Beowulf

Metaphor Analysis Beowulf was written in Old English, and the dominant feature of the verse is alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonants in words placed fairly closely together. In the original Old English, each line in the poem is split up into two parts. Each line has four stressed syllables. As Seamus Heaney, the translator, explains in his introduction, the first stressed syllable of the second part of the line alliterates with the first or second (or both) stressed syllables of the first part of the line. Because of the way modern English differs from Old English, Heaney's translation cannot follow this scheme exactly, although the pattern can seen for example in line 64: "The fortunes of war favoured Hrothgar." In this line, the first stressed syllable of the second part of the line (the first syllable of "favoured") alliterates with the first stressed syllable of the first part: "fortunes"). Heaney makes plentiful use of alliteration throughout his translation of the poem. The first five lines for example, are consistently alliterative: So. The Spear-Danes in days gone by and the kings who ruled them had courage and greatness. We have heard of those princes' heroic campaigns. There was Shield Sheafson, scourge of many tribes, a wrecker of mead-benches, rampaging amongst foes. The alliterating consonants are underlined. Note that "k" alliterates with a hard "c," since the sounds are the same. The same applies to "w," which is silent when followed by an "r," and "r." More examples could be chosen at random, such as: The sure-footed fighter felt daunted, the strongest of warriors stumbled and fell. (lines 1543-44) This is why the poem should ideally be read aloud (as it no doubt was in the days of the mead-hall), because then these poetic effects can be heard.

Theme Analysis Heroism The main theme of Beowulf is heroism. This involves far more than physical courage. It also means that the warrior must fulfil his obligations to the group of which he is a key member. There is a clear-cut network of social duties depicted in the poem. The king has an obligation to behave with generosity. He must reward his thanes with valuable gifts for their defense of the tribe and their success in battle. This is why King Hrothgar is known as the "ring-giver." He behaves according to expectations of the duties of a lord when he lavishly rewards Beowulf and the other Geat warriors for ridding the Danes of Grendel's menace. But the thanes have their obligations too. (A thane is a warrior who has been rewarded by his king with a gift of land.) They must show undivided loyalty to their lord. Only in this way can the society survive, because the world depicted in Beowulf is a ruthless and dangerous one. The warriors must be prepared for battle at all times. Only in the mead-hall is there any respite from the dangers of the world outside. As Seamus Heaney writes in his introduction to the poem: "Here [in the mead-hall] is heat and light, rank and ceremony, human solidarity and culture" (p. xv). This is why the coming of Grendel is so traumatic for the Danes. They are being attacked in their own sanctuary. Beowulf is the greatest of the heroes depicted in the poem not only because he has the greatest prowess in battle. He also perfectly fulfills his social obligations. He has the virtues of a civilized man, as well as the strength of the warrior. He looks after his people and is always gracious and kind. The following lines are typical of the way in which Beowulf is depicted:

Thus Beowulf bore himself with valor;he was formidable in battle yet behaved with honourand took no advantage; never cut down a comrade who was drunk, kept his temper and, warrior that he was, watched and controlled his God-sent strength and his outstanding natural powers. (lines 2177-83) Beowulf does not fail his people, even at the last, when as an old man he goes forward without hesitation to battle the dragon. He does what he knows he must do. In this sense he is like Hamlet in the last act of Shakespeare's play, who is finally ready to avenge the death of his father. Like Hamlet, Beowulf is determined to play out his role as it is appointed for him, whatever the cost to himself. He faces up to his destiny, his fate, without flinching. By doing so he makes himself an exemplar for not only the Geats in a long-gone heroic society, but for the modern reader too. Blood-Feuds Although Beowulf is in some respects a Christian poem, its social code emphasizes justice rather than mercy. The code of the warrior society is a simple but harsh one. It is blood for blood. If there is killing, the clan that has suffered must exact revenge. Since feuds between different clans break out regularly, the effect is to create a never-ending process of retaliation. It is this, just as much as the presence of the monsters, that gives the poem its dark atmosphere. The awareness that a feud is about to reopen supplies much of the foreboding that is apparent at the end of the poem, for example. With Beowulf their protector gone, the Geats fear that old feuds with the Swedes will be resumed, and they will be the worse for it. Various blood-feuds in the past are alluded to many times in the poem. The most vivid description is contained in the long section (lines 1070-1157) in which the minstrel sings of the saga of Finn and his sons, which is about a feud between the Frisians and the Danes. There was one other way of settling disputes in these societies, and that was through the payment of compensation in gold. This was literally the "death-price," an agreed upon price that the dead man was considered to be worth. This practice is alluded to in the lines about Grendel, who would not stop his killing, nor pay the death-price. No counsellor could ever expect fair reparation from those rabid hands. (lines 156-58) Another example is when Hrothgar pays compensation in gold to the Geats for the loss of the Geat warrior to Grendel. Christianity and Fate There are many references in the poem to the Christian belief in one almighty God who takes a personal interest in human affairs. Beowulf and Hrothgar give praise to God for the defeat of Grendel. The outcome of battles is attributed to the judgment of God, and Beowulf puts his trust in God. The scriptural references, however, are restricted to the Old Testament rather than the New. The story of Cain and Abel is mentioned, for example, in explaining the origins of Grendel. And the sword hilt of Grendel's mother is engraved with a depiction of the Flood described in the book of Genesis. But Beowulf makes no mention at all of Christ, or an afterlife in heaven for the believer. The burial rites described, in which warriors are buried with their treasure, does not suggest belief in a Christian heaven.

Scholars debate the question of how fundamental Christianity is to the poem. It does not strike anyone as a thoroughly Christian work. The atmosphere of much of Beowulf is dark and pagan. There are many references to an impersonal fate that controls the destinies of men. "Fate goes ever as fate must," (line 455) says Beowulf, only a few lