numerical strength and the manner of the appointment of its members are not clear. The sabha had a more complex machinery, and it funtctioned very largely through its committees called the variyams. Both usually constituted smaller committees of different sizes from among their members for specialised work. Election to the executive body and other committees of the ur of sabha appears to have been conducted by draw of lots form among those who were eligible, though amendments to the constitution and working of the ur or sabha

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The two Uttaramerur inscriptions of the twelfith and fourteenth years (919 and 921) of the Chola monarch Parantaka I may be considered great landmarks in the history of the Chola village assemblies. In these inscriptions, we see the completion of the transition from the appointment of individual executive officers (the variyar) by the sabha to the establishment of a fairly elaborate committee system. By this means, important sections of local administration were entrusted to committees (Variyam) of six or twelve members according to the importance of their functions. The first inscription laid down rules for the election of the various committees, and the second inscription, dated two years later, amended these rules with a view to removing some practical difficulties that had been experienced in their working.

THE CHERAS (9TH TO 12TH CENTURY)

The Chera kingdom was another historical Tamil chiefdoms of southern India, which controlled the Cauvery river valley. It first arose some time after the 3rd century BC with Karuvur-Van-chi as its inland political centre and Muchiri on the Kerala cost as its port of trade, where merchants exchanged pepper for gold and wine from the Raman empire. The Cheras exercised a clan rule under different Lingages. Its rulers apparently fought intertribal

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Among Amoghavarsha’s successors, two significant Rashtrakuta rulers were Indra III (915-27) and Krishna III (939-5-65). Indra III defeated the Paratihara king Mahipala I, plundered his capital Kanauj, and challenged the eastern Chalukyas. The Arab traveler AlMashdi, who visited India during this period, calls the Rashtrakuta king the, ‘greatest king of India.’ Krishna III, fourth in succession from Indra III, invaded the Chola kingdom and his army reached Rameswaram, where he built a pillar of victory and a temple. In about 963 he led an expedition of northern India and brought Vengi under his control by putting his nominee on the throne. But by waging wars almost against all his neigbours, he aliennated them and created serious problems for his successors. During the reign of his successors, the situation worsened on account of the internal dissensions including the wars of succession. Taking advantage of this situation, the Paramaras of Malwa, who were the feudatories of the Rashtrakuta, declared their independence and invaded the Rashtrakuta kingdom and plundered the Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta (modern Malkhed, Maharashtra) in 972-73. Soon, other feudatories of the Rashtrakutas also became independent. Thus, by the end of 10th century the Rashtakutas completely disappeared form the scene,

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conflicts with the Cholas and Pandyas, and subjugated minor chiefs of the Velir clan. The Chera kingdom o Makotai was established in the 9th century in the Periyar valley of Derala, with Makotaipuram (kodungallur) and Quilon as its first and second capital. The kingdom acquired an agrarian base through land grants to Brahmins and Brahmin institutions, such as temples to Siva and Vishnu, trading ventures with Arab and Jewish lands provided commercial resources. Contemporary texts give an account of the ruling dynasty’s legendary origins and history. Makotai was supposedly hostile to the Pandyas but friendly with the Mushakas of Kerala. Despite a series of defensive wares, constant invasions by the Cholas of Tanjavur led to the disintegration of the Makotai kingdom by the early 12th century.

THE RASHTRAKUTA

The term ‘rashtakuta’ means designated officers-in-charge of territorial division called rashtra. The originally belonged to Lattatura or modern Latur of Maharashtra. They were feudatories under the Chalukyas of Badami. The Rashtrakutas were descendants of the nobles who governed under the Andhras. They were follower of jainism. Dhantidurga (735-756) established this kingdom. His ancestors were subordinates of the Chalukyas. They overthrew the Chalukyas and ruled up to 973. Dhantidurga was succeeded by his son Krishna I (756-774). Krishna I is credited to have built the Kailasa temple at Ellora. He is also said to have totally eclipsed the contemporary Chalukya rulers. Other kings of this dynasty were Govinda II (774780), Dhruva (780-790), Govinda III (793-814) and Amoghavarsa Nrupatunga I (814-887). The extend of the Amoghavarsa’s empire can be estimated from the accounts of the Arabian traveller, Sulaiman, who visited his court in 1851 and wrote in his book that ‘his kingdom was one of the four great empires of the world at that time.’ However, Amoghavarsha lacked the maratial spirit of his predecessors, partly due to his leanings towards religion and literature. The principles, appealed to him. He was a patron of literature and patronished men of letters, such as Kinasena, the author of Adipurana, Mahaviracharya, the author of Ganitasara Samgraha and Saktayana, the author of Amonghavriti. Amoghavarsha himself wrote Kavirajamarga which is the earliest Kannada work on poetics.

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The dynasty of the Dhalukyas of Kalyani was founded by Tailapa after overthrowings the Rashtrakutas in 974-75, The dynasty founded by him, with its capital at Kalyani (Karnataka), is known as the later Chalukyas of the Chalukyas of Kalyani (the early Chalukyas being the Chalukyas of Badami). Tailapa ruled for twentythree years form 974 to 997. He made extensive conquests during his reign. By defeating the Gangas, he conquered North Mysore. He fought a protracted war with the Paramaras of Malwa and eventually took Paramara Munja, prisoner and executed him in his capital. He opened the longdrawn phase of wars against the Cholas of Thanjavur, by attacking Uttama Chola. The Chaluky-Chola power struggle become a regular feature during the period of his successors. This lead to weakening of the dynasty and decline of its financial resources.

CAUSES OF TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE Causes for Tripartite Struggle between the Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas are as follows:

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1. To acquire supremacy over Kanauj, as symbol of prestige. 2. Te get control over the rich resources of the Gangetic valley. 3. To get control over Gujarat and Malwa whose nearness to the coast was very important for forging trade. 4. Lust for war booty, and important source for maintaining a huge army.

THE PRATIHARAS (8TH TO 10TH CENTURY) The Pratihars were also called GurjarPratihars probably because they originated from Gurjarat or Southwest Rajasthan. It is believed that originally they were a branch of the Gurjaras, which was one of the nomadic central Asian tribes that poured into India along with the Hunas following the disintegration of the Gupat Empire. As rulers, the Pratiharas came into prominence in the middle of the eight century when their king, Nagabhatta I, defended western India form the Arab incursions form Sindh into Rajasthan. He was able to leave to his successors a powerful principality comprising Malwa and parts of Rajputana and Gujarat.

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5. Desire to impress the smaller kingdoms with the sense of their power and demand respect.

almost extinct and their place was taken by the kaktiyas of Warangal, the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Yadavas of Devigiri.

The Rashtrakutas were tolerant in religious matters and patronised not only Saivism as will. The Rashtrakuta rulers were even tolerant of Islam. They permitted Muslim merchants to settle, build their mosques and preach their religion in the Rashtrakuta dominions. Their tolerant policies gave a great impetus to trade and commerce.

In the field of literature also, their tolerant spirit is visible. They equally patronised Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apaghransa, a forerunner of many modern India languages, and Kannada They patronised the arts liberally. The rock-cut cave temples at Ellora-Brahmanical. Buddhist and jain are the symbols of their religious toleration and are one of the splendours of Indian art. The Kailash Temple, built by the Rashtrakut king Drishna I, is an unrivalled and stupendous piece of art. The ancient Indian rock-cut architecture reached its zenith under the Rashtrakutas. The last great Chalukya ruler was Vikramakitya VI (1076-1126) who, on his coronation, withdrew the Saka era and introduced the Chalukya-Vikram era. Vikramaditya VI was a great patron of writers. Bilhana, the author of the Vikramankadevacharita and Vijananeshvara, the commentator of the Mitakshara commentator on the Smritis, adorned his court. In 1085, he invaded Kanchi and annexed some Chola territories in Andhra. He fought numerous wars against the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra, the Kakatiyas of Warangal. The Yadavas of Devagiri and the Kadambas of Goa, who were all the feudatories of the Chalukyas. Despite defeating them he could not suppress their power and within three decades of this death. Most of the leading Khalukyan feudatories asserted their imdependence once again, by the middle of the twelfth century, The Chalukyan kingdom of Kalyan, had become

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After the Nagabhatta I regin, the Pratiharas suffered a series of defeats mostly at the hands of the Rashtrakutas. The Pratihara power regained its lost glory only after only after the succession of Mihirbhomja, popularly known as Bhoja. He had a long reign of 46 years and his evenful career drew the attention of the Arab traveler, Sulaiman. He reestablidhed the supremacy of his family in Bundelkhand and subjugated Jodhpur. The Daulatpura copper plate of Bhoja shows that the pratihara king had succeeded in reasserting his authority over central and eastern Rajputana. Mihirbhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala I whose most notable achievement was the conquest of Magadha and northern Bengal. Mahendrapala I was a Liberal patron of literature. The most brilliant writer in his court was Rajasekhara who has to his credit a number of literary worksKarpuramanjari, Bala Ramayana, Bala and Bharta, Kavyamimamsa. Mahendrapala’s death was followed by a scramble for the possession of the throne. Bhoja II seized the throne, but half brother, Mahipala soon usurped the throne. The Rashtrkutas again challenged the strength of the Pratihara empire and its ruler, Indra III, completely devastated the city of Kanauj. However, the withdrawal of Indra III to the Deccan enabled Mahipala to recover form the fatal blow. Mahendrapala II, son and successor of mahipala, was able to keep his empire intact. But it received a shattering blow during the reign of Devapala, when the Chandelas become virtually independent. The

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process of decline of the Pratihara empire which had begun with Devapal accelerated during the reign of Vijayapala.

The glory of the Pala empire suffered with the death of Devapala. The rule of his successors was marked by a steady process of disintegration. A series of invasions led by the Chandellas and the Kalachuris dismembered the Pala Empire.

THE SENAS (11TH TO 12TH CENTURY)

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Thus, we find that the Pratiharas emerged as one of the most powerful empires of the early medieval period. The Arab traveler Al-Masudi, who visited India in the year 915-16, also refers to the power and resouces of the king of Kanauj whose kingdom extended up to Sind in the west and touched the Rashtrakuta kingdom in the south.

Devapala granted the request and appointed Viradeva, as head of Nalanda Monastery. Devapala’s court was adorned with the Buddhist poet Vijrakatta, the author of Lokesvarasataka.

THE PALAS (8TH TO 11TH CENTURY)

Sulaiman, an Arab merchant who visited India in the 9th century has termed the Pala empire as Rhumi. The Pala Empire was founded by Gopal in 750. It is believed that he was elected as the king by the notable men of the area to end the anarchy prevailing there after the death of Sasanka of Bengal. Gopala was an ardent Buddhist and is supposed to have built the monastery at Odantapuri (Sharif district of Bihar). Gopala was succeeded by his son Bharmapla who raised the Pala kingdom to greatness. The kingdom expanded under him and it comprised the whole of Bengal and Bihar. Besides, the kindom of Kanauj was a dependency, ruled by Dharmapal’s own nominee. Beyond Kanuja, there were a large number of vassal states in the Punjab, Rajputana, Malwa and Berar whose rulers acknowledged Dharmapala as their overlord. However, Dharmapala’s trimphant career was soon challenged by his pratihara adversary. After a reign of 32 years Dharmapal died, leaving his extensive dominions unimpaired to his son Devapala. Devapala ascended the throne in 810 and Ruled for 40 years. He extended his control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam), parts of Orissa and parts of Modern Nepal Devapal was a great patron of Buddhism and his fame spred to many buddhist countries outside India. As a Buddhist, he founded the famous mahavihara of Vkramasial near Bhagalpur. He also credited with the construction of a vihara at Somapura (Paharpur). He also patronised Haribhadra, one of the great Buddhist authors. Balaputradeva, a king of the Buddhist Sailendras, ruling Java, sent an ambassador to Devapala, asking for a grant of five villages in order to endow a monastery at Nalanda.

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The Sena dynasty ruled Bengal after the Palas. Its founder was Samantasena described as a ‘brahmakshatriya’. The title brahmakshatriya shows that Samantasena was a brahmin, but his successors called themselves simply Kshatriyas. Samantasena’s son Hemantasena took advantage of the unstable political situation of Bengal and carved out an independent principality. Vijayasena, son of Hemantasena, brought the family into the limelight by comquering nearly the whole of Bengal. Vijayasena assumed several immaterial titles like paramesvara, paramabhattaraka, and maharajadhiraja. He had two capitals, which was one, at Vijaypuri of Bangladesh. The famous poet Sriharasha composec the Vijayaprasasti in memory of Vijayasena. Vijayasena was succeeded by his son, Ballalasena. Ballalasena was a great scholar. He wrote four works of which two are extant, the Banasagara and the Adbhutasagara. The first is an extensive work on omens and portents, and the second on astronomy. Lakshmanasena succeeded Ballalasena in 1179. The reign of Lakshmanasena was remarkable for patronising literature. He was a devout Vaishnava and, Jayadeva, the famous Vaishnava poet of Bengal and author of the Gita Govinda lived at his court. His reign saw the decline of the Sena power because of internal rebellions. The invasion of Bakhtiya Khalji gave it a crushing blow. A detailed account of the invasion of Bakhtiya Khalji has been given in Tabakat-i-Nasiri.

THE EASTERN CHALUKYAS (OF VENGI) (8TH TO 10TH CENTURY)

Vishnuvardhana was the founder of the dynasty of the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Pulakesin II of Badami subdued the king of Pishtapura (Pitapuram in the Godavari district) and the vishnukundin king and appointed his

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reached the zenith of its glory and power in the reign of Simhana. Many among the Hoyasalas, the Kakatiyas, the Paramaras and the Chalukyas dared to challenged his supremacy in the Deccan. Simhana was not merely a wirrior, but was also a patron of music and literature. Singitaratnakara of Sarangadeva, an important work on music, was written in his court. Anantadeva and Changadeva were the two famous astronomers who also adorned his court. Changadeva established a college of astronomy at Patana in Khandesh in memory of his illustrious grandfather, Bhaskaracharya. Anantadeva wrote a commentary on Bharahmagupta’s Brahmasphhutra Siddhanta and Varahamihira’s Brihat Jataka.

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younger brother, Vishnuvardhana, vicerory of the newly conquered territories. Very soon, the Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom and Vishnuvardhana became the founder of dynasty known as the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (Vijayawada). This is the earliest reference of Jainism in the telugu country. Vishnuvardhana himself was a Bhagavata. Vishnuvarkhana was succeeded by his son Jayasimha I. His fater, Jayasimha was also a Bhagavata. He was succeeded by Vishnuvardhana II, Vijayasiddhi, jayasimha II, Vikramaditya, Vishnuvardhana III and then by Vijayadity one after another. His reign withessed a great political revolution in the Deccan when the imperial Chalukyas were overthrown by the Rashtrikutas who began a protracted struggle against the eastern Chalukyas. Vijayaditya was succeeded by his brother’s son Bhima. His succession was disputed by his uncle, Yaddamalla, who seized Vengi with the help of the Rashtrakuta king, Krishna II. The Chalukyan nobles, however, succeeded in restoring the kingdom to its lawful master after defeating Krishna II. He was a devotee of Siva and built the temples of Bhimavaram and Draksharamam in the east Godavari district.

THE YADAVAS (OF DEVGIRI) (12TH TO 13TH CENTURY)

The first member of the dynasty was Dridhaprahara. However, Seunachandra I, the son of Dridhaprahar, was the first to secure feudatory status for his family from the Rashtrakutas. The importance of this chief can be assessed from the fact that the territory ruled by the Yadavas came to be known as Seunadesa. Meanwhile, the great Chalukyan power was already on the read to decline. The Yadavas naturally took advantage of the situation and asserted their independence. Bhillama, thus, laid the foundationof the yadava Empire which endured for about a century. Simhana was the most powerful ruler of the family. As the Hoyasalas proved a great obstacle to the further expansion of the kingdom in the south, Simhana launched a successful campaign against them. Elated by his successes in the south, Simhana waged war against his hereditary enemies in the north-the Paramaras of malwa and the Chalukyas of Gujarat. He defeated and killed the Paramara king Arjumavarman. Thus, the Yadava kingdom

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Sankaradeva was probably the last of the Yadava rulers. After his accession, hi immediately repudiated the authority of Alauddin. Malik kafur easily defeated Kankaradeva, put him to death and annexed the Yadav kingdom. The period between the 9th and 11th century saw the energence of warrior castes-military ruling clans which ultimately coalesced into a single caste, that of the Rajputs, the term being derived, from the Sanskrit word rajaputra. The four Rajput clans that claimed a special status during his time were the Prathiharas, the Chalukyas, the Chauhans (also called Chahamanas) and the Dolankis. Western and Central India provide us with example of a fresh spurt in the emergence of local states. For example, the Rajput clans such as the Gujarara, Prathihar, Guhila, Paramara, Chahamana as well as the Kalachuriwa and Chandella exploited political uncertainties of the post-Gupa era in western and central India. They donimated the political scene for centuries, especially during the period exending from the eighth to the thirteenth centuries. The picture of the political processes that resulted in the replacement of old dynasties by new Rajput powers of uncertain origin is not clear. Nonetheless an attempt has been made to work out some essential traits of the nature of the distribution of political authority. Unlike northern and eastern India, the region showed some influence of Iineage-at least in some parts of the region. Even in these parts, the dispersal of administrative and fiscal powers along with the changes in the bureaucratic set-up-all based on new landholding-set the tome of fedual polity.

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contemporary status of a clan at least in the early stages of the crystallisation of Rajput power. There are two important pointers to the process of the emergence of the Rajputs in the earyl medieval records. As these records suggest, at one level the process may have to be has to be traced not only in the significant expansion of the number of settlements but also in some epigraphic references, suggesting an expansion of an agrarian economy.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The problem of the origin of Rajput dynasties is highly complex and controversial. Their gotrochhara makes them Kshatriyas of the Lunar family (somavamshi) while on the basic of old davyas some maintain that they were of the solar race. The myths of solar origin regard them as Kashtriya created in Kaliyuga to wipeout the mlecchas (foreigners). Rajasthani bards and chroniclers regard them as fire-born (agnikula). According to the agnikula myth recorded by a court poet, the founder of the house of the Paramaras originated form the firepit of sage Vasistha on Mount Abu. The man who thus sprang out of the fire forcibly wrested the wish-granting cow of sage Vasishtaha form sage Vishwamitra and restored it to the former. Sage Vasistha gave him the fitting name of paramara-slayer of the enemy. From him sprang a race, which was regarded with high esteem by virtuous kings. The Parakara inscription also declare th origin of the Paramaras form the firepit of sage Vasishtha on the Mount Abu. The Rajasthani bards went a step further and described the five origin not only to the Paramaras but also to the Prathiharax, the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Chahamanas. The practice of new social groups claiming Dshatriya status become widespread in the early medieval period. Kshatriya status was one of the various symbols that the emergent social groups sought for the legitimation of their newly acquired power. The early medieval and medieval Rajput clans, representing a mixed caste and constituting a fairly large section of petty chiefs holding estates, achieved political eminence gradually, There was a direct relationship a Kshatriya lineage. In this context, it is important to note that these dynasties claimed descent from ancient Kshatriyas long after their accession to power. A preliminary idea of the processes idea of the processes involved may be formed by trying to defind the term rajput. In the early medieval period too, as in other periods, it may not be at all easy to distinguish the Rajputs from the non Rajputs, despite the clear evidence regarding certain recognisable clans and frequent references to the Rajaputras in inscriptions and literature. If the early medieval and medieval references to the Rajputras in general are taken into account, they represented a mixed caste and constitited a fairly large section of petty chiefs holding estates. The criterion for inclusion in the list of Rajput clans was provided by the

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However, to conceive of the emergence of the Rajputs only in terms of colonisation would be to take a wrong view of the total process involved, and here we come to the second pointer provided by the records. The fact that the mobility to the Kshatriya status was in operation elsewhere in the same period, prompts one to look for its incidence also in Rajasthan, The cases of two groups who are included in the list of Rajput clans are significant in this context. One is that of the Medas who are considered to have reached the Rajput status form a tribal background. The other is that of the Hunas. The inclusion of these two groups in the Rajput clan structure is sufficient to believe that the structure could be composed only of such groups as were initially closely linked by descent, ‘foreign’ or ‘indigenous’.

AGRARIAN AND POLITICAL STRUCTURES

From about the beginning of the eighth century, there emerged a political set up in western India and central India in which new social groups acquired political power by various means such as settlement of new areas. The pattern of the emergence of the Rajputs, which was partly a clan-based organisation of political authority, shows some deviations form developments outside western India. However, the mobility of new powers towards kshatriya status for legitimation was not specific to western India as a similar process was in operation elsewhere in early medieval India. After seeking legitimacy for their new Kshatriya role, the ruling clans of western and central India formulated detailed geneologies in the period of their transition form feudatory to independent status. They consolidated their political position by means of specific patterns of land distribution and territorial system. Some other prominent features of the polity and the agrarian struchtures in the region are:

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organisation of bureaucracy which could connect different modes in their political structures marked by different foci or levels of power.

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Dominance of landlord-subordinate relations.

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Landholding as an important component of the samanta status.

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Integration of local polities into larger status polities.

their land cultivalted led to the growth of different strata of intermediaries. It was a hierarchy of landed aristocarats, tenants, share croppers and cultivators. This hierarchy was also reflected in the powers, administrative structure, where a sort of lord vassal relationship emerged. In other words, Indian feudalism consisted of the unequal distribution of land and its produce. 2. Prevalence of forced labour. The right of extracting forced labour (Vishti) is believed to have been exercised by the Brahmanas and other grantees of land. Forced labour was originally a prerogrative of the king or the state. It was transferred to the grantees, petty officials, village authorities and other. As a result, a kind of serfdom emerged, in which agricultural labourers were reduced to the position of semi-serfs.

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•

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Certain amount of land-based ranking associated with politico-administrative roles and services.

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Wielding of vast-administrative and financial powers by vassals and officers to the extent of sub-infeudation.

INDIAN FEUDALISM

This period (from 750 to 1200) in Indian history has been termed as a period of ‘Indian Fedualism’ by a few historians. They believed that a number of changes took place in Indian society. One significant change was the growing power of a class of people who are variously called Samantas, Ranaks, Rauttas etc. Their origins were very different. Some were government officers who were defeated rajas who continued to enjoy the revenue of limited areas. Still others were local hereditary chiefs or tribal leaders who had carved out a sphere of authority with the help of armed supporters. In course of time these revenue-bearing lands began to be considered hereditary and monopoly of a few families. The hereditary chiefs began to assume many of the functions of the government. They not only assessed and collected land revenue but also assumed more and more administrative power such as the right lands to their followers without the prior permission of the rulers. This led to an increase in the number of people who drew sustenace form the land without working on it. The salient features of Indian feudalism were as follows.

1. Emergence of hierarchical landed intermediaries. Vassal and officers of state and other secular assignes had military obligations and were called Samonta. Subinfeudation (varying in different regions) by these donees to get

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3. Due to the growing claims of greater over them by rulers and intermediares, peasants also suffered an curtailmat of their land rights. Many were reduced to the positon of tenants facing evergrowing threat of eviction. A number of peasants were only share- croppers (ardhikas). The strain on the peasantry was also caused by the burden of taxation, coercion and increase in their indebtness. 4. Surplus was extracted through various methods. Extra economic coercion was a conspicuous method, new mechanisms of economic subordination also evolved. 5. It was relatively a closed village economy. The transfer of human resources along with land to the beneficiaries shows that in such villages the peasants, craftsmen and artisans were attached to the village and, hence, were mutually dependent. Their attachment to land and to service grants ensured control over them by the beneficeries.

Recently, the validity of the feudel formation in the context of medieval India has been questioned. It has been suggested that the medieval society was characterised by self

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took an interest in the extension and improvement of cultivation. Economically, the first phase, i.e, AD 750– AD 1000, is believed to be one of decline. It is evident from the absence of coins for exchange and the decayed condition of towns inorthern India. But in the second phase after AD 1000, we notice a revival of trade activities. Not only do we come across new gold coins, there are also numerous references to trade goods and towns. What could be the reason for it? There seem to be two main reasons for it. One, there was increase in agricultural activities on account of land grants in fresh areas. It led to surplus production of goods for exchange. And second, the Arab traders had emerged on the coastal areas of India as important players in international sea trade. The Arabs had acquired a foothold in Sind in AD 712 and later, gradually, they set up their settlements all along the sea from Arabia to China. These settlements served as important channels for the sale and purchase of Indian goods, and thus helped in the growth of Indian external trade. In south India, the Chola kings maintained close commercial contact with southeast Asia (Malaya, Indonesia etc) and China.

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dependent of free-peasant production. The peasants had control over the means and the processes of production. It is added that there was relative stability in social and economic structure and there was not much change in the level of techniques of the surplus than over a redistribution of means of production. The appropriation of agrarian surplus to the state formed the chief instrument of exploition. The high fertility of land and the low subsistence level of the peasants facilitated the state appropriation of the surplus in condition of relative stability.

This line of approach does not take note of superior right and inferior rights of one party or another over land. In fact, in early medieval times, in the same piece of land, the peasant held inferior right and the landlords held superior right. The landgrants clearly made the position of the landlords strong over the land as compared to that of peasants. The critique of feudal polity does not take note of massive evidence in support of the subjection and immobility of peasantry, which is an indispensable element in the feudal system. Some of these factors are stated below. 1. It weakened the position of the ruler, and made him more dependent on the feudal chiefs, many of whom maintained their own military forces which could be used to defy the ruler. 2. The internal weaknesses of the Indian states became crucial in their contest with the Turks later on.

3. the small states discouraged trade, and encouraged an economy in which villages or groups of villages tended to become largely self-sufficient. 4. The domination of the feudal chiefs also weakened village self-government.

5. The feudel order had a few advantages as well. In an age of disorder and violence, the stronger feudal chiefs protected the lines and property of the peasants and other without which daily life could not have functioned. Some of the feudal chief protected the lives and property of the peasants and others without which daily life could not have functioned. Some of the feudal chief also

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EXTENT OF SOCIAL MOBILITY

Several irregular or mixed castes are mentioned in the Kharmasastras as coming into existence as a result of the anuloma and pratiloma connections, especially the latter. Some of the latter types of castes are the antyaja or lowest castes. The later Vedic Literature mentions about eight mixed castes besides the four regular varnas. Vasistha raises their number to ten, Budhayana to fifteen, Gaulama to eighteen, Manu to about sixty, but the same mixed origin is not given to the same caste in all the texts. The Brahmavaivarty Parana, a work of the early medieval period, raises the number of the mixed castes to over one hundred.

However, the above theory only partly explains the proliferation of castes (jatis). Instead, it seems to be an afterthought provide place for the numerous tribal peoples in the fourfold. It is obvious that the Nisadas, Ambasthas, and Pulkasas, were originally tribal communities, but once they were admitted into the Brahmanical society, ingenious origins within the framework of the varna system were suggested for them, and here, the fuction of mixed castes of varnasamkara came in handy,

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The first systematic attempt at describing the samskaras is found in the Grihyasutras. The number of samkaras in the Grihyasutras fluctuate between twelve and eighteen. In course of time, sixteen became the classical number comprising the following: 1. Garbhadhana (conception), 2. Pumsavana (engendering a male issue), 3. Simantonnayan (parting the hair),

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4. jatakaramn (natal rites), and severing of navel string

The four approved forms of vivahas were generally meant for the three lower varnas of Kshatriyas, Vaishya and Sudra. Within these, the rakshasa and gandharva forms are permissible especially for the kshatriyas. The Asura vivaha in considered to be universal in ancient times. But it is condemned by the Dharmasastras in strong terms, probably because of its connection with the lower vanas. The paisacha vivaha is the worst of all marriages-Baudhayana prescribes it for the Vaishyas and Sudras. This is also corroborated by Manu. These prescriptions were probably intended to validate the mariiage practices of those tribes who were absorbed as two lower varnas in ancient society. The rakshasa form is prescribed by Manu for the kshatriyas. Gandharva Vivaha, confined by some to only the kashtriyas, was probably followed by men and women of the other varnas as well. This can be inferred from the rules laid down in the Dharmasastras as well numerous examples found in the general Ieterary works.

5. Namakarana (naming)

6. Nishdramana (first outing), 7. Chudakarana (tonsure),

8. Darnavedha (piercing the ear lobes),

9. Vidyarambha or akshararambha (learning the alphabet),

10. Upanayan (holy thread ceremony and choosing the child’s teacher), 11. Vedarambha (first study of the Vedas) 12. Kesanta (cutting the hair),

13. Samavartana (graduation and returning home after completing education), 14. Vivaha (marriage), and 15. Antyesti (Funeral).

Though there is neither literary nor epigraphic evidence about the practice of wide remarriage in ancient India, it was probably practiced particularly by the lower varmas. A passage of Manu states that it cannot take place among the Brahmins, which implies that it can take place among the three other varmas. Niyoga (levirate) was certainly practiced by the Sudras in the early centuries of the Christian era, which infact strengthens aur presumption about the existence of widow remarriage among the lower varnas.

Most of the Dharmasastras mention eight forms of marriage, of which the first four are approved forms and the last four unapproved forms are brahma, prajapatya, daiva and arsa. The distinction between the brahma and prajapataya forms of marriage is not all that clear in both these forms, marriage was performed according to the prescribed religious ceremonies. In the daiva form the bride was given in marriage to a priest, who officiated at a sacrifice. In the arsa form, the marriage ceremony was duly performed, but a part of the ceremony was the presentation of a bull and a cow by the bridegroom to the bride-price.’

The very high standard of learning, culture and as round progress reached by Indian women during the Vedic age is a well-known fact. The best proof of this is the fact that the Rigveda, the oldest known literature in the whole world,contains hymns by as many as twentyseven women, called brahmavakinis of women seers. Saunaka in his Brihaddevata (5th century BC), a work on the rigveda, has mentioned the name of these twenty-seven women seers.

The last four unapproved forms of marriage are asura, paisacha, rakshasa and gandharva. Asura vivaha or marriage was marriage by purchese. In the paisacha form of marriage, the bride was abducted in an unfair manner. The rakshasa vivaha was marriage by capture. The gandharva vivaha was a love marriage.

In the Ramayana and the Mahabharata too, we find many instance of the two types of Indian women, ascetic and domestic. A magnificent example of a brahmavadini in the Ramayana is Anasuya, wife of the Sage Atri. Another celebrated woman. She was the disciple of the great sage Matanga and had her hermitage on

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Position Of Women

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took strong roots in the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, although the institution of monogamous family and private property had been developed much earlier.

THE ARABS IN SIND The establishment of Arab rule in Sind in 712 A.D. was preceded by a number of efforts to penetrate India. The view that the Arabs indeed were not interested in territorial acquisition till the ruler of Sind in 700 A.D. provoked them, is not accepted by the book ‘A Comprehensive History of India’. This book relies on the authority of baladhuri, who is regarded as the most reliable authority on the subject. According to the book, the Arabs made systematic inroads on the three kingdoms of Kabul, Zabul and Sind. Very often the first two were united in resisting the aggression of the Arabs. Baladhuri says that after 650 A.D. the Arabs entered India. One more expedition was sent by the Caliphate of Ali to conquer Kabul but was frustrated. Another attempt was made in 698 A.D., which was still less successful. The weakness of the Arabs was undoubtedly due to internal troubles and weakness of the Caliphate during the last days of Umayyids, but after the establishment of powerful Abbasid Caliphate the earlier designs were repeated. Kabul was conqured but again escaped from the control of the Caliphate. Zebul was conquered only in 870 A.D.

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the bank of the lake Pampa On the other hand, the highest manifestation of domestic perfection in the Ramayana, is found in the inimitable personality of Sita, the idol of Nidian womanhood. The Mahabharata too is resplendent with a galaxy of great women fulfilling their destinies. For instance. Suitable, who was a great scholar, for want of a suitable bridegroom, became an ascetic for life and roamed about from place to place in search of knowledge. Other celebrated brahmavakinis of the Mahabharata are the daughter of Sandklya described as a Brahmani and Siva had who mastered the Vedas. Far more numerous are the instances of women who led dedicated lives at home, e.g., Kunti and Draupadi. One of the most celebrated women of the Puranas is Makalasa, the escort of king Ritdhvaja. She was at once a great scholar, a saintly woman and dutiful housewife. Another saintly woman of the Puranas is Devahuti, wife of the great sage Prajapati Kardama and mother of the greater sage Kapila. The propounder of the samkhya system of Indian philosophy. Her philosophical discourses with her learned husband and son go to prove her unique spiritual attainments, even though she lived a household life. The position of women in India gradually deteriorated as the golden Vedic ideals of unity and equality began to fade off through the passage of time. During the period of the Smritis, women were bracketed with the Sudras, and were denied the right to study the Vedas, to utter Vedic mantras, and to perform Vedic rites.

Hence, during such an age, it was not to be expected that women would continue to enjoy the old privilege of choosing a life of celibacy and asceticism. Since women and property are bracketed together in several reference in the epics, Smritis and Puranas, there is no doubt that woman herself was regarded as a sort of property. She could be given away or loaned as any item of property. Manu and Yajnavalkya, for example, hold that a woman is never independent. This was like the attitude of a typical patriarchal society based on private property. Because of this attitude, the Brahmanical law did not allow any proprietary rights to to women; the provision for stridhana is of a very limited character and does not extend beyond the wife’s rights to jewels, ornaments and presents made to her. Manu declares that the wife, the son and the salve are unpropertied, whatever they earn is the property of those to whom they belong. This sort of social philosophy

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Although both Kabul and Zabul succumbed to Islam the heroic resistance they offered checked the spread of Islam into the subcontinent. Few countries in the world, that too small principalities like these, have defied the arms of Islam so bravely and for so long 2000 years. Good number of details are found regarding the history of Sind in the 7th Century A.D. in Chachnama, a Persian translation of an old Arabic history of the conquest of Sind by the Arabs. An expedition of the Arabs was sent against Debal some time before 643 A.D. Baladhuri speaks of Muslim victory but Chachnama says that the Muslims were defeated. The conquest of Sind was abandoned for some time. When then new Calipha Uthman attempted to conquer, he too left it after a setback. During the days of Caliphate of Ali, a well-equipped Muslim Army came along the land route. According to Baladhuri, the Muslims were put to rout. After this, a series of expeditions

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were sent to conquer an outpost of Sind, which all ended in failure.

After the collapse fo the Abbasid power, Sind became virually independent and was divided into two independent states. Neither of them could become powerful.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The Arabs resumed their aggression against Sind only after 705 A.D. An Arab ship fell in the hands of pirates near Debal. A Muslim governor demanded their release and also the arrest of the pirates. It appears, Dehar refused to oblige. As a matter of fact, the governor for Iraq was appointed for both the areas of Hindi and Sind. For long time the Arabs chafed at their failure to conquer Sind. Thus, the governor Hajja merely seized the policy as a pretext to defeat and conquer Sind.

shows that Lalitadiya thrice defeated the Arabs. It was some time between 800 and 830 A.D. that the Arabs fully re-conquered the lost areas. It was during this period that the Arabs forces probably advanced as far as Chittor but the resistance offered by Indian kings probably forced them to retreat.

After making elaborate preparation, Mohammad-Bin-Kasim, the son-in-law of Hajjaj, was sent with a well equipped army. He advanced to Makran and laid siege to Debal in 711 A.D. The capital was captured then, Muhammad advanced along the Indus to conquer the whole area. It appears that very often treachery led to the Arab conquest of Sind Muhammad advanced against Multan and succeeded in capturing it. According to Chachanam, Muhammad himself advanced to the frontier of Kashmir.

The triumph and career of Muhammad was suddenly cut short by political changes at home. Since the new Caliph was the sworn enemy of Hajjaj. Muhammad was taken prisoner, insulted and tortured to death. This development made Jaisimha, the son of Daher, to re-occupy Bahmansbad. The Caliph sent an army to subdue the rebels. They even parleyed with Jaisimha. Junaid, the Governor of Sind, defeated Jaisimha and took him prionser. Thus ended the dynasty of Daher and the independence of Sind. The comperatively easy conquest of Muhammad, son of Kasim, should not make us forget the long resistance offered by Sind to the Arabs.

Later, Junaid sent several expeditions to the interior of India. They were signally defeated by the Pratihara king Nagabhatta - I Pulakesin, the Chalukya chief of Gujarata, and probably also by Yasovarman. These defeats forced the Arabs to confine themselves to Sind. The Arabs lost control of Sind during the last years of Umayyids. The Abbasid Caliphs once again started to re-establish their power in Sind. A claim was made. The Arabs once again conquered Multan and Kashmir but the evidence

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Significance:

It is no longer believed that the Arab conquest of Sind was a mere episode in the history of India. What this event reveals is the sea change that cave over Hindu Civilisation by 1000 A.D. A few Muslim traders earlier settled in the Malabar region. But the might of Islam was experienced in Sind. This challenge was met by rulers of the day. It is now well-known that the political ambitions of the successors of Muhammad-binKasim were check mated by Lalitaditya, Bhoja and a few other rulers. This particular resistance bears testimony to the political consciousness of the day. It is this consciousness that was totally absent in India when Mahumud of Ghazni raided the country and soon he was followed by Ghori who succeeded in establishing Islamic rule in India. It is surprising to note that when the Sahiyas checkmated the Arab penetration in the north-west and rulers within India contained the penetration of Arabs in Sind, no concerted efforts were made by Indian rulers after 1000 A.D. to defeat the invaders except for the first battle of Tarain to some extent. Instead, we hear that Hinduism retreated into its own shell, a fact sharply revealed by the observations of Alberuni. Apart from this significance, the Arab rule in Sind led to interaction between two cultures. It is held by some historians that Sind was the birth-place of later-day Sufism which in turn occasioned the emergence of the famous bhakti cult in the middle ages. Apart from this consequence, the Arab conquest of sind also led to the transmission of Indian culture-Panchtantra and scientific lore of ancient India like the digital system and knowledge of medicine. It is to be kept in mind that after the collapse of the Roman empire intellectuals began to gather in Baghbad, meaning city of god in Sanskrit. The intellectual

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the land of ancient civilisations in east Asia. The Iranian rulers of the area and the Abbasid Caliph recruited the Turk as mercenaries and slaves for their personal needs and security after getting them converted into Islam. These Turks quickly assimilated the Iranian Language and culture and became Islamised and Persianised. After the disintegration of the Abbasid empire, the most powerful dynasty which arose in the region was the Samanid dynasty (874999_. The Ghaznavids were displaced by the Seljukids, and then by the Khwarizmi empire which had its capital at Merv. These empires fought with each other and this led to the growth of militarism which spelt immediate danger to India. Such a danger had become imminent also owing to the fact that west and central Asia are connected to India geographically across mountain barriers having number of pass. The nomadic and seminomadic hordes have constantly tried to enter India through these mountain passes, attracted by India’s wellwatered plains with fertle soil. extending from the Punjab to the eastern borders of Bengal.

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speculations that the city facilitated by the interaction of Greek and Roman heritage with that of the Indian lay at the base of the Renaissance movement in Europe in the 16th century. “We know definitely from Masudin Ibn Hauqal that Arab settlers lived side by side with their Hindu fellow-citizens for many years on terms of amity and peace, and Amir Khusrav mentions that the Arab astronomer Abu Mashar come to Benaras and studied astronomy there for ten years. Finally, the significance of the Arab conquest of Sind lies in the tolerance that was shown to Hinduism by Islam. Although jaziya was collected, the Arab governors chose to leave Hindu religious practices untouched. What India witnessed after the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni was not Islamic influence as pioneered by the Arabs but central-Asian culture of the Turkish, nomad who carried the banner of Islam. In other words, what the history of Arabs in Sind conveys is the fact that persecution of other religious was not the avowed doctrine of Islam. The Arabs had to leave India towards the end of the 9th century. After the Arabs, the Turks invaded India. They were attracted mainly by the fabulous wealth lying in the garbhagriha of the temples.

THE GHAZAVIDS

The empire of the Ghaznavids was built on the ruins of the Abbasid Caliphate concentrated in west and central Asia. From the end of the 9th Century, the abbasid empire disintegrated and a series of aggressive, expansionist states arose. These states were independent in all but they accepted the nominal suzeriegnty of the Caliph who legitimised their position by granting them a formal letter or manshu. In course of time, the rulers of these states began to be called sultans. Most of these Sultans were Turks. The Ghaznavids and the seljuq states were products of the acculturation of the Turks had expanded into the institutions of settled societies. Under the Seljuq umbrella. The Turks had expanded into the Meditarranean and Byzatine territories. Anatolia (modern Turkey) was conquered and settled by the Ottoman Turks. The Turks were nomadas and lived in areas now known as Mongolistan and Sinkiang since the 8th century. They had been filtration into the region called Mawara-un-nahar, i.e., Transoxiana, which was the transitional zone between central Asia and

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Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030)

He was also known as “But-Shikan” (destroyer of the image) seventeen plundering expeditions betweened 1000 and 1027 into north India. Annexing Punjab as his eastern province. He claimed to have come here with twin objectives of spreading Islam in India, and enriching himself by taking away wealth from India. The contemporary Persian sources mention that his motive was primarily spreading Islam and that is why the got the title of Ghazni. But recent research has provide that a religious motive was highlighted by him in order to win over the Caliphiate (Khalifa) at Baghdad and the real intention of his invasion in India was to loot the wealth hidden in the garbhagriha of the Indian temples. The invader’ effective use of the crossbow while galloping gave them a decisive advantage over their Indian opponents, the Rajputs. Mahmud’s conquest of Punjab foretold ominous consequences for the rest of India. However, the Rajputs appear to have been both unprepared and unwilling to change their military tactics which ultimatly collapsed in the face of the swift and punitive cavalry of the Turks. In 1025, he attacked and raided the most celebrated Hindu temple of Somnat, near the coast in the extreme south of Kathiawar (Gujarat). Bhima I, the Chalukyan ruler of

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Anhilwara, could not put much resistence and the temple was looted. Al Beruni who wrote Kitab-ul Hind, and firdausi, who wrote Shah Namah, were the court Historians of Mahmud Ghazni and give a good account of the polity and society on the eve of Mahmud’s invasion.

After the fall of the Gurjark-Pratihara empire, no single state took its place. Instead, there arose small independent powers like Ghadavalas in Kannauj, Parmars in Malva, chlukyas in Gujarat, Chauhans in Ajmer, Tomars in Delhi, Chadellas in Bundelkhand, etc. far from being united, they tended to operate within the confines of small territories and were in a state of perpetual internal conflicts. Lack of centralised power was an important factor in emasculating the strength and efficiency of the armed forces. Fakhi Mudhbbir in his AdabulHarb wa-al Shuja’s mentions that Indian forces consisted of ‘feudal levies’. Each military contingent was under the command of its immediate overlora/chief and not that of the king. Thus, the army lacked ‘unity of command’. Besides, since only few castes and clans took to the country; when the Turks came, we find the indian masses hardly came to the rescue of their kings. The concept of physical pollution (chhut) also hampered millitary efficiency since it made the division of labour impossible; the soldiers had to do all their work on their own, from fighting to the fetching of water.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

In political and military terms, the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni were the actual precursors of the Delhi Sultanate. Beginnning in 1000, when the Shahiya King Jaypala was routed, the incursion became almost an annual feature of Mohmud and came to an end only with his death in 1030. After taking Multan, he occupied punjab. Later, Mahmed made incursion into the Ganga-Yamina doab. The major interest of Mahmud in India was its fabulous wealth, vast quantities of which (in the form of cash, jewellery, and golden images) had been deposited in temples. From 1010 to 1026, the invasions were thus directed toward the temple-towns of Thaneswar, Mathura, Kannauj and finally Somnath. The ultimate result was the breakdown of Indian resistance, paving the way for Turkish conquests in the future. More importantly, the aftermath of the campaigns had exposed the inadequacy of Indian politics to offer a united defence against external threats.

drunkenness which, accorkding to Sarkar, was the ruin of the Rajputas, Marathas, and other Indian rulers. Whatever partial truth in might contain, this explanation too seems insufficiently grounded in history. A more compreshensive view of the Indian debacle most perhaps had into account at least two major factors: the prevailing sociopolitical system in Indian and her military perparedness.

Within a short time of Mahmud’s death, his empire met the fate of other empires. Newly emerging centres of powers, formed around growing clusters of Turkish soldier adventurers, replaced the older ones. The Ghaznavide pessissions in Khurasasn and Transoxiana were thus annexed, first by the Seljuqs, and later by the Khwarizm Shah. In their own homeland, Afghanistan, their hegemony was brought to an end by the principlity of Ghor under the Shansibani dynasty. However, in the midst of these buffetings, the Ghaznavid rule survived in punjab and sind till about 1175. Since Indian historians have traced the Turkish success to the peculiar social structure created by Islam, Jadunath Sarkar, for instance, lays stress on the unique characteristic which Islam imparted to the Arabs, Berbers, Pathnas and Turks. First, equality and social solidarity as regards legal and religious status. Unlike India, the Turks were not divided into castes that were exclusive of each other. Secondly, and absolute faith in god and his will which gave them drive and a sense of mission. Finally, Islam secured the Turkish conquerors from

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Another important reason for the success of the Turks was their superior miltary technology and art of war. These nomads could be credited with introducnig the horses for warfare with greater skill. The Turks used iron stirrps and horse shoes that reinforced their striking power and the stamina of the cavalry. While horse shoes provided greater mobility to the horse, the stirrup gave the soldiers a distinct advantage.

Muhammad Ghori (Shahabuddin Muhammad)

In AD 1173 Shahabuddin Muhammad (AD 1173–1206) also called Muhammad of Ghor ascended the throne of Ghazni. The Ghoris were not strong enough to meet the growing power and strength of the Khwarizmi Empire; they realised that they could gain nothing in Central Asia. This forced Ghori to turn towards India to fulfil his expansionist ambitions. Muhammad Ghori was very much interested in establishing

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permanent empire in India and not merely looting its wealth. His campaigns were well organised and whenever he conquered any territory, he left a general behind to govern it in his absence. His invasions resulted in the permanent establishment of the Turkish Sultanate in the region lying north of the Vindhya Mountains.

Conquest of Punjab and Sind

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Muhammad Ghori led his first expedition in AD 1175. He marched against Multan and freed it from its ruler. In the same campaign he captured Uchch from the Bhatti Rajputs. Three years later in AD 1178 he again marched to conquer Gujarat but the Chalukya ruler of Gujarat, Ghima II defeated him at the battle of Anhilwara. But this defeat did not discourage Muhammad Ghori. He realised the necessity of creating a suitable base in Punjab before venturing on the further conquest of India. He launched a campaign against the Ghaznavid possessions in Punjab. As a result Peshawar was conquered in AD 1179–80 and Lahore in AD 1186. The fort of Sialkot and Debol were captured next. Thus by AD 1190 having secured Multan, Sind and Punjab, Muhammad Ghori had paved the way for a further thrust into the Gangetic Doab.

made very careful preparations for this conquest. The Turkish and Rajput forces again came face to face at Tarain. The Indian forces were more in number but Turkish forces were well organised with swift moving cavalry. The bulky Indian forces were no match against the superior organisation, skill and speed of the Turkish cavalry. The Turkish cavalry was using two superior techniques. The first was the horse shoe which gave their horses a long life and protected their hooves. The second was, the use of iron stirrup which gave a good hold to the horse rider and a better striking power in the battle. A large number of Indian soldiers were killed. Prithviraj tried to escape but was captured near Sarsuti. The Turkish army captured the fortresses of Hansi, Sarsuti and Samana. Then they moved forward running over Delhi and Ajmer.

ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANATE

The First Battle of Tarain (AD 1191)

Muhammad Ghori’s possession of Punjab and his attempt to advance into the Gangetic Doab brought him into direct conflict with the Rajput ruler Prithivaraja Chauhan. He had overrun many small states in Rajputana, captured Delhi and wanted to extend his control over Punjab and Ganga valley. The conflict started with claims of Bhatinda. In the first battle fought at Tarain in AD 1191, Ghori’s army was routed and he narrowly escaped death. Prithviraj conquered Bhatinda but he made no efforts to garrison it effectively. This gave Ghori an opportunity to re-assemble his forces and make preparations for another advance into India.

The Second Battle of Tarain (AD 1192) This battle is regarded as one of the turning points in Indian History. Muhammad Ghori

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After Tarain, Ghori returned to Ghazni, leaving the affairs of India in the hand of his trusted slave general Qutbuddin Aibak. In AD 1194 Muhammad Ghori again returned to India. He crossed Yamuna with 50,000 cavalry and moved towards Kanauj. He gave a crushing defeat to Jai Chand at Chandwar near Kanauj. Thus the battle of Tarain and Chandwar laid the foundations of Turkish rule in Northern India.

The political achievements of Muhammad Ghori in India were long lasting than those of Mahmud of Ghazni. While Mahmud Ghazni was mainly interested in plundering Muhammad Ghori wanted to establish his political control. His death in AD 1206 did not mean the withdrawal of the Turkish interests in India. He left behind his slave General Qutbuddin Aibak who became first Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.

CULTURAL TRENDS (750-1200)

Religious Conditions: Importance Of Temples And Monastic

Temples held an important place in the predominantly agrarian economy of medieval India, especially in south India. Even though temples rose to power during the Pallava period, they gradually consolidated their position under the Cholas with the help of royal patronage. The importance of temples was more visible during the early medieval period largely because of the fact that land grants during this period were given more prolifically. During this period we see the emergence of great royal temples which symbolised the power of the ruling kingdom.

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towards agricultural development, e.g., providing irrigation facilities to agriculturists. Temples also had economic functions in their varied roles as landholders, employers, consumer of goods and services, and banks. They also discharged the function of money lenders and depositories. The continuous handling of funds and receipts of gifts in cash, goods, precious metals and services gave the temples capital which the usually reinvested in productive ways. We have evidences the loans given by temples to village assemblies for economically productive purposes. They also granted loans to cultivators, traders and artisans in reutrn for various articles given as interest ranging usually between 12.5 percent to 15 percent.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

From the 10th to 13th centuries, a large number of temples were built in various regional kingdoms. On account of the royal support and patronage they received, temples had an access to agricultural produce and a control of society. They were also used to counter the divisive forces prevailing in those kingdoms. Temples flourished on the landgrants and cash endowments by the crown, merchant guilds and others which, in turn, made them the biggest employer, money lender and consumer of goods and service. Its social role, based on this economic substructure, pivoted around its role of preserving and propagating education and culture. Sources both archaeological and literary like Mitakshara, Pratagmanjari and Tahkike Hind, help a lot to reconstruct the socio-economic role of temples. All these are corroborated by copper plates, stone inscriptions and numismatic findings. Land endowments were the most important resources of the temples in medieval south India. The landgranted to the temples had two functions: first, to yield and income with which to maintain a specified ritual service in the name of the donor, and second, to provide a productive place to invest funds granted to the temples for the performance of services in the first place, they increasingly led to an expansion of temple personnel who were paid in kind or through allotment of land. This resulted in the growth of feudal land tenure which is evident from various epigraphic references to tenants fiscal concessions and immunities which accompanied many grants perhaps caused greater economic bondage of the peasantry and weakened the central authority.

There were various ritual functionaries attached to temples who were given monetary endowments by the temple out of their income from the landgrant and donations from various quarters. These functionaries included members of educational institutions (mathas) reciters of Sanskrit and Tamil sacred works, teachers, scholars, musicians and poets. They also received a share of consecrated food offering of the deities. The economic value of consecrated food had an important funciton in the endowment of money to the temple. The secondary distribution of consecrated food to the devotees permitted the temple functionaries to resources of the temple. Temples also discharged vital responsibilities

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As per as the social role of temple is concerned, they were the centre of activity as assemblies and schools. Caste consciousness had become a marked feature with the society divided vertically between the Brahmanas and the nonBrahmanas. The medium of education in the temples was sanskrit. Debates were held in various mathas and colleges regarding philophical aspects of Hindu theology. Sankaracharya’s ideas continued to be developer and improved upon and theories and philosophies of other teachers were also discussed. It is to be noted that Ramanuja, the famous Vaishnava philosopher, spent a favourable part of his life teaching at the famous temple of Shrirangam. Thus, temples in medieval India, specially in south India, had developed some sort of tourist industry lide in modern times. Pilgrims flocked to temples during the festivals (which were quite frequent) in huge numbers, and hence, these necessitated employment to guilds, priests, innkeepers, food-shelters etc. In effect, they become miniature towns.

North

1. In the north, a shikhara rises above the chief room. The shikhara has a global bulge in the middle and tapers to a point at the top. 2. Temples lack gateway (gopuram).

3. Temples are mostly of brick solid and mortar. 4. Temples are smaller in size. 5. Temple were mainly centres of religious activity.

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South 1. A pyramidal tower (vemana) story up on storey, above the garbhagriha (chief deity room) 2. Temples have very lofty and site gateways called gopurams. 3. Temples are made mostly of rocks.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

4. Temples are generally bigger and more airy.

Sankaracharya was an orthodox Brahmin for whom the Vedic literature was sacred and unquestionably true. In order to harmonise the many paradoxes of Vedic tradition, that had to trade recourse to a philosophy of “double standard of truth” (already known in Buddhism). It meant that on the every day level of truth, the world was preduce by Brahma, and it went through an evolutionary process similar to that taught by the Sankhya school of philosophy. But on the highest level of truth, the whole universe including the God was unreal, i.e., the world in maya, an illusion and figment of imagination. Therefore, Shankarcharya believed that ultimately the only reality was the Brahman, the impersonal world soul of the Upanishads with which the individual soul was identical.

5. Temples were not only centres religious activity but also social and economical activities.

Sankaracharya

Sankaracharya was a Nambudiri Brahman born in Kaladi, Malabar. He was originally a worshiper of Seva. He gave an entirely new turn to the Hindu revival movement by providing it with a solid philosophical background through the reinterpretation of ancient Indian scriptures, particularly the Upanishads. Sankaracharya advocated the philosophy of “Advaita” the monism of the Vedanta by giving a brilliant exposition to the entire range of the Vedic religions and spiritual thought. Having lost his father in his childhood, Sankaracharya become a sanyasi, while in his teens and began to roam about in search of true knowledge and wisdom. A genius by birth and intensely religious by outlook and social heritage, he received instruction in religious scriptures and philosophy at Kashi. Sankaracharya renewed and systematised Vedanta philosophy by stressing on its main principle of monism (advaita or absolute non-dualism). Sankaracharya started a vigorous campaign for the revial of Hinduism based on the solid foundation of Vedic philosophy and ancient Indian cultural tradition in order to check the growth of Buddhism and Jainism. He recognised the ascetic order of sanyasis on the pattern of Buddhist sangha and launched a campaign for the popularisation of Hinduism. He composed extensive commentaries on the Brahmasutra and chief upanishad and traveled all around India to highlight the cultural unity of India. The mathas also began propagating the centre of Vedic religion. The mathas, among many, included Jaganathpuri in the east, Sringeri in the South, Dwarka in the west and Badrinath in the north.

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Sankaracharya also believed that god and the created world was one and the difference which is evident is due to ignorance. According to him, the way to salvation was to realise by means of meditation and knowledge that god and the created beings were one and the some. At the deepest level of meditation “nirvikalpa samadhi”, the complete identity between god and the individual is realised. It is the goal of everyone to know, realise, feel and display in action this identity. When this is accomplished all sufferings and births and deaths cease. This identity has been termed as “ sachidanand Brahman” by Sankaracharya. Sankaracharya’s ‘Brahman’ is not really different from the concept of ‘nirvana’ of Mahayana Buddhism. It is a fact which was wellrecognised by his opponents who called him “crypto-Buddhist.” However, Shankarcharya proved the Buddhist scholars wrong and was able to show that Buddhist metaphysics was only a poor imitation of the metaphysics of snatan dharma.

The philosophy of Sankaracharya had far reaching consequences for the India society. For example the monastic Sankaracharya (mathas) which he established in the four corners of India served as an effective step towards the physical and spiritual unification of India. By Jainism but his real greatness lies in his brilliant dialectic. By the able use arguements he reduced all the apparently self-contradicting passages of the Upanishads to a consistent system which has remained the standard of Hinduism to this day, Sankaracharaya passed away at Kedar Nath at

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the age of 32 Ramanuja combined Sankara’s Advaitavada with the Vaishnava Pancharatra theology which claimed that Vishnu is the very foundation of the universe. The impact of Ramanuja’s writings and his long service as priest of the fomous Vishnu temple at Srinangam made his ideas widely known among the Vaishnavites and he is justly regarded as the founder of Srivashnavism. The Vedantic Philosophy of Sankaracharya was revived Vivekanand in the second half of the 19th century.

5. The sufis organised impassioned musical recitals (soma). The practice of sama was intended to induce a mystical state of ecstasy. However, some sufi orders did not approve of certain forms of sama and the ulema were particularly hostile to the practice.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Sufism

such spiritual exercise as self-mortification, recollection of god’s name to attain concentration (zikr) and contemplation.

Sufism or tasawwuf is the name for various mystical and movements in Islam. It aims at establishing direct communion between god and man through personal experience of mystery which lies within Islam. Every religion gives rise to mystical tendencies is its fold at a particular stage of its evolution. In this sense, Sufism was a natural development within Islam based on the spirit of Quaranic Piety. The Sufis while accepting the shariat did not confine their religious practice to formal adherence and stressed cultivation of religious experience aimed at a direct perception of god. There developed a number of Sufi orders of silsilah in and outside India. All these orders had their specific characteristics. However, there were a number of features which are common to all Sufi orders.

1. Sufism as it developed in the Islamic world came to stress the importance of traversing the Sufi path (tariqa) as a method of establishing direct communion with divine reality (haqiqat). 2. According to the Sufi beliefs, the novice has to pass through a succession of “stations” of “stages” (maqamat) and changing psychological conditions or “states” (hal) to experience god.

3. The sufi path could be traversed only under the strict supervision of a spiritual director (sheikh, pir or murshid) who had himself successfully traversed and consequently established direct communion with god.

4. the disciple (murid) progressed through the “stages” and “states” by practising

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6. Yet another feature of sufism is the organisation of the Sufis into vatious orders (silsilah). Each of these silsilah, e.g. suhrawardi, qadiri, chishti, weer founded by a leading figure who lent his name to it. A silsilah consisted of persons who had become disciples of a particular Sufi. 7. The hospice (dhanqah) was the centre of the activities of a sufi order. It was the place where the pir imparted spiritual training to his disciples. The popularity of the khanqah and its capacity fo attract disciples depended on the reputation of the pir. Khanqahs were supported by endowment and charity.

By the time the various Sufi orders began their activities in India from the beginning of the 13th century, Sufism had already grown into a full-fledge movement in different parts of the Islamic world. Sufism acquired distinct characteristics in the Indian environment but its growth in India, particularly in the initial phase, was linked in many ways with the development that occurred in Sufi beliefs and practice in the Islamic world during the period between 17th and 13th centuries. The growth of Sufism in the central lands of islam during this period can be divided into three broad phases.

GROWTH OF SUFISM IN ISLAMIC WORLD

The Formative Stage (Upto 10th Century) Early Sufis applied an esoteric meaning to verses in the quran which stressed on such virtues as repentance (tauba), abstinence,

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of sufism was Kashful Mahjub written by AlHujwiri. Another salient feature of Sufism during this period was the emergence of Sufi poetry in Persian. While Arabic literature on mysticism is in prose, Persian literature is in poetry. Sufi poetry in Persian in the form of narrative poems (mannavis) reached its peak during the 12th and 13th centuries.

Formation of Sufi Orders of Silsilah (Late 12th and 13th Centuries)

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

renunciation, poverty, trust in god (gawakkul) etc. Mecca, Madin, Basra, and Kufa were the earliest centres of Sufism. Sufism at Basra reached its height during the time of the woman mystic Rabia. Other regions of the Islamic world where Sufism spread to Iranian regions, it tended to express greater individualism, divergent tendencies, and heterodox doctrines and practices under Persian influence. The most famous of the early Sufis in the Iranian regions was Bayazid Bistami from Dhurasan. In Baghdad, Al junaid was the most well-known of the early Sufis. Al junaid won the approval of the Islamic orthodoxy and represented the controlled and disciplined side of Sufism and, therfore, those Sufis who followed his line are regarded as sober. Both Junaid and Bistami exercised profound influences on their contemporary and later Sufis. Two contrasting tendencies initiated by them come to be distinguished as Junaidi and Bistami, or Iraqi and Dhurasani, Another prominents early sufi from Baghdad was Mansur al-Hallaj who started his career as pupil of Al Junaid but later developed the method of Bayazid Bistami. His mystical formula “I am god” played an important role in the evolution of Sufi ideas in Iran and then in India. The Ulema considered, imprisoned and finally hanged. His ideas provided the basis for the development of the doctrine of “Insane-i-kamil” (the perfect man).

Growth of the Organised Sufi Movement (10th-12th Century)

Sufism began to acquire the form of an organised movement with the establishment of the Turkish rule under the Ghaznavis and then under the Seljuqs in various parts of central Asia and Iran in the later 10th and 11th centuries. The period marks the development of two parallel institutions in the Islamic world-the madarasa system (seminary, higher religious school) in its new form as an official institution of orthodox Islamic learning and the Khanqah system as an ogranised, endowed an permanent centre for Sufi activities. This stage is also characterised by the appearance of Sufi literary texts which argued and codified the Sufi ideas and doctrines. AlGhazzali was the most outstanding sufi author. One of the most authentic and celebrated manual

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Few decades before Sufism began to exercise an influence on Indian society and religious life, organised Sufi movement reached its peak in the Islamic world in the form of various tariqa (paths) or Sufi orders. These orders began to crystallise when, from the end of the 12th century, each one of the Sufi entries began to perpetuate the name of one particular master and his spiritual ancestry and focused on its own tariqa consisting of peculiar practices and chain through which successive spiritual heirs (khalifa) traced their spiritual inheritance to the founder of the order. The founders of various silsilahs accepted the Islamic law and ritual practices of Islam. The link between orthodox Islam and silsila founders is also clear from the fact that many of the latter were professional Sufists. However, the gave an esoteric orientation to orthodox Islamic rituals and introduced many innovation, particularly in their religious practices, which were not always in consonance with the orthodox outlook. Though the silsilah founders laid emphasis on strict adherence to Islamic law, many silsilahs later did develop many heterodox beliefs and practies.

The silsilahs which become popular in Iran, central Asia and Baghdad, played a significant role in the growth of sufism in various parts of the Islamic world including the suhrawardi founded by shaidh Shahabuddin Suhrawardk; the Qadiri formed by Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani, the Dhawajagan, but later came to be associated with the name of Bahauddin Naqshbandi. The Sufies who had received their training in these silsilahs began to establish their branches in their countries or in new countries such as India. Gradually, these branches become independent Sufi schools with own characteristics and tendencies.

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LITERATURE AND SCIENCE Under the Cholas

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Education based on the epics and the Puranas was imparted during this time through discourses in temples. There colleges and other institutions for higher education. The period was marked by the growth of Tamil classics such as Sibakasindamani, Kamban’s Ramayana, and others. Very few books were composed in Sanskrit, Rajaraja I was the subject of two worksadrama (Rajarajesvara Natakam) and a kavya (Rajaraja Vijayam).

Bhaskaracharya’s father, Mahesvari (known as kavisvara), wrote two works on astrology, Sekhara and Laghutika. Of the numerous works of Bhaskaracharya, the most famous are Siddhanta Siromani (composed in 1150) and Karanakuthuhala, the first being the best treatise on algebra to be found in Sanskrit Literature. His son Lakshmidhara and his grandson Changadeva were the court astrologers of jaitugi and Simhana respectively. Bhaskaracharya’s grand-nephew Anantadeva, a protege of Simhana, was a master of the three branches of astronomy and wrote a commentary on the Brihat Jataka of Varahaminira and also on one chapter of Brahmasphuta Siddhana of Brahmagrupta.

Under the Chalukyas of Kalyani

The Chaludya period withnessed a phenomenal growth in literature, both in Sanskrit and Kannada. Among the sanskrit writers of the period, the foremost in Bihana, the court poet of Vidramaditya VI. Vidramankacharita of Bihana is a mahakavaya. Bihana wrote many other works. The great jurist Vijramaditya, wrote the famous Mitaksara, a commentary on the Yanjavalkya Smriti, Somesvara III was the author of encyclopadedic work, Manasollasa or Abhilashitarha-chintamani.

Under the western Chalukyas, kannada Literature reached great heights. The three Literary gems, Pampa, Ponna and Ranna, contributed to the development of Kannada literature in the 10th century. Of the three, Ranna was the court poet of Satyasraya, while the other two belonged to earlier decades. Nagavarma I was another poet of fame. He was the author of Chandombudhi, the ocean of prosody, the earliest work on the subject in Kannada. He also wrote karnataka-kandambari which is based on Bana’s celebrated romance in Sanskrit. The next writer of note was Dugasimha, a minister under Jayasimha II, who wrote Anchatantra. The Veer Saina mystics, especially Basava, contributed to the development of Kannada language and literature, particular prose literature. They brought into existence the Vachana Literature to convey high philosophical ideas to the common man in simple language.

Under the Yadavas

The Senas gave a great impetus to the development of Sanskrit Literature. The family of the famous astronomer and mathematician Bhasdaracharya belonged to this period.

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Under the kakatiyas

The kakatiya rules extended liberal patronage to Sanskrit. Several eminent Sanskrit writers and poets authored inscriptions which must be regarded as kavyas in miniature. Of these writers, Achinterdra was commissioned by Rudradeva to compose the Prasati embodies in the Anumakonda inscription. Telugu literature also flourished in the Kakatiya Kingdom. Several inscriptions were composed party or wholly in Telugu verse, like the inscriptions at Gudur of (Beta II), karimnagar (Gangakhara), Upparapalle (Kata) and Konnidena (Opilisiddhi). The new religious movement led Vaishnavism and Virasaivism gave a great impetus to Telugu literature. Several works on the two great national epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. begun by Nannayuabnhatta in the 11th century AD, was completed by Tikkana Somayaji, the minister and poet Laureate of the Telugu Chola King Manuma siddhi II of Nellre in the middle of the 13th century AD.

Alberuni’s India

Abu’l Rayan Alberuni was a philosopher scientist, whose Ditab al Hind was the first and most important discussion on Indian sciences, religion and society by an outsider. He was not just a historian. His Knowledge and interest covered many other areas such as astronomy, geography, logic, medicine, mathematics, philosophy, religion and theology, He was probably born in 973 AD. He was attached to Mahmud’s court and accompanied him to India during various raids.

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Alberuni’s Kitab al Hind or Tahkik-i Hind is the survey of Indian based on his study and observations in India between 1017 and 1030. To get a proper grip of the situation, he learned Sanskrit so that he might go to the sources of Hindu thought and religion. He learnt Sanskrit to acquire first hand information. He read the religion texts and met the learned Indians.

Alberuni further says that the isolationist attitude of Indians was further buttressed by a false sense of superiority. In his opening chapter itself alberuni writers that the Indians belived that there is no country like theirs, no nation like theirs, no king like theirs, no religion like theirs, no science like theirs, no science like theirs.” The Indian are by nature niggardly in communication what they know and they do not believe in exchange of ideas. They had the greatest possible care to with hold their knowledge from men of another caste, from among their own people, and even more from nay outsider.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

His approach was scientific and religious prejudices do not mar the quality of his observations. He quoted form the Bhagavat Gita, Bishnu Puran, Kapil’s Sankhya and the work of Patanjali. Alberuni’s observation of Indian society can be studied under six major sub-heads:

other types of connection between one region of the country and another.

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Caste-ridden society

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Closed society

Stagnant Knowledge

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Stagnant knowledge

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social evils

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Religious beliefs

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Scientific knowledge.

It is indeed unfortunate that Alberuni visited India at a time when knowledge was at a low ebb. While the rich heritage of the past knowledge is highlighted by Alberuni when he refers to the various ‘sidhantas’ and the progress made in astronomy and mathematics, but he paints a very pathetic picture of the 11th century, He says “The Indians are in a state of utter confusion, devoid of any logical order, and they always mix up with silly notions of the crowd.I can only compare their mathematical and astronomical knowledge to a mixture of pearls and sour dates. Both kind of things are equal in their eyes since they cannot raise themselves to the method of a strictly scientific deduction.”

Caste-ridden Society

The complete caste structure of Indian society did not go unnoticed by Alberuni. One notable observation of Alberuni was that the Vaishyas were also fast degeneration to the rank of Sudras. He notes the absence of any significant difference between the Vaishyas and the sudras, who lived together in the same town and village and mixed together in the same house. By the 11th century it seems that the Vaishyas come to be treated as Sudras virtually and legally. The alliance of convenience between the Brahmanas and the ruling Kshatriyas was a fact that Alberuni refers to indirectly. He also refers to a class of untouchables which existed in the society called antyaja. Alberuni lists eight antyaja castes below the status of the Sudras. Some of the names of untouchable castes that are mentioned by him are: Bhodhatu, Bhedas, Chandala, Doma, and Hodi.

Closed Society

The closed attitude of society, lacking dynamism did not go untouched by Alberuni. He informs us that traveling to far off places was considered by the Brahmins. The area within which a Brahmana could live was fixed and a Hindu was not generally permitted to enter the land of the Turks. All this makes sense in the context of “feudal localism” which ruled out or

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Social Evils

Alberuni mentions evil social practices within the Indian society like child-marriage, sati, the low position of women in general and widows in particular. He mentions that Hindus marry at a very young age, If a wife loses her husband due to death she cannot remarry, A widow has only two options, either the remain a widow as long as she lives, or to burn herself (sati). The latter option was generally preferred because as a widow she was ill-treated.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

Alberuni, who had carefully studied the Hindu religion’s philosophy and institutions, found no difficulty in marking out the trinity gods (three deities of the Hindu religion) and philosophy of the Upanishads. He says that the belief in a multitude of gods is vulgar and is a typical of the un-educated. Educated Hindus believe god to be one and Eternal. Hindus

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considered the existence of god as real. because everything that exists, exists through god.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Alberuni had also learned all about the Hindu concept of transmigration of soul. He explains that Indians believed that every act of this life will be rewarded or punished in the life to com, and the final emancipation of a human being is possible only through true knowledge, He terms all these beliefs of the Indian as narrowmindedness. He says that insularity at every level was the characteristic feature of India in the 11th century and the price of this insularity was the disruption of the country be the coming of the Turks.

parts of south India. The replacement of brick by stone structure went on steadily under the cholas. The chief features of Chola temples are their massive vimanas of towers and spacious courtyards. In the Brihadeswara of Rajarajesvara temple, dedicated to Siva, the vimana of tower is about 57 metres high upon a square, comprising thirteen successive storeys. It is crowned by a single block of granite, 7.5 metres high and about 80 tonnes in weight. Similarly, Rajendra I erected a splendid temple at his new capital, Gangakonda Cholapram. Some Chola temples at Thanjavur and Kalahasti contain beautiful protrait images of royal personages, like those of Rajaraja I and his queen Lodamahadevi and of Rajendra I and his queen Cholamahadevi, The Cholas also encouraged plastic art; the metal and stone images cast during the period are exquisitely executed and display a wounderful givour, dignity and grace. The masterpiece of chola sculpture is the famous Nataraja of the dancing Siva image at the great temple of Chidambaram. Numerous such images were also moulded in bronze. This Nataraja has been described as the “cultural epitome” of the chola period. The Cholas also patronised painting. Of the Chola paintings, the most important are those in the pradakshina passage of the Rajarajesvara temple.

Scientific Knowledge and legal System

Although Alberuni is critical of the scientific knowledge of Indians, sometimes he has praised their knowledge. He made great effort to understand the Indian legal system. He notes every practical aspect of the legal system and points out the difference between these and the legal theories as expounded in the law books like Manusmriti. He also praises the weights and measure system and distance measurement system of Indians. He also notices the many variations of the Indian alphabets. He provides interesting geographical data and takes into account local astronomical and mathematical theories. While making his profound observation, Alberuni, did not pay a partisan role and condemned Mahmud Ghazni’s destructive activities. He was perhaps the first Muslim to have undertaken the study of Indian society on such a major scale. Where Alberuni was not very sure of his own knowledge, he frankly admitted it. His critical assessment of Indian customs and ways of life, festivals, ceremonies is particularly interesting. He says that the fact that Indians had started depending on tradition heavily was a hindrance to genuine intellectual quest. He felt that learning and scientific spirit suffered because they had been sub-ordained to religion.

Art And Architecture

The Cholas continued and developed the art tradition of the Pallavas and pandyas, whom they succeeded. During the nearly four certuries long rule, the entire Tamil country was studded with temples and Chola art traditional were adopted and followed in Sri Lanka and other

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Temple architecutre, particularly the Dravida or south Indian style of architecture, reached the pinnacle of glory under the Cholas. The chief feature of a Chola temple is the vimana or the story, which was later eclipsed by the richly ornamented gopuram of gateway. Under the Cholas, temples became the centre of life, particularly in the rural areas. The village assembly invariably held its meetings in the temple mandapas, which became an additional feature of the Chola temple architecture. The best example is, the Siva or the Brihadesvara of the Rajarajesvara temple, built in 1009 by Rajaraja I. Tanjore. It is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the Cholas under Rajaraja I. Apart from being the tallest (216 feet) of all Indian temples of the medieval period, it is a masterpiece of south Indian architecture. In this temple, a carving of a man’s head with a European hat is found on one side of the temple (in a subsidiary structure), which is believed to be that of Marco Polo (late 13th century), the Venetian traveler, The temple of Gangaikonda Cholapurm (also dedicated to Siva or Brihadesvara), the creation of Rajendra

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I, was meant to excel its predecessor in every conceivable way. Erected around 1030, the greater elaboration in its appearance attested to the more affluent state of the chola empire under Rajendra I. It is larger in plan though not as tall as the previous one.

The temples of Orissa represent the Nagara style of architecture. Few of the famous temples built during 7th and 13th centuries include Lingaraja temple at Bhuvaneshwar, Jagannath temple at Puri and Sun temple at Konark. The temples built by Chandel rulers at Khajurago between 950 and 1050 are also famous for their architectural beauty.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The Chola period also witnessed great strides in the field of sculpure. The three main classes of Chola sculpture are portraits, icons and decorative sculptures.

seven pagodas, kailashnath and Vaikuntah Perumal temples at Kanchi, and Parshurameshvar temple at Gudimallam.

There are three well-preserved and nearly life-size portraits on the walls of the Duranganatha temple at Srinivasanallyur, and several others in the Nagesvara temple at Kumbhakonam. The Chola sculptors started bronze-casting sometime around the middle of the 9th century. The Cholas are particularly known for their Nataraja bronzes (bronze statues of Nataraja of the dancing Siva) which are master pieces of this Nagesvara temple at Dumbhakonam. A group of three bronzes of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita wth Hanuman at their feet from Tirkkadaiyur (Tanjore District) is one of the finest products of Chola bronzemarking of the reign of Rajaraja I. Chola wall paintings are to be found on the walls of the Vijayala Cholesvara and Rajarajesvara temples. On the walls of the Vijalaya Cholesvara temple, large painted figures of Mahakala, Devi and Siva are still visible.

The Hoysalas were also great patrons of art. In many cases, the Hoysala temples are not single but double, having all essential parts duplicated. One more noteworthy feature is that the temple itself appears to be the work of a sculptor and not of a builder, This is best illustrated in the Hoysalesvara temple at Halebid, whose plinth consists of nine bands and each band had thousands of decorative figures in various postures. Hence, the Hoysala temples have been aptly described as sculptors’ architecture. There are a number of temples in the Mysore territory which exhibit amazing display of sculptural exuberance. The most typical and well-known examples are the temples of Desava at Simnathpur, Chenna Desava at Belur and Hoysalesvara at Halebid. The Keasva at Simnathpur, Chenna Kesava at Belur and Housalesvara at Halebid. The Desava temple at Somnathpur, near Seringapatnam erected about 1268, is still in a perfect state. The other major centers of Dravida style are Mammallapuram (Mahabalipuram) with the

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Contact With Southeast Asia

Indians have been moving out from ancient time to different parts of the world for trade and other activities. As far as the Indian contact with Southeast Asia is concerned, it appears to be as old as fifth century B.C. Jatakas the Buddhist texts belonging to this period refer to Indians visiting Suvarnadvipa (island of gold), which is identified with Java. Such early contacts with Southeast Asia are confirmed by the recent archeological finds of pearls and ornaments of agate and carnelian, the semi-precious stones of Indian origin, from the coastal sites in Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, etc. These finds belong to as far back as first century BC. According to the Chinese traditions, the first kingdom in South east Asia was founded at Funan (Cambodia) in the fourth century AD by a brahman known as Kaundinya who had come from India and had married the local princess. However, Indian and Southeast Asian contacts became closer from 5th century AD onwards when inscriptions in Sanskrit language start appearing in many areas. It reached its peak during AD 800–AD 1300 when many kings and dynasties with Indian names emerge all over Southeast Asia The Southeast contact was largely on account of trade. Southeast Asia is rich in cardamom, sandal wood, camphor, cloves etc. which formed important items of trade between India and the West. Initially, the Indian traders appear to have settled along the coast, but gradually they shifted their network to the interior. Along with the traders came the priests particularly the Buddhist and brahmanas, to meet the ritual requirements of the Indian settlers. It thus created a situation for the spread of Indian social and cultural ideas in South east Asia. But it must be noted that Indian contact did not uproot the local culture. It was rather a case of peaceful intermixing of Indian concepts with local cultural features. Therefore, for example, while

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upkeep. Similarly in the eleventh century another king was permitted by the Chola king Rajaraja I to build a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattam on the Tamil Coast. The Shailendras also built a beautiful temple dedicated to Buddha at Barabudur in Java. It is situated on the top of a hillock and consists of nine gradually receding terraces.

The most important empire which come to be founded in South east Asia in the 8th Century AD was the Shailendra empire. It comprised Java, Sumatra, Malay- Pennisula and other parts of the Southeast Asian region. They were a leading naval power and on account of their geographical position controlled the trade between China and India as well as other countries in the west. The Shailendra kings were followers of Buddhism and had close contact with the Indian rulers. One of the kings of this empire, built a monastery at Nalanda in the ninth century, and at his request the Pala king Devapala of Bengal granted five villages for its

Besides Buddhism, the worship of Hindu gods such as Vishnu and Siva was also quite popular in southeast Asia. The temples dedicated to them have been found at various places. They show distinct traces of Indian influence and inspiration. One of the most famous temples, dedicated to Vishnu, is Angkorvat temple built in the 12th century by Surya Varman II, the king of Kambuja (Cambodia). It is surrounded by a moat, filled with water. It has a huge gopuram (gateway) and number of galleries, the walls of which are decorated with sculptures based on themes drawn from Mahabharat and Ramayana.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Sanskrit was accepted as a language of court and religion in Southeast Asia the regional languages continued to be used side by side , and we find many inscriptions in mixed Sanskrit and local language. Similarly, the concept of varna was known to the south east Asians and brahmanas were respected in society, but social divisions were not rigid as it was in India.






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ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANATE

IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

and Uchch aspired for independence. Aibak was able to win over his enemies by conciliatory measures as well as a display of power. He defeated Yaldauz and occupied Ghazni. The successor of Jaichand, Harishchandra had driven out the Turks from Badayun and Farukhabad. Aibak re-conquered both Badayun and Farukhabad.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The rulers who ruled substantial parts of the North India between AD1200 to AD1526 were termed as Sultans and the period of their rule as the Delhi Sultanate. These rulers were of Turkish and Afghan origin. They established their rule in India after defeating the Indian ruling dynasties which were mainly Rajputs in northern India. The main ruler who was overthrown by the invading Turk Muhammad Ghori from Delhi was Prithvi Raj Chauhan. These Sultans ruled for more than 300 years (from around AD 1200 to AD 1526). The last of the Delhi Sultan, Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by the Mughals under the leadership of Babur in AD1526 who established the Mughal Empire in India. During this period of around three hundred years five different dynasties ruled Delhi. These were the Mamluks (AD 1206–AD 1290) (popularly known as slave dynasty), the Khaljis (AD 1290–AD 1320), the Tughlaqs (AD 1320–AD 1412), the Sayyids (AD 1412–AD 1451) and the Lodis (AD 1451– AD 1526). All these dynasties are collectively referred as the Delhi Sultanate.

CHRONICLE

THE MAMLUK SULTANS

With Qutbuddin Aibak, begins the period of Mamluk Sultans or the slave dynasty. Mamluk is an Arabic word meaning “owned”. It was used to distinguish the imported Turkish slaves meant for military service from the lower slaves used as domestic labour or artisan. The Mamluk Sultans ruled from AD 1206 to 1290.

• Qutbuddin Aibak (AD 1206–1210)

Qutbuddin Aibak was a Turkish slave who had risen to high rank in Muhammad Ghori’s army. After Muhammad Ghori’s death in AD 1206, the control of his Indian possessions was passed on to Qutbuddin Aibak. Aibak was the first independent Muslim ruler of Northern India, the founder of Delhi Sultanate. Aibak had to face many revolts from Rajputs and other Indian chiefs. Tajuddin Yaldauz, the ruler of Ghazni, claimed his rule over Delhi. Nasiruddin Qabacha, the governor of Multan

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Qutbuddin Aibak was brave, faithful and generous. Due to his generosity he was known as “Lakh Baksh”. Most of the scholars consider Aibak as the real founder of Mulsim rule in India.

• Iltutmish (AD 1210–1236)

In AD 1210, Aibak died of injuries received in a fall from his horse while playing chaugan (Polo). After his death a few amirs raised his son Aram Shah to the throne in Lahore. But Aram Shah was incapable ruler and the Turkish amirs opposed him. The Turkish chiefs of Delhi invited the governor of Badayun (son-in-law of Qutbuddin Aibak) “Iltutmish” to come to Delhi. Aram Shah proceeded against him at the head of the army from Lahore to Delhi but Iltutmish defeated him and became the Sultan with the name of Shamsuddin. The credit of consolidating the Delhi Sultanate lies largely with him. When Iltutmish ascended the throne, he found himself surrounded with many problems. Other commanders of Muhammad Ghori like Yaldauz, Qubacha and Ali Mardan rose in defiance again. The chief of Jalor and Ranthambore joined Gwalior and Kalinjar in declaring their independence. Apart from this, the rising power of Mongols under Chenghiz Khan threatened the North West Frontier of the Sultanate.

Iltutmish took up the task of consolidating his position. He defeated Yaldauz in AD 1215 in the battle of Tarain. In AD 1217 he drove away Qabacha from Punjab. In AD 1220, when Chenghiz Khan destroyed the Khwarizm expire, Iltutmish realised the rpolitical necessity of avoiding a confrontation with the Mongols. Thus when Jalaluddin Mangbarani, the son of the Shah of Khwarizm, while escaping from the Mongols, sought shelter at Iltutmish’s court,

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Iltutmish turned him away. He thus saved the Sultanate from destruction by the Mongols.

prestigious regions of North India. (You will read details of administration in lesson 12)

From AD 1225 onwards, Iltutmish engaged his armies in suppressing the disturbances in the East. In AD 1226–27 Iltutmish sent a large army under his son Nasiruddin Mahmud which defeated Iwaz Khan and brought Bengal and Bihar back into the Delhi Sultanate. Similarly a campaign was also launched against the Rajput chiefs. Ranthambore was captured in AD 1226 and by AD 1231 Iltutmish had established his authority over Mandor, Jalore, Bayana and Gwalior.

• Raziya (AD 1236–40)

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The problem of successor troubled Iltutmish during his last days. Iltutmish did not consider any of his sons worthy of the throne. His own choice was his daughter Raziya hence he nominated her as his successor. But after his death his son Ruknuddin Firoz ascended the throne with the help of army leaders. However with the support of the people of Delhi and some military leaders, Raziya soon ascended the throne. Despite her obvious qualities, Raziya did not fare significantly better primarily because of her attempts to create a counter nobility of nonTurks and invited the wrath of the Turkish amirs. They were particularly incensed over her decision to appoint the Abyssinian, Malik Jamaluddin Yaqut, as the amir-i-akhur (master of the horses); the recruitment of a few other non-Turks to important posts further inflamed matters. The nobility realized that, though a woman, Raziya was not willing to be a puppet in their hands, therefore the nobles started revolting against her in the provinces. They accused her of violating feminine modesty and being too friendly to an Abbyssinian noble, Yaqut. She got killed after she was defeated by the nobles. Thus her reign was a brief one and came to end in AD 1240.

There is no doubt that Iltutmish completed the unfinished work of Aibak. The Delhi Sultanate now covered a sizeable territory. Besides this, he also organised his trusted nobles or officers into a group of “Forty” (Turkan-iChahalgani). He was a farsighted ruler and he consolidated and organised the newly formed Turkish Sultanate in Delhi. Iltutmish established ‘Group of Forty’ (Turkan-i-Chahalgani). These were Turkish amirs (nobles) who advised and helped the Sultan in administering the Sultanate. After the death of Iltutmish, this group assumed great power in its hands. For a few years they decided on the selection of Sultans one after the other. The group was finally eliminated by Balban.

Iltutmish effectively suppressed the defiant amirs of Delhi. He separated the Delhi Sultanate from Ghazni, Ghor and Central Asian politics. Iltutmish also obtained a ‘Letter of Investiture’ in AD 1229 from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad to gain legitimacy. Iltutmish made a significant contribution in giving shape to administrative institution such as iqtas, army and currency system. He gave the Sultanate two of its basic coins– the silver ‘Tanka’ and the copper ‘Jittal’. To affect greater control over the conquered areas Iltutmish granted iqtas (land assignments in lieu of cash salaries) to his Turkish officers on a large scale. The recipients of “iqtas” called the “iqtadars” collected the land revenue from the territories under them. Out of this they maintained an armed contingent for the service of the state, enforced law and order and met their own expenses. Iltutmish realized the economic potentiality of the Doab and the iqtas were distributed mainly in this region. This secured for Iltutmish the financial and administrative control over one of the most

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• Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246–66 AD)

The struggle for power between Sultan and the Turkish Chiefs “Chahalgani” which began during the reign of Raziya continued. After Raziya’s death, the power of Chahalgani increased and they became largely responsible for making and unmaking of kings. Behram Shah (AD 1240–42) and Masud Shah (AD 1242–46) were made Sultans and removed in succession. After them, in AD 1246, Ulugh Khan (later known as Balban) placed the inexperienced and young Nasiruddin (grandson of Iltutmish) on throne and himself assumed the position of Naib (deputy). To further strengthen his position, he married his daughter to Nasiruddin. Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud died in AD 1265. According to Ibn Battuta and Isami, Balban poisoned his master Nasiruddin and ascended the throne.

• Balban (AD 1266–87)

The struggle between the sultan and the Turkish nobles continued, till one of the Turkish

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encouraged by the Mongol threats and the old age of Sultan the governor of Bengal, Tughril Beg, revolted, assumed the title of Sultan and had the khutba read in his name. Balban sent his forces to Bengal and had Tughril killed. Subsequently he appointed his own son Bughra Khan as the governor of Bengal. By all these harsh methods, Balban controlled the situation. In order to impress the people with the strength and awe of his government, Balban maintained a magnificent court. He refused to laugh and joke in the court, and even gave up drinking wine so that no one may see him in a non-serious mood. He also insisted on the ceremony of sijada (prostration) and paibos (kissing of the monarch’s feet) in the court. Balban was undoubtedly one of the main architects of the Sultanate of Delhi, particularly of its form of government and institutions. By asserting the power of the monarchy, Balban strengthened the Delhi Sultanate. But even he could not fully defend northern India against the attacks of the Mongols. Moreover, by excluding non-Turkish from positions of power and authority and by trusting only a very narrow racial group he made many people dissatisfied. This led to fresh disturbances and troubles after his death. Balban adopted a policy of consolidation rather than expansion. He introduced a new theory of kingship and redefined the relations between the Sultan and nobility. Through these measures Balban strengthened the Delhi Sultanate.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

chiefs, Ulugh Khan, known in history by the name of Balban, gradually arrogated all power to himself and finally ascended the throne in AD 1266. When Balban became the Sultan, his position was not secure. Many Turkish chiefs were hostile to him; the Mongols were looking forward for an opportunity for attacking the Sultanate, the governors of the distant provinces were also trying to become independent rulers, the Indian rulers were also ready to revolt at the smallest opportunity. The law and order situation in the area around Delhi and in the Doab region had deteriorated.In the Ganga-Yamuna doab and Awadh, the roads were infested with the robbers and dacoits, because of which the communication with the eastern areas had become difficult. Some of the Rajput zamindars had set up forts in the area, and defied the government. The Mewatis had become so bold as to plunder people up to the outskirts of Delhi. To deal with these elements, Balban adopted a stern policy. In the Mewat many were killed. In the area around Badayun, Rajput strongholds were destroyed. Balban ruled in an autocratic manner and worked hard to elevate the position of the Sultan. He did not allow any noble to assume great power. He even formulated the theory of kingship. The historian Barani, who was himself a great champion of the Turkish nobles, says that Balban remarked ‘whenever I see a base born ignoble man, my eyes burn and I reach in anger for my sword (to kill him).” We do not know if Balban actually said these words but his attitude towards the non-Turks was that of contempt. Balban was not prepared to share power with anyone, not even with his own family.

Balban was determined to break the power of the Chahalgani. To keep himself well informed, Balban appointed spies in every department. He also organised a strong centralized army, both to deal with internal disturbances, and to repel the Mongols who had entrenched themselves in the Punjab and posed a serious threat to the Delhi Sultanate. Balban re-organised the military department (diwan-iarz) and deployed army in different parts of the country to put down rebellion. The disturbances in Mewat, Doab, Awadh and Katihar were ruthlessly suppressed. Balban also secured control over Ajmer and Nagaur in eastern Rajputana but his attempts to capture Ranthambore and Gwalior failed. In AD 1279,

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Balban died in AD 1287. After his death the nobles raised his grandson Kaiquabad to the throne. He was soon replaced by his son, Kaimurs, who remained on the throne for a little over three months. During Balban’s reign, Firoz had been the warden of the marches in northwest and had fought many successful battles against the Mongols. He was called to Delhi as Ariz-i-Mumalik (Minister of War). In AD 1290 Firoz took a bold step by murdering Kaimurs and seized the throne. A group of Khalji nobles led by him established the Khalji dynasty. Some scholars call this event as the ‘dynastic revolution’ of AD 1290. It brought to an end the so called slave dynasty and Firoz ascended the throne under the title of Jalaluddin Khalji.

THE KHALJIS (AD 1290–1320) • Jalaluddin Khalji (AD 1290–1296)

Jalaluddin Khalji laid the foundation of the Khalji dynasty. He ascended the throne at the

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In order to prevent the reoccurrence of these rebellions, Alauddin formulated certain regulations and implemented them. (1) Families that had been enjoying free land to support themselves should pay land tax for their holdings. This curbed the excess of wealth owned by some people. (2) The Sultan reorganized the spy system and took measure to make it more effective. (3) The use of liquor and intoxicants was prohibited. (4) The nobles were ordered not to have social gatherings or inter-marriages without his permission. Alauddin established a huge permanent, standing army to satisfy his ambition of conquest and to protect the country from Mongol invasion.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

age of 70 years. Although Jalaluddin retained the earlier nobility in his administration, but the rise of Khaljis to power ended the monopoly of nobility of slaves to high offices. Jalaluddin ruled only for a short span of six years. He tried to mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban’s rule. He was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate to clearly put forward the view that the state should be based on the willing support of the governed, and that since the large majority of the people in India were Hindus, the state in India could not be a truly Islamic state. Jalaluddin tried to win the goodwill of the nobility by a policy of tolerance. He avoided harsh punishments, even to those who revolted against him. He not only forgave them but at times even rewarded them to win their support. However many people including his supporters, considered him to be a weak sultan.

Jalaluddin’s policy was reversed by Alauddin Khalji who awarded drastic punishments to all those who dared to oppose him.

• Alauddin Khalji (AD 1296–1316)

Alauddin Khalji was Jalaluddin’s ambitious nephew and son-in-law. He had helped his uncle in his struggle for power and was appointed as Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of Ceremonies). Alauddin had two victorious expeditions during the reign of Jalaluddin. After the first expedition of Bhilsa (Vidisa) in AD 1292, he was given the iqta of Awadh, in addition to that of Kara. He was also appointed Arizi-i-Mumalik (Minister of War). In AD 1294, he led the first Turkish expedition to southern India and plundered Devagiri. The successful expedition proved that Alauddin was an able military commander and efficient organiser. In July AD 1296, he murdered his uncle and father-in-law Jalaluddin Khalji and crowned himself as the Sultan. Alauddin decided to revive Balban’s policies of ruthless governance. He decided to curb the powers of the nobles and interference of Ulema in the matters of the state. He also faced, a few rebellions in succession during the early years of his rule. According to Barani, the author of Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, Alauddin felt that there were four reasons for these rebellions: 1) The inefficiency of the spy system, 2) the general practice of the use of wine, 3) Social intercourse among the nobles and inter marriage between them and 4) the excess of wealth in the possession of certain nobles.

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Market Regulations of Alauddin Khalji

Alauddin’s measures to control the markets were one of the most important policy initiative. Since Alauddin wanted to maintain a large army, he therefore, lowered and fixed the price of the commodities of daily use. To control the prices, Alauddin set up three different markets for different commodities in Delhi. These markets were the grain market (Mandi), cloth market (Sarai Adl) and the market for horses, slaves, cattles, etc. To ensure implementation, Alauddin appointed a superintendent (Shahna-i-Mandi) who was assisted by an intelligence officer. Apart from Shahna-i-Mandi, Alauddin received daily reports of the market from two other independent sources, barid (intelligence officer) and munhiyans (secret spies). Any violation of Sultan’s orders resulted in harsh punishment, including expulsion from the capital, imposition of fine, imprisonment and mutilation. Control of prices of horses was very important for the Sultan because without the supply of good horses at reasonable price to army, the efficiency of the army could not be ensured. Low price in the horse market were ensured by putting a stop to the purchase of horses by horse dealers and brokers (dalals) in Delhi market.

Expansion of Delhi Sultanate

Under Alauddin Khalji the territorial expansion of the Delhi Sultanate, beyond North India, was the most important achievement. Alauddin first began his territorial conquest with a campaign against Gujarat. Alauddin was motivated by his desire to establish a vast empire and obtain the wealth of Gujarat. The riches of Gujarat were to pay for his future conquests and

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Deccan and South India The imperialist ambitions of Alauddin were not satisfied with the conquest of the north. He was determined to conquer south as well. The wealth of the southern kingdoms attracted him. The expeditions to the south were sent under Malik Kafur, a trusted commander of Alauddin who held the office of the Naib. In AD 1306–07, Alauddin planned fresh campaign in Deccan. His first target was Rai Karan (the earlier rule of Gujarat), who had now occupied Baglana, and defeated him. The second expedition was against Rai Ramachandra, the ruler of Deogir who had earlier promised to pay tribute to Sultan but did not pay. Ramachandra surrendered after little resistance to Malik Kafur and was treated honourably. He was kept a guest at Alauddin’s court and was given a gift of one lakh tankas and the title of Rai Rayan. He was also given a district of Gujarat and one of his daughters was married to Alauddin. Alauddin showed generosity towards Ramachandra because he wanted to have Ramachandra as an ally for campaigns in the South.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

her sea port was to ensure a regular supply of Arab horses for his army. In AD 1299, an army under two of Alauddin’s noted generals Ulugh Khan and Nusarat Khan marched against Gujarat. Rai Karan the ruler of Gujarat fled, the temple of Somnath was captured. An enormous booty was collected. Even the wealthy Muslim merchants were not spared. Many slaves were captured. Malik Kafur was one among them who later became the trusted commander of the Khalji forces and led the invasions to South India. Gujarat now passed under the control of Delhi.

After the annexation of Gujarat, Alauddin turned his attention towards Rajasthan. Ranthambore was the first target. Ranthambore was reputed to be the strongest fort of Rajasthan and had earlier defied Jalaluddin Khalji. The capture of Ranthambore was necessary to break the power and morale of the Rajputs. The immediate cause of attack was that the ruler of Ranthambore Hamirdeva gave shelter to two rebellious Mongol soldiers and refused to hand over them to the Khalji ruler. Hence an offensive was launched against Ranthambore. To begin with the Khalji forces suffered losses. Nusrat Khan even lost his life. Finally Alauddin himself had to come on the battle filed. In AD 1301, the fort fell to Alauddin. In AD 1303, Alauddin besieged Chittor, another powerful state of Rajputana. According to some scholars, Alauddin attacked Chittor because he coveted Padmini, the beautiful queen of Raja Ratan Singh. However many scholars do not agree with this legend as this is first mentioned by Jaisi in his Padmavat more than two hundred years later. According to Amir Khusrau, the Sultan ordered a general massacre of the civil population. Chittor was renamed Khizrabad after the name of Sultan’s son Khizr Khan. Alauddin however returned back quickly to Delhi as Mongol army was advancing towards Delhi. In AD 1305, Khalji army under Ain-ulMulk captured Malwa. Other states such as Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi were also captured. After the conquest of Malwa, Alauddin sent Malik Kafur to the South and himself attacked Siwana. The ruler of Siwana Raja Shital Deva defended the fort bravely but was ultimately defeated. In AD 1311, another Rajput kingdom Jalor was also captured. Thus by AD 1311, Alauddin had completed the conquest of large parts of Rajputana and became the master of North India.

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After AD 1309 Malik Kafur was despatched to launch campaign in South India. The first expedition was against Pratab Rudradeva of Warangal in the Telengana area. This siege lasted for many months and came to an end when Rai agreed to part with his treasures and pay tribute to Sultan. The second campaign was against Dwar Samudra and Ma’bar (modern Karnataka and Tamil Nadu). The ruler of Dwar Samudra, Vir Ballala III realized that defeating Malik Kafur would not be an easy task, hence he agreed to pay tribute to Sultan without any resistance. In the case of Ma’bar (Pandya Kingdom) a direct decisive battle could not take place. However, Kafur plundered as much as he could including a number of wealthy temples such as that of Chidambaram. According to Amir Khusrau, Kafur returned with 512 elephants, 7000 horses, and 500 mans of precious stone. The Sultan honoured Malik Kafur by appointing him Naib Malik of the empire. Alauddin’s forces under Malik Kafur continued to maintain a control over the Deccan kingdoms. Following the death of Alauddin in AD 1316, the Delhi Sultanate was plunged into confusion.

Malik Kafur sat on the throne for a few days, only to be deposed by Qutbuddin Mubarak

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Shah. During this period, rebellions broke out in Deogir but were harshly suppressed. Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah was soon murdered and Khusrau ascended the throne. However he too did not last long as some dissatisfied officers, led by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, defeated and killed him in a battle. Thus only four years after the death of Alauddin, the Khalji dynasty came to end and power passed into the hands of the Tughlaqs.

had helped Rai Rudra Dev of Warangal in his battle against Delhi Sultans. Ulug Khan led an army against him in AD 1324 Bhanudeva II was defeated and his territory annexed. In Bengal there was discontent of nobles against their Sultan. The dissatisfied nobles invited the Tughlaq prince to invade their ruler. The army of Bengal was defeated and a noble Nasiruddin was installed on the throne.

THE TUGHLAQS (AD 1320–1412)

The Mongol invasions from the North-West region were rocking the Sultanate on regular intervals. In AD 1326–27 a big Mongol assault under Tarmashirin Khan took place.

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North West

The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was Ghazi Malik who ascended the throne as Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in AD 1320 and this dynasty ruled till AD 1412. Giyasuddin rose to an important position in the reign of Alauddin Khalji. After a brief rule Ghiyassuddin Tughlaq died in AD 1325 and his son Muhammad Tughlaq ascended the throne. Under the Tughlaqs the Delhi Sultanate was further consolidated. Many outlying territories were brought under the direct control of the Sultanate.

The Deccan and South

The regions of the Deccan which were conquered by the Khaljis had stopped paying tribute and were proclaiming independent status. Muhammad Tughlaq while a prince (called Juna Khan) led the early expeditions against Rai Rudra Dev who was defeated after a prolonged conflict and Warangal was now annexed under direct control of the Sultanate. Ma’bar was also defeated. Now the whole region of Telangana was divided into administrative units and made part of the Sultanate. In contrast to Allauddin Khalji’s policy the Tughlaqs annexed the Deccan region. Muhammad Tughlaq even decided to transfer his capital from Delhi to Deogir and renamed it as Daultabad. In fact he wanted to control the northern region from this place. Substantial number of nobles, religious men and craftsmen shifted to the new capital. It seems that the idea was to treat it as the second capital and not abandon Delhi. Later the whole scheme was given up. However, the plan improved ties between the north and south. Apart from territorial expansion the social, cultural and economic interactions also grew.

East India Bhanudeva II, the ruler of Jajnagar in Orissa

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Transfer of Capital

One of the controversial measures of Muhammad bin Tughlaq was that he transferred his capital from Delhi to Deogir (Daultabad). According to Dr. Mahdi Hussain, the Sultan wanted to maintain both Delhi and Daultabad as his capitals. As per Barani, in AD 1326–27, Sultan decided to shift his capital from Delhi to Deogir (Daultabad) in the Deccan because it was more centrally located. According to Ibn Batuta, the people of Delhi used to write letters containing abuses to the Sultan, therefore, in order to punish them Sultan decided to shift the capital. Isami say that it was a place at a safer distance from the North West frontier and thussafe from the Mongols. In view of different versions it is difficult to assign one definite reason for this shift. The entire population was not asked to leave only the upper classes consisting of shaikhs, nobles, ulema were shifted to Daultabad. No. attempt was made to shift the rest of the population. Though Muhammad bin Tughlaq built a road from Delhi to Deogir and set up rest houses but the journey was extremely harsh for the people. Large number of people died because of rigorous travelling and the heat. Due to growing discontent and the fact that north could not be controlled from south, Muhammad decided to abandon Daultabad. Muhammad Tughlaq decided to secure the frontier. The region from Lahore to Kalanur including Peshawar was conquered and new administrative control was established. Besides, the Sultan also planned invasions of Qarachil region (In present day Himachal) and Qandhar but did not succeed. In fact these schemes

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In the Deccan and South Vijaynagar empire and Bahmani kingdom became political powers. Large parts of Punjab were occupied by independent nobles. Gujarat and Malwa became fully independent. Rajput states in Rajasthan no longer treated Delhi Sultans as their overlords.

SAYYID DYNASTY (1414–1450 AD) After defeating the army of Delhi in 1398 Timur appointed Khizr Khan as the ruler of Multan. Khizr Khan defeated Sultan Daulat Khan and occupied Delhi and founded Sayyid dynasty. He did not assume the title of Sultan but was comfortable with Rayati-Ala. The author of the Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, Yahya Sirhindi claims that the founder of the Sayyid dynasty was a descendant of the prophet.

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resulted in heavy loss. Muhammad Tughlaq was very innovative in adopting new policies. He started a new department for the development of Agriculture. It was called Diwan-i Kohi. Peasants were given financial support to help in arranging seeds for cultivation. This loan was also given in case of crop failures. Another important measure was to introduce token currency to tide over the shortage of Silver. However, this scheme failed causing great financial loss to the sultanate.

Token Currency

Another controversial project undertaken by Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the introduction of “Token Currency”. According to Barani, the Sultan introduced token currency because the treasury was empty due to the Sultan’s schemes of conquest as well as his boundless generosity. Some historians are of the opinion that there was a shortage of silver world wide at that time and India too faced the crisis therefore, the Sultan was forced to issue copper coins in place of silver. Muhammad introduced a copper coin (Jittal) in place of silver coin (tanka) and ordered that it should be accepted as equivalent to the tanka. However, the idea of token currency was new in India and it was difficult for traders and common people to accept it. The State also did not take proper precautions to check the imitation of coins issued by the mints. Government could not prevent people from forging the new coins and soon the new coins flooded the markets. According to Barani the people began to mint token currency in their houses. However the common man failed to distinguish between copper coin issued by the royal treasury and those which were locally made. Thus the Sultan was forced to withdraw the token currency. Muhammad Tughlaq was succeeded by his cousin Firuz Tughlaq. Under him no new territories could be added to the Sultanate. He managed to keep large areas intact with great efforts. However, the political control of Delhi gradually weakened during the rule of Firuz’s successors. The invasion of Timur in AD 1398 left the sultanate desolate. By the end of Tughlaq rule (AD 1412) the Sultanate was confined to a small territory in north India. A number of regions proclaimed independent status. In the east Bengal and Orissa enjoyed complete autonomy. In eastern UP and large parts of Bihar a new independent kingdom of Sharqis emerged.

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Khizr Khan was the most competent Sayyid rule of the dynasty. After Khizr Khan’s death Mubarak Shah (AD 1412–34) and Muhammad Shah (AD 1434–45) ascended the throne one after another. All of these rulers tried to control rebellious regions like Katehar, Badaun, Etawah, Patiali, Gwalior, Kampil, Nagaur and Mewat but they failed due to the conspiracy of the nobles. In 1445 AD, Alam Shah ascended the throne and became the Sultan. He proved a totally incompetent Sultan. Alam Shah’s Wazir Hamid Khan invited Bhalol Lodi to take charge of the army and after realizing that it would be difficult to continue as Sultan, Alam Shah left for Badaun.

RECONSOLIDATION UNDER LODI DYNASTY (1451–1526)

With the help of a few nobles Bahlol Lodi (AD 1451–1489) took charge of the army, and became the Sultan. Thus he laid the foundation of Lodi dynasty whose rulers were Afghans. The Lodis were the last ruling family of the Sultanate period and the first to be headed by the Afghans. Sultan Bahlol Lodi was a capable general. He was aware of the fact that to establish his control over Sultanate he would require help and support of Afghan nobles. The Afghan nobles wanted Sultan to treat them as an equal partner rather than an absolute monarch. To placate them Bahlol publicly declared that he considered himself one of the Afghan peers and not the king. He did not sit on the throne nor

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did he insist on his nobles standing in his court. This policy worked well throughout his long reign and he did not face any trouble from his powerful Afghan nobles.

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Bahlol Lodi successfully suppressed the revolts in Mewat and Doab. In AD 1476 he defeated the Sultan of Jaunpur and annexed it to Delhi Sultanate. He also brought the ruler of Kalpi and Dholpur under the Suzerainty of Delhi. However, he failed to reoccupy Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan.

Mongols were nomadic groups who inhabited the steppes north of China and east of Lake Baikal. They formed a huge nomadic empire under Chengiz Khan in the 12thcentury. From 13th century onwards they repeatedly attacked the Delhi Sultanate. The Sultans as a policy appeased them and also at times confronted. Balban and Allauddin Khalji confronted them with full military might. During Khalji’s time Mongols under Qultlug Khwaja even besieged Delhi and caused a lot of damage. The last significant attack of Mongols was by Tarmashirin during the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq. A lot of energy and resources of the Sultans were spent in facing these invasions but they could not destroy the sultanate.

After the dealth of Bahlol Lodi, Sikandar Lodi (AD 1489–1517) ascended the throne. Sikandar Lodi showed little tolerance towards the non-mulsims. He re-imposed jaziya on nonmulsims. Sikandar Lodi believed in the superior position of the Sultan vis-a-vis the nobles. He compelled nobles and amirs to show formal respect to the Sultan in darbar and outside and treated them harshly. He re-annexed Bihar, Dholpur, Narwar and some parts of the kingdom of Gwalior and Nagor to the Delhi Sultanate. After the death of Sikandar Lodi in AD 1517 his nobles helped Ibrahim Lodi to become Sultan. His reign proved a period of revolts. Firstly his own brother Jalal Khan rebelled. Sultan Ibrahim Lodi got him murdered. Bihar declared its independence. Daulat Khan the governor of Punjab also rebelled. Sultan’s behaviour caused much dissatisfaction. The rebellions Daulat Khan sent an invitation to Babur at Kabul to invade India. Babur defeated Sultan Ibrahim Lodi in AD 1526 in the battle at Panipat. Summing up the end of the Sultanate, a scholar states “The Sultanate of Delhi, which had its birth on the battlefield of Tarain in AD 1192, breathed its last in AD 1526 a few miles away on the battlefield of Panipat”.

Another important attack which shook the foundation of the sultanate was by Timur in 1398. The weakness of the Delhi Sultanate was made even worse by Timur’s invasion of Delhi (1398). Timur was a son of the Chief of Chagtai branch of Turks. When he invaded India he was the master of almost whole of Central Asia. Timur’s raid into India was a plundering raid and his motive was to seize the wealth accumulated by the Sultans of Delhi over the last 200 years. Sultan Nasiruddin and his Wazir Mallu Iqbasl faced Timur but were defeated. Timur entered Delhi and stayed for 15 days. He ordered general massacre and large number of Hindu and Muslim including women and children were murdered. Before leaving India Timur’s invasion indicated the downfall of Delhi Sultanate. Delhi Sultanate lost control over Punjab. Timur appointed Khizr Khan, the ruler for Multan who controlled Punjab also. After the fall of Tughlaq dynasty he occupied Delhi and became the ruler of Delhi Sultanate. He laid the foundation of Saiyyid Dynasty.

2. Inner Conflict of Nobility

CHALLENGES FACED BY THE SULTANATE

With the establishment of the Mughal Empire the rule of Delhi sultanate came to an end. During more than 300 years of its rule the Delhi sultanate went through various ups and downs but survived as a political force. Here we would like to discuss the major challenges the sultanate faced.

1. Attacks by Mongols and others Since its inception the major threat to the sultanate came in the form of Mongol invasions.

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Three hundred years of Delhi Sultanate witnessed five dynasties ruling over it. The main reason for change of dynasties and deposing of rulers was a constant struggle between the Sultan and the nobility (Umara). Soon after the death of Aibak they started fighting over the question of succession. Finally Iltutimish emerged victorious. Iltutimish created a group of loyal nobles called Turkan-i-Chihiligani (‘The Forty’). After the death of Iltutimish various factions of the group of forty got involved in making their favourite son/daughter as the sultan. In ten years five sultans were changed. After that the Sultan who occupied the throne (Nasiruddin

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long, as the local rulers recognised the supremacy of the Sultan in Delhi, they were allowed to collect taxes and send it to the central treasury as tribute. The central officials in these areas were mainly to help the local rulers in their administrative tasks. With the expansion and consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate, new administrative institutions also started emerging. The administrative structures and institutions introduced in India were influenced by the Mongols, Seljukids etc, brought by the new rulers. The existing administrative institutions in different parts of the country also contributed in giving shape to the new system.

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Mahmud) for 20 years hardly ruled and one of the powerful noble Balban was defacto sultan. The same Balban succeeded Nasiruddin after his death. Almost similar events happened after the death of each powerful sultan (Balban, Alauddin Khalji, Firoz Tughlaq and others.) Since there was no well defined law of succession each noble tried to either crown himself or support some favourite heir of the dead sultan. Finally Afghans replaced the Turks as sultan with the accession of Bahlol Lodi.

3. Provincial Kingdoms

Another consequence of this conflict was declaration of independence by various provincial heads in the regions. As a result a number of independent Afghan and Turkish kingdoms emerged. Important ones of such states were Bengal (Lakhnouti), Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat, the Bahmani kingdom in the Deccan etc. Quite often these states were at war with the Sultanate. The whole process weakened the sultanate.

4. Resistance by Indian Chiefs

The sultans had to face the resistance from Indian chiefs at regular intervals. The Rajput chiefs in Rajputana (Mewar, Ranthambhor, Chittor etc.), Warangal, Deogiri & Ma’bar in Deccan and South, the king of Dhar, Malwa in Central India, Jajnagar in Orissa and a host of smaller chieftains were constantly at war even after successive defeats. All these struggles weakened the sultanate. The Delhi sultanate was considerably weakened after the Khalji and Tughlaq reign. Finally the invasion of Babur in AD 1526 brought it to an end. Now a much more centralised and strong empire under the Mughals established itself in India and ruled for a further period of more than two hundred years. We will discuss it in our next lesson on the Mughal Rule. But before moving to the Mughals we provide you a brief account of the provincial kingdoms.

EVOLUTION OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE UNDER DELHI SULTANATE

When Qutubuddin Aibak established himself as an independent Sultan at Lahore, the available administrative apparatus was continued in the initial phase. The prevailing structure was not altered or disturbed and as

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The Sultans were aware of the fact that they had to rule over a subject population that was largely non-Islamic. Thus the Sultans of Delhi had to introduce particular measures to suit the prevailing conditions in the Sultanate. From the administrative point of view, the local level administration, it seems, was left mainly in the hands of village headmen etc. The large extent of the Sultanate necessitated the evolution of administrative structure separately for the centre and provinces. Thus, during the Sultanate period, administrative institutions emerged at different levels - central, provincial and local.

Administrative System

The government established by the Turks was a compromise between Islamic political ideas and institutions on the one hand and the existing Rajput system of government on the other. Consequently, many elements of the Rajput political system, with or without changes, became part and parcel of the Turkish administration in India.

MUSLIM POLITICAL IDEAS

Theological Basis Muslims believe that Islamic society and govermet should be organised on the basis of divine injunctions of the Quran. The sayings and doings of Prophet Muhammad, collectively known as hadis, began to be supplemented with the above. The ulema (Muslim theologians) gave vrious ruligns on the basis of the Quran and the hadis to meet different situations and problems, which are together known as the Sharia (Islamic Law).

Secular Basis Moreover , Zawabit (rules and regulations framed by the Sultans) were also used for a smooth and efficient running of the administration.

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Allah-Prophet Relationship According to the Qurun, the real master and sovereign of the whole universe is Allah: Allah has sent to all lands, through the ages: his prophets for the transmission of his message, Muhammad being the last one. While it is the duty of the governed to obey the ruler, it is equally the duty of the ruler to discharge his functions efficiently.

The real object of honouring the office of the caliph is interesting. Muslims in general regarded it as incumbet on the Sultan to show respect to the caliph, and opposition to the Sultan, who had been recognised by the caliph as his deputy, was regarded as contrary to the Hod Law. Hence the Sultans kept up the pretense of subservience to the caliph just to exploit the popular Muslim sentiments in their favour.

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Caliphate In principle, the entire Muslim fraternity should have only a single monarch. But when the caliphate or the empire of the caliphs became very extensive and disintegrative forces began to gain the upper hand, the ulema or Muslim jurists developed the theory of governors by usurpation and said that whom the caliph did not oppose he approved.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq tried to pacify the ulema by securing an investiture from the Abbasid caliph in Egypt. After him Firoz also sought and secured it twice.

Similarly they held that only an elected head could be the ruler. But when the caliphate became a hereditary monarchy they evolved a new doctrine of election. Now election by eleven or five or even by s single person enjoying the confidence of the people was regarded as election by the people. This legalised nomination by a ruling sovereign as election by the people. In the absence of any widespread uprisings against a ruler it was held that acquiescence was tantamount to approval or election by the people.

Caliph-Sultan Relationship Most of the Sultans kept up the pretence of regarding the caliph as the legal sovereign while they themselves were the caliph’s representatives. Most of them included the name of the caliph in the khutba (prayer) and the sikka (coin) and adopted titles indicative of their subordination to the caliph. As against this, three rulers emphasised their own importance. Balban used to say that after the Prophet the most important office was that of the sovereign and called himself the ‘Shadow of God’. Muhammad bin Tughlaq assumed this style during the early years of his reign and although Balban had retained the name of the caliph in the khutba and sikka , Muhammad made no mention of caliph anywhere. But, despite all this, neither of them had the audacity to call himself the caliph. The only person who had done this was Qutub-ud-din Mubarak Khalji.

But only three Sultans sought, and sacred a mansur or letter of investiture’ from the caliph. The first among them was Iltutmish. Next

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Law of Succession According to Islamic ideals, essential attributes of a sovereign required that he should be a male adult, suffering from no physical disability, a freedom Muslim, having faith in Islam and acquinted with its doctrines, and he should be elected by the people. However in practice there were several violations of the prescribed criteria for being elected to the throne. Raziya was raised to the throne despite her womanhood. Minority proved no bar in the case of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Qutub-ud-din Aibak’s authority was recognised even before his manumission. Kaiqubad remained the Sultan as a paralytic. Nasir-ud-din Khusrau had no special reverence for Islam and yet he was accepted as the Sultan of Delhi. Alaud-din Khalji frankly admitted his ignorance of the sharia but nobody dubbled him a unfit to rule on that score. As far as election was concerned, it had never existed in Islam. At best, support of a few leading men was regarded as tantamount to election by the people. This farce or peculiar type of election by the people. This farce or peculiar type of election was tried in the case of Iltutmish, Ghiyasud-din Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq. Theory of Kingship The doctrine of farr or farrah (supernatural effulgence or radiance) was first enunciated in the Shah Namah by firdausi, according to whom the God endows the rulers with farr, which symbolises the divine favour. Among the Delhi Sultans, Balban was the first to exhibit his aware-ness of the doctrine when he remarked that ‘the king’s heart is the mirror of the divine attributer’. Later Amir Khusrau observed that Kaiqubad was endowed with the farr. Limits to Sultan’s Authority in the framing of new rules and regulations the authority of the

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formed the main strength and some Indian groups also emerged. The position and power of the nobility varied from time to time as has been mentioned above. Nobles, particularly those who were based at Delhi, emerged as a very powerful group and at times even played a role in the selection of the sultan. The nobility was not a homogeneous class. There were different groups within the nobility and often there were inter group clashes and rivalries. The clash between Turkish and Tajik nobles started during the time of Iltutmish and became intense after his death. The group of chahalgan (group of 40 nobles), which was created by Iltutmish, also emerged very powerful.

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Sultan was circumscribed and every ruler could not govern the kingdom in complete disregard of the advice of the ulema or theologians as Alaud-din Khalji and Muhammad Tughlaq had been able to do. The power of the nobility also blunted their authority to some extent. When there was a weak ruler on the throne, the nobles, and the ulema particularly, dominated him. But during the reign of Balban, Ala-ud-din Khalji or Muhammad Tughlaq, these checks proved ineffective. The Sultans were not powerful enough to rule the land in complete disregard of the sentiments of the Hindus. And, the numericial inferiority of the Muslims gave them little or no opportunity to interfere with local government. During the Sultanate period the administrative apparatus was headed by the Sultan who was helped by various nobles. There were various other offices along with the office of the Sultan. Theoretically, there was a council of Ministers Majlis-i-Khalwat to assist the Sultan.

(i) The Sultan

The Sultan was the central figure in the administrative set up. He was the head of the civil administration and Supreme Commander of the army. He made all the appointments and promotions. He also had the right to remove anybody from the service. He had absolute power in his hand. He was also the head of the Judiciary. He used to confer titles and honours upon people. Theoretically the Sultan had an exalted position but in actual practice different Sultans enjoyed varying power. The position of the Sultan was always under pressure from the powerful group of nobility and Ulema. Sultans of Delhi, particularly the powerful Sultans, adopted various strategies to keep these groups under control. Balban kept the nobles firmly under his control. Thus the personality of the Sultan played a significant role in the administrative structure of the Sultanate. Under the capable and strong Sultans, the administration and the administrative structure functioned well but under the inefficient and weak ruler the same was under pressure.

(ii) Nobility

The nobles were the most important functionaries of the state and enjoyed high social status. In the initial stage they were those commanders who came with the victorious army. Over a period of time their descendants

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Balban was the first Sultan to bring the nobility firmly under his control (interestingly, he had been a part of chalalgan earlier). Qutubuddin Aibak and Iltutmish had considered the nobles at par with themselves. Balban maintained distance from the nobility and enforced strict code of conduct for himself and for the nobility. No loose talk or laughter was allowed in the court. He also emphasized on high blood and made it a criteria for occupying high positions and offices.

With the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate there were also attempts on the part of different sections of the society to join the nobility. Initially it was the preserve of the Turks only. During the rule of the Khalji and Tughlags the doors of the nobility were opened to people of diverse backgrounds. The low caste people, both Hindus and Muslims, joined the nobility and could rise to high positions especially under Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. During the Lodi period the Afghan concept of equality became important when the Sultan was considered “first among equals”. Thus the nobles enjoyed equal status with the Sultan. Some of the Lodi Sultans like Sikandar Lodi and Ibrahim Lodi found this uncomfortable and tried to bring the nobles under their control. The nobles resisted this which resulted in the trouble for both the Sultans.

(iii) Ulema

The religious intellectual group of Muslims was collectively referred as Ulema. People of this group managed religious matters and interpreted religious regulations for Sultan. They were also incharge of judicial matters and worked as Qazis at various levels. It was quite influential group

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and commanded respect of Sultan and nobility. They also had influence among Muslim masses. This group used to pressurize the sultan to run the Sultanate as per the religious laws of Islam. The Sultan and nobles generally tried to run the administrative affairs as per the need of state rather than religious laws. Sultan like Alauddin Khalji could ignore the opinions of Ulema on a number of issues but some followed their line.

Central Administration

This department was set up to look after the military organization of the empire. It was headed by Ariz-i-Mumalik. He was responsible for the administration of military affairs. He maintained royal contingent, recruited the soldiers, ensured the discipline and fitness of the army, inspected the troops maintained by the Iqta-holders, examined the horses and branded them with the royal insignia. During times of war, the ariz arranged military provisions, transportation and administered the army at war, provided constant supplies and was the custodian of the war booty. Alauddin Khalji introduced the system of Dagh (branding) and huliya (description) and cash payment to the soldiers in order to strengthen his control over the army. The contingent stationed at Delhi was called hasham-i-qalb and Provincial contingents were called hasham-i-atraf.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

As already mentioned the administrative system was headed by the Sultan. There were a number of departments which were assigned different responsibilities. These departments were managed by influential nobles. We will provide a brief account of a few departments.

(ii) Diwan-i-Arz

(i) Wizarat

After Sultan, the most important office was the Diwan-i-Wizarat, headed by the wazir. It was a key position in the royal court and his role was of a general supervisor over all departments, though he was one of the four important departmental heads. He was the chief advisor to the Sultan. The main functions of the wazir were to look after the financial organization of the State, give advice to the Sultan, and on occasions to lead military expeditions at Sultan’s behest. He also supervised the payment to the army. The wizarat or the office of wazir also kept a check on land revenue collections, maintained a record of all the income and expenditure incurred by the state and thus controlled or recorded the salaries of all royal servants, handled the charitable donations such as Waqfs, Inams etc. Further, the Mints, the intelligence departments, the royal buildings and other bodies affiliated to the royal court were supervised by the wizarat. The wazir had direct access to the Sultan and it was on his wisdom, sincerity and loyalty that the position of the Sultan depended greatly.

There were several other departments which worked under the wizarat. They were entrusted with specific functions. These included Mustaufii-Mumalik (Auditor General), Mushrif-i-Mumalik (Accountant General), Majmuadar (Keeper of loans and balances from treasury). Later some other offices were brought under the supervision of the Wizarat like Diwan-i -Waqoof (to supervise expenditure), Diwan-i-Mustakharaj (to look into the arrears of revenue payments), Diwan-i-Amir Kohi (to bring uncultivated land into cultivation through state support).

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(iii) Diwan-i-Insha

This department looked after the state correspondence. It was headed by Dabir-i-Khas. He drafted and despatched royal orders and received reports from various officers. The Dabir was the formal channel of communication between the centre and other regions of the empire. He was also a sort of private secretary of the Sultan and was responsible for writing the farmans. The Barid-i-Mumalik was the head of the state news gathering and dealt with intelligence. He had to keep information of all that was happening in the Sultanate. At local level there were barids who used to send regular news concerning the matters of the state to the central office. Apart from barids, another set of reporters also existed who were known as Munihiyan.

(iv) Diwan-i-Rasalat

This department dealt with the administration of Justice. It was headed by Sadrus-Sadr who was also the qazi-i-mumalik. He was the highest religious officer and took care of ecclesiastical affairs. He also appointed the qazis (judges) and approved various charitable grants like waqf, wazifa, Idrar, etc. The Sultan was the highest court of appeal in both civil and criminal matters. Next to him was Qazi-i-mumalik. The Muhtasibs (Public Censors) assisted the judicial department. Their main task was to see that there was no public

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infringement of the tenets of Islam. He was also to supervise and enforce the public morals and conduct.

(v) Other Departments

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Apart from these, there were a number of smaller departments at the centre which helped in the everyday administration of the empire. Wakil-i-dar looked after the royal household and managed the personal services of the Sultan. Amir-i-Hajib looked after the royal ceremonies. He used to act as an intermediary between the Sultan and subordinate officials and between Sultan and the public. Sar-i-Jandar looked after the royal body guards. Amir-i-Akhur looked after the establishment of horses and Shahnah-i-fil looked after the establishment of elephants. Amir-i-Majlis looked after the arrangement of meetings and special ceremonies. The Royal workshops (Karkhanas) played an important role in the administrative system of the Sultanate.

consolidation of the sultanate was a process which continued throughout the 13th and 14th centuries. Some of the newly conquered areas were brought directly under the control of the Sultanate and some other areas remained semi autonomous. Thus different Control mechanisms were adopted by the Sultan for these areas. In the areas that were loosely affiliated to the Sultanate, a few officials were appointed by the Centre as a symbol of imperial presence but everyday administration remained in local hands. The interest of the centre in these areas was mostly economic, i.e. the collection of the revenue.

The needs of the royal household were met through Karkhanas. The Karkhanas were of two types - (i) Manufactories (ii) Store House. Under Feroz Tughlaq, there were as many as 36 Karkhanas. Each Karkhana was supervised by a noble who had the rank of a Malik or a Khan. The Mutasarrif was responsible for the accounts and acted as immediate supervisors in various departments.

Department Purpose

Diwan-i-Risalat - Department of appeals Diwan-i-Ariz - Military department

Diwan-i-Bandagan - Department of slaves

Diwan-i-Qaza-i-Mamalik - Department of justice Diwan-i-Isthiaq - Department of pensions

Diwan-i-Mttstakhraj - Department of arrears Diwan-i-Khairat - Department of charity

Diwan-i-Kohi - Department of agriculture

Diwan-i-lnsha -Department of correspondence

Provincial Administration

The administration in the areas that were outside the core political area was carried out in a number of ways. It depended on the degree of political control which was exercised over the areas. The territorial expansion and

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The provinces were placed under the charge of the Governors who were responsible for the overall administration of the area. This involved ensuring the collection of revenue, maintaining law and order and keeping rebellious elements under control. He was a deputy of the Sultan in his area. Since the officials were frequently transferred and not familiar with the areas, they were generally dependent on local officials to perform their duties. The collection of the revenue was not possible without the help of the local officials. Thus the governor and the local power blocs worked in close association with each other. At times the combination created problems for the Sultan as the governors used to become powerful with the help provided by the local rulers and rise in rebellion against the Sultan. During the 14th century the provinces were partitioned into Shiqs for administrative convenience. The shiqs were administered by the Shiqdar. Subsequently the Shiqs got transformed into Sarkar during the Afghan period. Faujdar was another officer along with Shiqdar at the provincial level. Their duties are not clearly articulated, and often the role of the two seem to overlap. The Shiqdar assisted the governor in the maintenance of law and order and provided military assistance. He also supervised the functioning of the smaller administrative units. The duties of the Faujdar were similar to the Shiqdar. The Kotwals were placed under the Faujdar.

The other important officers at the provincial level were Barids (intelligence officer and reporter) and Sahib-i-Diwan (who maintained the financial accounts of the provincial income and expenditure).

Iqta System The institution of the Iqta had been in force

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in early Islamic world as a form of reward for services to the state. In the caliphate administration it was used to pay civil and military officers. After the establishment of the Sultanate iqta system was introduced by the Sultans. To begin with the army commanders and nobles were given territories to administer and collect the revenue. The territories thus assigned were called iqta and their holders as iqtadar or muqti.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

In essence this was a system of payment to the officers and maintenance of army by them. Gradually rules and regulations were laid down to organize the whole system. Through the years it became the main instrument of administrating the Sultanate. Further the sultans could get a large share of the surplus production from different parts of the vast territories through this system.

tration. The functioning and administration of the village remained more or less the same as it had existed in pre Turkish times. The main village functionaries were khut, Muqaddam and Patwari. They worked in close coordination with the muqti in the collection of revenue and in maintaining law and order etc. A number of villages formed the Pargana. The important Pargana officials were Chaudhary, Amil (revenue collector) and Karkun (accountant). Village and pargana were independent units of administration, and yet there were inter related areas. In certain cases the province had a local ruler (Rai, Rana, Rawat, Raja) who helped the governor in his duties. In such cases the local rulers were recognised as subordinates of the Sultan.

From the 14th century we hear of Walis or muqtis who are commanders of military and administrative tracts called Iqta. Their exact powers varied according to circumstances. In due course the muqti was given complete charge of the administration of the iqta which included the task of maintaining an army. The muqti was to help the sultan with his army in case of need. He was expected to maintain the army and meet his own expenses with the revenue collected. From the time of Balban the muqti was expected to send the balance (fawazil) of the income to the centre after meeting his and the army’s expenses. This means that the central revenue department had made an assessment of the expected income of the Iqta, the cost of the maintenance of the army and the muqti’s own expenses. This process became even more strict during the time of Alauddhin Khalji. As the central control grew, the control over muqti’s administration also increased. The Khwaja (probably same as Sahibi-Diwan) was appointed to keep a record of the income of the Iqtas. It was on the basis of this record that the Sultan used to make his revenue demands. A barid or intelligence officer was also appointed to keep the Sultan informed. During the reign of Muhmmad-bin-Thughlaq a number of governors were appointed on revenue sharing terms where they were to give a fixed sum to the state. During the time of Feroze Shah Tughlaq the control of state over iqtas was diluted when iqtas became hereditary.

Local Administration The village was the smallest unit of adminis-

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MARKET REFORMS OF ALAUDDIN KHALJI

The market reforms of Alauddin Khalji were oriented towards administrative and military necessities. Medieval rulers believed that necessities of life, especially food grains, should be available to the city folk at reasonable prices. But few rulers had been able to control the prices for any length of time. Alauddin Khalji was more or less the first ruler who looked at the problem of price control, in a systematic manner and was able to maintain stable prices for a considerable period. It has been pointed out that Alauddin Khalji instituted the market control because after the mongol seige of Delhi, he wanted to recruit a large army. All his treasures would have soon exhausted if he was to spend huge resources on army. With low prices the sultan could recruit a large army with low expenses. Whatever may be the reason for the market reforms, elaborate administrative arrangements were made to ensure that the market control was followed strictly. Alauddin fixed the prices of all commodities from grain to cloth, slaves, cattles etc. He also set up three markets at Delhi, the first for food grains, the second for cloth of all kinds and for expensive items such as sugar, ghee, oil, dry fruits etc. and the third for the horses, slaves and cattle. For controlling the food prices, Alauddin tried to control not only the supply of food grains from the villages, and its transportation to the city by the grain merchants, but also its proper distribution to the citizens. A number of measures were taken to see that prices laid down by the Sultan were strictly observed. An officer

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(Shehna) was in charge of the market to see that no one violates the royal orders. Barids (intelligence officers ) and munhiyan (secret spies) were also appointed. Alauddin also tried to ensure that there were sufficient stocks of foodgrains with the government so that the traders did not hike up prices by creating an artificial scarcity, or indulge in profiteering. Granaries were set up in Delhi and Chhain (Rajasthan). The Banjaras or Karwaniyan who transported the food grains from the country side to the city were asked to form themselves in a body. They were to settle on the banks of Yamuna with their families. An official (Shehna) was appointed to oversee them. To ensure the regular supply of food grains to the Banjaras, a number of regulations were made. All the food grains were to be brought to the market (mandis) and sold only at official prices.

Besides land revenue, they paid certain other taxes which prove that taxation during this period was as much, if not higher than, as in the previous period. In other words, the peasants were always living at the subsistence level which was easily denied by the frequent wars, thus resulting in large scale, and not so infrequent, famines.

The second market for cloth, dry fruits, ghee etc. was called Sarai-i- adl. All the clothes brought from different parts of the country and also from outside were to be stored and sold only in this market at government rates. To ensure an adequate supply of all the commodities, all the merchants were registered and a deed taken from them that they would bring the specified quantities of commodities to the Sarai-i-adl every year. The Merchants who, brought commodities from long distances including foreign countries were given advance money on the condition that they would not sell to any intermediaries. In cases of costly commodities an officer was to issue permits to amirs, maliks etc. for the purchase of these expensive commodities in accordance with their income. This was done to prevent any black marketing of these expensive products.

Improvement of Agriculture

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Maqaddams and Small Landlord: They had a better standard of life, for they readily misused their power in order to exploit the ordinary peasants.

The third market dealt with horses, cattle and slaves. The supply of horses of good quality at fair prices was important for the army. Alauddin did away with the middleman or dallal who had become very powerful. It was decided that the government fixed the quality and prices of the horses. Similarly, the prices of slave boys and girls and of cattle were also fixed. But these reforms didn’t last long and after the death of Alauddin these reforms got lost.

RURAL CLASSES Peasantry: The peasantry, known as the balahars, paid one thrd of their produce as land revenue, sometimes even one half of the produce.

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Autonomous Chieftains: They constituted the most prosperous rural section Though they were now a defeated ruling class, they were still powerful in their respective areas and continued to live a luxurious life as in the pre-Muslim period.

The Sultans undertook efforts to enhance agricultural production by providing irrigational facilities and by advancing takkavi loans for different agricultural purpose. They also encouraged peaseants to cultivate cash crops instead of food crops, and superior crops (wheat) in place of inferior ones (barley). There was an overall improvement in the quality of Indian fruits and the system of gardening. Waste lands were granted to different people thereby extending the cultivated area.

The Indian agriculture has always depended on various sources of water both natural and artificial, for its irrigational requirements, viz rain, wells, river, tanks, canals, lakes, etc. Dams, lakes and water reservoirs were some of the important means of irrigation. In south India, the state, local chiefs and temple managements constructed a number of dams over rivers for this purpose. The Madag lake, for instance, was built by the Vijaynagar rulers on the Tungbhadra river to meet the irrigational need of the adjoining territories. Lakes and water reservoirs such as the Dhebar, Udaisagar, Rajasamand and Jaisamand (all in Mewar); Balsan (Marwar) and Mansagar (Amber) etc. served as important sources of irrigation in medieval Rajasthan. Wells, as a common source of irrigation, were uniformly spread in different parts of the country. A number of artificial devices were used to lift water from wells. Pulleys were employed over wells for this purpose. Another device worked on the lever principle. In this method,

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new roads and maintenance of old ones facilitated easy and smooth transport and communication. Sarais or rest houses were maintained on the roads for the convenience of traders and merchants. Cotton textile and silk industry flourished in this period. Sericulture was introduced on a large scale which made India less dependent on other countries for the import of raw silk. Paper industry had grown and there was an extensive use of paper from 14th and 15th centuries. Other crafts like leather-making, metal-crafts and carpet-weaving flourished due to the increasing demand. The royal karkhanas supplied the goods needed to the Sultan and his household. They manufactured costly articles made of gold, silver and gold ware. The system of coinage had also developed during the Delhi Sultanate.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

fork of an upright beam was kept in a swinging position with its one end tied with a long rope and the other carried a weight heavier than the filled bucket. The Persian wheel which began to be used in India from the Sultanate period, however, was the most advanced water lifting device of this period. In this method, a garland of pots was attached to the rim of a wheel, a gear mechanism was also attached to it, and with the help of animal power this wheel was made to rotate. The Delhi Sultans, in particular, promoted canal irrigation. Ghiyassuddin Tughlaq (A.D 1320–1325) built a number of canals for this purpose. However, Firuz Shah Tughlaq laid the largest network of canals. Four such canals are frequently mentioned in contemporary sources. These were - (i) from Sutlej to Ghaggar, (ii) Opening from the Nandavi and Simur hills to Arasani, (iii) from Ghaggar, reaching upto the village to Hiransi Khera, and (iv) excavated from Yamuna and extended upto Firuzabad.

GROWTH OF COMMERCE AND URBANIZATION

During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained momentum. A number of cities and towns had grown during this period. Lahore, Multan, Broach, Anhilwara, Laknauti, Daulatabad, Delhi and Jaunpur were important among them. Delhi remained the largest city in the East. The growth of trade and commerce was described by contemporary writers. India exported a large number of commodities to the countries on the Persian Gulf and West Asia and also to South East Asian countries. Overseas trade was under the control of Multanis and Afghan Muslims. Inland trade was dominated by the Gujarat Marwari merchants and Muslim Bohra merchants. Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated for smooth transport and communication. Particularly the royal roads were kept in good shape. Sarais or rest houses on the highways were maintained for the convenience of the travelers. Barani, a contemporary historian, gives an excellent account of their riches. Political unification of major parts of India removed the political as well as economic barriers. Introduction of the institution of dalals or brokers (dalal, meaning one who acts as an intermediary, is Arbic in origin), facilitated commercial transactions on a large scale. Construction of

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Causes for Changes in Urban Economy

The foremost cause was the immigration of artisans and merchants from the Islamic East to India, bringing with them their crafts, techniques and practices. Secondly, there was an abundant supply of docile trainable labour obtained through large scale enslavement. Finally, the Delhi Sultans established a revenue system though which a large share of agricultural surplus was appropriate for consumption in towns. Contemporary historians like Isami give us a good account of the immigration of artisans and merchants to India. The large number of captive obtained for enslavement in the military campaigns were trained as artisans by their captors, and they later became free artisans by obtaining or buying their freedom. Thus the immigration and enslavement were responsible for the growth of urban centres and crafts, and their sustenance was provided by the increase in the revenues with the establishment of the new land revenue system. The ruling class, who appropriated a large part of the country’s surplus, spent most of it in towns.

Coins of Delhi Sultanate

The gold coins which Muhammad of Ghur struck in imitation of the issues of the Hindu kings of Kanauj, with the goddess Lakshmi on the obverse, are without a parallel in Islamic History. For the first forty years the currency consisted almost entrirely of copper and billon: hardly have any gold coins been struck and silver coins of the earlier Sultans are scarce.

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Iltutmish, however, issued several types of the silver tanka, the earliest of which has a portrait of the king of horseback on the obverse. The latest type bears witness to the diploma in investiture he had received from the Khalifa of Baghdad, AI Mustansir.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Gold, though minted by Masud, Nasir-uddin Mahmud, Balban and Jalal-ud-din Khalji, was not common until Ala-ud-din Khalji had enriched his treasury by conquests in south India. These gold coins are replicas of the silver in weight and design. Ala-ud-din, whose silver issues are very plentiful, changed the design by dropping the name of the caliph from the obverse and substituting the self laudatory titles. The second Alexander, the right hand of the Khalifate. His successor, Mubarak, whose issues are in som respects the finest tof the whole series, employed the old Indian square shape for som of his gold, silver and billon. On his coins appear the even more arrogant titles, The supreme head of Islam, the Khalifa of the Lord of heaven and earth. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq was the first Indian sovereign to use the title Ghazi (Champion of the faith).

gold dinars of 201.6 grains and silver aslis of 144 grains weight. Muhammad bin Tughluq’s gold and silver issues, like those of his predecessors, are identical in type. One of the earliest and most curious of these was struck both at Delhi and Daulatabad, in memory of his father. It bears the superscription of Ghiyas-ud-din accompanied by the additional title, al-Shahid (the Martyr). The early gold and silver, of which about half a dozen different types exist, were minted at eight different places, including Delhi. And at least twenty five varieties of his bullion coinage are known. From inscriptions on the token currency we learn the nams of their various denominations. There appear to have been two scales of division, one for use at Delhi and other for Daulatabad and the south. In the former the silver tanka was divided into forty eight, and in the latter into fifty jitals.

Most of the coins struck in billon by these early Sultans, including Muhammad of Ghur, are practically uniform in size and weigh (about 56 grains). Numerous varieties were struck. The Indian type known as the delhiwala, with the humped bull and the sovereign’s name in Nagari on the reverse, and the Delhi Chauhan type of horseman on the obverse, lasted till the reign of Masud. Another type with the Horseman obverse and the Sultan’s name and titles in Arabic on the reversem survived till Nasir-uddin Mahmud’s reign. The billon coins of Ala-uddin Khalji are the first to bear dates. The earliest copper of this period is small and insignificant. Some coins, as well as a few billon pieces, bear the inscription adl, which may mean simply currency. All copper is dateless.

Muhammad bin Tughluq, has been called the Prince of moneyers. Not only do his coins surpass those of his predecessors in execution, especially in calligraphy but his large output of gold, the number of his issues of all denominations the interest of the inscriptions, reflecting his character and activities, his experiments with the coinage, entitle him to a place among the greatest moneyers of history. For his earliest gold and silver pieces he retained the old 172.8 grain standard of his predecessors. His first experiment was to add to tesem in the first years of his reign,

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The gold of Firoz Shah is fairly common, and six types are known. Following his predecessors example he inscribed the name of the caliph on the obverse and his own name on the reverse. Firoz associated the name of his son, Fath Khan, with his own on the coinage. Gold coins of subsequent kings are exceedingly scarce; the shortage of silver is even more apparent. Only three silver pices of Firoz have ever come to light, but the copper coins are abundant. The coinage of the later rulers, though abounding in varieties is almost confined to copper and billon pieces. During the whole period, with but two exceptions, one mint name appears, Delhi. The long reign of Firoz seems to have established his coinage as a popular meadium of exchange and this probably accounts for the prolonged series of his posthumous billon coins, extending over a period of forty years. Some of these and of the posthumous issues of his son, Muhammad and of his grandson, Mahmud, were struck by Daulat Khan Lodhi and Khizr Khan. The coinage of the Lodhi family, despite the difference in standard, bears a close resemblance to that of the Sharqi King of Jaunpur.

EVOLUTION OF INDO-PERSIAN CULTURE

The establishment of the Delhi sultanate market a new phase in the cultural development of the country. When the Turks came to India they not only had a well defined faith in Islam to which they were deeply attached, they also

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had definite ideas of government arts architecture, etc. The interaction of the Turks with the Indians who had strong religious beliefs, well defined ideas of arts, architecture and literature resulted in the long one with many ups and down.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE UNDER SULTANATE

Development and Growth

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Architecture: The assimilation of different styles and elements to create a new one is well represented by the architecture of the Sultanate period. Many of the characteristics of Indian architecture are obvious in the buildings of the Muslim rulers. This was because though the buildings were designed by Muslim architects to suit the requirements of their religious ideas, Hindu craftsmen actually built them. The new features brought by the Turkish conquerors were:

the buildings. Instead, they used geometrical and floral designs, combining them with panels of inscriptions containing verses from the Quran. Thus the Arbic script itself became a work of art. The combination of these decorative devices was called arabesque. They also freely borrowed Hindu motifs such as the bell motif, lotus etc. The skill of the Indian stone cutters was fully used. They also added colour to their buildings by using red sand stone, yellow sand stone and marble.

(i) the dome;

(ii) lofty towers:

(iii) the true arch unsupported by beam:

(iv) the vault. This showed advanced mathematical knowledge and engineering skill. They also brought with them an expert knowledge of the use of concrete and mortar, which had hitherto been little used in India. The Sultans of Delhi were liberal patrons of architecture and they erected numerous splendid edifices The use of arch and the dome had a number of advantages. The dome provided a pleasing skyline. The arch and the dome dispensed with the need for a larger number of pillars to support the roof and enabled the construction of large halls with a clear view. Such place of assembly were useful in mosques as well as in palaces. The arch and the dome needed a strong cement otherwise the stones could not be hel in place. The Turks used fine quality mortar in their buildings.

The architectural device generally used by the Indians consisted of putting one stone over another, narrowing the gap till it could be covered by a caping stone or by putting a beam over a slab of stones which is known as the slab and beam method.The Turks eschewed representation of human and animal figures in

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Ilbari were the first to converted temples and other existing buildings into mosques. Examples of his are the Quwwat-ul-islam mosque near the Qutub Minar in Delhi (which had originally been a Jaina temple then converted into a Vishnu temple by som Hindus, and finally into the mosque by the Turks) and the building at Ajmer called Arhai Din Ka Jhonpra (which had been a monastery) an exquisitely carved mehrab of white marble and a decorative arch screen. The first example of true or voussoired arch is said lo be the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban in Mehrauli. The most magnificent building constructed by the Turks (founded by Aibak and completed by Iltutmish) in the 13th century was the Qutub Minar at Delhi. The tower standing at 71.4 metres was dedicated to the sufi sant, Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki. Although traditions of building tower are to be found both in India and West Asia, the Qutub Minar is unique in many ways. It derives its effect mainly from the skillful manner in which the balconies have been projected yet linked with the main tower the use of red and white sand stone and marble in panels and in the top stages, and the ribbed effect. In the Khalji period the usage of voussoired arch and dome was established once and for all. The monuments show a rich decorative character. Ala-ud-din built his capital at Siri, a few kilometres away from the site around the Qutub, but hardly anything of this city survives now. Ala-ud-din planned a tower twice the hight of the Qutub, but did not live to complete it. But he added an entrance door to the Qutub, called the Alai Darwaza. It has arches of very pleasing proportions. It also contains a dome which, for the first time was built on correct scientific lines. The Tughlaq buildings show stark simplicity and sobriety. It is marked by the sloping walls

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Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period. Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great lover of music. He encouraged the composition of a great musical work called Man Kautuhal.

Persian Literature The Delhi Sultans patronized learning and literature. Many of them had great love for Arabic and Persian literature. Learned men came from Persia and Persian language got encouragement from the rulers. Besides theology and poetry, the writing of history was also encouraged. Some of the Sultans had their own court historians.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

or the batter which gives the effect of strength and solidarity to the building. However we do not find any batter in the buildings of Firoz: Secondly, they attempted to combine the principles of the arch and the dome with the slab and beam in their buildings. This is found in a marked manner in the building of Firoz. In the Hauz Khas alternate stories have arches and the lintel and beam. The same is to be found in some buildings of Firoz’s Kotla fort. Finally the Tughluqs generally used the cheaper and more easily available greystone. Since it was onot easy to carve this type of stone their buildings have minimum decoration. Ghiyas-ud-din and Muhammad Tughluq built the huge palace cum fortress complex called Tughluqabad. By Blocking the passage of the Yamuna a huge artificial lake was created around it. The tomb of Ghiyasuddin built by Muhammad Tughluq, marks a new trend in architecture. To have a good skyline, the building was put up on a high platform. Firoz Shah Tughluq built the famous Hauz Khas (a pleasure resort) and the Kotla (fort) at Delhi.

The Lodhis further developed the tradition of combining many of the new devices brought by the Turks with indigenous forms. Both the arch and the beam are used in their buildings. Balconies, kiosks and caves of the RajsthaniGujrati style are used. Another device used by the Lodhis was placing their buildings, especially tombs, on a high platform, thus giving the building a feeling of size as well as a better skyline. Some of the tombs are placed in the midst of gardens. The Lodhi garden in Delhi is a fine example of this. Some of the tombs are of an octagonal shape. Many of these features were adopted by the Mughals later on and their culmination is to be found in the Taj Mahal built by Shah Jahan. Music: The Turks inherited the rich Arab tradition of music which had been further developed in Iran and Central Asia. They brought with them a number of new musical instruments, such as the rabab and sarangi and new musical modes and regulations. Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as ghora and sanam. He evolved a new style of light music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian systems. The invention of sitar was also attributed to him. The Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of Firoz Tughlaq. Pir Bhodan, a

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The most famous historians of this period were Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziauddin Barani, and Shams-Siraj Afif. Barani’s TarikhiFiroz Shahi contains the history of Tughlaq dynasty. Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i- Nasari, a general history of Muslim dynasties up to 1260. Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) was the famous Persian writer of this period. He wrote a number of poems. He experimented with several poetical forms and created a new style of Persian poetry called Sabaqi- Hind or the Indian style. He also wrote some Hindi verses. Amir Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Alauddin’s conquests. His famous work Tughlaq Nama deals with the rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq.He was also an accomplished musician and took part in religious musical gatherings (samas) organised by the famous Sufi saint, Nizamuddin Auliya. Other important Persian poets were Mir Hasan Dehlawi Badra Chach, etc. Apart from poetry a strong school of history writing in Persian developed in Indna during the period. The most famous historians of the period were Zia-ud-din Barani, Shams-i-Shiraj Afif and Isami. Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit works into Persian. His book Tuti Namah (book of the parrot), written in the time of Muhammad Tughluq, was Persian translation of Sanskrit stories which were related by a parrot to a woman whose husband had gone on a journey. Zia also translated the old Indian treatise on sexology, the Kok Sastra, into Persian. Later, in the time of Firoz, Sanskrit books on medicine and music were translated into Persian. Sultan Zian-ul-Abidin of Kashmir had the famous historical work, Rajatarangini, and the Mahabharata translated into Persian. Sanskrit works on medicine and music were also translated into Persian at his instance.

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Al-Beruni - Kitab fi tahqiq ( Indian sciences), Qanun-i-Masudi (astronomy), Jawahir-filJawahir (mineralogy) . Abu Bakr wrote Chach Namah. Amir Khusrau - Khazain-ul-Futuh,

Tughluq Namah, Miftah-ul-Futuh, Khamsah. Firoz Tughluq - Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi. Zia-uddin Barani - Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi. Ibn Battutah Kitab-ul-Rahla. Firdausi - Shah Namh.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y






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EMERGENCE OF REGIONAL STATES IN INDIA

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A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

Jajnagar (Orissa) but did not annex it. He plundered Kangra and suppressed revolts in Gujarat and Thatta.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The Delhi Sultanate expanded as a result of the annexation of the states like Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Malwa, various Rajput states of Rajasthan, like Ranthambor, Jalore, Nagore, Ajmer, the Deccan states of Warangal, Telengana, Yadavas of Deogir, and the southern states of the Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra, Pandyas of Madurai, and so on. We have already studied about the various campaigns of Alauddin Khalji and the shift of capital from Delhi to Daultabad in the Deccan, during Mohammad bin Tughlaq's period. Those states that were annexed to the Sultanate formed various provinces and were placed under the administration of the provincial governors. From the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the thirteenth century till its downfall in the fifteenth century, there was a constant interaction between the provinces that were once upon a time independent states and the centre, that is, Delhi. However, rebellions from these areas never seized. We all know that as a prince, Muhammmad bin Tughlaq spent his entire career in crushing the rebellions in the Deccan, Orissa and Bengal.

CHRONICLE

Though these regions were now a part of the Delhi Sultanate, the regional characteristics of language, art, literature and religion remained. In fact, when Islam reached here, it acquired a regional flavour. These states already had settlements of Muslim merchants and Muslims employed in the army. Though there was hardly any regional ruling dynasty, the provincial governors of the Sultanate allied with the local rajas and zamindars and asserted their independence. Most of the regional states that came up after the fourteenth century when the Delhi Sultanate was declining were a result of the rebellions of the governors. The establishment of Vijayanagar and the Bahamani were a result of the assertion of power by the provincial officers, like Harihara and Bukka and Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah respectively. During the same period, Bengal in the east and Multan and Sind in the west became independent. Feroz Shah Tughlaq tried to regain the lost territories but could not do so. He tried unsuccessfully to take over Bengal. He attacked and plundered

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With the death of Feroz Shah Tughlaq in 1338, the decline of the Sultanate began. As we have just mentioned, a large number of local governors became powerful and asserted their independence in the provinces. The relationship between the Sultan and the nobles worsened. The conflict with the local rulers and zamindars as well as regional and geographical tensions weakened the Sultanate further. The declining Sultanate received the final blow with the invasions of Timur in 1398 AD. Timur was a Turk who had come from Central Asia to plunder the wealth of India. Timur entered Delhi and mercilessly killed both the Hindus and Muslims and massacred women and children as well. Fifteen years after the Timur's raids in Delhi, the Delhi Sultanate declined. The Sultanates in Gujarat, Malwa and Jaunpur near Varanasi emerged as powerful regional kingdom. Gujarat and Jaunpur were constantly engaged in tension with the Lodhis of the Delhi Sultanate (1451 to 1526 AD). New regional states independent of the Delhi sultanate arose in Central and South India too, out of which the prominent ones were the Gajapatis of Orissa, the Bahamanis and the Vijayanagara Empire. The Lodhi Sultans like Bahlol Lodhi (1451-1485) and Sikander Lodhi (1489-1526) tried to keep these regional kingdoms under control. Finally, during the rule of Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526), Bihar declared its independence. Daulat Khan, the governor of Punjab rebelled and invited Babur to invade India in 1526.

GUJARAT

On account of the excellence of its handicrafts and its flourishing seaports, as well as the richness of its soil, Gujarat was one of the richest provinces of the Delhi Sultanate. After Timur's invasion of Delhi, both Gujarat and Malwa become independent in all but name.

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However, it was not till 1407 that Zafar Khan formally proclaimed himself the ruler, with the title Muzaffar Shah (1392-1410).

JAUNPUR Jaunpur is now in Varanasi division in eastern Uttar Pradesh on the banks of river Gomati. It was a prosperous province in the eastern part of the Delhi Sultanate. The governor of Jaunpur was Malik Sarwar, who was a prominent noble during Feroz Shah Tughlaq's period. In 1394, Sultan Nasiruddin Mohammad Shah Tughlaq made him a minister and gave him the title of Sultanu-Sharq which means the master of the east. Thereafter, he was known as Malik Sarwar Sultanus Sharq. After Timur's invasion and the weakening of the Delhi Sultanate, Malik Sarwar took advantage of a weak political situation and declared himself independent. Malik Sarwar was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah Sharqi. The Sultan struck coins in his name.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The real founder of the kingdom of Gujarat was, however, Ahmad Shah I (1411-43), the grandson of Muzaffar Shah. During his long reign, he brought the nobility undr control, settled the administration and expanded and consolidated the kingdom. He shifted the capital from Patan to the new city of Ahmedabad, the foundation of which he laid in 1413. He was a great builder, and beautified the town with many magnificent places and bazars, mosques and madrasas. He drew on the rich architectural traditions of the jains of Gujarat to devise a style of building which was markedly different from Delhi. Some of its features were: slender turrets, exquisite stone-carvings, and highly ornate brackets. The jama Masjid in Ahamdabad and the Tin Darwaza are fine examples of the style of architecture during his time.

of the most powerful and well administered states in the country.

The most famous Sultan of Gujarat was Mahmud Begarha. Mahmud Begarha ruled over Gujarat for more than 50 years (from 1458 to 1511). he was called begarha because he captured two of the most powerful forts (garhs), Girnar in Saurashtra (now called junagarh) and cmapaner in south Gujarat. Mahmud Begarha also had to deal with the Portuguese who were interfering with Gujarat's trade with the countries of west Asia. He joined handa with the ruler of Egypt to check the portuguese naval power, but he was not successful.

Many works were translated from Arabic into Persian during his reign. His court poet was udayaraja who composed in Sanskrit. Mahmud Begarha had a striking appearance. He had a flowing beared which reached uptl his waist, and his moustache was so long that he tied it over his head. According to a traveller Barbosa, from his childhood, Mahmud had been nourished on some poison so that if a fly settled on his hand, it swelled and immediately lay dead. Mahmud was also famous for his voracious appetite. It is said that for breakfast he ate a cup of honey, a cup of butter and one hundred to one hundred and fifty plantains. He ate 10 to 15 kilos of food a day and we are told that plates of meat patties (samosas) were laced on both sides of his pillow at night in case he felt hungry! Under Mahmud Begarha, the Gujarat kingdom reached its zenith and emerged as one

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During his period, the ruler of the Delhi sultanate was Mahmud Shah Tughlaq, who tried to annex Jaunpur, but failed. Thereafter, there were constant tensions between the various rulers of Jaunpur and Delhi Sultanate. The Sharqi Sultans made several attempts to conquer Delhi, but they could never be successful. In 1402, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi, Mubarak Shah's brother became the Sultan and ruled Jaunpur for thirty four years. Ibrahim was also a scholar, well versed with Islamic theology and law, music and fine arts. He was a great patron of architecture. A distinct style of architecture evolved called the Sharqi style that had some Hindu influence. At its height, the Sharqi Sultanate extended from Aligarh in western Uttar Pradesh to Darbhanga in north Bihar in the east and from Nepal in the north to Bundelkhand in the south. It was during the reign of Hussain Shah Sharqi (1458-1505) that a prolonged war with Bahlol Lodhi started. Bahlol Lodhi attacked Jaunpur in 1484 and Hussain Shah had to flee. Finally, Sikandar Lodhi who succeeded Bahlol Lodhi annexed Jaunpur. Hussain Shah died and the Sharqi dynasty came to an end.

KASHMIR

Kashmir is in the northern part of India. In the eleventh century, the rulers were followers of Saivism, and Saivism became the central religion in Kashmir. It was a closed kingdom.

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Ladakh and helped the traders in every possible way. Sultan also paid attention to the development of handicrafts. He sent some people to Samarqand for training of paper making and book binding. Sultan also encouraged stone cutting and polishing and many other crafts. He introduced carpet and shawl making, which make Kashmir famous till day. Sultan also founded the towns of Zaingir, Zainket and Zainpur and laid out the islands on the Dal Lake that can be seen till today. His chief engineering achievement was the Zaina Lanka, an artificial island in the Woolur Lake on which he built his palace and mosque.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Albiruni, the Arab traveller who visited India during this period remarked in his work, AlHind that no one, not even Hindus from outside was allowed access to Kashmir. In 1320s, the ruling dynasty of Kashmir could not check the devastating Mongol invasions. It therefore, lost all public support. In 1339, Shamsuddin Shah deposed the Saiva ruler and became the ruler of Kashmir. From this period onwards, Islam influenced the Kashmiri society. A group of Sufi saints known as the Rishis propagated a religion that combined features of Hinduism and Islam Sufi saints and refugees migrated from Central Asia to Kashmir and further influenced the society and religion. Gradually, the poorer section of the population started converting to Islam. The state encouragement to Islam took place when the Kashmiri Sultan, Sikandar Shah (1389-1413), issued an order that all Hindus especially, the brahmanas living in his kingdom should embrace Islam or leave his kingdom. It is said that these orders were issued at the instance of the king's minister, Suha Bhatt who was a Hindu and had recently converted to Islam.

Perhaps, one of the greatest rulers of Kashmir was Zainul Abidin (1420-1470). He was an enlightened ruler and called back those Hindus who had left the state due to the persecution of Sikandar Shah. He abolished jaziya and prohibited cow slaughter and gave the Hindus important state posts. A large number of temples were repaired and new ones constructed.

Abul Fazl, the court historian of the Mughal Emperor Akbar noted that Kashmir had one hundred and fifty big temples. Sultan Zainul Abidin married the daughters of the Hindu raja of Jammu. Some scholars call Zainul Abidin as the Akbar of Kashmir. Under him, Kashmir became prosperous and he was called the Bud Shah or the great king of Kashmiris. The Sultan contributed to the agricultural development of Kashmir by constructing dams and canals. Agricultural records were maintained. During the period of famine and other natural calamities, relief in terms of loans and grains and fodder was provided to the peasants. Sultan also introduced reforms in the currency. He introduced market control and fixed prices of the commodities. Traders and merchants were asked to sell the commodities at fixed prices. Sultan also subsidized the import of the commodities which were scarce in the state. To make up for the shortage of salt, he imported salt from

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He was a great scholar of Persian, Sanskrit, Tibetan and Arab languages and patronised the Sanskrit and Persian scholars. Under his patronage, the Mahabharat and Kalhana's Rajatarangini were translated into Persian and many Persian and Arabic works were translated into Hindi. He himself was a poet and wrote poetry under the pen name 'Qutb'.

After him weak rulers ascended the throne of Kashmir and there was confusion. Taking advantage of this, Mirza Haider, Babur's relative occupied Kashmir. In 1586, Akbar conquered Kashmir and made it a part of the Mughal Empire.

BENGAL

Bengal was an important regional kingdom under the Palas in the eighth century and the Senas in the twelfth century. Bengal was the easternmost province of the Delhi Sultanate. The long distance, uncomfortable climate and poor means of transport and communications made it difficult for the Delhi Sultanate to control this province. Therefore, it was easy for Bengal to assert its independence. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq tried to solve the problem by partitioning Bengal into three independent administrative divisions: Lakhnauti, Satgaon and Sonargaon. However, the problems remained and finally Bengal emerged as an independent regional state in the fourteenth century. In 1342, one of the nobles, Haji Ilyas Khan united Bengal and became its ruler under the title of Shamsh-ud-din Iliyas Shah and laid the foundation of the Ilyas Shah dynasty. He tried to annex Bengal and raided Orissa and Tirhut and forced them to pay tribute. Such expansions alarmed the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, who tried to occupy Bengal several times but were

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Ahmad Shah was influenced by the Jaina architectural traditions of Gujarat. He was an efficient administrator and consolidated the regional state of Gujarat. He subdued the Rajput states, Jhalawar, Bundi and Durgapur. He was supposed to be an orthodox Muslim who imposed jaziya on the Hindus and destroyed several temples. However, the picture was complex. At the same time, he appointed Hindus to important administrative positions. Ahmad Shah fought equally fiercely against the Hindu as well as the Muslim rulers. His main enemy were the Muslim rulers of Malwa. The rivalry between Gujarat and Malwa was bitter and prevented both the regional states from concentrating on larger political gains in north Indian politics. He was famous for imparting justice. He publicly executed his son-in-law who had murdered an innocent. The author of Mirati-Ahmadi has rightly said that the impact of this justice lasted till his reign.

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not successful. One of the important rulers of the Ilyas Shah dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Azam. He was a learned man and promoted Persian literature. He was well known for dispensing free and fair justice to people. It is said that once he killed a son of a widow by accident. The widow filed a complaint with Qazi who summoned the ruler to the court. When the case was decided, Azam told the Qazi that had he not discharged his duties honestly he would have killed him. Azam had cordial relations with China. There was a prosperous trading relationship between Bengal and China. The port of Chittagaong was an important centre for exchange of goods. On demand from the king of China, Azam also sent Buddhist monks from Bengal. Pandua and Gaur were the capitals of Bengal. In 1538, Bengal was annexed by Sher Shah Suri. In 1586, Akbar conquered Bengal, and made it into a suba. While Persian was the language of administration, Bengali developed as a regional language. The establishment of Mughal control over Bengal coincided with the rise of agrarian settlements in the forested and marshy areas of southeastern Bengal. Soon after, with the spread of rice cultivation, this area became heavily populated with the local communities of fisher folks and peasants. The Mughals established their capital in the heart of the eastern delta at Dhaka. Officials and functionaries received land grants and settled there. Alauddin Hussain Shah (1439 to 1519) was another important ruler of Bengal. He was very efficient, and gave high administrative posts to the Hindus and is said to have paid respect to Chaitanya of the Vaisnava sect. He came into conflict with Sikandar Lodhi and had to make peace with him.

This was a fertile and prosperous province. It had flourishing seaports and was famous for its handicrafts. Alauddin Khalji was the first Sultan to annex it to Delhi Sultanate and since then it remained under the Turkish governors of the Sultanate. After Timur's invasion, in 1407, Zafar Khan who was then the governor became the independent ruler and after sometime assumed the title of Muzaffar Shah. Zafar Khan's father was a Rajput who had given his sister in marriage to Feroz Shah Tughlaq. Ahmad Shah (1411-1441), was one of the important rulers of Gujarat. He founded the city of Ahmadabad and made it his capital in 1413. He built beautiful buildings, like Jama Masjid and Teen Darwaza and beautified the city with gardens, palaces and bazaars.

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Perhaps the most important ruler of Gujarat was Mahmud Begarha. He was called Mahmud Begarha as he had captured two powerful forts or garh, Girnar (Junagarh) in Saurashtra and the fort of Champaner from the Rajputs in south Gujarat. Both these forts were of strategic importance. The fort of Girnar was in the prosperous Saurahstra region and also provided a base for operations against Sindh. The Sultan founded a new town called Mustafabad at the foot of the hill. This town with many beautiful monuments became the second capital of Gujarat. Similarly, the fort of Champaner was crucial to control Malwa and Khandesh. Mahmud constructed a new town called Muhammadabad near Champaner. According to another version, he was called Begarha as his moustaches resembled the horns of a cow (begarha). Mahmud is supposed to have had a flowing beard which reached up to his waist. His moustache was supposed to be so long that he tied it over his head. According to a foreign traveller, Duarto Barbosa, right from his childhood, Mahmud was given some poison as his food which made him so poisonous that if a fly settled on his head, it would meet instant death. Mahmud was also famous for huge appetite. It is said that for breakfast he ate a cup of honey, a cup of butter and one hundred to hundred and fifty bananas. In total, he consumed ten to fifteen kilos of food everyday. Mahmud Begarha ruled for 52 years. He was also a great patron of art and literature. Many

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works were translated from Arabic to Persian in his court. His court poet was Udayaraja, who composed poetry in Sanskrit.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

In 1507, Mahmud led an expedition against the Portuguese who had settled on the western coast and monopolised the trade there, causing immense harm to the Muslim traders. To break the Portuguese trade monopoly he sought the help of the Sultan of Turkey but could not get much headway and finally had to give the Portuguese a site for a factory in Diu. He died in 1511. During the rule of his successors Akbar conquered and annexed Gujarat in 1572 AD.

Narasimha. The greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. He possessed great military ability. His imposing personality was accompanied by high intellectual quality. His first task was to check the invading Bahmani forces. By that time the Bahmani kingdom was replaced by Deccan Sultanates. The Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by Krishna Deva Raya. Then he invaded Raichur Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. But, Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured the city of Raichur in 1520. From there he marched on Bidar and captured it.

VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE

Political History

Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty. They were originally served under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal. Then they went to Kampili where they were imprisoned and converted to Islam. Later, they returned to the Hindu fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya. They also proclaimed their independence and founded a new city on the south bank of the Tungabhadra river. It was called Vijayanagar meaning city of victory. The decline of the Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their newly founded kingdom. By 1346, they brought the whole of the Hoysala kingdom under their control. The struggle between Vijayanagar and Sultanate of Madurai lasted for about four decades. Kumarakampana's expedition to Madurai was described in the Maduravijayam. He destroyed the Madurai Sultans and as a result, the Vijayanagar Empire comprised the whole of South India up to Rameswaram. The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani kingdom lasted for many years. The dispute over Raichur Doab, the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and also over the fertile areas of KrishnaGodavari delta led to this long- drawn conflict. The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty was Deva Raya II. But he could not win any clear victory over the Bahmani Sultans. After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak. The next dynasty, Saluva dynasty founded by Saluva Narasimha reigned only for a brief period (14861509).

Krishna Deva Raya (1509 - 1530) The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira

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Krishna Deva Raya's Orissa campaign was also successful. He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the whole of Telungana. He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese. Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva Raya.

Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions. He was a great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja. Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal court. Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called Andhrakavita Pitamaga. His important works include Manucharitam and Harikathasaram. Pingali Suranna and Tenali Ramakrishna were other important scholars. Krishna Deva Raya himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.

He repaired most of the temples of south India. He also built the famous Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Vijayanagar. He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen Nagaladevi. Besides, he built a large number of Rayagopurams. After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the throne. During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565. This battle is also known as Raksasa Thangadi. Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was generally considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire. However, the Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for about another century. Thirumala, Sri Ranga

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and Venkata II were the important rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III.

Administration

Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil flourished in the regions. There was a great development in Sanskrit and Telugu literature. The peak of literary achievement was reached during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya. He himself was a scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu. His famous court poet Allasani Peddanna was distinguished in Telugu literature. Thus the cultural contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers were many-sided and remarkable.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The administration under the Vijayanagar Empire was well organized. The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters. He was the highest court of appeal. The succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary. Sometimes usurpation to the throne took place as Saluva Narasimha came to power by ending the Sangama dynasty. The king was assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration. The Empire was divided into different administrative units called Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas and finally into gramas. The governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak. Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the administration.

wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were some of the amusements. Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of Vijayanagar. They were continued by the Nayak rulers in the later period. The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are examples for casting of metal images. Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.

Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs collected at the ports, taxes on various professions were other sources of income to the government. Land revenue was fixed generally one sixth of the produce. The expenditure of the government includes personal expenses of king and the charities given by him and military expenditure. In the matter of justice, harsh punishments such as mutilation and throwing to elephants were followed.

The Vijayanagar army was well-organized and efficient. It consisted of the cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants. High-breed horses were procured from foreign traders. The top-grade officers of the army were known as Nayaks or Poligars. They were granted land in lieu of their services. These lands were called amaram. Soldiers were usually paid in cash.

Social Life

Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence of four castes - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras - in the Vijayanagar society. Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the splendour of buildings and luxurious social life in the city of Vijayanagar. Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress. Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people. Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of their household servants. Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery. Dancing, music,

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Sources

The history of Vijayanagar Empire constitutes an important chapter in the history of India. Four dynasties - Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu - ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 to 1672. The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary, archaeological and numismatics. Krishnadevaraya's Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi's Maduravijayam and Allasani Peddanna's Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of this period. Many foreign travelers visited the Vijayanagar Empire and their accounts are also valuable. The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among them who left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the Vijayanagar Empire. The copper plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar rulers. The Hampi ruins and other monuments of Vijayanagar provide information on the cultural contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers. The numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers contain figures and legends explaining their tittles and achievements.

Bahmani Kingdom

The Deccan region was a part of the provincial administration of the Delhi Sultanate. In order to establish a stable administration in the Deccan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq appointed

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immigrant Muslims and had been staying for a long time in the Deccan region. The other group was Afaquis or Pardesis who had recently come from Central Asia, Iran and Iraq and had settled in the Deccan region recently. Between both these groups there was always tension to appropriate better administrative positions. Because of their feuds, the stability of the Bahamani Sultanate was affected. For the first time in India both these kingdoms used gunpowder in the warfare. The Bahamanis were already familiar with the use of firearms. They employed Turkish and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare.

There were a total of fourteen Sultans ruling over this kingdom. Among them, Alauddin Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I and Firoz Shah were important. Ahmad Wali Shah shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. The power of the Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the rule of Muhammad Shah III. It extended from the Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal. On the west it extended from Goa to Bombay. On the east, it extended from Kakinada to the mouth of the river Krishna. The success of Muhammad Shah was due to the advice and services of his minister Mahmud Gawan. One of the important acquisitions was the control over Dabhol, an important port on the west coast.

One of the most important personalities in the Bahamani kingdom was Mahmud Gawan. Mahmud Gawan's early life is obscure. He was an Iranian by birth and first reached Deccan as a trader. He was granted the title of 'Chief of the Merchants' or Malikut-Tujjar by the Bahamani ruler, Humayun Shah. The sudden death of Humayun led to the coronation of his minor son Ahmad III. A regency council was set for the administration and Mahmud Gawan was its important member. He was made wazir or the prime minister and was given the title of 'Khwaju-i-Jahan.' The history of Bahmani kingdom after this period is actually the record of the achievements of Mahmud Gawan. Despite of being an Afaqui he was liberal and wanted a compromise between the Afaquis and the Deccanis. He controlled the kingdom in an efficient manner and provided it stability. Gawan conquered the Vijayanagar territories up to Kanchi. On the western coast, Goa and Dhabol were conquered. Losing these important ports was a great loss for Vijayanagar. Bahamani strengthened its trading relations with Iran and Iraq after gaining control over Goa and Dabhol.

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amiran-i-sada/ Sada Amir, who were the administrative heads of hundred villages. From 1337 the conflict between the officers in Deccan and Delhi sultanate accelerated. This led to the establishment of an independent state in the Deccan in 1347 with the capital at Gulbarga in Andhra Pradesh. Its founders Hasan Gangu assumed the title Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah as he traced his descent from the mythical hero of Iran, Bahman Shah and the kingdom was named after him, the Bahamani Sultanate. After Mohammad bin Tughlaq there were no attempts by the Delhi Sultanate to control the Deccan region. Therefore, the Bahamani Sultans without any checks annexed the kingdom.

Under Bahman Shah and his son Muhammmad Shah, the administrative system was well organised. The kingdom was divided into four administrative units called 'taraf' or provinces. These provinces were Daultabad, Bidar, Berar and Gulbarga. Muhammad I defeated the Vijayanagar kingdom and consequently Golconda was annexed to Bahamani kingdom. Every province was under a tarafdar who was also called a subedar. Some land was converted into Khalisa land from the jurisdiction of the tarafdar. Khalisa land was that piece of land which was used to run expenses of the king and the royal household. Further the services and the salary of every noble was fixed. Those nobles who kept 500 horses were given 1000,000 huns annually. If short of the stipulated troops, the tarafdar would have to reimburse the amount to the central government. Nobles used to get their salary either in cash or in form of grant of land or 'jagir' Bahamani ruler depended for military support on his amirs. There were two groups in the ranks of amirs: One was the Deccanis who were

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Gawan carried out many internal reforms and attempted to put an end to the strife in the nobility. In order to curb the military power of the tarafdar, Gawan ordered that only one fort of each province was to be under the direct control of the provincial tarafdar. The remaining forts of the province were placed under a Qiladar or commander of the forts. The Qiladar was appointed by the central Government. However, soon after his death, the governors declared their independence and the Bahamani kingdom broke up. In the fifteenth and the sixteenth century, some amirs in Bidar, Ahmadnagar, Golconda

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commercial merchants and banders of the era. Thus, Nardeva Soni, a successful merchant, was the treasurer of Hushang Shah, and one fo his advisers. Mohmud Khalji (1436-69), who is considered the most powerful of the Malwa rulers, destroyed many temples during his struggle with Rana Kumbha of Mewar, and with the neighboring Hindu rajas. This rise of mewar during the fifteenth century was an important factor in the political life of north India. With the comquest of Ranthambhar by Alauddin Khalji, the power of the Chauhans in Rajputana had finally come to an end. From its ruins, a number of new states arose. The state of Marwar with its capital at jodhpur (founded 1465) was one of these. Another state of consequence in the area was the Muslim principality of Nagaur. Anmer which had been the seat of power of the Mulsim governors change hands several times, and was a born of contention among the rising Rajput states.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

and Bijapur and Berar established independent sultanates of their own and formed new states. These were the Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar, the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, the Qutb Shahis of Golconda, and the Imad Shahis of Berar and the Barid Shahis of Bidar. They formed a league of states and strengthened them by matrimonial alliances. They maintained the traditional rivalry with the Vijayanagar rulers. Golconda and Bijapur entered into matrimonial alliances and led the Battle of Talikota against Vijayanagar. They finally succumbed to the Mughal armies. The Sufis were greatly venerate by the Banmani rulers. Initially, they migrated to the Deccan as religious auxiliaries. of the Khaljis and the Tughluqs the infant Bahmani kingdom required the support of the Sufies for popular legitimiation of their authrotiry, the Sufis who migrated to the bahmani kingdom were chiefly of the Dhishti, Qadiria and Shattari orders. Bidar emerged as one of the most important centres of the Qadiri ordr. Syed Muhammad Gesu Baraz, the famous Chishti saint of Delhi, migrated to Gulbaraga in 1402-3, enjoyed the greatest honour.

Malwa and Mewar

The state of Malwa was situated on the high plateau between the rivers Narmada and Tapti It commanded the trunk routes between Gujarat and northern India, as also between Gujarat and north and south India. As long as Malwa continued to be strong, it acted as a barrier to the ambitions of Gujarat, Mewar, the Bahmanis and the Lodi Sultans of Delhi. During the fifteenth century, the kingdom of Malwa remained at the height of its glory, The capital was shifted from Dhar to Mandu, a phace which was highly defensible and which had a great deal of natural beauty. Here, the rulers of Malwa constructed a large number of buildings, the ruins of which are still impressive. Unlide the Gujarat style of architecture, the Mndu architecture was massive and was made to look even more so by using a very lofty plinth for the buildings. The large-scale use of coloured and glazed tiles provided variety to the buildings. The best known among them are jama Masjid, the Hindola Mahal and the Jahaz Mahal. One of the early rulers of Malwa, Hushang shah, adopted a broad policy of religious toleration. Hushang shah extended his patronage to the Jains who were the principal

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The early history of the state of Mewar is obscure. Though it dated back to the eight century, the ruler who raised it to the status of a power to be reckoned with was Rana Kumbha (1433-68AD). After cautiously consolidating his position by defeating his internal rivals, Kumbha embarked upon the conquest of Bundi, Kotah, and Dungarpur on the Gujarat Border. Marwar was under Mewar occupation, but soon it become independent after a successful struggle waged under the leadership of Rao Jodha. Kumbha was a patron of learned men, and was himself one. He composed a number of books, some of which can still be read. The ruins of his palace and the victory tower (kirti stambha) which he built at chittor show that he was an enthusiastic builder as well. Hi dug several lakes and reservoirs for irrigation purposes. Some of the temples built during his period show that the art of stome-cutting, sculpture, Some of the temples built during his period show that the art of stone cutting, sculpture, etc., were still at a high level. Kumbha was murdered by his son, Uda, who wanted to gain the throne. Though Uda was soon ousted, he left a bitter trail. After a long fratricidal conflict with his brothers, Rana Sanga (1509-28), a grandson of Kumbha, ascended the gaddi of Mewar in 1509. The most important development between the death of

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Urdu Urdu emerged due to the interaction of Persian and Indian language in the military camps of Alauddin Khalji. The Deccan was the cradle of Urdu and the language flourished first in the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda. The earliest available work in Deccan Urdu is a mystical prose treatise, Mirajul- Ashiqin by saint Gesu Daraz (early 15th century). Shah Miranji Shamsul (Khush Namah) and Burhanuddin Janam (Irshad Namah) of Bijapur, Muhammad Quli and Ghawasi (Tuti Namah) of Golconda were the most famous Urdu writers of the Deccan. Urdu arrived in north India in a more developed form during the Mughal period. Hatim, Mitrza Jan-i-Janum, Mir Taqi, Muhammad Rafi Sauda and Mir Hassan were the most important Urdu writers of north India in the 18th century.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Kumbha and the rise of Sanga was the rapid internal disintegration of Malwa. The ruler, Mahmud II, had fallen out with medini Rai, the powerful Rajput leader of eastern Malwa who had helped him to gain the throne. the malwa ruler appealed for help to Gujarat, while Medini Rai repaired to the court of Rana Sanga. In a battle in 1517, the Rana defeated Mahmud II and carried him a prisoner to Chittor but it is claimed he released him after six month, keeping one of his sons as a hostage, Eastern Malwa, including Chanderi, passed under the overlordship of Rans Sanga. The developments in Malwa alarmed the Lodi rulers of Delhi who were keenly watching the situation. The Lodi ruler, Ibrahim Lodi, invaded Mewar, but suffered a sharp reverse at the handa of Rana Sanga at Ghatoli. IbrahimLidi withdrew in order ot consolideat his internal position. Meanwhile, Babur was knocking at the gates of India.

Thus, by 1525, the political situation in north India was changing rapidly, and a deccisive conflict for supermacy in north India seemed to be ineviatble. Rana Sanga was defeated by Babur in the battle of Khanua in 1527.

GROWTH OF REGIONAL LITERATURE

One of the greatest impact that the rise of the bhakti movement during the medieval period had on the cultural patterns of different regions was the growth of regional literature, either through mystic saints or sometime under the patronage of regional states.

Hindi

The Hindi language probably prospered under the influence of Bhakti saints in the early medieval period. First stage of Hindi literature, known as adi kala (1206-13-18) was the richest period in the history of Hindi literature. Major contribution wave made by nirguna and saguna saint- poets and mystic poets. Nirguna saintpoets were Kabir, Guru Nanak, Dadu Sundaradasa, etc. Mystic poets were Jayasi (Padamavati), Nur Muhammad (Indravati), Uthman (Chitravali), etc. Several secular poets like Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan also contributed to the growth of Hindi. The Third stage, known as riti kla (riti means love) and covering the period 1643-1850, was essentially secular. The important poets of this period were Kesavadasa, Chintamani, Mati Rama, Bihari, etc.

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Bengali

Bengali literature was mainly in the form of folk songs and influenced by the philosophy of the Sahaja cult. The second stage began with the Muslim conquest of Bengal in the 13th century and continued till the end of the 17th century. Three main trends in this stage were-Vaishnava poetry-important poets were Chandidasa, Chaitanya, Govindasa and Krishnadasa Kaviraja (Chaitanaya Charitamruta in 16th century); translations and adaptation from classical Sanskrit-Kasirama (Mahabharata), Kristtivasa Ojha (Ramayana) and other works; mangal kavya form of poetry - sectarian in spirit, it narrated the struggle of gods against their rivals. Main contributors were Manikadatta and Mukundarama.

Oriya

Although Oriya originated in the eighth century, major works in the language appeared only in the 13th and 14th centuries. Important Oriya writers were Sarladasa (Mahabharata in the 14th century), Balramadasa and Jagannadadasa and Jagannadadasa belonged to a group known as pacha sakha or the five saassociates, of the 15th century. The bhakti movement of Chaitanya and the Vaishnava poets made a lasting influence on Oriya literature.

Punjabi Baba Farid (13th century), a mystic poet was the pioneer of a new school of poetry in Punjabi,

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A major contributions to Punjabi poetry towards the end of the 15th century was made by Guru Nanak. Later Sikh gurus also contributed to the enrichment of Punjabi. Guru Arjun complied the Adi Granth in 1904 and also wrote Sukhmani, one of the longest and greatest of medieval mystic poems. The contribution Guru Gobind Singh is also invaluable. Punjabi prose made immense progress and a number of religious and philosophical works were translated from Sanskrit to Punjabi between 1600 and 1800.

Tamil The literature of the alvars of Vaishnava saints was known as Prabhanda, the most important among them being Nalayiram (consisting of hymns composed by the 12 alvars including Tirumalisia Alvar, Nammalvar, etc.) The literature of the nayanars or Saiva saints was known as Tevaram, important being Appar, Sambhandar and Sundrar. Their works were known as Tirumarai. Kamban's Ramayana also called Ramanataka was written during the Chola period. Sekkilar's Turyttondar Puranam, also known as Periya Puranam, was composed during the Chola period. This is a biography of 63 nayanaras. Pugalendi's Nalavenba was composed in the 15th century.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Gujarati

and the 15th centuries), Bammera Potana (Bhagavatam of 15th century), Vemana (Sataka), Krishna Deva Raya and his poets and Molla (Ramayana by a poetess of a low caste of the 16th century).

The first phase from the 13th to 15th centuries, was marked by two main forms-the prabandha (narrative poem) and the mukta (shorter poem); Important poets of this phase were Sridhara and Bhima, exponents of the first type and Rajasekhara, Jayasekhara and Somasundara who wrote in the second type. The second phase, from the 15th to 17th century, was the golden age of Gujarati literature. Major contributors during this period were Narasimha Mehta, Bhalana and Akho.

Marathi

Marathi literature emerged in the latter of the 13th century. A major contribution was made by saint-poets of the Natha cult (founded by Gorakhanatha) such as Mukundaraja (VivekSindhu). The saint- poets of the Mahanubhava cult also contributed to Marathi prose and poetry (like Lilachrita, Sidhanta Sutropatta, etc.) other important contributors were Jananadeva (Jnanesvari and Amritanubhava are sacred books for Marathis), Eknatha, Tukaram (abhangas), Ramdas and Vamana Pandit. The 17th century saw the compilation of secular poetry in the form of povadas (ballads describing the warfare skills and selfless valour of the Marathas) and lavanis (romantic works).

Telugu

A group of poets called kavitraya were Nannaya (11th century), Tikkansa (13th century) and Yerrapragada (13th and 14th century). They translated the Mahabharata into Telegu. Their other works included Nanraya's Andhra sabda Chintamani and Tikkana's Narvachanothara Ramayana. Other important writers were Bhaima Kavi (Bhimesvara Puranam of the 17th century), Name Choda (Kumarasambhava of the 18th century), Somanatha (Basava Puranam of the 13th century), Srinatha (Srinagaranaisada, Sivaratri Mahatyam, Kasikhanda, etc. of the 14th

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Kannada and Malayalam

Kannada and Malayalam are two such south Indian languages which emerged under the patronage of medieval regional kingdoms. The earliest extant work in Kannada is Kavirajamaraga by Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha 1. The poets known as ratnatraya are Pampa (18th century). Their works are: Pampa's Adi Purana and Papa Bharata. Poona's Santi Purana; Rana's Ajitanatha Purana and Gadhayudha. Narahari, known as 'Kannada Valmiki', wrote Taravi Ramayana, and Virupaksha Pandit wrote Chenna Basava Purana (16th century) The earliest literary work in Malaylam is Unmunili Sandesam, a work by unknown writer of 14 century. Ramanuja Elluttoccan (greatest of all) wrote Harinamakirtanam Bhagavatam Kilippattu, and other works.

ART AND CULTURE

Regional styles of architecture came into vogue usually after these states had thrown off the allegiance to Delhi and proceeded to develop and form to suit their individual requirements. They were distinct form the Indo-Islamic style practiced at Delhi and often displayed definitely original qualities. In the areas which have a strong indigenous tradition of workmanship in masonry, regional styles of Islamic architecture

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produced the most elegant structures. On the other hand, where these traditions were not so pronounced, the buildings constructed for the regional states were less distinctive. In some cases totally novel tendencies, independent of both the indigenous and the imperial Sultanate traditions, are also visible.

Bengal

Gujarat The regional style of architecture that came into being in western India towards the beginning of the 14th century is almost exclusively confined to Gujarat. The regional style flourished for a period of some two hundred and fifty years beginning early in the 14th century. The founders of the Gujarat style of Indo-Islamic architecture were, in facrt, the governors of the Khalji Sultans of Delhi.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The establishment of an independent Muslim power in Bengal took place within a gap of five years since the capture of Delhi by the Turks. But an independent building style, distinct from the one prevalent at Delhi, developed at the beginning of the fourteenth century and lasted for a period of nearly 250 years. Bengali style spread in all parts of the region, but most of the prominent buildings were located within the boundary of the Malwa district which had been the strategic centre of the region due to the confluence of the two rivers, the Ganga and the Mahananda. Here lie the remains of the two principal cities-Gaur and Pandua-which, in turn, enjoyed the status of the capital seat of the regional ruling style of this region we have to depend mostly on the buildings extant in these two cities and a few important examples elsewhere. The Building art of Bengal is generally divided into the following three phases of which the first two are considered preliminary stages and the third its ultimate development into a specific style.

propylon was the keynote of Jaunpur style and occurs in no other manifestation of indo-Islamic architecture.

Jaunpur

The Sharqi kindom of Jaunpur was founded by Malik Sarwar, a noble of Firuz Shah Tughlug, in 1394. In the wake of Timur's invasion and ransack of Delhi. Jaunpur took over from the capital as a centre for scholars and writers. The surviving buildings constructed under the Sharqis are located in the capital city Jaunpur. The Sharqi architecture of Jaunpur carries a distinct impact of the Tughlug style., the battering effect of its bastings and minarets and the use of arch-and-beam combination in the openings being the two most prominent features, However, the most striking feature of the Jaunpur style is the design of the façade of the mosques. It is composed of lofty propylons with sloping sides raised in the centre of the sanctuary screen. The propylons consist of a huge recessed arch ramed by tapering square minar, of exceptional bulk and solidity, divided into registers. The best examples can be seen in the Atala Majid and the Jami Masjid. Evidently, the

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There were three different phases of the Gujarat style:- The first phase lasting for the first half of the 14th century marked by the demolition of the Hindu temples and their reconversion into Muslim buildings. The second phase prevailing mostly during the first half of the 15th century and showed signs of hesitant maturity of a distinctive style. The third phase was the matured phase of Gujarati architecture.

Malwa

In central India, the development of IndoIslamic architecture remained confined within the Malwa regional which became an independent kingdom at the turn of the 15th century. The regional manifestations of IndoIslamic architecture in Malwa are located essentially within the confines of two cities, Dhar and Mandu, though some buildings may also be seen at Chanderi. The Sultans of Dhar and Mandu have left a rich architectureal legacy, the main buildings being mosques, tombs and palaces. The buildings at Dhar and Mandu derive many features from the Tughluq architecture such as the battered walls, fringed arch and the arch-beam combination. But soon we also notice the emergence of distinctive features which give the Malwa style of architecture a character of its own. Perhaps the most important is an innovative technique by which the two separate structural systems of the arch and the lintel have been combined in Malwa architecture. In no other early type of architecture has this problem of using arch and beam as structural elements been more artistically solved. Another notable feature of the Malwa buildings is the construction of stately

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flights of steps of considerable length leading to their entrances. This became necessary duet to the use of unusually high plinths on which most of the important buildings are raised. This architectural impulse died in 1531 with defeat of the last Malwa ruler, Mahmud II, at the hands of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. Malwa was temporarily brought under the Mughals by Humayun in 1535 and was finally conquered by Akhar in 1564.

The Vijaynagar style of architecture was scattered throughout south India, but the finest and most characteristic group of buildings is to be seen in the city of Vijaynagar itself. This city, in fact, had a great advantage as a site for large scale building activity in that it abounds in granite and a dark green chlorite stone, both used extensively as building material. The use of monolithic multiple pillars in the temple at Vijaynagar testify this this fact. The expanse of the city of Vijaynagar at the height of its glory measured some 26 sq. km., and it ws enclosed with a stone wall. Besides palaces and temples, the city had extensive waterworks and many secular buildings such elephant stables and the lotus Mahal.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Deccan

Vijaynagar

The Indo-Islamic architecture that developed in the Deccan from 14th century onwards under the Bahmanis acquired a definitely regional character quite early in its growth. But this architecture followed a different pattern in evolution than other regional styles. As opposed to the growth of regional styles in northern India, architecture in the Deccan seems to have ignored to a very large extent the pre-Islamic art traditions of the region. In practice, the Deccan style of architecture consisted basically of the fusion of; the architectural system in vogue at Delhi under the Sultans, particularly the Tughluq form and an entirely extraneous source that is, the architecture of Pesia.

Bidar

The Bahmani capital was transferred to Bidar, a fortress town in 1425 ruled by Ahman Shah (1422-36). Soon the new capital saw a flurry of building activity. Within its walls sprang up palaces with large audience halls and hammams, a madrasa, and royal tombs.

The use of pillars of architectural as well as decorative purpose is on an unprecedented scale. Numerous compositions are used in raising the pillars, but the most striking and also the most frequent is one in which the shaft becomes a central core with which is attached an unpraised animal of a supernatural kind resembling a horse or a hippograph. Another distinguishing feature is the use of huge reverse-curve leaves at the cornice. This feature has been borrowed into the style from the Deccan and gives the pavilions a dignified appearance. Pillars form an integral part of Vijaynagar style, is elaborated into the volute teminating in an inverted lotus band. The occurrence of this pendant is an index reliable of the building in the Vijaynagar group. The glory of the Vijaynagar empire ended in 1565 at the battle of Talikota when the combined army of the Sultans of the Deccan inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vijaynagar ruler Rama Raya.






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RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES

IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

individual and society by making them rise above the barriers of colour, creed, wealth, power and position.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Since the dawn of history, India has been the cradle of religious movements. In the previous chapters we have religious movements. In the previous chapters we have discussed the vedic and Later Vedic (i.e. Upanishadic) ideas to the emergence of Bhagavatism and other Brahmanic sects, such as Shaivism, Saktism etc. In the early medieval period two parralled movements, in Hinduism and Islam, respectively representing the Bhakti and Sufi movements emerged in India, which reached their fullest development in the fifteenth and sixteent centuries. Both these religious developments have hardly anything to do with the coming of Islam or with the so-called 'Muslim rule in India'. The seeds and th Bhakti movements are to be found in the Upanishads, Bhagvad Gita, Bhagavata Purana, etc. The various Sufi saints had come to settle down in India in the eleventh-twelfth centuries, the earliest and the most well known being Sheikh Muinuddin Chisti, who made Ajmer his home when Prithviraj Chauhan (III) was still ruling over there. The greatest merit of both these parallel religious movements is that they freed the Indian society from the dogmatic beliefs, ritualism, caste and communal gatred and so on. It was in the true spirit of Indian history and culture that both these movements prospered without even the least ill-will an conflict. On the contrary, both contributed to each other's religious ideas and practices. Both these movements were democratic movements, which preached simple religion in the language of the masses and neither craved for political patronage nor bothered for the political developments around them.

CHRONICLE

At any rate, one can easily find many common points in the Bhakti and Sufi Movements. In both, the elements of intellectuality went hand in hand with that of devotion and in both ritualism and ceremonialism were not as important as the search of and love for one Supreme Reality. Love and liberalism were the keynotes of the Sufi and Bhakti movements. Mystic discipline in both was canalised towards the moral advancement of the

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The Indo-Muslim strands gave woven into the texture of India's national existence a new design of 'composite culture' by intertwining the theads of the Bhakti Marg with the Islamic Sufi (mystic) traditions, the Indian social customs with the values of man and social ethics reflected a new ethos. It is not surprising, therefore, to realize that the composite culture in India originated in an environment of reconciliation rather then refutation. cooperation rather than confromation, co-existance rather than mutual annihilation.

SUFISM

Origin

In the medieval Indian environment Sufism was the most interesting aspect of Islam. It came to India before the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi but after the foundation of the Turkish rule, a large Group of Sufis form different Lslamic countries migrated to India and established them-selves in many parts of Hindustan. The early Sufi's traced their ideas to some verses of the Quran and traditions (Hadith) of the Prophet. Tothese, however, they gave a mystic interpretation. Regarding the orgin of the word "Sufi", numerous explantions have been offered. According to one view, the Sufi saints wore garments of coarse wool (suf) as a badge of poverty and from the word "suf" the name of term Sufi has been derived. Generally, scholars trace its origin by the word safa. They say that those who were pious people were called Sufis. Abu Nasral Sarraj. the author of an Arabic treatise on Sufism, derived from suf (wool). Some scholars have traced its origin to the Greek word sophia (knowledge). It appears that the first writer to use the word Sufi is Jahiz of Basar (A.D. 869). According to jami, the use of the word sufi was first applied to Abu Hashim of Dufa before A.D. 800.

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According to Aul-kusheri this word was introduced in A.D. 811. Within fifty years it denoted all the mystics of Iraq, and two centuries later sufya was applied to the whole body of msslim mystics.

The Sufi Thought

The sufis, by their examples, by worda and conduct, set and ethical standard, They attempted to bridge the gulf between orthodoxy and religion of faith and devotions. They spoke the language of the masses and gave impetus to linguistic assimilation and to a cultural synthesis. They played a silent but important part in the propagation of their faith more by their example and service, than through any efforts at importunate persuasion. They imparted Some of the Sufis were scholars and men of vast eruditon and acted as teachers. They won the hearts of the people by their love and liberalism, sincerity of purpose, charity, piety and social service, They exercised considerable influence on kings, officials and nobles for the good of the people. They shunned wealth and power and dept themselves aloof from the din and bustle of worldly life. Through generally liberal and broadminded in outlook, some of the Sufi saints, who were noted for their piety and learning, were puritanical in attitude and uncompromising on questions of strict adherence to the shariat.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Sufism is a common term given to Islamic mysticism. But it was not organised in a single sect and its religious doctrines were also not common; instead they were organised into various silsilaha of religious doctrines of orders. They accepted the Prophethood of Mohammad and the authority of the Quran, but in course of time they absorbed a variety of ideas and practices from different sources, such as Christianity, Neo-Platonism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and Hindu Philosophical systems (Vedanta and Yoga). Sufism in its advanced stage was like a "stream which gathers volumes by joining the tributaries from many lands". For instance, the concept of a relationship between God and the Soul as one between the beloved and the lover was adopted by the Sufis in India. Pacifism and non-violence, which were imbibed by the Indian Sufi sains, are also peculiar to Christianity and Hinduism. Some of the ascetic practies, involving the starving and torturing of the body, and ceremonies were also of Indian origin.

(submissioin to the divine will). In passing through these stages of spiritual development, the Sufi felt excessive love and yearing for God. This Sufis had a two-fold objective view, namely, their own spiritual development and the service of humanity, Union of the Human soul with God, through lovin devotion was the essence of the Sufi faith,

The Muslim mystics or the Sufies of the first two centuries of the Hejira era were asceties, men of dee preligious feelings, who laid great stress on the principles of tauba (repentance) and tawakkul (trust in God). These early mystics of Islam were fundamentally inspired by the Quraic conception of a transcendent God. Their contemplation remained confined within the limits of the Quran and the prectice of the prophet. Sufi mysticism sprang from the doctrine of Wahadutual wujud of the unity of Being, which identified the Haq (the createo) and khalq (the creating). This doctrine means that God is the unity behind all plurality and the Reality behind all phenomenal appearances. The Sufis were so absorbed in this idea that a moment's diversion form the thought of the Absolute was uberable to them. In their journey ot cahive union with the Absolute, they had to pass throuth ten stages which were: tauba (repentance), wara (abstinence), Quhd (peity), fagr (poverty), sabr (patience), shukr (gratitude), Khuf (fear), raja (hope), tawakkul (conterntment) and riza

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Sufism was not to be made a means of livelihood. They stressed the importance of earning. Religious literature tells us about many saintly people who earned their livelihood by their professional pursuits and recognised the dignity of labour. Shaikh Ainuddin Qassab (butcher), a disciple of Hazrat Hamiduddin Nagori, was a saintly man, he sold meat in Delhi, Shaikh Abdul Ishaq Gazrioni was a weaver. We are told that many saintly personages were farmers and cultivated fields. Shaidh Qasim Juzri was an agriculturist. Some saints choose to beg in order to crush their ego. It gave them peace of mind, which helped them to concentrate on God. It also made them realise that everything belinged to god and people were the custodians. The Sufis did not encourage celibacy and complete renunciation of the world for attainment of spiritual personality. Their moral precepts and ideal love of God did not mean complete abandonment fo family life. Their moral precepts and ideal love of God did not mean complete abandonment of family life,

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each sect and they lived in and maintained the dhanqahs or hermitages which were vast complexes.

The Sufi Orders (of Silsilas) The Sufis were organised into orders of silsilahs named after the name or surname of the founder of the particular order, such as Chisti, Suhrawardi, Naqshbandi etc. Each Sufi order had a dhangah or hermitage, where people Thronged for spiritual solace and guidence from the Sufi saints. In the sixteenth century there were as many as fourteen Sufi orders in India, as mentioned by Abul Fazl. Of the various orders, largely founded outside India, only two-the Suhrawardis and the Chistis-were the first to succeed in establishing themselves firmly on Indian soil. Two sub-orders, the Firdausi and the Shuttari offshoots of the Suhrawardi order, were active in Bihar and Bengal. Sindh and Multan had become the centres of the spiritual activites of the saints of the suhrawardi order, The chief centres of the Chisti silsilah, the most popular order, were Ajmer, Narnaul, Sarwal, Nagaur, Hansi, Ayodhya, Badaun and other towns of U.P. The Chisti order was very popular and it achieved extraordinary successdue to the liberal and catholic outlook of many of its sints of outstanding personality and long period of their spiritual activity in India. Many of their practices were akin to those of the Hindus and they, more than the members of other silsilahs, adapted themselves to the non-Mulsim environment. It is one of the eternal glories of the Chisti order that it produced great spiritual luminaries like Khawaja Muiniddin Chisti, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, Khqaja Fariduddin Masud Ganji-Shakar, Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya and Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dehlvi, Shaikh Alauk Haq, Shaikh Adhi Seraj and Nur Qutb Alam of Pandua, Saidh Husamuddin Mnikpuri, Burhanuddin Gharib and Hazrat Gesu Baraz of the Deccan.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Excepting a few outstanding saints, the Sufis were all married and did not shun the life of a householder. The typical materi alistic approach was discouraged, but the necessities of life had ot be worded for. One was not to sit idle after putting on a loin cloth; but at the same time, one should not devote all the time for earning one's bread. The Sufis were broadk-minded people, who recognised the truth in other faiths. In extending their help to others they made no distinction on the basis of caste or creed. The Sufi saints showed great interest in learning Yoga; and the Hindu yogis and siddhas frequently visited the hermitages of the Sufi saints.

The Sufis in India, particularly of the Chisti and of the Suhrawardi orders, adopted Sama and Raqs (audition and dancing) as a mode of invocation to God. They did not sanction any king of music. Majlis-iSama, which they sactioned, was totally different from MajlisiTarab of musical entertainment. To the Sufis music was a means to and end. Sama exhilarated their spiritual spirit and lifted the veil between them and God, and helped them in attaining the superme stage of ecstatic swoon.

The practice of spiritual preceptorship, known as piri muridi, was also prevalent in Sufismm. Those who enteried into a particular fraternity of Sufi saints were called murids (disciple). The murid had to pledge absolute submission and devotion to his spiritual guide called pir. In the eleventh and twelfth ecnturies, Lahoer an Multan attracted many well-known Sufis from other countries. The greatest figure in the history of sufism in India was Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti who arrived at Lahore form Ghazni in 1161 and settled down at Ajmer where he died in 1235-36. He was the founder of the Chisti order of Sufis in India. To this order belinged Shakh fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar (11751265) who is known in the Sikh tradition as Baba Farid. His mantle fell upon Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325). In the thriteenth century the Suhrawardi order was established in India by Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya. The Suhrawardis though that living in Luxury and activities participation on political affairs were not hindrances to spiritual progress. During the fifteenth century two new Sufi orders- the Shuttaris and the Qadiris- were founded in India by Shaikh Abdullag Shattri and Sayyid Ghau Wala Pir, respective. Thus the Sufis were divided in silsilahs or orders named after the founder of

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The Sufis, especially of the Chisti and Firduasi orders, identified themselves with the common masses, their weal and woe, their grinding poverty and distress. It was a part of their discipline to serve the needy and the oppressed. The saints of the Chisti order regarded money as carrion, They subsisted on Futuh and Nazur (unasked for money and persents). Very often they had to strave. Once, when the wife of Baba Farid reported that their son was about to die of starvation, he replied that he was helpless. God has so decreed and he was dying, Bab Farid wore

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wornotu and patched garments, When he died, there was nothing in this house was demolished to provide unbaked bricks for his grave. In the sixteenth century the most notable Chisti saint was Shaikh Salim Chisti of Fatehpur Sikri who was a contemporary of Akbar, and the emperor greatly venerated him.

Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia's successord spread through the country, one to Hansi, another to Gulbarga, a third in Bengal,l and two remained in Delhi, of whom Shaidh Nasiruddin Muhamud (d.1356), who was later known as Chirag-i-Delhi (the lamp of Delhi) was a charismatic saint, whose 100 'conversation' (as reported in Dhairul Majalis) reflected melancholy at the state of affairs in social and economic life, caused by political upheavals, bad administration, price rise and general anarchy,

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Although Abul-Fazl in Ain-i-Abbari mentions 14 Sufi silsilas as active in India by the 16th century, the fact remains that in terms of their following and better-organisation, only six silsilas should be recognised as active and fifluential. Of these, the Chistiyay, founded in India by Khwaja Muin-un-din Chisti (popularly known as Khwaja Ajmeri) (though begun by Khwaja Abdul Chisti-d. 966 - in Iran) attracted the largest of devotees, both Muslims and Hindus, and also made a profound impact on the course of the new Bhakti movement among the Hindus that, gained momentum in the 14th century, and sperad out to many parts of the country in the next three hundred years.

congregation of people of all castes and creeds, Hindus and Muslims.

Prominent Sufi Saints

The only other silsila active in the Sultanate period (1206-1526) was the Suhrawardia, with its headquarter in Multan and later extending to Sindh, which was established in India by Sheikh Bahauddin Zakaria (d. 1192). Then came the Firdausi silsila, mainly restriced to Bihar, that was spread by the prolific wirter of mystic literature Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahua Muniri around the 13th century, followed by the Qadiriya and the Shuttarria silsila in the middle of the 15 the century.

Yet he had a great fondness for Amir Dhusrau, the mystically inclined aristocrat and a versatile genius, who used to send his days with the sultans and nights of devotion at the Khanqah of Nizamuddin Aulia. It is in his poems and ordres, sung over the centuries by the quwwals (religious singers), that saint Nizamuddin figures prominently.

Shaikh Nizamuddin's liberal and tolerant outlook, offended the orthodox clergy but helped the spread of his message throughout the country and gained for him the popular title, Mahboodi-Illahi (the belived of the God). His tomb in Delhi, built by Sutan Muhammud-bin-Tughlak, (despite the Sints wish: "I want no monument over my grave: Let me rest in board and open plain") This remains even after six and a half centuries an constant place of Pilgrimage, and massive

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With the death of Chirag-i-Delhi, the first phase of Chisti silsila ends. One of his successor was syed muhammad Gesu Daraz was a prolific writer of over thirty books on Tasawwuf (mysticism). His love for the poor and the needy and his defence of the rights of man earned him the title of Bandanawaz (benefactor of God's creatures). He was one of the early poets and writers in the Urdu language- a new language that had grown as a synthesis of persian, Turkish and Arabic on the one hand and of the Indian dialects Khari Boli Braj and Punjabi on the other, with its base in Sanskrit syntax and etymology drawn from many sources. His famous couplet, that reflected the credo of the mysticism and bhakti, was one of the first specimens of Urdu Poetry, His one of the famous couplets is: "infidelity is welcome to the infidels and Islam to the Shaikh. But to us lovers, love and the content and harmony of our hearts is enough." The Qadriya silsila was established in Indian by Shaba Nayamatullag Qadiri, and the the Shattaria silsila by Shah Abdullag Shuttari (d. 1458). The former spread mainly in Madhya Pradesh and Gujrat regions. In the reign of Akbar (1556-1605), the last of six major silsilas, the Naqshbandiah was established by Khwaja Baqi Ballah (1563-1603) and its most famous aint was Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi (d.1625) Known as Mujeddid Alif Sani (The Reformer of the 10th century). Prince Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, become the follower of the Qadiri order and visited Mian Mir (1550-1635) at Lahore, When Mian Mir died, Dara become a disciple of his successor named Mullah Shah Badakhshi. Shaikh Ahmed Sarihindi, a contemporary of Akbar and Jahangir, was a great Sufi saint of

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But it is Shah Latif who holds the highest place among the mystics of Sindh. He was the greatest poet and singer of the province, and his songs are sung by people even now. His shrine at Bhit was a weekly meeting- place for both Hindus and
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the Naqshbandi order. He attacked the Mystic Philosophy of the Unity of Being (wahadat-ulwujud) and rejected it. In its place he expounded the philosophy of Apparentism (Wahadat-ulshud). He said that the relationship between man and God is that of a slave and the master, and not that of a lover and the believed, as the Sufis generally believed. In short, Shaikh Ahmad's object was to harmonise the doctrine of mysticism with the teachings of orthodox Islam, and that is why he is known as Mujaddid, i.e. the renovator of Islam.

Medieval Indian traditons remember Prince Dara Shikoh not so much as a Mughal Prince, but as a mystic philosoper, In his Persian work, Majmaul Bahrian, there are interesting discussion on the Sufi and Hindu cosmologies. The great dream of his life was th brotherhook of all faiths and unity of mankind. One of his great devottes esa Sarmsad, who was executed during the reign of Aurangzeb for the Livberality of his religious views. In the 17th Century Sufism shattered the chains of sectarian beliefs and preached the unity of mandin. Such Sufi sanits were known as Yari Saheb, who flourished about A.D. 1668-1725, was free from all sectarianism. He says that the eyes should be painted with the dust of the guru's feet as with collyrium. His peoms, in which the name of Allah is mentioned along with the of Rama and Hari, are full of abstruse metaphysical turths, He says, 'This creation is a painting of the Creator on the canvas of void ehth the brush of love. He who has not experienced this joy through love will never know it through reasoning. Men and women are, as bubbles in the ocean of divine live'.

Sufi Saints of Sindh: Sindh was also a great Centre of neo-sufism and a number of Sufi saints flourished there. Any account of the mystics of Sind must begin with Shah Karim, who lived about A.D. 1600. He received his first religious inspiration from a Vaishnava saint near Ahmedabad, who initiated him into the mysteries of Om. This symbol served as a beaconlight to him. The next mystic worthy of mention is Shah Inayat, a universally respected figure. When the Hindus of Sind, under the oppression of the Kalhora kings, were fleeing in number to save their life and faith, it was he who sheltered many such fugitive families in his own hermitage. His faith, that God is not the property of any particular sect finally led to his execution.

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Bulle Shah: No account on neo-Sufism would be complete without a reference to Bulle Shah.

Bulle shah was probably born in A.D. 1703, in a Sayyuid family in the city of Constantinople (Istanbul), and at a very young age he walked all the way to Punjab hankering for spiritual truth, In the Indian mode of religious practice, he found precisely what he was seeking, and settled down to a life of meditation and worship at Kasur, He was a fierice critic of the Quran and all other scriptures, and neither the Hindu nor the Muslim theologians could excel him in debates. He was buried also at Kasur, and the plece attractts numerous pilgrims and holy men. Bulle Shah says: 'You will find god neither in the mosque nor in the Ka'aba, neither in the Quran and other holy books nor in formal prayers. Bulla, you will not find salvation either in Mecca or in the Ganga; 'you will find it only when you lay down your ego'. 'I found the highest peace and joy when I discovered Allah within my own heart: through death I have reached the life eternal; I am ever journeying forward.'

'O Bulla, intoxicate thyself with the wine of divine love, Men will slander you and call you by a hundred names; when they abuse you with the name of kafir, say, "yes, friend, you are right".

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The Hindu Impact on Sufism According to Alberuni, the Sufi theories of the soul are similar to those in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra. Like the Youga Sutar, Sufi works also stated that 'the bodies are the source of the souls for the purpose for acquiring recompense'. Albeurni also identifies the Sufi doctrine fo divine loves as self-annihilation with parallel passages from the Bhagavad Gita.

The cross-fertilisation of Sufi beliefs with those expressed by the Kashmiri Shaivite woman yogi Lalla of Lal Ded (Lall Yogesveri) is reflected in the Fishi movement of Shaikh Nuruddin Rishi (d. 1439) of kashmir. The Shaikh's teachings are embodied in his Kashmiri verses, some of which are almost identical with those composed by Lal. Through them the shaikh emerges as an ardent devotee of God trying of reach the Unknowable in the reart by lighting the lamp of love. Nuruddin and his disciples preferred to call themselves rishis, using the well known term for the Hindu sages. Their main theme was universal love. They served the people without considering caste and tried to turn Kashmir into a geaven for the neglected sections fo society. Shaikh Nuruddin believed that, although eating meat was permitted by the shariat, it entailed cruelty to animals, and he exhorted people to become a vegatarian.

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By the thirteenth century, the Indian Sufis were confronted with the Kanphata (splitearned) yogis or the Nath followers of Gorakhnath. Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya's description of the human body into regions of Siva and Sakti. The area from the head to the navel. associated with Siva, was spiritual; the area below the naval. associated with Sakti, was profane. Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya was also impressed with the yogic theory that a child's moral character was determined by the day of the month on which he was conceived.

The union of sakti-the sun- and Siva-the moonis. according to the Shaikh, symbolised by prayers performed hanging upside down with the legs suspended from a roof or the branch of a tree, Here we find very clear evidence of the practices of Hindus tantirism influenceing Sufi beliefs.

The Hatha yogic treatise Amritakunda, which had been translated into Arabic and Persian in the thritheenth century, had a lasting effect on Sufism. Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-iDehlve observed that controlled greathing is the essence of Sufism. Controlled greathing is initially a deliberate action but later becomes automatic. He urged practising articulated breathing lide the perfect yogis, known as siddhas. Yogic postures and breath control become an integral part of Chistiya Sufic practice, and controlled breathing was incomporated finally as a vital aspect in all the Sufi orders except the Indian Naqshbandiyyas. The Sufi theory of wahadat-ul-wujud and Sufi analogies for it were remarkably similar to those of the yogis. Sheikh Hamiduddin Nagori's Hindi verses reflect that yogic influence. The Nath doctrines had fo-reaching influence on the Chishtiya Sheikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi (d.1537). His Rushadnama contains Hindi verses composed by him and his spiritual guides are designed to support the truth of the wahadatul-wujud doctrine, The imperceptible Lord (Alakh Niranjana), he says, is invisible, but those who are able to perceive Him, are lost to themselves, In another verse, the shaikh identifies Alakh Niranjana with God (Khuda). References to the yogi saint Gorakhanath in the Rushadanama equate him with Ultimate Reality of Ablsolute Truth. some references to those names imply 'perfect man' or 'perfect siddha'.

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The Nath ideas found great popularity in fifteenth-century Bengal. The Amritakunda, a text on Hatha yoga, was first translated into Arabic in Bengal in the early thirteenth century. Sayyid Murataza (d.1662) later write the YogaQulandar, identifying the Qalandriyya discipline of Abu Ali Qalandar with yoga practices. Sayyid Sulatan (d. 1668) of Chittagong also composed a number of bengali works on Muslim themes of union with God, with Hindus and yogic overtones. The Haqaiq-i-Hindi by Abul Wahik (d. 1608) of Bilgram (near Lucknow) was intended to crush orthodox opposition to ghe use of vaishnavite themes in Hindi poetry recited by the Chishtiyya Sufies to arouse ecstasy. To Gesu Daraz, Hindi poetry was more subtle and elegant and transported the Sufies to higher planes of mystical ecstasy than Persian verses did. The sixteenth century saw a tremendous increase in the volume of Hindi poetry. Naturally its recitation at Sufi gathering required some definec. Mir Abul wahid sought to justify this practice by giving Islamic equivalents for features of the Drishna legend such as Drishna, Radha, Gopi, Braj, Goku, Yamuna, Gang, Mathura, and the flute in his Haqaiq-i-Hindi. He pleads that this identification renders unobjectionable the transpot of Sufi into ecstasy on hearing Hindu

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Vaishnative poetry. The translation of Sanskrit works into Persian at Akbar's court had made Muslims aware of the Vedanta School of Hindu philosophy. Jahangir identified the highest form of Sufism with vedanta.

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The Sufi saints preached in the language of the masses and made immense contribution to the development of Hindi and provinicial languages including Bengali, punjabi, Kashmiri, etc. The Sufis, despite their strict adherence to the laws of the shariat and practices of orthodoxy, instead of criticising the religion, mythology and folklore of the Hindus, were broad-minded enough to study them in their Hindi verses. Some went to the extent of quoting verses from Hindi poems while delivering delivering religious sermons from the pulpits. Badauni tells us that Makhdum Shaikh Taqiuddin Waiz Rabbani used to read occasionally verses form Chandian of Mulla Daud relating to the love of Lorik, and Chanda, Once when a certain person asked the Shaikh the reason of choosing to recite Hindi verses in his religious sermons, the saint replied that the whole thing is full of divine and pleasing subject, Malik Muhammad jayasi, though an orthodox Muslim, was also a good Sufi and that has mentioned Hindu gods and goddesses and has shown his familarity with Vedanta, Yoga and Nath cults. The Muslim author of the Mrigavati and Madhumalati, of Manasat, and other Hindi poems had already paved the way for Jayasi, The Sufi poet Qutban not only write in the language of the people of the locality, but was also fully conversant with Hindu mythology, He had neither contempt nor prejudice for the Hindu Scriptures and mythology.

Advaita or Vedanta. After Shankara, twelve Tamil Vaishnava saints collectively known as Alvars made the concept of bhakti more popular. The Alvars were followed by the Vaishnavaacharyas who gave the Bhakti cult a metaphysical foundation. According to this school of thought the 'Supreme Being' is not 'attributeless' but saguna, possissing qualities of goodness and beauty to an infinite degree, The early leadera of the Bhakti movement to North India and is rightly regarded as a bridge between the bhakti movement of Suth and North India.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT

The Bhakti movement is much older than the Sufi movements. It philosophical concept had been fully enunciated in the Upanishads and subsequently, the Bhagavad Gita emphasised love and devotion as pathways to God. In the sixth century A.D. The Bhagavata purana placed the concept of bhakti on a very high pedestal. During the post-Bhagavata phase passionate love and devotion to one personal god become a characteristic feature of the Indian religious thought. But the concept of bhakti was placed on a firmer ground in South India, when Shankaracharya revived the philosophy of

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Features of Bhakti movement 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

The concept of Bhakti means singleminded devotion to one God. The object of the devotee's adoration is to secure the grace of God for the sake of aslvation. The Bhakti cult discarded the rituals and sacrifices as modes of worship and instend emphasis ed the purity of reart and mind, humanism and devation as the simple way to realisation of God. The Bhakti movement was essentially monotheistic and the devotees worshipped one personal God, who could either have form (saguna) or be formless (nirguna). The followers of the former, knowh as vaishhavas, were futher subdivided into of Krishna - both incarnations of Vishnu - as their personal God, respectively. The followers of Nirguna Bhakti discarded idol worship. They said that, God is omnipresent and resides within the heart of man. On the philosophical side, the Saguna and Nirguna both believed in the Upanishadic philosophy of advaita, with minor variation suggested by various Bhakti saints. The Bhakti saints of North as well as South India regarded knowledge (jana) as a consitituent of bhakti. Since, that knowledge could be gained through a teacher of guru, the Bhakti movement greatly emphasised securing true knowledge form a guru. The Bhakti movement was an egalitarian movement, which completely discard the disciminations based on caste of creed. The saints of the Bhakti

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movement were staunch wupporters of social unity and purity of mind, character and soul. The doors of Bhakti were opened for the lowest classes and even untouchables. Many of the saits of the Bhakti movement were from the lower classes. The Bhakti movement also discarded the priestly domination as well as rituals. According to the Bhakti saints, the individual could realise God through devotion and personal effort. Therefore, there was no place for sacrifices and daily rituals in the Bhakti movement.

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7.

Ramananda, Kabir, Nanak, chaitanya and others. The leaders of the Bhakti movement of the early period were mostly of southern extractions. The Bhakti movement associated with the southern group was more scholasitc than popular, which was not the case with the northern group. The bhaktas of the latter group did not ponder over the subtle questions of metaphysics. The were essentially eclectic, broadminede and latitudinarian in their views and outlook. Caste was not a factor in the new Bhakti movement. Many of the Bhakti poets rose form lower castes. Their message was both for the rich and the poor, the high caste and the low, the educated and the illiterate.

8.

The Bhakti saints preached in the simple language of the masses and, therefore, immensely contributed to the development of modern Indian languages, such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali and Gujarati.

It can thus be seen that the Bhakti cult was a widespread movement that the Bhakti cult was a widespread movement that embrached the whole of the subcontinent of India for several centuries. It was a movement of the people and aroused intense interest among them. Perhaps after the decline of Buddhism there had never been a more widespread and popular movement in our country than the Bhakti movement. Although its basic principles of love and devotion to a personal God were purely Hindu and the principles of unity of Godhead on which its teaching rested were also mainly Hindu. The movement was profoundly influenced by Islamic belief and practices. The Bhakti movement had two main objects in view. One was to reform the Hindu religion so as to enable it to withstand the onslaught of Islamic propaganda and proselytism. Its second object was to bring about a compromise between Hinduism and Islam and to foster friendly relations between Hindu and Muslim communities. It succeeded in realising, to a great extent, the first object of bringing about the simplification of worship and liberalising the traditional caste rules. "The high and the low among the Hindu public forgot many of their projedices and believed in the message of the reformers of the Bhakti cult, that all people were equal in the eyes of God and that birth was no bar to religious salvation".

Bhakti Saints and Reformers The cult of bhakti was followed by a host of saints of northern India. The moving spirit were

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Ramanuja (twelfth century): The earliest exponent of the Bhakti movement was the great Vaishnava teacher Ramanuja who flourished in the early years of the twelfth century in the South. His ideas laid the foundation of a vigorous popular movement for the uplift of the people. The next leader of the Bhakti movement was Nimarbaka, a contemporary of Ramanuja. He believed in the philosophy of Vishistadvaita and laid emphasis on surrender to God. Ramananda (fifteenth century): Ramananda, who flourished in the first half of the fifteenth century, was the first great Bhakti saint of North India. He opened the door of bhakti ot all without any distinction of birth, caste, creed or sex. He was a worshipper of Rama and believed in two great principles, namely, (a) perfectlove for God and (b) human brotherhood. Ramananda adopted Hindi as the medium of his discourses and his message directly reached the common people. In his teachings the caste rigours were greatly softened and even Shudras were considered equal in the eyes of God Ramananda did away with the insular social behaviours of the Hindus by throwing his spiritual door wide open for members of all castes. Religion now become a question of faith, emotion an devotion. As a result of his teaching, a member of the despised classes could reach his God without an intermediary. His unique contribution to Indian spiritual life was the spirit of synthesis obseved in his teaching. He accepted all that was true and of permanent value in our spiritual heritage- the philosophy of meditation (yoga and knowledge from the North and the absolute surrender (prapatti) of the Bhakti cult from the South - and rejected all that was untrue, ephemeral, or rigidly sectarian. There is a popular verse to this effect:

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'Bhakti arose forst in the Dravida land; Ramananada brought it to the North; and Kabir spread it to the seven continents and nine divisions of the world.'

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Ramananda borrowed ideas from virious religious schools, vitalized them with the love and devotion of his heart, and founded a new path of spiritual realization. we do not come across many of his saying, but the radiant personality of his disciples- the men he createdconstituted his living message. His one song is incorporated in the Granth Sahib.

Kabir (1440-1510): Kabir, the most radical disciple of Ramananda, gave a positive shape to the social philosophy of his illustrious teacher, In his trenchant arguments against the barrier of castes. Ramananda prepared the way for Kabir. The later made a sincere attempt at a religious and national synthesis out of conflicting creeds. Kabir was neither a theologian nor a philosopher. he appears before us as teacher. he had the courage ot condemn what he considered to be sham and counterfeit in both Hinduism and Islam.

Though Ramananda used the popular name of Rama, his God was the one God of love and mercy, without any imperfection-not the eternal Brahman of the Vedanta, but the beloved, the friend, and the lord of one's heart. When Ramananda perceived that there is only one God who is the origin of all, all the distinctions of caste and creed vanished for him, and he saw humanity as one large family, and all men as brothers. One man is higher than another, not through his birth, but only through his love and sympathy. So he started preaching to all without any reserve, and his fundamental teaching was the gospel of love and devotion. He also gave up the use of Sanskrit and started preaching in the language of the people, thus laying the foundation of modern vernacular literatures. It is said that his first twelve followers were:

Ravidasa the cobbler, Kabir the weaver, Bhanna the jat peasant, Sena the barber, Pipa the Rajput, bhvananda, Sudhanda, Surasurananda, Parmananda, Mahananda, and Sri Ananda. But some of them were not personally initiated by him; they were drawn to his ideas long after his demise.

Ravidasa (Raidas): (Fifteenth Century) He was one of the most famous disciples of Ramananada. He was a cobbler by birth, but his religious life was as exalted and pure as it was deep. There are over thirty hymns of Ravidasa collected in the Granth Sahib of the Sikha. Kabir also has expressed more than once his deep reverence for him. Ravidasa was the worshipper of the one infinite God, who is above and beyond all religious sects and without beginning or end. He preached that the Lord resides eithin the rearts of his devotees, and cannot be accessed through the performance of amy rites and ceremonies. Only one who has felt the pangs of divine love will find Him, and the highest expression of religion in life is the service of man,

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The central theme of Kabir's teaching is bhakti "kabir refused to acknowledge caste distinction or to recognise the authority of the six school of Hindu philosophy, or the four divisions of life prescribed by the Brahmans. He held that religion without bhakti was no religion at all. and that asceticism, fasting and almsgiving had no value if unaccompanied by bhajan (devotional worship)". By means of ramaini, sakhas and sakhis he imparted religious instruction to Hindus and Muslims alike, He had no perference for either religion. He thought aloud and never made it his object merely ot please his hearers. He thoroughly scrutinised the bases of ritualism. he incessantly fought to remove the fitualistic wuperstitions like visiting places of pilgrimage.

Kabir was a great satirist and ridiculed all the institutions of his time. He opposed the Popular belief in the institution of sati. He was equally against the veiling of women. Kabir refused to recognise the superiority of Brahmins as a class. He refused to believe that birth in a particular caste was due to the deeds in a previous life. He advocated perfect equality of Shudras and Brahmins. Both Shudras and Brahmins were born in the same way, he said.

Kabir provides us with a code of ethics. he condemned pride and selfishness and advocated the cultivation of the quality of humility. Kabir was a spokesmen for the poor and downtrodden section of society. He condemned the sense of humility and simplicity of the poor as well as the vanity and pride of the rich; By such condemnations; Kabir preached the common brotherhood of man and sought to remove the distinction between Hindus and the Musilms. Though he led a religious life, Kabir married, and it is said that the name of his wife was Loi. His son Kamal was both a thinker and a devotee. when, after his father's name, he answered, "My

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father had striven throughout his life aganist all forms of sectarianisn; how can I, his son, destroy his ideal and thereby commit his spiritual murder?" This remark estranged many of Kabir's disciples from Kamal. After Kabir's death, his Muslim disciples organized themselves in Maghar, where they founded a monastery; hindu disciples were organized into an order by Surat Gopala, with their centre in Varanasi.

Dadu believed not in the authority of scriptures, but in the value of self-realization. To attain this realization, we must divest ourselves of all sense of the ego and surrender our lives entirely to God. All men and women are as brothers and sister in the presence of God. He resides within the hearts of men, and it is there that we must meditate on Him. Union with God is possible only through love and devotion, and it is deepened not by prayers, but by joining our service to His service of the universe. We are united with God when, shedding all sins and impurities, we sincerely surrender ourselves to the divine will.

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The chief scripture of this sect is the wellknown Bijak a compilation of Kabir's couplets. In course of time, this centre leaned more and more towards Vedantic doctrines.

sampradaya to give effect to this great ideal. His sayings possess great depth and liberality and show clear traces of the influence of Kabir.

Kabir believed in a simple and natural life, He himself wove cloth and sold it in the market like any ordinary weaver. He did not interpret religious life as a life of idleness; he held that all should toil and earn and help each other, but none should hoard money. There is no fear of corruption form wealth, if it is dept constantly in circulation in the service of humanity.

Kabir tried to express simple thoughts of a simple hearts in the common language of the people. He said, 'O Kabir, Sahskrit is the water in a well. the language of the people is the flowing stream'. His simple words had infinite power.

Malukdasa (1574-1682): One of the many followers of Kabir, he was born towards the end of the sixteenth century in the District of Allahabad. He was kind and compassionate, and, though religious man, he lived the life of a house holder. The monasteries of his sect are found all over North India and even beyond, from Bihar to Kabul. he too preached against the worship of images and other external forms of religion, and his followers rely entirely on the grace of God for their salvation. He was against mortification of the flesh, and taught that the true path of spirituality lay in the simple devotion of the heart. Dadu (1544-1603) : The most famous of the followers of Kabir's ideals was Dadu, he was born of Brahmana parents in Ahmedabad in A.D. 1544 and died in 1603 in the village of Narana of Narayana in Rajasthan, where his followers (Dadu-panthis) have now their chief centre. The great dream of his life was to unite all the divergent faiths in one bond of love and comradeship, and he founded the Brahmasampradaya or Parabrahma-

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Dadu taught : 'Be humble and free from egotism; be compassionate and devoted in service; be a hero, fearless and energetic; free your mind from sectarianism, and from all the meaningless forgiving by nature and firm in your faith. The path of realization becomes easier, if you can find a true teacher.' He himself was very simple by nature and firm in your faith, and his prayers were full of depth and sweetness. he was a householder, and he believed that, the natural life of a householder was best suited for spiritual realization. At the request of Dadu, his disciples made a collection of the devotional writings of all the different sects, calculated to help men in their striving towards god, such an anthology of the religious literature of different sects was perhaps the first of its kind in the world, for the Granth Sahib was first compiled in A.D. 1604, while this anthology was completed some years befor A.D. 1600. This collection includes many sayings of Muslim saints like Kazi Kadam, Shaikh Farid, Kazi Mohommed, Shaikh Bahawad, and Bakhna. Among the many disciples of Dadu, Sundaradasa (A.D. 1597-1689), Rajjab, and other were distinguished personalities. Dadu persuaded his disciples to render into simple Hindu from Sanskrit the abstruse philosophical truths. He also made it a practice among them the writer in Hindi, prose and verse, Dadu admitted both Hindus and Muslims to his discipleship, and there have been many gurus in his sect who came form the Muslim families. Even today, in Rajjab's branch of Dadu's sect,

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andy one who attains to the height of spiritual realization is accepted as the head of the order, whether he be a Hindu or a Muslim. The songs and prayers of Rajjab are universal in appeal and superb for their spirit of devotion.

Unlike Kabir, Nanak was a well-educated ma. He had studied Persian and Hindi, besides his mother-tongue Punjabi. he travelled all over India and also to some countries of Central Asia including Arabia, and come in contant with men of diverse professions, pursuits and creeds. He wrote inspiring poems and songs which were collected in a book form subsequently published as the Adi Grantha. He was recognised as a Guru, and died at Krtarpur in 1528.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Rajjab says: ' There are as many sects as there are men; thus has come into being the diversity of spiritual endeavour. The sacred stream of the Ganga rises from the blessed feet of Narayana, but the feet of the Lord are in the hearts of the devotees. Thus, from the heart of every devotee flows a Ganga of thoughts. If I can unite all the streams of thoughts in this world, such a confluence would indeed be the holiest of places.' He Further said: ' This universe is the veda, the creation is the Qur'an.'

people to distinguish superstitions form religious values. The superstitions and formalism of both Hindustan and Islam were condemned.

Guru Nanak (1469-1538): The Bhakti movement in northern India, which had been gathering strength ever since the time of Ramanda, got another ardent bhakta in Guru Nanak. He was preceded by an evolution of ideas and he followed the path blaxed by his illustrious predecessors. He founded a new religion which has survived as a permanent element in the Indian society. Guru Nanak, sharing to the full the eclectic spirit of his time, sought for a creed capable of expressing Hindus and Muslim devotion alike. He use both Hindu and Muslim nomenclatures for God, rama, Govinda, Hari, Murari, bad and Rahim. He wanted to domlish the wall that stood in the way of the two communities and unite them.

The social teaching of Guru Nanak were basically a reaffirmation of the ethical ideas common to the medieval monotheistic religious doctrine of human equality. He held that it was sheer folly to think in terms of caste, A man was to be honoured for his devotion to God and not for his social position. he says. "God knows man's virtues and inquires not his caste; in the next world there is no caste." Guru Nanak started free community kitchens called Guru ka longer. His followers. Guru Nanak did not believe in the doctrine of chhut (theological contamination) which had compartmentalised society. He conceived of God as nirakara (formless). He discarded the worship of images and repudiated idolatry. Being a man of deep and strong conviction. he defined explicitly the ethics, norms and usages of public life, he resented the survival of superstition which seemed to be a mark of cultural backwardness. He educated

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Nanak was a revolutionary religious reformer, he proclaimed that there is no distinction between man and man, all were born equal in the eyes of God. He felt that the real cause of the misery of the people was their disunity born of diversity of belief. He considered education essential for the attainment of true and complete life, True education helps the soul to unfold itself like a lotus of countless petals.

The universalism of his message and reasonableness of his precepts brought about a moral renaissance in India. He preached to the high and the high and the low without any distinction of caste, creed or colour.

Guru Nanak was a monist and his monotheism, unlike that of some other bhaktas. was undiluted. He did not believe in the incarnation of God. he regarded himself as the prophet of God who had come for the divine Court. He taught that there is one God in the world and the no other and that Nanak, the caliph (son) of God, speaks truth. Nanak looks upon God as one Lord and the commander of all. The universe is His domain and from His brilliance everything is brilliant. All is illumined by the light of His apperance. Nanak says that devotion cannot exist without virtue. Truth is no doubt great but greater is truthful living. The qualities which one should cultivate assiduously are humility, charity, forgiveness and sweet words. Remembrance of god is the primary duty of a seeder of truth remember the name of God and give up everything else, Simran is the practice of devotion to God. He (God) is high and worthy of worship. God is not outside but within every individual. He that pervades the universe also dwells in the body. Speak the truth, then you would realise God within you. Nanak believed

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in God as the omnipotent reality, but maintained that the separate individuality of the human soul could attain union with him through love and devotion. Nanak's mission was to reform the Hindus religion on the basis of unity of the Godhead and to bring about friendly realation between the Hindus and Muslims.

He was a great exponent of Krishnite form of Vaishnavism. He adored Krishna and Radha and attempted to spiritualies their lives in Vrindaban, he preached to all irrespective of caste and creed. His influence was so profound and lasting that he is considered by his followers as an incarnation of Krishna of Vishnu. Chaitanya accepted that Krishna along is the most perfect God. Vaishnavism, as preached by Chaitanya, created an unprecedented sensation and enthusiasm in Gengal and its neighbouring religions. like Orissa and Assam. Although Chaitanya had many followers, he did not seem to have directly organised them into a sect of cult. It was his followers and devoted disciples, who after the master's death, systematised his teachings and organised themselves into a sect called Gaudiya Vaishnavism.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Chaitanya (1486-1533): Perhaps the greatest saint if not the greatest leader, of the Bhakti movement was Chaitanya There had been Vaishnavism in Bengal long before his birth. But the activities of Chaitanya who is the founder of modern Vaishanvism in Bengal gave a great inpetus to Vaishhavism and made it popular all over Bengal and Orissa. Chaitanya's original name was Vishwambhar and he was born at Navadwip in February 1486. The boy was given the name of Nimai. His father Jagannath Mishra was a religious and scholarly man and his mother Shachi too was deeply religious and pious. Vishwambhar was sent to a private school to learn and afterwards entrusted to a well-known Pandit, Ganga Das, for higher studies. He was an exceptionally brilliant student and is said to have mastered the Sanskrit language and literature, grammar and logic, at the early age of fifteen, Shortly after he completed his education, he was give the title of Vidyasagar (the ocean ; of learning). While he was a student, his father died. He was married to a girl named Lakshmi but she died of shake-bite. He married again and this lady survived her husband's sanyas and death. He was not yet 22 when he received diksha (initation) from a saintly man, named Ishwar Prui, Whom he met at Gaya during a pilgrimage. The motive which influenced him to adopt asceticism was probably diverse and complex; at best, it is left obscure. Chaitanya settled permanently at puri where he died.

and devotion, song and dance, so intense and full of emotion that devotees felt God's Presence in a state of ecstasy.

After sanyas he felt himself free from all worldly bounds and his heightened emotions and ecstasies become marked. He said, "I shall wander form house to house giving the holy name of God to all. The Chandals, lowest caste, women and children all will stand with wonder and love to hear his name. Even boys and girls will sing his praise." Chaitanya loved God as no man before or after him ever loved. he preached the religion of intense faith in one Supreme Being whom he called Drishna or Hari. He was free from ritualism, and his wordhip consisted in love

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Mirabai (1498-1546): Mirabai was one of the greatest saints of sixteenth century India. She was the only child of Ratna Singh Rathor of Merta. She was born at the village of Kudvi in Merta district in or about A.D. 1498 and was married to Rana Singa's eldest son and heir-apparent Bhoraj in 1516. She was highly religious from her childhood, and like her father and grandfather, was a follower of the Krishna cult of Vaishnavism. After her husband's death she devoted herself entirely to religious pursuits. Her fame as a sincere devotee of Krishna dnd a patron of men of religion speread far and wide and drew hermits of both sexes from distant places to Chittor. Owing to the strained relations with the rulers of Mewar, she went to reside with her uncle Biram Deva who was the chief of Merta. And there too she continued her daily routine. She remained engrossed in spiritual meditation and in religious music and dance. She also continued having kirtan in the company of other religious men and women. In this way she spend years at Merta; but when that city was invaded and captured by Maldeva of Jodhpur; she decided to undertake pilgrimage to Dwarka. There she lived the life of a dovotee and died in 1546. Mira is said to have composed numerous poems, all of them being devotional songs. Her lyrics, however, are her chief title to fame. They are written in Brijbhasha and partly in Rajasthani, and some of her verses are in Gujarati. These lyrics are saturated with super

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with love and devotion, but is also notable for depiction Krishna as a child. Surdas has displayed a masterly knowledge of child psychology and also expressed his sincere devotion to the Almighty. Surdas's works and his stray poems have produced a tremendous inpact on the Indian Masses.

Vallabhacharya (1479-1531) : Vallabhacharya was the next great saint of the Krishna cult of Vaishnavism. He was born at varanasi in 1479. His father lakshman Bhatt from Telenganga was on a pilgrimage along with his family to Kashi, where his second son Vallabhacharya saw the light of day. He travelled much and he took his residence in Varindaban where he started prieaching the Krishna cult. He worshipped Lord Krishna under the title of Srinath ji. Like kabir and Nanak, he did not consider married life a hindrance to spiritual progress. He was the author of a number of scholarly works in Sanskrit and Brijbhasha.

Tulsidas (1532-1623): Tulsidas is considered by modern scholars as greater than Surdas, both as a poet and as a devotee. He was born in a Saryuparian Brahmin family in of about 1532 in Varanasi.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

abundant feeling of love and devotion and are so melodious that they instantaneously arouse the tenderest human feelings and pangs of love and devotion. Mira addressed her lyrics to Krishna whose persence she felt in every act of her daily life. The lyrics are full of passion and spiritual estasy.

Vallabhacharya's philosophy centres round the cenception of one personal and loving God. He believed in the marga (path) of pushti (grace) and bhakti (devotion). He looked upon Sri Krishna as the highest Brahma, purushotama and parmanand (the highest bliss).

According to Vallabhacharya, God can be realised only by the one. he chooses and for this choice one has to practiise bhakti. In the expression of pushtimarga, the word marga means path or way and the word pushti means grace of God Mukti or salvation can be attained by it and in no other way. Devotion or bhakti must be without any object in view and without any desire of fruit. It should be accompained by love and service.

Surdas (sixteenth-seventeenth century): No accout of the Bhakti movement can be complete without describing the two great Hindu poets, Surdas and Tulsidas. Both were saints of a high order, but not preachers and reformers in the formal sense, and neither of them founded a sect or cult. We have not much information about the principal events of Surdas's life, not even the dates of his birth and death. Surdas was the devotee of Lord Krishna and Radha. He believed that salvation can be achieved only through the devotion of Krishna who is Saguna God. Three of his works are very popular. They are Sur Sarawali, Sahitya Ratna and Sur Sagar. The Sur sagar, which is said to contain 1,25,000 verses, is not only saturated

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His father's names was Atmaram Dubey and his mother was Hulsi. On account of his wife Ratnavali's taunt, he took to the life of a religious hermit. It is presumed that he began writing his Ram Charit Manas in 1574, when he was 42 years of age. Besides this, he wrote several other books. such as Gitwali, Kaviawali, Vinay Patrika, etc. The Ram Charit Manas is an expsoition of religious devotion of the highest category. Tulsidas was the worshipper of Rama and he was drawn as ideal picture of his mation of God and believed that man could reach him only through bhakti. Tulsidas died at the age of 91, in 1623. "He is considered even now as a great Vaishnava bhakta and acharya who lived in the hearts of millions of men and women, through his immortal Vinaya Patrika and Rom Charit Manas".

MINOR SECTS AND SAINTS

Sankardev (1449-1568): He was the greatest religious reformer of medieval Assam. His message centred around absolute devotion to Vishnu of his incarnation Krishna. Its essence was monotheism, and it came to be known as Eka-Sarana-dharma (religion of seeding refuge in one). he did not recognise a female associate of the Supreme Deity (Lakshmi, radha, Sita, etc.). He insisted upon Niskama Bhakti. He recognised the sanctityu of the Bhagavat Purana A comp of it was placed on the alter-like the Gramtha Sahib in the Sidh Guradwaras. He preached the rejection of ritualism including idol worship. Sankardva denounced the caste system and preached his ideas to the masses through their mother tongue. His creed, generally known as Mahapurshiya dharma, exercised widespread and far-reaching influence on all aspects of life in Assam.

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posture called Kornis, while their prayers in the sitting posture are known as sazda. They do not believe in scriptures, rites and observanes. pilgrimages, vows, vestments, of mantra. The worship of images of incarnations. castedistinction, the partaing of meat of wine, and all forms of violence are strictly forbidden in this sect.

Jagjivan (Seventeenth Century): He was the founder of a sect known as Satnami (of Satyanami). He taught that spiritual realization was possible only through the grace of God, and he insisted on purity as the essence of a religious life. This aspiration was to unite the two streams of Hindu and Muslim religious life through live.

There was nother Dariya Saheb who was born in A.D. 1676 in Marwar, in a Muslim family of cottontraders. On account of a strong similarity of Kabir's and Dadu's teachings, he is believed by some to be an incarnation of Dadu. He has many followers in Rajasthan, where the monsteries of his set are scattered in different places. He worshipped God under the name of Rama and Parabrahman. The section entitled brahma-parichaya in his collected poems deals with the mysteries of yoga His sect includes both householders and ascetics among its members, and his songs are very popular with both Hindus and Muslims.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Narsi (Narsimha) Mehta (Fifteenth Century): Narasi or Narasimah Mehta was a well-known saint of Gujarat, who flourished in the second half of the fifteenth century. He wrote songs in Gujarati depicting the live of Radha and Drishna, which are included in the Suratasangrama. He was the author of Mahatam Gandhi's favourite Bhajan Vishnava jana To Teno Kahiye.

There were some other sects known by the same name of Satnami, both before and after Jagjivan's time. One of these was founded by Ghasidasa of the Cobbler caste. The followers of this faith do not touch animal food or wine, do not believe in imagewordhip and though considered 'untouchables', do not acknowledge the superiotiry of the Brahamna and other castes. According to them, superiority consists in purity of character and conduct and devotion to God. Lalgir of Lalbeg (Seventeenth Century): Another religious man of the same caste was Lalgir of Lalbeg, who founded a sect known as Aladhanmi or Aladhgir, which has a great following in Bikaner. The followers of this sect do not worship images, but meditate upon the invisible. One who cannot be perceived by the senses. The primary requirements of a religious life, according to them, are nonviolence, catholicity, charity, and purity. 'Do not be anxious about the next world,' this way, 'you will attain the highest bliss in this. Heaven and hell are within you.' They great each other with the words 'Aladh Kaho' (take the name of God who is invisible).

The Aladhnami sect also does not acknowledge the superiority of the higher castes. They are not sorry that they are debarred from entering the temples, for they regard these as low places, where one is diverted from the truth. The monks of this sect are note for their gentle and restrained behaviour. They do not mind if they are refused alms.

Dariya Saheb (Seventeenth Century): He belonged to a will-known Kshatriya family of Ujjain. Dariya Saheb was deeply influenced in his religious life by the teachings of Kabir. His followers pray like the Muslims in a standing

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Shivanarayan (Early 18th Century): he was born in a Rajput family in the ballia District of Uattar Pradesh about A.D. 1710. He was a pure monist, and was completely against imageworship. He believed God to be without form and attributes. Any use of animal food or intoxicants is strictly forbiddin in his sect, and the path laid down is one of single-minded devotion, purity of life, self-restraint, and love for humanity. This sect was open to members of all creeds and castes, and the union of all forms of faith in orn universal religion was the dream of Shivanarayana's life, Shivanarayan was inpired, Through not directly, by the ideas of Dara Shikoh, and his philosophy contains elements form both the Hindu and th Islamic religious tradition. It is said that the later Mughal Emperor Mohammed Shah (A.D. 1719-48) was converted to his faith, and the poets wali Allah, Abru, and Nazi also has a deep reverence for his spiritual life and teachings.

THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN MAHARASHTRA (MAHARASHTRA DHARMA)

The liberal religion preached by the saint poets of Maharashtra is popularly known as Maharashtra Dharma, which was a stream of the medieval Bhakti movement, but socially it was more profound, unitary and far more liberal in the field of social reforms. The Bhakti cult in Maharashtra centred around the shrine of

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Vithoba or Vitthal the presiding diety of Pandharpur, who was regarded as a mainfeatation of Krishna. This movement is also known as the Pnadharpur movement led to the develompent of Marathi literature, modificaton of caste exclusiveness, sanctification of family life, elevation of the status of women, spread of the spirit of humaneness and toleration, subordination of ritual to love and faith, and limitation of the excesses of polytheism.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The Bhakti movement in Maharashtra is broadly divided into two sects. The first school of mystics is known as Varakaris, of the mild devatees of God Veththala of prndharpur, and the second as Dharakaris, or the heroic followers of the cult of Ramadasa, the devotee of God Rama. The former are more rational, practical. and concrete in their thoughts. The difference between the two schools is, however, only apparent and not real, realization of God as the highest end of human life being common to both. The three great teachers of the Vithoba cult were jnaneswar Jnandeva or, Namdeva and Tukaram.

building up the glorious tradition of the school of thought known as Varakarisampradaya. He was initiated into mystic life by Visoba Khechara, who convinced Namadeva of the all-pervading nature of God. He travelled with his younger cotemporary, Jnaneswar. Some of his lyrical verses are included in the Granth Sahib. The dominant note of his thoughts is earnest and whole-hearted devotion to God. Purification of the heart is possible only through suffering, and God can be realized through pure love. He wrote a number of abhangas to show people the path to God through repetition of His name.

The dates of birth and of other important events in the lives of all Maharashtra saints expects Ramadasa are only approximately known. It is, however, historical fact that Nivrttinatha and jnaneswar are the founders of the mystical school in Maharasthra, which later developed an assumed different forms at the hands of Namadeva Ekanatha, and Tukarama.

Bhakti Saints of Maharashtra

Jnaneswar of Jnanadeva: One of the earliest Bhakti Saints of Maharashtra Jnaneswar flourished in the 13th century. He wrote the Marathi commentary on the Gita known as Jnaneswari, which deserves to be reckoned among the world's best mystical compositions. his other works are Amratanubhava and changadeva Prasasti.

Namadeva: Namadeva was born in a tailor's family. we are told that as a child he was very wild and in his youth he took to, vagabond life, but certain sudden incidents moved him to the path of spirituality, transformin him to a great saint and a gifted poet. His Marathi poems have genuine marks of simplicity, devotion and melody, he was suddenly coverted to the spiritual life, when he heard the piteous cries and curses of the helpless wife of one of his victims. He passed the major part of his life at Pandharpur, and was mainly responsible for

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Ekanatha: He was born at Paithan (Aurangabad). His life was an object-lesson in the reconciliation of practical and spiritual life, He observed no distinction of caste and creed, and once gave to the pariahs the food prepared as an offering to his forefathers. His sympathies knew no limits; he poured the holy waters of the Godavari (brought from a long distance at the risk of life for the worship of the Lord) into the throat of an ass that was dying of thirst. He published for the first time a reliable edition of the Jnaneswari. He was a voluminous writer, and his commentary on four verses of the Bhagavata is famous. It was his custom to sing Kertana (devotional composition) every day, and he observed it ti the last day of his life, His mystic experiences are expressed most explicitly tin this abhangas. He popularized the vedanta philosophy and the mystic teachings of earlier saints. He passed away in A.D. 1598. Tukaram : Tukaram was born in the family of a farmer. He had some cattle and landed property, but lost them all in great famine, together with his parents, one of his two wives, and a son. He become a bankrupt and got disgusted with his life. His other wife was a shrew, who abused his companion-devo-tees. Trouble both at home and outside, Tukarama took to the study of the works of Jnaneswar, Namadeva, and Ekanatha, and began to meditate on God in solitary places on the hills of Bhamhanatha and Bhandara.

He wrote several abhangas, which embody his teachings and are widely recited in Maharashtra. He was contemporary of Shivaji and refused to accept the offer of rich presents made by him.

Ramdasa: He was born in 1608. He wandered throughout India for twelve years and finally settled at Chaphal on the banks of the

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propaganda and activities under great restraints enforced by the State. All their holy works were, therefore, written in symbolic script, a key to decipher which was supplied for the first time by V.K. Rajavade, Govinda Prabhu, a great mystic, was the founder of this cult, and Chakradhara its first apostle. Nagadeva oranized the cult on a systematic basis. Bhaskara, Kesavaraja Suri, Damodara Pandita, Visvantha, and narayana pandita were, amongst others, the most learned and important followers of the cult. Of the women follower Mahadamba was an advanced mystic and a poetess of no mean orde, The Mahanubhavas were, in reality, the followers of the Bhagvata, and the Sutraphatha (a collection of aphorisms of Chakradhara) as the standard and classical religious works. Sri Krishna and Dattatreya were their prominent deities. Devotion to Krishna is, in their openion, the only way to the realization of God. This was, therefore, primarily a cult of Sri Krishnal But later they accepted Dattatreya - a trinity in unity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, representing the principles of creation, sustenance, and dissolution of the universe, with emphasis on Vishnu, of Vishnu as Krishna Thus th Mahanubhava cult seems the combine the cult of Krishna, represented by the Nathas of Maharashtra, with that of Dattatreya, represented by Narasimaha Saraswati and Janardana Svamin.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Krishna where he built a temple. He was the spiritual guide of Shivaji. Ramdasa was born in a period of political upheaval, and could not but be partly affected by it. But he regarded the realization of God as primary, and political as only of secondary, importance in life. He was a saint of practical temperament and systematically organized his order. He established his monasteries throughout Maharashtra to serve as centres of spiritual and practical activities. In his monumental work. Dasabodha, be combined his vast knowledge of various sciences and arts with the synthesizing principle of spiritual life. He also wrote many abhangas and some minor works, all of which inspire a deep love for the life of God-realisation. The greatest contributioon of the Bhakti movement in Maharastra was in uniting the people of Maharashtra into a nation, which greatly helped in the rise of the Maratha movement under Shivaji.

The Mahanubhava Panth: Another religious cult founded in Maharasthra around this time was Mahanubhava Panth. The cult fell into disrepute and incurred unpopularity among the Mharashtrians, perhaps because of its alleged disbelief in the caste system, disregard of the teachings of the Vedas, and non-adherence to the asrama system. The leaders and followers of the cult had to carry on their spiritual






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MUGHAL DYNASTY

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A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

BABUR

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Babur ascended the throne at Farghana, a small principality in Transoxiana, in 1494 at the age of twelve after the death of his father. The situation in Central Asia was not stable and Babar had to face a lot of resistance from the nobility itself. Although he was able to capture Samarqand but very soon he had to retreat because of desertion of some of his nobles. He also lost Farghana to the Uzbegs.

were less in number but the organization of his army was superior. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated in the battle of Panipat. Success at the Battle of Panipat was a great achievement of Babur's military tactics. Babur had an active army of only 12000 soldiers while Ibrahim's army had an estimated strength of 100,000 soldiers. When face to face in the battle field Babur's tactics were unique. He effectively applied the Rumi (Ottoman) method of warfare. He encircled Ibrahim's army from two flanks. In the centre his cavalry mounted attack with arrows and gun fires by expert ottoman gunners. The trenches and barricades provided adequate defence against march of the enemy. The Afghan army of Ibrahim Lodi suffered heavy causalities. Ibrahim Lodi died in the battle field. Babur was thus able to take control of Delhi and Agra and got the rich treasure of Lodis. This money was distributed among Babur's commanders and soldiers. Victory at Panipat provided Babur a firm ground to consolidate his conquests. But now he was faced with a few problems:

Thus, the early years of Babur's rule in central Asia were tough. During this whole period he had plans of moving towards Hindustan. And finally from 1517 onwards he made decisive moves towards India. A few developments in India at that time also helped him to act on plans of invading India.

Timurids

Babur traced his lineage from Timur the great conqueror of Central Asia and to Chengiz Khan the distinguished conqueror. From mother's side he was a descendant of Mongols and from father's side the great commander Timur. Because of the lineage of Timur the Mughals are also referred as Timurids.

The unstable political situation in India after Sikandar Lodi's death convinced him of political discontentment and disorder in the Lodi Empire. Meanwhile there was conflict between some Afghan chiefs with Ibrahim Lodi. Prominent among them was Daulat Khan Lodi, the Governor of a large part of Punjab. The Rajput king of Mewar Rana Sanga was also asserting his authority against Ibrahim Lodi and was trying to increase his area of influence in north India. Both of them sent word to Babur to invade India. Invitations from Rana Sanga and Daulat Khan Lodi might have encouraged Babur's ambitions. Babur was successful in capturing Bhira (1519-1520), Sialkot (1520) and Lahore (1524) in Punjab. Finally, Ibrahim Lodi and Babur's forces met at Panipat in 1526. Babur's Soldiers

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i. His nobles and commanders were eager to return to Central Asia because they did not like the climate of India. Culturally also, they felt very alienated.

ii. Rajputs were rallying around under the leadership of Rana Sanga the king of Mewar and wanted to expel the Mughal forces

iii. The Afghans, though defeated at Panipat, were still a formidable force in eastern parts of UP, Bihar and Bengal. They were re-grouping to reclaim their lost powers. To begin with Babur convinced his companions and nobles to stay back and help in consolidating the conquered territories. After succeeding in this difficult task, he sent his son Humayun to face the eastern Afghans. Rana Sanga of Mewar succeeded to muster support of a large number of Rajput chiefs. Prominent among these were Jalor, Sirohi,

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Mughal nobility. iii. The Chaghatai nobles were not favourably inclined towards him and the Indian nobles, who had joined Babur's service, deserted the Mughals at Humayun's accession. iv. He also confronted the hostility of the Afghans mainly Sher Khan in Bihar on the one hand and Bahadurshah, the ruler of Gujarat, on the other.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Dungarpur, Amber, Merta etc. Medini Rai of Chanderi, Hasan Khan of Mewat and Mahmud Lodi younger son of Sikander Lodi also joined Rana with their forces. Possibly, Rana Sanga expected Babur to return to Kabul. Babur's decision to stay back must have given a big jolt to Rana Sanga's ambitions. Babur was also fully aware of the fact that it would be impossible for him to consolidate his position in India unless he shattered Rana's power. The forces of Babur and Rana Sanga met at Khanwa, a place near Fatehpur Sikri. Rana Sanga was defeated in 1527 and once again the superior military tactics of Babur succeeded. With the defeat of Rana the biggest challenge in north India was shattered. Though the Mewar Rajputs received great shock at Khanwa, Medini Rai at Malwa was still threatening to challenge the authority of Babur. In spite of great valour with which the Rajputs fought in Chanderi (1528), Babur faced little difficulty in overcoming Medini Rai. With his defeat, resistance across Rajputana was completely shattered.

But Babur had to tackle the Afghans. The Afghans had surrendered Delhi, but they were still powerful in the east (Bihar and parts of Jaunpur). The success against the Afghans and Rajputs at Panipat and Khanwa was very significant but the resistance was still present. However, these victories were a step forward in the direction of the establishment of Mughal empire. Babur died in 1530. Still the rulers of Gujarat, Malwa and Bengal enjoyed substantial military power and were not suppressed. It was left to Humayun to face these regional powers.

HUMAYUN'S RETREAT AND AFGHAN REVIVAL (1530-1540)

After the death of Babur in 1530, his son Humayun succeeded him. The situation under Humayun was quite desperate. The main problems faced by Humayun were: i. The newly conquered territories and administration was not consolidated.

ii. Unlike Babur, Humayun did not command the respect and esteem of

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v. As per the Timurid tradition Humayun had to share power with his brothers. The newly established Mughal empire had two centres of power - Humayun was in control of Delhi, Agra and Central India, while his brother Kamran had Afghanistan and Punjab under him.

Humayun felt that the Afghans were a bigger threat. He wanted to avoid a combined opposition of Afghans from east and the west. At that time Bahadur Shah had occupied Bhilsa, Raisen, Ujjain and Gagron and was consolidating his power. While Humayun was besieging Chunar in the east, Bahadur Shah had started expanding towards Malwa and Rajputana. In such a situation Humayun was forced to rush back to Agra (1532-33). Continuing his expansionist policy, Bahadur Shah attacked Chittor in 1534. Chittor had strategic advantage as it could provide a strong base. It would have helped his expansion in Rajasthan particularly towards Ajmer, Nagor and Ranthambhor. Humayun captured Mandu and camped there because he thought that from here he can block Bahadur Shah's return to Gujarat. Humayun's long absence from Agra resulted in rebellions in Doab and Agra and he had to rush back. Mandu was now left under the charge of Mirza Askari, the brother of Humayun. During the period when Humayun was busy in Gujarat to check Bahadurshah, Sher Shah started consolidating himself in Bihar and Bengal. Sher Shah wished to establish himself as the undisputed Afghan leader. He invaded the Bengal army and defeated them in the battle of Surajgarh. Sher Shah could extract quite a wealth from Bengal which helped him to raise a bigger army. Now he started attacking Mughal territories of Banaras and beyond. Humayun was quite suspicious of Sher Shah's ambitions but failed to estimate his capabilities. He asked

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Central Administration While displaying due deference to the Afghan socio-customs, Sher Shah had the foresight to realize that the Afghans must gradually be weaned away from a tribal and parochial outlook and trained to think in terms of an empire. He however, disfavoured the Mughal concept of delegating undue initiative and authority to the Wazirs. His ideal was to establish an undiluted despotism, where all power flowed from the monarch.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

his governor of Jaunpur, Hindu Beg to check the movements of Sher Shah. Meanwhile Sher Shah captured Gaur (1538) the capital of Bengal. While Humayun was moving towards Bengal Sher Shah took control of route to Agra making communication difficult for Humayun. On the other hand, Hindal Mirza, brother of Humayun, who was supposed to provide supplies for his army, declared his independence. Now, Humayun decided to return to Chunar. When he reached Chausa (1539), he encamped on the western side of the river Karmnasa. Sher Shah attacked Humayun at the bank of the river and defeated him. Sher Shah declared himself as an independent king. Humayun could escape but most of his army was destroyed. With difficulty he could reach Agra. His brother Kamran moved out of Agra towards Lahore leaving Humayun with small force. Sher Shah now moved towards Agra. Humayun also came forward with his army and the armies of the two clashed at Kannauj. Humayun was defeated badly in the battle of Kannauj (1540).

Second Afghan Empire (1540-1555)

After a gap of 14 years Sher Shah succeeded in establishing the Afghan rule again in India in 1540. Sher Shah and his successors ruled for 15 years. This period is known as the period of second Afghan Empire.

The founder of this Afghan rule Sher Khan was a great tactician and able military commander. We have already discussed his conflict with Humayun. After defeating Humayun he became sovereign ruler in the year 1540 and assumed the title of Sher Shah.

Sher Shah followed Humayun on his flight till Sindh in the North West. After expelling Humayun he started consolidating his position in Northern and Eastern India. He defeated and conquered Malwa in 1542 which was followed by Chanderi. In Rajasthan he led campaigns against Marwar, Ranthambhore, Nagor, Ajmer, Merta Jodhpur and Bikaner. He defeated rebellious Afghans in Bengal. By 1545 he had established himself as the supreme ruler from Sindh and Punjab to whole of Rajputana in the West and Bengal in the East. Now he turned towards Bundel Khand. Here while besieging the fort of Kalinjar he died in 1545 in an accidental blast of gun powder. During his brief rule Sher Shah introduced very important changes in administration and revenue system. The most important ones were:

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The Wazirs were substituted by a band of secretaries, who merely implemented the king's orders. The important secretaries were modelled after the system of the Delhi Sultans.

Diwani-i-Wizarat was headed by a Wazir who acted as the financial secretary. He looked after the departments of revenue, audits and account. Since Sher Shah possessed adequate knowledge of revenue affairs, he took special interest in this departments. Diwani-i-Ariz was looked after by Ariz-iMamalik. As the military secretary, he implemented emperor's military policy, particularly the framing of rues and the assignments of salaries. There was also Mir-iAtish in charge of artillery, who in rank was equivalent to the secretaries.

Diwan-i-Insha looked after the correct drafting of the imperial orders and the records of the government. Diwan-i-Qaza or the Chief Qazi constituted the highest criminal court in the realm.

Diwan-i-Rasalat or Muhatsib was incharge of the public trusts.

Barid-i-Mamalik was the head of the intelligence department and was obliged to report every important incident to the king. Under him, there were a number of news-writers and spies who were posted in all the towns and markets, including the series and every important locality, who fed the Sultan with the daily happenings of the empire.

Provincial Administration There was no clear demercation of either the provinces or the duties of the governor. Similarly, there is no mention of Subas. Considering that there ware provinces before and after Sher

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Shah's reign on the basis of historical continuity, there must have been provinces or Subas under Sher Shah. The only exception was Bengal, where the constant turmoil, convinced with of the futility of placing the province under the one individual. He, therefore, divided it into a number of divisions, under respective Jagirdars.

In each village, there was the hereditary office of the Muqaddam, Mukhiya or the head man, who acted as the chief link between the government and the village. He was responsible for the collection of the land-revenue from the villages and was also allowed a precentage of the collection. He was helped by a Patwari, an official, who was not appointed by the government but was maintained by the villagers. He was also the village record-keeper.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

No definite information, however, is available of Sher Shah's deliberate organization of the Provincial administration, though in a vast empire, Sher Shah with his flair for administration could not have overlooked the important of a well organized provincial administration as a link between the central and the local government.

the land-revenue. Besides, there was a Munsif or Amin, who supervised the measurement of the land and settled disputes regarding the size of the holdings. The interests of cultivators, their customs and practices, were protected by a semi-official Qanungo, the Pargana record keeper, whose office was usually hereditary. The Shiqdar was assited by two clerks known as Karkuns who kept the records in Hindi and Persion. The treasure and cash were kept by Khazanadar or Fotadar.

Administration At District Level And Below

A province comprised a number of Sarkars, which were further sub divided into Parganas. Here, Sher Shah seems to have retained the existing size of the Shiqas and the Parganas. The word Shiq came to be used under the Tughlaqs and denoted a sub-division of privince. There were two chief officers of the Sarkars as Chief Shiqdar or Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran and Chief Munsif r Munsif-i-Munsiftan. The Chief Shiqdar enjoyed tremendous prestige and power and the Faujdar of Akbar's reign was modelled on him. His chief duty was to maintain law and order in the district and he was given a respectable force to command. While he had no direct responsibility to collect the landrevenue, he was obliged to render assistance in securing the collection by using coercion, if necessary. Besides, he also supervised the work of the various Shiqdars in the Parganas.

The Munsif-Munsifan's primary function was to supervise the assessment and collection of revenue. He also supervised the work of the subordinate Munsifs. To prevent corruption and nepotism, they were transferred every year or two. Apart from these two officers, the chronicles do not mention any other officers. An administrative hierachy of the clerks and accountants, however, must have existed to render help. Each Sarkar comprised of a number of Parganas. The Shiqdar or Amil was incharge of the Pargana. But his chief function was to collect

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Military Organisation

Sher Shah initiated the practice f paying the soldiers fixed salaries from the treasury. In a bid to bring the soldiers in direct touch with himself, Sher Shah as their commander-in-chief and the pay master general, recruited soldiers himself and fixed their salaries after personally inspecting them. Sher Shah strictly enforced the Khilji policy of branding of horses (Dagh) and preparing descriptive rolls (Huliya) of the soldiers. He thus attempted to eliminate corruption by preventing the practice of proxy at the time of military review. The central army consisted of 1,50,000 cavalry, 50,000 infantry and an elephant force of 5,000. Sher shah's military set-up did not have a regular artillery. The army was posted in cantonments spread all over the country, of which Rohtas and Delhi were the most important. There is no contemporary mention of the details of the army divisions though one division (Fauj), was placed under Faujdar. Besides, these, additional troops were supplied by the provincial governors in times of emergencies.

Judicial System From the comparative silence of the contemporary chronicles it may be inferred that

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Sher Shah did not introduce any innovations in judicial department. Neverthless, his severe but just rule resulted in treating all, including his kith and kin, as equals before law.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

He held that, "justice is the most excellent of religious rites and it is approved both by the kings of the infides and the faithful" and consisted in giving fair and honest deal to all men. He made no difference between the high and the low or rich and the poor and imparted justice to all with equal vigour. Sher Shah himself acted as the highest court and personally decided the cases of nobles and high officials.

from Sultan to Sultan with the maximum ceiling at fifty per cent under Ala-ud-di Khilji. While the lack of a scientific method of assessment handicapped the peasants vis-a-vis the collectors, the system of granting Jagirs and assisgnments of revenue, further failed to promote any direct relations between the state and the peasant. The absence of any royal inclination towards the revenue affairs, only encouraged the hereditary class of revenue collectors, namely, the Muqaddams and Chowdharies, who were in sole possession of the revenue secrets, to misuse their power and practice corruption and atrocities on the peasants.

The civil cases of the Muslims were decided, as in the past, by the Kazi, Another officer, Mir Adl, is mentioned but his functions are not specified. The Criminal law was uniform and rigorously imposed. Robbers, thieves as also the oppressors of the cultivators were severely punished. Flogging, amputation of limbs and executions were freely imparted.

Police System

As for the police, there was no separate department. Sher Shah largely acted on the axiom of local responsibility for maintaining peace. The Shiqdars and the Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran were responsible for the maintenance of law and order in Parganas and Sarkars. Just as the village headmen were obliged to look after their areas.

The largest responsibility rested with the Muqaddams and Chowdharies, who were severely punished, in case they failed to detect the crimes.

Sher Shah thus attempted to involve the people at large in the maintenance of law and order in their regions.

Land Revenue System

Sher Shah's most striking contribution was made in the field of revenue.

The Turko-Afghan Sultans, with the exception of Tughlaqs, had formulated no deliberate principles of land revenue. Generally unconcerned with the production yield, standardisation of crops and welfare schemes for the peasants, the Sultans has confined their attention to a strict collection of the landrevenue. The incidence of the land-revenue varied

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Sher Shah, therefore, inherited the intricate problems of conciliating and structing the peasantry relations with the state and fixing a rational demand based on a correct assessment of the produce. Sher Shah, however, as the only sovereign who is known to have gained a practical experience in managing a small body of peasants before rising to the throne came with his scheme of revenue settlement ready made and successfully tested by experiment. It was but an extension of the system introductioned by him at Sasaram.

As a monarch, he unilatereally decided that the best system of assessment must be based on actual measurement. According, the empire was surveyed. In order to ensure the accuracy of measurement and honestry of collection he fixed the wages of the measurers and the collectors. The uniform system of measurement in spite of strong opposition from some quarters, was enforced all over the empire, with the exception of Multan where political turmoil could endanger the security of the State. But there too, a record was kept of the settlement made between the government and the cultivator, and the latter was given a title deed (Patta) in which conditions of the settlement were specifically stated.

According to the schedule of Sher Shah's assessment rates the revenue on perishable articles was fixed in cash rates, but for all the principal staple crops, the land was classified into three classes-good, middling and bad. After the average produce of the three was added, onethird of the total was taken as the average produce of each bigha for revenue purposes. Of this, one-third was demanded as the share of the government. It could be paid in cash or in kind though the former mode was preferred. In

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case of cash payments, the state demand was fixed according to the prices prevalent in the near markets and a schedule of crop of crop rates was preserved indicating the method and the rates of assessment.

Sher Shah not only took necessary measures to ameliorate the condition of the people but also paid attention to the promotion of education. He gave liberal grants to both the Hindu and Muslim educational institutions. The Hindus were free to regulate their educational institutions and Sher Shah did not interfere in their working. Similarly, the Muslim educational institution were mainly attached with mosques and imparted elementary education to the children. The taught Persian and Arabic. Sher Shah also established Madrasas for higher education. To help the poor and brilliant students he awarded liberal scholarships. Sher Shah also made liberal provisions for the support of blind, the old, the weak, widows etc.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The state gave a patta to each cultivator, which specified the state demand. He was also obliged to sign a qabuliat (deed of agreement) promising to honour the revenue due from him. Both the documents contained information on the size of the plot.

Promotion Of Education

Sher Shah's revenue settlement has been unanimously acclaimed. And it has been contended hat it provided the basis for Todar Mal's bandobust in Akbar's reign, as also for the Ryotwari system in British India. Notwithstanding its obvious strengths it would be unrealistic to describe his revenue settlement as a master-piece; for the system was not without defects.

Sher Shah was the first ruler who considered the welfare of the people as essential for the interests of the state. He was benign in times of drought and famine. The state, under such circumstances, would lend money and material to the cultivators. Besides, his standing instruction to the army not to damage any crops and in any damage, to adequately compensate.

Currency Reforms

He removed the currency which had debased under the later Turko-Afghan regimes and instead issued well executed coins of gold, Silver and Copper of a uniform standard. His silver rupee which weighed 180 grams and contained 175 grains of silver was retained throughout the Mughal period as also by the British East India Company, till 1885. Besides the coins of smaller fractions of a rupee, the copper coins too had fractions of half quarter, eighth and sixteenth.

Promotion Of Trade And Commerce

Sher Shah gave every possible encouragement to the trade and commerce and took a number of measures for this purpose. He did away with all the internal custom duties with the exception of the two. These two duties were charged at the time of entry of the goods in the kingdom and at the time of the actual sale. Foreign goods were permitted to enter Bengal duty free. Sher Shah paid special attention tot he safety and convenience of the merchants and had issued specific instructions to his officers in this regards.

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Religious Policy

Generally Sher Shah tried to keep religion ans politics separate and did not follow any systematic policy of prosecution as was done by the rulers of Delhi before him. On the whole his policy towards the Hindus was very tollerant. Sher Shah persued a liberal policy towards the Hindus without offending his Muslim subjects. Sher Shah believed that Islam should be given its due position of supremacy but this should not be done at the cost of regarding Hinduism. In those days, this attitude and policy was more useful and appropriate, according to which he (Sher Shah) could openly favour the Hindus without displeasing the Muslim as well.

Public Works

The building of a fresh net work of the roads ans serais all over the empire galvanished trade and tradesmen into action. Of his four great roads: (I) One ran from sonargaon in Bengal through Agra, Delhi and Lahore to the Indus ; (ii) from Agra to Mandu; (iii) from Lahore to Multan. Primarily planned for military purposes, they proved equally effective for the growth of trade ans commerce. Along both sides of these roads, Sher Shah ordered the planting of fruit trees and the sinking of fresh wells. Another important feature of the public works comprised the building of the Serais, which higherto were neither so well planned nor well spread. The Serais were fully furnished, with well equipped kitchens and cooks for both the Hindus and the Muslims. Sher Shah also repaired about 1,700 Caravan Serais for the efficiency of

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the royal posts. Soon, the Serais functioned as post offices and marketing centres and Sher Shah posted news-readers in the various Serais to keep abreast of the local gossip.

devoted to the task of the state and no military class to die for its defence. There was absolutely no discipline anywhere.

AKBAR CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL OF SUR EMPIRE

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The Sur empire founded by Sher Shah fell due to many causes. First, his successors were thoroughly incompetent and unfit to carry on his work of reconstruction. Islam Shah was responsible for the destruction of many of those nobles who had a lot under Sher Shah. Muhammad Adil was worse than his predecessor. He added to the discontentment prevailing among the Afghan chiefs. The rise of Hemu made them jealous.

Akbar was one of the greatest monarchs of India. He succeeded the throne after his father Humayun's death. But his position was dangerous because Delhi was seized by the Afghans. Their commander-in-Chief, Hemu, was in charge of it. In the second Battle of Panipat in 1556, Hemu was almost on the point of victory. But an arrow pierced his eye and he became unconscious. His army fled and the fortune favoured Akbar. The Mughal victory was decisive.

Secondly, in the time of Muhammad Adil, there were five Afghan rulers struggling for power. There was no national solidarity among the Afghans. They were quarreling among themselves. This spelled their ruin.

Thirdly, Sher Shah worked with the ideal of bringing about regeneration among the Afghans and did all that he could to bring them on a common platform. There was no such feeling among the Afghans chiefs or his successors. They all struggled for personal gain. Fourthly, the character of the Afghan deteriorated. They lost all sense of self-respect. They did not honour their sword. They did not attach importance to the sanctity of their word. Such a character can not create or maintain empire. Fifthly, the successors of Sher Shah ignored the lot of the peasantry. Nothing was done to protect them. The nobles became tyrants and crushed the people. Sixthly, the example of Sher Shah was forgotten. The forts which he built in various parts of the country for purposes of defence, became centres of michief and sedition. A lot of money was wasted on punitive expenditions and bootless skirmishes. There was no proper collection of revenues. The officers kept the same to themselves. Seventhly, the Afghans did not bother to give justice to the people. The latter were ruled in an arbitrary manner. All kinds of punishements were inficted on them. There was no regard for life or property. There was no bureaucracy

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During the first five years of Akbar's reign, Bairam Khan acted as his regent. He consolidated the Mughal empire. After five years he was removed by Akbar due to court intrigues and sent to Mecca. But on his way Bairam was killed by an Afghan. Akbar's military conquests were extensive. He conquered northern India from Agra to Gujarat and then from Agra to Bengal. He strengthened the northwest frontier. Later, he went to the Deccan.

Relations with Rajputs

The Rajput policy of Akbar was notable. He married the Rajput princess, the daughter of Raja Bharamal. It was a turning point in the history of Mughals. Rajputs served the Mughals for four generations. Many of them rose to the positions of military generals. Raja Bhagawan Das and Raja Man Singh were given senior positions in the administration by Akbar. One by one, all Rajput states submitted to Akbar. But the Ranas of Mewar continued to defy despite several defeats. In the Battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap Singh was severely defeated by the Mughal army led by Man Singh in 1576. Following the defeat of Mewar, most of the leading Rajput rulers had accepted Akbar's suzerainty. Akbar's Rajput policy was combined with a broad religious toleration. He abolished the pilgrim tax and later the jiziya. The Rajput policy of Akbar proved to be beneficial to the Mughal state as well as to the Rajputs. The alliance secured to the Mughals the services of the bravest warriors. On the other hand it ensured peace in Rajasthan and a number of

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Rajputs who joined the Mughal service rose to important positions.

Religious Policy

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Akbar rose to fame in the pages of history due to his religious policy. Various factors were responsible for his religious ideas. The most important among them were his early contacts with the sufi saints, the teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif, his marriage with Rajput women, his association with intellectual giants like Shaikh Mubarak and his two illustrious sons - Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl - and his ambition to establish an empire in Hindustan.

Mansabdari System Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration. Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles. Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks. The ranks were divided into two - zat and sawar. Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person. Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was required to maintain. Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses. The mansab rank was not hereditary. All appointments and promotions as well as dismissals were directly made by the emperor.

In the beginning of his life, Akbar was a pious Muslim. He abolished the pilgrim tax and in 1562, he abolished jiziya. He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods. Later, he became a skeptical Muslim. In 1575, he ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new capital Fatepur Sikri. Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism. He disliked the interference of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters. In 1579, he issued the "Infallibility Decree" by which he asserted his religious powers.

In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith. It believes in one God. It contained good points of all religions. Its basis was rational. It upholds no dogma. It was aimed at bridging the gulf that separated different religions. However, his new faith proved to be a failure. It fizzled out after his death. Even during his life time, it had only fifteen followers including Birbal. Akbar did not compel anyone to his new faith.

Land Revenue Administration

Akbar made some experiments in the land revenue administration with the help of Raja Todar Mal. The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast system. It was further improved by Raja Todar Mal. It was known as Dahsala System which was completed in 1580. By this system, Todar Mal introduced a uniform system of land measurement. The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the basis of past ten years. The land was also divided into four categories - Polaj (cultivated every year), Parauti (once in two years), Chachar (once in three or four years) and Banjar (once in five or more years). Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.

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JAHANGIR (1605-1627)

When Akbar died, prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of World) in 1605. Jahangir's rule witnessed a spate of rebellions. His son Khusrau revolted but was defeated and imprisoned. One of his supporters, Guru Arjun, the fifth Sikh Guru, was beheaded.

Nur Jahan

In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (Light of World). Her father Itimaduddauala was a respectable person. He was given the post of chief diwan. Other members of her family also benefited from this alliance. Nur Jahan's elder brother Asaf Khan was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for the nobles. In 1612, Asaf Khan's daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as Mumtaj), married Jahangir's third son, prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan). It was believed by some historians that Nur Jahan formed a group of "junta" and this led to two factions in the Mughal court. This drove Shah Jahan into rebellion against his father in 1622, since he felt that Jahangir was completely under Nur Jahan's influence. However, this view is not accepted by some other historians. Till Jahangir became weak due to ill health, he only took important political decisions. It is revealed from his autobiography. However, it is clear that Nur Jahan dominated the royal household and set new fashions based on Persian traditions. She encouraged Persian art and culture in the court. She was a constant companion of Jahangir and even joined him in his hunting. The rise of Shah Jahan was due to his

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personal ambitions. He rose in revolt against his father who ordered him to go to Kandahar. This rebellion distracted the activities of the empire for four years. After Jahangir's death in 1627, Shah Jahan reached Agra with the support of the nobles and the army. Nur Jahan was given a pension and lived a retired life till her death eighteen years later.

Deccan Policy The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar, who conquered Khandesh and Berar. Jahangir fought against Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar. During the Shah Jahan's reign, Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed an aggressive Deccan policy. When he became the Mughal emperor, for the first twenty five years, he concentrated on the northwest frontier. At that time, the Maratha ruler, Sivaji carved out an independent Maratha kingdom in the territories of north and south Konkan. To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur and Golkonda. He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and annexed his kingdom. Then, he proceeded against Golkonda and eliminated the Kutb Shahi dynasty. It was also annexed by him. In fact, the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms was a political blunder on the part of Aurangazeb. The barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas was removed and there ensued a direct confrontation between them. Also, his Deccan campaigns exhausted the Mughal treasury. According to J.N. Sarkar, the Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangazeb.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

SHAH JAHAN (1627-1658)

The Jats and Satnamis and also the Sikhs revolted against him. These revolts were induced by his harsh religious policy.

Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the northwest frontier to recover Kandahar and other ancestral lands. The Mughal army lost more than five thousand lives during the successive invasions between 1639 and 1647. Then Shah Jahan realized the futility of his ambition and stopped fighting.

His Deccan policy was more successful. He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and annexed it. Both Bijapur and Golkonda signed a treaty with the emperor. Shah Jahan carved four Mughal provinces in the Deccan - Khandesh, Berar, Telungana and Daulatabad. They were put under the control of his son Aurangazeb.

War of Succession

The last years of Shah Jahan's reign were clouded by a bitter war of succession among his four sons - Dara Shikoh (crown prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan) and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat). Towards the end of 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill at Delhi for some time but later recovered. But the princes started fighting for the Mughal throne. Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this struggle. He entered the Agra fort after defeating Dara. He forced Shah Jahan to surrender. Shah Jahan was confined to the female apartments in the Agra fort and strictly put under vigil. But he was not ill-treated. Shah Jahan lived for eight long years lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara. He died in 1666 and buried beside his wife's grave in the Taj Mahal.

AURANGAZEB (1658-1707)

Aurangazeb was one of the ablest of the Mughal kings. He assumed the title Alamgir, World Conqueror. His military campaigns in his first ten years of reign were a great success. He suppressed the minor revolts. But he faced serious difficulties in the latter part of his reign.

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Religious Policy

Aurangazeb was a staunch and orthodox Muslim in his personal life. His ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state. He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a high-powered officer called Muhtasib. Drinking was prohibited. Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned. Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court. He discontinued the practice of Jarokhadarshan. He also discontinued the celebration of Dasarah and royal astronomers and astrologers were also dismissed from service. Initially Aurangazeb banned the construction of new Hindu temples and repair of old temples. Then he began a policy of destroying Hindu temples. The celebrated temples at Mathura and Benares were reduced to ruins. In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and pilgrim tax. He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The celebration of Muharram was stopped. He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur. This had

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resulted in the transformation of Sikhs into a warring community. His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, the Marathas and Sikhs into the enemies of Mughal empire. It had also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis of Mewar. Therefore, Aurangazeb was held responsible for the decline of the Mughal empire.

Bold, brave and ferocious with a deep sense of loyalty towards their tribal organisation, the Jat peasantry was more akin to any martial community. They were notorious for cattle-lifting who frequently, raided the traders between Agra and Delhi. Confined to the not so fertile regions of west of Agra, they constituted the marginal sections of peasantry. Conseqeuntly, they always felt the economic pressure of the stringent Mughal measures for than their counterparts in the fertile regions of Punjab. Under Jahangir and Shahjahan too, they had deployed arms in order to express their economic discontentment. The situation worsened under Aurangzeb when Abdur Nabi, the Faujdar of mathura, through extreme stringency, successfully collected a sum of over thirteen lakhs for the state treasury. He also hurt their religious sentiments by building a mosque on the ruins of a Hindu temple. In 1669 A.D. the Jats under their leader Gokul, revolted. They killed the Faujdar and plundered the Pargana of Sadabad. The rebellion soon spread to other districts. Aurangzeb, furious, was determined to ruthlessly suppress the rebellion. Gokul and his limbs were publicly displayed. The Jats, however, remained defiant and in 1686 A.D. once again rose in revolt, under Rajaram. He too, was slain but his nephew, Churaman, continued the Jat resistance till Aurangzeb's death.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The Revolts Against Aurangzeb

Revolt of the Jats

The generally upheld view is that Aurangzeb's religious persecution of the Hindus alienated the various sections of the Hindu community who retaliated by resorting to arms. However, it would be a misnomer to group all the non-Muslim communities of Marathas, Rajputs, Bundelas, Sikhs and Satnamis under the same banner and term their uprisings as a Hindu reaction to Aurangzeb's policy of religious persecution. Firstly they had no common political aspirations that could bind them together. In fact, the marathas including Shivaji, hwn raiding the countryside proved equally ruthless towards the Hindus and the Muslims of Surat, Carnatic and Konkan. Of the Rajputs too, there is enough evidence to corroborate that Rani Hadi, at one stage was pliable to the imperial proposal of destroying the temples in the Jodhpur principality as the price for securing imperial support for Ajit Singh's candidature to the Jodhpur throne. Similarly, Raja Ram Singh, son of Jai Singh, did help the Mughals in destroying the temples. Religion undoubtedly was a contributory factor in alienating the Rajputs, as also the other Hindu communities. Primarily, however, it was Aurangzeb's failure to correctly appraise Shivaji's ability and inability to feel the deep sensitivity of the Rajput traditions that alienated these communities. Similarly, for the other communities, besides his anti-Hindu measures, there were political, social and economic factors of equal intensity that drove them into rebellion. As for Aurangzeb's operations within the narrow orthodox framework, it led him to interpret these uprisings as Hindu rebellions against the Muslim State and therefore, deserving of utmost ruthless punishment which in turn could refrain the other Hindu and Muslim subjects from indulging in similar activities as also impress the orthodox Muslims of the Emperor's sincerity towards Islam.

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Revolt of the Satnamis

They were a peasant religious brotherbood who resided in Narnol. Its other memebrs belonged to the low professions. Firmly united and militant, they never hesitated to use arms to aid the harassed members. Thus when a Satnami cultivator was killed by a Muslim soldier, the whole tribe arose to seek to seek revenge and broke into rebellion. When, of the Mughal efforts, they could not be quelled, the Mughals resorted to ruthless warfare. Over a thousand Satnamis were slain before peace was secured in the region. The Jats and the Satnamis revolts only convinced Aurangzeb of the disloyalty of the Hindus to the Mughals state who therefore needed to be ruthlessly suppressed. Moreover, it also convinced him that only the emergence of an Islamic state would reduce the Hindus to their proper place in State.

The Revolt of the Sikhs The Sikh organisation was founded by Guru Nanak, a devout social reformer, as a peaceful universal brotherhood which was free from the

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things-Kanghi (comb), Kachha (underwear), Kara (iron bangle), Kesh and Kirpan (sword). Henceforth, the Guru lived like a regal monarch, holding court, building forts with the help of his followers who were as zealously dedicated to the cause of Skihism as the soldiers of Islam. Their expansionist activities inevitably led ta a clash of arms with the Mughals. The Sikhs were defeated, his two sons were executed while the Guru ultimately escaped and settled at Anandpur. Aurangzeb, himself, fast approaching his end, felt remorsed. With no cause for further altercation, he promised the Guru an honourable reception. While the Guru, en route, received news of the Emperor's demise.

In the earlier years of Aurangzeb's reign, there was no conflict between Teg Bahadur and Aurangzeb. However once the Guru publicly condemned Aurangzeb's anti-Hindu measures as is clearly evident from the support that he rendered to the Hindu population of Kashmir, Aurangzeb became suspicious of the Guru's motives.

In his private life, Aurangazeb was industrious and disciplined. He was very simple in food and dress. He earned money for his personal expenses by copying Quran and selling those copies. He did not consume wine. He was learned and proficient in Arabic and Persian languages. He was a lover of books. He was devoted to his religion and conducted prayers five times a day. He strictly observed the Ramzan fasting.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

shackles of caste and community. Under the next three Gurus too, the community remained peaceful and enjoyed amicable relation with Akbar who granted Guru Ram Das a piece of land which became renowned as Amritsar. The fifth Guru, Arjan Singh, proved a more dynamic and zealous organiser. He wielded the community into one compact whole. He also the first Guru who actively participated in politics. Consequently, the Mughal-Sikh conflict can be traced to Jahangir's reign. He ordered Arjan Singh's execution. This was done on purely grounds for sheltering the fugitive Khusrav and in no way was it accompanied by the religious persecution of the Sikhs. Nevertheless, the act deeply embittered the Sikhs against the Mughals. Under their next leader, Har Gobind, the character of the Sikh movement, for the first time, became more militant, while its democratic social set up attracted the Jat peasantry in large numbers. Henceforth, any harshness towards the peasantry was regarded as an oppression by the Mughal state towards the Sikhs. The military character was further developed under Guru Teg Bahadur who in order to strengthen the Sikh interests encouraged the creation of a state within the state.

Their relation rapidly deteriorated and ultimately resulted in the gruesome murder of Teg Bahadur in 1675 A.D. According to the legendary sources, when his head was struck off, a paper was found containing the words Sir dia sar na dia (he gave his head but not his secret). While Guru Teg Bahadur's persecution was not accompanied by the annihilation of the sons; (Ram Rai continued to live at the Mughal court and his sons were granted mansabs). Nevertheless, his execution did horrify the country. The last Guru, Gobind Singh, was determined to militarily strengthen his community. To unite them, he formed the brotherhood of Khalsa which free of caste and creed, advocated equality of mankind. To this end, he initiated the practice of drinking water, conservated by a sword or dagger (Amrit chakna). To distinguish the member from other communities, they were asked to wear five

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Guru Govind Singh himself was murdered by an Afghan in 1708 A.D. The news of his murder once again created an explosive atmosphere in Punjab, a land which was hitherto clam. It also accentuated the anit-Muslim sentiments in the country and affected the peasants loyalty towards the Mughal empire. Guru Gobind's aspirations of founding a Sikh state were completed by Banda, who the Guru had nominated as his military successor.

Personality and Character of Aurangazeb

In the political field, Aurangazeb committed serious mistakes. He misunderstood the true nature of the Maratha movement and antagonized them. Also, he failed to solve the Maratha problem and left an open sore. His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates also proved to be a wrong policy.

His religious policy was also not successful. Aurangazeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim. But his move to apply his religious thought rigidly in a non-Muslim society was a failure. His antagonistic policies towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the Muslims to his side. On the other hand it had strengthened political enemies of the Mughal Empire. Deccan sultanates were partly due to his hatred of the Shia faith.

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ADMINISTRATION UNDER MUGHALS

IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

responsible for revenue and finances.Akbar had strengthened the office of diwan by entrusting the revenue powers to the diwan. The diwan used to inspect all transaction and payments in all departments and supervised the provincial diwans. The entire revenue collection and expenditure of the empire was under his charge. The diwans were to report about state finance to the Emperor on daily basis.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The Mughals retained many features of the administrative system of the Sultanate and Shershah .Under Shershah the administrative units of Pargana (a group of villages), sarkar (a group of parganas) and groups of sarkars (some what like subas or province) were placed under specific offices.The Mughals formalized a new territorial unit called suba. Institutions of Jagir and Mansab system were also introduced by the Mughals.Thus change and continuity both marked the Mughal administrative structure which brought about a high degree of centralisation in the system.

CHRONICLE

CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

(i) The Emperor

The Emperor was the supreme head of the administration and controlled all military and judicial powers.All officers in Mughal administration owed their power and position to the Emperor.The Emperor had authority to appoint, promote, and remove officials at his pleasure.There was no pressure institutional or otherwise on the Emperor. For smooth functioning of the empire a few departments were created.

(ii) Wakil and Wazir

The institution of Wizarat (or Wikalat since both were used interchangeably) was present in some form during the Delhi Sultanate also. The position of Wazir had lost its preeminent position during the period of Afghan rulers in the Delhi Sultanate. The position of the wazir was revived under the Mughals. Babur's and Humayun's wazir enjoyed great powers.The period during which Bairam Khan (1556-60) was regent of Akbar, saw the rise of wakil-wazir with unlimited powers. Akbar in his determination to curb the powers of wazir later on took away the financial powers from him.This was a big jolt to wazir's power.

(iii) Diwan-i-Kul Diwan-i Kul was the chief diwan. He was

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(iv) Mir Bakshi

Mir Bakshi looked after all matters pertaining to the military administration. The orders of appointment of mansabdars and their salary papers were endorsed and passed by him. He kept a strict watch over proper maintenance of the sanctioned size of armed contingents and war equipage by the mansabdars. The new entrants seeking service were presented to the Emperor by the Mir Bakshi.

(v) Sadr-us Sudur

The Sadr-us Sudur was the head of the ecclesiastical department. His chief duty was to protect the laws of the Shariat. The office of the Sadr used to distribute allowances and stipends to the eligible persons and religious institutions. It made this office very lucrative during the first twenty-five years of Akbar's reign. The promulgation of Mahzar in 1580 restricted his authority. According to Mahzar Akbar's view was to prevail in case of conflicting views among religious scholars.This officer also regulated the matters of revenue free grants given for religious and charitable purposes. Later several restrictions were placed on the authority of the Sadr for award of revenue free grants also. Muhtasibs (censors of public morals) were appointed to ensure the general observance of the rules of morality. He also used to examine weights and measures and enforce fair prices etc.

(vi) Mir Saman

The Mir Saman was the officer in-charge of the royal Karkhanas. He was responsible for all kinds of purchases and their storage for the royal household. He was also to supervise the

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manufacturing of different articles for the use of royal household.

provide reports directly to the Emperor.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION The provinces or subas were divided into Sarkars. The Sarkars were divided into Parganas. The village was the smallest unit of administration. At the level of Sarkar, there were two important functionaries, the faujdar and the Amalguzar. The Faujdar was appointed by the imperial order. Sometimes within a Sarkar a number of Faujdars existed. At times, their jurisdiction spread over two Sarkars even if these belonged to two different subas. Faujdari was an administrative division whereas Sarkar was a territorial and revenue division. The primary duty of the faujdar was to safeguard the life and property of the residents of the areas under his Jurisdiction. He was to take care of law and order problem in his areas and assist in the timely collection of revenue whenever force was required. The amalguzar or amil was the revenue collector. His duty was to assess and supervise the revenue collection. He was expected to increase the land under cultivation and induce the peasants to pay revenue willingly. He used to maintain all accounts and send the daily receipt and expenditure report to the provincial Diwan.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The Mughal Empire was divided into twelve provinces or subas by Akbar.These were Allhabad, Agra, Awadh, Ajmer, Ahmedabad, Bihar, Bengal, Delhi, Kabul, Lahore, Malwa and Multan. Later on Ahmednagar, Bearar and Khandesh were added. With the expansion of Mughal empire the number of provinces increased to twenty. Each suba was placed under a Subedar or provincial governor who was directly appointed by the Emperor. The subedar was head of the province and responsible for maintenance of general law and order. He was to encourage agriculture, trade and commerce and take steps to enhance the revenue of the state. He was also to suppress rebellions and provide army for expeditions. The head of the revenue department in the suba was the Diwan. He was appointed by the Emperor and was an independent officer. He was to supervise the revenue collection in the suba and maintain an account of all expenditures.He was also expected to increase the area under cultivation. In many cases advance loans (taqavi) were given to peasants through his office. The Bakshi in the province performed the same functions as were performed by Mir Bakshi at the centre. He was appointed by the imperial court at the recommendations of the Mir Bakshi. He was responsible for checking and inspecting the horses and soldiers maintained by the mansabdars in the suba. He issued the paybills of both the mansabdars and the soldiers. Often his office was combined with Waqainiqar. In this capacity his duty was to inform the centre about the happenings in his province.

The representative of the central Sadr (Sadrus sudur) at the provincial level was called Sadr. He was responsible for the welfare of those who were engaged in religious activities and learning. He also looked after the judicial department and in that capacity supervised the works of the Qazis. There were some other officers also who were appointed at the provincial level. Darogai-i-Dak was responsible for maintaining the communication channel. He used to pass on letters to the court through the postal runners (Merwars). Waqainavis and waqainigars were appointed to

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At the level of Pragana, the Shiqdar was the executive officer. He assisted the amils in the task of revenue collection. The amils looked after the revenue collection at the Pargana level. The quanungo kept all the records of land in the pargana. The Kotwals were appointed mainly in towns by the imperial government and were incharge of law and order. He was to maintain a register for keeping records of people coming and going out of the towns. The Muqaddam was the village head man and the Patwari looked after the village revenue records. The services of the Zamindars were utilized for the maintenance of law and order in their areas as well as in the collection of revenue. The forts were placed under an officer called Qiladar. He was incharge of the general administration of the fort and the areas assigned in Jagir to him. The port administration was independent of the provincial authority. The governor of the port was called Mutasaddi who was directly appointed by the Emperor. The Mutasaddi collected taxes on merchandise and maintained a customhouse. He also supervised the mint house at the port.

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MILITARY SYSTEM The Mughal emperors maintained a large and efficient army till the reign of Aurangzeb.The credit of organising the Mughal nobility and army systematically goes to Akbar. The steelframe of Akbar's military policy was the mansabdari system. Through it he set up a bureaucracy which was half-civil and halfmilitary in character.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The word mansab means a place or position. The mansab awarded to an individual fixed both his status in the official hierarchy and also his salary. It also fixed the number of armed retainers the holders of mansab was to maintain. The system was formulated to streamline rank of the nobles, fix their salary and specify the number of cavalry to be maintained by them. Under the mansab system ranks were expressed in numerical terms. Abul Fazl states that Akbar had established 66 grades of Mansabdars ranging from commanders of 10 horsemen to 10,000 horsemen, although only 33 grades have been mentioned by him.Initially a single number represented the rank, personal pay and the size of the contingent of the mansabdar. Later the rank of mansabdar came to be denoted by two numbers - Zat and-Sawar. The Zat denoted personal rank of an official and the Sawar indicated the size of contingents maintained by the mansabdars. Depending on the strength of contingent Mansabdars were placed in three categories. Let us take the example of a mansabdar who had a rank of 7000 zat and 7000 sawar (7000/7000). In the first Zat and Sawar ranks were equal (7000/7000). In the second, Sawar rank was lower than the Zat but stopped at half, or fifty percent, of the Zat rank (7000/4000). In the third, Sawar rank was lower than fifty percent of the Zat rank (7000/3000). Thus the Sawar rank was either equal or less than the Zat. Even if the Sawar rank was higher, the mansabdar's position in the official hierarchy would not be affected. It will be decided by the Zat rank.For example, a mansabdar with 4000 Zat and 2000 Sawar was higher in rank than a Mansabdar of 3000 Zat and 3000 Sawar. But there were exceptions to this rule particularly when the mansabdar was serving in a difficult terrian amidst the rebels. In such cases the state often increased the Sawar rank without altering the Zat rank. Some times Sawar rank was also increased for a temporary period to meet emergency situations.

Jahangir introduced a new provision in the Sawar rank. According to it a part of Sawar rank was termed du-aspa sih-aspa in case of select mansabdars. For this part additional payment at the same rate 8,000 dams per Sawar was sanctioned. Thus if the Sawar rank was 4000 out of which 1000 was du-aspa sih-aspa, salary for this Sawar was calculated as 3,000 × 8,000 + (1,000 × 8,000' × 2) = 40,000,000 dams.Without du-aspa sih-aspa, salary for the 4,000 Sawar would have stood at (4,000 × 8,000) = 32,000,000 dams. Thus the mansabdar was to maintain double number of Sawars for the du-aspa sihaspa category and was paid for it. Jahangir probably introduced this provision to promote nobles of his confidence and strengthen them militarily. By this provision he could increase the military strength of his nobles without effecting any change in their Zat rank. Any increase in their Zat rank would not only have led to jealously among other nobles but also an additional burden on the treasury.

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Shahjahan introduced the month-scale in the, mansabdari system to compensate the gap between Jama (estimated income) and hasil (actual realisation).The mansabaars were generally paid through revenue assignments Jagirs. The biggest problem was that calculation was made on the basis of the expected income (Jama) from the Jagir during one year. It was noticed that the actual revenue collection (hasil) always fell short of the estimated income. In such a situation, the mansabdar's salary was fixed by a method called monthscale. Thus, if a Jagir yielded only half of the Jama, it was called Shashmaha (six monthly), if it yielded only one fourth, it was called Sihmaha (three monthly). The month scale was applied to cash salaries also. There were deductions from the sanctioned pay also. During the reign of Shahjahan the mansabdars were allowed to maintain 1/5 to 1/3 of the sanctioned strength of the Sawar rank without any accompanying reduction in their claim on the maintenance amount for the Sawar rank. Aurangzeb continued with all these changes and created an additional rank called Mashrut (conditional). This was an attempt to increase the sawar rank of the mansabdar temporarily. Aurangzeb added one another deduction called Khurakidawwab, towards meeting the cost for feed of animals in the imperial stables.

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JAGIRDARI SYSTEM

The Jagirdars were allowed to collect only authorized revenue in accordance with the imperial regulations. The jagirdars employed their own officials like amil etc.The imperial office kept watch on the Jagirdars. The Diwan of the suba was supposed to prevent the oppression of the peasants by the Jagirdars. Amin was posted in each suba to see that Jagirdars were following imperial regulations. Faujdar used to help the Jagirdas if they faced any difficulty in the collection of revenue.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The system of assignment of revenue of a particular territory to the nobles for their services to the state continued under the Mughals also. Under the Mughals, the areas assigned were generally called Jagir and its holders Jagirdars. The Jagirdari system was an integral part of the mansabdari system which developed under Akbar and underwent certain changes during the reign of his successors. During Akbar's period all the territory wasbroadly divided into two: Khalisa and Jagir. The revenue from the first went to imperial treasury, and that from Jagir was assigned to Jagirdars in lieu of their cash salary. Salary entitlements of mansabdars were calculated on the basis of their Zat and Sawar ranks. The salary was paid either in cash (in that case they were called Naqdi) or through the assignment of a Jagir, the latter being the preferable mode. In case the payment was made through the assignment of a Jagir, the office of the central Diwan would identify parganas the sum total of whose Jama was equal to the salary claim of the mansabdars. In case the recorded Jama was in excess of salary claim the assignee was required to deposit the balance with the central treasury. On the other hand, if it was less than the salary claim the short fall was paid from the treasury.

Watan Jagirs were assigned to Zamindar or rajas in their local dominions. Altamgha Jagirs were given to Muslim nobles in their family towns or place of birth. Tankha Jagirs were transferable every three to four years. Watan Jagirs were hereditary and non transferable. When a Zamindar was made a mansabdar, he was given Tankha Jagir apart from his watan Jagir at another place, if the salary of his rank was more than the income from his watan Jagir.

However, none of the assignments was permanent or hereditary. The Emperor could shift part or the entire Jagir from one part of the imperial territory to another at any time. The ratio between Jagir and Khalisa kept fluctuating during the Mughal rule. During Akbar's period Khalisa was only 5% of total revenue, under Jahangir it was 10%, under Shahjahan it fluctuated between 9 to 15%. In the latter part of Aurangzeb's reign there was a great pressure on the Khalisa as the number of claimants for Jagir increased with the increase in the number of mansabdars. The jagirdars were also transferred from one Jagir to another (but in certain cases they were allowed to keep their Jagir in one locality for longer period of time). The system of transfer checked the Jagirdars from developing local roots. At the same time, its disadvantage was that it discouraged the Jagirdars from taking long term measures for the development of their areas. There were various types of Jagirs. Tankha Jagirs were given in lieu of salaries, Mashrut Jagirs were given on certain conditions, and

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RELIGION-DIN-ILLAHI

The Mughal rulers except Aurangazeb adopted a tolerant religious policy. Practically all-religious communities existed in India during the Mughal period. The Hindus, the Muslim, the Christians, the Buddhist, Sikhs, the Parsis and the Jains were the prominent religious communities among them. The Hindu constituted majority among the population while the ruling class belonged to the Muslims. Shershah, the forerunners of Akbar adopted a policy to religious toleration. Akbar was, however, the finest among the monarchs of medieval India who raised the policy of religious toleration to the Pinnacle of secularism. The socio political condition of the country was such that Akbar thought it advisable to adopt independent voices in religious matters. The non Muslim constituted the majority of his Indian subjects. Without winning their confidence and active support Akbar could not hope to establish and consolidate the Mughal Empire in India. Akbar did not discriminate between his subjects on the basis of religion. He abolished pilgrim tax through out his dominions close upon its heels Akbar took the most revolutionary step in 1564, in granting religious freedom to the Hindu; it was the abolition of Jaziya. This was a poll tax charged from the Hindus in their capacity as Zammis. Being a youth of courage and conviction he wiped out the traditional

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confined to one religious or creed like Islam Akbar gradually turned away from Islam and set up a new religion which was compounded by many existing religions - Hinduism, Christianity, Zorastrianism etc. However modern historians are not inclined to accept this view. The word used by Ahul Fazl for the so called new path was Tauhid-i-Ilahi which literally means Divine Monotheism. The word din or Faith was not applied to it till 8 years later. The Tauhid-i-Ilahi was really on order of the sufistic type. Those who were willing to join and those whom the emperor approved were allowed to become members. Sunday was fixed as the day for initialism.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

religious disability from which the Hindu subjects of the Muslim rulers been suffering since long. Sheik Mubarak a liberal minded scholar of Sufi, His son Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl influence Akber's religious policy greatly under their influence Akbar became all the more liberal and to grant towards people of diverse religious faith. He removed all restrictions on the construction and maintenance of Hindu temples, Churches and other places of worship. In order to please the Hindu subjects Akbar adopted their social customs and practices, mixed freely with them and appreciated their cultural values. Akbar wanted to create a spirit of love and harmony among his people by eliminating all racial, religious and cultural barriers between.In order to achieve this objective he ordered in 1575 the construction of Ibadat Khana - The house of worship at Fatehpursikri to adorn the spiritual kingdom. He initiated the practice of holding religious discourses there with the learned men and the saints of the age. To begin with Akbar used to invite only the Muslims theologians and saints, including the ulema, sheikhs, sayyadi etc to take part in these deliberations. But they failed to arrive at agreed opinion on many Islamic belief and practice and in the midst of deliberations on very sober and tought provocating aspects of divinity, displayed spirit of intolerance towards each other. The rival group of theologians drew their swords to settle the religious issues at stake. Akbar was shocked to witness the irresponsible behaviour of those self conceited greedy and intolerant Mullahs.In disgust he threw open the gates of the Ibadat Kaham to the priest and scholars of other religious faith including Hinduism, Jainism, Zorastrianism and Christianity. As a result of the religious discourses held at the Ibadat Khance. Akbar belief in the orthodox Sunni Islam was shaken. In 1579 a proclamation called the Mahzar, was issued. It recognized Akbar in his capacity as the just monarch and amir ul momnin to be the Imam-i-Adil viz.The supreme interpreter or arbitrator of the Islamic law in all controversial issues pertaining to ecclesiastical or civil matters. After the issue of Mahzar, religious discourse continued to be held at the Ibadat Khana.Akbar mixed freely with Muslim dovines, Sufi saints Hindu, mystics, and sanyasis and Jain scholars. As a result of this Akbar came to the conclusion that if some tree knowledge was thus everywhere to be found, why should truth be

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Din Ilahi was not a new religion Akbar's real objects was to unite the people of his empire into an integrate national community by providing a common religious cum spiritual platform or the meeting ground.Din Ilahi was a socioreligious association of like-minded intellectuals and saints. Akbar becomes the spiritual guide of the nation.The members of the Din Ilahi abstained form meat as far as possible and do not dine with or use the utensils of the butchers, fishermen, did not marry old women or minor girls. The members were to greet each other with the words Allah-u- Akbar or God is great. The number of persons who actually joined the order was small, many of them consisting of personal favourites of Akbar. Thus the order was not expected to play an important political role. The Din Ilahi virtually dies with him. Principles of Tawahid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-Ilahi aimed at achieving a synthesis of all religions, Akbar's Din-i-llahi's major principles include: (i) God is great (Allah-o-Akbar)

(ii) Initiations would be performed on Sunday.

(iii) The novice would place his head at the emperor's feat. The emperor would raise him up and give him the formula (Shast). (iv) The initiates would abstain from meat as far as possible and give a sumptuous feast and alms on their birthday. (v) There would be no sacred scriptures, place of worship or rituals (except initiation).

(vi) Every adherent should take oath of doing well to everybody.

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(vii) Followers should show respect to all religions.

Unorthodox Religious Thought

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Akbar's efforts at social reform are also noteworthy. He raised the age of marriage. He even tried to makl education broad-based and secular. Jahangir and Shah Jahan pursued the same toleran policy though at times there were aberrations. Aurangzeb was a staunch Sunni but he was intolerant of other faith. He reversed the policy of Akbar, and this partly led to the decline of Mughal power after his death.

towards the end of the first millennium after the hijra. This tradition lay behind the compilation of an important historical work of Akbar's reign, Tarikh-i-Alfi, which, however, was left incomplete. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, a pupil of the Naqshbandi saint Khwaja Baqi Billah, who died in Delhi towards the close of Akbar's reign, was known as Mujaddid alf sani (reformer of the second millennium).

RELIGIOUS THOUGHT ABUL FAZL

Orthodox Religious Thought

Akbar's religious experiments had no impact on the Muslim masses among who he made no attempt to propagate the Tauhit-i-Ilahi. A Mulslim revivalist movement began in the closing years of his reign under the leadership of the Naqshbani Sufis. They supported jahangir's accession to the throne, The Sunni orthodoxy sponsored by them was patronised by Shah jaha. it was also an important factor in Aurangzeb's victory over Dara who weakened himself politically by his efforts to revive Akbar's eclecticism. Aurangzeb's accession heralded the final triumph of Sunni orthodoxy. Among the Shias there was a general belief that the Hidden Imam, al-Mahdi, would reappear, restore the purity of Islam, and reestablidh justic, peace and prosperity. This expectation of the establishment of the kingdom of God on earth was shared by the Sunnis despite their differences with the Shias about the succession to the Imamate (Caliphate).

From time to time bold impostors arose and laid claim to Mahdiship. This is known as the mahdavi movement. One such pretender, Ruknuddin of Delhi, was put to death by Firuz Shah Tughluq. Nearly a century later Sayyid Muhammad of Jaunpur claimed to be the Mahdi, incurred the displeasure of Sultan Mahmud Shah I of Gujarat, and was banished to Mecca. His teachings were imbibed by Mian Abdullah Niyazi and Shaikh Alai who were suppressed by Islam Shah Sur. The Mahdavi movement practically fizzled out in the second half of the sixteenth century. Abul Fazl represented Akbar as a mujaddid (religious reformer). According to an Apostolic tradition a mujaddid was expected to appear

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During the Mughal period the Chishti school of Sufis lost ground and it produced no outstanding saint who could reinvigorate its teachings. Due to aloofness from politics and administration it was also out of tune with the prevailing political and social conditions.

The Naqshbandi school attached itself closely to the court and the mobility and degraded Sufism to the Status of a nandmaid of orthodox Islam. Its programme took and aggressive form in the nobles of the imperial court and gave wide currency-throuth tracts and letters-to the idea that Akabar's liberal policy had polluted the purity of Islam and led to the political, social and cultural degeneration of Muslims. He aimed at purging which appeared to be un-Islamic. His techings were not confined to the reform of Islam; he advocated a crusade against the Hindus. Shah Jahan was an orthodox Sunni, but his favourite eldest son Dara was a believer in Akbbar's eclecticism. During the latters reigh the conflict between orthodoxy and mysticism continued. It was resolved in favour of the orthodox Sunni School of thought through war of succession which saw Aurangzeb ascend the throne. Before and after his accession to the throne Aurangzeb maintained contact with Khwaja Muhammad Masum, son of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. On the other hand Darda and Jahanara were disciples of a Qadiri Sufi saint, Mulla Shah, a persian well known for religious tolerance.

The Qadiri school of Sufis found a foothold in Iindia in Adbar's reign. Its principal centre was Uch in Sind. One of the early advocates of its teachings in India was Shaikh Abdul a wellknown theological scholar Haq of Delhi and contemporary of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Mir Muhammad, better known as main Mir, who lived at lahore and was a highly respected fiend of the Sikha was also a member of this School.

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Aurangzeb's religious and political ideas were totally irreconcilable with the mysticism and liberalism generally associated with Sufism. he ruled according to the shariat and this necessitated codification of its principles in a rigid form (Fatawa-i-Alamgiri).

Abdul Fazl's Background

Khudkashta : Those peasants living in their own villages, owning their own lands and implements. Two obligations to the statepayment of revenue regularly and cultivation of his land. Some of them rented out their spare lands and implements to the other two categories. They were called mirasdars in Maharashtra and gharuhala or gaveti in Rajasthan. Their economic and social superiority over the other two categories of peasants. Economic superiority since they paid only the customary revenue to the state and not any other tax as was paid by the other two categories. Social superiority due to their land ownership rights, and being the core of the village community.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The most important historical writer of the age of the great Mughals is Abul Fazl Allami. Born in 1550, he was murdered at the instigation of prince Salim in 1602. his father, Shaikh Mubarak, was a famous scholar and sufi; he played an important role in the development of Akbar's religious views and policy. his brother Faizi was a poet laureate in Akbar's court. He was himself a first-rate scholar and writer, a firm believer in eclecticism, an able and loyal servant of the state, a man of extraordinary industry, and an intimate friend of Adber.

ECONOMY

Commissioned by the Emperor to write a history of his reign, he produced two outstanding works. His narration of facts and his chronology are generally accurate. But his style, though brilliant, is too rhetorical and involved to made a direct appeal to the reader. It is also marked by the flattery of his patron whom he considered a superman. On the whole, Abul Fazl connot be regarded as a fully objective and impartial historian.

His Writings and Historiography

Abul Fazl's Akbarnama is a voluminous work. After narrating the history of the Mughal royal family form Timur to Humayun, it deals with the history of Akbar's reign, year by year, down to 1602. It explains the reasons behind the measures taken by the Emperor and covers every aspect of the history of the period. Inayatullah's Takmil-i-Akbarnama is a cotinuation of Abul Fazl's work carrying down the narrative to Akbar's death. Abul Fazl's Ain-i-Akbari is the principal source for Akbar's administratice institution. It deals primarily with Akbar's regulations in all departments and on all subjects and includes, besides some extraneous matter, a valuable and minute statistical account of his empire with historical and other notes.

There is a collection of Abul Fazl's letters (Ruqqat-i-Fazl) to akbar and members of the imperial family. This collection has been useful in throwing light on several historical events.

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Pahis : Those who were basically outsiders but cultivated the rented lands in a village either while staying in the neighbouring village or by staying in the same village. Their division into two groups: non-residential pahis and residential pahis. The former came from the neighbouring villages and cultivated the rented lands without constructing residences in that village. The latter came from the far-off vllages and cultivated the rented lands by constructing the residences in the village. The residential pahis could transform themselves into khudkashta, if they had their own implements, possession of implements being more important than that of lands, which were in abundance. They were known as uparis in Maharashtra. Muzariyams : Those who belonged to the same village, but who did not have either lands or implements and hence wee heavily dependent on the khudkashta for their supply. Their division two groups; tenants-at-will and those who had hereditary tenant rights. They formed the poorest section of the peasantry and can be compared with the share croppers of the later period.

CONDITION OF ZAMINDARS

Autonomous Zamindars : They were the hereditary rulers of their respective territories. Economically and militarily they formed a formidable class. They could be divided into three groups on the basis of the overlordship of the Mughals over them- those who joined Mughal imperial over them- those who joined Mughal imperial service and were granted

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mansabs and jagirs; those who did not join Mughal service and hence were not given mansabs and jagirs, but had the obligations of rendering military service to the Mughals when called upon to do so; and those who never rendered military service but paid tributes and personal homage to the Mughals. The Mughals normally did not interfere in the internal affairs of these autonomous zamindars.

Slow Growth : Agriculture was carried on in the same way as in the ancient times, there being little change in the methods of cultivation and agricultural implements. Despite the expansion in the area under cultivation, the growth in agricultural production was quite slow, i.e., it was not able to keep in pace with the growth in the needs of the people as well the state.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Intermediary Zamindars : Those who had ownership rights over his personal lands but had only zamindari rights, i.e., hereditary right to collect revenue from the peasants for the state, over a wider area. For this service to the state, they were entitled for a portion of the surplus produce. They formed the back-bone of Mughal revenue administration.

Irrigation : During Akbar's reign, Firoz Shah's Yamuna canal was repaired for the first time. Under Shah Jahan it was reopened from its mouth at Khizrabad to serve Delhi and came to be known as the Nahr-i-Bihisht (Channel of Heaven). It was also used for irrigation.

Primary Zamindars : Those who had ownership rights over his personal lands and zamindari rights over his zamindari, butdid not perform the hereditary function of collecting revenue for the state. He got only his malikana or customary share of the surplus produce, but not the nankar or additional share of the surplus produce, which he could have got if he had performed his hereditary function.

Thus, the rights of the zamindars co-existed with those of the state and the actual producer. The economic condition of the zamindars as a class was much better than that of the peasantry. Bigger zamindars led as ostentatious a life as the nobles, but the smaller zamindars lived more or less like the peasantry.

STATE OF AGRICULTURE

Main Crops : Foreign travellers' accounts as well as the Ain-i-Akbari show that cereals, millets, oil-seeds, sugarcane, cotton, hemp, indigo, poppies and betel were grown extensively. Ajmer sugarcane was perhaps the best in quality in the 16th century. European demand resulted in a tremendous increase in indigo production in India, centered in Sarkhij (Gujarat) and Bayana (near Agra). Tobacco, which was brought to the Mughal court from Bijapur during Akbar's reign and the smoking of which was prohibited by Jahangir, became a very valuable crop and was extensively cultivated. Chilli as well as potato were introduced in India by the Portuguese, while Babur brought many Central Asian fruits with him.

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Causes : This slow growth or near stagnation in agricultural production (in comparison with the rapidly increasing requirements of the time) was due to certain factors- lack of new methods of cultivation to counter the trend of declining productivity of the soil; increased amount of land revenue; the attempts of the zamindars and the upper caste and rich peasants to prevent the lower castes and the rural poor from settling new villages and thus acquiring proprietary rights in land; the jajmani system, a reciprocal system that existed in rural India, encouraged production mainly meant for local consumption and not for the market.

GROWTH IN TRADE

Urbanisation : The Mughals, forming the main part of the ruling class and being outsiders, found it convenient to settle down in towns and cities, rather than in villages where they would be treated as aliens. Unlike the British of the later period, they made India their home and spent all their income in India itself particularly in the towns and cities, by encouraging handicrafts, art and architecture, literature, and the like.

Traders and Merchants : Economically and professionally, this was a highly stratified class. Economically, they could be divided into big business magnates owning hundreds of ships, rich merchants and traders of towns, and petty shopkeepers. Professional specialisation was prevalent in the form of wholesale traders, retail traders, banjaras or those specialised in the carrying trade, shroffs or those specialised in banking, etc. The shroffs developed the institution of hundis or bills of exchange. Big and rich merchants lived in an ostentatious manner

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and aped the manners of the nobles. But small merchants lived a simple life.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Though European novelties were very popular with the Mughal aristocracy, the same cannot be said about their mechanical inventions. But what is interesting is the request made by Bhimji Parikh, a broker of the English East India Company, for a printing press possibly to print his bills. Though a printer was accordingly sent in 1671, the experiment was not a success and no further information on Parikh's pioneering efforts at printing in India are available.

copper, with its half, quarter, eighth and sixteenth parts. These two new coins were subsequently known as the rupee and the dam. The second innovation saw a large increase in the number of the mints: at least twenty three mint names appear on the Sur coins. Genuine gold coins of the Sur kings are exceedingly rare. The rupees are fin broad pieces; the obverse follows the style of Humayun's silver; the reverse bears the Sultan's name in Hindi, often very faulty. In the margin are inscribed the special titles of the Sultan, and sometimes the mint. On a large number of both silver and copper coins no mint name occurs.

Others : The class of officials ranged from big mansabdars to ordinary soldiers and clerks. Other urban groups or classes included those of the artisans, handicraftsmen, teachers and doctors.

Causes for Growth of Trade • Political and economic unification of the country under Mughal rule and the establishment of law and order over extensive area. •

Improvement of transport communications by the Mughals.

and

•

Encouragement given by the Mughals to the monetisation of the economy or the growth of money economy.

•

Arrival of the European traders from the beginning of the 17th century onwards and the growth of European trade.

Items of Trade and Commerce

Exports : Textiles, especially various kinds of cotton fabrics, indigo, raw silk, salt petre, pepper, opium and various kinds of drugs and miscellaneous goods.

Imports : Bullion, horses, metals, perfumes, drugs, China goods especially porcelain and silk, African slaves and European wines.

COINS OF SURS AND MUGHALS

Sur Coinage : Sher Shah was ruler of great constructive and administrative ability, and the reform of the coinage, though completed by Akbar, was in a great measure due to his genius. His innovations lay chiefly in two directions : first, the introduction of a new standard of 178 grains for silver, and one of about 330 grains for

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Mughal Coinage

The importance attached to the currency by the Mughal emperors is revealed in the accounts given by Akbar's minister, Abul Fazl, in the Aini-Akbari, and by Jahangir in his memoirs, the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, and by the number of references to the subject by historians throughout the whole period. From these and from a study of the coins themselves scholars have collected a mass of materials, from which it is now possible to give a fairly comprehensive account of the Mughal coinage. Abul Fazl and Jahangir mention a large number of gold and silver coins, varying from 2,000 tolahs to a few grains in weight. Gigantic pieces are also mentioned by Manucci, Hawkins and others; and Manucci says that Shah Jahan 'gave them as presents to the ladies'. They were also at times presented to ambassadors, and appear to have been merely used as a convenient form in which to store treasure. Types of Coins : The standard gold coin of the Mughals was the muhar, of about 170 to 175 grains, the equivalent of nine rupees in Abul Fazl's time. Half and quarter muhars are known to have been issued by several emperors, and a very few smaller pieces, also. The rupee, adopted from Sher Shah's currency, is the most famous of all Mughal coins. The name occurs only once, on a rupee of Agra minted in Akbar's forty-seventh regnal year. Halves, quarters, eighths and sixteenths were also struck. In Surat the half rupee appears to have been in special demand. In addition to the regular gold and silver currency, special small pieces were occasionally struck for largess; the commonest of these is the nisar, struck in silver by Jahangir, Shah Jahan

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and Aurangzeb. Jahangir also issued similar pieces, which he called nur afshan and khair qabul.

The tomb of Humayun at Delhi is one of the earliest of Akbar's buildings. It was designed after Timur's tomb at Samarkhand and represented a striking departure from the traditional Indian style. It was surrounded by a large geometrical garden and enclosed by a high wall.The Red Fort at Agra which contained as many as 500 buildings of red sandstone was another outstanding achievement of Akbar in the field of architecture. The Jahangiri Mahal and Akbari Mahal located within the Agra Fort were designed and built by Indian craftsmen who were experts in the construction of Hindu temples and Buddhist Viharas.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The Mughal copper coinage is based on Sher Shah's dam which with its half, quarter and eighth, continued to be struck until the fifth year of Aurangzeb. The name dam occurs only once on a half dam of Akbar. The usual term employed is fulus (copper money) or sikkah fulus (stamped copper money). The name nisfi (half dam), damra (quarter dam), damri (one eighth of a dam) also appear on Akbar's copper.

construction of his edifices and monuments. It may also be noted that, unlike Shah Jahan who had an attraction for white marble for the construction of his buildings, Akbar preferred red sandstone.

Main features : Perhaps the most distinctive feature of the Mughal coinage is the diversity of mints. Akbar's known mints number seventy six. Copper was struck in fifty nine of these, the largest number recorded for any emperor, while silver is known from thirty nine. Aurangzeb's conquests in the Deccan raised the silver mints to seventy, whereas copper mints sank to twenty four.

Such was the coinage of the Great Mughals. Considering it as the output of a single dynasty, which maintained the high standard and purity of its gold and silver for three hundred years, considering also its variety, the number of its mints, the artistic merit of some of its series, the influence it exerted on contemporary and subsequent coinages, and the importance of its standard coin-the rupee- in the commerce of today, the Mughal currency surely deserves to rank as one of the great coinages of the world.

MUGHAL ART

The Mughal emperors were great builders and they constructed many noble edifices and monuments. The Indo-Muslim style of architecture gained remarkable progress. Babar himself was a patron of art, even though he had a poor opinion of Indian artists and craftsmen. Agra was rebuilt and beautified and gardens were laid out. Humayun had little time to engage himself in artistic activities; but a mosque of his is still seen in Punjab decorated in Persian style. In the reign of Akbar, Mughal architecture reached a high level of perfection.The emperor took keen interest in buildings. In the words of Abul Fazl, "He planned splendid edifices and dressed the works of his mind and heart in garments of stone and clay". He favoured both the Hindu and Persian styles of architecture.At the same time; he borrowed artistic ideas from a variety of sources and applied them in the

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The greatest achievement of Akbar as a builder was the city of Fatehpur Sikri. Sr. Smith has observed that "nothing like Fatehpur Sikri ever was created or can be created again".He calls it a "romance in stone", while Fergusson finds in it "the reflex of the mind of a great man".The city of Fatehpur Sikri is a cluster of religious edifices and residential mansions built mainly of red sandstone.The Jam-i-Masjid built after the model of the mosque at Mecca is considered to be the glory of Fatehpur Sikri and is one of the largest mosques in India.The Buland Darwaza which is 176 ft. high is a landmark of the city. It is the highest gateway in India and one of the biggest of its kind in the world. The tomb of the Sufi saint Shaik Salim Chishti specially built of white marble is another star attraction at Fatehpur Sikri.It contains carvings noted for "the richness and delicacy of details".The house of Birbal, a double-storeyed building which has been lavishly decorated, combines within itself the best features of the Hindu and Muslim style of architecture. The Diwan-i-Khas which accommodated Akbar's household has an architectural beauty of its own. Its ornamental work is exceedingly delicate.The Diwan-i-Am is also a richly carved edifice.Akbar used to sit in its balcony whenever he held his Durbar.In addition to the buildings mentioned above, there are other important buildings also at Fatehpur Sikri, viz., the, Panch Mahal, the house of Mariam, Turkey Sultan's building, Hathi Pole (the Elephant Gate), Hiran Minar, etc. Jahangir who was more interested in fine arts and gardening did not take much interest in

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buildings.Still his reign is noted for two remarkable edifices, viz., Akbar's tomb at Sikandra and the tomb of Itimad-ud-daulah, the father of Nurjahan, at Agra.The former building shows a combination of Hindu and Muslim styles while the latter is the first full edifice built entirely of white marble in the Mughal period.

With the accession of Aurangzeb the Mughal style of architecture declined. The emperor, being economy-minded, built only very little. The best of his buildings was the Badshahi mosque at Lahore which was completed in 1764. Though not of much architectural value, it is noted for its great size and sound construction. Aurengzeb also built a mosque with lofty minarets on the site of the Viswanatha temple at Benares and another one at Mathura at the site of the Kesava Deva temple.His own tomb which he built at Aurangabad is also a notable specimen of Mughal architecture.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The reign of Shah Jahan was the Golden Age of Mughal architecture. It may be noted at the outset that his architecture is different from that of Akbar in some of its features. He preferred white marble to red sandstone which was favoured by Akbar.Percy Brown even calls Shah Jahan's reign "a reign of marble". His buildings have some of the finest inlay work in the world. The carvings are richer and more delicate. Though both Hindu and Muslim styles continued to influence the artist there is much less evidence of mixture of the two styles in the architectural works of Shah Jahan than in those of Akbar or Jahangir. One of the earliest architectural works of Shah Jahan was the Red Fort which he built in the new city of Shajahanabad near Delhi.It was modeled after the Agra Fort and contained 50 palaces, the most notable among them being the Moti Mahal, Sheesh Mahal and Rang Mahal. The Juma Masjid at Delhi and the Moti Masjid at Agra are massive structure noted for the architectural grandeur. The former was built by Shah Jahan for the ceremonial attendance of himself and the members of his court.

of the Jamuna in the early morn, in the glowing mid-day sun or in the silver moonlight".The Taj has survived to this day as the king of all buildings in India and the most splendid monument of conjugal love and fidelity in the world.

The Moti Masjid was built by the emperor in honour of his daughter Jahanara and is one of the most beautiful mosques in the world.Shah Jahan also built at Lahore certain buildings like the tombs of Jahangir, Nur Jahan, and Ali Mardan Khan and they are also typical examples of Mughal architecture. The most outstanding of Shah Jahan's edifices is the world famous Taj Mahal built by him at Agra as a mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz Mahal.Built of pure white marble it has won praise from all quarters.It has been variously described by art critics as a "dream in marble designed by Titans and finished by jewelers", "a white gleaming tear drop on the brow of time" and "India's noblest tribute to the grace of Indian womanhood". The Taj is supposed to have been built at enormous cost spread over a period of 22 years. A unique feature of the building is that its colour changes in the course of the day and in moonlight. An admirer of the Taj even said of it that "it is Mumtaz Mahal herself, radiant in her youthful beauty, who lingers on the banks

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Painting had made tremendous progress in India prior to the coming of the Turks in India and as Hinduism and Buddhism spread over apart of Asia, it penetrated in other countries through them and influenced the art of painting there. But during the period of the Delhi Sultanate it practically vanished in larger parts of India because the Turk and Afghan rulers prohibited it in deference to the direction of Koran. But, the Mughal emperors revived this art and once again it reached the stage of perfection. The Mughal school of painting represents one of the most significant phases of Indian art. In fact, the school developed as a result of happy blending of Persian and Indian painting both of which had made remarkable progress independently of each other. Babur and Humayun came in contact with Persian art and tried to introduce it in India.Babur and Humayun did not accept the prohibition of Islam concerning the art of painting. When Humayun got shelter in Persia, he came in contact with two disciples of the famous Persian painter Bihzed namely Abdul Samad and Mir Sayyid. He invited them to come to him. Both of them joined him when he reached Kabul and came to India along with him. Humayun and Akbar took lessons in painting from Abdul Samed. But, it was just the beginning. When Akbar became the emperor, he encouraged painters at his court and helped in

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the works taken up by the artists during the lifetime of his father. He rewarded the artists well. Abul Hasan was given the title of Nadir-u-Zaman while Mansur was titled Nadir-u-Asar. Besides, from his prominent court artists were Aga Raza, Muhammad Nadir, Muhammad Murad, Bishan Das, Manohar, Madhav, Tulsi and Govardhan. Shah Jahan was more interested in architecture than painting. Yet, he provided patronage to painting. The art of colourcombination and portrait suffered but the art of designing and pencil drawing developed during the period of his rule. But, the number of painters reduced at his court and therefore the art certainly declined during his rule. Among the renowned painters at his court were Fakir Ullah, Mir Hasim, Anup, Chittra, etc.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

the growth of this art. He established separate department of painting under Abdul Samad and ordered to prepare painting not only on the books which was the usual practice so far but also to prepare frescoes on palace-wall in Fatehpur Sikri. He invited renowned painter from China and Persia, employed the best talents of the country at his court, assigned them work according to their individual taste and aptitude and provided them all facilities to make use of their capabilities. These facilities provided by Akbar helped hundred of artists to grow and mature their art, resulted in the reparation of thousands for painting and in the formation of that school of painting which we now call the Mughal school of painting. There were atleast one hundred good painters at his court among whom seventeen were prominently recognised by the emperor. Many of them were Persian but, a number of them were Hindus. Abdul Samad, Farrukh Beg, Jamshed, Daswant, Basawan, Sanwalds, Tarachand, Jagannath, Lal Mukand, Harivansh etc. were among the most prominent painters at his court. Thus, the credit of origin of the mughal school of painting goes to Akbar. He also the way of its growth. Jahangir was not only interested in painting but was also its keen judge. Mughal painting marked the zenith of its rise during the perod of his rule. Jahangir established a gallery of painting in hos own garden. Surely, there must have been other galleries as well in other palaces.

The cause of the progress of painting during the reign of Jahangir was not only this that he was interested in it and patronized artists at his court because he himself possessed knowledge of that art. he wrote in his biography, Tuzuk-iJahangire : As regards myself, my liking for painting and my practice in judging it have arrived at such a point that when any work is brought before me, either of deceased artist or of those of the present day, without the names being told to me, I can say at spur there be a picture containng many portraits and each face be the work of a different master, I can discover which face is the work of each of them. If any peson has put in the eye and eyebrow of a face, I can perceive whose work is the original face and who has painted the eye and eyebrows.

We may regard this statement of Jahangir as an exaggeration, yet we have to accept that the emperor was not only interested in painting but also a good judge of the art. Jahangir attracted many artists at his court. He also got completed

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Aurangzeb withdrew the royal patronage which was given to the artists. He turned them out of his court and even destroyed certain paintings because the practice of this of this art was prohibited by Islam. The art of painting, thus suffered at the court of this mughal. But it brought out some advantages indirectly. The painters dismissed from the emperor's court found shelter in the courts of different Hindu and Muslim provincial rulers. It resulted in the growth of different regional schools of art and brought this art closer to the people.

Among the Later Mughal emperors, a few tried to encourage painting but they lacked sufficient resources. Thus, the mughal school of painting received a serious setback after the rule of Shah Jahan and continued to deteriorate afterwards. During the later part of the eighteenth centruy it was influenced by the European painting which harmed it further and it lost its originality.

COURT CULTURE-MUSIC, DANCE

The Mughals appreciated music.Babur is said to have composed songs.Akbar was a lover of music. His court was adorned by famous musicians like Tansen of Gwalior and Baz Bahadur of Malwa. Shah Jahan was fond of vocal and instrumental music. The two great Hindu musicians of his time were Jagannath and Janardhan Bhatta. But Aurangzeb who was a puritan dismissed singing from his court. However, ironically, the largest number of books on classical music was written in his reign.

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Development Of Music During The Mughal Period

Babur was a scholar. He wrote his biography Tuzuki-i-Babri, in Turki language and it was so beautifully written that it was translated into Persian thrice. He also wrote poems both in Turki and Persian and his collection of poems Diwan (Turki) became quite famous. Humayun had good command over both Turki and Persian literature. Besides, he had sufficient knowledge of philosophy, mathematics and astronomy. He patronized scholars of all subjects.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

All the Mughal rulers with the exception of Aurangzeb loved and encouraged music. Numerous musicians, Hindu and Muslim, Indian and foreign, adorned the court of Akbar. They were divided into seven groups. Each one played the music on each day of the week. The court extended its patronage to both vocal and instrumental music.

emperors, except Akbar were well-educated and patronised laearning.

Tansen was perhaps the greatest musician of the age to whom huge amount were paid as presents and rewards by Akbar. He was originally in the service of the Rajput king of Rewa and belonged to the Gwalior school of Music. Baz Bahadur of Malwa was also a skilled musician, who on leaving Malwa, got into the service of Akbar.

Jahangir and Shahjahan also extended their patronage to music. The two chief vocalists of Shahjahan's court were Ramdas and Mahapattar. A musician by name Jagannath so dlighted him with his performance that the emperor is said to have weighed him in gold and given it to him as his fee.

Development of music received impetus in the court of Muhammed Shah Rangila. Two famous vocalists Sadarang & Adarang contributed to singing. Several forms of music developed during his reign. Music received a death blow during the reign of Aurangzeb who dismissed his court musicians and prohibited singing. The reign of Md. Shah witnessed development in the field of music. New forms of music like Tarana, Dadra etc. emerged Sadarang & Adarang were two famous men associated with Khayal.

DEVELOPMENT OF LITERATURE DURING THE MUGHAL PERIOD

Literature made tremendous progress during the period of rule of the Mughals. Both original and translated works were produced in large numbers. Besides, not only literature grew in Persian, Sanskrit and Hindi languages but works were produced in Hindi, Sanskrit, Urdu and other regional languages as well. Persian was made the state-language by Akbar which helped in the growth of its literature. Besides, all Mughal

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Akbar himself was not educated but he created those circumstances which helped in the growth of literature during the perod of his rule. gave encouragement to Persian language and famous works of different languages like Sanskrit, Arabic, Turki, Greek etc. were translated into it. He established a separated department for this purpose. Many scholars rose to eminence under his prtronage. Jahangir was also well-educated. He worte his biography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, himself for the first seventeen years of his rule and got prepared the rest of it by Mautmid Khan. Not much was done concerning translation work but a few original works repute were written during the period of his rule. Shah Jahan also gave protection to scholars. His son Dara Shikoh was also well-educate and arranged for the translation of many Sanskrit texts in Persian. Aurangzeb was also a scholar though he hated writings of verses and books on history. During the period of the Later Mughals, Persian remained the court-language till the rule of Muhammad Shah. Afterwards, it was replaced by Urdu. Yet, good works were prdocued by many scholars in Persian even afterwards. Thus, Persian got the maximum incentive to grow during the rule of the Mughals and therefore made very good progress.

History Writing in Persian

Largest number of good books written in Persian were either autobiographies or books on history. Among writings on history, HumayunNama of Gulbadan Begum, Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazl, Tabkat-i-Akbari of Nizamuddin Ahmad, Tazkiratul-waqiat of

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Jauhar, Tuhfa-i-Akbarshahi alias Tarikh-i-Sher Shah of Abbas Sarwani, Tarikh-i-Alfi which covers nearly one thousand years of history of the Islam and was written by the combined efforts of many scholars, Muntkhabut-Tawarikh of Badayuni, Tarikh-i-Salatin-Afghana of Ahmad yadgar, Tarikh-i-Humayun of Bayazid Sultan and Akbarnama of Faizi Sarhindi were written during the period of the rule of Akbar.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Jahangir wrote his biography, Tuzuk-iJahangire. Mautmid Khan completed it and also wrote lkbalnama-i-Jahangire. Massara-Jahangir of Khawja Kamgar, Makhzzan-i-Afghani of Niamatullah; Tarikh-i-Farishta of Muhammad Kasim Farishta and Massare-i-Rahini of Mulla Nahvandi were also written during the period of rule of Jahangir.

got translated fifty two Upanishads, Bhagvata Gita and yagavasistha. He himself wrote an original treatise titled Majma-Bahreen in which he described that Islam and Hinduism were simply the two paths to achieve the same God. Many texts written in Arabic, Turki and Greek were also translated into Persian during the rule of the mughal emperors. Bible was translated into Persian and many commentaries on koran were also translated in it. Aurangzeb with the help of many Arabic texts got prepared a book of law and justice in Persian which was titled Fatwahi-Alamgire.

Among the famous work written during the period of reign of Shah Jahan were Padshahnama of Amini Qazvini, Shahjahanama of Inayat Khan and Alam-iSaleh of Muhammad Saleh. Aurangzeb discouraged writings of history. Yet, a few goods works were produced during his rule. Among them, the most famous ones were Muntkhab-ul-Lubab, Alamgirnama of Mirza Muhammad Kazim, Nuskha-Dilkusha of Muhammad Saki, Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri of Iswar Das and Khulasa-ut-Tawarikh of Sujan Rai. Historical works were written under the patronage of the later Mughals as well as provincial rulers. Among the, the most reputed were Siyarul-Mutkharin of Gulam Hussain, Tawarikh-i-Muzaffari of Muhammad Ali and Tawarikh-Cahar-Gulzar-i-Suzai of Harcharan Das.

Translation

Besides original work, books in other languages were translated into Persian. Among the Sanskrit text, Mahabharat was translated by the joint efforts of Naki Khan, Badayuni, Abul Fazal, Faizi etc. Badayuni translated Ramayana into Persian. He also started translating Atharvaveda while it was completed by Haji Ibrahim Sarhindi. Faizi translated Lilavati, Shah Muhammad Sahabadi translated Rajtarangini, Abul Fazl translated Kahilya Dimna, Faizi translated Nal Damyanti and Maulana Sheri translated Hari-Vansha. All these works were translated during the period rule of Akbar. During the reign of Shah Jahan, his eldest son, Dara Shikoh provided incentive to this work and

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Poetry

Poems in Persian were also written this period though this type of work could not achieve the standard of prose-writing. Humayun wrote a few verses. Abul Fazl named fifty nine poets at the court of Akbar. Among them Faizi, Gizali and Urfi were quite famous.Jahangir and Nur Jahan were also interested in poetry. Jahan Ara daughter of Shah Jahan and Zebunnisa, daughter of Aurangzeb were also poetesses. The letters written by the emperors and nobles also occupy important place in the Persian literature of that time. Among them, letters written by Aurangzeb, Abul Fazl, Raja Jai Singh, Afzal Khan, Sadulla Khan etc. have been regarded of good literary value.

Works in Hindi

By the time Mughal rule was established in India, had development as a literary language. But, it received no encouragement form Babur, Humayun and Sher Shah. Yet, many good books were written by individual efforts, Among them Padmavata and Yugavata have been regarded works of repute. Akbar extended his patronage to Hindi which helped in its growth. Besides, private initiative also patricipated in its growth. Among the court-scholars, the prominent ones were Raja Birbal, Raja Man Singh, Raja Bhagwan Das, Narhari and Hari Nath. Nand Das, Vitthal Nath, Parmanand Das, Kumbhan Das etc. Worked independently of the court and enriched Hindi literature.

However, the most famous scholars of Hindi at that time were Tulsi Das and Sur Das. Tulsi Das wrote nearly twenty-five texts, the best among them being the Ramcharitmansa and the Vinaypatrika. Tulsi Das had no connection with the court. He passed his life mostly in Banaras. The same way, tough Sur Das lived in Agra but

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had no direct connection with the court of the emperor. He was blind. Yet, he composed hundreds of poems also occupy a prominent place in Hindi literature.

During the medieval period Indian society was divided into two broad divisions based on religion. In English documents and records of the period the Hindus are referred to as 'Gentoos' (Gentiles) and the Muslims as 'Moors'. The two communities differed with respect to social manners and etiquette; even their forms of salutation festivals. The social rites and ceremonies of the two communities, on occasions of birth and marriage, for instance, were different. Although these differences occasionally provoked tension and even hostility, a system of peaceful coexistence developed and even fraternizing on social occasions and in fairs was not uncommon.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Besides, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana and Rashan also made equally good contribution towards Hindi-literature by their writings. Abdur Rahim wrote hundreds of verses hwile Rashkahn wrote many love-poems dedicated to Lord Krishna and also a text titled Prem-Vatika. Thus, the period of the rule of Akbar was certainly the golden period of Hindi literature.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND STATUS OF WOMEN

Jahangir and Shah Jahan also gave recoginition to scholars of Hindi. The Younger brother of Jahangir used to write poems in Hindi and Jahangir extended his patronage to many scholoars of Hindi like Buta, Raja Suraj Singsh, Jadrup Gosai, Raja Bishan Das and Rai Manohar Lal.

Shah Jahan also patronised many scholars of Hindi at his court. Sundar Kavi Rai who wrote Sundar-Srangar, Senapati, author of Kavita Ratnakar, Kavindera Acharya who wrote his poem Kavindra Kalpataru in Avadhi mixed with Braj-Bhasa, Siromani Misra, Banarsi Das, Bhusan, Mati Rai, Vedang Rai, Hari Nath etc. were at his courts. Many other scholars of Hindi flourished outside the court as well. Kavi Deva, Dadu who started a new religious sect named Dadu-Panth and Prannath who started another religious sect named Pran-Panthi and lived at Panna wrote many religious poems. Bihari, a renowned poet of Hindi also wrote his couplets during this ery time and received patronage of Raja Jai Singh. Keshava Das, the famous poet of Hindi lived in Orcha and wrote many texts among which Kavi-Priya, Rasik-Priya and Alankar-Manjari occupy important place in Hindi literature. Aurangzeb gave no patronage to Hindi literature. Yet, Hindi literature continued to grow because of both private initiative and patronage of Hindus rulers. The Mughals did 'not have any systematic organisation for imparting education. Some sort of elementary education was imparted in maktabs and pathsalas. Further it was mainly confined to the upper sections of society and the clergy. Most Mughal emperors were educated and so were their ladies. Gulbadan Begum was an accomplished lady. She wrote the Humayun namah. Nur Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanara Begum and Zeb-un-Nisa were highly educated ladies.

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MUSLIM SOCIETY

As a result of continuous immigration from the Muslim countries of central and West Asia the Muslim population retained the mixed character which it had acquired during the previous centuries. In the north-western region the central Asians and Persians, who entered India during the reigns of Babur and his successors, Lived side by side with the Muslim immigrants of the pre-Mughal period. In coastal regions the immigrants were primarily traders, hailing originally form Arabia and the Persian Gulf. As a result of their regular or irregular unions with the local Hindus or converts a number of Muslim communities of mixed origin had come into existence, e.g., the Navayats of western India, the Mappillas or Moplabar, and the Labbais of the Coromandel cost. There were also a considerable number of Muslims of Abyssinian origin, most of whose ancestors were originally imported as slaves. As large parts of Afghanistan formed an integral part of the Mughal Empire, Afghans living in India could hardly be placed in the category of immigrants. Muslims of foreign origin, formally united by Islam, had racial and religious differences which influenced politics and society. The Turanis (Central Asians) and the Afghans were Sunnis; the Persians (Iranians) were Shias. There was much rivalry for political prominence and social promotion among these Muslims of diverse origins. however, Muslims of foreign origin considered as a distinct group, constituted the principal element in the ruling class of the

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Mughal period. They claimed superiority to the Hindustani Muslims, i.e., Hindu converts and their descendants on the basis of birth, race and culture.

But there were eminent authors like Raghunandan and Ramnath of Bengal. Pitambar of Kamrup and Kamalakar Bhatta of Maharashtra whose authority was accepted by the Hindu society even though it was accepted by the Hindu society even though it was not backed by royal patronage. their influence effectively counteracted the liberal trends. The raised their voice against the usurping of the privileges of the Brahmins by the lower castes.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The overwhelming majority of the Muslims were descendants of hindu converts; but there was a tendency on their part to claim foreign descent with a view to securing political and social advantages. They were generally looked down upon by bonafide Turanians and Iranians; but they were received on equal terms in mosques during the Friday prayers and also on occasions of principal religious festivals. There was no bar to inter-marriage on racial on racial grounds. A Muslim of low birth could rise to a high rank in the nobility by dint of ability of through the favour of fortune. The Muslim society had far greater internal mobility than the Hindu society.

socio- religious system (Varnasrama dharma) by regulatin the life and conduct of all classes of Hindus in the minutest details in conformity with traditional caste rules. Some writters of the Smriti nibandhas had royal patrns and their injuction carred political sanction. One of them, Keshava Pandit, was judge under the Maratha King Sambhaji.

Apart form racial and religious differences, i.e., Shia-Sunni disputes, there were clear-cut social differences within the Muslim society. Three classes are mentioned in a sixteenthcentury Persian work: (a) the ruling class comprising the imperial family, the nobility and the army; (b) the intelligentsia, comprising theologians (ulema0, judges (qazis), men of learning and men of letters; © the class catering to pleasures, comprising classification is obviously incomplete and unsatisfactory. For example, it does not make a not of the producing classes-the peasants and the artisans-who farmed the backbone of state and society, and the lower ranks of the official bureaucracy of the minor officials.

HINDU SOCIETY

Hindu society in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was characterised by conflicting trends of liberalism and catholicity on the one hand and exclusiveness and conservatism on the other.

POSITION OF WOMEN

Purdah System: With the advent of Islam, new forces appeared on the Indian horizon. strict veiling of women was the common practice among the Muslim in their native land. Naturally in a foreign country like India, greater stress was laid upon it. The Hindus adopted purdah as a protective measure. The tendency to imitate the ruling class was another factor which operated in favour of introducing purdah among the Hindu families. Seclusion thus became a sign of respect and was strictly observed among the high-class families of both communities. Barbosa has referred to the strict observation of purdah by the women of Bengal. Barring some notable Muslim families, the south Indians did not adopt purdah. In the Vijayanagar Empire, purdah was confined only to the members of the royal household. No such coercive purdah system was observed among the Hindu middle class was observed among the Hindu middle class and certainly not among the Hindu masses.

Some of the Vaishnava and Tantric teachers recognized, to some extent, the religious and social rights of women as also of the Sudras. some non-Brahmin followers of Chaitanya become spiritual perceptors (gurus) not only of the three lower castes but also of Brahmins. In Maharashtra Tukaram, a Sudra, and in the Brahmins. villey Sankardev and Madhavdev, who were Kayasthas, had Brahmin disciples.

Child Marriages: The custom, in those days, did not allow girls to remain in their parents' home for more than six to eight years after birth. The rigidity of the custom together with the celebration of the marriage at a very early age left no room whatsoever for either the bride or bridegroom to have time to think of a partner of their own choice. Dowry was demanded while in some castes and localities the bride-price was also known to be prevalent.

But the Brahmin authors of the nibandhas tried to maintain the integrity of the ancient

Monogamy: Monogamy seems to have been the rule among the lower stretum of society in

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both communities during the medieval period. In spite of the decision of ulema in the Ibadat Khana in Akbar's times, that a man might marry any number of wives by mutah but only four by nikah, Akbar had issued definite orders that a man of ordinary means should not possess more than one wife unless the first proved to be barren. Polygamy was the privilege of the rich.

Economic Position: Economically, a Muslim woman was entitled to a share in the inheritance with absolute right to dispose it off. Unlike her Hindu sister, she retained the right even after marriage. Mehr, or entente nuptial settlement, was another safeguard for Muslim women whereas a Hindu woman had no right to the property of her husband's parents. A Hindu woman was only entitled to maintenance and residence expenses besides movable property like ornaments, jewellery, etc. Thus, form the legal point of view, women were reduced to a position of dependency in every sphere of life, The women in the south under the Cholas (8th to 13th century), however, had the right to inherit property.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Position of Widows: Divorce and remarriage, common among Muslims, were prohibited for Hindu women. Widowremarriage, except amongst the lower caste people, had completely disappeared in Hindu society during the medieval age. The custom of sati was prevalent. Even betrothed girls had to commit sati was prevalent. Even betrothed girl had to commit sati on the funeral pyres of their would-be-husbands. Those widows who would not burn themselves with their husbands were treated harshly by society.

difficult to account for its wide popularity in the Vijayanagar Empire, whose rules do not seem to have put up any restriction on its observance. Muhammad Tughluq was, in all probability, the first medieval ruler who place restrictions on its observance. Thourgh Akbar did not forbid the sati altogether, he had issued difinite orders to the kotwals that they should not allow a woman to be burnt against her inclination. Aurangzeb was the only Mughal who issued definite orders (1664) for bidding sati in his realm altogether.

Custom of Sati: Some of the Delhi Sultans did try to discourage the custom of sati which prevailed among a large section of the Hindu population, particularly the upper classes and the Rajputs. Though sati was only voluntary in the south and not enjoined upon widows, it is






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LATER MUGHALS

CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

emperor's policy toward the Marathas was also that of half-hearted conciliation. They continued to fight among themselves as well as against the Mughals in the Deccan. Bahadur Shah was, however, successful in conciliating Chatrasal, the Bundela chief, and Churaman, the Jat chief; the latter also joined him in the campaign against the Sikhs.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The unity and stability of the Mughal Empire was shaken during the long and strong reign of Emperor Aurangzeb. However, in spite of setbacks and adverse circumstances the Mughal administration was still quite efficient and the Mughal army strong at the time of his death in 1707. This year is generally considered to separate the era of the great Mughals from that of the lesser Mughals. After the death of Aurangzeb the Mughal authority weakened, it was not in a position to militarily enforce its regulations in all parts of the empire. As a result many provincial governors started to assert their authority. In due course of time they gained independent status. At the same time many kingdoms which were subjugated by the Mughals also claimed their independence. Some new regional groups also consolidated and emerged as political power with all these developments, the period between 1707 and 1761 (third battle of Panipat, where Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the Maratha chiefs) witnessed resurgence of regional identity that buttressed both political and economic decentralization. At the same time, intraregional as well as interregional trade in local raw materials, artifacts, and grains created strong ties of economic interdependence, irrespective of political and military relations.

PASSING OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

In 1707, when Aurangzeb died, serious threats from the peripheries had begun to accentuate the problems at the core of the empire. The new emperor, Bahadur Shah I (or Shah Alam; ruled 1707-12), followed a policy of compromise, pardoning all nobles who had supported his rivals. He granted them appropriate territories and postings. He never abolished jizya, but the effort to collect the tax were not effective. In the beginning he tried to gain greater control over the Rajput states of the rajas of Amber (later Jaipur) and Jodhpur. When his attempt met with firm resistance he realized the necessity of a settlement with them. However, the settlement did not restore them to fully committed warriors for the Mughal cause. The

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Jahandar Shah (ruled 1712-13) was a weak and ineffective ruler. His wazir Zulfiqar Khan assumed the executive direction of the empire with unprecedented powers. Zulfiqar believed that it was necessary to establish friendly relations with the Rajputs and the Marathas and to conciliate the Hindu chieftains in general in order to save the empire. He reversed the policies of Aurangzeb. The hated jizya was abolished. He continued the old policy of suppression against the Sikhs. His goal was to reconcile all those who were willing to share power within the Mughal institutional framework. Zulfiqar Khan made several attempts at reforming the economic system.

He failed in his efforts to enhance the revenue collection of the state. When Farrukh Siyar, son of the slain prince Azimush-Shan, challenged Jahandar Shah and Zulfiqar Khan with a large army and funds from Bihar and Bengal, the rulers found their coffers depleted. In desperation, they looted their own palaces, even ripping gold and silver from the walls and ceilings, in order to finance an adequate army. Farrukh Siyar (ruled 1713-19) owed his victory and accession to the Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Husain Ali Khan Baraha. The Sayyids thus earned the offices of wazir and chief bakhshi and acquired control over the affairs of state. They promoted the policies initiated earlier by Zulfiqar Khan. Jizya and other similar taxes were immediately abolished. The brothers finally suppressed the Sikh revolt and tried to conciliate the Rajputs, the Marathas, and the Jats. However, this policy was hampered by divisiveness between the wazir and the emperor, as the groups tended to ally themselves with one or the other. The Jats once again started plundering the royal highway between Agra and

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if they were more concerned with the stability of the regions where they had their jagirs. Farmans (mandates granting certain rights or special privileges) to governors, faujdar, and other local officials were sent, in conformity with tradition, in the name of the emperor. Individual failings of Aurangzeb's successors also contributed to the decline of royal authority. Jahandar Shah lacked dignity and decency; Farrukh Siyar was fickle-minded; Muhammad Shah was frivulous and fond of ease and luxury. Opinions of the emperor's favourites weighed in the appointments, promotions, and dismissals even in the provinces.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Delhi. Farrukh Siyar deputed Raja Jai Singh to lead a punitive campaign against them but wazir negotiated a settlement over the raja's head. As a result, throughout northern India zamindars either revolted violently or simply refused to pay assessed revenues. On the other hand, Farrukh Siyar compounded difficulties in the Deccan by sending letters to some Maratha chiefs urging them to oppose the forces of the Deccan governor, who happened to be the deputy and an associate of Sayyid Husain Ali Khan. Finally, in 1719, the Sayyid brothers brought Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and a Maratha force to Delhi to depose the emperor. The murder of Farrukh Siyar created a wave of revulsion against the Sayyids among the various factions of nobility, who were also jealous of their growing power. Many of these, in particular the old nobles of Aurangzeb's time, resented the wazir's encouragement of revenue farming, which in their view was mere shop keeping and violated the age- old Mughal notion of statecraft. In Farrukh Siyar's place the brothers raised to the throne three young princes in quick succession within eight months in 1719. Two of these, Rafi- ud- Darajat and Rafi- ud- Dawlah (Shah Jahan II), died of consumption. The third, who assumed the title of Muhammad Shah, exhibited sufficient vigour to set about freeing himself from the brothers' control. A powerful group under the leadership of the Nizam-ul-Mulk, Chin Qilich Khan, and his father's cousin Muhammad Amin Khan, the two eminent nobles emerged finally to dislodge the Sayyid brothers (1720). By the time Muhammad Shah (ruled 1719-48) came to power, the nature of the relationship between the emperor and the nobility had almost completely changed. Individual interests of the nobles had come to guide the course of politics and state activities. In 1720 Muhammad Amin Khan replaced Sayyid Abdullah Khan as wazir; after Amin Khan's death (January 1720), the office was occupied by the Nizam-ul-Mulk for a brief period until Amin Khan's son Qamar-ud-Din Khan assumed the title in July 1724 by a claim of hereditary right. The nobles themselves virtually dictated these appointments. By this time the nobles had assumed lot of powers. They used to get farmans issued in the name of emperor in their favours. The position of emperor was preserved as a symbol only without real powers. The real powers seated with important groups of nobles. The nobles in control of the central offices maintained an all-empire outlook, even

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Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712) Aurangzeb died in 1707. A war of succession started amongst his three surviving sons viz. Muazzamthe governor of Kabul, Azam-the governor of Gujarat and Kam Baksh-The governor of Bijapur. Muazzam defeated Azam and Kam Baksh and ascended the Mughal throne with the title of Bahadur Shah. He pursued pacifist policy and was therefore also called Shah Bekhaber.

He also assumed the title of Shah Alam I. He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh and Chatrasal. He granted Sardeshmukhi to Marathas and also released Shahu. He forced Ajit Singh to submit but later in 1709. recognised him as the Rana Marwar. He defeated Banda Bahadur at Longarh and reoccupied Sirhird in 1711 Jahandar Shah (1712-13) ascended the throne with the aid of Zulfikhar Khan. His nephew, Farrukh Siyar, defeated him. He abolished Jiziya . Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers. Abdullah Khan and Hussain Khan who were Wazir and Mir Bakshi respectively Farrukh Siyar was killed by the Sayyid brothers in 1719. Banda Bahadur was captured at Gurudaspur and executed. Mohammad Shah (1719-48). During his reign Nadir Shah raided India and took away the peacock throne and the Kohinoor diamond. He was a pleasure loving king and was nick named Rangeela. Nizam ul mulk was appointed Wazir in 1722 but he relinquished the post and marched to the Deccan to found the state of Hyderabad. Bengal acquired virtual independence during the governorship of Murshid Quli Khan.

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Saddat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk who was appointed governor of Awadh by him laid down the foundation of the autonomous state.

2.

Ahmed Shah's (1748-1754) During his reign, Ahmed Shah Abdali(one of the ablest generals of Nadir Shah) marched towards Delhi And the Mughals ceded Punjab and Multan.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Alamgir (l754-l759) During his reign Ahmed Shah Abdali occupied Delhi. Later, Delhi was also plundered by the Marathas.

In the later stages of the Mughal rule, the nobles discarded hard life of military adventure and took to luxuries living. The new nobility were at best courtiers and rivaled one another in the subtle art of flattery and finesse. Instead of 'Knights of romance'. The nobles had no spirit to fight and die for the empire because the later Mughal emperors ceased to be impartial judges.The decay in the ranks of the upper classes deprived the state of the services of energetic military leaders and capable administrators.

Shah Alam II (1759-1806) During his reign Najib Khan Rohilla became very powerful in Delhi so much so that Shah Alam II could not enter Delhi. The Battle of Buxar (1764) was fought during his reign.

3.

Towards the end of Aurangzeb's reign the influential nobles of the court were divided into several factions such as Persian, Turani and Indian Muslims who organized themselves into pressure groups. The Turani and the Persian group were together known as 'the Foreign party' were pitched against the Indian Muslim supported by Hindus which was termed as 'the Hindustani party'. Each group tried to win the emperor to its viewpoints and poison his ears against the other faction. These groups kept the country in a state of perpetual political unrest, did not forge a united front even in the face of foreign danger, and fought battles, upsetting the peace of the country and throwing administration to dogs.

4.

The Mughal military system was defective. The army was organized on the feudal basis where the common soldier owed allegiance to the mansabdar rather than the emperor. During the last Mughal period, when the emperors grew weak, this defect assumed alarming proportions. Another defect of the Mughal army of eighteenth century was their composition. The soldiers were usually drawn from Central Asia who came to India to make fortunes,not to loose them. These soldiers changed sides without scruples and were constantly plotting either to betray or supplant their employers. Irwine points a series of fault such as indiscipline, want of cohesion, luxurious habits, inactivity, bad commissariat and cumbrous equipment among the degenerate Mughals except the personal courage they had. In

Akbar Shah II (1806-37), During his reign Lord Hastings ceased to accept the sovereignty of Mughals and claimed an equal status.

BahadurShah II (1837-1862), The last Mughal king , who was confined by the British to the Red Fort. During the revolt of 1857 he was proclaimed the Emperor by the rebellions. He was deported to Rangoon following the 1857 rebellion.

DECLINE AND DISINTEGRATION OF MUGHAL EMPIRE

Historians have held divergent views about the main causes for the downfall of the Mughal empire. J.N. Sarkar blames the rottenness at the core of Indian society to be the main cause of the disintegration. English Historian Irwin was convinced that military inefficiency was the root cause while another Historian Sydney Owen believed that the fall of the Mughal empire was due to the degeneracy of its sovereign. Satish Chandra opines that the roots of the disintegration of the Mughal empire may be found in the Medieval Indian economy. 7The main causes for the downfall of the Mughal empire are the following. 1. The Mughal system of government being despotic much depended on the personality of the emperor. Under a strong monarch all went well with the administration but after Aurangzeb all the Mughal rulers were weaklings and therefore unable to meet the challenges from within and without. Thus these imbecile emperors were unable to maintain the integrity of the empire.

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fighting capacity the Mughal army was nothing more than an armed rabble. Bernier compares them to a herd of animals that fled at the first shock. The Mughal artillery proved ineffective against the guerilla tactics of the Marathas. The Mughal government was essentially a police government and failed to effect a fusion between the Hindus and Muslims and create a composite nation. The Mughal government confined its attention mainly to the maintenance of internal and external affair and collection of revenue. The effort made by Akbar to weld the people into a nation was undone by the bigotry of Aurangzeb and weak successors.

The most powerful external factor that brought about the downfall of the Mughal Empire was the rising power of the Marathas under the Peshwas. The Peshwas inaugurated the policy of Greater Maharashtra and popularized the ideal of 'Hindu-pad padshahi'. Though the Marathas were unable in laying the foundation of a stable empire in India, they played a major role in bringing about the decline of the Mughal Empire..

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

5.

8.

6.

7.

The absence of the law of primogeniture among the Mughals usually meant a war of succession which provided the country with the ablest son of the dying emperor as the ruler. Under the later Mughals a sinister factor entered in the law of succession which was 'the survival of the weakest'. The princes of the royal dynasty receded to the background while struggle was fought by leaders of rival factions using royal princes as nominal leaders.Powerful and influential nobles acted as 'king makers', making and unmaking emperors to suit their personal interests. This system weakened the body politic and crippled it financially and militarily. Under the later Mughals the financial condition worsened much more quickly on one hand the outlying provinces asserted their independence one by one and ceased the payment of revenue to the centre, while the numerous war of successions and political convulsions coupled with the lavish living of the emperors emptied the royal treasury on the other hand. The crisis of the Jagirdari system heightened in this period. Aurangzeb's long wars in the Deccan besides emptying the royal treasury almost ruined the trade and Industry of the country. These conditions accentuated in the eighteenth century.

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9.

The invasions of Nadir shah gave deathblows to the shattered Mughal Empire. He deprived the Mughals of their wealth and exposed to the world the military weakness of the empire and its utter degeneration. The unsocial elements which were so far afraid of the prestige of the empire rose in rebellion and circumscribed the very authority of the empire.

10. The coming of the Europeans further added pace to the disintegration of the Mughal Empire. They outfitted Indian princes in every sphere whether it was war, diplomacy or trade and commerce. The Mughals did not keep up pace with the race of civilization and blew away by a dynamic and progressive west. 11. Although the expansion of the Mughal Empire reached its zenith during the reign of Aurangzeb, the disintegration of the empire also began simultaneously due to his policies. Firstly; Aurangzeb sought to restore the Islamic character of the state. His policy of religious bigotism proved counter productive and provoked Aurangzeb general discontent in the country. It resulted into the rebellions of Marathas, the Sikhs, the Bundelas and the Jats. The imperialistic designs and narrow religious policy of Aurangzeb turned the Rajputs, reliable supporters of the imperial dynasty, into enemies. The destruction of Hindu temples and the reimposition of 'Jizyah' led to the uprising of Santamis and others. Secondly, the policy of Aurangzeb inspired the Sikhs (in Punjab) and Marathas (in Maharashtra) to rose against the imperial empire, Maratha resistance to Mughai rule assumed Aurangzeb national character and the

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others. The necessity of emphasizing imperial symbols was inherent in the kind of power politics that emerged. Each of the contenders in the regions, in proportion to his strength, looked for and seized opportunities to establish his dominance over the others in the neighbourhood. They all needed a kind of legitimacy, which was so conveniently available in the long-accepted authority of the Mughal emperor. They had no fear in collectively accepting the symbolic hegemony of the Mughal centre, which had come to co-exist with their ambitions.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

whole people participated in the struggle for the defence of their religion and liberties. They demoralized the Mughal Armies through guerrilla mode of warfare and broke their spirit of superiority. Thirdly, the aggressive policy of Aurangzeb towards the Shia Sultanates of Bijapur and Golkunda marked the beginning of acute difficulties. The conquest of these kingdoms removed the strongest local check on Maratha activities and left them free to organize resistance to the Mughal imperialism. Lastly, the Deccan policy of continuous warfare in the Deccan which continued for twenty seven years, drained the resources of the empire.These undue wars put up Aurangzeb great financial drain on the treasury. The cream of brave and courageous Mughal soldiers perished in the long drawn wars. The Deccan ulcer proved fatal to the Mughal empire and paved the way for hasty disintegration of the Mughal empire.

THE RISE OF REGIONAL POLITIES AND STATES

The states that arose in India during the phase of Mughal decline and the following century (roughly 1700 to 1850) varied greatly in terms of resources, longevity, and essential character. Some of them- such as Hyderabad in the south, was located in an area that had harboured regional state in the immediate preMughal period and thus had an older local or regional tradition of state formation. Others were states that had a more original character and derived from very specific processes that had taken place in the course of the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In particular, many of the post- Mughal states were based on ethnic or sectarian groupings- the Marathas, the Jats, and the Sikhs. In due course, the enrichment of the regions emboldened local land and powerholders to take up arms against external authority. However, mutual rivalry and conflicts prevented these rebels from consolidating their interests into an effective challenge to the empire. They relied on support from kinsfolk, peasants, and smaller zamindars of their own castes. Each local group wanted to maximize its share of the prosperity at the expense of the

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The gradual weakening of the central authority set in motion new types of provincial kingdoms. Nobles with ability and strength sought to build a regional base for themselves. The wazir Chin Qilich Khan himself, showed the path. Having failed to reform the administration, he relinquished his office in 1723 and in October 1724 marched south to establish the state of Hyderabad in the Deccan. The Mughal court's chief concern at this stage was to ensure the flow of the necessary revenue from the provinces and the maintenance of at least the semblance of imperial unity. Seizing upon the disintegration of the empire, the Marathas now began their northward expansion and overran Malwa, Gujarat, and Bundelkhand. Then, in 1738-39, Nadir Shah, who had established himself as the ruler of Iran, invaded India.

THE MARATHA POWER

There is no doubt that the single most important power that emerged in the long twilight of the Mughal dynasty was the Marathas. The most important Maratha warrior clan was of the Bhonsles, Sivaji Bhonsle, emerged as the most powerful figure in the southern politics. The good fortune of Sivaji did not fall to his sons and successors, Sambhaji, and his younger brother, Rajaran. For a time it appeared that Maratha power was on the decline. But a recovery was effected in the early eighteenth century, in somewhat changed circumstances.

A particularly important phase in this respect is the reign of Sahu, who succeeded Rajaram in 1708. Sahu's reign, lasted for four decades upto 1749. It was marked by the ascendancy of a lineage of Chitpavan Brahman ministers, who virtually came to control central authority in the Maratha state. The Bhonsles were reduced to figureheads. Holding the title of peshwa (chief

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on Bengal and Bihar in the 1740s and early 1750s. The relations of his successors, Janoji, Sabaji, and Mudhoji, with the peshwas and the Satara line were varying, and it is in this sense that these domains can be regarded as only loosely confederated, rather than tightly bound together. Other subordinate rulers who emerged under the overarching umbrella provided by the Satara ruler and his peshwa were equally somewhat opportunistic in their use of politics.

THE GAIKWADS OF BARODA

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

minister), the first truly prominent figure of this line is Balaji Visvanath, who had helped Sahu in his rise to power. Visvanath and his successor, Baji Rao I (peshwa between 1720 and 1740), managed to bureaucratise the Maratha state to a far greater extent than had been the case under the early Bhonsles. They systematized the practice of tribute gathering from Mughal territories, under the heads of sardeshmukhi and chauth (the two terms corresponding to the proportion of tribute collected). They seem to have consolidated methods of assessment and collection of land revenue and other taxes, on the lines of the Mughals. Much of the revenue terminology used in the documents of the peshwa and his subordinates derives from Persian. This suggests a greater continuity between Mughal and Maratha revenue practices.

THE MARATHA CONFEDERACY

By the close of Sahu's reign, a few powerful Maratha Kingdoms were in complete control of their territories. This period saw the development of sophisticated networks of trade, banking, and finance in the territories under their control. The banking houses based at Pune, had their branches in Gujarat, Ganges Valley, and the south. Attention was also paid to the Maritime affairs. Bala ji Visvanath took some care to cultivate the Angria clan, which controlled a fleet of vessels based in Kolaba and other centres of the west coast. These ships posed a threat not only to the new English settlement of Bombay, but to the Portuguese at Goa, Bassein, and Daman. On the other hand, there also emerged a far larger domain of activity away from the original heartland of the Marathas. Of these chiefs, the most important were the Gaikwads (Gaekwars), the Sindhias, and the Holkars. Also, there were branches of the Bhonsle family that relocated to Kolhapur and Nagpur, while the main line remained in the Deccan heartland, at Satara. Let us examine their areas of influence.

THE BHONSLES OF NAGPUR

Unlike the Kolhapur Bhonsles and the descendants of Vyamkoji at Thanjavur, both of whom claimed a status equal to that of the Satara raja, the line at Nagpur was clearly subordinate to the Satara rulers. A crucial figure from this line is Raghuji Bhonsle (ruled 1727-55), who was responsible for the Maratha incursions

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The Gaikwads, gathered prominence in the 1720. Initially they were subordinate not only to the Bhonsles but also to the powerful Dabhade family. However, it was only after the death of Sahu, when the power of the peshwas was further enhanced, that the position of the Gaikwads truly improved. By the early 1750s, their rights on large portion of the revenues of Gujarat were recognized by the peshwa. The expulsion of the Mughal governor of the Gujarat province from his capital of Ahmadabad in 1752 set the seal on the process. The Gaikwads preferred, however, to establish their capital in Baroda, causing realignment in the network of trade and consumption in the area. The rule at Baroda of Damaji (d. 1768) was followed by a period of some turmoil. The Gaikwads still remained partly dependent on Pune and the peshwa, especially to intervene in moments of succession crisis. The eventual successor of Damaji, Fateh Singh (ruled 1771- 89), did not remain allied to the peshwa for long in the late 1770s and early 1780s, he chose to negotiate a settlement with the English East India Company, which eventually led to increased British interference in his affairs. By 1800, the British rather than the peshwa were the final arbiters in determining succession among the Gaikwads, who became subordinate rulers under them in the nineteenth century.

THE HOLKARS OF LNDORE

In the case of the Holkars the rise in status and wealth was particularly rapid and marked. Initially they had very little political power. However by 1730s their chief Malhar Rao Holkar consolidated his position. He was granted a large share of the chauth collection in Malwa, eastern Gujarat, and Khandesh. Within a few years, Malhar Rao consolidated his own principality at Indore, from which his successors controlled

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important trade routes as well as the crucial trading centre of Burhanpur. After him, control of the dynastic fortunes fell largely to his son's widow, Ahalya Bai, who ruled from 1765 to 1794 and brought Holkar power to great glory. Nevertheless, their success could not equal that of the next great chieftain family, the Sindhias.

wholly threw off all pretense of allegiance to the Mughals are rare. Rather, the Mughal system of honours and titles, as well as Mughal- derived administrative terminology and fiscal practices, continued despite the decline of imperial power.

THE SINDHIAS OF GWALIOR

Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, the founder of Hyderabad state, was one of the most powerful members at the court of the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar. He was entrusted first with the governorship of Awadh, and later given charge of the Deccan. As the Mughal governor of the Deccan provinces, Asaf Jah already had full control over its political and financial administration. Taking advantage of the turmoil in the Deccan and the competition amongst the court nobility, he gathered power in his hands and became the actual ruler of that region.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The Sindhias carved a prominent place for themselves in North Indian politics in the decades following the third battle of Panipat (1761). Again, like the Holkars, the Sindhias were based largely in central India, first at Ujjain, and later (from the last quarter of the. 18th century) in Gwalior. During the long reign of Mahadaji Sindhia (1761-94) family's fortunes were truly consolidated.

HYDERABAD

Mahadaji, proved an effective and innovative military commander. He employed a large number of European soldiers in his force. His power grew rapidly after 1770. During this period he managed to make substantial inroads into North India that had been weakened by Afghan attacks. He intervened with some effect in the Mughal court during the reign of Shah Alam II. The Mughal king made him the "deputy regent" of his affairs in the mid-1780s. His shadow fell not only across the provinces of Delhi and Agra but also on Rajasthan and Gujarat, making him the most formidable Maratha leader of the era. The officials of the East India Company were very cautious in dealing with him. His relations with the acting peshwa, Nana Fadnavis at Pune were fraught with tension.

Eventually, the momentum generated by Mahadaji could not be maintained by his successor Daulat Rao Sindhia (ruled 1794-1827), who was defeated by the British and forced by treaty in 1803 to surrender his territories both to the north and to the west. The careers of some of these potentates, especially Mahadaji Sindhia, illustrate the potency of Mughal symbols even in the phase of Mughal decline. For instance, after recapturing Gwalior from the British, Mahadaji took care to have his control of the town sanctioned by the Mughal emperor. Equally, he zealously guarded the privileges and titles granted to him by Shah Alam, such as amir al-umara ("head of the amirs") and na'ib wakiii mutlaq ("deputy regent"). In this he was not alone. Instances in the 18th century of states that

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Asaf Jah brought skilled soldiers and administrators from northern India who welcomed the new opportunities in the south. He appointed mansabdars and granted jagirs. Although he was still a servant of the Mughal emperor, he ruled quite independently without seeking any direction from Delhi or facing any interference. The Mughal emperor merely confirmed the decisions already taken by the Nizam.

The state of Hyderabad was constantly engaged in a struggle against the Marathas to the west and with independent Telugu warrior chiefs (nayakas) of the plateau. The ambitions of the Nizam to control the rich textileproducing areas of the Coromandel coast in the east were checked by the British who were becoming increasingly powerful in that region

THE NAWABS OF BENGAL

Murshid Quli Khan who started his career as Diwan of Bengal under Aurangzeb became virtually independent with the growing weakening of the central authority. However, he regularly sent tribute to the Mughal emperor. Ali Vardi Khan deposed the family of Murshid Quli Khan and made himself the Nawab in 1739. These Nawabs brought stability and peace and promoted agriculture, trade and industry. Equal opportunities were given to both Hindus and Muslims. But the Nawabs could not visualise the long term implications of the presence of the European trading companies and neglected military preparedness.

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In 1756-1757, the successor of Ali Vardi Khan, Siraj- ud - Daulah had to fight the English East India Company over the trading rights. His defeat in the battle of Plassey in June 1757 paved the way for subjugation of Bengal as well as India.

THE NAWABS OF AWADH

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

With the weakening central control the Mughal suba of Awadh also saw emerging ambitions of a provincial governor- Saadat Khan Burhan ul Mulk. Saadat Khan disciplined the local zamindars and gave shape to a well paid, well armed and well trained army. Before his death in 1739, Saadat Khan made the provincial head a hereditary position. His successors Safdar Jung and Asaf ud Daulah not only played very decisive role in the politics of northern India but also gave a long term administrative stability to the nawabi of Awadh. Under the Nawabs firstly Faizabad and then Lucknow became the cultural rival of Delhi in the spheres of arts, literature and crafts. Regional architecture reflected itself in the form of Imambarah and other buildings. The evolution of dance form Kathak was the outcome of cultural synthesis.

Though the principal opposition faced by Abdali in his campaigns of the 1750s and 1760s in the Punjab came from the Sikhs, Marathas also played a role of significance on this occasion. Eventually, by the mid- 1760s, Sikh authority over Lahore was established, and the Afghans were not able to consolidate their early gains. Under Ahmad Shah's successor, Timur Shah (ruled 1772-93), some of the territories and towns that had been taken by the Sikhs (such as Multan) were recovered, and the descendants of Ahmad Shah continued to harbour ambitions in this direction until the end of the century. But by the 1770s, they were dealing with a confederation of about 60 Sikh chieftains, some of these were to emerge as princely states under the Britishsuch as Nabha and Patiala.

THE SIKHS OF PUNJAB

The Mughal force supressed the Sikhs under Banda Bahadur. But this did not put an end to Sikh resistance to Mughal authority. In the 1720s and 1730s, Amritsar emerged as a centre of Sikh activity, mainly because of its preeminence as a pilgrimage centre. Kapur Singh, the most important of the Sikh leaders of the time, operated from its vicinity. He gradually set about consolidating a revenue-cum military system. Some Sikh groups also started consolidating themselves as political force. These activities discouraged the attempts by the Mughal governors of Lahore Suba to set up an independent power base for themselves in the region. First Abdus Samad Khan and then his son Zakariya Khan attempted to control sovereign power. After the latter's demise in 1745, the balance shifted still further in favour of the Sikh warrior- leaders, such as Jassa Singh Ahluwalia. He later on founded the kingdom of Kapurthala. The mushrooming of pockets under the authority of Sikh leaders was thus a feature of the two decades preceding Ahmed Shah Abdali's invasion of the Punjab. This process was evident in the eastern Punjab and Bari Doab.

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The Sikh chiefdoms continued many of the administrative practices initiated by the Mughals. The main subordinates of the chiefs were given jagir assignments. The Persianized culture of the Mughal bureaucracy continued to hold sway. It was one such chief, Ranjit Singh, grandson of Charhat Singh Sukerchakia, who eventually welded these principalities for a brief time into a larger entity. Ranjit Singh's effective rule lasted four decades, from 1799 to 1839. The power of the English East India Company was growing in all parts of the country during this period. Within ten years of his death, the British had annexed Punjab. His rise to power was based on superior military force, partly serviced by European mercenaries and by the strategic location of the territories that he had inherited from his father. Ranjit Singh's kingdom represented the culmination of nearly a century of Sikh rebellions against Mughal rule. It was based on the intelligent application of principles of statecraft. He used as his capital the great trading city of Lahore, which he captured in 1799. Having gained control of the trade routes, he imposed monopolies on the trade in salt, grain, and textiles from Kashmir to enhance his revenues. Using these earnings, he built up an army of 40,000 cavalry and infantry. By the year 1809 he was undisputed master of the most of Punjab.

JAIPUR AND OTHER RAJPUTANA STATES

Jaipur (earlier Amber) in eastern Rajasthan, was a Rajput principality controlled by the Kachwaha clan. In the early eighteenth century,

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to be taken to adopt short- term fiscal exactions. At the same time a series of crop failures in the 1750s and 60s adversely affected fragile agriculture. The second half of the eighteenth century was thus marked by an economic depression, accompanied by a decline in the political power of Jaipur. During this period Jaipur became a vulnerable target for the ambitions of the Marathas, and of Mahadaji Sindhia in particular. The states discussed so far, with the exception of Maratha, were all landlocked. This did not mean that trade was not an important element in their makeup, for the kingdom of Ranjit Singh was crucially linked to trade. However, lack of access to the sea greatly increased the vulnerability of a state, particularly in an era when the major power was the English East India Company, itself initially a maritime enterprise.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

the ruler Jai Singh Sawai took steps to increase his power manyfold. This was done by: (i) arranging to have his jagir assignment in the vicinity of his home territories and (ii) by taking on rights on land revenue through farming (for collection of land tax rights on a parcel of land that are rented by the state to an individual), which was gradually made permanent. By the time of his death in 1743, Jai Singh (after whom Jaipur came to be named) had emerged as the single most important ruler in the region. Most of the larger Rajput states were constantly involved in petty quarrels and civil wars. Ajit Singh of Marwar was killed by his own son. In the 1750s Suraj Mal the Jat ruler of Bharatpur, like Jai Singh- adopted a modified form of Mughal revenue administration in his territories. However, by this time, the fortunes of the Jaipur kingdom were seriously in question. Under threat from the Marathas, recourse had






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THE MARATHA STATE

CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

his service to Bijapur. Shivaji spent his childhood under the protection of a Brahmin official called Dadaji Kondadev. While Jija bai built up the character of Shivaji, Kond Dev trained him in the art of fighting and administration.Shivaji aimed to create an independent kingdom of his own right from the beginning of his career. His primary aim was to carve out an independent kingdom for himself in Maharashtra.M.G. Ranade has cleared the aim of Shivaji by dividing events of his life into four parts. During the first six years of his political career, Shivaji simply desired to organize the neighbouring Maratha chiefs under him. He had to fight against Bijapur to active this purpose. During the course of next ten years he encouraged Maratha nationalism and attempted to extend the territory under his rule. He fought against the ablest nobles of Bijapur during this period and succeeded. He came in to conflict with the growing power of the Mughals Towards the Deccan. He succeeded against the Mughals as well. Between the period 1674-80 the legalized his kingdom, held his coronation and assumed the title of Chatrapathi. Even during the period of Tutelage of Kunda Dev, Shivaji started capturing hill forts near Poona against his wishes. At the age of 20 years he started his adventures on a wider scale. Many courageous Maratha leader gathered round him. In 1643 Shivaji captured the fort of the singhgarh from Bijapur and then gradually the forts of Chaken,Purandar,Varanati,Torna, Supa, Tikona, Lohgarch, Rairi were taken over.Shivaji had won over many of his officers of Bijapur to his side by bringing them.The conquest of Javli made him in disputed master.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The emergence and growth of the Maratha state during the 17th century was an important episode in the history of India. The Territory which include modern state of Bombay Konkan, Kandesh, Berar, part of Madhya Pradesh, and part of Hyderabad state was Maratha state. The history of the rise of the Marathas is the history of the rise of an organized group of people inhabiting the territory of Maharashtra. Different factors contributed in the rise of Maratha nationalism and political power of the Marathas. The geographical condition of Maharashtra helped in the rise of the Marathas. Larger part of Maharashtra is plateau where man has to struggle hard for his existence. This made Marathas courageous and sturdy. The plateau provided every facility for defence including the construction of farts at every hill top-while it was difficult for Aurangzeb foreign invader to get supplies besides the difficulty of movement with larger armies in an unknown land. The plateau also provided good facility for guerilla-warfare to the Marathas. The rise of the Marathas was the result of the efforts of entire Maratha people who on the basis of unity of their languages, literature, community and homeland gave birth to Maratha nationalism and desired to create and independent state of their own. The Marathas developed the story spirit of nationalism which made them the most powerful group of people in India.The saints of Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra had spread the idea of equality which helped for the growth of unity among in people. The Marathas had important positions in the administrative and military system of Deccan states. Although a number of influential Maratha families exercised local authority in some area, the Maratha did not have any large well established state as Rajaputs had. The credit for setting up such a large state goes to Shahji Bhonsali and his son Shivaji.

Shivaji: Shivaji was born in 1627. He was the son of Shahji Bhonsle and Jija Bai.Shahji Bhonsle acted as the king maker in Ahammednagar. After its extinction, transferred

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Shivaji came into conflict with the Mughals first in 1657. Aurangazeb had attacked Bijapur, which sought his help Shivaji could realize that it was in his interest also to check the power of the Mughals from penetrating in the Deccan. Therefore he helped Bijapur and attacked south west territory of the Mughals. He looted Junar and troubled the Mughals at several places. But when Bijapur made peace with the Mughals, he also stopped raids on Mughals territory. With Aurangazeb away in the north, Shivaji resumed

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in order to isolate Shivaji. Marching to Poona, Jai Singh decided to strike at the heart of Shivaji territories fort purendar where Shivaji had lodged his family and his treasure. Jai singh closely besieged Purandar (1665) be acting off all the Maratha attempt to relieve it. With the fall of the fart at sight, Shivaji opened negotiation with Jai Singh. In 1665 the treaty of purandar was signed between two. The following terms were agreed upon. 1. Shivaji surrendered 23 of his forts, and territory which yielded annual revenue of 4 lakhs of heen.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

his career of conquest at the expense of Bijapur. He captured Konkan. Bijapur now decided to take stern action Afzalkhan who was a reputed commander of Bijapur was deputed for his task in 1659. With a large army, He tried to terrify Shivaji by wholesale destruction of temples, agriculture and populace with in his territories Afzalkhan assured Shivaji that if he would come to meet him in person and agreed to accept the suzerainty of Bijapur he would so given the additional territory as Jagir. Shivaji got scant of Afzalkhan and decided the pay him in the some coins. He agreed to meet Afzalkhan after a solemn promise of his personal safety.Convinced that this was a trap. Shivaji went prepared and murdered khan in cunning but daring manner, Shivaji put his leaderless army to rout captured all goods and equipment including his artillery. Flushed with victory, the Maratha troops overran the powerful fort of Panhala and poured in to south Konkan and Kolhapur districts making extensive conquest. Shivaji's exploits made him a legendary figure. His name passed from house to house and was credited with magical powers. People flocked to him from the Maratha areas to join his army. Meanwhile, Aurangazeb was anxiously watching the rise of a Maratha power so near the Mughal frontier. Aurangazeb instructed the new Mughal governor of Deccan, Shiasta Khan to invade Shivaji dominion. At first the war went bodly for Shivaji Shaista Khan occupied Poona and made it his headquarter. He sent army to capture Konkan from Shivaji.The Mughal secured their contest on north Konkan. Driven into a corner Shivaji made bold stroke. He infiltrated in to the camp of Shaista Khan at Poona and at night attacked Khan, killing his son, and one of his captains and wounding khan. This daring attack put the Khan in to disgrace. In anger Aurangazeb transferred Shaista Khan to Bengal. Meanwhile Shivaji made another bold move. He attacked Surat and looted it in to his hearts content, returning home laden with Treasure.

After the failure of Shaista Khan Aurangazeb deputed Raja Jai Singh of Amber to deal with Shivaji.Full military and administrative authority was conferred on Jai singh so that he was not in any way dependent on the Mughal victory in the Deccan, unlikes his predecessors, Jia singh did not under estimate the Marathas. He made careful diplomatic and military preparation. He appealed to all the rivals and opponents of Shivaji

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2. Shivaji was left with only 12 forts and territory which yielded annual revenue of one lakh him. 3. Shivaji accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals.

4. Shivaji agreed to support the Mughals against Bijapur.

5. Shivaji agreed to pay forty lakhs of him too the Mughals in 13 years.

This term of the treaty embittered the relation of Bijapur with Shivaji. In 1666 Shivaji went to Agra to meet emperor Aurangazeb, Jia Singh tempted Shivaji that there was every possibility of getting governorship of Mughals territory in the Deccan if he would go to meet the emperor in person. He assured Shivaji of his personal safety.Shivaji visited Agra along with his son Shambhuji. He was presented before the emperor by Ram Singh, son of Jai Singh. The emperor neglected his presence and offered him a place to stand among the officers of the rank of 5,000 mansab. Shivaji felt humiliated and left the court immediately Ram singh kept Shivaji in the Jaipur Bhavan but virtually he was a prisoner there, since Shivaji had come to Agra on Jai Singh assurance, Aurangazeb wrote to Jai Singh for advice. Jai singh strongly argued for a lenient treatment for Shivaji. But before any decision could be taken, Shivaji escaped from detention. There is no doubt that Shivaji's visit to Agra proved to be turning point in Mughal relations with the Marathas Aurangazeb attached little value to the alliance with Shivaji.For him Shivaji was just a petty bhumia (land holders). In 1670 AD Shivaji again started fighting against the Mughals and succeeded in capturing many farts from among those which he had surrounded to by the treaty of Purandar. He conquered forts like singhgarh, Purandar, Kalyan Mahuli etc.

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and successfully raided to the territories of the Mughals in Deccan. He also plundered Surat in 1670 for the second time. Thus with in a few years; Shivaji captured many farts and territories from the Mughals and Bijapur.

(ii) Provincial and Local Administration The provincial administration was also organized on the Deccani and Mughal system. All the provincial units already existed under the Deccani rulers. Shivaji reorganized and in certain cases renamed them. The provinces were known as Prants.The Prants were under the charge of subedar. Over a number of Subedar there were Sarsubedar to control and supervise the work of subedar. Smaller than prant were Tarfs which were headed by a havaldar. Then there were Mauzas or villages which were the lowest unit of administration. At the level of village, Kulkarni used to keep accounts and maintained records while Patil had legal and policing power. At the level of Pargana, Deshpande used to keep account and maintain records while Deshmukh had legal and policing powers. The Police officer in rural area was called Faujdar and in urban area was called Kotwal. The Maratha polity did not have unified civilian-cummilitary rank. Under the Marathas performance based Brahmin elites manned the central bureaucracy and the local administration. In this capacity they were called Kamvishdar who enjoyed wide powers of tax assessment and collection. They adjudicated cases, provided information about local conditions and kept records. Later on, the British District collector was modelled on this Maratha officer only.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

In 1674 Shivaji held his coronation, assumed the title Chatrapathi and made Raigarh his capital. In 1677-78 AD Shivaji attacked east Karnatak on the pretext of getting share of his fathers jagir from his brother. He then conquered the forts of Jinji and vollore and the territory between rivers Thungabhadra and Kaveri in Karnataka. The Karnatak expedition was the last major expedition of Shivaji. Shivaji died in 1680 shortly after his return the Karnatak expedition.

frequently transferred. Each of the ashta pradhan was assisted by eight assistants diwan, Majumdar, Fadnis, Sabnis; Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamadar and Potnis. Chitnis dealt with all diplomatic correspondences and wrote all royal letters. The Fadnis used to respond to the letters of commanders of the forts. The potnis looked after the income and expenditure of the royal treasury.

SHIVAJI'S ADMINISTRATION

Shivaji had laid the foundation of a sound system of administration. His administrative system was largely borrowed from the administrative practices of the Deccan state. Like all other medieval rulers, Shivaji was a despot with all powers concentrated in his hands. He possessed all executive and legislative power.'Shivaji' was a great organizer and constructive civilian administrator. The one of the novelty of Shivajis administration was the introduction of Maratha language as the state language.

(i) Central Administration

The king was at the helm of the affairs. The administration was divided into eight departments headed by ministers who are some times called Ashta pradhan. The eight ministers were (1) Peshwa who looked after the finances and general administration. (2) Sari-Naubat who was the Senapati. (3) Majumdar looked after the accounts. (4) Waqai navis looked after the intelligence, post and household affairs (5) Surnavis or Chitnis looked after official correspondence (6) Dabir looked after foreign affairs (7) Nyayadhish looked after justice and (8) Pandit Rao looked after ecclesiastical affairs. The ashtapradhan was not a creation of Shivaji. Many of these officers like Peshwa, Majumdar, Waqai navis, Dabir and Surnavis had existed under the Deccani rulers also. All the members of the astha pradhan except Pandit Rao and Nyaydhish were asked to lead military campaigns. Under Shivaji these offices were neither hereditary nor permanent. They held the office at the pleasure of the king. They were also

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ARMY

Cavalry and infantry constituted the primary part of the army of Shivaji. The paga cavalrymen were called the bargirs. They were provided horses by the state while the silahdars purchased their armies and horses themselves. The paga cavalry was well organized. Twenty five horsemen formed a unit which was placed under a havildar. Shivaji preferred to give cash salaries to the regular soldiers, though some time the chief received revenue grants strict disciplines was maintained in the army. The plunder taken

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by each soldiers during compaign was strictly accounted for, farts and security occupied an important place in the army organization of Shivaji. Shivaji maintained a navy as well. Shivaji had 400 ships of different kind. The navy was divided in to two parts and each part was commanded by darive Nayak and mai Nayak respectively.

Rajaram (1689-1700) : Rajaram was released and succeeded to the throne with the help of the ministers at Raigarh. He fled from Raigarh to Jinji in 1689 (Jinji remained his base till 1698) due to a Mughal invasion in which Raigarh was captured along with Sambhaji's wife and son (Shahu) by the Mughals. Jinji fell to the Mughal (1698) and Rajaram escaped to Visalgarh (Maharashtra). Rajaram died at Satara, which had become the capital after the fall of Jinji. Rajaram's administrative changes included the creation of the new post of Pratimdhi, thus taking the total number of ministers to nine.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

FINANCE AND REVENUE

Sambhaji provided protection and support to Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb. But Akbar failed against his father and departed to Persia. Sambhaji was also captured at Sangamesvar by a Mughal noble and executed.

The revenue system seems to have been patterned on the system of Malik Ambar land revenue; Trade Tax etc. were the primary source of the fixed income of Shivaji.But income from these sources was not sufficient to meet the expenditure of the state. Therefore Shivaji collected the chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the territory which was either under his enemies or under his own influence. The chauth was 1/4 part of the income of the particular territory while the Sardeshmukhi was 1/10. Shivaji collected these taxes simply by force of his army. These taxes constituted primary source of the income of Shivaji and after wards helped in the extension of the power and territory of the Marathas. The revenue system of Shivaji was Rytowari in which the state kept direct contact with peasants. Shivaji mostly avoided the system of assigning Jagir to his officers and whenever he assigned Jagir to them, the right of collecting the revenue was kept with state officials.

SCCESSORS

Sambhaji (1680-89). The war of succession between Sambhaji, the elder son, and Rajaram, the younger son, of Sivaji, resulted in the victory of the former and imprisonment of the later.

Sivaji II and Tarabai (1700-1707) : Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Sivaji II under the guardianship of his mother Tarabai. He attacked Berar (1703), Baroda (1706) and Aurangabad.

Shah (1707-1749) : Shahu was released by the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah and this was the beginning of civil war (1707-14) between him and Tarabai. Tarabai's army was defeated by Shahu at the battle of Khed (1700) and Shahu occupied Satara. The final defeat and imprisonment of Tarabai by Shahu came in 1714. But the southern part of the Maratha kingdom with its capital at Kolhapur continued to be under the control of the decendants of Rajaram (Sivaji II and later Sambhaji II).

Shahu's reign saw the rise of Peshwaship and transformation of the Maratha kingdom into an empire based on the principle of confederacy.






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EUROPEAN ARRIVAL

CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

DUTCH

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Formation of the Company : In March, 1602, by a charter of the Dutch parliament the Dutch East India Company was formed with powers to make wars, concluded treaties, acquire territories and build fortresses.

Elizabeth (December, 1600) giving it the monopoly of Eastern trade for 15 years. A fresh charter even before the expiry of the first charter was granted by James I (1609), giving it a monopolgy for an indefinite period.

Establishment of Factories : The Dutch set up factories at Masulipatam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimilipatam (1641), Karikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Kasimbazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Negapatam (all in 1658) and Cochin (1663).

Overthrow of Portuguese : In the 17th century, they supplanted the Portuguese as the most dominant power in European trade with the East, including India. Pulicat was their centre in India till 1690, after which Negapatam replaced it. Beginning of Anglo-Dutch Rivalry : In the middle of the 17th century (1654) the English began to emerge as a formidable colonial power. After 60-70 years of rivalry with the English, the Dutch power in India began to decline by the beginning of the 18th century. Their final collapse came with their defeat by the English in the battle of Bedera in 1759. Loss of Settlement : One by one the Dutch lost their settlement to the English. Their expulsion from their poessessions in India by the British came in 1795.

ENGLISH

Arrival of Mildenhall : Before the East India Company establised trade in the India, it was a merchant adventurer, John Mildenhall who arrived in India in 1599 by the overland route, ostensively for the purpose of trade with Indian merchants.

Formation of the Company : Popularly known as the 'English East India Company', it was formed by a group of merchants known as the 'Merchant Adventures' in 1599. A charter to the new Company was granted by Queen

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Decision to open a factory at Surat : Following the decision of the East India Company to open a factory at Surat (1608), Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir's court (1609) to seek permission. Jahangir although initially willing to grant permission later refused due to Portuguese pressure. But when a Portuguese fleet was defeated by the English under Captain Best at Swally (near Surat) in 1612, a farman was issued by Jahangir permitting the English to erect a factory at Surat (1613). Arrival of Thomas Roe : Sir Thomas came to India as ambassador of James 1 to Jahangir's court in 1615 and stayed there till the end of 1618, during which period he obtained the emperor's permission to trade and erect factories in different parts of the empire. He left India for England in February, 1619.

Establishment of Factories

West Coast : The English established factories at Agra, Ahmadabad, Baroda and Broach by 1619, all of which were placed under the control of the President and council of the Surat factory. The company acquired Bombay from Charles II on lease at an annual rental of ten pounds in 1668. Gerald Aungier was its first governor from 1669 to 1677. Surat was replaced by Bombay as the headquarters of the Company on the west coast in 1687. South-eastern Coast : Factories was established at Masulipatam (1611) and Armagaon near Pulicat (1626). In 1639 Francis Day Armagaon near Pulicat (1626). In 1639 Francis Day obtained the site of Madras from the Raja of Chandragiri with permission to build a fortified factory, which was named Fort St. George. Madras soon replaced Masulipatam as the headquarter of the English on the coromandal coast, and in 1658 all the English

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settlement in eastern India (Bengal, Bihar and Orissa) and the Coronmandal were placed under the control of the president and council of Fort St. George.

In 1694 the British Parliament passed a resolution giving equal rights to all Englishmen to trade in the East. A new rival company, known as the 'English Company of Merchants Trading to the East Indies' (1698) was formed, which sent Sir William Norris as ambassador to Aurangzeb to secure trading privileges for itself. But Sir William failed in his mission. There was ruinous competition between the two for a while but they finally agreed to come together in 1702. Their final amalgamation came in 1708 by the award of the Earl of Goldolphin under the title of 'the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies'. This new company continued its existence till 1858.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Eastern India : Factories were set up at Hariharpur and Balasore in Orissa (1633), at Hugli in 1651, followed by those at Patna, Dacca, Kasimbazar in Bengal and Bihar. In 1690 a factory was established at Sutanuti by Job Charnock and the zamindari of the three villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata and Govindpur was acquired by the British (1698). These villages later grew into the city of Calcutta. The factory at Sutanuti was fortified in 1696 (the British used the rebellion of Shobha Singh, a zamindar of Burdwan as an excuse to do this) and this new fortified settlement was named 'Fort William' in 1700. A council with a president for Fort Willaim was created (Sir Charles Eyre was the first president) and all settlements in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were placed under it (1700).

joint-stock company by a charter of Cromwell in 1657.

Anglo-Mughal Relations

The relations between the Mughals and the English were marked by the desire to dominate each other. Initially, Hugli was sacked and war was declared on the Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb, in 1686 by the English. The Mughals retaliated by the capture of all English settlements in Bengal (1687). The British began hostile activities under Sir John Child on the west coast, seizing Mughal ships and harasing haj pilgrims. The Mughals retaliated by capturing English factories all over the empire (1688-1689). The British finally surrendered but were pardoned by the emperor (1690) and were granted a farman. The farman of 1691 granted by Aurangzeb exempted the Company from payment of customs duties in Bengal in return for an annual payment and a second one granted by Farukh Siyar in 1717 confirmed the privileges of 1691 and extended them to Gujarat and the Deccan.

Problems of The Company at Home

The Company had to face several problems at home. A rival company by a group of merchants under Sir William Courten was formed in 1635 and was granted a licence to trade in the East by Charles 1. There was rivalry between the two companies for a while which was ended with their amalgamation in 1649. The East India Company was transformed into a

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FRENCH

The French East India Company was formed by Colbert under state patronage in 1664. The first French factory was established at Surat by Francois Caron in 1668. Later Maracara set up a factory at Masulipatam in 1669.

A small village was acquired from the Muslim governor of Valikondapuram by Francois Martin and Bellanger de Lespinay in 1673. The village developed into Pondicherry and its first governor was Francois Martin. Also Chandernagore in Bengal was acquired from the Mughal governor in 1690. The French in India declined between 1706 and 1720 which led to the reconstitution of the Company in 1720. The French power in India was revived under Lenoir and Dumas (governors) between 1720 and 1742. They occupied Mahe in the Malabar, Yanam in Coromandal (both in 1725) and Karikal in Tamil Nadu (1739). The arrival of Dupleix as French governor in India in 1742 saw the beginning of Anglo French conflict (Carnatick wars) resulting in their final defeat in India.

DANISH

The Danes formed an East India Company and arrived in India in 1616. They established settlements at Tranquebar (in Tamil Nadu) in 1620 and at Serampore (Bengal) in 1676. Serampore was their headquarters in India. However, they failed to strengthen themselves in India and were forced to sell all their settlements in India to the British in 1845.

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NATURE AND CHARACTER OF EUROPEAN COMMERCE Role of European Companies Portuguese

The Portuguese king never wanted to undersell the Venetians, a sthey had initially suspected. He adjusted his sole price to the Venetian once, while simultaneously forcing his Indian suppliers to part with their pepper at a cheap rate. For the royal monopolist it was an ideal system; buy the pepper at a cheap fixed rate in India and sell at a high fixed price in Europe. Once this system was established, it was very well suited for sub-contracting thus saving the king trouble and giving him an assured income.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The Portuguese seizure of power in the Indian Ocean at the beginning of the 16th century proceeded with amazing rapidity, and for more than a century they remained lords of the waters and sent many precious shiploads to Lisbon. The armed control of the sea trade was quite easy for the Portuguese, for they found a flourishing and unprotected free trade system when they entered this ocean. Except for an occasional pirate, bearing rather primitive arms, there was nobody in these waters who had made it his business to sue force for the control of trade.

dramatically, and the Portuguese persisted in short-circuiting Arab middlemen carriers as the European demand for spices continued to increase.

This prevailing free trade system of the India Ocean, with all its flexibility, was nevertheless very vulnerable. For this trade was not restricted exclusively to luxury goods, like spices, precious textiles, gold and ivory. Though they played a major role in this trade, there was also considerable division of labour in the course of which some ports had become entirely dependent of long-distance grain shipments. As no duties and other protection costs distorted the price level in this free trade system, everything was much cheaper here than in the Mediterranean where the Egyptians and the Venetians operated a tight monopolgy. What the Portuguese did was to protect the Mediterranean practice in the Indian Ocean. They were keen observers and quickly seized upon the strategic points from which they could control the vast network of Asian maritime trade. Their fortified outposts served as customs stations where Asian merchants had to acquire cartazes (letters of protection) which saved them from being attacked and ransacked by the Portuguese on the High seas.

The Portuguese king soon made the spice trade, particularly pepper trade, a royal monopolgy. Their spice imports rose from less than a quarter of a million pounds in 1501 to more than 2.3 million pounds per year by 1505, when Venetian merchants found that they could buy barely one million pounds of spice in Alexandria, though their annual purchase 1495 had been 3.5 million pounds. Arab and Veentian merchants remained in the spice trade throughout the centruy of Portuguese power in Asia, but the balance of trade had shifted

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A comparison of the Portuguese budget in the years 1506 and 1518 shows a striking change in the structure of state finance due to pepper monopolgy. The income from pepper monopolgy rose from 1,35,000 cruzados (one cruzado being equal to 3.6 grams of gold) in 1506 to 3,00,000 cruzados in 1518. Though there was an increase in other sources of income during the period, the pepper monopolgy certainly dewarfed all other sources. The enormous profit derived from this monopolgy made their annual investment of 50,000 cruzados in it appear rather moderate. Thus, the Portuguese got good value for money in this respective. Another source of income which became as important to the Portuguese king as the pepper monopolgy was the sale of the offices of captains and customs collectors in the Indian Ocean strongholds. The Portuguese collected customs at Ormuz on the Persian Gulf and other place around the Indian Ocean. The offices of those who collected these customs were auctioned by the king at short intervals, usually three years. So this was another royal money estate which yielded income without any risk. In this way the king became a rent receiver rather than a royal entrepreneur.

Dutch

The Dutch invaded the Indian Ocean with dramatic speed at the beginning of the 17th century, just as the Portuguese had done a hundred years earlier. Several favourable preconditions accounted for this Dutch success, such as a good educational system, advancement in science and technology, their ability to acquire nautical information from the Portuguese,

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Golconda whose realm was an important source of textiles for them.

Unlike the situation in Portugal, the Dutch state had no hand in business, and the monopoly which was granted to the Dutch East Indian Company (VOC) referred to spices only. Furthermore, monopoly control stopped once the shipments reached Amsterdam, where the goods were freely auctioned to the highest bidder. These auctions provided a good idea of what the market would take, and they also helped to introduce new commodities, such as textiles, which were not covered by any monopoly.

Thus, the Dutch used India, particularly south India, as a major source for the purchase of cotton cloth as well as of slaves for their spice island plantations. Dutch investments in Coromandal cloth, which would then be sold for spices in Indonesia, proved a most profitable way of diminishing the 'specie drain' (drain of gold and silver bullion) from home. This technique of 'triangular trade' was quickly learned and followed by the English, who were equally anxious to reduce the eastern flow of bullion.

Throughout the 17th century the Dutch Company operated on a much larger scale than its English counterpart. Nevertheless, the Dutch were deeply concerned about British competition and tried their best to outdo them. While fighting against the domination of the seas by the Spanish and the Portuguese, the Dutch laid stress on the principle of freedom of the seas. But as early as the second decade of the 17th century they refused all other powers, including the British, an access to the Indonesian Spice Islands, because only in this way, they argued, could they be compensated for the protection they furnished.

The Dutch invasion of the Indian Ocean brought about a revolution in international trade which the Portuguese had never accomplished. The flow of commodities in the Mediterranean was completely reversed. The trade of the Levant (eastern) Mediterranean region), following is its revival in the late 16th century; experienced a sudden decline. West European ship now supplied the ports of the Levant with the goods which had been sent from there to the West only a few years earlier. Venice suffered the same decline, and was soon no more than a regional port of Italy.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

existence of a huge merchant marine and easy access to sufficient wood for shipbuilding.

While the Dutch zealously guarded their territorial control in Indonesia at a very early stage, they showed no such ambitions in India. This was perhaps due to the fact that they procured textiles to an increasing extent in India, and these were not covered by a monopoly. The textile trade which became more important to the Dutch required methods of control other than the physical occupation of area of production. It was more important in this case tie down producers and middlemen by means of credit and advance and to organise the acquisition of the right type of textiles which were popular with customers abroad. As a consequence of their adaptation to the textile trade, the Dutch factories experienced a great deal of structural change. Initially, such factories were expected only to store goods for the annual shipment; in due course, however, they became centres whose influence extended far into the interior of the country as they placed orders, distributed patterns, granted and supervised credit, etc. The Dutch, who had many factories on India's east coast, were also represented at the court of the Sultan of

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Asian maritime trade was not as immediately affected by this trade revolution as the Mediterranean trade was. There were great Indian ship owners who dispatched so many ships every year to the ports of Arabia of the Persian gulf that they easily outnumbered all the European ships in the Indian Ocean at that time. The Dutch participated in this Indian Ocean trade as well. Just as they were Europe's biggest shipping agents, they now offered their services to Asian merchants to an ever-increasing extent. If these merchants did not have ships of their own they were glad to entrust their goods to European whose ships were armed and could thus defend themselves against piracy.

English

The English East India Company, founded in London two years before the Dutch Company, operated on much the same terms including sale by auction. And in the East, from their premier base at Surat, the English soon gained control over the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf, destroying Portuguese power by seizing Ormuz in 1622. Thereafter, Persian silk competed with Gujarati calico as England's favourite textiles

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from the East (calico was still used mostly for household linens, table clothes and towels in Britain and western Europe, becoming popular for apparel only after 1660).

French Another major European power, which was destined to play an important part in the history of India in the 18th century, was still rather insignificant in the Indian context of the late 17th century. Colbert organised the French Company on federal lines. But this was counter-productive, because the Company was organised by the government and there were no private capitalists. Colbert had to persuade the big dignitaries to subscribe funds for this purpose, and whoever contributed did so only in order to please the king.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

English annual imports of Indian calico 'pieces' (12 to 15 yards in length) jumped from 14,000 in 1619 to over 2,00,000 in 1625; the demand for Persian silk grew less swiftly. Indigo and saltpetre were the other major imports from India, and the fact that both products were produced in the eastern Gangetic plain, especially in Bihar, stimulated British efforts to establish factories on the east coast as well as the west coast of the Indian subcontinent.

infrastructure and the protection network provided by the company without contributing to its maintenance. This gave them a comparative advantage in the intra-Asian trade and the Company did well in specialising in the intercontinental connection and leaving the 'country trade' to others.

The English merchants, anxious to reduce the eastern flow of their bullion, soon learned that by investing their gold in south Indian weavers, whose products could easily be sold in Indonesia for spices, they were able to buy four times the value of pepper and cloves for the same amount of gold. Small wonder that their interest in establishing a factory along the Coromandal coast quickly intensified. From these ports in south eastern India, they soon sought more immediate access to the mainstream of produce flowing down from the Gangetic plain to the Bay of Bengal. The factories of the English Company, like those of the Dutch ones, experienced a similar kind of structural change after their adaptation to the textile trade. But, since the English had no access to the spice Islands particularly after their massacre by the Dutch at Amboyna in 1623, they concentrated on India and on the textile trade to an ever-increasing extent. Nonetheless, in the 17th century the English were still lagging behind the Dutch even in this field. European piracy increased in the Indian Ocean as individual entrepreneurs were quick to learn their nautical and commercial lessons. However, not all of the European 'interlopers' were pirates. Some of them simply earned a living in the 'country trade, as the intra-Asian trade was called. The British private traders were very active in this field, and though the East India Company officially decried the activities of these interlopers (who crossed the Asian seas without any respect for monopoly rights granted by royal charter), there emerged a kind of symbiosis between them and the Company. The Company itself concentrated on intercontinental trade, and the 'country traders' made their deals with the servants of the company and made use of the

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The commercial success of the company was more limited than the imperial vision of some of its great officials, like governor Dupleix, Admiral La Bourdonnais and General de Bussy. But after its reorganisation in 1685, the company started managing its trade with bureaucratic precision. In peace time it could even make some profit, although it was debarred from the lucrative textile trade because of French mercantilist policy. However, the frequent interruption of this trade due to European wars drove the Company to the verge of Bankruptcy. It was only after the merger of the French West Indies Company with the French East India Company in 1719 that France caught up with the new pattern of international trade, which linked Indian Ocean trade with trans-Atlantic trade.

IMPACT OF EUROPEANS ON INDIA'S FOREIGN TRADE

With the arrival of the Europeans, particularly the Dutch and the English, there was a tremendous increase in the demand for Indian textiles for both the Asian markets and later the European market. The Asian markets for Indian textiles were developed over a long period. There markets were extensive and widespread and there was great diversity in their demand. This intra-Asian trade in Indian textiles seems to have operated in two ways. Firstly, there was a bilateral trade between the Coromandal and various parts of South East

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Persia, Arabia, and the Red Sea ports. But the specialty of the period under study was the increased European orders which, though matching the already existing varieties, demanded measurements large than those in the Asian markets. Consequently the Indian weavers had to change their methods and their looms to accommodate this European demand. Many of them did so quite profitably, but it neccessitated long-term contracts and rendered spot orders improbable.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

Asia such as Malacca, Java and the Spice Islands. In this trade, the Coromandal textiles acted as a link in a multilateral trade, embracing the Coromandal, South-East Asia, West Asia, and the Mediterranean. In this trade, Coromandal textiles were exchanged for South-East Asian spices which were in turn meant for the West Asian and Mediterranean markets. The European market for Indian textiles actually developed around the middle of the 17th century, and thereafter it grew by leaps and bounds.

The intra-Asian trade witnessed severe competition among the various groups of merchants, such as the Portuguese, the Dutch, the English, the Danes, and the Indians consisting of both the Moors and the Chettis, whereas the European market for Indian textiles was dominated entirely by the European companies, particularly the English and the Dutch, with the Indian merchants acting essentially as middleman.

European participation in the foreign trade of India showed a marked increase in the second half of the 17th century. This increase can be seen clearly in the sharp rise in their investments, a large part of which was in textiles meant for the Asian markets as well as the European market. Though initially European investment in Indian textiles considerably exceeded those ordered for the European market, by the end of the 17th century the situation was reversed with two-thirds of it going for the European market and only one third for the European market and only one-third for the Asian market. Among the various European companies competing for Indian textiles, the main rivalry was between the Dutch and the English, with the former initially having an edge but the latter gradually gaining supremacy by the turn of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century. With regard to the textile varieties that were exported from the coromandal to South East Asia and other Asian markets, and later to Europe, the European records give us a very long list. The various types, in order of importance, were long-cloth, salempors, moris (chintz), guinea-cloth, bethiles, allegias, sarassas, tapis, and the like. All these varieties were being exported even during earlier periods to several Asian markets such as the Moluccan Spice Islands,Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the alay Peninsula, siam, Tenasserim, Pegu, Arakan,

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The Indian economy, more specifically its textile trade and industry, during the second half of the 17th century, was a seller' (i.e. producers') market. For, when the three European companies- English, Dutch and French (which had entered the fray in the 1670s) were competing in the open market, making large orders from India, and these were supplemented by European private trade and Indian trade, the weavers had greater flexibility and large freedom of operation. The interchangeability of goods ordered by these various buyers, who were aiming at broadly the same export market, made it possible for weaver produced was bought up by one or the other eager customers. If, for instance, any cloth produced by the weaver was rejected by the companies, then the weaver could sell it to English private traders. This situation existed in many parts of the country where the three companies as well as the other buyers were in free competition.

CHANGES IN THE ORGANISATION OF TRADE

One important feature of the trade organisation of India in the 17th and early 18th centuries is that indigenous merchants were generally mentioned in their individual capacity rather than as part of a mercantile organisation, an indication that the great merchant guilds of the medieval period were fast declining. Besides, the dividing line between independent merchants and merchants acting on behalf of the European companies was a very thin one. In several cases, in fact, a merchant functioned in both capacities. But the company record specifically mention several indigenous merchants as their rivals and competitors. Many of the native merchants, however, found that it was more profitable and less risky to act on behalf of the companies rather than

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make voyages on their own. In the organisational set-up of the companies, their function was fourfold; purchasing cloth for the company and acting as a link between it and the weavers; supervising weavers and minimising the company's risk by taking on bad debts; ensuring quality and timely delivery; and saving the company the necessity of laying out vast sums of money by making the initial advances themselves.

In all the European settlements in India, there evolved an office of chief merchant, held by one of two of the most prominent merchants of the settlement. This tendency to deal with one or two strong and powerful individuals, was stronger with one or two strong and powerful individuals, instead of a large number of diverse merchants, was stronger with the English than with the Dutch, while the french fell some where in between in this respect.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

With regard to the mercantile groups and their activities, the Hindus as a whole continued to dominate the commecial world of the coronmandal-overseas and coastal trading, wholesaling and retailing, brokerage, banking and shroffing. Among Hindu merchants, the most important were Telugu merchantile castes, viz, the komatis and balijas (belonging to the right hand faction- valankai), and beru chettis (left hand faction- idankai). Prominent Hindu individual merchants were asi Viranna (casa Verona), Malaya and his brother Chinanna, Narasimha Rama Chetti, Ben Rama Chetti, Kesara Chetti, Seshadri; Varadappa and Koneri Chetti.

the whole ordering and delivery process on a firm and sturdy footing, and their desire to ensure better maintenance of standards and greater control over the suppliers.

Muslim merchants of the Coromandal, indiscriminately referred to by the European as Moors, shared the domination of the overseas and coastal trade of the Coromandal with the Hindu merchants. The so-called Moors consisted of the Golconda Muslim merchants and the Chulia merchants of south Coromandal, both of whom had diverse ethnic origins. Other major merchant groups in the coromandal were Gujaratis and Armenians, who seem to have made Coromandal their home. Among the Muslim merchants, the most important personalities were Mir Jmla, Khwaja Nizam, Mir Kamal-ud-din, Mirza Muhammad, khwaja Hassan Ali, Mir Qasar and Khwaja Araby. A number of them had close political connections, and enjoyed a good bargaining position in their relations with the companies.

Indian merchant relationship with Europeans tended to become institutionalised by the beginning of the period under study, first in the form of chief merchants and later in the socalled joint-stock companies of association of the indigenous merchants, both of which had origins in the medieval Indian commercial practices though influenced and inspired by the European commercial innovations. Both the institutions were an outcome of the European need to put

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With regard to the merchant associations, all the available evidence suggests that they first came into existence in the 1660s in the Dutch settlements in India with the initiative and French companies companies followed suit, and encouraged the Indian merchants to form such associations in their settlements. These merchant association, however, began to decline rapidly as the 18th century advanced. By the Very nature of things a certain group of people, known as dalals (brokers) become indispensable to the trade organisation of India during this period, though broderage as an established commercial practice and brokers as a distinct commercial group existed in India throughout the medieval period. The brokers acted as a link between the producers, wholesaler, retailers, and consumers. Besides the primary job of procuring goods at cheaper rates for their clients, they performed a variety of functions. There was a hierarchical division among the brokers, each one of them was an important link in the over all set-up of commercial organisation. As mentioned earlier, most of the indigenous merchants of India during this period belonged to the various categories of broders.

BRITISH- FRENCH MONOPOLISTIC AMBITIONS

In the beginning of the eighteenth century, the English and the French were competing with each other to establish their supremacy in India. Both of them used the political turmoil prevalent in India as a result of the decline of the Mughal Empire in their favour and indulged in internal politics. The Anglo-French rivalry in India was manifest in the Carnatic region and in Bengal.

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The Carnatic Wars

The causes for the French failure can be summed up as follows: 1.

Commercial and naval superiority of the English.

2.

Lack of support from the French government.

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

The downfall of the Mughal Empire led to the independence of Deccan under Nizam-ulMulk. The Carnatic region also formed part of the Nizam's dominion. The ruler of the Carnatic accepted the suzerainty of the Nizam. In 1740, the Austrian War of Succession broke out in Europe. In that war England and France were in the opposite camps. They came into conflict in India also. The French governor of Pondicherry, Dupleix opened attack on the English in 1746 and thus began the First Carnatic War (1746-1748). The English sought help from the Nawab of Carnatic, Anwar Uddin. But the French concluded a treaty with his rival Chanda Sahib. The English army crushed a defeat on the French in the Battle of Adyar, near Madras. In the meantime, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle was concluded in 1748 to end the Austrian Succession War. Thus the First Carnatic War came to an end. But the English and French continued to take opposite sides in the internal politics of India. This had resulted in the Second Carnatic War (1749-1754). Dupleix supported the cause of Muzafar Jang, who wanted to become the Nizam of Hyderabad and Chanda Sahib, an aspirant for the throne of Arcot. The troops of these three defeated Anwar Uddin, who was with the British in the First Carnatic War, and killed him in the Battle of Ambur in 1749. After this victory, Muzafar Jung became the Nizam and Chanda Sahib the Nawab of Arcot. Muhammad Ali, son of Anwar Uddin escaped to Tiruchirappalli. The English sent troops in support of him. In the meantime, the British commander Robert Clive captured Arcot. He also inflicted a severe defeat on the French at Kaveripakkam. Chanda Sahib was captured and beheaded in Tanjore. Meanwhile Dupleix was replaced by Godeheu as the French governor. The war came to an end by the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754.

French agreed to confine its activities in Pondicherry, Karaikkal, Mahe and Yenam. Thus the Anglo-French rivalry came to a close with British success and French failure.

The outbreak of the Seven Years War (17561763) in Europe led to the Third Carnatic War (1758-1763). Count de Lally was the commander of the French troops. The British General Sir Eyre Coote defeated him at Wandiwash in 1760. In the next year, Pondicherry was captured and destroyed by the British troops. The Seven Years War came to an end by the Treaty of Paris in 1763. The Third Carnatic War also ended. The

3.

French had support only in the Deccan but the English had a strong base in Bengal.

4.

English had three important ports Calcutta, Bombay and Madras but French had only Pondicherry.

5.

Difference of opinion between the French Generals.

6.

England's victory in the European wars decided the destiny of the French in India.

Establishment of British Power in Bengal

Bengal remained one of the fertile and wealthy regions of India. The English ascendancy in Bengal proved to be the basis for the expansion of English rule in India. The conflict between the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-udDaula and the English led to the Battle of Plassey held on 23 June 1757. Robert Clive, the Commander of the British troops emerged victorious by defeating the Nawab's army. The easy English victory was due to the treachery of Mir Jabar, the Commander of Nawab's army. However, the victory of the British in the Battle of Plassey marked the foundation of the British rule in India. In 1764, the English once again defeated the combined forces of the Nawab of Oudh, the Mughal Emperor and the Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Buxar. The English military superiority was decisively established. In 1765, Robert Clive was appointed as the Governor of Bengal. In the same year, the Treaty of Allahabad was concluded by which the Mughal Emperor granted the Diwani rights to the English East India Company. Thus the British power in India was thoroughly established.






[128]

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8. Which of the following monuments was not built by the rulers of Delhi Sultanate? (a) Qutab Minar (b) Red Fort (c) Ferozshah Fort (d) Tuhglaqabad Fort

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

1. Who among the following shifted his capital from Delhi to Agra? (a) Ala-ud-din Khilji (b) Ferozshah Tughlaq (c) Sikander Lodi (d) Nasiruddin Muhammad 2. Sikkhism owes its origin to the teachings of (a) Guru Nanak (b) Guru Teg Bahadur (c) Guru Ram Das (d) Guru Govind Singh

3. Which one of the following rulers forbade the Kalima being inscribed on coins? (a) Aurangzeb (b) Shah Jahan (c) Akbar (d) Humayun 4. In which one of the following battles was Humayun finally defeated and made to go into exile? (a) The Battle of Kannauj (b) The Battle of Chausa (c) The Battle of Chunar (d) The Battle of Machhiwara

5. Alberuni, who wrote many books on history, science and astrology, lived in the court of (a) Ala-ud-din-Khilji (b) Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (c) Mohammad Ghazni (d) Mohammad Ghori

6. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq failed as a King mainly because of (a) Inability of the people to appreciate his novel schemes (b) Forign invasions (c) His liberal attitude to his enemies (d) Lack of political will 7. The Panipat War of 1761 was fought between (a) Ahmed Shah Abdali and the Marathas (b) Lodi and Babar (c) Hemu and Akbar (d) Ahmed Shah Abdali and Nadir Shah

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9. Which of the following is not included in Mughal paintings? (a) Portraits (b) Islamic themes (c) Flowers and plants (d) Hunting scenes

10. The capital of Mysore during Tipu Sultan's rule was (a) Hyderabad (b) Bangalore (c) Thaneshwar (d) Srirangapatanam 11. What was the major cause of the defeat of Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761? (a) Peshwa's son Vishwas Rao was killed in the battle. (b) Marathas gave up the guerilla methods of warfare and engaged their army in a pitched battle against the enemy. (c) The strength of enemy's army was more than the Marathas. (d) None of the above 12. Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched (a) Chandragupta Maurya - Megasthenes (b) Chandragupta Vikramaditya - Hiuen Tsang (c) Sultan Mahmud - Alberuni (d) Akbar - Abul Fazal 13. Ibrahim Lodi was elevated to the throne at Agra in the year (a) 1517 (b) 1571 (c) 1715 (d) 1751 14. The third battle of Panipat was (a) Mughals and Rajputs (b) Mughals and Afghans (c) Rajputs and Sikhs (d) Marathas and Afghans

[129]

15. Who among the following Sultans of Delhi chose his high offices exclusively from among the turkish families? (a) Ala-udd-in Khilji (b) Firoz Shah Tuglaq (c) Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq (d) None of above

23. The court poet of Akbar was (a) Tulsidas (b) Faizi (c) Abdur Rahim Khan Khana (d) Qudar Khan

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

16. Akbar founded Din-i-Ilhai primarily to (a) Ensure racial and communal harmony (b) Establish a brotherhood of faiths (c) Put an end to differences between the Hindus and the Muslims (d) Form a religious club

22. Babar was invited to India by (a) Ibrahim Lodi (b) Mohammad Lodi (c) Sikandar Lodi (d) Daulat Khan Lodi

17. Who among the following the following Bhakti leaders used the medium of drama incorporating themes from the Puranas to spread his ideas? (a) Jnanadeva in Marathi (b) Chandidasa in Bengali (c) Shankaradeva in Assamese (d) Purandaradasa in Kannada

18. The two principal monuments of Ala-uddin Khilji's reign - the Jama'at Khana Masjid and Alai Darwaza - were constructed at (a) Agra (b) Delhi (c) Dhar (d) Gulbarga 19. Match the columns: (a) Amir Khurso (b) Din-i-Illahi (c) Qutab Minar (d) Chand Bardai A B C D (a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 4 3 1 2 (c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 4 3 2 1

1. 2. 3. 4.

16th 12th 14th 13th

century century century century

20. Ala-ud-din Khilji had abolished the Jagir system which was later revived by (a) Mohammad Tughlaq (b) Feroz Shah Tughlaq (c) Bahlol Lodi (d) Ibrahim Lodi

21. Who brought the Islam religion to India for the first time? (a) Muhammad bin Qasim (b) Muhammad Ghori (c) Mahmud of Gazni (d) Qutub-ud-din Aibak

[130]

24. Why did Md. Bin Tughlak change his capital from Delhi to Hyderabad/Deogiri? (a) Because he wanted to improve trade in the Deccan (b) Because he wanted to spread Islam in the Deccan (c) Because he wanted to punish the people of Delhi (d) Because he wanted to escape from Mongolian invasion 25. Ain-i-Akbari gives information about India (a) Customs and manners (b) Economic condition (c) Religion and Philosophy (d) All of the above

26. Which one of the following was the first fort constructed by the British in India? (a) Fort William (b) Fort St. George (c) Fort St. David (d) Fort St. Angelo

27. Who among the following Europeans were the last to come to pre independence India as traders? (a) Dutch (b) English (c) French (d) Portuguese 28. Who among the following wrote the poem, Subh-e-Aza-di? (a) Sahir Ludhiyanvi (b) Faiz Ahmad Faiz (c) Muhammad Iqbal (d) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad 29. With whose permission did the English set up their first factory in Surat? (a) Akbar (b) Jahangir (c) Shahjahan (d) Aurangzeb

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30. The invasion of Timur destroyed (a) Tuglaq Dynasty (b) Khiliji Dynasty (c) Maurya Dynasty (d) Gupta Dynasty

34. Who amongst the following, is believed to have been the 'destroyer' of the Khilji dynasty, including Alaud-din-Khilji? (a) Nasir-ud-din Khusrau Shah (b) Malik Kafur (c) Ghazi Malik (d) Qutub-ud-din Mubarak Shah

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

31. In the battle of Haldighati (a) Mohammad Gauri defeated Prithviraj Chauhan (b) Rana Pratap defeated Akbar (c) Akbar defeated Rana Pratap (d) Ibrahim Lodi defeated Babar

33. Medical encyclopedias and pharmacopeas were composed at this time, the most famous being that of Charaka who was a contemporary of (a) Chandragupta Maurya (b) Ashoka (c) Kanishka (d) Samudragupta

32. When Timur invaded India at about the close of the fourteenth century, the dynasty that ruled the Sultanate of Delhi was (a) Lodhis (b) Sayyids (c) Tughlaqs (d) Khiljis

35. Who among the following Delhi Sultans, died in consequence of a fall, from his horse while playing Chaugan or Polo? (a) Muhammad of Ghor (b) Qutub-ud-Aibak (c) Illutmish (d) Ghiyas-ud-din Balban






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[131]

CHRONICLE

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(c)

19.

(a)

2.

(a)

20.

(b)

3.

(a)

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(a)

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(a)

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(d)

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(c)

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(b)

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(a)

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(d)

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(c)

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(b)

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(b)

17.

(b)

35.

(b)

18.

(b)

C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y

1.






[132]

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CONTENTS

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

1. European Penetration and British Conquest of India ............................................ 5 2. Major Battles .................................................................................................................... 9

3. British Policies ............................................................................................................... 19 4. Social and Cultural Awakening in India ................................................................ 26

5. Resistance to British Rule ........................................................................................... 32 6. The Great Revolt of 1857 ............................................................................................. 39

7. Indian Nationalism....................................................................................................... 45 8. Indian National Congress ........................................................................................... 51

9. Nationalist Movement, 1905-1918: Growth of Militant Nationalism ................ 55 10. Struggle for Swaraj - I, 1919 - 1927 ............................................................................ 58 11. Struggle for Swaraj - II, 1927-1947 ............................................................................. 61

12. Constitutional Developments .................................................................................... 69 13. British Education Policy and Growth of Modern Education .............................. 73

14. Indian Press Under the British Rule......................................................................... 75 15. Governor-Generals of India ....................................................................................... 79

16. Indian Princely States .................................................................................................. 87 17. Chronology of Events .................................................................................................. 94

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EUROPEAN PENETRATION AND BRITISH CONQUEST OF INDIA

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1961. The naval monopoly of Portuguese was shattered by the Dutch.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Portuguese

•

•

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in India in 1498. The closing of the traditional trade routes western Asia by the Ottomans and rivalry with the Italian states, set Portugal in search of an alternate sea route to India. The first successful voyage to India was by Vasco da Gama on May 17, 1498, when he arrived in Calicut, now in Kerala piloted by Abdul Majid and was received by the Hindu king, Zamorin.

•

Vasco da Gama visited India for a second time in 1502.

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The Portuguese established a chain of outposts along the Indian west coast and on the island of Ceylon in the early 16th century which were called Feitorias.

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In 1501, Portuguese established Cochin as their first trading station in India, it was the early capital of Portuguese in India.

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In 1505, Franchise De Almedia (1502-09) was sent as first Portuguese governor to India to establish Portuguese naval supremacy in this region.

•

He was followed by Alfonso de Albuerque in 1509 who was the real founder of Portuguese power in India. In 1510, Albuquerque captured Goa from ruler of Bijapur, and also controlled over parts of Rajouri and Dabhol thereby bringing Bijapur naval trade at stand still. Albuquerque encouraged his countrymen to marry Indian women and abolished Sati.

•

Nino-da-Cunha transferred the Portuguese capital from Cochin to Goa in 1530 and acquired Diu in 1535 and Daman in 1559.

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The famous Jesuit Saint Francisco Xavier came to India with the governor Martin Alfonso De Souza.

•

The Portuguese power witnessed a decline by the end of the 16th century as they lost Hugli in 1631 after being driven out by Qasim Khan, a Mughal noble. They lost Hormuz in 1622 to the British. The Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein in 1739. Ultimately the Portuguese were left only with Goa, Daman and Diu, which they retained till

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•

In 1661, the Portuguese king gave Bombay to Charles II of England as dowry for marrying his sister.

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The Portuguese made spice trade particularly (pepper trade) a monopoly.

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The Portuguese had armed vessels plying in the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea.

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Ships carrying commodities which were not given passes (cartage) by the Portuguese officials were confiscated by them. The cartage was first issued in 1502, which was available at their custom house. The booty thus obtained yielded a sizeable source of income which was again invested in trade. In cartage, it was specifically mentioned that certain items like pepper, horses, ginger, coir, ship, pitch, sulphur, lead, saltpeter, cinnamon, etc. were not to be loaded on others ships.

British

The Growth of the East India Company's Trade and Influence (1600-1740) •

John Mildenhall, a merchant adventurer was the first Englishman who arrived in India in 1599 by overland route ostensibly for the purpose of trade with Indian merchants.

•

The English East India Company was formed by a group of merchants known as 'Merchant Adventures' in 1599. The company was given a Charter by Queen Elizabeth-I on 31 December 1600, giving it the monopoly of Eastern trade for fifteen years.

•

In 1608, the company decided to open a factory (the name given to a trading depot) at Surat. The English ambassador Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir's Court to seek permission for trade with India. He was granted a Mansab of 400 zat.

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In 1611, as a result of Portuguese intrigue, he was expelled and had to leave Agra for Surat, where he met Henry Middleton head of three big English ships.

5

In 1612, two English naval ships under Captain Best reached Surat, defeated a Portuguese naval squadron at Cwally near Surat and again in 1615 by Nicholas Downtown.

•

A firman was issued by Jahangir permitting the English to build a factory at Surat (1613) under Thomas Aldworth and also on the west coast.

•

Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James to Jahangir's court in 1615, received imperial firman to trade and establish factories in different parts of India.

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On Sir John Childs plea Aurangzeb granted them permission to trade on payment of Rs 1,50,000 as compensation.

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The company acquired zamindari of Sutanati, Kalikata and Govindpur (1698), which later grew into the city of Calcutta.

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The factory at Sutanati was fortified and named Fort William (1700) and all settlements in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were placed under Fort William (1700).

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

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In 1619, by the time Sir Thomas Roe left India, English had already set up factories in different parts of India.

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Captain Bust succeeded in getting a royal firman to open factories in Surat, Cambaya, Ahmedabad and Goa in 1613.

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In South, factories were established at Masulipatnam in 1611 and at Armagaon (near Pulicat) in 1626.

•

Francis Day obtained the site of Madras from the Raja of Chandragiri with permission to build a fortified factory (1639) which was named Fort St. George. All the English settlements in Eastern India (Bengal, Bihar and Orissa) and their command were placed under the control of the president and council of Fort St. George in 1661.

•

Dr. William Hamilton, a member of Surman commission, cured Farrukhsiyar of a painful disease. Farrukhsiyar granted a firman in 1717 for duty free trade. The firman also gave British the right to rent additional territory around Calcutta. In return for an annual payment of sum of Rs 10,000 it was exempted from payment of all dues at Surat.

•

The company's coins minted at Bombay were allowed currency throughout Mughal Empire.

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Bombay was fortified in 1720 by Charles Boon.

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The company's superior body court of directors was based in London while its subordinate body was in Asia.

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Each factory was administrated by a Governor-inCouncil. The governor was the President of Council with no extra privileges. Everything was decided in council by majority votes. The members of the council consisted senior merchants of the company.

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The company acquired Bombay from Charles II on lease of 10 pounds annually. Gerald Aunger was the first governor from 1669 to 1677. Later, Bombay replaced Surat as headquarters of the company on west coast.

•

•

In Eastern India, English company had opened its first factories in Orissa at Hariharpur (1633), and also opened factories at Patna, Balasore (1633), Decca and other places in Bengal and Bihar.

The Court of directors was the supreme authority in framing policies for the country.

•

No non-member was allowed to trade with East or to share its high profits.

The Sultan of Golkunda issued the company the Golden Firman allowing them to trade within the parts of the kingdom freely on payment of duties worth 500 pagodas a year (1632).

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Many English merchants continued to trade in Asia inspite of monopoly of East India Company.

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They called themselves Free Merchants and the company called them 'interlopers'.

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In 1694, Parliament passed a resolution that all citizens of England had equal rights to trade in the East.

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The rivals of the company founded another company known as 'New Company' and was consequently granted monopoly of trade with East.

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Old company refused to give up its profitable trade. After long drawn conflict, both the companies agreed to join hands and a new company. 'The Limited Company of Merchant of English trading to the East India' was formed in 1708.

•

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The English East India company got a nishan from Sultan Shuja in 1651 which they received trading privileges in return for a fixed annual payment of Rs 3,000.

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By another nishan the English company was exempted from custom dues in 1656.

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In 1689, English under Sir Joseph Child captured two Mughal ships, which prompted Aurangzeb to order Siddis to block Bombay.

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English factories at Surat Masulipatnam, Vizagpatnam were seized and their fort at Bombay besieged.

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Dutch • •

Dutch Company was governed through 17 directors commonly known as the Gentleman XVII. The main interest of the Dutch was in the Indonesian archipelago and the Spice Islands, but later they broke the Portuguese monopoly in India.

The French company was created, financed and controlled by the State and it differed from the English company which was a private commercial venture.

•

In 1667, a French group under Francois Caron reached India and in 1668, he set up the first French factory at Surat.

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Later, Maracara set up a factory at Masulipatnam in 1669 by securing a patient from the Sultan of Golkunda.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602; its chief administrative centre was Batavia. In 1595, first Dutch expedition under Cornelis de Houliman crossed the Cape of Good Hope to reach Sumatra and Bantam (1596).

•

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In 1672, Admiral De La Haye defeated Sultan of Golkunda and Dutch, to capture San Thome.

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In 1673, two French (Francious Martin and Bellanger De Lesp-iniary) acquired from the Muslim governor of Valikoinda-puram, Sher Khan Lodi a small village.

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They popularized textile trade and also exported indigo, saltpetre and raw silk.

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In 1639, Dutch encircled Goa, in 1641 captured Malaysia, in 1658 Ceylon (Sri Lanka) the largest Portuguese settlement was captured by the Dutch.

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They had two factories in the interior of the Golkunda territories.

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The village developed into Pondichery and its first governor was Francois Martin.

• •

They got the right to mint coins at Pulicat in 1657. By firman of 1676, the Golkunda ruler granted the Dutch complete freedom from tariffs in Golkunda.

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They acquired Chandernagore in Bengal from Mughal governor Shayista Khan in 1690.

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In 1693, Dutch snatched Pondicherry from French but was restored in 1697 by treaty of Ryswick.

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In 1706, population of Pondichery was 40,000 while population of Calcutta was only 22,000 - which shows the prosperity of Pondichery.

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Pondicherry (Fort Louis) was made the headquarters of all French settlements in India and Francois Martin became the governor general of French affairs in India.

•

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In Bengal region two more factories were established by the Dutch in Khanakul in 1689 and in Malda in 1676 but both had to close down soon.

The Dutch succeeded in getting firman from the Mughal Emperor Jahangir for trading along the West-coast.

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They were exempted from tolls from Burhanpur to Combay and Ahmedabad.

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Shah Alam granted total exemption to the company from paying transit throughout the Mughal Empire.

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Aurangzeb confirmed all privileges granted by Shahjahan to the Dutch in Bengal in 1662.

In 1720, the company was reconstituted as Perpetual Company of the Indies.

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The French power in India was revived under Lienor and Dumas (who were governors between 1720 and 1742).

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Jahandar Shah confirmed all the privileges granted by Aurangzeb in Coromandel in 1712.

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Dutch commercial activities began to decline by the beginning of 18th century and with the Battle of Bedera with the English in 1759 came to an end.

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They occupied Mauritius in 1721, Calicut in 1739, Male in 1725 and Yanam, in Coromandal and Karaikal in 1739.

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By 1795, the English succeeded in expelling the Dutch completely.

•

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In 1667, Dutch agreed to leave alone English settlements in India, while English gave up all claims to Indonesia.

Duplex was an important French governor in India (1742). His coming saw the beginning of AngloFrench conflict (Carnatic wars) resulting in their final defeat in India.

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The French maintained close ties with Dost Ali, the Nawab of Carnatic.

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On recommendation of Dost Ali, the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah issued a firman granting permission to the French to mint and

French

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French East India Company was formed under state patronage by Colbert in 1664 under the reign of Louis XIV.

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issue gold and silver currency bearing the stamp of Mughal emperor and the name of the place of minting.

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The Dutch blocked the French commercial activities at Hugli.

The Danish formed an East India Company and arrived in India in 1616.

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They seized San Thome near Madras in 1672 but were soon defeated by the combined forces of Sultan of Golkunda and the Dutch. Later, the Dutch established their control over San Thome.

They established settlements at Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu) in 1620 and at Serampore (Bengal) in 1676. Serampore was their headquarter in India.

•

•

In Dutch-French rivalry, the Dutch were always supported by the English.

At one time the Danish and Swedish East Asia companies together imported more tea to Europe than the British did.

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After 1742, the French governor Duplex began the policy of extending territorial empire in India and started political occupations, leading to series of conflicts with English.

They could not establish their position in India and eventually sold all their Indian settlements to the English in 1845.

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They fought a decisive battle at Wandiwash against the East India Company in 1760 and lost almost all their possessions in India.

They were more concerned with missionary activities than trade. They established their factories at Masulipatnam and Porto Novo.

•

•

Final settlement of the French with that of English was done by the treaty of Paris (1763), by which Pondicherry and some other French settlements were returned to the French.

During the 18th century the English and the French succeeded in ousting the Dutch and the Portuguese traders from the Indian soil and became fiercely competitive. Soon after the death of Aurangzeb, the political stability of the subcontinent dwindled leading to the interference of the English and the French in the affairs of the country.

•

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

Danish






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Nawab of Carnatic for the custody of Madras after its reduction in 1746.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

The Carnatic Wars

Reminiscent of European hostilities of the eighteen century, Anglo-French rivalry beginning with the outbreak of the Austrian War of Succession and ending with the conclusion of the Seven Years War, resonated in India in the animosity between the English and the French East India Companies; which issued the British expansion in South India. The French settlement was headquartered at Pondicherry with subordinate factories at Masulipatnam, Karaikal, Mahe, Surat and Chandernagore. The principal settlements of English included Madras, Bombay and Calcutta.

•

The First Carnatic came to an end after the conclusion of hostilities in Europe with signing of the Treaty of Aix-La-Chappelle in 1848 which also concluded the 18-month long siege over Fort St. David. Results •

The Treaty of Aix-La-Chappelle that concluded the war mandated the return of Madras back to the English company in exchange of Louisburg in North America to France.

•

The First Carnatic war demonstrated the importance of naval power in the Anglo-French conflict and the superiority of the small, welldisciplined and relatively modern European army against the much larger, loose Indian civvies.

First Carnatic War (1746-1748) Causes •

•

The Anglo-French animosity in India ensued as a sequel to the state of affairs in Europe with the breakout of the Austrian War of Succession in March 1740 in which the English and the French were on opposite sides. This animosity was fuelled by the trading rivalry of the companies which climaxed with the arrival of Dupleix (who wanted to strengthen the French position) as the French Governor of Pondicherry in 1742.

Course/Events •

•

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The English navy under Barnett took the offensive and captured French ships. Dupleix, the French Governor General, appealed to La Bourdonnais, the French Governor of Mauritius (Isle of France) for help and the latter responded with a squadron of over 3000 men; defeating the English fleet, and reaching the Coromandal coast on 7 July 1746. Madras besieged by the French both by land and the sea capitulated to the French on 21st September 1746. However, it was restored to the English by La Bourdonnais for a ransom of £ 4,00,000 without the consent of Dupliex who later recaptured Madras but was unsuccessful in capturing Fort St. David. The Battle of St. Thome, on the banks of the River Adyar followed in which the French fought and defeated the Indian forces of Anwar-ud-din, the

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Second Carnatic War (1748-1754) •

Though the Anglo-French rivalry ended in Europe, it continued in India; where encouraged by his success against the Nawab’s forces, Dupleix sought to increase his power and the French political influence in Southern India by interfering in local dynastic disputes in a bid to outmaneuver the English. Causes •

On 21st May 1748 Subedar of Deccan i.e. the Nizam of Hyderabad Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah died, which resulted in a war of succession between his second son Nasir Jang and the Nizam’s grandson/the former’s nephew Muzaffar Jang on the ground that he was appointed by the Mughal Emperor as the Subedar of Deccan.

•

In Carnatic, the right of Nawab Anwaruddin was disputed by Chanda Sahib, son in law of former Nawab Dost Ali.

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The two conflicts were merged into one and alliances formed as Muzzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahib joined under French support while Nasir Jang and Anwaruddin aligned together with the English help. Thus the disputes over the thrones of Hyderabad and Carnatic became the cause of the war.

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Thus, Godeheu and his incompetent Generals Astru and Maisi lost those territories which Dupleix had won.

Course/Events •

Anwaruddin’s son Muhammad Ali fled to Trichinopoly and Chanda Sahib became Nawab of Carnatic while Muzaffar Jang became Subedar of Deccan after the encounter death of Nasir Jung in 1750.

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The English emerged victorious and Muhammad Ali was appointed Nawab of Carnatic.

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In Hyderabad, the French General, Bussy maintained a steady ascendency of the French with a grant of the Northern Sarkars by Subedar Salabat Jung (Muzaffar Jang had been killed in accidental skirmish in Feb, 1751) consisting of the districts of Mustafanagar, Ellore, Rajahmundry and Chicacole, generating annual revenue of more than Rs 30 lakhs to meet expense of maintaining the French army.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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The combined armies of Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib and French defeated and killed Anwa ruddin at the battle of Ambur near Vellore in August 1749.

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Dupleix was appointed Governor of all the Mughal territories south of river Krishna. Some districts in Northern Circars were also surrendered to the French, including famous market town of Masulipatam. In return Bussey with a French army was stationed at Hyderabad.

In 1750, the situation changed with the appointment of Saunders as Madras Governor; who decided to assist Muhammad Ali and on the suggestion of Robert Clive, the British under the former captured Arcot, the capital of Carnatic in a bid to divert pressure on Trichinopoly in August 1751, successfully sustaining the siege for fifty three days (September 23 to November 14) and demoralizing the French.

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Subsequently, the British under Major Stringer Lawrence relieved Trichinopoly defeating the French forces and Chanda Sahib in Arni and Kaveripakkam in 1752. Chanda Sahib was treacherously killed by Raja of Tanjore.

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However, Dupleix not one to give up, won over Morari Rao, the Maratha chief of Mysore and secured the neutrality of Raja of Tanjore, thereby renewing the siege of Trichinopoly in December 1752 which continued for more than one year, both sides succeeding alternatively.

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Dupleix failure to capture Trichinopoly along with his political ambitions and ruinous expenses sealed his fate as he was recalled by the Directors of French Company in 1754. With his recall the second Carnatic war came to an end.

Third Carnatic War (1756-1763) Causes •

Course/Events •

In 1757, The British under Clive defeated Sirajuddaula and captured Bengal. Clive and Watson also won Chandernagar, the French possession in Bengal, thus capacitating the British finances.

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The French government sent Count-de-Lally as the Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the French possessions in India, who soon after his arrival attacked and captured Fort St. David in 1758. The French military effort could not be sustained in Tanjore and on Indian waters due to lack of naval cooperation, shortage of finances and ammunition, mutual distrust, etc.

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However, Lally continued to challenge the British and called Bussy from Hyderabad, leaving the French forces under the incompetent Commander Corntla. Seizing the opportunity, Clive sent Colonel Ford from Bengal to Northern Circars and occupying Rajahmundry and Masulipatnam, the English concluded a favourable treaty with Salabat Jang, the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1759.

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The decisive battle of the third Carnatic War was fought at Wandiwash on 22 January, 1760 where Sir Eyre Coote defeated Lally.

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Bussy was taken prisoner; Lally retreated to Pondicherry and signed a treaty with Haider Ali. However, Pondicherry after a blocade of eight months was surrendered to the English on 16 January, 1761. Mahe, Jinji were lost by French in quick succession.

Results •

In August 1754, Godeheu replaced Dupleix as Governor-General of French possessions in India and reopened negotiations with the British; concluding a provisional peace treaty - the Treaty of Pondicherry in January 1755 according to which each party was left in possession of the territories that it actually occupied at the time of the treaty.

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The third Carnatic war was an echo of the outbreak of the Seven Years War in Europe and ended the short peace between the European Companies in India.

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Results •

The third Carnatic war came to an end in 1763 by the Treaty of Paris.

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Pondicherry, Karaikal and some other French settlements were returned to the French by the Treaty but these were never to be fortified. This sealed the French ambitions in India and with the English conquest of Bengal and the significant disposal of resources; it furthered the growth of British power in Bengal.


Battle of Plassey, 1757 Causes •

On Alivardi Khan’s death in 1756, Siraj-ud-daula, his grandson became the Nawab of Bengal at 24. Soon after his accession to the throne, the Nawab came into conflicts with the English in Bengal.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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confirmation from Emperor Mohammad Shah by paying a huge amount.

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Siraj prevented the English from fortifying Fort William. However the English refused to stop the new fortification which prompted the Nawab to attack their factory at Cassim Bazar.

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In 1651, much pleased with services of Mr. Boughton in curing a royal lady the Subehdar granted the company the privilege of free trade throughout Bengal, Bihar and Orissa for nominal a lumpsum payment of Rs. 3,000.

The Nawab captured Fort William, taking 146 Englishmen prisoners. Holed up in a very small room 123 died on 20th June, 1756 out of suffocation and only 23 survived. English historians describe this incident as the Black Hole Tragedy.

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In 1689, the English obtained from Subedar Azimus-Shan the zamindari of three villages Sutanati, Kalikata and Govindpur, the present site of Calcutta on payment of Rs. 1,200 to previous proprietors.

This incident instigated the English at Chennai to send a relieving force under Robert Clive alongwith Admiral Watson to Bengal. And Clive entered into a conspiracy with Mir jafar, the Commander-inChief of Siraj-ud-daulah.

Course/Events

Growth of British Power in Bengal

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The first English factory in Bengal was established at Hugli in 1651 under permission from Sultan Shuja, Subedar of Bengal, the second son of Emperor Shah Jahan.

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In 1700, Murshid Quli Khan was appointed Diwan of Bengal and started administering as real ruler.

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There were three rebellions during Murshid Quli Khan’s reign. First by Sitaram Ray, Uday Narayan and Ghulam Mohammad. Second, by Shujat Khan and third and last by Najat Khan.

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In 1705, Aurangzeb appointed Murshid Quli Khan as Governor of Bengal and later placed Orissa under his authority. He shifted his capital from Dacca to Murshidabad and after Aurangzeb’s death, founded an independent kingdom.

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Murshid Quli Khan was succeeded by his soninlaw Shuja-ud-daula Khan who added Bihar to his dominions, where he appointed Alivardi Khan as his deputy.

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In 1717, Emperor Farukhsiyar confirmed the trade privileges granted by earlier Subedar of Bengal, besides according permission to the company to rent additional territory around Calcutta.

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Shuja died in 1739 and was succeeded by his son Sarfaraz Khan.

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In 1741, Alivardi Khan, Deputy Governor of Bihar under Nawab Sarfaraz Khan rose in revolt killed Nawab and became Subedar of Bengal, got

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Clive marched towards Plassey on 23rd June, 1757; which was near the Nawab’s capital of Murshidabad.

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As agreed earlier, Mir Jafar, the Commander-inchief of Siraj-ud-daula did not take up arms against the English army and on the other hand the Nawab’s soldiers fled from the battlefield.

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Later the Nawab was killed by Miran, Mir Jafar’s son and the latter was made the Nawab of Bengal as promised by Clive.

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The conspirators against Siraj, besides Mir Jafar included Manick Chand, the office-in-charge of Calcutta, Amichand, a rich merchant, Jagat Seth, the biggest banker of Bengal and Khadim Khan, who commanded a large number of the Nawab’s troops.

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Mir Madan and Mohan Lal, loyal to the Nawab fought bravely but were killed due to treachery of Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh.

Results •

The battle of Plassey was merely a skirmish but in its results was one of the most decisive battles in Indian history as it paved the way for the foundation of the English rule in India.

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(iii) He confirmed Balwant Singh, Zamindar of Benares in full possession of his estate; While also being forced to maintain English troops for the defence of the state. •

Mir Jafar became a puppet in the hands of Clive and could not satisfy the demands of the English. He was forced to resign in 1760.

Fugitive Emperor Shah Alam was taken under the Company’s protection and was to reside at Allahabad where he was assigned Allahabad and Kara ceded by the Nawab of Awadh. The Emperor in turn issued a firman on 12 Aug 1765 granting to the Company in perpetuity the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in return for the Company making an annual payment of Rs. 26 lakhs to him and providing for expenses of Nizamat of said provinces which was fixed at Rs. 53 lakhs.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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The English acquired a large sum of money from the new Nawab - the first installment of wealth paid to the Company being a sum of £ 8,00,000, all paid in coined selve. Jafar granted the English, zamindari of 24 Parganas and a personal gift of 2,34,000 pound to Clive.

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His son-in-law, Mir Kasim succeeded him but in due course of time he too failed to satisfy the growing demands of the English.


Battle of Buxar, 1764 Causes •

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Mir Kasim was a young, energetic and ambitious ruler. Wanting to be independent he shifted his capital to Monghyr, a place far away from Calcutta. He also employed foreign experts to train his army. Mir Qasim took a drastic step to abolish all inland duties, thus placing the Indian merchants on the same as the English. The English decided to overthrow him and war broke out between Mir Kasim and the Company in 1763. Mir Qasim escaped to Oudh to organise a confederacy with Shuja-ud-daula, the Nawab of Oudh and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II in a final bid to oust the English from Bengal. The Combined armies of the three powers numbering between 40,000 to 60,000 met the English army of 7,072 troops commanded by Major Munro in the battle of Buxar on October 22, 1764.

Course/Events •

The combined armies were defeated by the British. Mir Qasim fled from the battle and the other two surrendered to the English.

Results •

Clive was sent out to India as Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the British possession in Bengal in 1765 and he made political settlements with Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh and Emperor Shah Alam II concluding the Treaty of Allahabad (16 August 1765) which ended the Battle of Buxar.

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By the Treaty Shuja-ud-Daulah was confirmed in his possessions on the following conditions: (i)

The Nawab surrendered Allahabad and Kara to Emperor Shah Alam;

(ii) He agreed to pay Rs. 50 lakh to the Company as war indemnity;

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The Battle of Buxar made the English virtually the masters of Bengal as it also proved their military superiority and unchallenged power.

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As a result of his success in Bengal, Robert Clive was appointed the first Governor General of Bengal and he consolidated the British power both in Bengal and in the Deccan.

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The Company acquired Diwani functions from Emperor Shah Alam II (12th August 1765) and Nizamat functions from Subedar of Bengal. For the exercise of Diwani functions, the company appointed two Deputy Diwans, Mohammad Reza Khan for Bengal and Raja Shitab Roy for Bihar. Md. Reza Khan acted as deputy Nizam. This arrangement was known as Dual Government wherein the administration of Bengal was carried out by two heads with the Nawab of Bengal being the nominal head and the Company, as the Diwan controlled the revenue as well as police and judicial powers.

In time, the Company authorities in England stopped sending money from England to purchase Indian goods, instead they purchased goods from revenues of Bengal and sold them abroad. Clive compelled servants of the Company to sign ‘covenants’ prohibiting acceptance of presents and forbade ‘servants’ of the Company from indulging in private trade and made payment of internal duties obligatory. A Society of Trade was formed in August 1765 with monopoly of trade in salt, betelnut and tobacco, but he abolished it in January1765. Clive issued an order with effect from 1st January 1766 according to which double allowance would be paid only to officers on service outside frontiers of Bengal and Bihar.

The Mysore Wars

Haider Ali, born in 1721 was the son of a faujdar of the Mysore army. He started his career as an ordinary 12

soldier. Though unlettered his hardwork, determination, keen intellect, admirable courage and commonsense took him to the post of Commander inchief of the army. When the ruler of Mysore died he proclaimed himself the ruler and became the Sultan of Mysore.

First Mysore War (1767-1769)

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But the English under Sir Eyre Coote, defeated Hyder Ali at Porto Novo in 1781. In the meantime Hyder Ali died in 1782.

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But his son Tipu Sultan continued the war with the British for two more years.

Results

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Causes

and made the English surrender. He occupied almost the whole of Carnatic.

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Hyder Ali strengthened his army by including French soldiers into his service. In 1755, established modern arsenal in Dindigul with French help. He extended his territories by conquering many areas in South India including Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara, and Malabar to gain access to Indian Ocean.

His rapid rise fuelled the jealousy of the Marathas, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the English who joined together and formed a triple alliance and declared war on Hyder Ali.

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The war came to an end with an agreement signed in 1784 called the treaty of Mangalore.

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Both sides agreed to exchange the captured territories and war prisoners.

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Thus the second Mysore war came to an end without any tangible results.

Third Mysore War (1786-1793) Causes •

The English started improving their relationship with the Nizam and the Marathas.

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Tipu Sultan on the other hand improved his resources with the French help.

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He attacked Travancore in 1789, a friendly state of the British which prompted Lord Cornwallis who had been made the Governor General of Bengal and the Commander-in-Chief of the English army in 1786; to declare a war on Tipu in 1790.

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Both the sides were victorious and defeated alternately and the war came to an end in 1792.

Course/Events •

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By his diplomacy Hyder Ali cleverly won over the Marathas and the Nizam but under the leadership of the English General, Smith, Hyder Ali was defeated at Changam and Tiruvannamalai in 1767. At the same time Tipu Sultan, son of Hyder Ali advanced towards Madras and the English were forced to enter into an agreement.

Results •

The war ended by the Treaty of Madras in 1769

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Territories conquered during the war were restored to each other.

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The English agreed to help Hyder Ali in case of an attack by his enemies, the Nizam and the Marathas.

Second Mysore War (1780-1784) Causes •

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Mysore was attacked by the Marathas in 1771. In violation of the Treaty of Madras, the English did not help Hyder Ali. This angered the latter who wanted an opportunity to strike at the English. When Mahe, a French possession in the dominion of Hyder Ali was attacked by the English, he declared war on the English in 1780.

Course/Events •

In the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-89), Hyder formed a common front with the Nizam and the Marathas against the English.

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Hyder Ali defeated Colonel Braithowaite in Arcot

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Results •

Tipu Sultan signed the Treaty of Srirangapatnam with the British according to which he had to give half of his kingdom to the English. The English got Malabar, Coorg, Dindugal and Baramahal (now Salem and Erode areas).

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He was also compelled to pay a huge war indemnity of over three crore rupees and had to surrender two of his sons as hostages to the English until he paid the indemnity.

Fourth Mysore War (1799) Causes •

The Treaty of Srirangapatnam failed to bring peace between Tipu Sultan and the British.

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Tipu refused to accept the subsidiary alliance of Lord Wellesley and instead wanted to take his revenge on the English.

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He sent emissaries to Kabul, Constantinople, Arabia and France to get their support - the

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knowledge of which instigated the British to declare war on him once again in 1799.

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Peshwa Baji Rao II and many Rajput rulers also entered into this alliance.

Results

The Maratha Wars

Tipu Sultan suffered defeat at the hands of General Stuart and General Harris. Wellesley himself besieged Srirangapatnam and Tipu Sultan died in battle while his family was deported first to Vellore and later to Calcutta.

The Third Battle of Panipat fought between Ahmad Shah Abdali and the Marathas on 14th January 1762 weakened the Maratha power.

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His territories were divided between British and the Nizam of Hyderabad.

Causes

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A boy of a royal family (Wodeyar) was installed on the Mysore throne, and the subsidry alliance signed.

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Lord Wellesley, the Governor General of Bengal (1798-1805) after the Mysore war furthered the expansion of the East India Company from a trading corporation into a supreme power in India by using the method of Subsidiary Alliance apart from wars and conquests and annexation of territories.

First Maratha War (1775-1782)

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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Subsidiary Alliance System

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After the third Battle of Panipat, the fourth Peshwa Madhaw Rao had reorganised the Maratha power under him. However, after his death in 1772 internal dissensions among Marathas left them weakened.

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His younger brother, Peshwa Narayan Rao succumbed to the intrigues of his ambitious uncle Raghunath Rao, another claimant for the gaddi.

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Raghunath Rao was opposed by a strong party at Poona under Nana Phadnavis who proclaimed Narayan Rao’s posthumous son as Peshwa.

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This drove Raghunath Rao to point of desperation and he signed Treaty of Surat (1775) with Bombay Government hoping to gain the gaddi with the help of English subsidiary troops. By this Treaty, Raghunath agreed to hand over the islands of Salsette and Bassein to the English in return for their help to get Peshwaship.

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However, this was done without the knowledge of Warren Hastings, the Governor-General of Bengal and the supreme head of the English in India, who rejected the treaty.

The Indian rulers were persuaded by Wellesley to sign a friendly treaty with the British according to which they would have to follow certain conditions: 1. The states had to accept the English as a supreme power. 2. A British Resident and British subsidiary forces had to be stationed inside the state.

3. The states had to cede territories to the company for the maintenance of the subsidiary forces.

4. The natives could not entertain any other Europeans other than the English.

5. The states were not allowed to negotiate with any other kingdom without the permission of the governor-General. 6. In return the English promised them protection against any external attacks and non-interference in their internal matters.

Course/Events •

Thus the English were involved in a long drawn war with the Marathas which lasted from 1775 to 1782.

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In the beginning, the Marathas defeated British at Talegaon and forced them to sign convention of Wadgaon by which English renounced all their conquest and gave up the cause of Raghunath Rao.

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Nana Phadnavis signed the Treaty of Purandhar in 1776 with the English, raised his position and defeated Raghunath Rao.

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But then all Maratha Chiefs were united behind Peshwa and his Chief Minister Nana Phadnavis while on the other hand, the British were led by Governor-General Warren Hastings.

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A British force under Goddar marched across Central India and after series of victorious engagement reached Ahmedabad which he captured in 1780.

States which entered into the Subsidiary Alliance •

The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept the subsidiary alliance system. He handed over Cuddappah, Belllary, Anantapur and Carnool.

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After the death of Tipu Sultan, his kingdom was handed over to Krishna Raja Wadiar who accepted the scheme.

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The Nawab of Oudh accepted the pact and surrendered Rohilkhand and Southern districts of Doab region.

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Mahadji Scindhia did not want confrontation with British and Treaty of Salbai was signed in 1782 by which status quo was maintained, was ratified by Nana Phadnavis in 1785. This ended the war and gave the British respite from Maratha menace.

Course/Events •

Thus coming to the call of the Peshwa for help, in South, the British armies led by Arthur Wellesley defeated the combined armies of Scindhia and Bhonsle at Assaye in Sept. 1803, Aragon in November 1803.

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British possession of Salsette was confirmed and Madhaw Rao Narayan was recognised and ratified Peshwa.

In North, Lord Lake routed Scindhia’s army at Laswari on first November and occupied Aligarh, Delhi and Agra.

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Raghunath rao was granted a pension of three lakh rupees a year.

The two chiefs accepted humiliating treaties and signed the Subsidiary Alliance.

Results

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Treaty of Salbai enabled British to exert pressure on Mysore as Marathas promised to help them in recovering territories from Hyder Ali.

Results

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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Second Maratha War (1803-1805)

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By Treaty of Deogaon (17th Dec 1803) the Bhonsle Raja ceded to the Company province of Cuttack and the entire territory west of River Warda.

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Scindhia concluded the Treaty of Sarji-I-Arjangaon (December 30, 1803), surrendered territories between Jamuna and Ganges, all territories north of principalities of Jaipur, Jodhpur and Gokul besides the fort of Ahmadnagar, harbour of Broach and his possessions between Ajanta Ghat and River Godavari were surrendered to British.

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Raja of Bharatpur, Holkar’s ally, fought British armies to a stand- still and inflicted heavy losses on Lord Lake who unsuccessfully attempted to storm his fort.

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Wellesley was called back from India. It was Sir George Barlow who concluded with Holkar the treaty of Rajpurghat (25th Dec 1805) whereby the Maratha Chief gave up all claims to places North of Chambal, Bundelkhand and over Peshwa and other allies of the Company while the latter got back greater part of his territories.

Causes •

Nana Phadnavis died in March 1800 “with him”, remarked Colonel Palmer “departed all wisdom and moderation of the Maratha Government.”

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Maratha Empire at this time consisted of confederation of five big chiefs, Peshwa at Poona, Gaikwad at Baroda, Scindhia at Gwalior, Holkar at Indore and Bhonsle at Nagpur, Peshwa being nominal head. After Nana Phadnavis’ death war broke out among the Maratha chiefs.

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Yashwant Rao Holkar vs Daulat Rao Scindhia and Peshwa Baji Rao II on other side were locked in a mortal combat and in April 1801. Peshwa brutally murdered Vithuji, the brother of Jaswant Rao Holkar.

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On 25th October 1802, on the occasion of Diwali day, Jaswant Rao Holkar defeated the combined armies of Peshwa and Scindhia at Hadaspar near Poona, placing Vinayak Rao, son of Amrit Rao on the gaddi of Peshwa.

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Peshwa approached Wellesley for help thereby providing the British, the much wanted opportunity to intervene and accepted the subsidiary alliance and signed the treaty of Bassein on 31st December 1802.

The Peshwa agreed to receive from the Company a permanent regular Native Infantry stationed in his territories, to cede in perpetuity territories yielding an income of Rs 26 lakhs. The territories surrenderd were in Gujarat, South of Tapti, between Tapti and Narmada and some Territory near Tungabhadra. He also surrendered Surat and agreed to give up all claims of Chauth on Nizam’s dominions and agreed not to resort to arms against Gaikwad.

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Third Anglo Maratha War (1817-1818) Causes •

Final phase of struggle began with coming of Lord Hastings as Governor General in 1813.

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Hastings moved against Pindaris, transgressed the sovereignty of Maratha Chiefs and two parties were drawn into war.

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Hastings forced humiliating treaties on the Raja of Nagpur (27th May 1816) on Peshwa (13th June 1817) and Scindhia (05th Nov 1817).

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Refusing to sign the humiliating treaty, the Peshwa made a last bid to throw off the British yoke in course of the third Maratha War and attacked British Residency at Poona in Nov 1817.

Course/Events •

Appa Sahib of Nagpur attacked Residency at Nagpur and Malhar Rao Holkar made preparation for war.

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Peshwa was defeated at Khirki in November 1817, Bhonsle army routed at Sitabaldi and Holkar army crushed at Mahidpur.

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Peshwa, however, continued to fight but was defeated at the battle of Korgaon and Ashi in January-February, 1818.

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Course/Events •

The Sikh army was soon defeated under Lal Singh (P.M.) by Sir Hugh Gough at Mudki in 1845.

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The British also defeated the Sikh army under Tej Singh, Commander-in-Chief at Ferozepur in 1845.

Results The Peshwa was dethroned and pensioned off at Bithur near Kanpur, Maratha confederacy dissolved and Peshwaship abolished.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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Confirmations of the suspicions of the Sikh army were exacted by the annexation of Sindh by the British in 1843 and the first Anglo-Sikh War started soon after in 1845.

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Peshwa’s territories were annexed and Presidency of Bombay came into existence.

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Holkar accepted subsidiary forces by the Treaty of Mandasor.

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The British occupied Bhonsle’s territory but a small part was given to Raghoji’s son to rule.

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The small kingdom of Satara was founded out of Peshwa’s land and given to a descendant of Shivaji, Pratap Singh. Thus all Maratha chiefs were reduced to a subordinate position under the English.

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However, the British under Harry Smith suffered a blow at the hands of Ranjur Singh Majhithia at Buddewal in 1846.

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Finally the Sikhs were defeated by Smith at Aliwal and Sobroan (1846) on the crossing of the Sutlej and occupation of Lahore by the British.

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The War ended with the Treaty of Lahore in 1846.

Results •

Jullundar Doab was ceded to the British and payment of a war indemnity of Rs. 1.5 crore imposed on the Sikhs. But they were able to pay only half of this amount and for the rest the British got Kashmir which they sold to Gulab Singh.

Pindari War (1817-1818) •

Hastings assembled a large force to round up and exterminate the seemingly lawless Pindaris and their chiefs - Karim Khan, Wasil Muhammad and Chintu.

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A British resident, Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed at Lahore and Dalip Singh was recognized as the ruler of Punjab with Rani Jindan as his regent.

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Karim Khan submitted and was offered an estate at Gawashpur. Wasil Muhammad was forced to lay down arms and died in captivity. Chintu was defeated and not heard of again.

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The Sikh army was reduced and its ruler prohibited from employing any European without the prior consent of the British. Also, the British troops were permitted to pass through Sikh territory whenever the need arose.

Anglo-Sikh Wars

First War (1845-1846) •

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Anarchy in Punjab after the death of Ranjit Singh; murder of three rulers (Kharak Singh, Nao Nihal Singh and Sher Singh) within six years (18391845); succession of Dalip Singh (5 year old son of Ranjit Singh in 1845) and the absence of any control over the army (Khalsa) contributed to the weakening of the Sikh power. The British pursued the policy of encirclement of Punjab from 1833 onwards (occupation of Ferozepur in 1835 and Sikharpur in 1836, and appointment of British Residents in Ludhiana and in Sindh in 1838) and their military preparations (increase of their army from 2500 in 1836 to 14000 in 1843) fuelled the animosity between the British and the Sikhs.

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Soon after the Treaty of Bhairowal was signed in December 1846 which resulted in:

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Removal of Rani Jindan and setting up of a Council of Regency for Punjab (consisting of 8 Sikh Sardars and presided over by Sir Henry Lawrence.)

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Stationing of British forces at Lahore for which the Sikhs had to pay Rs. 22 Lakhs.

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Power to the governor general of India to take and garrison any fort in Punjab.

Second War (1848-1849) Causes •

Desire of the Sikh army to avenge their humiliationof the first war and the discontentment of the Sikh Sardars with the British control over Punjab.

•

Treatment of Rani Jindan by the British - her transportation to Shaikpur first and then to Benaras 16

and the drastic reduction in her pension fuelled the second Anglo-Sikh War.

•

Fear of the French design prompted Lord Minto to send British mission to Kabul, Persia, Lahore and Sind and a treaty of ‘eternal friendship’ was signed with the Amirs in 1809 providing for mutual intercourse through envoys, and Amirs promised not to allow the French to settle in Sindh.

•

The Treaty was renewed in 1820 with an additional article which excluded Americans from Sindh.

•

Punjab under Ranjit Singh became powerful and planned to conquer Sindh, with this intention met Lord William Bentinck in 1831 at Ropar with proposal of jointly conquering Sindh and dividing it between them but, Bentinck refused it.

•

In pursuance of commercial motives in 1831, Alexander Burnes under order from Lord Ellenborough was sent to explore Indus under pretence of carrying presents to Ranjit Singh at Lahore.

•

In 1832, William Bentinck sent Col. Pottinger to Sindh to sign a new commercial treaty with Amirs and Lieutenant Del Host was sent to survey course of Lower Indus.

•

Terms of treaty signed between Pottinger and Amirs of Sindh were:

Course/Events •

Sher Singh, sent to suppress the revolt of Mulraj, himself joined the revolt against the British leading to an outbreak of general rebellion by the Sikh army and the Sardars.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

The Revolt of Mulraj, Governor of Multan ensued and two English officers, Vans Agnew and Lt. Anderson who were sent to take over the administration in Multan were murdered.

•

The Battle of Ramnagar between Sher Singh and Lord Gough in 1848 and the Battle of Chillianwala in 1849 between the two ended without any result.

•

Lord Gough captured Multan and Mulraj surrendered who was deported for life.

•

The Sikhs were finally defeated by Gough in the Battle of Gujarat (1849) and Sher Singh and other Sikh chiefs surrendered.

Results •

Punjab was annexed by Lord Dalhousie and Dalip Singh disposed and pensioned off to England along with Rani Jindan.

•

A Board of Three Commissioners consisting of the Lawrence brothers - Henry and John and Charles G. Mansel was constituted in 1849 to administer Punjab.

•

Soon afterwards the Board was abolished and a Chief Commissioner for Punjab, Sir John Lawrence was appointed in 1853.

Annexation of Sindh

Sindh in the 18th Century was ruled by Kallora Chiefs. In 1783, Mir Fateh Ali Khan leader of Talpura established complete hold over Sind and Kallora prince was exiled. When Fath Ali Khan died in 1800, brothers popularly known as ‘Char Yar’ divided the kingdoms among themselves calling themselves Amirs or Lords of Sind. The Amirs extended dominion on all sides, took Amarkot from Raja of Jodhpur, Karachi from chief of Luz, Shikarpur and Bukkar from Afghans and established three branches with head-quarters at Hyderabad, Khairpur and Mirpur.

Early relations between Sindh and the British •

In 1775, East India Company had established factories at Thatta and had commercial relations with Sindh which were abandoned in 1792 due to political unrest.

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(i) A free passage for English travellers for merchants through Sind for use of Indus for commercial pursuits; (ii) No English merchant was to settle in Sindh, travellers and visitors were required to have Passports;

(iii) Tariff rates were to be announced and no military dues or toll be demanded and tariffs could be altered if high; (iv) Amirs to put down border robbers of Cutch in concert with Raja of Jodhpur; (v) Old treaties of friendship were confirmed. •

Details of tariff rates were settled by a supplementary commercial treaty of 1834. Colonel Pottinger was stationed as the Company’s political agent in Sind.

•

Pottinger was sent to Hyderabad to negotiate a new Subsidiary Treaty in 1838 by which Amirs accepted mediation in their dispute with Sikhs and secondly accepted a British Resident at Hyderabad who could move freely.

•

Auckland brought Ranjit Singh, Shah Shuja and Amirs to sign a tripartite treaty in June 1838 whereby Ranjit Singh accepted British mediation for his disputes with Amirs and Shah Shija agreed to relinquish his sovereign rights on Sindh against receiving arrears of tribute.

17

Under threat of superior military force of British, Amirs accepted a treaty in February 1839 by which British subsidiary force was to be stationed at Shikarpur and Bukkar and Amir of Sind to pay Rs 3 lakh annually for its maintenance.

•

Amirs were not to negotiate with foreign states without the Company’s knowledge, were to provide a store room at Karachi for military purposes abolish all tolls on Indus and furnish an auxillary for Afghan war it needed. The British, in turn, were not to meddle in internal affair of Sindh.

•

As a punishment, Lord Ellenborough imposed a new treaty on the Amirs in 1843 and Outram was sent to negotiate the details. By this treaty, the Amirs were required to cede important territories like Karachi, Thatta, Bhakkar, Rohri in lieu of tribute to provide fuel to steamers of Company navigating the Indus and surrender right of coining money.

•

A dispute of succession rose at Khairpur which gave Napier the opportunity to interfere. Napier supported claims of Ali Murad, brother of old Mir Rustum, in preference to Mir Rustum’s son whom he had abdicated and taken to flight.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

•

The Amirs even helped the British in the Afghan War (1839 - 1842).

Causes •

•

•

•

•

•

Napier prior to Treaty of 1843 had destroyed the fort of Imamgarh at Khairpur and Hyderabad in January 1843.

Conquest of Sindh was result of growing AngloRussian rivalry in Europe, to counter Russia, British Government decided to increase its influence in Afghanistan and Persia.

Course/Events •

This policy could be successful if Sindh was under British control. Commercial possibilities were an additional attraction.

Baluchis attacked Major Outram on 15th February, 1843 and declared war.

•

In February 1843, Napier defeated a Baluchi army at Miani and won another victory at Dabo in March, 6 miles from Hyderabad the following month.

•

By April, the whole of Sindh had capitulated; Amirs were captured and banished from Sindh.

•

In August 1843, Sindh was formally annexed to English Empire.

In 1842, Lord Ellenborough succeeded Auckland as Governor-General, he made plan to annex Sindh. To regain prestige of English, suffered in Afghan War. In September 1842, Sir Charles Napier replaced Major Outram as Company’s Resident at Sind with full civil and military authority and was placed in charge of all the troops of upper and lower Sind. He got the pretext when Amir Rustum of Khairpur was charged with entering into a secret offensive and defensive alliance against the Company.

Results •

Napier was appointed as the first Governor of Sindh and received 7 lakh rupees as prize money and Outram offered 3000 pounds.




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18

BRITISH POLICIES

CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

This could be possible through three methods:

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

The British conquest had a pronounced and profound economic impact on India. There was hardly any aspect of the Indian economy that was not changed during the entire period of British rule down to 1947. The economic politics followed by the British led to rapid transformation of Indian economy into colonial economy whose nature and structure were determined by the needs of the British economy.

The British conquerors were entirely different from previous ones. They totally disrupted the traditional structure of Indian economy. Moreover, they never became integral part of Indian life. They always remained foreigners in the land, exploiting Indian resources, carrying away Indian wealth, as a tribute. Through laws, administrative, economic and fiscal policies, the British government in England and companies administration in India used their powers for the advantage of British manufacturers and to detriment of India´s socio-political and economic fabric. The gradual "development of underdevelopment" has been traced through three stages of British colonialism. R.P. Dutt in his classic work "India Today" has made a brilliant analysis of Indian colonial economy and delineated three phases of British colonialism and economic exploration of India:

• Period of Merchant Capital (Mercantilism)-from 1757 to the end of 18th century.

• Period of Industrial Capital (Free Trade Capitalism)-developed during the 19th century and;

• Period of Finance Capital-from the closing decades of 19th century to 1947.

Mercantilist Phase

From 1757 (the British victory in the battle of Plassey) the East India Company completely monopolised trade and began the direct plunder of Indian wealth. This was the phase of buccaneering capitalism whereby wealth flowed out of the barrel of trader's guns with which they could impose their own prices which had no relation to the cost of production. Twin aims of the merchant companies were: to have a favourable balance of trade and to promote flow of bullion into the home country. The Merchant Companies aimed at large profit margin. © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

(a) Monopoly control over trade and elimination of all possible rivals. (b) Purchase of goods at cheap rates and sale of commodities at very high rates.

(c) The above objectives could be achieved if they could establish political control over the countries they traded with.

The Company used its political power to dictate terms to weavers of Bengal who forced to sell their products at a cheap and dictated price. Many of them were compelled by the Company to work for them and were forbidden to work for Indian merchants. The servants of the Company monopolised the sale of raw cotton and made the Bengal weaver pay exorbitant prices for it.

Period of Industrial Capital

The real blow to Indian handicrafts fell after 1813, when Indians lost not only the foreign markets but markets in India also. Thus India entered the second phase of colonialism, the Industrial Phase (1813 - 1858). India was thrown open for exploration at the hands of British mercantile industrial capitalist class. The Industrial Revolution in Britain completely transformed Britain's economy and its economic relationship with India. The British now took away raw materials and brought back manufactured goods for being marketed in India. Imports of British cotton goods alone increased from 1,000000 pounds in 1813 to 6,300000 pounds in 1856. The doors of India were open to foreign trade but the Indian products had to compete with British products with heavy import duties on entry into Britain. Indian sugar had to pay on entry into Britain a duty that was over 3 times its cost price. In some cases, the duties went as high as 400%. India was now forced to export raw materials instead of exporting manufactured goods. Thus the Indian exports consisted of raw cotton, jute, silk, oilseeds, wheat indigo and tea. After 1813, all policy was guided by the needs of British industry.

Finance Capital

This was coterminous with emergence of the phase

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of Finance Capitalism in Britain. It began after 1860. The rebellion of 1857 was the key factor in change of the nature of the colonialism. British capital penetrated into India in diverse economic fields in the latter half of the 19th century but tightened its tentacles over India in 20th century in form of finance capital. Finance capital became the new most powerful mode of colonial exploitation. Forms of Investment were:

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

(a) Loans raised in England by the Secretary of State on behalf of Indian Government and by semi public organisation mostly for investment in railways, irrigation, development of ports, hydro electric projects, etc.

outside, while demand for western products were low. British mercantilists were highly critical of the trade policies of the Company. Even the British government adopted a series of measures to restrict or prohibit the import of Indian textiles into England. Apart from other measures in 1720, the British government forbade the wear or use of Indian silk and calicoes in England on pay of a penalty of £ 5 for each offence on the wearer and of £ 20 on the seller.

(b) Foreign business investment in India.

It has been estimated that before 1914, nearly 97% of British capital investment in India were diverted towards completion of economic overheads (mainly railways road transport, merchant, shipping, etc) mining industry (coal and gold mines) development of financial houses (banking, finance, insurance etc) towards promotion of auxiliaries calculated to fuller commercial exploitation of India's natural resources. British capital went into activities that were complementary to British industries and was in no way planned for industrial development of India. British capitalist retained a dominant control over Indian banking, commerce, exchange and insurance and with their capital resources and official patronage dominated industrial sectors in Indian economy.

Economic Impact




Drain of Wealth

The constant flow of wealth from India to England for which India did not get an adequate economic, commercial or material return has been described by Indian national leaders and economists as 'drain of wealth' from India. The drain of wealth was interpreted as an indirect tribute extracted by imperial Britain from India year after year. The drain of wealth was first cited by Dadabhai Naoroji etc. which was later expanded by R.P. Dutt, Bipan Chnadra and others. Dadabhai Nauroji brought it to light in his book titled "Poverty and Un-British Rule in India."

Concept of Economic Drain: In the mercantilist concept an economic drain takes place if gold and silver flow out of the country as a consequence of an adverse balance of trade. In the 50 years before the battle of Plassey (1757), the East India Company had imported bullion worth £ 20 million into India to balance the exports over imports from India. As there was a flourishing market for Indian cotton and silk

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After Plassey the situation was reversed and the drain of wealth took an outward turn as England gradually acquired monopolistic control over the Indian economy. After the East India Company extended its territorial aggression in India and began to administer territories and acquired control over the surplus revenues of India, the shape of drain underwent a change. Henceforth, the Company had a recurring surplus which accrued from a) profits from oppressive land revenue policy; b) profits from its trade resulting from monopolistic control over Indian market and c) exactions made by Company officials. The entire surplus was used by Company as an 'investment' i.e. for making purchases of exportable items in India and elsewhere. Again the export of goods made out of this was ´investment´ India did not get anything in return. This system was brought to an end by the Charter Act of 1813 when territorial and commercial revenues of the Company were separated. From 1813 onwards economic drain took the form of unrequited export. Barring a few exceptional years favourable balance of trade had been the normal feature of our foreign trade till the outbreak of World War II. The focal point of the Drain Theory was that a portion of the national product of India was not available for consumption for her people or for capital formation but was being drained away to England for political reasons and India did not get an adequate economic return. Constituents of Economic Drain: The first constituent of economic drain was Home Charges, which were as follows: (a) The costs of Secretary of State's India Office (previously the cost of East India Company's London establishment) (b) India's debt in England (caused by East India Company military adventures, the cost of suppressing the Mutiny of 1857 and the compensation to the Company's shareholders). (c) Home charges also included pensions to the British Indian officials and army officers, military and other stores purchased in England, cost of army training, transport and campaigns outside India, guaranteed interests on railways. 20

Western Europe. The gradual destruction of rural craft broke up the union between agriculture and domestic industry in the countryside and thus contributed to the destruction of self sufficient village economy. Thus the British conquest led to the deindustrialization of the country and increased dependence of the people on agriculture. This increasing pressure on agriculture was one of the major causes of the extreme poverty of India under British rule.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Economic Consequences of the Drain: Dadabhai Nauroji described the drain of wealth as the "evil of all evils" and the main cause of Indian poverty. He maintained that Britain was "bleeding India White" Comparing the plundering raids of medieval rulers 'with, the British methods of colonial plunder, another critic' has pointed out that the old time plunder had to restrict itself to richmen´s houses and godowns where wealth was accumulated. It was not worthwhile ransacking every little hut and little village. In contrast the colonial plunder could reach the most lowly, the most humble and most remote. Thus, British methods of exploitation though less painful were more thorough and resembled the blood sucking leeches. The drain of wealth checked and retarded capital accumulation in India, thereby retarding the industrialization of India. Indian products and treasure drained to England without adequate returns was of great help in creating conditions in that country conducive for the growth of British factory industry in early stages of industrial revolution. What is worse is that part of the British capital entered India as Finance Capital and further drained India of her wealth. Dutt lamented that moisture raised from Indian soil under colonial rule descended as fertilizing rain largely on England and not India.


Deindustrialization

During the first half of the 19th century or even upto 1880, India´s economy witnessed a strange phenomenon. While western countries were experiencing industrialization, India suffered a period of industrial decline. This process has been described as 'deindustrialization'.

There was a sudden and quick collapse of the urban handicrafts which had for centuries made India's name a byword in the markets of entire civilized world. The collapse was caused largely by competition with cheaper imported machine-goods from Britain. The British imposed a policy of one way free trade on India after 1813 and the invasion of British manufactures, in particular cotton textiles immediately followed. The ruin of Indian industries, particularly rural artisan industries proceeded even more rapidly once the railways were built.

The railways enabled British manufacturers to reach and uproot the traditional industries in the remotest villages of the country. The ruin of Indian handicrafts was reflected in the ruin of the towns and cities which were famous for their manufacture. The tragedy was heightened by the fact that the decay of the traditional industries was not accompanied by the growth of modern machine industries as was the case in Britain and © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY




Commercialisation of Agriculture

In the latter half of the 19th century another significant trend in Indian agriculture was the emergence of the commercialization of agriculture. So far agriculture had been a way of life rather than a business enterprise. Now agriculture began to be influenced by commercial considerations i.e. certain specialised crops began to be grown not for consumption in the village but for sale in the national and even international markets. Commercial crops like cotton, jute, groundnut, oilseeds, sugarcane, tobacco etc. were more remunerative than food grains. Again the cultivation of crops like spices, fruits, vegetables could cater to a wider market perhaps the commercialization trend reached the highest level of development in the plantation industry i.e. tea, coffee, rubber, etc. which were all produced for sale in a wider market.

A number of factors encouraged specialization and commercialization of new market trend such as the spread of money economy, the replacement of custom and tradition by competition and contract led to the growth of internal and external trade, the emergence of a united national market (facilitated by expansion of railways and road transport) and the boost to international trade given by entry of British Finance Capital etc. were also important.

Social & Economic Effects

Commercialization was an artificial and forced process which led to differentiation without genuine growth. To meet excessive land revenue demand of the state and high rates of interest charged by the money lender the cultivator perforce had to rush a part of his harvest into market and sell it at whatever price it fetched. Many poor cultivators had to buy back after six months a part of crop they had sold away at low prices at harvest time. The precise pattern of commercialization varied from crop to crop and from region to region. Tea required plantations directly managed by whites using indentured labour nearing slavery. Indigo was mainly cultivated by peasants, forced into their cultivation via forced advances by the sahib planters. No coercion was needed for jute in East Bengal.

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British business houses had a near total control over overseas trade, shipping and insurance. Hence the bulk of the profits that accrued from the export boom of 1850s were appropriated by foreign business firms. These profits were a part of foreign leakages in the Drain of wealth.

By 1921, only 10% of the superior posts in the railways were manned by Indians. So the diffusion of new skills remained slim. Thus we see that means of transport and communication developed strictly to suit the purpose of colonial interests.

Modern Industries

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Further Indian agriculture began to be influenced by widely fluctuating world prices. The cotton boom of the 1860s pushed up the prices but mostly benefited the host of intermediaries while the slump in prices in 1866 hit the cultivator the most - bringing in its turn heavy indebtedness, famine and agrarian riots in the Deccan of the 1870´s. Thus, the cultivator hardly emerged better from the new commercialization.

develop in India. Only about 700 locomotives were indigenously produced in the entire British period.

Transport and Communication

With British rule, came modern means of transport like railways, buses and steamship and communication - telegraph. They were essential instruments for colonial management and control of vast alien territories. It was in the logic of colonialism that the empire was well knit by a vast network of roads and railways so as to ensure that colonial goods could penetrate the remotest village in India and swiftly transport the instruments of coercion and control to trouble spots thereby ensuring the vast tracts it controlled would remain subjugated for perpetuity. It had the added benefit of supporting the newly developing modern industries of iron, steam engines, coal etc. and of being an investment area of the excess capital accumulated in Britain which needed an outlet for investment in the new era of Finance Capital. British Capitalists wanted to introduce the railways to facilitate their machine made goods.

Lord Dalhousie initiated a programme of wide railway construction in India. In his famous Minute on Railways, he defined the economic reason behind the construction. The first railway line running from Bombay to Thane was opened to traffic in 1953. By 1905 nearly 45000 kms of railways had been built. The entire amount of 350 crores invested in them was provided by the British investors. The railway lines were laid primarily to satisfy the interest of the British. Several railway lines in Burma and North-West India were built at high cost to serve the British imperial interest. The British also established an efficient and modern postal system and introduced the postage stamps. Railways and other modern means of transport played extremely important role in the destruction of self sufficient economy of the villages and the propagation of the ideas of freedom movement. It is a fact that with the coming of the railways ancillary industries did not

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

An important development in the second half of the 19th century was the establishment of large scale machine based industries in India. The British rulers of India did not conceive of an industrialized India. However, compulsions of maintaining imperial control over the country and its thorough economic exploitation led Britain to construct roads, railways, posts and telegraph lines, develop ports, irrigation works, banking, exchange and insurance facilities etc. developments which provided the material basis for beginning of modern industry in India. The machine age in India started when cotton textile, jute and mining industries were started in the 1850s. The first textile mill was started in Bombay by Cowasjee Nanabhoy in 1853 and first jute mill in Rishra (Bengal) in 1855. These industries expanded slowly but continuously. Most of the modern Indian industries were owned or controlled by British capital. Foreign capitalists were attracted to Indian industry by the prospects of high profits. Labour was extremely cheap; raw materials were readily and cheaply available; for many goods, India and its neighbours provided a ready market. For many Indian products, such as tea, jute and manganese, there was a ready demand the world over. On the other hand, profitable investment opportunities at home were getting fewer. At the same time, the colonial government and officials were willing to provide all help and show all favours. Traditional business communities flourished mainly as moneylenders or dependent traders serving as agents of British export-import firms in the interior. The firm of Tarachand-Ghansyamdas acted as the agents of Shaw and Wallace. Moreover, Government followed a conscious policy of favouring foreign capital as against Indian capital.

Jute Industries

Demand for hemp, traditionally used in the West for rope, sail canvas and sacking, greatly increased with the growth of international commerce. Till 1870 Dundee had an almost complete monopoly of the world's factory made jute cloth trade based on cheap 22

Indian jute. In 1855 George Auckland started the first modern jute spinning factory in Rishra, Bengal which initially spun only yarn which was sold to local handloom weavers. By 1870s jute gunny bags and clothes penetrated foreign markets, leading to massive exports of finished jute products. The Indian Jute Mills Association (IJMA) was formed in 1884 to cope with the problems of over production and excess capacity.

Government subsidy and protection at the rate of 33·33%.

Land Revenue System The British imperial rulers of India unleashed for reaching changes in Indian agrarian structure. New land tenures, new land ownership concepts, tenancy charges etc. were extended to farmers.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Cotton Textiles

Whereas the jute industry was dominated by foreigners, the cotton industry was essentially Indian in origin, largely controlled by Indian investors mainly in Bombay and a little later, at Ahmedabad.

The first steam powered mill was started near Calcutta by English-men in 1817, while 2 Frenchmen in 1830 set up a spinning mill in Pondicherry. In 1853 James Landen set up a spinning mill in Broach. These did not trigger off any development. Its rapid expansion only began after 1870.

In 1854, Cowasjee Nanabhoy Davar floated a spinning Company with a capital of Rs. 50,000 which was the first indigenous mill. By 1861 the first mill was opened in Ahmedabad and later the Bombay merchants financed mills in Surat and Kanpur. The great expansion began after the 1870s. British mills tended to specialize in spinning yarn or weaving cloth, while Indian mills did both. These mills quickly found foreign outlets in the Middle East and East Asian markets.

During the Swadeshi movement, boycott of Manchester goods led to expansion in Bombay. The Banga Lakshmi cotton mill was launched with much fanfare in August, 1906. The Bombay Mill Owners Association was founded in 1875. Parsis played the most important role in the Bombay Textile industry, but Europeans, Hindus, Muslims and Jews were also active. By 1895, at least 57% of all technical and administrative posts were held by Indians.

Iron and Steel

In the 1820´s an Englishman named Health started a firm to produce Iron and Steel at Porto Novo, with the aid of the East India Company which was a failure, and was dissolved in 1874. It sought to produce charcoal iron. In 1874 the Bengal Iron works Company was formed but was shut down in 1879. The Government of India operated it as a public enterprise till 1889. In 1889 the Bengal Iron and Steel Company (BISCO) was incorporated in England. J.N. Tata started TISCO, which was registered in 1907 with a nominal capital of Rs. 25,175,000 entire amount being subscribed by 8000 Indians in 3 weeks. In 1924, Tata Iron and Steel Company received a © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY




Permanent Settlement in Bengal

Cornwallis' introduced permanent settlement in 1793 which declared zamindars as proprietors of the soil and fixed demand for their perpetuity: the government would promise never to increase it in future. Effects of the Permanent Settlement: It may seem that the settlement was greatly in favour of the zamindars but they were also now obliged to pay a fixed amount by fixed dates every year, and any failure on their part meant the sale of the zamindari. Furthermore, many of the zamindaris were rated for large sums that left no margin for shorfalls due to flood, drought or other calamity. As a result, many zamindars had their zamindaris taken away and sold in the decades immediately after the permanent settlement.

However, many zamindars still found it difficult to pay the amount demanded by the British. One such zamindar, the Raja of Burdwan then divided most of his estate into ´lots of fractions called patni taluqs´ Each such unit was permanently rented to a holder called patnidar, who promised to pay a fixed rent. If he did not pay, his patni could be taken away and sold. Other zamindars also resorted to this: thus a process of sub-infeudation commenced.

Maximum powers were given to zamindars to ensure revenue collection. Regulation Act of 1793 without using the court could seize movable property in case of default. In pre-British India recovery of loans was not a legal right of the money-lender. It was instead a moral obligation of the debtor. British regulations strengthened the money lenders hand through a) Civil Procedure Code of 1859 b) Limitation of 1859 imposed a three year limit on realization of debt




Ryotwari System

Meanwhile, Munro and Read introduced the Ryotwari system. Under this system every registered holder of land is recognised as the proprietor of the land and is held responsible for direct payment of land revenue to the state. He has the right to sub-let

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his landholdings- to transfer, mortgage or sell it. He is not evicted from his holdings by the Government so long as he pays the state demand of land revenue. Accountable Situations: The factors responsible for Ryotwari System were as follows: (a) It was believed that Ryotwari System was the original system.

• Company used the revenue surplus from Bengal to purchase goods from England. This was called investments.

• East India Company's monopoly of her trading rights in India was ended by Charter Act of 1813. It only retained her monopoly over tea trade and trade with China which also ended in 1833.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

(b) Maximization of revenue necessitated negation of intermediaries and direct collection.

Points to Remember

(c) With Permanent Settlement there was a loss of revenue in the future.


Mahalwari System

Mahalwari system was developed by Holt Mackenzie. Under this system the taluqdars and zamindars were originally appointed by the state, and the real owner of villages was zamindars who lived in them or constituted the village community. This required that Government officials should record all the rights of cultivators, zamindars and others, and also fix the amounts payable from every piece of land, demand of land revenue village by village or mahal by mahal and collection through village headman or lambardar. The system broke down because of the excessive state demand and harshness in its working and collection of land revenue.

• By Charter Act of 1813 free trade policy was implemented in India which was one sided free trade.

• R.P. Dutt in his classic work "India Today" has made a brilliant analysis of Indian colonial economy.

• Dadabhai Nauroji brought the drain of wealth into light in his book titled "Poverty and Un-British Rule in India."

• Dadabhai Nauroji described the drain of wealth as the "evil of all evils."

• The first railway line running from Bombay to Thane was opened to traffic in 1853.

• The first telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra was opened in 1853.

• First Railway line and Telegraph line and postage stamps were started by Lord Dalhousie.

• In 1855, George Duckland started the first modern

LAND REVENUE SYSTEM

jute spinning factory in Rishra, Bengal.

• The Indian Jute Mills Association (IJMA) was formed in 1884 to cope with the problems of over production and excess capacity.

• In 1921, Birla setup the first Indian financed and controlled mill, followed by Hukum-Chand (1922).

• The first steam powered mill was started near Calcutta by Englishmen in 1817 while two Frenchmen in 1830 set up a spinning mill in Pondicherry.

• In 1854 Cowasjee Nanabhoy Dawar floated a spinning Company with a capital of Rs. 800,000, which was first indigenous mill.

• The Bombay Mill Owners Association was founded in 1875.

• In 1878, the Bengal Iron Works Company was formed but was shut down in 1879.

• In 1889, Bengal Iron and Steel Company (BISCO) incorporated in England.

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• J.N. Tata started TISCO which was registered in 1907.

• Oppression of Indigo planters has been vividly portrayed by famous Bengali writer Din a bandhu Mitra in his play Neel Darpan, in 1860.

• Cornwallis' Permanent Settlement of 1793 declared

• R. Martin Birds, father of Indian land settlement by Regulation IX if 1833. Average rents were fixed on the basis of soil and the state demand of 66% of rental value was fixed, for 30 years.

• Mahalwari System was implemented in areas of Gangadoab, Northwest province, parts of Central India and Punjab.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

zamindars as proprietors of the soil and fixed demand for their revenue in perpetuity.

for a zamindar and 95% of the rental value where estates were held by cultivators in common tenancy (Bhaichara village).

• Ryotwari system was introduced by Munro and Read in 1792 in Baramahal district and 1820 in Madras, the state demand was fixed on the basis of 50% of estimated produce of the fields.

• Between 1901-1941 total population dependent an

• In 1835, Wingate Goldsmith and Davidson

• Between 1901 and 1939 total agriculture output

established the Bombay Survey System which was based on the principle that assessment should not exceed the cultivator's ability to pay.

• Colin Clark had estimated that between 1925-34

agriculture increased from 63·7% to 70%. reduced to 14%.

India had the lowest per capita income in world.

• The Board of Commissioners (1808) preferred the • In 1939 there were only 7 engineering colleges in village zamindars due to more fiscal benefits than from the Taluqdars.

• Holt Mackenzie in his Minute of 1819 propounded the theory that taluqdars and zamindars were appointed by state and real owners of village being zamindars who lived in them.

• Regulation VII of 1822 gave them legal sanction. The demand was fixed at 85% of the rental value

the country.

• In 1916 British government appointed an Industrial Commission.

• In 1922 Fiscal Commission recommended adequate protection to Indian industries. Thus, Tariff Board was constituted in 1923.

• In 1924 TISCO got Government contributions.






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CHRONICLE

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL AWAKENING IN INDIA

IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

Bentinck in abolishing it. He championed women's rights like right of inheritance and property and attacked polygamy and the degraded state of widows.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Hindu Reform Movements and Main Proponents




Brahmo Samaj and Raja Ram Mohan Roy • He fought for the introduction and spread of (1772 - 1833) modern education through the medium of English

In August 1828, Roy founded the Atmiya Sabha, which was later renamed Brahma Samaj at Calcutta in order to purify Hinduism and preach monotheism. The Samaj under him was based on the twin pillars of reason and the ancient Hindu scriptures (only the Vedas and the Upanishads) and incorporated the best teachings of the other religions as well.

and made Bengali the vehicle of intellectual intercourse in Bengal.

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In his political ideas and reforms, he believed in the unification of the divergent groups of Indian society in order to bring about national consciousness in India. He initiated public agitation on political questions like the need for reforms in the British administration, trade and economic policies, etc.

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He also pioneered Indian journalism through the Mirat-ul-Akbar inorder to educate the public on current issues and to represent the public opinion before the government. His journal was called Samvad Kumudhi.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy •

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Born in 1772 in Radhanagar in Burdwan district in West Bengal and died in Bristol in England. He is considered as the first 'modern man' as he was the pioneer of socio-religious and political reform movements in modern India. He studied numerous languages - Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, English, French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, etc. inorder to study the various religious scriptures in their original.

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He believed in monotheism i.e. doctrine of the unity of God-head and opposed idol-worship. In 1803 he published a Persian treatise named 'Tuhfat-ulMuwahidin' or 'A Gift to Monotheists' wherein he explains his concept of monotheism.

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He established the Atmiya Sabha in Calcutta in 1815 in order to propagate monotheism and fight against the evil practices in Hinduism. Later in 1928 he established the Brahmo Samaj in Calcutta to purify Hinduism and preach monotheism.

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He laid emphasis on human reason and rationality to Christianity by publishing a book 'Percepts of Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness' in 1920 which embodied the moral and spiritual percepts of Jesus without the narratives of the miracles.

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He defended Hinduism and its Vedanta philosophy, as found in the Vedas and the Upanishads, from the ignorant attacks of Christian missionaries.

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He led a lifelong crusade against sati and finally in 1829 he succeeded in persuading Lord William

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Brahmo Samaj after Roy - Debendranath Tagore (1817 - 1905) •

Debendranath Tagore established the Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839) at Calcutta to propagate Raja Ram Mohan Roy's ideas. He formally joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1843 and reorganized it.

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Keshav Chandra Sen promoted the Samaj in 1857 and became the right hand man of Debendranath. During this time problems emerged between the older and the conservative section led by Debendranath and the newer and progressive section led by Sen over the issues of social reform particularly the caste system and over the relationship between Hinduism and Brahmoism (while the latter stood for the complete abolition of the caste system and maintained that Brahmoism is different form Hinduism, the former group wanted to retain caste system, though criticizing its rigidity and asserted that Brahmoism is Hinduism.)

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This led to the secession of Sen's group from the parent body (which had come to be known as Adi Brahmo Samaj) in 1865 and formation of a new 26

Panderung. Dadoba outlined his doctrine or principles in the Dharma Vivechan (1848) and it denied the polytheism of popular Hinduism, the caste system and the Brahmanical monopoly of knowledge.

organization known as Brahmo Samaj of India by it in 1866. •

Further he formed the Indian Reform Association in 1870 and persuaded the British government to enact the Native Marriage Act of 1872 (popularly known as the Civil Marriage Act) which legalized Brahmo marriages and fixed the minimum age for the groom and the bride at 18 and 24 respectively.

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It was radical socio-religious society that was formed in 1849 and that met in secret.

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Ram Bal Krishna Jayakar became President of the mandali. All members were required to pledge that they would abandon caste restrictions and each inmate had to take food and drink from prepared by a member of a lower caste.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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Debendranath Tagore spread the message of Brahmo Samaj in other parts of India including Bombay and Madras by his tours and adopted a much more radical and comprehensive scheme of social reforms and infused bhakti into Brahmoism.

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The group came to an agreement on two major principles: firstly, they would not attack any religion and secondly, they rejected any religion which claimed infallibility.

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Branches of the organization were established at Poona, Ahmednagar and Ratnagiri.

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Its insistence on remaining a secret organization illustrated an unwillingness to openly challenge Hindu orthodox.

Second Schism in Brahmoism •

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The second schism in Brahmoism occurred in 1878 when a group of Sen’s followers under Ananda Mohan Bose and Shivanatha Shastri left him and formed the Sadharana Brahmo Samaj.

The cause for this split was the question of management of the samaj and the violation of the Native Marriage Act by Sen himself (he gave his daughter in marriage to the ruler of Cooch Behar but neither of them had attained the marriageable age under the Act.)

Manav Dharam Sabha

Durgaram Manchharam (1809-1878) was a leading figure among the small group of educated Gujaratis who in the 1830s became strong critics of contemporary society.

Other participants included Dadoba Panderung, Dinmuni Shanar, Dalpatram Bhagubai and Damodar Das. They founded the Manav Dharam Sabha at Surat in 1844 and held open meetings every Sunday.

As part of its programme, the Manav Dharam Sabha challenged magicians and the reciters of incantations to demonstrate their skills. They also criticized caste but took no direct action against the institution. The sabha had only a short career as an active organization as it began to shatter in 1846 when Dadoba Panderung returned to Bombay and ceased to function in 1852 when Durgaram Manichharan left for Rajkot.

Although its life was severely limited, the sabha was directly linked to later movements in Maharashtra and to the leaders of later movements.

Paramahansa Mandli

The movement was closely linked to Manav Dharam Sabha and to the leadership of Dadoba

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Prarthana Samaj

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The Brahmo ideas spread in Maharashtra where Paramhansa Sabha was founded in 1849.

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In 1867 under the guidance of Keshab, the Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Atmaram Pandurang.

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Apart from worship of one God, in western India the main emphasis has been on social reform works rather than faith.

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In the field of social reform the focus was on disapproval of caste system, raising the age of marriage for both boys and girls, widow remarriage and women education.

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Prominent leaders of the Prarthana Samaj were Mahadev Govind Ranade, R.G. Bhandarkar and N.G. Chandravarkar.

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In Punjab, the Dayal Singh Trust sought to implent Brahma ideas by the opening of Dayal Singh college at Lahore in 1910.




Arya Samaj and Swami Dayanand araswati

(1824 - 1883)

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It was revivalist in form though not in content.

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It was founded by Swami Dayananda. He rejected western ideas and sought to revive the ancient religion of the Aryans.

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In 1875, Dayananda formally organised the first Arya Samaj unit at Bombay. A few years later the headquarters of the Arya Samaj was established at Lahore.

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He looked on the Vedas as India’s ‘rock of the ages’, the true original seed of hinduism. His motto was ‘go back to the Vedas’.

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He condemned idol worship and preached unity of God head.

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His views were published in his work ‘Satyartha Prakash’.

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He accepted the doctrine of Karma but rejected the theory of niyati (destiny).

with the objective of carrying on humanitarian relief and social work through the establishment of schools, colleges, orphanages, hospitals, etc. •

The latter is a religious order or trust founded by Vivekananda in 1887 at Baranagar (Though Belur has become the headquarters of both the Mission and the Math since 1898) with the objective of bringing in to existence a band of dedicated monks who would propagate the teachings of Ramakrishna Paramhansa (the universal message of the Vedanta).

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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He pleaded for widow remarriage and condemned child marriages.

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Anglo-vedic school was established at Lahore in 1866.

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The orthodox opinion in the Arya samaj which stands for the revival of vedic ideal in modern life set up the gurukul pathsala at Hardwar in 1902 which was exclusively for boys.

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The Samaj started the Shuddhi movement to convert non-Hindus to Hinduism.

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Lala Hans Raj, Pandit Guru Dutt and Lala Lajpat Rai were prominent leaders of the other section who stood for the spread of English education and established a number of DAV schools and colleges for both boys and girls.

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Dayanand’s political slogan was ‘India for the Indians’.




Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1836 - 1886), Ramakrishna Paramhansa and the Ramakrishna Movement

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Originally known as Godadhar Chattopadhay, he was born in 1836 in Kamarpukur village in Hoogly district in West Bengal. He was a priest at the Kali temple in Dakshineswar near Calcutta and considered and emphasised that Krishna, Hari, Ram, Christ, Allah are different names of the same God.

Unlike Arya samaj, Ram Krishna Mission recognises the utility and value of single worship in developing spiritual fervour and worship of the Eternal Omnipotent God.

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Vivekanand emerged as the preacher of newHinduism.

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He attended the Parliament of Religions at Chicago in 1893.

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The famous magazines of Ramkrishna Mission were Prabudh Bharat and Udbodhan.

Ramakrishna Mission and Ramakrishna Math •

The former is a social service and charitable society formed by Swami Vivekananda in 1897 at Belur,

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Though legally two distinct entities, with separate funds and finances, the Mission and the Math are in practice a single body, with the members of the Math forming the principal workers of the Mission and the trustees of the Math forming the governing body of the Mission.

Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)

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Originally known as Narendranath Datta, he was born in 1863 in Calcutta.

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He first visited Ramakrishna in 1881 and made frequent visits thereafter. He established a monastery in Baranagar in 1887 after the death of his guru.

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He toured India extensively, attended the World Parliament of Religions in 1893 at Chicago and spoke at the Congress of History of Religions at Paris in 1900.

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He published two papers: the monthly Prabudha Bharata in English and the fortnightly Udbodhana in Bengali.

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He popularized the teachings of his guru, proclaimed the essential oneness of all religions and held Vedanta as a fully rational system.




Theosophical Society

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Madam H.P. Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in the Unites States in 1875. Later Colonel M.S. Olcott joined her.

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In 1882 they shifted their headquarters to India at Adyar.

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The members of this society believe that a special relationship can be established between a person’s soul and God by contemplation, prayer, revolution.

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The society believes in re-incarnation, Karma and draws from the philosophy of the upanishads and Samkhya, yoga and vedanta schools of thought.

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The theosophical movement came to be allied with Hindu renaissance.

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After the death of Olcott in 1907 Annie Besant was elected as its President. She had joined the society in 1889. 28

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The society under Besant concentrated on the revival of Hinduism and its ancient ideas and inorder to provide Hindu religious instruction\ she founded the Central Hindu University at Varanasi in 1898 which was later developed into the Benaras Hindu University by Madan Mohan Malaviya.

Young Bengal Movement Its founder was Henry Vivian Derozio, who was born in Calcutta in 1809 and who taught at the Hindu college between 1826 and 1831. He died of cholera in 1831.

Theodore Beck was his associate and was the first Principal. Beck founded the union Indian Patriotic Association, Aligarh.

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In 1866 he founded the Muhhammadan Educational Conference as a general forum for spreading liberal ideas among the muslims.

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Unfortunately the movement in later stages became anti-congress and anti-Hindu and pro-British due to misconceived fears of Hindu domination.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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His followers were known as the Derozians and their movement as the Young Bengal Movement.

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The movement attacked old traditions and decadent customs, advocating women’s rights and education and educating the public on the current socio-economic and political questions through press and public associations.

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They carried on public agitation on public questions like freedom of the press, trial by jury and protection of peasants, etc.

Muslim Reform Movements




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The orthodox section among the Muslim Ulema organised the Deoband movement which began after the foundation of the Dar-ul-Ulum at Deoband in 1866 by Maulana Hussain Ahmad and others with the aim of resuscitating classical Islam and improving the spiritual and moral conditions of the muslims.

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It was a revivalist movement where objectives were to propagate among the Muslims, the pure teachings of the Quran and the Hadis and to keep alive the spirit of Jihad against the foreign rulers.

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The ulema under the leadership of Mohammad Qasim Wanotavi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi founded the school of Deoband in the Saharanpur district of UP in 1866.

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The school curriculum shut out English education.

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Deoband school welcomed the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.

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In 1888 Deoband ulema issued a religious decree against Syed Ahmad Khan’s organisations.




Ahrar Movement

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It was a movement founded in 1910 under the leadership of Maulana Muhammad Ali, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Hasan Imam, Maulana Zafar Ali Khar and Mazhar-ul-Haq in opposition to the loyalist policies of the Aligarh movement.

Aligarh Movement

It was founded by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan for the social and educational advancement of muslims in India.

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Other prominent members of the movement were Altaf Hussain Hali, Dr. Nazir Ahmed, Nawab Mushin-ul-Mulk, Chirag Ali, etc.

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He established two madarasas at Muradapur and Gazipur and in 1870 published Tahzib ul Akhalaq and Asbad-i-Bhagvati.

Deoband Movement

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He advocated a rational approach towards religion, rejected blind adherence to religious law and asked for a reinterpretation of the Quran in the light of reason to suit the new trends of the time.

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Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was in the judicial services of the company at the time of rebellion of 1857 and stood loyal to the government.

Moved by modern ideas of self-government its members advocated active participation in the nationalist movement.




Ahmadia Movement

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He tried to reconcile his co-religionists to modern scientific thoughts and to the British rule and urged them to accept services under the government.

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He condemned the system of Piri and Muridi.

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He opened a modern school in Aligarh in 1875 which developed into the Mohammadan Anglo

Also known as the Qadiani movement, it was founded by Mirza Gulam Ahmad at Qadiani in Punjab, towards the end of the 19th century with the objective of reforming Islam and defending it against the onslaught of Christian missionaries and the Arya Samajists.

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It gave religious recognition to modern industrial and technological progress and it became the most closely knit and the best organized Muslim group in India.

Oriental College at Aligarh in 1877. The school became the nucleus of the formation of the Aligarh Muslim University in 1920.

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Parsi Reform Movements In 1746 the Indian Parsis got divided into two groups, when a group of them decided to accept the Iranian calendar and came to be known as the ‘Kadami’ (ancient section) as opposed to the ‘Shahanshahis’ (royalists), who retained the calendar used in Gujarat. This major division of the community lasted into the 20th century.

It laid emphasis on Guru Nanak and on Sikhism before the establishment of Khalsa by Guru Gobind Sing at Anandpur and this separated them from the Namdaris.




Namdharis

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Founded by Baba Ram Singh (1816-1885) in 1857, who in 1841 became a disciple of Balak Singh of the Kuka movement.

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The movement was founded on a set of rituals modeled after Guru Gobind Singh’s founding of the Khalsa with the requirement of wearing the five symbols but instead of the sword the followers were supposed to carry a stick.

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The movement required the followers to abandon the worship of gods, idols, tombs, trees, snakes, etc. and abstain from drinking, stealing, falsehood, slandering, backbiting, etc.

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Further the consumption of beef was strictly forbidden as protection of cattle was important.




Singh Sabhas

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Shaken by Namdhari unrest, the speeches of Shraddha Ram of Arya Samaj and by the Christian conversions a small group of prominent Sikhs decided to form the Singh Sabha of Amritsar which held its first meeting on 1st October, 1873 with Thakur Singh Sandwhawalia as its President.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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A second division was created by the movement of Parsis into Bombay where many of them became wealthy as merchants, ship builders, commercial brokers, etc. Besides the Parsi religion was frequently targeted by the Christian missionaries.

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In this background, Naroji Furdunji edited in 1840s the Fam-i-Famshid, a journal aimed at defending the cause of Zoroastrianism. He also wrote a number of pamphlets and published the book Tarika Farthest in 1850. All these events led to the formation of a socio-religious movement designed to codify the Zoroastrian religion and reshape Parsi social life.

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In 1851 a small group of educated Parsis formed the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Parsi Reform Society) with funds provided by K.N. Kama. Furdunji Naoroji became its President and S.S. Bengali its secretary.

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In 1850 Bengali started publishing a monthly journal Jagat Mitra and the Jagat Premi in 1851. The sabha’s journal Rast Goftar was the main voice of the movement.

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Soon it was rivaled by a new organization, the Lahore Singh Sabha which held its first meeting on 2nd November, 1879 led by Prof. Gurmukh Singh and Bhai Ditt Singh.

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The leaders criticized elaborate ceremonies at betrothals, marriages and funerals and opposed infant marriage and the use of astrology.




Akali Movement

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The main aim of the Akali movement of 1920s was to purify the management of the Sikh Gurudwaras or shrines by removing the corrupt or selfish Mahants or priests.

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The movement led to the enactment of the new Sikh Gurudwara Act by the British in 1925 and removed corrupt priests through the act and also through the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabhandhak Committee (SPGC).

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But the activities of the sabha divided the Parsis into two groups: those who advocated radical change and those who wished only limited altercations in rituals and customs, organized under the Raherastnumi Mazdayasnan in opposition to the radicals.

Sikh Reform Movements

Other Reformers and Social workers


Nirankaris

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Baba Dayal Das (1783-1855) was the founder of this movement of purification and return. In 1840s he called for the return of Sikhism to its origin and emphasized the worship of one God and nirankar (formless).

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Such an approach meant a rejection of idolatry and also prohibition of eating meat, drinking liquor, lying, cheating, etc.

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In western India Prof D.K. Karve took up the cause of widow remarriage and in Madras Veerasalingam Pantulu made Herculean efforts in the same direction. Prof. Karve opened a widow’s home in Poona in 1899. He crowned his work by setting up the Indian Womens University at Bombay in 1916. 30

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B.M. Malbari started a crusade against child marriage and his efforts were crowned by the enactment of the age of consent Act, 1891.

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In 1849 J.E.D. Bethune founded a girl’s school in Calcutta. All India women’s conference was organised in 1936.

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Radha Soami Satsang was founded by Tulsi Ram.

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In Kerala, the Nairs started movement against the dominance of Nambudari Brahmins. C.V. Raman Pillai organised the Malyali Memorial. He wrote a novel Martanda Verma to show the military glory of the Nairs. Padmanabha Pillai founded the nair service society in 1914.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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He rejected the caste system and developed the concept of one caste, one religion and one God for mankind. His disciple Ayappan made it into no religion, no caste and no God for mankind.

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Deva Samaj was founded by Shiva Narain Agnihotri.

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Nadwah ul ulama was founded by Maulana Shibli Numani in 1894 in Lucknow.

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Justice movement was started in 1915-16 by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair and P. Tyagaraja Chetti in Madras. It was against the predominance of the Brahmins in education, government services and politics.

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Self respect movement was started in 1925 by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker popularly known as Periyar. It was against the dominance of Brahmins.

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Periyar waged movement for forcibly temple entry, burning of Manusmriti and wedding without Brahmin priest. He started his journal Kudi Arasu in Tamil in 1929 to propagate his ideas.

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Ezhava movement was launched by Sri Narayan Guru. He started the movement of untouchable Ezhava against the Brahmin dominance in Kerala.

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In 1873, Satya Sodhak movement was launched by Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra to save the lower castes from the Brahmins. He wrote ‘Gulamgiri’ and ‘Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak’. His theory of exploitation of lower castes was focused on cultural and ethnic factor rather than on political and economic one.

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The Mahars were organised by Gopal Baba Walangkar in late 19th century against Brahmins in Maharashta. Baba Bhim Rao Ambedkar became their leader in the 20th century. Under his leadership the Mahars started burning Manusmriti and tried to break with the Hinduism.

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In 1932 Gandhiji founded the Harijan Sevak Sangh.

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Ambedkar founded the Scheduled Castes Federation.






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RESISTANCE TO BRITISH RULE

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A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

Kittur Rising The revolt materialized under the leadership of Channamma who was the widow of Rudra Desai, the chief of Kittur and had no son and Rayappa in 18241829 in Karnataka.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Early Uprisings against the British in India

CHRONICLE

NON TRIBAL

These revolts were mainly politically driven with the stakes of zaminders, Indian rulers and even their dependents. Causes of these popular movements were the following: 1. Attempts of the British to force Indian rulers to accept their suzerainty. 2. Forceful occupation of the estate of local rulers.

3. Financial burden imposed by the British through Subsidiary Alliance System.

4. Doctrine of Lapse used by the British also resulted in resentments.

5. Frequent interference of local British residents in internal affairs of the State; 6. Resentment against British land revenue policy.

7. Seizure of Zamindari estate in case of failure of payments.

Revolt of Kattabomman The revolt was organized in Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu in 1792-1799 by Veerpandya, the ruler of Panchalakerich who was eventually killed in 1799. Rebellion of Paiks The rebellion took place in Orissa in 1804-1806 for the first time under Khurda Raja and later under Jagabandhu.

Revolt of Veluphanampi/Veluthambi The revolt was organized in Travancore in 18081809 by the Diwan of Travancore as the British tried to remove him.

Sambalpur Outbreak The outbreak took place in Orissa in 1827-1840 under Surendra Sai due to interference in internal matters by the British. Satora Disturbance King Pratap Singh was removed which instigated a revolt in 1840-1841 in Maharashtra under Dhar Rao and Narsingh Dattatreya. Bundela Revolt The revolt was held in 1842 in Bundelkhand under Madhukar Shah and Jawahir Singh against the British revenue system. Gadkari Rebellion Organized in Kolhapur in Maharashtra in 18441845 in revolt against the overtake of the Kolhapur administration by the British Satvandi Revolt It was in Maharashtra in 1839-1845 under Phond Savant and Anna Sahib in protest against disposing the chief of the Savant region Kheen Savant. Raju Rebellion Occurred in Vishakhapatnam in 1827-1833 under Birbhadra Raju who was removed by the British. Palakonda Outbreak In Andhra Pradesh in 1831-1832 with no clearcut leadership as all zamindars of the area mobilized the peasantry.

Revolt of Rao Bharmal The ruler of Cutch revolted in Cutch and Kathiawar in 1811-19.

Gumsur Outbreak In Ganjam District in Andhra Pradesh in 1835-1837 under the leadership of Dhanjaya Bhauja who was a zamindar of Ganjam. He was in debt due to non-payment of revenue and his land was confiscated.

Revolt of Ramosis The revolt took place in Poona in 1822-1829 under the leadership of Chitur Singh and Omaji when the Peshwa lands were captured by the British.

Parlakimedi Outbreak It was organized in Orissa in 1829-1835 under Jagannath Gajapati as the British acquired the land of zamindars due to nonpayment of revenue.

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CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Popular Non Tribal Movements against British Rule

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Tribal Revolts

Singpo Rising Took place in 1830-1839 in Assam where the Englishman Mr. White was murdered. Kol Rising Broke out under Buddho Bhagat in 1831-1832 in Chhota Nagpur area.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Tribal movements were basically directed to preserve the tribal identity which was thought to be in danger due to intrusion of external people affecting the social, political and geo-economical position of the tribes. These movements were mostly violent, isolated and frequent. There were about seventy tribal movements from 1778 to 1947. These movements can be broadly divided into two parts i.e., movements of the frontier tribes and movements of the non-frontier tribes depending upon the geographical area of their initiation. Both these types of revolts had different sets of causes. Movement of frontier tribes was mostly revivalist and tended to be political and secular. On the contrary, the non-frontier tribes revolted usually against the 'outsiders' and the British administration.

Khasi Rising In 1829-1832 in Khasi mountain range in Assam and Meghalaya under Chief of Noumklow tribe, Tirut Singh and Barmanik, the chief of Molim tribe.

Responsible Factors

The factors which were responsible for the outbreak of the tribal movements are as follows: 1. Resentment of the tribes against the extension of the British rule to their areas. They also resented the introduction of general administration & laws which were considered by them as intrusions into the traditional political system of the tribal community. 2. Reaction against the penetration of tribal areas by peoples from plains in form of money lenders, traders, contractors, etc. and the protection given to these out-siders by British government. 3. The tightening of British control over their forest zones, creation of reserved forests and attempts to monopolize forest- wealth through curbs on the use of timber and grazing facilities. 4. The activities of Christian missionaries in their areas were looked upon by them as anti-religious and hence resented. 5. British attempts to suppress certain tribal traditions and practices like infanticide, human sacrifices etc hurt the tribal social beliefs. 6. The British colonialism devoid the tribal people of their traditional economic set up and hence they were forced to serve as menial labourers, coolies in plantation, mines and factories.

Chaura Rising Organized twice between 1768 and 1832 in Naanbhum and Bara Bhum areas in West Bengal. Bhil Revolt Was in Khandesh in the Western Ghats in 1818-1848.

Khoya Revolt Was organized in Rampa in Andhra Pradesh in 1840, 1845, 1858, 1861-1862, 1879-1880 and 1922-1924, the last one under the leadership of Alluri Sitaramraju. Khoni Rising The first two revolts in 1846-48 and in 1855 were under Chakra Bisaji and in 1914 in Orissa's Khondmal region. Santhal Revolt • Was under Sado and Kanhu in 1855-1856 in Rajmahal hills in Bihar. • Began primarily as a reaction against their exploitation by the outsiders (especially people from the plains) and later developed into an antiBritish movement. •

Fought the British to have complete control of the area between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal but were crushed. Naikdas Revolt Was in Panchmahal in Gujarat in 1858-1859 and1868 under Roop Singh and Joria Bhagat respectively. Kacha Nags Revolt Was in 1882 in Assam under Sambhudan.

Munda Revolt Was in Chota Nagpur region in Ranchi Under Birsa Munda in 1899-1900. Bhils Revolt Under Govind Guru in Banswar and Dungapur area of South Rajasthan in 1913. Oraon Revolt Under Jatra Bhagat in 1914-1915 in Chhota Nagpur area. Thadoe Kuki Revolt Under Jadonang and Rani Gaidinliu in 1917-1919 in Manipur.

Hos Rising Three revolts in 1820, 1822 and 1832 in Singhbhum and Chhota Nagpur areas.

Chenchus Revolt Under Hanumanthu in 1921-1922 in Nallamala range of Andhra Pradesh.

Koli Rising In 1824, 1828, 1839 and 1844-1848 in the areas of the Shahadari hills near Western Ghats of Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Rampa Revolt Under Rajan Anatayya in 1884 and Alluri Sitaram Raju in 1922-1924 in Andhra Pradesh.

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CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

TRIBAL MOVEMENTS AGAINST RuleBRITISH RULE

Peasant Uprisings

The economic policies of the British, such as new land revenue system, colonial administrative and judicial systems and the ruin of handicrafts resulting in the over-crowding of land, transformed the agrarian structure and thus impoverished the peasantry. The © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

reactions of the peasants were directed against the zamindars, money-lenders and ultimately the British rule. Peasant movements varied in nature. Prior to the commencement of mass movements of the freedom struggle, these peasant movements were localized based on religion, caste and social consciousness. Later

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Bijolia Movement In Rajasthan in 1905, 1913, 1916, 1927 where the movement arose due to the imposition of 86 different types of cesses on the peasants. Indigo Revolt (1859-1860) • In this the peasants were forced to grow indigo in their lands by the European factory owners which exploded into a revolt in Govindpur village of Nandia district in Bengal under Digamber Biswas and Vishnu Biswas.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

on, some secular trends were observed in these movements which became national level mass movements resulting in formation of platforms such as Kishan Sabha, Congress Socialist Party, etc. Moplah Rebellion • In the Malabar region due to the oppression and exploitation of the Muslim Moplah peasants of north Kerala by the Hindu zamindars (Jemmis) and the British government. •

Rifts started as early as 1836 though the main revolt was in August 1921.

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Others who played an important role included Harish Chandra Mukherjee (editor of the newspaper Hindu Patriot), Dinbandhu Mitra and Michael Madhusudan Dutta.

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The government appointed an Indigo Commission in 1860 and removed some of the abuses of the indigo cultivation.

Ramosi Revolt Under Vasudeo Balwant Phadke in 1882-1889 in the Western Ghats.

Pabna Movement In East Bengal Pabna district in 1872-1876 due to oppression of peasantry by the zamindars.

PEASANTS MOVEMENTS AGAINST BRITISH RULE

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36

Points to Remember •

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Bengal. Bhil Uprising under Govind Guru was initially a purification movement started in 1913. There were total 22 rebellions by the Mappillas from 1836 to 1854. Chenchus of Andhra Pradesh rebelled in 1921-22 under the leadership of Hanumanthu. Rani Gaidinliu is known as John Arch of Nagaland as she led the Kuki Revolt in 1917-19. The Poligars of coastal Andhra Pradesh resented against British land revenue policy in 1813-34 under Jagannath Gajapati. Indigo Rebellion of 1859 (Bengal) under Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Biswas was the most widespread and popular movement of the time. Mundas of Chhotanagpur rebelled in 1899-1900. It was called as ‘Ulgullan’. The collective land holding system of the Mundas was called ‘Khutakatti’. Mundas used the word ‘Diku’ for the outsiders of the region. Birsa Munda led the rebellion, who was considered as God. The Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908 relieved the Mundas of the region. Deccan anti-Sahukar riots took place in 1874-75. It was supported by Poona Sarvajanik Sabha. Relief was provided through the Deccan Agriculturist Relief Act of 1878. In 1918, Indra Narayan Dwivedi set up the U. P. Kisan Sabha along with Gaurishankar Mishra. In Rai-Bareilly Jhinguri Singh and Baba Ramchandra led the peasant movement. Champaran Satyagrah was caused due to ‘Tinkathila’ system of cultivation, ‘sharah vesi’ and ‘Tawan’. Rajkumar Shukla invited Gandhiji in 1917 to lead Champaran Satyagrah. Shahajananda founded the Bihar provincial Kisan Sabha in 1929. In 1936, agitation started against Bakasht (selfcultivated land) in Bihar. In 1923, the Andhra Provincial Ryots Association was formed by N. G. Ranga. All India Kisan Sabha was formed in 1936, April 11th at Lucknow. The peasants of Bijolia, a jagir in Mewar organized them under Bhoop Singh and later under Manik Lal Verma.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

The Bengal famine of 1770 and the restrictions imposed on visiting holy places angered the Sanyasis, thus leading to revolt. Sanyasis were the followers of Sankaracharya. After prolonged military action, Warren Hastings suppressed the Sanyasi rebellion. Sanyasi rebellion was the theme of Bamkin's Anandmath. Santhals rebelled in 1855 under Sidhu and Kanhu. Santhal Rebellion of 1855-56 was known as ‘Hul’ The government pacified the Santhal by creating a separate district of Santhal Parganas. The area between Bhagalpur (Bihar) & Rajmahal (Jharkhand) was called Daman-e-koh. Rabindranath Tagore has respectfully portrayed the description of this rebellion. The Kol of Chhotanagpur revolted against the transfer of land from Mundas to outsiders. Munda Rebellion affected Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau and western part of Manbhum of Jharkhand. Kolis of Gujarat revolted in 1829, 1839 and during 1844-48. Chuttur Singh led the Ramosis Rebellion (182229). After Santhal Rebellion, the region witnessed Kherwar and Safahar Movement in 1870’s. The Wahabi Movement was a revivalist movement. Initially the Wahabis fought against the Sikh in Panjab. Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareily was influenced by Shah Waliullah. Khasi uprising was against the East India Company’s plan to link up the Brahmaputra valley with Sylhet. The raising of Salt Duty from 50 paise to one rupee in 1844 caused the Surat Salt Agitation. In 1828, the Ahoms proclaiming Gomdhar Konovar as their King revolted. Karam Shah founded a semi-religious sect called Pagal Panthi in North Bengal. His son, Tipu led the peasantry and captured Sherpur and assumed royal power in 1825. Khond tribes revolted against the government ban on their practice of human sacrifice-’Meriya’. The Faraezis were the followers of a Muslim sect founded by Haji Shariatullah of Faridpur in eastern

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Bhagwan Singh Longowalia, Jagir Singh Joga and Teja Singh led the peasant movement in Patiala. The Mappila Rebellion of 1921 of Malabar was influenced by the Khilafat movement. The search for arms in Tirurangadi Mosque instigated the violence in Malabar. Martial law turned the movement violent and communal.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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Borsad Satyagrah was led by Sardar Patel, which was directed against the poll tax imposed on every adult. Kunvarji Mehta and Kalyanji Mehta found the Patidar Yuva Mandal in 1958. Maxwell-Broomfield enquiry was constituted for the Bardoli Satyagrah. Khera Satyagrah was led by Vittalbhai & Vallabbhai Patel. The leader of Eka movement was Madari Pasi. South Indian Federation of Peasants and agricultural labourers were headed by N. G. Ranga and E.M.S Nambudripad. Congress under Jawahar Lal Nehru’s presidentship at 1936 session adopted the agrarian programme. Tebhaga Movement was a protracted peasant struggle involving the lower stratum of tenant. The revolt of the Varlis, tribal people in western India was a struggle against exploitation of forest contractors, money lenders, rich farmers etc. Telengana uprising during 1946-51 was launched in the territory of the Nizam.

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All India Kisan Sabha

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Founded in April 1936 at Lucknow. Swami Sahajananda was the first President. N. G. Ranga was the first General Secretary. First session was addressed by Jawahar Lal Nehru. Other leaders were Ram Manohar Lohia, Sohan Singh, Indulal Yagnik, Jaya Prakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev, Kamal Sarkar and Bankim Mukherjee, etc. The All-India Kisan Sabha held its second session along with the Faizpur Congress session in 1936. It was presided by Jawahar Lal Nehru.






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38

THE GREAT REVOLT OF 1857

IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

• Administrative and Economic Causes:

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

The revolt of 1857 was though a regional manifestation yet the causes and the events that instigated the revolt were surely having a Pan-Indian characteristic. In fact, the revolt of 1857 was the outburst of people's feelings against, social, economic and political exploitation and hence participants from almost every field i.e. social, economical (represented by peasants) and political (deposed rulers) participated in the revolt. Prior to this revolt also, the resentment of the Indians were expressed in both violent mutinies as well as peaceful protests. The mutiny at Vellore (1806), at Barrackpore (1824), at Ferozpur (1842), mutiny of the 7th Bengal cavalry, mutiny of 22nd N.I. in 1849, Revolt of the Santhals (1855-56), Kol uprising (1831-32) etc. were among the high degree of protests by the people that culminated in the revolt of 1857.

CHRONICLE

Causes of Revolt

Following were the causes of the great revolt of 1857: • Political Causes:

The English Company's policy of 'effective control' and gradual extinction of the Indian Native States was facilitated by the subsidiary alliance system that culminated with the 'Doctrine of Lapse' of Dalhousie. While the Punjab, Pegu, Sikkim had been annexed by the 'Right of Conquest', Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi, Udaipur, Sambhalpur, Baghat and Jaitpur were annexed by Dalhousie's doctrine of lapse policy. The pretext of 'good governance' was adopted for the annexation of Awadh. Moreover, the announcement of the Lord Canning, that the successors of Faqir-ud-Din would have to leave and renounce regal title and ancestral Mughal Palace (Lal Quila) had grievously hurted the Muslim sentiments who thought that the English wanted to destroy the house of Timur. The 'absentee sovereignty ship' of the British rule in India also worked against the British that disbanded the Pindaries, Thugs and irregular soldiers forming the bulk of native armies that transformed as rebels in the revolt of 1857. © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

The annexation of Indian states deprived the native aristocracy of power and position. The new administrative set-up tended to reserve all high posts, civil and military to the Europeans. The chances of promotion to the Indians appointed to these services were few. Moreover, the administrative machinery of the English Company was inefficient and insufficient. The land revenue policy was equally unpopular. Many Taluqdars, the hereditary landlords, were deprived of their position and gains. Large estates were confiscated and sold by public auction. The Inam Commission, appointed in 1852 in Bombay, alone confiscated as many as 20,000 estates. The Taluqdars of Awadh were the hardest hit. Peasants were forced to leave their agricultural land due to rise in revenue, the handicrafts and industry workers were forced to earn livelihood through beggary. The economic policies worked against the traditional Indian handicrafts and industry. The ruined Indian industry and trade increased the pressure on agriculture and land which lopsided development in turn resulted in the pauperization of the country in general.

• Social and Religious Causes:

The English were infected with a spirit of racialism. They described the Hindus as barbarian with hardly any trace of culture or civilization, while Muslims were dubbed as bigots, cruel and faithless. The Religious Disability Act of 1850 modified Hindu customs; a change of religion did not debar a son from inheriting the property of his father. The rumour was that the English were conspiring to convert the Indians to Christianity. Sepoys were promised promotions if they accepted the 'true faith'. Idolatry was renounced and Hindus were dubbed as ignorant and superstitious. The activities of Christian priests and efforts of Dalhousie and Betheme towards women education made Indians feel that through education the British were going to conquer their civilization and so these education offices were styled on 'Saitani Daftars'. Moreover, the abolition of Sati, child marriage etc. were seen as an intrusion into the age-old tradition of the land. 39

• Military Causes:

Spread of the Revolt On 29th March, 1857, the Brahmin sepoy, Mangal Pandey of Barrackpore refused to use the greased cartridge and fired at his adjutant. The 34 Native Infantry was disbanded and sepoys guilty of rebellion were punished. In May 1857, 85 sepoys of 3rd cavalry at Meerut rebelled but were imprisoned. Their fellow Sepoys broke out an open rebellion on 10th May and shot their officer and headed towards Delhi. General Hewitt, the commanding officer at Meerut found himself helpless to stem the rising tide. On 12 May 1857, the rebels seized Delhi and overcame Lieutenant Willoughby, the incharge of the Delhi. Bahadur ShahII was proclaimed the Emperor of India. Very soon the rebellion spread throughout Northern and Central India at Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur, Bareilly, Banaras, Jhansi, parts of Bihar and other places. Unfortunately, a majority of Indian rulers remained loyal to the British and the educated Indians and merchants' class kept themselves aloof from the rebels. Revolt was confined to North India only.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

The ratio of Indians in the British army was much higher than the Europeans. This disproportion took a more serious turn because of the shortage of good officers in the army; most of them were employed on administrative posts in the newly annexed states and

the fat of pig and cow prepared at wool rich arsenal. This was considered by the Sepoys as a deliberate move to defame their religion.

Centres of the Revolt

the frontiers. Indian portion of the English army consisted mostly of Brahmans and Rajputs. Moreover, most of them came from Awadh and Bihar, hence the political and social developments of the region equally affected them. The extension of British dominion in India adversely affected the service conditions of the army. They were required to serve in areas far away from their homes without any extra payment or Bhatta and it was this reason that led to the refusal of Bengal regiment in 1844 to move to Sindh. In 1856, Canning passed the General Service Enlistment Act which feared that all future recruits for the Bengal Army would have to give an undertaking to serve anywhere as desired by the government. Also, the the Post Office Act of 1854, withdrew the privilege of free postage so long enjoyed by the Sepoys. Moreover, the disaster of the British Army in Crimean War favoured the idea of a revolt which was triggered with the introduction of greased cartridge of the newly replaced Enfield rifle. The greased cartridge contained

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Delhi: A rebellion was led by Bakht Khan. In September 1857, Delhi was recaptured by the English under John Nicholson. The emperor was arrested and his two sons and grandsons were publicly shot by Lieutenant Hudson himself. Kanpur: Nana Saheb was the leader at Kanpur. General Huge Wheeler surrendered on June 27. Nana Saheb was joined by Tantia Tope. Sir Campbell occupied Kanpur on December 6th. Tantia Tope escaped and joined Rani of Jhansi. Lucknow: Rebellion was led by Begum Hazrat Mahal and Ahmaddullah. Henry Lawrence and other Europeans at the British residency were killed by the rebels. The early attempts of Havelock and Outram to recover Lucknow met with no success. It was finally rescued by Colin Campbell in March 1858. Jhansi: Rani Lakshmi Bai led the revolt who was defeated by Huge Rose and she fled to Gwalior and captured it. She was supported by Tantia Tope. Gwalior was recaptured by the English in June 1858 and the Rani of Jhansi died on 17th June 1958. Tantia Tope escaped southward. In April, one of the Sindhia's feudatories captured him and handed to the English who hanged him. Bareilly: Khan Bahadur Khan proclaimed himself 40

integrity. This was manifested in the Indian Civil Service Act of 1861, which provided for an annual competitive examination to be held in London. 4. Indian-British army was thoroughly reorganised and built on the policy of division and counterpoise. The Army Amalgamation Scheme of 1861 transferred the Company's European troops to the service of the Crown. 'Linked-Battalion Scheme' was started in the army. All big posts in the army and artillery departments were reserved for the Europeans. The ratio of Indian and European soldiers in the army was increased in the favour of the latter. The policy of counterpoise of a native against native was followed.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

the Nawab Nazim of Bareilly, however, the rebellion was crushed by Colin Campbell in May 1858 and Bareilly was recaptured. Arah: Kunwar Singh and his brother Amar Singh led the rebellion. They were defeated by William Taylor and Vincent Ayar. Kunwar Singh was killed on 8th May, 1858. Faizabad: Maulavi Ahmeddullah led the rebellion but was defeated by the English. Allahabad & Banaras: The rebellion at Banaras and adjoining areas was mercilessly suppressed by Colonel Neill who put to death all rebels suspected and even disorderly boys.

Impact of the Revolt

The revolt of 1857 made it clear that the techniques of administering India must change in order to fully achieve the colonial goal. Hence, there were major changes in the policies of the rulers in almost every field-political, economical, social, religious and military. Following were the impact of the revolt of 1857 on Indian polity and society: 1. By the Government of India Act 1858, the control of Indian administration was transferred to the Crown from the Company. Though the Crown had considerable influence over Company's policies through the Board of Control from 1784, the Act of 1858 ended the dualism of control and made the Crown directly responsible to Indian affairs. A Secretary of State of India was appointed who was to be assisted by an advisory council of 5 members, out of which 8 members were to be nominated by the Crown. In India, the same sort of GovernorGeneral and the same military and civil services continued as before. No new policy was inaugurated; rather a continuation of the Company's policies was reiterated. 2. The policy of extension of territorial possession ended and it was promised "to respect the rights, dignity and honour of Native Princes as their own". As these Native Princes acted as 'break waters', to preserve them became of a cardinal principle of British policy. General amnesty was granted to all the offenders, except those involved in killing of English and Europeans. Taluqdars of Awadh were confirmed in their estates subject to the promise of loyalty and future good behaviour. 3. The 1858 proclamation assured the free & impartial admission to offices under Crown without any discrimination of race or creed, provided the Indians qualified for them by their education, ability & © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

5. It was increasingly realised that one basic cause for the revolt of 1857 was the lack of contact between the ruler and the ruled. It was believed that this would at least acquaint the rulers with the sentiments and feelings of the Indian and those provide an opportunity for evidence of misunderstandings. The Indian Councils Act of 1861 was a humble beginning in that way.

6. The English attitude towards the religious and social aspects of India changed. They now tried to follow a policy of non-interference in the religoius and social sphere of Indians which had caused resentment among them. 7. The unity of Hindus and Muslims during the revolt was thought problematic to the smooth working of British policies, hence the policy of 'divide and rule' was applied. Muslims were now considered as 'friends' of the English while the Hindus were denounced.

8. Racial bitterness was aggravated. The entire structure of the Indian government was remodeled on the philosophy of white man's burden and civilizing role of English in India was applied. 9. The era of territorial aggrandizement gave place to the era of economic exploitation.

Nature of Revolt

Scholars have held divergent views about the nature of the revolt of 1857. British scholars like Kaye, Trevelyan, Lawrence in addition to many eye witnesses like Munshi Jiwan Lal, Durgadas Bandopadhya, Syed Ahmad Khan etc. have held that it was 'a mutiny'. Other described it as a 'racial struggle'. Still others doubt it as a clash of civilization, while the nationalists call it as the first War of Indian Independence. Following are the major views of scholars. John Lawrence and Seeley thought it to be a Sepoy's

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efforts were made to prove that he was a party to a pre-planned conspiracy. Infact, the course of trial made it clear that the uprising was as much surprise to Bahadur Shah as to the British. Also, both of them agree that the Indian nationalism in the middle of the 19th century was in an embroynic stage. India, at that time was not a nation and the leaders of the rebellion were no national leaders. Bahadur Shah was no national king. Infact, self motivation and profit worked as an energizer to the rebel leaders. Different groups participated in the revolt because of reasons. The Taluqdars of Awadh fought for their feudal privileges. Attitudes of the leaders were mutually jealous. The condition of the masses was no better. The majority of the people remained apathetic and neutral.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

mutiny. John Seeley describes the revolt as a 'wholly unpatriotic and selfish Sepoy mutiny with non active leadership and no popular support'. Though it is true that it began as a military rising, yet it was not everywhere confined to the army. Even the army as a whole did not join it and a considerable section fought on the side of the government. In fact, the rebels came from almost every section of the population. In the trials of 1858-59, thousands of civilians, along with the soldiers, were held guilty of the rebellion and were punished.

The views of L.E.R. Rees that the revolt was 'a war of fanatic religionists against Christians' is also erring. During the heat of the rebellions, the ethical principles underlying the various religions had little influence on the complaints. Both sides quoted their religious scriptures to cover their cases over the other party. Though the Christians fought the war and won it, but not Christianity.

It was also not a 'war of races'. True, all the whites in India, whatever their nationality, were ranged on one side, but not all the blacks. Leaving the noncombatants out of account, there was a high proportion of Indian soldiers in the Company's army that took part in the suppression of the rebellion. To be more correct, it was a war between the black rebels on one side and the white ruler supported by blacks on the other side. T.R. Holmes held that it was 'a conflict between civilization and barbarism'. The explanation smacks of narrow racialism. During the rebellion both the Europeans and the Indians were guilty of excess. Infact, vendettas took the better of men on both sides. No nation or individual which indulges in such horrible atrocities can claim to be civilized. Sir James Outram and W. Tayler described the outbreak as the result of Hindu-Muslim conspiracy. Outram held that 'it was a Mohammedan conspiracy making capital of Hindu grievances'.

Early national leaders like V.D. Savarkar in his book, 'The Indian War of Independence', to arouse national consciousness, described it as 'a planned war of national independence'. Later on, national leaders further developed them to cite it as a shining example of the perfect accord and harmony between the Hindus and the Muslims.

Dr. R.C. Majumdar and Dr. S.N. Sen agree that the uprising of 1857 was not the result of a careful planning nor were there any masterminds behind it. The mere fact that Nana Saheb went to Lucknow and Ambala in March-April 1857 and the struggle started in May of the same year cannot be regarded as an evidence of planning. During the trial of Bahadur Shah,

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In his book 'the Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857', R.C. Majumdar argued that the uprising of 1857 was not a war of independence. He maintained that the revolt took different aspects in different regions. Somewhere it was a Sepoy mutiny joined later by disgruntled elements eager to take advantage of anarchy, somewhere it was a Sepoy mutiny followed by a general revolt in which, civilians, disposed rulers, tenants and other took part. He also contends that the Sepoys were mostly inspired by the desire of material gains than any political or even religious contradiction. However, he concedes that ultimately these all gave birth to nationalism. On the contrary, Dr. Sen believes it to be a war of independence by arguing that revolutions are mostly the work of a minority, with or without the active sympathy of the masses. He contends that when a rebellion can claim the sympathies of the substantial majority of the population, it can claim a national character. Dr. S.B. Chaudhari, in his book 'Civil Rebellions in the Indian Mutiny 1857-1859' has confined his attention to the detailed analysis of the civil rebellions which accompanied the military insurrection of 1857. He maintains that the revolt of 1857 can be bifurcated into mutiny and rebellion and the outburst of 1857 was the coming together of two series of disturbances. Lala Lajpat Rai in 'Young India' has described the revolt of 1857 as both political as well national. Subhash Chandra Bose also conceded that it was not merely a Sepoy mutiny but a national uprising. Eric Stokes believes that in rural areas the revolt was essentially elitist in character. The mass of the population, appear to have played little part in the fighting or at most timely followed the local leadership. According to them, it was basically an unarmed rebellion. 42

The Sepoy Mutiness :

1806

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1824

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A battalion of Munro's army at the battlefield of Buxar deserted to Mir Kasim. Mutiny at Vellore in protest against interference in the social and religious practices of the sepoys.The sepoy unfurled the flag of the ruler of Mysore. 47th Native infantry unit mutinied when ordered to proceed to Burma without adequate overseas allowance. The Grenadeir Company in Assam mutinied. An Indian regiment at Sholapur mutinied for non payment of full batta. 34 N.I. and 64th regiment joined by some others refused to proceed to Sindh without old pecuniary benefits. There was mutinious spirit in the company's army during occupation in the Punjab. The regiment at Govindgarh mutinied in 1850.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

1764

of war like the Enfield rifle. Also, the new mode of communication like telegraph and railways played a major part in favour of the English. The rebels had no common ideal. Bahadur Shah-II was declared the Emperor at Delhi, Nana Saheb was proclaimed as Peshwa at Kanpur and Gwalior. HinduMuslim differences lay dormant against the common enemy, but were not dead. The peasants and the inferior castes, apart from the educated class and traders, had no active sympathies with the rebels.

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1849-50 :

Failure of the Revolt

The revolt of 1857 was regional in character and poorly organized. India south of the Narmada remained unaffected. Sindh and Rajasthan remained quiet and Nepal's help proved of great avail in suppressing the revolt. This revolt was mainly feudal in character carrying with it some nationalistic elements. The feudal elements of Awadh, Rohilkhand and some other parts of northern India led the rebellion, other feudal princes like the Rajas of Patiala, Gwalior etc. helped in its suppression. These Indian princess were amply rewarded after the suppression of the rebellion. The revolt was organised poorly. The leader of the rebellion though undoubtely brave, lacked experience, organizing ability and concerted operations. There was no planning and almost all factions acted their own strategy. Surprise attacks and guerilla tactics could not get them their lost independence against the much organised European based English army. The military resources of the British Empire were far superior to those of the rebels. Though a year earlier, the British army was busy in Crimean War and fought on other fronts in the World, but by 1857-58 most of the wars were won by the British. The Indian soldiers had very few guns and muskets and mostly fought with swords and spears. On the other hand, the English army was equipped with the latest weapons © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Points to Remember

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The revolt was basically anti-imperialist and both the sepoys and the civilians wanted to throw out the imperial rulers.

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In 1856 the government decided to replace the old fashioned musket 'Brown Bess' by the 'Enfield rifle'. The training of the new weapon was to be imparted at Dum Dum, Ambala and Sialkot.

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On March 29, 1857 the sepoys at Barrackpore refused to use the greased cartridge and one Brahmin sepoy, Mangal Pandey, attacked and fired at the adjutant.

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On 10th May, 1857, the sepoys of the 3rd cavalry at Meerut also refused to use the greased cartridge and broke out in open rebellion. They were immediately joined by the 11th and 20th Native infantries.

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On May 12, 1857, Delhi was seized and Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah-II was proclaimed the emperor of India. The real command was in the hands of Bakht Khan who had led the revolt at Bareilly and brought the troops to Delhi.

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In Kanpur the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, who proclaimed himself the Peshwa. He was assisted by Tantia Tope. The Rebels defeated General Windham outside Kanpur. Azimullah Khan also led at Kanpur.

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In Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal and Ahmadullah led the revolt. Hazrat Mahal proclaimed Brijis Kadr as the nawab of Awadh against the wishes of the British. Henery Lawrence, the British resident was killed.

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In Jhansi, Rani Laxmibai assumed the leadership of the mutiny.

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In Bareilly Khan Bahadur proclaimed himself as the Nawab and revolted there.

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In Arrah Kunwar Singh led the revolt.

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In Faizabad Maulvi Ahmadullah led the revolt.

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Delhi was suppressed by Colonel Nicholson and Hudson.

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Kanpur was suppressed by Campbell.

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Lucknow was suppressed by Campbell.

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Jhansi was suppressed by Hugh Rose.

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Allahabad and Benaras were suppressed by Colonel Neil.

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Arrah was supressed by William Taylor and Vincent Eyre.

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Bahadur Shah was arrested and deported to Rangoon where he died in 1862.

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Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal.

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The revolt was poorly organised, restricted in its scope and there was no unity among its leaders.

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There was no impact of rebellion beyond Narmada. Even in north Rajasthan, Punjab and Sind remained quiet.

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The Indian princes such as Scindhia of Gwalior, Nizam of Hyderabad, Gulab Singh of Kashmir, prince of Rajasthan remained loyal to the British.

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The Indian intelligentsia class remained aloof.

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The control of the Indian administration was transferred from the East India Company to the crown by the government of India Act, 1858.

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The Indian Civil Services Act was passed which provided for an annual competitive examination to be held in London for recruitment to the covenanted civil services.

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The Army amalgamation scheme of 1861 transferred the company's european troops to the service of crown.

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The general formula followed was that in Bengal presidency, the proportion between the European and Indian troops should be 1:2 while for Bombay and Madras presidency it should be 1:3.

CENTRES AND LEADERS OF 1857 REVOLT

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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INDIAN NATIONALISM

CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

between the Indian interests and the British colonial interest. The English in order to guard their interest controlled tightly their Indian colony. British colonial rulers followed modern methodspolitical, military, and economic and intellectualto establish and continue their strong hold over India and for further economic exploitation of India's resources. A dose of modernization was an essential concomitant of the colonial scheme of administration and this modernization-distorted though it was-generated some development and one of these was growth of Indian Nationalism. The Indian masses felt that the industrialists of Lancashire and the groups in Britain were sacrificing their needs and interest to guard their own. The economic backwardness, caused by the exploitation of the British was the major reason for underdevelopment of India economically, socially, politically, culturally and intellectually. Now the Indians greatly understood this premise.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

The latter half of the 19th century witnessed the rise and growth of Indian Nationalism and from then onwards an organised national movement started in India. The year 1885 marks the beginning of a new epoch in Indian history. In that year All Indian Political Organisation was set on foot under the name of the Indian National Congress. The Indian mind became increasingly conscious of its political position. Indian masses, under the National congress fought one of the longest non-violent (to some extent violent also) struggle to get their freedom on 15th August 1947. A retrospective examination of the National movement suggests three broad stages in its development. In the first stage of its existence (1885-1905), the vision of the Indian National Congress was dim, vague and confused. The movement was confined to a handful of the educated middle class intelligentsia who drew inspiration from western liberal and radical thought. During the second stage (1905-1919), the Congress comes of age and its aim and scope were considerably extended. It aimed at an all round uplift of the peoplesocial, cultural, economic and political. Swaraj or selfgovernment was the goal on the political front. Some progressive elements within the Congress adopted western revolutionary methods to liquidate western imperialism. The final stage (1919-47) was the Gandhian stage of freedom movement. It was dominated by the objective of Purna Swaraj or complete independence to be achieved under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi by the characteristically Indian method of non-violent non- cooperation.

There were several factors that led to the growth of Indian nationalism.

1. Impact of Foreign Rule: Traditional Indian historiography explains rise and growth of Indian Nationalism in terms of Western response to stimulus generated by British Raj through creation of new institution, new opportunities, resources etc. In other words, Indian Nationalism grew partly as a result of colonial policies and partly as a reaction to colonial policies. The root of the Indian Nationalism lies in the clash

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Almost every group and community in Indian society saw that their interests are unsafe under British rule. Farmers were weary of the colonial authorities. Government took a large portion of their producer under the pretext of land revenue. Government, police and administration all sided with the landlords and landholders. They were supportive of those merchant groups who deceit the farmers and exploited them and controlled their land. Cultivator's voice against this exploitation was muted in the name of maintenance of law and order. Wearers and handicraft manufactures felt the government's authority more negatively. They were ruined by Government policies of one way free trade and its support to British and other European manufacturers. Later with early 20th century when there was a rise in Indian capitalism and industries, the working class found the Government siding with the capitalist especially foreign capitalists despite verbal assurance of upliftment of labour class status. When ever, the working class agitated under trade unions for their causes, the Government used all its power to suppress the movement. Moreover, the working class was now becoming aware of the fact that the increasing problem of unemployment

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could only be solved by an independent Indian Government and so they participated in the freedom struggle.

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The educated middle class was also aware of the economic and political backwardness of the country and was using various modern means to understand the problems of British rule. Those who supported the British in the revolt of 1857 with the hope of creation of a developed and modern state of India despite foreign rule were now disheartened and dissatisfied by seeing the evil effects of foreign rule. They thought that the British capitalism would develop India as it was doing so for England but they found that the Government policies in India were guided by the British capitalist class and were surely devastating for India. The economic policies of government in all fields-agriculture, heavy industries, finance, tariffs, foreign capital investments, foreign trade, banking etc-were all geared to the preservation of the colonial economy. Inspite of the British intention to the contrary, modern capitalist enterprise made a beginning in India in the 1860's. This development alarmed the British textile manufacturers who started clamoring for revision of Indian tariff rates to suit their sectional interest. The Pound-Rupee exchange ratios were also manipulated to the disadvantage of Indian industry and foreign trade. The entire development made it clear that whenever British economic interests clashed with Indian economic development, the latter had to be sacrificed. The Indian capitalist class thus thought that the independent development and growth of imperialism has some inner contradiction and felt the importance of a national Government which will support the growth and development of Indian industrial class. Politically, the claim of British of introduction of self-governance in India and civilizing the people for self-government was also deceitful. Many English officials and politicians had openly declared the intention of British to remain in India. Further, the British government used its force to suppress and prohibit the freedom of speech, press and personal liberty instead of given them freedom, which were basic criteria for introduction of self governance. English writers and scholars had already declared the inability of Indians to govern themselves. Britain took upon itself the providential mandate of civilizing the uncivilized population of the world. The 'white men's Burden' carried by English-men was a recurrent theme in the writing of British poets, scholars administrators. Culturally,

the British's were adopting negative and antiIndian policies. They were quite negative in their approaches when it came to Indian education, literature, and modern ideas. The only groups whose interest coincided with that of the British were, the Indian land holders, the zamindars and the princes, and therefore these groups were supportive of British rule till its final extinction. However, there were many among these groups also who participated in freedom struggle against British rule. The nationalist environment affected many and kindled the fire of nationalism in them. Moreover, the racial discrimination and the policy of racial supremacy resulted in the rise of hatred in the hearts of every self respected Indian, of whatever group he belonged, against the British rule. The very foreign nature of British rule also led to the rise of nationalism among the Indians. In short, it was the nature and characteristic of foreign imperialism and its ill effects on the Indian masses that resulted in the rise and growth of a powerful anti- imperialistic movement in India. The movement was a nationalist movement as it was a united struggle for freedom against common enemy, British colonial rulers. 2. Establishment of Peace and Administrative Unification of India: The British sword imposed political unity in India. Common subjection, common institutions, common laws began to shape India in a common mould. Despite imperial efforts to sow communal, regional and linguistic dissension, Pan-Indianism grew. The establishment of political unity fostered the spirit of one-mindedness. After the chaotic conditions of 18th century, the British rulers established peace and orderly government in India. British scholars take pride in the fact that Pax- Britannica brought prolonged peace and order for the first time in India. The British also established a highly centralized administrative system in India. Percival Griffiths refers to the impersonality of British administration to be its most important characteristics i.e., the fundamental characters of administration did not change with the changes of top-administrators like Secretaries of State and Viceroys. Further, administrative unification had important effects in many other fields. A highly trained professional, Indian civil service managed the district administration in all parts of India. A unified, judicial set up, codified civil and criminal law rigorously enforces throughout the length and breadth of the country imparted a new dimension of political unity to the hitherto cultural unity that

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Indians. The English education only made the Indians aware of modern political ideas and systems and also made them capable of giving shape to the Indian National movement on democratic and modern lines. The reality was that the officials and staffs in the English schools usually tried to encourage pro-British attitude among the students. The nationalist ideas were not the result of English education. There was a rise of nationalism and spread of modern ideas in China, Indonesia and other countries of Asia and Africa despite the fact that the number of modern Western type schools and colleges was limited. Initially the English language acted as lingua franca among the Indians but later its impact was seen in wider perspective educated groups. The English language separated the Indians into two different groups i.e., one English educated and the other vernacular educated groups. Most of the political leaders, understanding this fact tried to undo the impact of English education. Dadabhai Naoroji, Sayed Ahmed Khan, Ranade, Tilak, and Mahatma Gandhi, all emphasized on imparting education through vernaculars. In fact, as far as the rise & growth of nationalism among the masses is concerned, it was the result of spread of western ideas by vernacular literatures, press and propaganda. 4. Emergence of a Modern Press: The emergence of the modern press- both English and vernacular was another offshoot of British rule in India. It was the Europeans who set up printing presses in India and published newspapers and other cheap Literature. Gradually, the vernacular press came into existence and developed on the Western pattern. In spite of the numerous restrictions imposed on the press by the colonial rulers from time to time Indian journalism made rapid strides. The latter half of the 19th century saw an unprecedented growth of Indian-owned English and vernacular newspapers. In 1857 there were about 169 newspapers published in vernacular languages and their circulation reached about 100,000. The Indian press has played a notable role in mobilizing public opinion, organi-sing political movements, fighting out public controversy and promoting nationalism. Government policies were constantly criticized in the pages of the newspapers, Indian opinion was popularized and the idea of selfgovernance, democracy and Indian industrialization was propagated among the masses through these vernacular papers. Indian press was also an important medium of constant exchange of ideas and opinion among the nationalist in different parts of the country.

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had existed in India for centuries. In the words of Edwyn Bevan, the British Raj was like a steelframe which held the injured body of India together till the gradual process of internal growth had joined the dislocated bones, knit up the torn fibers, and enabled the patient to regain inner coherence and unity. 3. Introduction of Modern Education: The introduction of modern system of education afforded opportunities for assimilation of modern western ideas, which in turn gave a new direction to Indian political thinking. The English system of education though conceived by the rulers in the interest of efficient administration opened to the easily educated Indian the floodgates of liberal European thought. The liberal and radical thought of European writers like Milton, Shelley, Benthem, Mill, Spencer, Rousseau and Voltaire inspired the Indian intelligentsia with the ideals of liberty, nationality and self government while Mazzini, Garibaldi and Irish leaders became their political inspirations and made clear to them the anachronism of British rule in India. The newly-education class usually adopted the profession of junior administrators, lawyers, doctors, teachers etc. Some of them visited England to receive higher education. While in England they saw with their own eyes the working of political institutions in a free country. On their return to India, these persons found the atmosphere cringing and slavish with the total denial of basic rights to citizens. These 'Vilayat-returned' Indians with the ever-expanding English educated class formed the middle class intelligentsia. This English-educated intelligentsia, somewhat conscious of political right, found that despite the promises contained in the Charter Act of 1833 and the Queen's proclamation of 1858 the doors of higher services closed to the Indians. Thus realization from discontent and frustration among them and the discontent proved infections. The spread of and popularity of the English language in all parts of India gave to the educated Indians a common language a lingua francathrough the medium of which they could communicate with one another and transact their conferences and Congress. In the absence of such a lingua franca it would have been very difficult for the Indians to come on a common platform or organise a movement of all-India character. However, we should note that the Introduction of Modern English language did not result in the rise of Indian Nationalism. It was the result of the clash of interest between the English and the © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

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Lajpat Rai very often referred to the campaigns of Garibaldi and the activities of coronaries in his speeches and writings. Thus, European nationalist movements denied strength to the developing nationalism in India. 7. Progressive Character of socio-Religious Reforms: In the 19th century educated Indians began to examine afresh their religious beliefs and customs and their social practices in the light of new knowledge of western science and philosophy which they had overturned. The result was various religious and social reform movements in Hindu religion like the Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj, the Arya Samaj, the Ramkrishna Mission, the Theosophical society, etc. Similarly movements reformed Muslim, Sikh and Parsi societies also. In the religious sphere the reform movements combated religious superstitions, attacked idolatry, polytheism and hereditary priest hood. In the social sphere, these movements attacked the caste system, untouchability and other social and legal inequalities. These movements were progressive in character for they sought reorganization of society on democratic lines and on the basis of ideas of individual equality, social equality, reason, enlightenment and liberalism. Most of the religious societies had also political mission, all the source, whosoever, came under their influence rapidly developed a sense of self-respect and spirit of patriotism. 8. Lord Lytton's Reactionary Policies: The shortsighted acts and policies of Lord Lytton acted like catalytic agents and accelerated the movement against foreign rule. The maximum age limit for the I. C. S. examination was reduced from 21 years to 19 years, this making it impossible for Indians to compete for it. The grand Delhi Durbar of 1877, when the country was in the severe grip of famine, solicited the remark of a Calcutta journalist that 'Nero was fiddling while Rome was burning'. Lytton put on the statute book two obnoxious measures the vernacular Press Act and Indian Arms Act (1878). Lytton's unpopular acts provoked a great storm of opposition in the country and led to the organisation of various political associations for carrying on anti-government propaganda in the country. 9. The Ilbert Bill Controversy: The Ilbert Bill controversy raised passion on both sides which did not subside early. Ripon's movement sought to abolish 'Judicial disqualification based as race distinction' and the Ilbert Bill sought to give the Indian members of the covenanted civil services the same powers and rights as the European

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Newspapers, journals, pamphlets, magazines, booklets and other printed materials were used to propagate nationalism. Bamkim-Chandra Chatterjee (Bengal), Rabinder Nath Tagore (Bengal), Laxminath Bej Barua (Assam), Vishnu Sashtri Chiplankur (Maharashtra), Subramanian Bharti (Tamil Nadu), Altaf Hussain Hali (Urdu) and Bhartendu Harishchandra & Premchand (Hindi) were some of the nationalist writers of the age. Newspapers like the Indian Mirror, the Bengalee, the Armit Bazzar Partrika, Bombay Chronicle, the Hindu Patriot, the Mahratta, Kesari, Andra Prakashika, the Hindu, Induprakash, Kohinur, Times of India, etc. in English and different Indian languages exposed the excesses of British Indian administration apart from popularizing among the people the ideas of representative government, liberty, democratic institutions, Home rule and Independence. It may not be an exaggeration to state that the press became the mirror of India's nationalism and the primary medium of popular public education. 5. Racialism: One unfortunate legacy of the rebellion of 1857 was the feeling of racial bitterness between the rulers and the ruled. The 'punch' cartooned Indians as half-gorilla, half-Negroes. The AngloIndian bureaucracy developed an attitude of arrogance and contempt towards the Indians. They somehow came to the conclusion that the only argument that worked effectively with the Indians was superior force. Thus, Europeans developed their own social code of ethics and worked out the theory of a superior race. The Indians were dubbed as belonging to an inferior race and no longer worthy of any trust the Indians were frequently referred to as a nation of liars, perjurers and forgers. The Anglo-Indians lobby produced books leaf lets and pamphlets to justify the racial superiority of the European races particularly the English. This narrow approach evoked a reaction in the Indians mind and put the educated-Indians on the defensive. 6. Impact of Contemporary European Movement: Contemporary story currents of nationalist ideas, which pervaded the whole of Europe and South America, did stimulate Indian Nationalism. A number of nation-states came into existence in South America on the ruins of the Spanish and Portuguese empires. In Europe, the national liberation movements of Greece and Italy in general and of Ireland in particular deeply stirred the emotions of Indians. Educated Indians touring Europe were greatly impressed by the nationalist movements. We find Surendranath Banerji delivering lectures on Joseph Mazzini and the "Young Italy'' movement organised by him. Lala

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however, left to the associates of Ram Mohan Roy. The first such association called 'Bangabhasa Prakasika Sabha'' was formed in 1836. The association discussed topics connected with the policy and administration of the Government and sought redress by sending petition and memorials to the Governments. In July 1838, the "Zamindari Association'', more popularly known as the "Landholders Society'', was formed to safeguard the interests of the landlords. Although limited in its objectives, the landholders Society marked the beginning of an organised political activities and use of methods of constitutional agitation for the redressal of grievances. In April 1843, another political association under the name of the Bengal British India Society was founded with the object of "the collection and dissemination of information relating to the actual condition of the people of British Indian'' on October 29, 1851, the two associations (Land Holders Society and British India Society) were merged into a new one referred the ``British India Association''. This association was dominated by members of the landed aristocracy and its primary objective was safeguarding their class interest. However, the Association struck a liberal note and when the time came for the renewal of the charter of the East India Company it sent a petition to the Parliament praying for establishment of a separate legislature of a popular character, separation of judicial and executive functions, reduction in the salaries of higher officers, abolition of salt duty, able abkari and stamp duties etc. The prayers of the Association were partially met and the Charter Act of 1853 provided for the addition of six members to the governor-general's council for legislative purpose. In September 1875, Babu Sisir Kumar Ghose founded the Indian league with the objective of "stimulating the sense of nationalism amongst the people" and of encouraging political education. Within a year of its foundation, the Indian league was superseded by the Indian Association, founded on 26 July 1876, by Anandamohan Bose and Surendranath Banerjee. It was one of the most important preCongress Associations of political nature. It was founded in Calcutta. The young nationalists of Bengal were disheartened from the zamindar centric and traditional nature of the British India Association. They were in favour of a strong political struggle including important social issues. They got a good educated leader and orator in the form of Surendranath Banerjee. Surendranath was dismissed by his higher officials from the Indian civil services in a very unrightful manner. He was against the supremacy of English authorities and Englishmen in Indian civil services and had raised voice against them. Surendranath

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colleagues enjoyed. The Bill raised a storm of agitation among the members of the European community and they all stood united against the Bill. Ripon had to modify the Bill that almost defeated the original purpose. The Ilbert Bill controversy proved an eye opener to the Indian intelligentsia. It became clear to them that justice and fairplay could not be expected where the interests of the European community were involved. Further, it demonstrated to them the value of organised agitation. After 1870's, it became clear that the Indian Nationalism had grown and had earned such strength and courage to become an important part in the Indian politics. Now, it was impossible to ignore the Indian Nationalism. In 1885, the Indian Nationalism was expressed in the form of an allIndian organisation called the India National Congress. Before the National Congress, also there was several political organizations in India though on a lesser scale and limited to certain regions.

Pre-Congress Political Associations

The Indian sub-continent witnessed the growth of political ideas and political organizations hitherto unknown to the Indian world. And it was political association which heralded 19th century India into modern politics. After 1836, there was rise of many political associations in various parts of India. All these associations were headed by 'elites' and were regional and local. What distinguished these new political associations from earlier religions and caste associations of the country were the secular interest that bonded together the new classes. They worked for administrative reforms and demanded participation of Indians in the administration of India. Their method was, however, polite and restricted to petitions to the Government demanding reforms.

BENGAL PRESIDENCY

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the pioneer of political movement in India. He was greatly influenced by western ideas. In 1821, the Raja celebrated in Calcutta the establishment of a constitutional government in Spain. Ram Mohan Roy was the first Indian to focus the attention of the English men on the grievances of India and to ask for remedial measures. He demanded liberty of the press, appointment of Indians in civil courts and other higher posts, codification of law, etc. It was generally believed that some of the beneficent provisions in the Charter Act of 1833 were due to his lobbying in England. The task of organizing political association, was, © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

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MADRAS PRESIDENCY A branch of the British Indian Association of Calcutta was setup at Madras under the name of the Madras Native Association. However, the Madras Native Association right from its inception was worked by some officials, possessed very little vitality, had hardly any hold upon the public mind and languished into obscurity after 1857. The Madras Mahajan Sabha was formed in May, 1884 to co-ordinate the activities of local association and to 'provide a focus for the non-official intelligence spread up through the Presidency'. It was founded by M. V. Raghavachari, G. Subrahmanyam Aiyar, Anand Charlu and others. Various political organizations were also formed outside India during pre-Congress period of colonial rule. In 1866, East India Association was founded by Dadabhai Naoroji in London. It objective was to discuss the problem and questions related to India and to influence the British leaders towards the development of India. Later, Dadabhai also opened its branch in various important Indian cities. Two other Associations namely National Indian Association, founded by Mary Carpenter in 1867 and Indian society, founded by Anandmohan Bose in 1872 were also formed in London. These, however, were not so important as compared to East India Association. Its leaders, like Dadabhai Naoroji devoted all his life for Indian freedom struggle. He was also known as the Grand Old Man of India. He was the first economic thinker of India. He, in his writings proved that the only cause of poverty in India was the economic exploitation of India by British and Drain of Wealth. Dadabhai Naoroji was elected to the presidentship of Indian National Congress thrice. The political Associations and activities in preCongress period in India and abroad regarding the Indian freedom struggle made it mandatory to form an All-India Association that would lead the country against the foreign rulers. These early Associations had, though, important contribution i.e. of arousing the political will and demands of the Indian public, but their area and activities, all were limited. They mainly questioned local issues and their members and leaders were also limited to one or adjoining provinces. Despite good leaders like Surendranath Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji, Ananda Charlu and others there was a lack of national unity in case of political association that was gained by the formation of Indian National Congress.

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started his political career by talking on various political issues in 1875 amongst the students of Calcutta. The Indian Association hoped to attract not only the middle classes but also the masses and therefore kept its annual subscription of Rs 5 as opposed to the subscription of Rs 50. p. a fixed by the British Indian Association. Soon the Indian Association became the centre of the leading representatives of the educated community of Bengal. The regulation of 1876 that reduced the maximum age for appearing in the Indian Civil Service examination from 21 to 19 years triggered on the political activity in India. The Indian Association took up this question and organized an all-India agitation against it, popularly known as the Indian civil service agitation. Surendranath Banerjee on a whirlwind tour of northern India in May 1877 visited Banaras, Allahabad, Kanpur, Lucknow, Aligarh, Delhi, Meerut, Amritsar and Lahore. At certain centers he visited, new political organizations to act in concert with the Indian Association of Calcutta were set up.

BOMBAY PRESIDENCY

On the lines of British India Association of Calcutta, on 26 August 1852, was founded the Bombay Association with the object of 'memorializing from time to time the government authorities in India or in England for the removal of existing evils, and for the prevention of proposed measures which may be deemed injurious or for the introduction of enactment which may tend to promote the general interest of all connected with this country'. The Bombay Association sent a petition to the British Parliament urging the formation of new legislative council to which Indians should also represented. It also condemned the policy of exclusion of Indians from all higher services, lavish expenditure on sinecure posts given to European. However, this Association didn't survive for long. The reactionary policies of Lytton and the Ilbert Bill controversy caused political commotion in Bombay. The credit for organisation of the Bombay Presidency Association in 1885 goes to the popularly called brothers in lawMehtas, Telang and Tyabji, representing the three chief communities of Bombay town. At Poona, the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was established in 1867 with the object of serving as a bridge between the Governments on the one hand and the people on the other.






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INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

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A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

3. 1919 - 1947: The Gandhian phase or the Final stage: It was dominated by the objective of 'Poorna Swaraj' or complete independence to be achieved under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi by the characteristically Indian method of non-violence and non-cooperation.

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The credit for giving the idea concrete and final shape goes to A. O. Hume, a retired English Civil Servant. He got in touch with prominent Indian leaders and organised with their cooperation the first session of the Indian National Congress at Gokul Singh Tejpal Sanskrit School, Bombay in Decemeber 1885. It was presided over by W.C. Banerjee and attended by 72 delegates. The aims of the National Congress were declared to be the promotion of friendly relations between nationalist political workers from different parts of the country. Hence, the sessions of the Indian National Congress were rotated with the President being from a different region. In 1890, Kadambini Ganguli, the first woman graduate of Calcutta University, addressed the Congress session. The Indian National Congress was not the only channel through which the stream of nationalism flowed. Provincial conferences, provincial and local associations, and nationalist newspapers were the other prominent organs of the growing nationalist movement. The press, in particular, was a powerful factor in developing nationalist opinion and the nationalist movement. Of course, most of the newspapers of the period were not carried on as business ventures but were consciously started as organs of nationalist activity.

Phase of National Movement

A retrospective examination of the national movement suggest three broad stages in its development: 1. 1885-1905: The Moderate phase of the period of early nationalist Movement. In this phase the vision of the Indian national Movement Congress was dim, vague and confused. The movement was confined to a handful of the educated middle class intelligentsia who drew inspiration from western liberal and radical thought. 2. 1905-1918: The Extremist phase or the period of militant nationalists. During the second stage the Congress came of age and its aim and scope were considerably, extended. It aimed at an all round development of the people-social, cultural, economic and political 'swaraj' or government was the goal of political front. Some progressive elements within the congress adopted western revolutionary methods to liquidate western Imperialism. © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

The Moderates

The National leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Firoz Shah Mehta, M.E. Wacha, W.C. Banerjee, S.N. Banerjee, who dominated during this period were staunch believers in liberalism and moderate politics and came to be known as moderates. The moderates believed in the constitutional agitation. They believed if public opinion was created and organised and popular demands presented to the authorities through petitions, meetings resolutions and speeches, the authorities would concede these demands gradually and step by step. The moderates believed a that the British people and Parliament wanted to be just to India but they did not know the true state of affairs there.

Agitation against Economic Policies

The early nationalists complained of India's growing poverty and economic backwardness and the failure of modern industry and agriculture to grow; and they put the blame on British economic exploitation of India. They organised a powerful agitation against nearly all important official economic policies based on this colonial structure. They took note of all the three forms of contemporary colonial economic exploitation, namely, through trade, industry and finance. They clearly grasped that the essence of British economic imperialism lay in the subordination of the Indian economy to the British economy. They vehemently opposed the British attempt to develop in India the basic characteristics of a colonial economy namely, the transformation of India into a supplier of raw materials, a market for British manufacturers, and a field of investment for foreign capital. Dadabhai Naoroji declared as early as 1881 that the British rule was "an everlasting, increasing and everday increasing foreign invasion" that was "utterly, though gradually, destroying the country". They popularised the idea of swadeshi or the use of Indian goods, and the boycott of British goods as a means of promoting Indian industries. Students in Poona and in

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other towns of Maharashtra publicly burnt foreign clothes in 1896 as part of the larger swadeshi campaign.

Constitutional Reforms

Methods of Political work

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Their immediate demands were extremely moderate. They hoped to win freedom through gradual steps. They were also extremely cautious, lest the Government suppress their activities. From 1885 to 1892 they demanded the expansion and reform of the Legislative councils. The British Government was forced by their agitation to pass the Indian Councils Act of 1892. By this Act the number of members of the imperial Legislative Council as well as the provincial councils was increased. Some of these members could be elected indirectly by Indians, but the officials' majority remained. The nationalists were totally dissatisfied with the Act of 1892 and declared it to be a hoax. By the beginning of the 20th century, the nationalist leaders advanced further and put forward the claim for swarajya of self-government within the British Empire on the model of self-governing colonies like Australia and Canada. This demand was made from the Congress platform by Gokhale in 1905 and by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1906.

In 1897 the Bombay Government arrested B.G. Tilak and several other leaders and newspaper editors, and tried them, spreading disaffection against the Government. They were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. At the same time two Poona leaders, the Nathu brothers, were deported without trial. The entire country protested against this attack on the liberties of the people. Tilak, hitherto known largely in Maharashtra, became overnight an all-India leader.

The political methods of the Moderates can be summed up briefly as constitutional agitation within the four walls of the law, and slow, orderly political progress. Their political work had, therefore, a two pronged direction. • Firstly, to build up a strong public opinion in India to arouse the political consciousness and national spirit of the people, and to educate and unite on the political questions.

•

Demand of the Moderates

Administrative and other Reforms

• The most important administrative reform they • desired was Indianisation of the higher grades of the • administrative services. They put forward this demand • on economic, political and moral grounds. Economically, the European monopoly of higher services was harmful on two grounds:- (1) Europeans were paid at very high rates and this made Indian administration very costly - Indians of similar qualifications could be employed on lower salaries; and (2) Europeans sent out of India a large part of their salaries and their pensions were paid in England. This added to the drain of wealth from India. Politically, the nationalists hoped that the Indianisation of these services would make the administration more responsive to Indian needs.

Defence of Civil Rights

Politically conscious India had been powerfully attracted not only to democracy but also to modern civil rights, namely, the freedom of speech, the Press, thought and association. They put up a strong defence of these civil rights whenever the Government tried to curtail them. It was during this period and as a result of nationalist political work that democratic ideas began to take root among the Indian people in general and the intelligentsia in particular. In fact, the struggle for democratic freedoms became an integral part of the nationalist struggle for freedom.

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Secondly, the early nationalists wanted to persuade the British Government and British public opinion to introduce reforms along directions laid down by the nationalists.

•

Expansion and power to legislative council.

Greater opportunities for Indians in ICS exam.

Reimposition of custom duties on cotton goods.

Grant of self government to India within the British Empire as in the colonies of Australia and Canada. Freedom of speech and expression.

Weakness

The basic weakness of the Moderates lay in their narrow social base. The leaders lacked political faith in the masses as they declared that the time was not ripe for throwing out a challenge to the foreign rulers.

Government's Attitude

Regarding the attitude of the British Goverment towards the Moderates, it became hostile soon after the inception of INC. Dufferin, the then Governor General, had tried to divert the national movement by suggesting to Hume that the Congress should devote itself to social causes rather than political affairs. But now Congress leaders refused to do so. British officials now began to criticise Congress and other nationalist leaders as "disloyal Babus, seditious Brahmins and violent villains". Dufferin remarked on Congress as "Microscopic minority". Curzon said, "The Congress is tottering to its fall and one of my great ambitions, while in India, is to assist it to a peaceful demise". Besides the British officials relied upon 52

the policy of 'Divide and Rule' to weaken the nationalist movement. They encourged Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Raja Shiv Prasad of Benaras and other pro-British Indians to start an anti-Congress movement.

Achivements

Four prominent Congress leaders Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh and Lala Lajpat Rai were chief advocators of militant nationalism. They rejected prayer and petition method of moderates. The new leadership sought to create a passionate love for liberty, accompanied by a spirit of sacrifice and readyness to suffer for the cause of country. They advocated boycott of foreign goods, use of swadesi goods, national education and passive resistance. They had deep faith in mass and they planned to achieve swaraj through mass action. The leaders of this wing gave up the soft approach of appeals and prtitions. Instead, they made radical (fundamental) demands and adopted strong ways of political agitation. They had no faith in good intentions of the British government. The extremist aimed at achiveing 'swaraj' that meant complete independence from British rule. They considered that the demand of the moderate leaders for Swaraj was for colonial self government. Tilak remarked, 'Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it'. Aurobindo Ghosh said "political freedom is the life breath of a nation".

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

The politics of the Moderates was described as "halting and half hearted" their methods were described as those of mendicancy or beggary through prayers and petition. They failed to get anything substantial from the British through constitutional methods. But it is only the single side of the fact. Moderates succeeded in creating a wide political awakening and in arousing among the Indians the feeling that they belong to one nation. They exposed the true character of the British imperialism in India. In spite of their many failures they laid strong foundation for the national movement.

Agenda and Methods of Extremists

The Extremists

Causes of Growth of Extremism

A section of the Congress gradually lost faith in its moderate programme in the early 20th century and moved towards militant nationalism. It marked the growth of a radical wing in the Congress. The political events of the year 1892 to 1905 also disappointed the nationalists and made them think of more radical politics. The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a complete disappointment. On the other hand, even the existing political rights of the people were attacked. The Nathu brothers were deported in 1897 without being tried'; even the charges against them were not made public. In the same year, Lokmanya Tilak and other newspaper editors were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for arousing the people against the foreign government. The people found that, instead of giving them wider political rights, the rulers were taking away even their few existing rights. In 1898, a law was passed making it an offence to excite 'feelings of disaffection' towards the foreign government. In 1899, the number of Indian members in the Calcutta Corporation was reduced. In 1904, the Indian Official Secrets Act was passed restricting the freedom of the Press. The Indian Universities Act of 1904 was seen by the nationalists as an attempt to bring Indian Universities under tighter official control and to check the growth of higher education. The anticongress attitude of Lord Curzon convinced more and more people that it was useless to expect any political and economic advance as long as Britain ruled India. Even the moderate leader Gokhale complained that "the bureaucracy was growing frankly selfish and openly hostile to national aspirations". © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Radical Nationalists Politics

Larger numbers of educated Indians were employed on extremely low salaries under alien rule. Many of them even faced unemployment, so they were attracted towards militant nationalism. They were fully aware of contemporary international events. The rise of modern Japan after 1868 showed that a backward Asian country could develop itself without western control. The defeat of the Italian army by the Ethiopians in 1896 and of Russia by Japan in 1905 exploded the myth of European superiority. Educated Indians were watching carefully the revolutionary movements of Russia, Egypt, Turkey, China and Ireland. Thus there developed a school of militant nationalism side by side with the moderate politics. This school was represented by leaders like Rajanarain Bose and Ashwini Kumar Dutt in Bengal and Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar in Maharashtra. The most outstanding representative of this school was Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Tilak helped in founding during 1880s 'the new English School' which later became the Fergusson College, and newspapers 'the Maratha' (in English) and 'the Kesari' (in Marathi). From 1889, he edited the Kesari and preached nationalism in its columns and taught people to become courageous, self-reliant and selfless fighters in the cause of India's independence. In 1893, he started using the traditional religious Ganpati festival to propagate nationalist ides through

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songs and speeches. In 1895 he started the Shivaji festival to simulate nationalism among young Maharashtrians by holding up the example of Shivaji for emulation. He set a real example of boldness and sacrifice

when the authorities arrested him in 1897 on the charge of spreading hatred and disaffection against the Government. He refused to apologize to the Government and was sentecnced to 18 month's rigorous imprisonment.

Congress Sessions and Presidents Name of the President

Venue

Year

Name of the President

Venue

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Year 1885

W. C. Bannerjee

Bombay

1916

Ambika Charan Majumdar

Lucknow

1886

Dadabhai Naoroji

Calcutta

1917

Mrs. Annie Besant

Calcutta

1887

Badruddin Tyabji

Madras

1918

Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya Delhi

1888

George Yule

Allahabad

1919

Motilal Nehru

Amritsar

1889

Sir William Wedderburn

Bombay

1920

Lala Lajpat Rai (suspended)

Calcutta

1890

Ferozshah Mehta

Calcutta

1891

P. Ananda Charlu

Nagpur

1921

C. R. Das

1892

W. C. Bannerjee

Allahabad

1923

Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad (Suspended)

1893

Dadabhai Naoroji

Lahore

1894

Alfred Webb

Madras

1924

Mahatma Gandhi

Belgaum

1895

S. N. Bannerjee

Poona

1925

Mrs. Sarojini Naidu

Cawnpore

1896

Rahimtull M. Sayani

Calcutta

1926

S. Sarojini Lyengar

Guwahati

1897

C. Sankaran Nair

Amravati

1927

Dr. M. A. Ansari

Madras

1898

Anand Mohan Bose

Madras

1928

Pandit Motilal Nehru

Calcutta

1899

R. C. Dutt

Lucknow

1929

Jawaharlal Nehru

Lahore

1900

N. G. Chandavarkar

Lahore

1930

1901

D. E. Wacha

Calcutta

(No session) but Independence Day Pledge was adopted on 26th Jan, 1930.

1902

Hasan Imam S. N. Banerjee

Ahmedabad

1931

Vallabhabhai Patel

1903

Lal Mohan Ghose

Madras

1932

R. Amritlal (session was banned)

1904

Sir Henry Cotton

Bombay

1933

Mrs. J. M. Sen Gupta (session was banned)

1905

G. K. Gokhale

Benares

1906

Dadabhai Naoroji

Calcutta

1907

C. Vijayraghavachariar (annual) Nagpur Gaya

Maulana Mahammad Ali Cocanda (Annual)

Karachi

Calcutta

1934-35 Rajendra Prasad

Bombay

Dr. Rash Bihari Ghosh (Susp.) Surat

1936

Jawaharlal Nehru

Lucknow

1908

Dr. Rash Bihar Ghosh

Madras

1937

Jawaharlal Nehru

Faizpur

1909

Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya Lahore

1938

S. C. Bose

Haripura

1910

Sir William Webberburn

Allahabad

1939

S. C. Bose (Re elected for 1939) Tripuri

1911

Pandit B. N. Dhar

Calcutta

1940

Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad

1912

R. N. Modholkar

Bankipore

1913

Nawab Syed Md. Bahadur

Karachi

1941-45 (No session, like due to arrests and jailing owing to war situtation.)

1914

Bhupendranath Basu

Madras

1915

Sir Satender Prasad Sinha

Bombay

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Ramgarh

1946.

Acharya J. B. Kripalani

Meerut

1947

B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya

Jaipur






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NATIONALIST MOVEMENT, 1905-1918: GROWTH OF MILITANT NATIONALISM •

IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

They advocated boycott of foreign goods, use of Swadeshi goods, national education and passive resistance. They had deep faith in the masses and they planned to achieve Swaraj through mass action.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Partition of Bengal, 1905

CHRONICLE

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By Lord Curzon on 16th October, 1905, through a royal proclamation reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.

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The government said that it was done to stimulate growth in the eastern region when actually the objective was to set up a communal gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims.

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A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition. National movement found real expression in the movement against the partition of Bengal in 1905.

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Rabindranath Tagore composed the national song 'Amar Sonar Bangla' for the occasion which was later adopted as the national anthem of Bangladesh in 1971 after liberation from Pakistan. The ceremony of Raksha Bandhan was observed on 16th October, 1905 where Hindus and Muslims tied rakhis to each other to show solidarity.

The newspapers played a significant role in the movement. The main newspapers were K.K. Mitra's Sanjeevani, S.N. Banerjee's Bengali, Motilal Ghosh's Amrit Bazaar Patrika, B.B. Upadhyaya's Yugantar, Bipin Chandra Pal's New India, Aurobindo Ghosh's Bande Mataram and Ajit Singh's Bharat Mata.

Rise of Extremism

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A section of Congress lost faith in moderate programme and moved towards militant nationalism.

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The leaders of this group gave up the soft approach of appeals and petitions. Instead they made radical demands and adopted strong ways of political agitation.

Swadeshi Movement (1905)

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The movement had its origin in the anti-partition movement of Bengal. The leaders of Bengal felt that mere demonstrations, public meetings and resolutions were not enough and something more was needed; the answer was felt as Swadeshi and Boycott.

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An important aspect of the Swadeshi movement was emphasis placed on self-reliance.

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Lal, Bal and Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh played an important role.

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The INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Benaras Session, 1905 presoded over by G.K. Gokhale.

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A resolution to boycott British goods was adopted on 7th August, 1905 at a meeting of the INC at Calcutta and bonfires of foreign goods at various places were organised.

Muslim League, 1906

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Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsinul-Mulk.

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It was a loyalist, communal and conservative political organization which supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi movement, and demanded special safeguards of its community and a separate electorate for Muslims.

Calcutta Session of INC, 1906

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Ashwini Kumar Datt said that the Amravati session was a three day tamasha.

Swaraj was adopted in December 1906 at the Calcutta session by the INC under Dadabhai Naoroji as the goal of Indian people.

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Lala Lajpat Rai regarded the congress as a factuous annual festival of British educated elites.

Surat Session of INC, 1907

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The extremists aimed at achieving Swaraj that meant complete independence from British rule.

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

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The INC split into two groups - the extremists and the moderates at the Surat session in 1907. The Extremists

55

were led by Bal, Pal, Lal while the moderates by G.K. Gokhale. •

A controversy arose over the elected president, Rash Bihari Ghosh, as extremists did not accept him as they wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be chosen. The moderates wanted to modify the congress resolutions on Swadeshi and boycott passed in the 1906 session. The extremists wanted to intensify them.

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The moderates wanted to insert a clause in the congress constitution that Swaraj was to be achieved only through constitutional means and by reforms in Administration.

The outbreak of the first World War provided the Ghadarites with an opportunity to free India from a government which was indifferent to their cause.

•

And therefore they returned to India in thousands for a coordinated revolt in collaboration with the Bengal revolutionaries. Their plan was foiled at the last moment due to treachery.

Komagata Maru Incident, 1914

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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The extremists were in favour of direct agitation through the Swadeshi and boycott movements.

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The government after this launched a massive attack on the extremists by suppressing their newspapers and arresting their leaders.

Indian Council Act/Morley-Minto Act, 1909

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The Act introduced at the time of Morley who was the Secretary of State and Minto who was the Indian Viceroy.

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Legislative Councils both at the centre and the Provinces were expanded.

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With regard to the Central Government, an Indian member was taken in the Executive Council of the Governor General.

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The size of the Provincial legislative Councils was enlarged by including elected non-official members so that the official majority was gone. Their function was also increased and now they could move resolutions on budget and some matters of public importance.

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An element of election was also introduced in the Central Legislative Council, but the official majority was maintained.

The most notable and retrograde change introduced was that muslims were given separate representation. Thus communal representation was introduced which aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims to the Government's side.

Ghadar Party, 1913

•

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Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna the name was taken from the weekly Ghadar which had been started on 1 November, 1913 to commemorate the 1857 revolt. It was headquartered at San Francisco.

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

•

Komagata Maru was the name of the ship which carried a shipload of Sikh and Muslim immigrants from Punjab to Vancouver, Canada. But the Canadian immigration authorities turned them back after months of uncertainty.

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The ship finally anchored at Calcutta on 29 September, 1914 but the inmates refused to board the Punjab bound train and there was a clash with the police in which 22 persons were killed.

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This incident fired up the revolutionary activities which sought to avenge the death of the innocents.

Home Rule Movement, 1916

•

After Tilak's return having served a sentence of six years in Mandalay, Burma, he tried to secure his readmission along with other extremists in the INC. With the need being felt for popular pressure to attain concession, disillusionment with the Morley-Minto Reforms and wartime miseries, Tilak and Annie Besant readied to assume leadership.

•

The movement was started by B.G. Tilak in Poona in April 1916 and Annie Besant and S. Subramania Iyer at Adyar near Madras in September 1916.

•

Tilak's league was to work in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Province and Berar and Annie Besant's in the rest of India.

•

The objective of the movement was self-government for India in the British empire.

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Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with the demand for the formation of linguistic states and education in the vernacular languages. He gave the slogan 'Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it'.

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The Maharatta and Kesari of Tilak and Annie Besant's New India, Commonwealth and Young India became the organs of the Home Rule movement

•

The Muslim League also supported it.

Lucknow Pact, 1916

•

Was signed following the war between Britain and Turkey leading to anti-British feelings among Muslims. 56

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Both INC and the Muslim League concluded it, the Congress accepting the separate electorates and both jointly demanding a representative government and dominion status for the country.

August Declaration, 1917 After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was announced which aimed at 'increasing the association of Indians in every branch of the

•

Was attributed to the Hindu-Muslim unity exhibited in the Lucknow Pact.

•

The Montague Chelmsford reforms or the Act of 1919 was based on this declaration.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

administration for progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British empire'. This came to be called the August Declaration.






© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

57

CHRONICLE

STRUGGLE FOR SWARAJ - I, 1919 - 1927

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

•

The provincial government had powers to search a place and arrest a suspected person without warrant.

•

This gave unbridled powers to the government to arrest and imprison suspects without trial for two years maximum. This law enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.

•

It caused a wave of anger in all sections spreading a country-wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked the foundation of the Non-Cooperation Movement.

•

Gandhiji organised the Satyagraha on 14th February, 1919. The government gave consent to the Act in March, 1919. On 8th April, 1919 Gandhiji was arrested.

•

Earlier Gandhiji's first great experiment in Satyagraha had come in 1917 in Champaran (Bihar) where the peasants were forced by their European planters to grow indigo on at least 3/20 of their land and sell it at prices fixed by the planters.

•

Also in 1918 he had supported the cause of the textile workers of Ahmedabad. It was here that he used the weapon of hunger strike and won for the workers a 35% increase in wages and in 1918 the Kheda peasant struggle of Gujarat (demanding suspension of revenue collection due to failure of crop) involved Gandhiji and Sardar Vallabh-bhai Patel.

•

During March and April 1919, the country witnessed a remarkable political awakening in India. There were hartals, processions and demonstrations everywhere.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Government of India Act/Montague Chelmsford Reforms, 1919

IAS ACADEMY

•

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Dyarchy system was introduced in the provinces. It was considered to be a substantial step towards transfer of power to the Indians. The provincial subjects of the administration were to be divided into two categories: Transferred and Reserved. The transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible to the Legislative Council. The Governor and the Executive Council were to administer the reserved subjects without any responsibility to the legislature. Devolution Rules: Subjects of administration were divided into two categories - Central and Provincial. Subjects of all India importance (like railways and finance) were brought under the category of Central while matters relating to the administration of the provinces were classified as Provincial. The Provincial Legislature was to consist of one House only - Legislative Council.

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The number of Indians in the Governor General's Executive Council was raised to three in a council of eight. The Indian members were entrusted with departments such as Law, Education, Labour, Health and Industries.

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The Centre was now to have a bicameral legislature for the first time. It actually happened after the 1935 Act.

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Communal representation was extended to Sikhs, Christians and Anglo-Indians, etc.

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Secretary of State was to be henceforth paid salary out of the British revenue.

Rowlatt Act, 1919

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In 1917 a Rowlatt committee was formed under Justice Rowlatt. This committee was formed to curb revolutionary activities. The Rowlatt Bill sought to curtail the liberty of the people. It provided for speedy trial of offences by a special court of 3 High court judges. There was to be no appeal.

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, 1919

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People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on April 10, 1919 and assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar.

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General O' Dyer fired at the people as a result of which hundreds of people were killed and thousands injured.

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Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood in protest and Sir Shankaran Nair resigned from Viceroy's Executive Council after this. 58

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The Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into the matter.

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On 13 March, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed O' Dyer when the latter was addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall, London.

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Tilak passed away on August 1, 1920, Tilak Swaraj funds was started to fund the Non-Cooperation Movement.

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The Prince of Wales visited India during this period but he was greeted with empty streets and downed shutters when he came on 17 November, 1921.

Khilafat Movement, 1920 The main object the Khilafat movement was to force the British government change its attitude towards Turkey and restore the Khalifa to his former position.

Chauri-Chaura Incident, 1922 •

The Congress Session at Allahabad in December 1921 decided to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement. Gandhiji was appointed as its leader.

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But before it could be launched a mob of people at Chauri Chaura (near Gorakhpur) clashed with the police and burnt 22 policemen on 5th February, 1922.

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This compelled Gandhiji to withdraw the Non Cooperation Movement on 12th February, 1922

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

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Muslims were agitated by the treatment done with Turkey by the British in the Treaty that followed the First World War.

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Two brothers, Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali started this movement along with Maulana Azad, Jakim Ajmal Khan and Hasrai Mohani. It was jointly led by the Khilafat leaders and the Congress.

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Swaraj Party, 1923

Gandhiji viewed the Khilafat agitation as a golden opportunity for bringing the Hindus and Muslims together.

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The sudden calling off of the non-cooperation movement disappointed many congress leaders.

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On 31 August, 1920, the Khilafat Committee launched a non-cooperation movement.

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Gandhiji now pressed the Congress to adopt a similar plan of action. Although it was initially opposed by C.R. Das, but was later unopposed.

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Very soon the Khilafat movement lost its relevance because Mustafa Kamal Pasha abolished Khilafat and made Turkey a secular state.

Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das and N.C. Kelkar (called Pro-changers) demanded that the Nationalists should end the boycott of the legislative councils, enter them and expose them. But the No-changers like Rajendra Prasad and Rajagopalachari adhered to the Gandhian programme of Boycott of legislatures.

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The Pro-Changers formed the Swaraj party on January 1, 1923, contested the elections and embarrassed the government by opposing its measures.

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The party got a majority in the 1923 elections in Bengal and the Central Province.

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The Swarajists were split by communalism. The 'responsivist' group including Madan Mohan Malviya, Lala Lajpat Rai and N.G. Kelkar offered cooperation to the government to safeguard Hindu interests.

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The Swarajists finally walked out of legislature in 1930 as a result of the Lahore congress resolution and the beginning of the civil disobedience movement.

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The two sections were reunited in 1930 after the Lahore session.

Non-Cooperation Movement, 1920

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It was the first mass-based political movement under Gandhiji.

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Congress passed the resolution in its Calcutta session in September 1920 with three main demands before the government (i) redressal of the Punjab grievances (ii) Khilafat wrongs (iii) establishment of Swaraj. ø ø ø

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The movement envisaged: Surrender of titles and honorary offices. Resignation from nominated offices and posts in the local bodies. ø Refusal to attend government darbars and boycott of British courts by the lawyers. ø Refusal of general public to offer themselves for military and other government jobs and boycott of foreign goods, etc. C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru gave up their legal practice and Subash Chandra Bose resigned from the Civil Service.

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Emergence of Gandhi

The last phase of the national movement began in 1919 when the era of popular mass movements was

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Gandhji reached Champaran in 1917 and through his method and efforts, the disabilities from which the peasantry was suffering were reduced and Gandhiji won his first battle of civil disobedience in India. 2. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): Gandhiji did his second experiment at Ahmedabad in 1918 when he had to intervene in a dispute between the workers and the mill-owners. He advised the workers to go on strike and to demand a 35 per cent increase in wages. But he insisted that the workers should not use violence against the employers during the strike. He undertook a fast unto death to strengthen the workers' resolve to continue the strike. This put pressure on the millowners who relented on the fourth day and agreed to give the workers a 35 per cent increase in wages.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

initiated. During this period a new leader, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi took command. The new leader made good one of the basic weaknesses of the previous leadership. Gandhiji was greatly influenced by the works of Leo Tolstoy's Civil Disobedience and Ruskin's 'unto to the last'. Tolstoy's ideal of non-possession was developed by Gandhiji in his concept of 'trusteeship'. He was also influenced by the life and teachings of Swami Vivekananda. His political Guru Gokhale and Dadabhai Naroji also influenced him. Besides he had an experience of struggle in South Africa between (1984-1914). He came to India in 1915. His non-violent satyagraha involved peaceful violation of specific laws. He resorted to mass courting arrest and occasional hartals and spectacular marches. He had readiness for negotiations and compromise. His struggle against foreign rule is popularly known as 'struggle-truce-struggle'. 1. Champaran Satyagraha (1917): Gandi's first great experiment in satyagraha came in 1917 in Champaran, a district in Bihar. The peasantry on the indigo plantations in the district was excessively oppressed by the European planters. They were compelled to grow indigo on at least 3/20th of their land and so sell it at prices fixed by the planters. This system was popularly known as 'Tin-Kathia system'. Several peasants of Champaran invited Gandhi to come and help them. Accompanied by Babu Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Huq, J.B. Kripalani, Narhari Parekh and Mahadev Desai,

3. Kheda Satyagraha (1918): The farmers of Kheda district in Gujarat were in distress because of the failure of crops. The government refused to remit land revenue and insisted on its full collection. As part of the experiment, Mahatma Gandhi advised the peasants to withhold payment of revenue till their demand for its remission was met. The struggle was withdrawn when it was learnt that the government had issued instructions that revenue should be recovered only from those peasants who could afford to pay. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became the follower of Gandhiji during the Kheda movement.




© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

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STRUGGLE FOR SWARAJ - II, 1927-1947

IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

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The committee comprised of Tej Bahadur Sapru, Ali Imam, M.S. Aney, Mangal Singh, Shoaib Querishi, G.R. Pradhan and Subash Chandra Bose.

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The report had a different chapter on minority rights apart from the Fundamental Rights.

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However when the report was placed before the All Parties Convention in Calcutta, there was a violent clash between Jinnah (representing the Muslim League) and M.R. Jayakar (who put forth the Hindu Mahasabha viewpoint) on the former's demand of one-third of the total seats in the central legislatures for Muslims.

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Consequently, Jinnah's proposed amendments were overwhelmingly outvoted and the Report proved to be a non-starter and became a mere historical document.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Simon Commission, 1927

CHRONICLE

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In 1927, the British government appointed a Commission to look into the working of the Government of India Act, 1919.

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Constituted under John Simon to review the political situation in India and to introduce further reforms and extention of parliamentary democracy.

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Indian leaders opposed the Commission as there were no Indian in it and the Congress turned the boycott into a movement.

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Simon and his colleagues landed in Bombay on 3 February, 1928 and were greeted with hartals and black flag demonstrations.

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The government used brutal repression and police attacks to break the popular opposition. At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten in lathi charge and he succumbed to his injuries on 17 November, 1928.

The Fourteen Points, 1929

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At a meeting of the Muslim League in Delhi on March 28, 1929, Jinnah announced the Fourteen Points.

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Rejecting the Nehru Report he maintained that no scheme for the future government of India would be acceptable to Muslims until and unless the fourteen points were given effect to.

Butler Committee, 1927

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Alongwith the Simon Commission the British Government also announced the setting up of a threemember committee consisting of Harcourt Butler, W.S. Holdsworth and S.C. Peel to inquire into the relationship between the Indian states and paramount power and to suggest ways and means for a more satisfactory adjustment of the existing economic relations between Britain and British India. Officially called the Indian States Committee, it visited 16 Indian states and submitted its report in 1929.

Lahore Session, 1929

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On December 19, 1929, under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru, the INC at its Lahore session declared Poorna Swaraj as its ultimate goal.

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On 31 December, 1929 the newly adopted tricolour flag was unfurled and 26 January, 1930 was fixed as the First Independence Day, which was to be celebrated every year.

The Nehru Report, 1928

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After boycotting the Simon Commission, all political parties constituted a committee under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru to evolve and determine the principles of a constitution for India. It remains memorable as the first major Indian effort to draft a constitutional framework for India, complete with lists of central and provincial subjects and fundamental rights. It suggested dominion status for the country.

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Dandi March, 1930 and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1931)

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Gandhi submitted the Eleven Point Ultimatum to the British but after no response from the latter he launched the Civil Disobedience Movement with the Dandi March also called the Salt Satyagraha.

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Along with 78 followers, Gandhiji started his march from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930 from the small village Dandi to break the salt law. He reached the sea shore on 6 April, 1930, picked up a handful of salt and inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement.

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The Karachi session of 1931 endorsed the Pact and is also memorable for its resolution on Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Programme.

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The salt satyagraha movement was taken up by C. Rajagopalachari in Tamil Nadu and the Vaikon Satyagraha by K. Kalappan in Malabar.

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Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London to meet the British PM Ramsay Macdonald.

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In the conference Gandhi demanded immediate establishment of a full responsible government at the Centre as well as in the provinces with complete control over defense, external affairs and finance.

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However, the session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and this time separate electorates were demanded not only by the Muslims but also by the depressed classes, Indian Christians and Anglo-Indians.

•

MacDonald ended the session with an address announcing the creation of two new Muslim majority provinces, North West Frontier Province and Sindh, set up a committee on franchise, finance and states and held out the humiliating and dangerous prospect of a unilateral British Communal Award.

•

In second round table conference the people who took part were Ambedkar, Sapru, Jayakar, Sarojini Naidu, Malaviya, etc.

•

On Gandhiji's arrival in Bombay, the Congress Working Committee decided to resume the Civil Disobedience Movement. In 1932, INC was declared an illegal organization and all its leaders arrested. Gandhiji was sent to the Yeravada jail in Poona.

•

The Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn in 1934, as after that Gandhiji decided to make Harijan work the central plank of his new rural constructive program.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Second Round Table Conference, 1931

•

The salt satyagraha sparked off other forms of defiance. In the north east, the Pathans under Khan Abdul Gafar Khan, popularly known as Frontier Gandhi, organized the society of 'Khudai Khidmadgars' which was also known as Red Shirts. This movement even sparked off patriotism among the Indian soldiers in the British army. The Gharwal soldiers refused to fire on the people at Peshawar.

•

In Bengal, the Chittagong army raid was carried out in April 1930.

•

In Bihar there was a protest against Chowkidari tax in Saran, Bhagalpur and Monghyr.

First Round Table Conference, 1930

•

It was the first conference arranged between the British and the Indians as equals. It was held on 12 November, 1930 in London to discuss the Simon Commission recommendations.

•

The conference was boycotted by the INC, but the Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and other groups were present.

•

The first round table conference was attended by Tej Bahadur Sapru, B.R. Ambedkar, Md. Shafi, M.A. Jannah, Fazlul Haq, Dr. Shafaat Ahmad Khan, Sir Mirza Ismail, Sir Akbar Hydari, Maharaja of Bikaner, Raja Rajendra Nath and others.

•

The conference was postponed to 2 January, 1931 in the absence of any major political party.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact, 1931

•

The moderate statesmen Sapru, Jaikar and Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to break the ice between Gandhiji and the government.

•

The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed on 5 March, 1931.

•

In this the INC called off the Civil Disobedience Movement and agreed to join the second Round Table Conference.

•

The government on its part released political prisoners and conceded the right to make salt for consumption for villages along the coast.

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The Communal Award, 1932

•

Announced by Ramsay MacDonald it showcased the Divide and Rule policy of the British by envisaging representation of Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, women and backward classes.

•

Gandhiji who was in Yeravada jail in Poona at the time started a fast unto death against it.

Poona Pact, 1932

•

After the announcement of the communal award and the subsequent fast of Gandhiji, mass meetings took place everywhere. 62

Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malviya, B.R. Ambedkar and M.C. Rajah became active.

of Hindustan Socialist Republican Association in December 1929.

•

Eventually the Poona Pact was reached and Gandhiji broke his fast on the sixth day, 25 September, 1932.

•

Two schoolgirls, Shanti and Suniti Chaudhuri shot dead the Magistrate of Tipperra, Mr. Steven in December 1932 in Bengal.

•

In this the idea of separate electorate for the depressed classes was abandoned, but seats reserved to them in the provincial legislatures were increased. Seats reserved for depressed classes increased from 71 to 147 in provincial legislative council and in central legislative council 18% of the seats increased.

•

Attempt of blowing up train and occupation of Fort William under the leadership of Jatin Mukherjee of Bengal (Known also as Bagha Jatin). The attempt failed due to the death of Jatin Mukherjee in Police encounter in Balasore in Orissa in September 1915.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

•

Thus the Poona Pact agreed upon a joint electorate for the upper and the lower classes.

•

Harijan upliftment now became the principal concern of Gandhiji. An All India AntiUntouchability League was started in September 1932 and the weekly 'Harijan' in 1933. On May 8, 1933 Gandhiji decided to begin a 21 day fast for the purification of himself and his associates for the Harijan cause.

•

•

Chapekar brothers (Damodar and Balkrishna) murdered the unpopular Mr. Rand and Lt. Amherst in 1897 at Pune.

•

Unsuccessful attempts of murder of Lt. Governor of East Bengal by Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendra Nath Dutt in 1906 in Bengal. Murder of Kennedy brothers and two English women by Khudiram Bose and Praful Chaki in 1908 at Muzaffarpur (Bihar). The main target, unpopular judge, Kinsford escaped unhurt.

•

Attempt of murder of Lord Hardinge by throwing crude bomb in 1912 by Rash Bihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal. Lord Hardinge escaped unhurt.

•

Madan Lal Dhingra shot dead Curzon Wyllie, an officer of India Office in London in 1909.

•

Assistant Superintendent of Police, Saunders was shot dead by Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad and Rajguru in 1928. They were convicted in the Lahore Conspiracy case.

•

•

An organised attempt of revolt by Rash Bihari Bose, Sachindra Nath Sanyal and other revolutionaries on the lines of revolt of Ferozpur, Lahore and Rawalpindi on 21st February 1915, was failed due to treachery on the part of some revolutionaries. After the failure, Rash Bihari Bose escaped to Japan and Sachindra Sanyal was given life imprisonment and deportation for life.

•

Formation of 'Indian Independence Committee' by Virendra Nath Chattopadhya, Bhupendra Nath Dutt, Hardayal and others in 1915 with the assistance of German foreign Ministry under the "Zimmerman Plan''.

•

An Internal Government of free India was established in 1915 by Raja Mahendra Pratap, Barkatullah, Obaidullah Sindhi (A Deoband Mullah) and others in Kabul.

•

Suryasen declared independence at Chittagong in 1930 and formed "Indian Republican Army.''

•

The Komagata Maru was a Japanese steamer, commissioned by Gurdit Singh, to transport Indian immigrants to Canada.

•

Martyrdom of Jatin Das who died in jail on the 64th day of a hunger strike in 1929 for improvement in the status of political prisoners.

•

Execution of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru by the British on March 23, 1931 in Lahore conspiracy case.

•

Surya Sen was arrested in 1933 and was tried and hanged.

He started the Individual Civil Disobedience on 1 August, 1933.

Revolutionary Movements

•

•

Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly in April 1929 during session.

Unsuccessful attempts of blowing up the train baggage of Lord Irwin were made by some members

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The Left Movement

•

Shripad Amrit Dange published a pamphlet entitled 'Gandhi and Lenin' in Bombay and also published the first socialist weekly `The Socialist' from Bombay.

•

Muzaffer Ahmad started publishing 'Navyug' in Bengal and founded 'Langal' with the assistance of Qazi Nazrul Islam.

63

Ghulam Husain started publishing 'Inquilab' in Punjab.

•

M. Sringarvellu founded the 'Labour Kishan Gazette' in Madras.

•

Peshawar Case (1922-23) was the conspiracy against communists coming to India from abroad.

•

Under Kanpur Conspiracy Case (1924-25) S.A. Dange, Muzaffer Ahmed, Nalini Gupta and Shaukat Usmani were convicted.

•

In 1926, Trade Union Act was passed. The Act made provisions for voluntary registration and gave certain rights and privileges to registered trade unions in return for certain obligations.

•

In 1926, 'Bombay Cotton Textile Workers Union' was formed which was the first registered Trade union under the Trade Union Act of 1926. Its President was N. M. Joshi.

•

The Moderates under the leadership of N. M. Joshi walked out of the A.I.T.U.C. and formed the All India Trade Union Federation (A.I.T.U.F.) in 1929.

•

The Royal Commission on labour was set up in 1929 under the chairmanship of John Henry Whitely.

•

Trade Disputes Amendment Act was passed in 1938.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

•

Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929-33) was the longest conspiracy trial. Seventeen people were convicted.

•

Three British Communists-Phillip Spratt, Ben Bradely and Laster Huchinson were convicted in Meerut conspiracy case. Jawahar Lal Nehru, M. A. Ansari & M.C. Chagla were the Defense Counsel in favour of convicts.

•

Three main socialists in the working committee of Jawahar Lal Nehru were-Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev and Achutya Patwardhan.

•

In 1931, another division in A.I.T.U.C. was made. The communists formed the 'Red Trade Union Congress'.

•

The Newspaper 'Kranti' was published by S. S. Mirajkar.

•

Through the Meerut Conspiracy Trials (1929-31) the trade union movement was suppressed.

•

M. N. Roy formed a pro-Government Trade Union called 'Indian Federation of Labour'.

•

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel formed the Indian National Trade Union Congress in 1944.

The Working Class Movement

•

S. S. Bengalee proposed a Bill in favour of the workers in Bombay Legislative Assembly in 1878. His initiative however failed.

•

Sasipada Banerjee established a working men's club in Bengal in 1870 and published a monthly journal 'Bharat Sramjeevi' in 1874.

•

First Factory Act was passed in 1881 and was mainly related with the child workers, working hours and defining a factory.

•

Second Factory Act was passed in 1891. It was related mainly with working hours of female workers.

•

N. M. Lokhanday formed the 'Bombay Millhands Association' in 1884. He also published a journal named 'Din Bandhu.'

•

The strike of the Signalers of the Great Indian peninsular Railway in 1899 was the first organised worker's strike.

•

B.P. Wadia, a close associate of Annie Besant formed the 'Madras Labour Union' in 1918. It was the first trade union of India.

•

In 1920, the All India Trade Union Congress (A.I.T.U.C.) was organised at Bombay by N. M. Joshi and others. The first session (1920) was presided over by the then Congress president, Lala Lajpat Rai.

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Third Round Table Conference, 1932

•

The session was held without Congress representation as they were all imprisoned and was attended by an even smaller number of representatives who agreed on almost all the issues.

•

The British Government on the basis of the discussions of the three sessions drafted its proposals for the reform of the Indian Constitution which was embodied in the White Paper published in March 1933.

•

The White Paper was examined and approved by a joint committee of the British Parliament in October 1934 and a bill, based on the report of the committee was introduced and passed in the British Parliament as the Government of India Act of 1935.

The Government of India Act, 1935 (details covered earlier)

•

The Congress rejected the Act and demanded the convening of a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise to frame a Constitution for an Independent India. 64

•

The INC fought the elections in 1937 when the Constitution was introduced and formed ministries in seven out of eleven provinces. Later Congress formed coalition governments in two others. Only Punjab was under the Unionist Party and Bengal under the Krishak Praja-Muslim League coalition.

World War II and the National Movement The Congress ministries coming to power did wonders to the morale of the people. They continued to function till the Second World War in 1939. When the war broke out, Lord Linlithgow declared India to be at war without the prior assent of the central legislatures.

•

In December 1941 Japan entered the World War II and advanced towards Indian borders. By March 7, 1942, Rangoon fell and Japan occupied the entire South East Asia.

•

The British government with a view to get the cooperation from Indians sent Sir Stanford Cripps, leader of the House of Commons to settle terms with the Indian leaders.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

The Cripps Mission, 1942

•

•

•

The Congress agreed to support Britain only in return of independence being granted. The Viceroy could promise that only after the war. In OctoberNovember 1939, the Congress ministries resigned in protest. The Muslim League observed this as the Deliverance Day (22 December, 1939) as a mark of relief that the Congress had atlast ceased to function. INC was willing to help the forces of democracy in their struggle against fascist powers but asked how it was possible for an enslaved nation to help others in their fight for democracy. They declared that India must be declared free or at least effective power should be put in Indian hands before it could actively participate in the war.

The Viceroy refused to accept preconditions set by the Congress i.e. a Constituent Assembly for the establishment of genuine responsible government at the centre. Eventually, the British government was eager for the INC to support their war efforts. Subsequently it tried to pacify the Congress and the Indian leaders by a series of offers through the Cripps Mission and the August Offer.

•

ø ø

•

•

•

The August Offer of 8 August, 1940 offered:

1. Dominoin Status in the unspecified future. 2. A post-war body to enact the Constitution. 3. To expand the Governor General's Executive Council to give full weightage to minority opinion. It was rejected by the INC because there was no suggestion of the national government and because the demand for the dominion status was already discarded in favour of Poorna Swaraj.

It was accepted by the Muslim League.

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Dominion status to be granted after the war. Setting up a Constitution making body for India after the war whose members would be elected by the Provincial assemblies and nominated by the rulers in case of the Princely States. The British government undertook to accept and implement the Constitution so framed subject to two conditions: ø

• •

Any province not willing to accept the new Constitution could form a separate union and a separate Constitution. ø The new Constitution-making body and the British government would negotiate a treaty to sort out matters arising out of transfer of powers to Indian hands. The proposals were rejected by the Congress as it did not want to rely upon future promises. Gandhiji termed it as a 'post-dated cheque in a crashing bank'.

The Revolt of 1942 and the Quit India Movement

•

Also called the Vardha Proposal and the Leaderless Revolt as all the Congress leaders were in jail.

•

The resolution for the movement was passed on 8 August, 1942 at Bombay. Gandhiji gave the slogan 'Do or Die'.

•

On 9 August the Congress was banned and its important leaders arrested. Gandhiji was kept at the Aga Khan Palace, Pune.

•

The arrests provoked indignation among the masses and there being no program of action, the movement became spontaneous and violent as violence spread throughout the country. Several government offices were destroyed, telegraph wires cut and communication paralysed.

•

The trend of underground revolutionary activities also started during this phase. J.P. Narayan, R.M.

August Offer, 1940

•

He offered a draft which contained the following proposal:

65

Lohia and Aruna Asaf Alistarted consolidating underground networks. •

Parallel governments were set up at various places such as the one in Ballia in eastern U.P. under the leadership of Chittu Pande. Others were in Satara, Talcher, parts of Eastern U.P. and Bihar.

INA Day was celebrated on 12 November, 1945.

Hindus-Muslims over the Years •

The British rule had acted on the tested and tried Roman maxim of 'Divide and Rule' in India.

•

In the early 19th Century, British historian, James Mill, described the ancient period of Indian history as the Hindu period and the medieval period as the Muslim period.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

The most daring act of the underground movement was the establishment of the Congress Radio with Usha Mehta as its announcer.

•

•

The Muslim League kept aloof and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned the movement. The Communist Party of India also didn't support the movement.

•

The movement was however crushed.

•

Both the Hindus and the Muslims participated equally in the revolt of 1857. The British adopted the policy of favouring the Hindus and suppressing the Muslims after the revolt of 1857.

•

In August 1888, Syed Ahmed Khan set up the "United Indian Patriotic Association'' with the avowed objective of countering the Congress propaganda and policy in England.

•

A few years later he formed the ``Muhammaden Anglo Oriental Defence Association'' of Upper India to keep the Muslims aloof from political agitation and to strengthen the British rule in India.

•

The Aligarh College was founded by Syed Ahmed. The three Principles of the M.A.O. College, Aligarh, W.A.J. Archbold, Thedore Beck and Thedore Morrison gave the pro-British and anti-Hindu bias to the Aligarh movement.

•

Inspired by W. A. J. Archbold, Aga khan waited in a deputation on Lord Minto at Simla on 10th October 1906.

•

The Deputation demanded reservation of seats for the Muslims and the Morley-Minto reforms of 1909, accepted the Muslim demand for separate communal electorate.

•

The All-India Muslim League was formerly inaugurated on 30th December 1906 by Aga Khan, Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk and others.

•

The militantly nationalist Ahrar movement was founded by Maulana Mohammed Ali, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Hasan Imam, Maulana Zafar Ali Khan, and Mazhar-ul-Haq.

INA, 1942

•

The idea of the Indian National Army (INA) to liberate India was originally conceived by Rasbehari Bose who had fled to Japan in 1915 and had become a Japanese citizen, with the help of Mohan Singh, and Indian officer of the British Indian Army in Malaya.

•

Subash Chandra Bose secretly escaped from India in January, 1941 and reached Berlin. In July 1943 he joined the INA at Singapore. There Rashbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him.

•

The soldiers were mostly raised from the Indian soldiers of the British army who had been taken prisoner by the Japanese after they conquered South-east Asia.

•

Two INA headquarters were Rangoon and Singapore.

•

INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhi, Azad and Nehru. The Rani of Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive women force.

•

The INA launched an attack on India and penetrated into Indian territory. It annexed Andaman and Nicobar islands with Japanese help and named them 'Shaheed' and 'Swaraj'.

•

S.C.Bose gave the call 'Dilli Chalo'.

•

But it couldn't match the British army and surrendered.

•

•

INA trials were held at Red Fort, Delhi. P.K.Sehgal, Shah Nawaz (Commander of the INA battalion that had reached the Indo-Burma front) and gurbaksh Singh Dhillon were put on trial.

In 1916, both the Muslim League and the Congress held their sessions at Lucknow. An agreement was signed between them. It is known as the 'Lucknow Pact'.

•

During the Khilafat movement, a staunch Arya Samajist, Swami Shradhanand gave a speech from the pulpit of the Jama Masjid at Delhi, while Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlu was given the keys of the Golden Temple at Amritsar.

•

The Congress took up their defence with Bhulabhai Desai, Tejbahadur Sapru, Jawaharlal Nehru, K.N. Katju and Asif Ali defending them. Muslim League also joined in for the country-wide protest.

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66

•

The Hindu organisation started 'Suddhi Movement' while the Muslims started 'Tanjim' and 'Tablig', the objectives of these being communal.

•

According to the Simon Commission's Report, nearly 112 major communal riots occurred between 1922 and 1927. Anti-cow slaughter movement was started during the 1890's.

•

Punjab Hindu Sabha was founded in 1909 by U.N. Mukherjee and Lal Chand and others. Lal Chand clearly described Congress as 'Self-inflicted misfortune of Hindus' and said that "a Hindu is a Hindu first and an Indian after". Its Headquarter was at Haridwar.

•

The first session of the All-India Hindu Mahasabha was held in April 1915 under the President of the Maharaja of Kasim Bazaar.

•

V.D. Savarkar became the President of Hindu Mahasabha in 1938 and was re-elected again and again. It was he who give the slogan of 'Hindu Nation'. After the death of Savarkar, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee became the President of Hindu Mahasabha.

The League observed a "Day of Deliverance" when the Congress ministries resigned in 1939.

•

The League observed on March 23, 1943 the 'Pakistan Day'.

•

In March 1944, Mr. C. Rajgopalachari evolved a formula for Congress-League cooperation. It was a tacit acceptance of the League's demand for Pakistan. The terms of the "C. R. formula" was to be binding only in case of transfer of full powers by England. Jinnah rejected the formula on the grounds of common centre and also wanted only the Muslims to vote in the plebiscite instead of entire population.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

•

•

When the Nehru Report could not be approved unanimously at the Calcutta Convention, then M. A. Jinnah, declaring the Nehru Report representing Hindu interests, placed his demands called the 'Fourteen Points'.

•

In the elections held in 1937, the Muslim League won only 109 out of 482 seats allotted to Muslims, under separate electorates securing only 4.8 percent of the total Muslim votes.

Growth of Communalism

•

Hindu Mahasabha •

The punjab Hindu Sabha was founded in 1909. Its leader U.N. Mukherjee and Lal Chand laid down the foundations of Hindu first and a Hindustani later.

•

The leading Hindus of Allahabad set up "All India Hindu Mahasabha" in 1915 under the presidentship of the Maharaja of Kasim Bazar. The Mahasabha revived in 1923 and openly began to cater to anti-Muslim sentiments.

•

Lala Lajpat Rai, Madan Mohan Malviya and N.C. Kelkar joined Hindu Mahasabha and urged for Hindu communal solidarity.

•

Under the leadership of V.D. Savarkar, who became the president in 1938 and was re-elected again, the mahasabha developed a political programme. Sarvarkar popularised the concept a Hindu Rashtra.

•

After the death of Savarkar, Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee became the leader of the Hindu Mahasabha and imparted a more nationalist outlook.

•

The "Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (RSSS)" was founded by Dr. Hedgewar in 1925 and became the chief ideology and propagator of extreme communalism. M.S. Golwalkar codified the RSS doctrine in his booklet called 'we'.

Muslim League •

•

•

The unity between the Congress and the Muslim League was brought about by the signing of the "Lucknow Pact (1916)" and both put forward common political demands before the government. The pact accepted separate electorates and the system of weightage and reservation of seats for the miniorities in the legislature.

From 1920 to 1923 the activities of the League remained suspended. However, the appointment of the Simon Comission and the Round Table Conference that followed again brought the League into activity. By 1934, Jinnah became undisputed leader of the League.

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The "Desai Liaqat Pact (1945)" proposed for the formation of an interim government at the centre consisting of (i) equal number of persons nominated by the Congress and League in the central legislature (ii) representatives of minorities. However, it could not brought a settlement between the League and the Congress.

67

1946. Its members were-Lord Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps (President of the Board of trade) and Mr. A.V. Alexendar (the first Lord of the Admiralty).

Naval Mutiny, 1945 •

A revolt took place in HMS Talwar on February 18, 1945 in Bombay due to racial discrimination, unpalatable food and abuse after arrest of B.C. Dutta who had written 'British Quit India' on the wall. Next day, HMS Hindustan in Karachi also revolted.

•

Soon the revolt spread to other places also. In Bombay the mutineers hoisted the tricolor on their ship masts together with a portrait of S.C. Bose and shouted Jai Hind in the barracks.

In the elections to the Constituent Assembly that took place in July 1946, the Congress captured 205 seats out of 214 seats and the league got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats.

•

The Constituent Assembly was constituted in November 1946 through indirect election of its members by Provincial Legislatures under Cabinet Mission.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

•

•

Their demand included release of all political prisoners including those belonging to the INA.

•

The mutiny was suppressed after persuasion by the Indian leaders.

•

The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on December 9, 1946 which was boycotted by Muslim League

•

Mr. Atlee made his declaration on 20th February, 1947 in which he said that "His majesty's Government wish to make it clear that it is their definite intention to take necessary steps to effect the transference of power, to responsible hands by June, 1948''.

•

On 3rd June 1947, the Mountbatten plan was announced. It was essentially, plan for the partition of India. The Congress and the Muslim League both accepted the plan of 3rd June.

•

The Indian Independence Bill was introduced in the British Parliament on 4th July 1947. It was passed as the Indian Independence Act on 18th July 1947.

•

On 15 August, 1947, the Partition of India took place.

Rajagopalachari Formula, 1945

•

He proposed that plebiscite should be held in contiguous districts of North West and East where Muslims were in absolute majority.

•

If the majority decides in favour of forming a separate sovereign state, such decision could be accepted.

•

Jinnah objected to the proposal as he wanted only Muslims of North West and East of India to vote in the plebiscite.

Partition, 1947

•

The Cabinet Mission reached Delhi on 24th March






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68

CHRONICLE

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

into political and military affairs (The GovernorGeneral and the Council were forbidden to declare war and make treaties without the sanction of the secret committee).

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Clive established dual government in Bengal which continued from 1765 to 1772. As per the dual government, two diwans were appointed by the Company: Mohammad Raza Khan for Bengal and Raja Shitab Ray for Bihar.

IAS ACADEMY

Regulating Act, 1773

•

To investigate into matters impending against Company officials a Court was set up at London.

•

This act gave the British government a measure of control over the Company's affairs; making the Company a subordinate department of the State.

A Bill regarding the Regulating Act was placed in British Parliament by Lord North. The Regulating Act 1773 was the first important Parliamentary Act regarding the Company's affairs and entailed: •

The subjugation of the company's actions to the supervision of the British Government.

•

End of Dual Government.

•

Governor General in Council was to superintend and control Presidencies of Madras and Bombay and was to be the Governor-General of the British territories of India.

•

Governor General was under direct control of Court of Directors.

•

Establishment of a Supreme Court in Calcutta for justice of Europeans, their employees and citizens of Calcutta. The Supreme Court was constituted in 1774 with Sir Elijah Empey as Chief Justice and Chambers, Lemiaster and Hyde as puisine judges.

•

The Act of 1786

•

Governor-General was given powers to override his council. Governor-General was made commander in chief.

•

Declaratory Act of 1788 gave full power and supremacy to the Board of Control; as step towards transfer of power of Company to the Crown.

Charter Act of 1793

•

Company's commercial privileges were extended for another 20 years.

•

Power specially given to Cornwallis to override council was extended to all future Governor-Generals.

•

A Regular code of all regulations prepared for administration of British territory of Bengal, and bound the court to regulate their decisions by rules and regulations contained therein. Therefore it laid the foundation of the government by written laws, interpreted by courts.

•

All laws were be translated into Indian languages.

•

Expenses and salaries of the Board of Control to be charged on Indian revenue.

Servants of the Company were forbidden to engage in private trade, accept presents or bribes, etc.

Pitts India Act, 1784

•

•

•

The commercial and political activities of the Company were now separated. Pitts India Act of 1784 established a Board of Control of six members (including two Cabinet Ministers) to control civil, military and revenue affairs of the Company in India. Provincial Governor in Councils strength reduced from four to three and the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay were subordinated to the GovernorGeneral and Council of Bengal in all matters of diplomacy, revenue and war. A secret committee of three Directors was to look

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Charter Act of 1813

•

The Company was deprived of its monopoly trade with India but still enjoyed its monopoly of trade with China and trade in tea.

•

Constitutional position of British territories in India was thus explicitly defined for first time.

69

•

First constitutional measure for propagation of Christianity in India adopted as officials were appointed for propagations of Christianity in India.

Executive Council could veto a bill of the Legislative Council. •

•

A sum of Rs 1 lakh earmarked annually for the education of Indians.

Act appointed a Law commission in England to examine reports and draft of Indian Law Commission.

•

Recruitment to the Civil Services was based on open annual competition examination (excluding Indians).

Charter Act of 1833 Company lost its monopoly of tea and China trade, and was also asked to close its commercial business.

Government of India Act, 1858

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

• •

All restrictions of European immigration into India and acquisition of land and property in India by the Company was removed, legalizing European colonization of India.

•

Governor-General of Bengal became GovernorGeneral of India and took all Governor-Generals of Madras, Bombay etc. under his control. All powers administrative and financial were centralized in the hands of the governor-General-in-Council.

•

President of Board of Control became the Minister for Indian Affairs.

•

A law commission was constituted for codification of laws. A law member (without the power to vote) was added to the Executive Council of the Governor General and Macaulay was the first law member of Governor General's council. This increased the Council's strength to four and with it began the first Indian Legislature.

•

•

All vacancies in India were to be filled by competitive examinations. Thus throwing open to all the services irrespective of religion, place of birth, descent and colour.

•

Authority transferred from Company to the Crown. The system of Dual Government ended and the Court of Directors and Board of control was abolished. India was to be governed in name of sovereign through a Secretary of State for India assisted by the Indian Council of 15 members.

•

The Governor-General received title of Viceroy, who became direct representative of the Secretary of State and the Crown.

•

Secretary of State for India was established as a Corporate Body.

•

Thus a highly centralized administrative structure was created.

•

Appointment to the coveted Civil Services to be made by open competition under the rules laid down by Secretary of state with help of Civil Service Commission.

Indian Council Act, 1861

•

A fifth member, who was a jurist to be added to the Viceroy's Executive Council

•

6-12 additional members to be added to the Executive Council for legislation purpose. This implied that Viceroy's Executive council which was so long composed of officials would now include certain additional non-official members. Some of the non-official seats were offered to natives of higher ranks. Thus a minute element of popular participation was introduced in the legislative process. The additional members though had little powers.

•

The Executive Council was now to be called Central Legislative Council.

•

Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of emergency.

By Act of 1833 slavery was abolished.

Charter Act of 1853

•

The Act renewed the powers of the company and allowed it to retain the possession of Indian territories in trust for the British crown but not for any specified period.

•

The number of members of the Court of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18 of which were to be nominated by the Crown.

•

The law member was made full member of the Governor General's Executive Council.

•

Legislative functions were for the first time treated separate from Executive functions.

•

•

Questions could be asked and the policy of the Executive Council could be discussed, though the

Two improvements in both the Central and the Provincial Legislative councils were suggested:

•

Though the majority of the official members were

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Indian Council Act, 1892

70

Executive Council were to administer the reserved subjects without any responsibility to the legislature. •

Devolution Rules: Subjects of administration were divided into two categories - Central and Provincial. Subjects of all India importance (like railways and finance) were brought under the category of Central while matters relating to the administration of the provinces were classified as Provincial.

•

The Provincial Legislature was to consist of one House only - Legislative Council.

•

The number of Indians in the Governor General's Executive Council was raised to three in a council of eight. The Indian members were entrusted with departments such as Law, Education, Labour, Health and Industries.

•

The Centre was now to have a bicameral legislature for the first time. It actually happened after the 1935 Act.

•

Communal representation was extended to Sikhs, Christians and Anglo-Indians, etc.

•

Secretary of State was to be henceforth paid salary out of the British revenue.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

retained, the non-official members were to be nominated by the Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Provincial Legislative Councils. (The nonofficial members of the Provincial Councils were to be nominated by certain local bodies such as universities, district boards and municipalities.) Indian leaders like G.K. Gokhale, Ashutosh Mukherjee, S.N. Banerjee found their way in the Legislative Council. •

The councils were to have the power to discuss the annual statement of revenue and expenditure and of addressing questions to the Executive. They could also put questions with certain limitations to the Government on matters of public interest after giving six days notice.

Indian Council Act/Morley-Minto Act, 1909

•

The act introduced at the time of Morley who was the Secretary of State and Minto who was the Indian Viceroy.

•

Legislative Councils both at the centre and the Provinces were expanded.

•

With regard to the Central Government, an Indian member was taken in the Executive Council of the Governor General.

•

The size of the Provincial legislative Councils was enlarged by including elected non-official members so that the official majority was gone. Their functions was also increased and now they could move resolutions on budget and some matters of public importance.

•

An element of election was also introduced in the Central Legislative Council, but the official majority was maintained.

•

The most notable and retrograde change introduced was that muslims were given separate representation. Thus communal representation was introduced.

Government of India Act/MontagueChelmsford Reforms, 1919

•

Dyarchy system was introduced in the provinces. It was considered to be a substantial step towards transfer of power to the Indians. The provincial subjects of the administration were to be divided into two categories: Transferred and Reserved. The transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible to the Legislative Council. The Governor and the

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Government of India Act, 1935

•

Provided for the establishment of the All India Federation consisting of the British Provinces and the Princely States. The joining of the Princely States was voluntary and as a result the federation did not come into existence.

•

Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre (e.g. Department of Foreign Affairs and Defence were reserved for the Governor General). The other federal subjects were to be administered by the Governor General with the assistance and advice of a council of Ministers to be chosen by him (but to include representatives of Princely states and minorities, and to be responsible to the Central Legislature). Residuary powers were to be with the Governor General only.

•

The Federal Legislature i.e. the Central Legislature was to have two chambers (bicameral): the Council of State and the Federal Assembly. The Council of State was to be a permanent body with one-third of its membership being vacated and renewed triennially. The Federal Assembly's duration was fixed for five years.

•

It made a three-fold division of power: Federal (Central) Legislative List, Provincial Legislative List and the Concurrent Legislative List. Residuary legislative powers were subject to the discretion of

71

the Governor General. Even if a bill was passed by the Federal Legislature, the Governor General could veto it, while even Acts assented by the Governor General could be disallowed by the King-in-Council. Provincial autonomy replaced Dyarchy in Provinces i.e. the distinction between Reserved and Transferred subjects was abolished and full responsible government was established, subject to certain safeguards. They were granted separate legal identity.

•

The Act also provided for a Federal Court (which was established in 1935), which original and appellate powers to interpret the Constitution. A Federal Bank (the reserve bank of India) was also established. The Indian council of Secretary of State was abolished.

•

Principle of separate electorate was extended to include Anglo-Indians, Indian-Christians and Europeans.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

their 'discretions' in certain matters.

•

The Governor was the head of the Provincial Executive and was expected to be guided by the advice of the popular ministries. However the Act gave arbitrary powers to the Governors to act in

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

•

Burma (now Myanmar) and Aden were separated from India and two new provinces, Orissa and Sind were created.




72

CHRONICLE

BRITISH EDUCATION POLICY AND GROWTH OF MODERN EDUCATION

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

•

In 1844, Lord Hardinge decided to give government employment to Indians educated in English schools. This ensured the spread of English education. It made good progress in the three residencies of Bengal, Bombay and Madras where the number of schools and colleges increased.

•

Other developments include a great upsurge in the activities of the missionaries who pioneered modern education, establishment of medical, engineering and law colleges which marked a beginning in professional education and according official sanction to the education of girls - Lord Dalhousie offered open support of the government in this case.

•

However the government policy of opening a few English schools and colleges instead of a large number of elementary schools led to the neglect of the education of the masses.

•

To cover up this defect in policy the British took recourse in the so-called 'downward filtration theory' which meant that education and modern ideas were meant to filter or radiate downwards from the upper classes. This policy continued till the very end of the British rule although it was officially abandoned in 1854.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

First Phase (1758-1812)

IAS ACADEMY

The British East India Company showed very little interest in the education of its subjects during this period, the few exceptions being: • The Calcutta Madrasa set up by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study and teaching of Muslim law and Persian and Arabic subjects. •

Jonathan Duncan started a Sanskrit College at Varanasi where he was resident for study of Hindu law and Philosophy.

•

Both were designed to provide a regular supply of qualified Indians to help in the administration of law in the courts of the Company.

•

The Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by William Jones in Calcutta in 1784.

Second Phase (1813-1853)

•

Due to the strong pressure exerted on the Company by the Christian missionaries and many humanitarians, including some Indians to encourage and promote modern education in India, the Charter Act of 1813 required the Company to spend Rs. 1 lakh annually for encouraging learned Indians and promoting the knowledge of modern sciences in India.

James Thomson Plan (1843-53)

•

A ten member committee on Public Instruction was set up in 1823 when Horace Haymon as the first President for the development of education.

•

In Northwest provinces, he tried to develop a comprehensive system of village education through the vernaculars.

•

Two controversies about the nature of education arose during this phase:

•

A Department of Education was set up for inspection and improvement of indigenous schools, with aim to train personnel for employment in the revenue, public works department and the judiciary.

•

•

1. Whether to lay emphasis on the promotion of modern western education or on the expansion of traditional Indian learning and 2. Whether to adopt Indian languages or English as the medium of instruction in modern schools and colleges to spread western education. Macaulay wrote the famous Minute on Educational policy dated 2 February 1835 which outlined that western education through English as a medium instruction was a great notary of western education. Lord William Bentinck in the Resolution of 7th March, 1835 accepted Macaulay viewpoint which led to the promotion of European science and literature. Thus settling the controversy.

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Third Phase (1854-1900)

Sir Charles Wood Dispatch, 1854 • The Education Dispatch of 1854 was also called the Wood's Dispatch (after Sir Charles wood, the then President of the Board of Control, who became the first Secretary of State of India. •

Considered the Magna Carta of English education in India it entailed: ø

Promotion of Western Education, art, science, philosophy and literature of Europe.

73

ø ø

•

Kashi Vidyapeeth and Jamia Milia Islamia were established.

•

University courses were divided into Pass course and Honors course.

Fifth Phase (1921-1947) •

Education came under Indian control officially as it became a Provincial subject administered by Provincial legislatures.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

ø

English language to be medium for higher education while vernaculars to be used for primary education. Three Education Departments were set up in provinces of Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Northwest Provinces and Punjab in 1855; organization of Indian Education Services in 1897 to cover the senior most posts. Establishment of Universities in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857, in Punjab in 1882 and Allahabad in 1887. First chancellor of Calcutta University was Lord Canning and the first vice chancellor William Colvite.

ø

•

There was an increase in the number of universities (20 in 1947); improvement in the quality of higher education (on the recommendation of the Sadler Commission); establishment of an Inter-University Board (1924) and the beginning of inter-collegiate and inter-university activities.

•

Considerable achievements in women's education and the education of backward classes.

The Hunter Commission (1882-1883)

Lord Ripon appointed Hunter Commission under Sir W.W. Hunter to review the progress which recommended: • Local bodies (district boards and municipalities) should be entrusted with the management of primary education. •

It also said that the government should maintain only a few schools and colleges, others to be left to private hands.

Fourth Phase (1901-1920)

•

•

Hartog Committee, 1929

The committee made a number of recommendations including: • The policy of consolidation and improvement of primary education. •

Lord Curzon appointed a Universities Commission under Sir Thomas Raleigh (Law member of the Viceroy's Executive Council) in 1902, and based on his recommendations the Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed.

A selective system of admission to universities and diversification of courses leading to industrial and commercial careers.

•

The universities should be improved.

It enabled the Universities to assume teaching functions (hitherto they were mainly examining bodies), periodic inspection of institutions, speedier transaction of business, strict conditions for affiliation, etc.

•

Worked out by Zakir Hussain Committee after Mahatma Gandhi published a series of articles in the Harijan.

The Wardha Scheme of Basic Education, 1937

•

However it was criticized by nationalists and in 1910 a separate Department of Education was established at the Centre.

•

Scheme centered on manual productive work/ vocational courses which would cover remuneration of the teachers.

•

The Sadler Commission was appointed in 1917 by Lord Chelmsford to review the working of Calcutta University with two Indian members: Ashutosh Mukherjee and Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed. The main recommendations were:

•

It envisaged a seven years course through the mother tongue of the students.

ø

•

Envisaged establishment of elementary schools and high school and introduction of universal and free compulsory education.

•

School course of six years was to be provided for children between ages eleven and seventeen.

ø

Secondary education by a Board of Secondary Education and duration of the degree course to be three years. 7 new universities were opened: Benaras, Mysore, Patna, Aligarh, Osmania, Lucknow and Dhaka.

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Sergeant Plan of Education, 1944






74

CHRONICLE

INDIAN PRESS UNDER THE BRITISH RULE

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

•

Three clauses of the 1823 Act were restored that had been abolished by Metcalfe.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

The Portuguese were the first Europeans who brought a printing press to India. In 1684 the East India Company set up a printing press in Bombay. The first paper was started in India by James Augustus Hickey and was called the Bengal Gazette (1780), also known as the Calcutta General Advertiser. However all their printing material was seized and they were asked to leave India in 1782. The other papers of the time included the Calcutta Gazette, 1784; Bengal Journals, 1785; Oriental Magazine of Calcutta/Calcutta Amusement, 1785; Calcutta Chronicle, 1786; Madras Couriers, 1788; Bombay Herald, 1789. These papers didn't criticize the government and therefore the British adopted a soft policy towards them.

IAS ACADEMY

•

Vernacular Press Act of 1878

•

Also called the 'Gagging Act' as it was only for local/vernacular papers and not English papers.

•

Passed by Lord Lytton.

•

Its provisions included: ø

Censorship of Press Act, 1799

•

Imposed by Lord Wellesley due to threat of French invasion in India.

•

It placed restrictions such that newspapers had to mention the name of the printer, editor and proprietor in every issue and the publisher had to submit all material for pre-censorship to the Secretary to government.

•

In 1802, the Act ws extended to all magazines, pamphlets, journals, books, etc.

•

Lord Hastings relaxed some of the restrictions in 1818 and the pre-censorship provision was abolished.

Later in 1870 the Indian Penal Code was amended and it was written that any violation of Press Regulations would be dealt under Section 124 of the IPC.

• •

District Magistrate with the previous permission of local government to ask printer and publisher of any vernacular paper to enter into an undertaking not to publish anything likely to excite dissatisfaction against the government. ø Publisher was now required to deposit security. ø No appeal against this action. ø No exemption for any vernacular paper. Ishwar Chandra Sagar's 'Som Prakash' stopped by this act. Later Cranbrook, Secretary of State was hostile to the idea of pre-censorship and in 1878 it was done away with and a Press Commissioner was appointed and the entire Act repealed by Lord rippon in 1882.

Licencing Regulating Act, 1823

•

Imposed by John Adams the acting Governor General.

•

It provided that every printer and publisher had to obtain a licence for starting a press or for using it and a penalty of Rs. 400 for each publication without permission, with a rigorous punishment on default.

•

Magistrates were authorized to seal the press and the Governor General could revoke the licence too.

•

Raja Ram Mohan Roy had to stop his paper Miratul-Akhbaar.

Newspapers Incitement to Offences Act, 1908

•

It was passed due to the dissatisfaction caused by the unpopular acts of Lord Curzon and the resultant growth of Extremism in India.

•

It provided: • • •

Licencing Act of 1857

•

Also called the XV Act of 1857.

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Magistrates were empowered to confiscate printing presses and the property connected to these if anything objectionable was printed. Local government was empowered to take away with any declaration made by the printer and publisher of an offending paper. The newspaper's editor could appeal to the High Court against any action of the government but within 15 days.

75

Indian Press Act, 1910 •

It revived the Lytton's Press Act of 1878.

•

A new provision was added wherein the security deposit was increased from Rs. 500 to Rs. 2000.

The Indian Press Emergency Act, 1931 •

The main feature of the Act was that if any publication directly or indirectly admired any offence of any person, real or fictious, the government could seize the press.

Press Committee, 1921 Under the chairmanship of Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru (law member in Viceroy's Executive Council).

Press Inquiry Committee, 1947 •

The committee abolished the Emergency Act of 1931.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

• •

It recommended the abolition of the Act of 1908 and 1910.






Important Newspapers Before 1947

Year

Newspaper/Magazine

Founder

Place

Language

1780

Bangal Gazette

James Augustus Hickey

Calcutta

English

1784

Calcutta Gazette

Company's Business Newspaper

Calcutta

English

1785

Bengal Journal

Thomas Jones

Calcutta

English

1785

Madras Courier

Richer Johnson

Madras

English

1790

Bombay Courier

Luke Ashburner

Bombay

English

1795

Bengal Harkaru

William Hunter

Calcutta

English

1795

Madras Gazette

R. William

Madras/Bombay

English

1795

Indian Herald

Humphreys

Madras

English

1795

Indian World

-

Calcutta

English

1796

The Telegraph

Hot Mckenly

-

English

1798

Calcutta Morning Post

Archibald

Calcutta

Englsih

1801

Missionery Herald

T. Armstrong

Calcutta

English

1812

The Samachar Press

Fardoonejee Marzban

-

Gujarati

1818

Digdarshan

J. C. Marshman

Calcutta

Bengali

1818

Friend Of India

J. C. Marshman

Serampore

English

1821

John Bull In The East

Syndicate Of European Officials

Calcutta

English

1838

The Times Of India

Times of India Press

Bombay/Delhi

English

1841

New India

Annie Bezant

Madras

English

1849

Lahore Chronicle

Munshi Mohammad Azim

Lahore

English

1860

National Reformer

Joseph Banker, Konoclasi

London

English

1862

Bangalee

S. N. Banarjee

Calcutta

Bengali

1863

Gujarat Mitra

Pravikant Reshmwala

Surat

Gujarati

1865

Pioneer

S. N. Ghosh

Lucknow

English

1867

Mail

T. A. Subramaniam

Madras

English

1868

Amirt Bazaar Patrika

Tulsi Kant Ghosh

Calcutta

English

1874

Behar Herald

-

Bankipore

English

1875

Statesman

K. Rangachari

Calcutta

English

1877

Hindi Pradeep

Balkrishana Bhatta

-

Hindi

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

76

Oudh Panch

Mohammad Sajjad Hussain

Lucknow

Urdu

1878

Statesman

Ribert Knight

Calcutta

English

1878

Hindi

V. Raghavachari

Madras

English

1879

Bengali

S. N. Bennerjee

Calcutta

English

1881

Bangvasi

Jogindra Nath Bose

Calcutta

English

1881

Maratha

Agarkar

Bombay

English

1881

Kesari

Kelkar

Bombay

Marathi

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

1877

1890

India

Dadabhai Naoroji

Bombay

English

1899

Hindustan Standard

Sacchidanand Sinha

Delhi

English

1900

Indian Review

G. A. Nateshan

Madras

English

1903

Indian Opinion

Mahatma Gandhi

S. Africa

English

1905

Indian Sociologists

Shyamji Krishan Verma

London

English

1906

Yugantar

Barindra Ghosh, Bhupendra Dutta

Calcutta

Bengali

1907

Modern Review

Ramanand Chatterjee

Calcutta

English

1909

Bandematram

Hardyal, Shyamji Verma

Paris

English

1910

Pratap

Ganesh Shankar Vidhyarthi

Kanpur

Hindi

1912

Al Hilal

Abdul Kalam Azad

Calcutta

Urdu

1913

Bombay Chronicle

Ferozshah Mehta

Bombay

English

1913

Gadar

Lala Hardyal

San Francisco

English

1914

Commonweal

Annie Besant

Bombay

English

1914

New India

Annie Besant

Bombay

English

1918

Servants Of India

Sri Niwas Shastri

Madras

English

1919

Independant

Moti Lal Nehru

Allahabad

English

1919

Navjivan

Mahatma Gandhi

Ahmedabad

Gujarati

1919

Young India

Mahatma Gandhi

Ahmedabad

English

1922

Hindustan Times

K. M. Pannichar

Bombay

English

1933

Harijan

Mahatma Gandhi

Pune

Hindi

1934

Nava-Bharat

Ramgopal Maheshwari

Nagpur

Hindi

1934

The India Pen

Sophia Wadia

Bombay

English

1935

Sahyadri

J. S. Tilak

Pune

Marathi

1936

Swaraj

N. B. Parulekar

Pune

Gujarati

1936

Awaz

-

New Delhi

Urdu

1937

Hindustan Standard

Sudhanshu Kumar Basu

Calcutta

English

1937

Biswin Sadi

-

Delhi

Urdu

1937

The Star Of India

Pothan Joseph

-

English

1937

Khatoon Mashriq

Tofiq Ansari

Delhi

Urdu

1937

Inquilab

Khalid Ansari

Bombay

Urdu

1938

Deccan Chronicle

-

Secundrabad

English

1938

National Herald

M. Chalapathi Rau

Lucknow

English

1941

Kalki

K. Rajendran

Madras

Tamil

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

77

Hindi News Papers During British Regime Newspaper/Magazine

Founder

Place Language

1826

Udat Martand

Jugal Kishore Shukla

Calcutta

1829

Bang Doot

Raja Rammohan Ray

Calcutta

1849

Malwa Akhbar

-

Indore

1854

Samachar Sudhavarshan

Shyam Sunder Sena

Calcutta

1866

Gyan Pradyini

Navin Chandra Rai

Lahore

1867

Kavivachan Sudha

Bhartendu Harischandra

Varanasi

1872

Dipti Prakash

-

Calcutta

1873

Hindi Kesari

Madhav Rao Sapre

Nagpur

1877

Hindi Pradeep

Pt. Balkrishana Bhatt

Varanasi

1878

Bharat Mitra

Chhotelal, Durga Prasad Mishra

Calcutta

1879

Sarsudha Nidhi

Durga Prasad Mishra

Calcutta

1885

Dainik Hindothana

Raja Rampal Singh

Kala Kankar

1907

Abhyudya

Madan Mohan Malaviya

Allahabad

1908

Karmyogi

Pt. Suderlal

Allahabad

1913

Pratap

Ganesh Shankar Vidhyarthi

Kanpur

1914

Hindi Kesari

Ganga Prasad Gupta

Kashi

1919

Bhavishya

Pt. Sunder Lal

Allahabad

1920

Aaj

Shiv Prasad Gupta

Varanasi

1930

Lokmat

Seth Govind Das

Jabalpur

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Year



© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

78

CHRONICLE

GOVERNOR-GENERALS OF INDIA

IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

Harry Verclst, 1767-69 and John Cartier (1769-72)

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Governors of Calcutta - Fort William

Roger Drake (1756 - 58) •

During his governorship, Calcutta was captured by Siraj-ul-Daula in the third Carnatic War.

•

The Black Hole tragedy on 20th June, 1756 in which 123 Englishmen died and which was one of the causes of the Battle of Plassey of 1757 took place.

•

Calcutta was recaptured by Clive.

Robert Clive (1758 - 60) •

Battle of Bedara in 1759, Dutch were defeated by the East India Company.

•

During this Governorship Clive did not do anything significant apart from collecting wealth from the victorious wars.

Henry Vansittart (1760 - 65)

Warren Hastings (1772 - 73) •

Put an end to the Dual System of government in 1772 which was started by Clive

•

He signed the treaty of Benaras in 1773 with Nawab Shujaud-daula of Awadh. Nawab was returned Allahabad and Kara in lieu of 50 lakhs rupees.

•

Quinquennial settlement of land revenue in 1772 farming out lands to the highest bidder which was later reversed.

Governor-Generals of Bengal

Warren Hastings (1773 - 85) •

Quinquennial settlement of land revenue in 1772 farming out lands to the highest bidder, later on he reversed to Annual Settlement (1777) on the basis of open auction to the highest bidder.

The Battle of Buxar was fought in 1764.

•

Death of Mir Jafar and succession of his son Najmud-daula.

Treasury was transferred from Murshidabad to Calcutta, misuse of Dastak was checked.

•

Dismissed Deputy Diwans - Muhammad Reza Khan (Bengal) and Raja Shitab Rai (Bihar).

•

Appointed Munni Begum as regent of minor Nawab Mubarak-ud-Daula of Bengal.

•

Signed treaty of Faizabad (1775) with Asaf-udDaula of Awadh.

•

The Rohilla War was fought in 1774 and Rohilkhand was captured by the Nawab of Awadh with the help of the British.

•

Mir Jafar was replaced by Mir Qasim as the Nawab of Bengal in 1760.

•

However, Mir Jafar was again reinstated.

• • •

Had uneventful tenures as Governors of Calcutta with nothing much of grave historical significance occurring during their time.

The Treaty of Allahabad was concluded on 20 February, 1765 according to which the administration was left in the hands of a deputy Subedar who was to be a British nominee.

Robert Clive (1765 - 67) second term •

The Company got Diwani rights in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

•

Started Dual Government in Bengal in 1765.

•

•

He forbade the servants of the company from indulging in private trade and made payment of internal duties obligatory.

The First Maratha War (1775-82) was concluded with the Treaty of Salbai.

•

The Second Mysore War (1780-84) was concluded with the Treaty of Mangalore.

•

Stopped annual allowance of Rs 20 lakh to Shah Alam II on charges of seeking protection from the Marathas.

•

Established Society of Trade in 1765 with monopoly of trade in salt, betelnut and tobacco. This was abolished in 1767.

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

79

•

Took away Allahabad and Kara from Mughal Emperor and sold it to Nawab of Awadh for Rs. 50 Lakh.

•

Raised salaries of the officials. Collectors were to get 1% of the revenue collection in addition to their salary of Rs. 1500.

•

Codified Hindu and Muslim laws.

•

•

Trial of Nand Kumar and his judicial murder in 1775.

This administrative system remained in force till 1858.

•

Foundation of Asiatic Society of Bengal with the help of Sir William Jones in 1784.

Sir John Shore (1793 - 98) He was the main person instrumental in designing the Permanent Settlement under Lord Cornwallis and was the President of the Board of Revenue under Cornwallis.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

•

Associated with the Chait Singh (Banaras Raj) affair (1778) wherein the Raja of Benaras was executed without any crime.

•

After his return to England in 1785, impeachment proceedings were initiated against him in the House of Lords but after a long trial of 7 years he was eventually acquitted.

•

Associated with the Begums of Oudh Affair (1782) wherein the Begums were thrown out of the palace to place a puppet king.

•

In 1776 Manu's Law was translated into English as the Code of Gentoo Laws.

•

Fatawa-i-Alamgiri was also translated.

•

Three important Acts introduced during his time that defined the early constitutional development in India: 1. The Regulating Act of 1773 2. The Act of 1781 and 3. The Pitts India Act of 1784

•

First Charter Act of 1793 was passed.

•

Played an important role in the introduction of the Kharda which took place between the Nizam and the Marathas which resulted in the defeat of the Nizam.

•

Famous for his policy of non-intervention.

•

Ahmad Shah Abdali's grandson named Zaman Shah attacked India in this period.

Lord Wellesley (1798 - 1805) •

Described himself as Bengal Tiger.

•

Created Madras Presidency after the annexation of the Kingdoms of Tanjore and Carnatic.

•

Introduced the system of Subsidiary Alliance in 1798.

•

Signed Treaty of Bassein (1802) with the Peshawa and fought Second Anglo-Maratha War during 1803-05.

•

The Fourth Mysore War (1799) concluded with the death of Tipu Sultan and Mysore as a state was finished.

•

Lord Lake captured Delhi and Agra in 1803 and the Mughal Emperor was put under Company's protection.

Lord Cornwallis (1786 - 93) •

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92) was concluded with the Treaty of Seringapatnam (1792).

•

Set up courts at different levels and separation of revenue administration from judicial administration in order to reform the judiciary.

•

Introduction of the civil Services in India.

•

Introduced Cornwallis Code based on the principle of separation of powers in 1793.

•

Superintendent of Police was made the head of district police and became the incharge of an area of 1000 sq. km.

•

Besides the English magistrates were given police powers. And the Zamindars were divested of all police powers.

Sir George Burlow (1805 - 07) •

Followed a policy of non-intervention.

•

Sepoy Mutiny at Vellore in 1806 when William Bentinck was Governor of Madras Presidency.

•

Third to restore peace between Scindhia and Holkar.

•

Holkar accepted Subsidiary Alliance by Treaty of Rajpurghat in 1805. End of Second Anglo-Maratha War.

•

Introduction of the Permanent Settlement in Bihar and Bengal (1793) which was also called as the Zamindari System.

•

•

A ten-year settlement was concluded with the Zamindars in 1790 which was made permanent in 1793.

•

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Lord Minto I (1807 - 13)

Signed Treaty of Amritsar in 1809 between Ranjit Singh and English. 80

•

Sent in 1808 Mission of Malcolm to Persia and that of Elphinstone to Kabul.

•

The Charter Act of 1813 was introduced.

•

Concluded a treaty of perpetual friendship.

•

The Regulation of 1833 on land revenue settlement by Mertins Bird (called father of land-revenue settlement in the North). Use of field maps and filed registers were prescribed for the first time.

Lord Hastings (1813 - 23) Adopted the policy of intervention and war.

•

Success in the Gorkha war of the Anglo-Nepalese War (1813 1823). Signed Treaty of Sogauli after defeating the Gorkha leader Amar Singh.

Governor Generals of India Lord William Bentinck (1833 - 35)

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

•

Hastings was awarded the title of 'Marquis of Hastings' in 1816.

•

Abolished Peshwaship and annexed all his territories and created the Bombay Presidency after the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818).

•

Pindari War fought (1817-1818).

•

Appointed Darogas in districts after forcing zamindars to surrender their police force.

•

The Company signed separate treaty with Raja of Sikkim in 1817 by which the Company handed over the territory between Hechi and Tista rivers.

•

Introduction of Ryotwari Settlement in Madras Presidency by Governor, Thomas Munro (1820).

•

Mahalwari (village community) system of land revenue was made in North-West Province by James Thomson.

•

The Charter Act of 1833.

•

Defined the aims and objectives of the educational policy of the British Government, appointed Lord Macaulay, the President of the Committee of Public Instruction which recommended English as the medium of instruction and introduction of English language literature, Social and Natural Sciences in the curriculum in 1835.

•

Raja ram Mohan Roy visited England and died in Bristol in 1833

•

Created Province of Agra in 1834.

•

English was to be court language at higher courts but Persian continued in lower courts.

•

Abolished Provincial Courts of appeal and appointed commissioners instead.

Sir Metcalfe (1835)

Lord Amherst (1823 - 28)

•

Abolished restriction on press.

•

Received by Emperor Akbar II on terms of equality in 1827.

•

Called "Liberator of press."

•

Signed Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826 with lower Burma or Pegu by which British merchants were allowed to settle on southern coast of Burma and Rangoon.

•

The First Burmese War was fought (1824-26).

•

Acquisition of territories in Malay Peninsula.

•

Capture of Bharatpur (1826).

Lord William Bentinck (1828 - 33) •

He was the last Governor General of Bengal.

•

Known as the Benevolent Governor-General.

•

Introduced a number of social reforms. Banned the practice of Sati in 1829 (pioneering efforts made in this connection by Raja Ram Mohan Roy), suppressed Thugi in 1830 (Military operation led by William Sleeman).

•

Annexed Mysore (1830), Kachar (1832), Jaintia (1832) and Coorg (1834).

•

The raja of Mysore was deposed (1831)

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Lord Auckland (1835 - 42) •

First Afghan War (1836-42) gave a great blow to the prestige of British in India and Auckland was immediately called back during the war.

•

Tripatriate Treaty was signed between the Company, Ranjit Singh and Shah Shuja by which Ranjit Singh accepted Company's mediation in disputes of the Amirs of Sind.

•

Maharaja Ranjit Singh died in 1839.

•

Shah Shuja conceded his sovereign right to the Company over Sind on condition of receiving the arrears of the tribute, the amount of which was to be determined by the Company.

•

Mandavi State was annexed in 1839.

Lord Ellenborough (1842 - 44) •

Termination of the first Afghan War in 1842.

•

Annexation of Sindh (1843) by Sir Charles Napier.

•

War with Gwalior 1843.

81

Lord Hardinge I (1844 - 48)

•

•

Fought the First Sikh War (1845-46) which ended with the Treaty of Lahore 1846.

Lord Canning (1856 - 57)

•

Prohibited female infanticide.

•

•

Suppressed the practice of human sacrifice among the Gond tribe of Central India.

Foundation of the universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857.

•

Revolt of 1857.

•

Preference to English educated in employment.

The Santhal uprising (1855-57)

Viceroys of India

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y Lord Dalhousie (1848 - 56) •

Second Sikh War (1848-49) and annexed Punjab.

•

Second Burmese War (1852) and annexation of Lower Burma (Pegu).

•

The Indian States annexed by the application of Doctrine of Lapse and Law of Escheat were Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambalpur (1849), Bhaghat (1850), Udaipur, Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854).

•

Boosted up the development of railways-laid the first railway line 1853 from Bombay to Thane and second from Calcutta to Raniganj.

Lord Canning (1856 - 57) •

Queen Victoria's Proclamation and passing of the Indian Act of 1858.

•

Doctrine of Lapse started by Lord Dalhousie was officially withdrawn in 1859.

•

The Indian Penal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedure and the Indian High Court Act, passed in 1858, and 1861 respectively.

•

India Council's Act of 1861.

•

Indigo Revolt in Bengal in 1959-60.

•

Gave a great impetus to post and telegraph. Telegraph lines were laid, (First line from Calcutta to Agra).

•

Rajput states of Baghat and Udaipur were returned to their respective rulers.

•

Bahadur Shah was sent to Rangoon (Burma).

•

Organised a separate Public Works Department in every province by divesting the Military Board of this power.

•

Penal Code of 1860 declared slave trade in India illegal.

•

Shimla was made summer capital and army headquarter.

•

White Mutiny by the European troops of the east India Company in 1859.

•

Hindu Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856.

•

Bahadur Shah was sent to Rangoon (Burma).

•

Annexed Awadh in 1856 on excuse of maladministration when Nawab Wajid Ali Shah refused to abdicate. Every house in Oudh had a son in the British army, thus sowed the seeds for the revolt of 1857.

Lord Elgin I (1862) •

Suppressed the Wahabi movement.

•

His sudden death in 1862; administration carried on by Napier and Dennsion from 1862 to 1864.

•

Annexed Berar in 1853 from Nizam on account of arrears for auxiliary.

Lord John Lawrence (1864 - 69)

•

Darjeeling and its outlying districts annexed.

•

•

Stopped and abolished pensions and titles of various states. For e.g. stopped annual payment of Nana Sahib, adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II after his death.

Followed a policy of rigid non-interference in Afghanistan called Policy of Masterly Inactivity.

•

Telegraphic Communication opened with Europe (1869-70).

•

•

Planned to stop pensions and remove legal titles of the Mughal Emperor after death of Bahadur Shah II, but this was rejected by the Court of Directors.

Set up High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay & Madras (1865).

•

War with Bhutan in 1865.

•

The Woods Dispatch of 1854 according to which the British took the responsibility for mass education.

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Lord Mayo (1869 - 72) •

Started the process of decentralization of finance in India in 1870.

•

First time in India Census was held in 1871.

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•

Established two colleges for the education and political training of the Indian princes-the Royal College in Kathiawar and Mayo College Ajmer in Rajasthan. Organisation of Statistical Survey in India.

•

Establishment of Department of Agriculture and Commerce.

•

Beginning of system of state Railway.

•

Appointment of an Education Commission under Sir William Hunter in 1882.

•

Division of finances of the Centre (1882).

•

The Famines Court (1883).

•

The Ilbert Bill controversy, 1883-84 relating to passing of a bill, framed by the law member of the Viceroy's Council Sir C.P. Ilbert which abolished judicial disqualification based on race.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

1881 which put the total population at 254 millions.

•

The only Viceroy to be murdered in office by an Afghan convict in the Andaman in 1872.

•

Lord Northbrook (1872 - 76)

He usually said "Judge me by my works and not by my words."

•

Visit of Prince of Wales Edward VII.

Lord Dufferin (1884 - 88)

•

Trial of Gaekawad of Baroda in 1875.

•

Foundation of the INC in 1885

•

Kuka Movement in Punjab in 1872.

•

•

Bihar famine in 1874.

Commented on the Congress being a microsopic minority.

•

He resigned over the Afgahan issue.

•

Third Burmese War and finally annexed Burma (1885-86).

Lord Lytton (1876 - 80)

•

Delimitation of Afghan northern boundary.

•

Lord Landsdowne (1888 - 94)

Passing of the Royal Title Act of 1876 and the assumption of the title Empress of India (Kaiser-IHind) by Queen Victoria.

•

Passed the Age of Consent Act in 1891 which forbade marriage of girl below 12.

•

Holding of Delhi Durbar in 1877.

•

Passing of Vernacular Press Act of 1878.

•

Second factory Act of 1891.

•

Passing of Arms Act of 1878 which empowered a magistrate to call upon the printer and publisher of any vernacular newspaper to enter into an undertaking not to publish any news which would create antipathy against the government.

•

Division of the Civil services into Imperial, Provincial and the Subordinate.

•

Indian Councils Act of 1892.

•

Demarcation of Afghan boundary (Durand Line) by Durand Commission.

•

Lowering of the maximum age from 21 yrs. to 19 yrs. for the Civil Services Examination-an attempt to prevent Indians from entering Civil Services.

•

Appointment of the first Famine Commission under Sir Richard Strachey.

•

Second Afghan War (1878-80).

•

Policy of Masterly Inactivity towards Afghanistan was replaced by Forward Policy.

Lord Rippon (1880 - 84) •

Passing of First Factory Act in 1881 for welfare of child labour.

•

Repeal of Vernacular Press Act in 1882.

•

Foundation of local Self-Government (1882); passing of local self Government Acts in various provinces during the period 1883-85.

•

Holding of first decennial and regular census in

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Lord Elgin II (1894 - 98) •

Famine in part of Rajasthan - Lyall Commission appointed to look into the cause of famines.

•

Chapekar brothers of Una assassinated two British officers in 1897, one of them was a senior Plague Commissioner, Rand.

Lord Curzon (1899 - 1905) •

Creation of new province called the North West Frontier Province.

•

Appointment of Sir Thomas Raleigh Commission in 1902 to suggest reforms regarding universities, and the passing of Indian Universities Act of 1904 as the basis of its recommendations.

•

Creation of a new Departemnt of Commerce and Industry.

83

•

Formal adoption of divide and rule policy in 1909 by British-Reservation of seats for Muslim in 1909 reforms.

•

Tilak was sentenced to six years rigorous imprisonment and sent to Mandalay jail.

•

Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904.

•

Establishment of an Agricultural Research Institute of Pusa in Delhi.

•

Passing of Calcutta Corporation Act in 1899 which provided for reduction of elected members.

•

Partition of Bengal in 1905.

Lord Hardinge II (1910 - 1916)

•

Beginning of Swadeshi Movement in order to protest against the partition of Bengal.

•

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Anulment of partition of Bengal and creation of a Governorship for Bengal like Bombay and Madras in 1911. (Lieutenant Governorship of Bihar and Orissa and Chief Commissionership for Assam).

•

Appointment of Police Commission under the presidentship of Sir Andrew Frazer to inquire into police administration.

•

Colonel Young Husband's expedition to Tibet in 1904.

Announcement of transfer of imperial capital from Calcutta to Delhi (1911).

•

•

Set up Irrigation Commission of 1901 and the works on Jhelum canal was completed.

A seperate state of Bihar and Orissa was created in 1911.

•

•

Pusa Agricultural Institute was established in 1903.

Coronation Durbar of King George V and Queen Mary at Delhi (December 1911).

•

Adopted MacDonell Commission on Famine in 1900.

•

Ghadar Movement started in 1915 in San Francisco.

•

Appointed Moncrief Commission on irrigation in 1902.

•

•

Official Secrets Act was passed in 1904 which extended the scope of sedition.

Bomb thrown on his carriage at Chandni Chowk in Delhi in 1912 while he was entering the capital by Rash Bihari Bose.

•

•

Passed Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act and put India on gold standard.

Hindu Maha Sabha in 1915 by Madan Mohan Malviya and some Punjabi leaders.

•

Defence of India Act, 1915.

•

He built a greater mileage of railway line than any other viceroy and was responsible for setting up Railway Board.

•

G. K. Gokhale and Pheroz Shah Mehta died in 1915.

•

Resigned from his office, because of his controversy with Kitchner (August 1905).

•

Return of Gandhi to India, 1915.

•

Ronatdshay wrote his biography, The Life of Lord Curzon.

•

Rabindranath Tagore said, "He was untouched by hand, i.e. the human element was missing."

•

It is said about him that "Like James-II of England, Curzon knew the art of making enemies.

•

Lord Chelmsford (1916 - 21) •

Foundation of two Home Rule Leagues - one by Tilak in April 1916 and another by Annie Beasant in September 1916.

•

Lucknow Session and the reunion of the Congress (1916), Annie Beasant played important role in it.

•

Lucknow Pact between Congress and Muslim League in 1916, Tilak played important role.

•

Setting up of Sabarmati Ashram by Gandhi in 1916.

•

Champaran Satyagrah - 1st time Gandhi experimented his new technique in India (1917), Satyagraha at Ahmedabad (1918) and Kheda Satyagraha (1918).

•

August Declaration (1917) by Montague, the Secretary of State.

•

Resignation of some veteran leaders led by S.N. Banerjee from Congress and founded Indian Liberal Federation (1918).

Lord Minto II (1905 - 10) •

Swadeshi Movement was launched.

•

Surat Session and split in the Congress (1907).

•

Minto-Morley Reforms or the Indian Council Act of 1909.

•

Foundation of Muslim League by Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dacca in 1906.

•

Partition of Bengal came into force in October 1905.

•

Khudiram Bose was hanged on April 30, 1908.

•

Newspapers Act, 1908.

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

84

Government of India Act of 1919.

Lord Irwin (1926 - 31)

•

Rowlatt Act (March 1919) and Jalhianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919).

•

Popularly Knwon as Christian Viceroy.

•

Death of Tilak on 1st April, 1920.

•

Appointment of Simon Commission (Nov. 1927) and its boycott by Congress.

•

Launching of Khilafat Movement (1919-20).

•

•

Launching of Non-co-operation movement (192022).

•

Nagpur Session of the Congress (December 1920) changes in constitution of Congress.

•

Foundation of women university of Poona (1916).

Appointment of the Indian States Commission under Harcourt Butler (1927) to recommend measures for the establishment of better relation between Indian states and the central Govern-ment and covering of all India States People's Conferencing in December 1927 by states people in response.

•

Foundation of Benaras Hindu University at Benaras in 1916.

•

Aligarh Muslim University was founded.

•

Communist activities began.

•

Moplah uprising in 1921.

•

Prince of Wales visited India. Sir Sinha was the first Indian to become a Governor and second Indian to become a member of British Parliament, the first being Dadabhai Naroji.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

Lord Reading (1921 - 26) •

Chauri Chaura incident (February 5, 1922) and the withdrawal of Non-cooperation movement by Gandhi.

•

Foundation of Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (RSS) by Hedgevar at Nagpur in 1925.

•

Foundation of Swaraj Party by C.R. Das (Deshbandhu) and Motilal Nehru in December 1922.

•

Repeal of Press Act of 1910 and Rowlatt Act of 1919.

•

Meeting of first All India Youth Congress in 1928.

•

Convening of All Parties Conference and its appointment of a committee under Motilal Nehru to prepare a constitution for India; committee submitted its report known as Nehru Report in August 1928, rejected by Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha.

•

Deepavali Declaration (1929) that India would be granted Dominion status in due course.

•

Lahore Session of the Congress (Dec 1929) and Poorna Swaraj Resolution; fixing 26th January as the first Independence Day.

•

Civil Disobedience Movement was launched with Dandi March of Gandhi in 12 March 1930.

•

1930, First Round Table Conference, Congress boycotted.

•

March 1931, Gandhi-Irwin Pact.

•

Murder of superintendent of police, Saunders.

•

Bomb thrown in Central Legislative Assembly, Delhi.

•

In 1929 Jatin Das died after 64 days fast.

•

Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was founded.

•

Foundation of Communist Party of India, 1925.

•

Inter University Board was passed.

•

•

Holding of simultaneous examination for the ICS in England and India with effect from 1923.

Royal Commission on Indian Labour was appointed (1929), Report (1931).

•

•

Royal Commission on agriculture was established.

Simon Commission submitted its report in May 1930.

•

Railway Budget seperated from general budget in 1925.

•

Sarda Act was passed in 1929, Marriages of girls below 14 years boys below 18 years of age was prohibited.

•

Skeen Committee on Army reforms was appointed in 1925. It submitted its Report in 1926.

•

Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted tricolour of Indian Independence (Dec 31, 1930).

•

Lee Commission on public service in 1924, Report submitted in 1924.

Lord Wellingdon (1931 - 36)

•

Young Hilton Committee on currency (1926).

•

•

Beginning of Indian mission of officer cadre of Indian army.

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Participation of Gandhi in the Second Round Table Conference (Sept. 1931) and failure of conference, Gandhi imprisoned, suspension of movement in May 1934.

85

•

Third Round Table Conference in London (1932) without the representation of Congress.

•

Announcement of Communal Award by Ramsay MacDonald, British P.M. (1932), Gandhi fast unto death in the Yervada prison and Poona pact between Gandhi and Ambedkar (September 1932). Government of India Act of 1935.

•

Foundation of Congress Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra Dev and Jai Prakash Narayan (1934).

At its Haripura Session (Feb 1939) the Congress declared Poorna Swaraj ideal to cover native states and British India.

•

Muslim League at its Lahore Session (1940) passed Pakistan Resolution.

•

August Offer by Linlithgow (1940), its rejection by the Congress and the starting of individual satyagraha by Gandhi.

•

Cripps Mission came to India 1942 offering Dominion status and its rejection by Congress.

•

Passing of Quit India Resolution also called August Revolution, by Congress (8 Aug 1942) in the Bombay session.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

•

•

Foundation of All India Kisan Sabha (1936).

•

Individual Civil Disobedience Movement in January 1933.

•

Civil Disobedience Movement withdrawn in 1934 from Patna.

•

Indian Military Academy was set up at Dehradun in 1932.

•

White Paper on political reforms in India was published (1933).

•

Burma and Aden were separated from British Empire (1935).

•

Orissa, Bihar and Sind were made new states (1935).

•

Lee Moody Pact (October 1933) by Bombay textile group.

•

Muslim Conference was founded in Kashmir (1931) and renamed National Confrence in 1938. Important leaders were Sheikh Abdullah and P.N. Bajaj.

Lord Linlithgow (1936 - 43) •

Congress Ministries in majority of the provinces (1937).

•

Celebration of Congress Ministries' resignation (after outbreak of World War-II) as Deliverence Day (22 Dec 1939) by Muslim League.

•

Resignation of Subhash Chandra Bose from the presidentship of the Congress as well as from its membership in 1939, formation of Forward Bloc by Bose and his followers (1939).

© CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

Lord Wavell (1943 - 47) •

C.R. Formula evolved by C. Rajagopalachari in 1949 and Gandhi Jinnah talks based on it, failure of the talk.

•

Wavell Plan and Simla Conference (1945),

•

INA Trials and Naval Mutiny (1946).

•

Cabinet Mission (Three members: Lawrence, Cripps and Alexander) and acceptence of the plan by both Congress and Muslim League.

•

RIN Mutiny (1946).

•

Launch of Direct Action Day by the League on 16 August 1946.

•

General Election in 1945-46.

•

Interim Government formed (September 2, 1946).

Lord Mountbatten, March 1947 -August, 1947 (British India) and August 1947 - 48 (Independent India) •

First Governor General of free India.

•

On 3 June 1947 plan to partition was announced.

•

On 7 June 1947, Jinnah left for Karachi.

•

On August 15, 1947 India was declared independent, but on the communal principle of divide.




86

INDIAN PRINCELY STATES

CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

It was Dupleix, the French Governor-General, who started the political programme of a European trading company in India in the 1740's. The English followed the example of Dupleix and signalled their political identity by the capture of Arcot in 1751. In 1757 the English won the battle of Plassey and became the political force behind the Nawabs of Bengal. The Company became a ruling power after the Emperor Shah Alam II granted it the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in 1765. Till 1765 the Company stood in relation to the Indian states in a position of subordination and was striving for a status of equality with them.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

The Great Mughal Empire disintegrated in the eighteenth century. Many Indian states as independent or semi-independent principalities came into existence in the later Mughal period. These small and weak states made the Indian conquest of the East India Company quite easy. Many states like Hyderabad, Oudh and Rajput states were not annexed by the Company but accepted its supremacy. Some states which had for centuries resisted the Mughals and later the Marathas were saved from extinction by British intervention. Some states were created by the British in the process of the overthrow of the Maratha confederacy. The Indian states numbered no fewer than 562 and covered a total area of 712,508 square miles. A retrospective examination of the relations between the British and the Indian states suggests the following broad stages: 1. East India Company's struggle for equality with Indian states, 1740-65. 2. Policy of Ring Fence, 1765-1813.

3. The policy of Subordinate isolation, 1813-57. 4. The policy of Subordinate Union, 1857-1935. 5. The policy of Equal Federation, 1935-47.

1. STRUGGLE FOR EQUALITY

The English East India Company was established primarily as a commercial body. In order to enhance its commercial interests in India, the Company established political links and relationship with the Mughals and by their orders and under their authority opened its commercial and trading centres in various parts of the Mughal Empire. But, the East India Company had to face commercial competition from other European Companies operating in India viz. the Dutch, the Portuguese and the French. The unstable political condition of the country during the 18th century and the stiff competition from the other European Companies forced the English Company to think of a policy of political control and authority in order to save and expand its economic programmes in India. This resulted in the transformation of a purely commercial trading company into a politically ambitious one having the aim of establishing its authority through territorial expansion. © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

2. RING FENCE

The Policy of Ring Fence (1765-1813) also known as the Policy of Buffer state. Broadly speaking, it was the policy of defence of their neighbours' frontiers for safeguarding their own territories. The chief danger to the Company's territories was from the Afghan invaders and the Marathas. The defence of Oudh constituted the defence of Bengal at that time. With the arrival of Wellesley, the Company's relations with the Indian states underwent a change. Wellesley sought to reduce the Indian states to a position of dependence on the Company even if not declaredly so. The rulers of Hyderabad, Mysore, Oudh and the other lesser states accepted the Subsidiary Alliance system. The defeat of the Marathas in 1803 and Holkar in 1805 virtually established the supremacy of British power. The Subsidiary system was the Trojanhorse tactics in Empire-building.

3. SUBORDINATE ISOLATION

The Governor-Generalship of Lord Hastings opened a new stage (1813-57) in the relations of the English and the Indian Princely states. The Imperial idea grew and the theory of paramountcy began to develop. The treaties that he concluded with the Indian states were not on the basis of reciprocity and mutual amity, but imposed the obligation on the part of the Indian states to act in subordinate cooperation with the British Government and acknowledge its supremacy. Thus, the Indian states surrendered all forms of external sovereignty to the East India Company.

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tending to expand under the strong pressure of political circumstances.

4. SUBORDINATE UNION The years following the proclamation of 1858 marked a vital transformation in the relations between the Indian states and Government of India. The policy of Subordinate Union (1857-1935) was adopted in this phase. Now the Empire of India passed over to the crown. The Queen's Proclamation announced the abandonment of the policy of annexation. The 'Doctrine of Lapse' was abandoned. The change in the policy was due to the loyal attitude of the ruling Princes during the Revolt of 1857-58 which had amply demonstrated that the Princes could be used as breakwaters to future possible storms in India. Lord Canning gave practical shape to the new trend by granting 140 Sanads or `instruments or grants of adoption' to Hindu and Muslim Princes. Lord Lansdowne issued 17 more Sanads. The new policy was to punish the ruler for misgovernment and if necessary to depose him but not to annex the state. This change in policy was welcomed by the Princes. This immunity from the policy of annexation was obtained, however, at great cost and lowering of the status of the Indian Princes. Under the East India Company the sanction of the Governor-General was necessary only in case of failure of `natural heirs'. After 1858, the fiction of the authority of the Mughal Emperor came to an end and the Crown stood forth as the unquestioned ruler and paramount power in India. As such, all successions had to regularly seek the sanction of the Crown. Normally every ruler was formally installed on the Gaddi by the British Agent. Further, the fiction of the Indian Princes standing on a status of equality with the Crown as sovereign independent states finally came to an end. Canning referred to the rulers of Indian states as `feudatories and Vassals' and to the Crown as `the unquestioned ruler and paramount power in India'. Paramountcy was not only a historical fact but a legal principle capable of interpretation and expansion. The Royal Titles Act of 1876 put the final seal on the new relationship by proclaiming the Queen as Kaiser-iHind, Queen Emperor of India. A Government notification dated 21st August, 1891 declared: ``The Paramount supremacy of the former (the Crown) presupposes and implies the subordination of the latter (Indian Princes)''. The Government of India exercised complete and undisputed control over the external and international affairs of the Indian States. The Government of India could declare war, neutrality or peace for the Indian states. The period also saw the growth of 'political

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

The states, however, retained full sovereignty in internal administration. The decades following the retirement of Lord Hastings saw the rapid increase of the influence of the Company in the internal administration of the states. The British Residents were usually the organs of communication between the Government of India and the rulers of Indian states. Gradually their influence and power increased with the assertion of the Company's paramountcy and adoption of the policy of 'subordinate cooperation' under Lord Hastings down to 1857. "The Resident ministers of the Company at Indian courts were slowly but effectively transformed from diplomatic agents representing a foreign power into executive and controlling officers of a superior Government". Raja Chandu Lal during his administration in Hyderabad took his orders from the Resident, Colonel Low. Colonel Walker acted as an administrator-Resident when he helped the Gaekwar to collect revenue from the feudal chiefs. The same situation was in Mysore, Travancore and other states. The Charter Act of 1833 metamorphosed the character of the Company. The Company was asked to wind up its commercial business. It assumed political functions in fact and name. A radical change followed in the policy towards the Indian states. The policy of annexation of states whenever and wherever possible was laid down by the Court of Directors in 1834. The policy was reiterated with emphasis in 1841 when the Court of Directors issued a directive to the GovernorGeneral to persevere in the one clear and direct course of abandoning no just and honourable accession of territory or revenue''. The Governor-Generals of this period were frankly annexationists. Annexations were made to acquire new territories and new source of revenue in the plea of failure of natural heirs or misgovernment. The Company as the supreme power had the right to withhold sanctions for `adoption' of heirs and the states in such cases `lapsed back' to the supreme power. It was Lord Dalhousie's great political programme. Prior to him, Lord William Bentinck annexed Mysore (1831), Cachar (1832), Coorg (1834) and Jaintia (1835). Auckland annexed Karnul, Mandavi (1839), Kolaba and Jalaun (1840). Dalhousie annexed about a half dozen Indian states including big states. Sometimes a Governor-General followed earlier precedents, at other times created new precedents. Where a good number of Indian states were annexed, some states like Khairpur in 1832, Bahawalpur in 1833, Kashmir in 1846 were assured of the Company's policy of non-intervention into the internal affairs of their states. Thus, these policies together constituted the Company are paramountcy-undefined, undefinable, but always

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relationship between the paramount power and the Indian states. The Indian Princes engaged a distinguished lawyer, Sir Leslie Scott, to present their view point before the committee. Scott pleaded that residuary powers rested with the Indian states. The Butler committee made the following recommendations: 1. On the question of paramountcy and development of political practice, the committee reported: paramountcy must remain paramount, it must fulfill its obligations, by defining and adopting itself according to the shifting necessities, of the time and the progressive development of states'' and further that ``usage of lights up the dark corners of treaties''.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

practice' and 'usage' which further circumscribed the rights of Indian Princes. Under the impress of changing circumstances, the Crown exercised powers which exceeded the most liberal interpretation of treaties. Lord Curzon stretched the interpretation of old treaties to mean that the Indian Princes in their capacity as servants of the people should work side by side with the Governor-General in the scheme of Indian Government. He adopted the policy of patronage and 'intrusive surveillance". The new trend seemed to reduce all the Indian states to conform to a single type, whether they were treaty states or enjoying varying degrees of authority. From 1905 onwards the Government of India followed a policy of cordial co-operation towards the Indian states. The growth of political unrest in British India put the Government of India on the defensive and the Government thought it expedient and prudent to utilize the support of Indian Princes to counter progressive and revolutionary developments. The Government of India and the Indian Princes formed "Common front to preserve their positions and privileges''. Thus, the policy of subordinate isolation gave place to the policy of subordinate union. The authors of Montague-Chelmsford Reforms favoured the formation of a Council of Princes and made definite suggestions in the matter. These recommendations formed the nucleus for the formation of the Chamber of Princes, formally inaugurated in February 1921. For the purposes of representation in the Chamber of Princes, the Indian states were divided into three categories: (a) 109 states which enjoyed full legislative and jurisdictional powers were represented directly. (b) 127 states which enjoyed limited legislative and jurisdi-ctional powers were represented by 12 members chosen from among themselves.

(c) Remaining 326 states which could be better classified as jagirs or estates or feudal holdings.

The Chamber of Princes was merely an advisory and consultative body. It had no concern with the internal affairs of individual states nor could it discuss matters concerning the existing rights of states or their freedom of action. The Indian Princes thus became the favourite children of British Imperialism and in fact were ''collectively recognized as an independent constituent of the Empire''. On the request of the Princes a codification committee was appointed as early as September 1919 to codify `political practice' and define limits of the concept of Paramountcy. In 1927 the Government appointed the Indian states committee, popularly known as the Butler committee under the chairmanship of Sir Harcourt Butler to investigate the © CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

2. The states were bound by treaties with the Crown and the states should not be handed over without the ruler's prior consent to an Indian Government in British India responsible to an Indian legislature.

3. The Viceroy, not the Governor-General-in-Council, was to be the crown agent in dealing with the states.

The Indian Princes were surprised at the concept of Paramountcy being left undefined. Nevertheless the hydra-headed creature was fed on usage and Crown prerogative and "the implied consent' of the Princes.

5. EQUAL FEDERATION

This was the phase of the Policy of Equal Federation (1935-47). The Indian Princes were invited at the Round Table conference during 1930-32. In the Federal structure proposed for the whole of India by the Government of India Act 1935, the Indian states were to be allotted 125 out of 375 seats in the Federal Assembly and 104 out of 200 seats in the Council of States. The Federation of India was to come into existence only when the rulers of states representing not less than one-half of the total population of the states and entitled to not less than half of the seats (i.e. 52) allotted to the states in the upper house of the federal legislature agreed to join the Federation. The Federation never came into existence for the requisite number of states did not agree to join it. The Congress successes in the elections of 1937 had repercussions on the states where agitation started for civil liberties and responsible Government. In December 3, 1938 Mahatma Gandhi declared that the awakening in the states was due to the 'time spirit' and that there could be no half way house between total extinction of the states and full responsible Government. The outbreak of the Second World War in 1919 finally shelved the scheme of Federation.

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Movement In Various States

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

Hyderabad: In the biggest princely state of all, Hyderabad, a small Muslim elite held 90% of government jobs and urdu was maintained as the sole official language and medium of instruction where more than half of the population was Telugu speaking, 25% Marathi and 11% Kannada speaking. There was a total absence of elementary civil and political rights and extremely crude forms of feudal exploitation, like Vetti, or forced Labour and compulsory payments in kind. Popular awakening initially took the form of middle class language based associations like Andra Mahasabha. The Arya Samaj and the Hindu Mahasabha campaigned against the tyranny of the Nizam and the 'Ittahad ul-Mussalman'. The Aga leader Pandit Narendraji started a purely Hindu Satyagraha in Hyderabad city and the Marathwada region in October 1938, with the demand for more jobs for Hindus. At about the same time, a state Congress had been founded on a secular basis by Swami Rama Nanda Tirtha and Govindas Shroff from Marathwada, Ravi Narayan Reddi and a few Muslims like Sirajul Hasan Tirmizi from Hyderabad city. A powerful 'Vande Mataram' movement developed among Osmania students, who left the University when the Nizam banned the singing of that patriotic hymn. The Congress movement, however, was called off at Gandhi's insistence in December 1938. Soon under Ravi Narayan Reddi, a Nizam State committee of the C. P. J. was established secretly in 1939. Using the broad front of the Andhra Mahasabha, the communists helped with arms of fight against the Nizam's suppression and built the base of greatest peasant guerrilla war in Telengana. Travancore, Cochin: In Travancore and Cochin, as in the adjoining Malayalee districts of Malabar, the National movement was built up very largely under the Leftist leadership and guidance. In the mid and late 1930's activists like Krishna Pillai, E. M. S. Namboodripad, and A. K. Gopalan founded the Congress Socialist party, converted the Congress for the first time into a real mass organisation, and simultaneously moved towards Communism. In August 1938, the Travancore state Congress started a powerful agitation against the autocracy of Diwan C. P. Ramaswami Iyer. Despite brutal repression, students joined the satyagraha in large numbers and jathas marched into Travancore from many parts of Kerala. Particularly impressive was the role of working class. Alleppey coir workers led by Krishna Pillai went on strike on October 1938, demanding not only wageincrease and union recognition but release of political prisoners and responsible Government based on

universal franchise. The Dewan was forced to call off repressive measures against the Congress Satyagraha in order to isolate Alleppey workers. Mysore: There was a rapid growth of people's movements in Mysore. The Gandhian controls remained fairly firm in Mysore, where K. T. Bhashyam's state Congress, initially based on Brahman urban professional groups, extended its support through merger in October 1937 with the People's Federation of Non-Brahman Rural Landholders led by K. C. Reddy and H. C. Desappa. A first round of agitation from October 1937 for legalization of the Congress and responsible government culminated on 11th April 1938 in a blood-bath at Viduraswatha village in Kolan district where 30 were killed by firing on a crowd of 10,000. In the following month Sardar Patel concluded a truce with Dewan Mirza Ismail which legalized the Congress, but failure to implement promises of significant constitutional reforms led to another round of civil disobedience from September 1939. Effective Congress leadership of controlled mass movements built up strength for the party in the region and for the development of Mysore and final merger in the Indian union. Jaipur: Like other states in Rajasthan, Jaipur also witnessed people's movement for civil liberties, responsible Government and social and other reforms. It was more aggressive in 1939. Gandhiji decided to try out his specific techniques of controlled mass struggle for the first time in a native state. He allowed his close adjutant, the business magnate Jamnalal Bajaj, to lead a satyagraha in Jaipur. The Government imposed a ban on Bajaj's entry in Jaipur. On violating the ban, Jamnalal Bajaj was arrested. This resulted in wide scale satyagraha. Ultimately the government had to release Jamnalal Bajaj. Rajkot: Gandhiji and Vallabhbhai Patel, began a personal intervention in the movement in Rajkot which had been started by the local Praja Parishad under U. N. Dhebar. Virawala, the very unpopular Diwan of Rajkot, had imposed numerous monopolies disliked by local traders and stopped summoning an advisory elected council set up earlier, while nearly half the revenues of the state were swallowed up by the privy purse of its ruler. The choice of Rajkot by Gandhiji is very significant; a tiny state surrounded by the firm Gandhian base of Gujarat, almost half its population lived in the Capital and so there was little danger of agrarian radicalism swamping strictly non-violent satyagraha. Kasturba Gandhi and Manibehn Patel courted arrest in February 1939, and Gandhiji himself went to Rajkot and started a fast on 3rd March-just on the eve of the Tripuri Congress. The Rajkot intervention,

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independent state by rejecting the cabinet mission plan. Atlee's announcement of 20 February 1947 and Mountbatten's plan of 3rd June 1947, however, emphasized that with the lapse of paramountcy, Indian states would be free to join any Dominion they liked, India or Pakistan. Lord Mountbatten refused to recognize any state or combination of states as separate Dominions. In the National Provisional Government, Sardar Patel headed the states ministry and appealed to the sense of patriotism of Indian princes and urged them to join the Indian Union on the basis of the surrender of three subjects of Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communications. He was assisted by V.P. Menon in this work of unification by 15th August 1947 as many as 136 Jurisdictional states acceded to the India Union. Kashmir signed the Instrument of Accession on 26th October 1947, Junagadh and Hyderabad in 1948. Many small states which were too small for a modern system of administration were merged with the adjoining provinces i.e. 39 states of Orissa and Chattisgarh became part of either Orissa or Central provinces; Gujarat states were merged with the Bombay province. A second form of the integration of states was the formation of units into centrally adminsitered areas. In this category came the states of Himachal Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur, Bhopal, Bilaspur and Kutch. A third form of the integration of states was the formation of state unions. Thus came into existence the United States of Kathiawad, United States of Matsya, the Union of Vindhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, the Patiala and East Punjab state Union (PEPSU), Rajasthan and United States of Cochin-Travancore. Later, the State Reorganisation Acts 1956 was passed by the Union Parliament that provided for the setting up of 14 states and 6 Union territories. Today Indian union has 28 states and 7 Union territories. 1. Andhra Pradesh was created On 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganization Act by merging Telugu-speaking areas of Hyderabad State (Telangana) and the already existing Andhra State.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

however, proved to be one of Gandhiji's failures, for the British political department instigated Virawala to withdraw the concessions he had offered at one stage, as well as to skillfully encourage Muslim and untouchable demands for more seats in the Proposed Reforms Committee. Gandhiji, bowed himself out of the Rajkot affair in May 1939. Orissa: In the much more backward interior state of Orissa, issues like forced labour, taxes on forest produce, extortion of 'gifts' on festive occasions or tenancy rights inevitably were as much if not more important than demand for political reform. The Congress socialist party leader Naba Krushna Chaudhari led a satyagraha in Dhenkanal in December 1938, powerful movements developed in Nilgiri, Nayagarh, Talcher and Ranpur, and there were numerous violent incidents. On 5th January 1939, the British political agent in Ranpur, Major Barzelgette was stoned to death. Gandhiji did his best to get the Orissan movements called off in return for some token political reforms in Dhenkanal and Talcher. Kashmir: In Kashmir the 'National Conference' started the movement demanding various reforms. It was led by Sheik Abdullah. The ruler of Kashmir used various measures to suppress the movement. Sheikh Abdullah along with other leaders was arrested. National Congress provided support to the movement of Sheikh Abdullah but this movement failed to yield any fruitful results.

Integration & Merger of States

During the Second World War, India witnessed hectic political activity. The British Government made various efforts to break the deadlock-Cripp's proposal (1942), Wavell's plan (1945), the Cabinet mission plan (1946) and finally Atlee's announcement (20th February 1947). The future of the Indian states figured in all constitutional discussions. Cripps mission declared that the British Government did not contemplate transferring the paramountcy of the Crown to any other party in India. The Princes worked on various schemes to form a Union of their own with full sovereign status-a third force in the Indian political setup. The Cabinet Mission Plan proposed Federation of India which would include the Indian States. The Federation was to make law on defence and communication and foreign affairs while the residuary powers would be vested in the Indian states. The rulers of the states accepted the proposals of the Cabinet mission plan. But after the declaration of partition proposal, Travancore and Hyderabad proposed for an

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2. The State of Bombay was divided into two States i.e. Maharashtra and Gujarat by the Bombay (Reorganization) Act 1960. The first capital of Gujarat was Ahmedabad; the capital was moved to Gandhinagar in 1970.

3. The Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay state, Deccan states and Vidarbha (which was part of Central Provinces and Berar) united under the agreement, known as Nagpur Pact, to form the Maharashtra state.

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The states annexed through the Dalhousie's 'Doctrine of Lapse' were Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambhalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854).

•

The Court of Directors did not order the annexation of the state of Karoli and the state of Baghat and Udaipur were returned to respective rulers by Lord Canning.

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Oudh was annexed by the Britishers in 1856 on the charge of maladministration in the state.

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Lord William Bentinck annexed Mysore (1831), Kachhar (1832), Coorg (1834), Jaintiya (1835), Lord Auckland annexed Kurnool and Mandavi (1839) and Kolaba and Jalgaon (1840) to the British Indian Empire.

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The states of Khairpur, Bhawalpur and Kashmir were not annexed to the British Empire.

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The 'Doctrine of Lapse' of Dalhousie was ended in 1858.

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The Empress of Britain, Queen Victoria was proclaimed as 'Kaiser-i-Hind' i.e. Queen Emperor of India by the Royal Titles Act, 1876.

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Lord Rippon restored the state of Mysore to the local wodeyar dynasty in 1881.

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10. Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand formed as full fledge states by the Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000.

Examples of British interference in internal administration of Indian states are Tonk, Gaikwad (Baroda), Kashmir and Manipur.

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Indian states Committee or Butler Committee (led by Harcourt Butler) was appointed in 1927 and the Committee gave its report in 1929.

Points to Remember

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The Government of India Act, 1935 proposed a Federal structure and the Indian states were to be a part of it. The Federation of India did not come into existence.

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The proposals for the formation of a Chamber of Princes were made in the Montague-Chelms-ford Reforms of 1919. The Chamber of Princes was formed in 1921.

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The instrument of accession was signed by Kashmir on 26th October 1947 and by Junagadh and Hyderabad in 1948.

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The number of Indian Princely states on the eve of independence was 562 and constituted about 45 percent of the total area.

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The largest Princely state was Hyderabad, while the smallest one was the Bilbari state.

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Most of the Princely states were run as unmitigated autocracies, with absolute power concentrated in the hands of the ruler or his favourites.

4. Kerala was created by the State Reorganization Act, 1956. It comprised of Travancore and Cochin. 5. Karnataka was created on 1 November 1956. Originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

6. Punjab was divided along linguistic lines in 1966; the Hindi-speaking southern half of Punjab became a separate state-'Haryana' and Pahari speaking hilly areas in north east formed "Himachal Pradesh". The rest remained as Punjab. Chandigarh was on the border of Punjab and haryana and became a separate union territory but serves as the capital of both Punjab and Haryana. 7. Meghalaya was first carved out as a sub-state within the State of Assam by 23rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1969. Later in 1971, it received the status of a full-fledged State by the NorthEastern Areas (Reorganization) Act 1971. 8. Sikkim was first given the Status of Associate State by the 35th Constitutional Amendment Act 1974. It got the status of a full State in 1975 by the 36th Amendment Act, 1975.

9. Goa was separated from the Union-Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu and was made a full-fledged state in 1987. But Daman and Diu remained as Union Territory.

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The period of the Company's struggle of equality with the Indian states is from 1740 to 1765.

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In this period the English Company won two major battles-Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764).

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The period of the Policy of Ring Fence or Buffer state is from 1765 to 1813.

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Lord Wellesley established the military supremacy of the Company in India.

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Lord Hastings established the political supremacy of the Company in India.

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The policy of Subordinate isolation (1813-57) started from the governorship of Lord Hastings.

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The states accepting the subsidiary alliance of Wellesley were-Hyderabad (1798 and 1800), Mysore (1799), Tanjore (1799), Oudh (1801), Peshawar (1801), Bhonsles (1803), Scindhias (1804) Jodhpur, Jaipur, Macheri, Bundi and Bharatpur.

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The burden of land tax was usually heavier than in British India.

Ludhiana session. •

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In the first and second decades of the 20th Century, runaway terrorists from British India seeking shelter in the states became agents of politicisation.

Also, under the President ship of Jawaharlal Nehru, the eight session of the AISPC was held in 1946 in Udaipur.

•

•

Some of the states where Prajamandal or states people's conference were organised were Mysore, Hyderabad, Baroda, the Kathiawad state, the Deccan state, Jamnagar, Indore, and Nawanagar.

It was the first session of AISPC which was held in an Indian state and the state providing the infrastructure to it.

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In August 1938, the Travancore state Congress started a powerful agitation against the autocracy of the Diwan C. P. Ramaswami Iyer.

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

•

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In December 1927, All India State's People's Conference (AISPC) was convened. The organisers were Balwantrai Mehta, Maniklal Kothari and G. R. Abhayankar.

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The All-India State's people's conference was denied represen-tation in the Round Table Conference.

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During the Quit India movement, the National Congress made no distinction between British India and Indian states.

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In 1939, All-India States' people's conference elected Jawaharlal Nehru as its president for the

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Alleppy coir workers also participated in this agitation.

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Gandhiji allowed his close adjutant, the business magnate, Jamnalal Bajaj to lead a Satyagraha in Jaipur.

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Nabkrishna Chaudhari led the struggle in the Orissa state.

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In Kashmir, National Conference led by Sheikh Abdullah started the movement for responsible Government.






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CHRONICLE

CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS

IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

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1717

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Death of Aurangzeb at the age of 89. Shahu becomes the Chhatrapati of the Marathas (ruled, 1708-49). Farrukhsiyar grants a firman to the English Company exempting their trade in Bengal. Nadir Shah's invasion of Delhi. First Anglo-French Carnatic War. Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle and restoration of Madras to the English Company. Death of Shahu and accession of Raja Ram as Chhatrapati. Clive's capture of Arcot and its successful defence against Chanda Sahib. Third Anglo-French Carnatic War. Battle of Plassey. The English wins the battle of Wandiwash. The Third Battle of Panipat. Battle of Buxar. Clive's Second Governorship of Bengal. The First Anglo-Mysore War. The Regulating Act passed by the British Parliament. The Supreme Court established at Calcutta. The First Anglo-Maratha War. The Second Anglo-Mysore War. Pitt's India Act passed. The Third Anglo-Mysore War. Permanent Settlement of Bengal announced. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. Wellesley annexes Carnatic. The Second Anglo-Maratha War. Vellore Mutiny. Treaty of Amritsar between Ranjit Singh and the Company.

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The Anglo-Nepal War. The First Anglo-Burmese War. Sati declared illegal. The Charter Act of 1833 passed; Abolition of the Company's trading rights in India. Lord Bentinck annexes Coorg (Southern Malabar Coast). English adopted as the official language. Death of Ranjit Singh. British annexation of Sind announced. First Railway line beween Bombay and Thana opened. The Santhal Insurrection. The annexation of Oudh. Establishment of universities at Bombay, Calcutta and Madras; Revolt of 1857. Queen Victoria's Pro-clamation. Telegraphic communication with Europe opened. The Kuka Revolt in Punjab. The Prince of Wales visits India. The Royal Titles Act made Queen Victoria Kaiser-i-Hind. The Delhi Durbar organised by Lytton. Vernacular Press Act passed. First Factory Act passed. The Ilbert Bill Controversy. Foundation of Indian National Congress. Organisation of the Mohammedan AngloOriental Defence Association of Upper India, Tilak celebrates the Ganapati festival. Tilak organises the Shivaji festival. Murder of Rand and Ayerst at Poona. Indian Universities Act passed; Young Husband Mission to Lhasa. Foundation of the `Servants of India society'. Partition of Bengal comes into force, Minto

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1930

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Meerut Conspiracy Case against the Communists; Sarda Act passed; Lord Irwin's announcement of Dominion status granting as the goal of British; Adoption of complete Independence as goal by Congress. Gandhiji's Dandi March, Rebellion in Burma, Round Table Conference (1st session), January 26, Indepedence pledge. Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed, Round Table conference (2nd session), publication of the Royal Labour Commission's Report. Announcement of Communal Award; Poona pact signed; Round Table Conference (3rd session), Second Civil Disobedience Movement. Civil Disobedience Movement called off. Indo-British Trade agreement signed. Congress Ministries formed in provinces. Subhash Bose resigned from the Presidentship of Congress; Congress Ministries resign in provinces, Muslim League celebrates Deliverance Day. Muslim League adopts the Pakistan resolution; launched Individual Satyagraha; August Offer of the Viceroy. Cripps Mission visits India; Quit India Movement. Bose announces the formation of Provisional Government of Free India. Naval Mutiny at Bombay; Cabinet Mission, elections for the Constituent Assembly, Jawahar Lal Nehru heads the interim Government, Indian Constituent Assembly meets at New Delhi. Atlee's announcement of British decision to transfer power before June 1948; 3rd June plan of Mountbatten; Indian Independence Act passed. Death of Mahatma Gandhi. Adoption of the new Indian Constitution. First general elections.




CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

1907

receives the Aga Khan Muslim Deputation at Simla; Muslim League formed at Dacca (30th December). Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh departed to Mandalay. Execution of Khudiram Bose; Tilak sentenced to six years transportation. Morley-Minto reforms of 1909; Murder of Curzon Wyllie in London by Dhingra; S. P. Sinha appointed as Law member of Viceroy's Executive Council. Coronation Durbar at Delhi. Delhi becomes new capital of India; Bomb thrown at Lord Hardinge at Delhi. Gandhi starts his Satyagraha in South Africa against Asiatic Law Amendment Act; Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco. Formation of Home Rule League by Annie Besant. Foundation of Banaras Hindu University; Tilak organises Home Rule League at Poona. Gandhi launches the Champaran Satyagraha. All India Depressed Clasess League formed. Call for All-India hartal against Rowlatt Bills; Jallianwala Bagh tragedy. All India Trade Union Congress formed; Foundation of Aligarh Muslim University; Non-Cooperation Movement launched. M. N. Roy organised Communist Party at Tashkent. Chauri-Chaura incident; Calling off of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Formation of the Communist Party of India at Kanpur. Appointment of Simon Commission. Nehru Report recommends principles for the new Constitution of India.

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MODERN HIST OR Y HISTOR ORY (SAMPLE QUESTIONS QUESTIONS)) 1. Consider the following statement select the correct answer: (i) Khilafat Movement was mainly aimed to build political unity amongst Muslims and use their influence to protect the caliphate. (ii) The Khilafat campaign was actively supported by other political parties such as the Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha. (iii) It was a major part of the Non-cooperation movement. Codes: (a) i only (b) ii and iii only (c) i and iii only (d) All of the above 2. Consider the following statements in the context of the provisions of the Cripps Mission: 1. It refused to provide dominion status to India and rather offered a plan for formation of constituent assembly. 2. It prescribed holding of fresh elections to all the provincial legislature. 3. Representatives of the Indian states were to constitute an electoral college which would, in turn, elect the constitution-making body. 4. It prescribed that if a province expressed its unwillingness to accept the constitution, it could refuse accession to the Indian union and instead formulate its own constitution.

launched by the Britishers. The salient features of the system were: I. It was introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in 1793. II. It had recognized the landlords as the proprietor of the land with the right of hereditary succession. III. Landlords had no right to transfer, sell or mortgage the land in their possession. Which of above statements is/are correct? (a) Only I (b) I and II (c) I and III (d) All of the above 4. Which of the following statements is/are true in the context of Rowlatt Act of 1919? 1. It was called the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act (1919). 2. This act effectively authorized the government to imprison for a maximum period of six months, without trial, any person suspected of terrorism living in the British Raj. 3. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre was justified by British government on the pretext of the Rowlatt Act. Codes: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) Only 3

Which of the above statements are correct the related context? (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) Only 3

5. The Portugese were the first to reach India in 1498 with an objective of capturing the spice trade of the east. Which among the following were the first to revolt against the Portugese in Indian Ocean region? (a) Mozambique (b) Maldives

3. The Permanent Settlement system which had created the first group of landlord in India was Modern History ©Chronicle IAS Academy

(c) Sri Lanka (d) Malacca 1

6. The programme of Non-Cooperation movement had two main aspects - constructive and destructive. Which of the following are included in constructive aspects? (i) Nationalization of education

III. Establishment of High Courts at Bombay, Madras and Calcutta - Lord John Lawrence IV. Widow Remarriage Act - Lord Dalhousie

(iii) Enrolment of volunteer corps.

(b) II and IV

CH IA R S ON AC I C AD L E EM Y

(ii) Promotion of indigenous goods

Codes: (a) Only II

(iv) Surrender of titles and honours.

(c) I and IV

Codes: (a) i, ii, iii only

(d) II, III and IV

(b) ii, iii, iv only

(c) i and ii only

(d) All the above

7. With the advent of Britishers the modern education was introduced in India. Consider the following statements related to modern education phases in India: I. Wood's Dispatch was considered as the Magna Carta of English Education in India. It laid stress on mass education, female education and improvement of vernaculars and favoured secularism in Education.

II. The professional education was launched during 1813 - 1853 by the establishment of medical, engineering and law colleges.

III. Hartog Committee 1929 recommended universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group 6 - 11.

IV. Wardha scheme of Basic Education (1937), worked out by the Zakir Hussain Committee, recommended medium of instruction should be English for expansion of modern education. Which of the above statements is/are correct? (a) I and II (b) I, II and III

(c) II, III and IV

(d) All

8. Which of the following Governor-Generals/ Viceroys are correctly matched with the main events and developments during their respective tenure? I. Foundation of Asiatic Society of Bengal Lord Cornwallis II. Prohibition of female infanticide - Lord Hardinge I

2

9. During British rule Industries which were worst affected by the British policies were the handicrafts industries textile, paper, metals, pottery etc. which among the following were the mains causes for this? (i) Influx of foreign goods (ii) Construction of railways

(iii) Rise in prices of raw materials.

(iv) Loss of European markets to Indian manufacturers. Codes: (a) i, ii and iii

(b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv

(d) All the above

10. Which of the following statements are true in the context of the INA? 1. INA was founded by Captain Mohan Singh with the help of the Japanese in 1942 in Singapore.

2. Netaji joined INA in 1943 and proclaimed the provisional government of free India in Singapore. 3. The British army halted the march of the INA at Kohima and forced Netaji to retreat to Malaya. 4. Colonel Prem Sahgal, Colonel Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Major General Shah Nawaz Khan of the INA were tried for court martial at the Red fort between November 1945 and May 1946.

Which of the above statements are true? (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 4

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Modern History

11. Which of the following were the factors responsible for tribal revolts/movements during the British period? 1. Expansion of British colonial rule in the tribal areas. 2. Increased penetration of the exploiters such as moneylenders, traders, etc. 3. British interference in the socio-religious affairs of the tribal.

(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 14. By the Charter of 1669, the East India Company has got the power to make necessary laws and issue ordinance for the first time in India for which of the following area? (a) Madras (b) Calcutta

4. Spreading the Christian religion by the Christian missionaries. Codes: (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 3 and 4

(c) Bombay (d) Awadh 15. Who among the following were not the members of the Cabinet Mission? 1. Lord Pathick Lawrence

(c) 1, 2 and 3

2. A. V. Alexander

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

3. Sir Stafford Cripps 4. Viceroy Lord Wavell

12. The British government had appointed various committees to investigate the causes of famine and to recommend measures to prevent recurrences in future. Arrange the following committees in chronological order: I. Sir Richard Strachey Commission

Codes: (a) 3 & 4 (b) 1, 2 & 3 (c) None of the above

II. George Campbell Commission

(d) Only 4

III. Sir James Lyall Commission IV. Anthony McDonald Committee Codes: (a) II-I-III-IV

16. Which among these may be assumed as first all India level Satyagraha by Gandhi? (a) NCM (b)

Champaran

(b) I-II-III-IV

(c)

Khilafat Movement

(c) II-I-IV-III

(d)

Anti Rowlatt Movement

(d) I-II-IV-III 13. Which of the following events occurred during the tenure of Lord Irwin? 1. Appointment of Simon Commission 2. Boycott of Simon Commission by the Congress. 3. Lahore session of the Congress and Purna Swaraj resolution. 4. Launching of the civil disobedience movement by Gandhi with his Dandi march. Codes: (a) 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4 Modern History

17.

Who among these had formed 'Abhinav Bharat Samaj'? (a) Savarkar Brothers (b) Rasbehari Bose (c) Khudiram Bose

(d) Pramodha Mitter

18. What is 'Imperial Preferences' in British time? (a) Concessions in the British imported goods to India. (b) Concessions given to the British Political Agents by Indian States. (c) Concessions or preferences given to the British subject by the crown rule. (d) Concessions given to the British industry & industrial interest in India

3

19. Match the following : Land Revenue System Associated Person A. Ryot wari System

1. Munro & Reed

B. Zamindari System

2. Merttins Bird

C. Mahal wari System

3. Holt Mackenzie

(a) Dada Bhai Nauroji

(b) W.C. Banerjee

(c) A.O. Hume

(d) Fakhruddin T. Jee

23. Who is regarded as "The Mother of Indian Revolution"? (a) Mrs. Anne Besant

4. John Shore

CH IA R S ON AC I C AD L E EM Y

(b) Snehlata Wadekar (c) Sarojini Naidu

Code: 1 2 3 4

(d) Madem Bhikaji Rustem Cama

(a) A C C B

24. Which of the following statement is wrong? (a) Lord Linlithgow was the longest serving Governor General of British India.

(b) C A C B

(c) A B C C

(b) M. Abdul Kalam Azad was the longest serving Congress President in Pre-Independent.

(d) B A C C

20. Match the following : (A)

(c) M. Mohan Malvia became the President of INC for maximum number of time.

(B)

A. 1st Anglo-Sikh War

1. Auckland

B. 1st Anglo-Maratha War

2. Warren Hastings

(d) Sarojini Naidu was 2nd female Congress President.

C. 1st Anglo-Burmese War 3. Harding I

D. 1st Anglo-Afghan War

25. Consider the following statements : 1. The word 'Swarajya' was used for the first time by Swami Dyanand Saraswati in his writings & speeches.

4. Amherst

Code: A B C D

(a) 1

2 3 4

(b) 3

2 4 1

(c) 3

4 2 1

(d) 4

3 2 1

2. The word 'Swarajya' was politically used for the first time by Tilak, as a demand for self rule & indepenednce.

21. Among the following which one was the First Trade Union in India? (a) All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)

3. The word 'Swarajya' was used for the first time by Dada Bhai Nauroji from Congress platform in 1906, as a demand for immediate independence from British rule.

(a) Only 3

(b) Only 2

(c) 1, 2, 3 only

(d) None of these

(b) Madras Labour Union

(c) Indian Trade Union Federalism

(d) Textile Labour Union

22. Who suggested to change the name Indian Union to Indian National Congress?

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4

Modern History

MODERN HISTORY (SAMPLE QUESTIONS) (ANSWERS)

CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

1 (c)

14 (c)

2 (b)

15 (d)

3 (b)

16 (d)

4 (b)

17 (a)

5 (c)

18 (a)

6 (a)

19 (a)

7 (a)

20 (b)

8 (d)

21 (b)

9 (d)

22 (a)

10 (a)

23 (d)

11 (d)

24 (c)

12 (a)

25 (c)

13 (d)






Modern History

MODERN HIST OR Y HISTOR ORY (UPSC QUESTIONS QUESTIONS)) 1. Annie Besant was 1. responsible for starting the Home Rule Movement. 2. the founder of the Theo-sophical Society. 3. once the President of the Indian National Congress Select the correct statement/statements using the codes given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

5. With reference to Indian History, the Members of the Constituent Assembly from the Provinces were (a) directly elected by the people of those Provinces. (b) nominated by the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League. (c) elected by the Provincial Legislative Assemblies. (d) selected by the Government for their expertise in constitutional matters.

2. The Ilbert Bill controversy was related to the (a) imposition restrictions the Indians of certain to carry arms by Indians.

6. The demand for the Tebhaga Peasant Movement in Bengal was for (a) the reduction of the share of the landlords from one-half of the crop to one-third.

(b) imposition of restrictions on newspapers and magazines published in Indian languages.

(b) the grant of ownership of land to peasants as they were the actual cultivators of the land.

(c) removal of disqualifications imposed on the Indian magistrates with regard to the trial of the Europeans.

(c) the uprooting of Zamindari system and the end of serfdom.

(d) removal of a duty on imported cotton cloth. 3. The people of India agitated against the arrival of Simon Commission because (a) Indians never wanted the review of the working of the Act of 1919. (b) Simon Commission recommended the abolition of Dyarchy (Diarchy) in the Provinces. (c) there was no Indian member in the Simon Commission. (d) the Simon Commission suggested the partition of the country. 4. Quit India Movement was launched in response to (a) Cabinet Mission Plan (b) Cripps Proposals (c) Simon Commission Report (d) Wavell Plan Modern History ©Chronicle IAS Academy

(d) writing off all peasant debts. 7. What was the purpose with which Sir William Wedderburn and W. S. Caine had set up the Indian Parliamentary Committee in 1893? (a) To agitate for Indian political reforms in the House of Commons. (b) To campaign for. the entry of Indians into the Imperial Judiciary. (c) To facilitate a discussion on India's Independence in the British Parliament. (d) To agitate for the entry of eminent Indians into the British Parliament. 8. Mahatma Gandhi said that some of his deepest convictions were reflected in a book titled, "Unto this Last" and the book transformed his life. What was the message from the book that transformed Mahatma Gandhi? (a) Uplifting the oppressed and poor is the moral responsibility of an educated man. (b) The good of individual is contained in the good of all. 1

(c) The life of celibacy and spiritual pursuit are essential for a noble life. (d) All the statements (a), (b) and (c) are correct in this context.

13. With reference to the period of colonial rule in India, "Home Charges" formed an important part of drain of wealth from India. Which of the following funds constituted "Home Charges"? 1. Funds used to support the India Office in London.

CH IA R S ON AC I C AD L E EM Y

9. With reference to Indian freedom struggle, Usha Mehta is well-known for (a) Running the secret Congress Radio in the wake of Quit India Movement.

(d) The complete disruption of the old agrarian order of the tribal communities.

(b) Participating in the Second Round Table Conference.

(c) Leading a contingent of Indian National Army.

(d) Assisting in the formation of Interim Government under Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru.

10. With reference to the period of Indian freedom struggle, which of the following was/were recommended by the Nehru report? 1. Complete Independence for India. 2. Joint electorates for reservation of seats for minorities.

3. Provision of fundamental rights for the people of India in the Constitution.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

11. Which one of the following observations is not true about the Quit India Movement of 1942? (a) It was a non-violent movement. (b) It was led by Mahatma Gandhi.

(c) It was a spontaneous movement.

(d) It did not attract the labour class in general.

12. Which amongst the following provided a common factor for tribal insurrection in India in the 19th century? (a) Introduction of a new system of land revenue and taxation- of tribal products. (b) Influence of foreign religious missionaries in tribal areas. (c) Rise of a large number of money lenders, traders and revenue farmers as middlemen in tribal areas.

2

2. Funds used to pay salaries and pensions of British personnel engaged in India. 3. Funds used for waging wars outside India by the British.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

14. What was the reason for Mahatma Gandhi to organize a satyagraha on behalf of the peasants of Kheda? 1. The Administration did not suspend the land revenue collection in spite of a drought. 2. The Administration proposed to introduce Permanent Settlement in Gujarat.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

15. Consider the following: 1. Assessment of land revenue on the basis of nature of the soil and the quality of crops. 2. Use of mobile cannons in warfare.

3. Cultivation of tobacco and red chillies.

Which of the above was/were introduced into India by the English? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3

(d) None

16. The Congress ministries resigned in the seven provinces in 1939, because Modern History

(a) The Congress could not form ministries in the other four provinces. (b) Emergence of a 'left wing' in the Congress made the working of the ministries impossible.

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

(c) There were widespread communal disturbances in their provinces.

20. Mahatma Gandhi undertook fast unto death in 1932, mainly because (a) Round Table Conference failed to satisfy Indian political aspirations.

(d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) given above is correct.

(b) Congress and Muslim League had differences of opinion.

17. Which of the following is/are the principal feature(s) of the Government of India Act, 1919? 1. Introduction of diarchy in the executive government of the provinces. 2. Introduction of separate communal electorates for Muslims. 3. Devolution of legislative authority by the centre to the provinces.

(c) Ramsay Macdonald announced the Communal Award. (d) None of the statement (a), (b) and (c) given above is correct in this content. 21. With reference to Ryotwari Settlement, consider the following statements: 1. The rent was paid directly by the peasants to the Government. 2. The Government gave Pattas to the Ryots.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c)

1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

18. During Indian freedom struggle, the National Social Conference was formed. What was the reason for its formation? (a) Different social reform groups or organizations of Bengal region united to form a single body to discuss the issues of larger interest and to prepare appropriate petitions/representations to the government. (b) Indian National Congress did not want to include social reforms in its deliberations and decided to form a separate body for such a purpose. (c) Behramji Malabari and M.G. Ranade decided to bring together all the social reform groups of the country under one organization. (d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) given above is correct in this context. 19. Which of the following parties were established by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar? 1. The Peasants and Workers Party of India 2. All India Scheduled Castes Federation 3. The Independent Labour Party Select the correct answer using the codes given below: Modern History

3. The lands were surveyed and assessed before being taxed. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) None

22. Consider the following statements: The most effective contribution made by Dadabhai Nauroji to the cause of Indian National Movement was that he 1. exposed the economic exploitation of India by the British. 2. interpreted the ancient Indian texts and restored the self-confidence of Indians. 3. stressed the need for eradication of all the social evils before anything else. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2, and 3

23. With reference to Pondicherry (now Puducherry), consider the following statements: 1. The first European power to occupy Pondicherry were the Portuguese. 2. The second European power to occupy Pondicherry were the French. 3

Which of the statements given above is/are correct ? (a) 1 only

3. The' English' never occupied Pondicherry. Which of the statements given above is/are correct ? (a) 1 only

(b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

CH IA R S ON AC I C AD L E EM Y

(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

24. Consider the following statements : 1. Dr. Rajendra Prasad persuaded Mahatma Gandhi to come- to Champaran to investigate the problem of peasants.

25. Who among the following Governor Generals created the Covenanted Civil Service of India which later came to be known as the Indian Civil Service ? (a) Warren Hastings

2. Acharya J. B. Kriplani was one of Mahatma Gandhi's colleagues in his Champaran investigation.

(b) Wellesley

(c) Cornwallis

(d) William Bentinck

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4

Modern History

MODERN HISTORY (UPSC QUESTIONS) (ANSWERS)

CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY

CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

1 (c)

14 (a)

2 (c)

15 (d)

3 (c)

16 (d)

4 (b)

17 (c)

5 (c)

18 (d)

6 (a)

19 (b)

7 (a)

20 (c)

8 (b)

21 (c)

9 (a)

22 (a)

10 (b)

23 (a)

11 (b)

24 (b)

12 (d)

25 (c)

13 (d)






Modern History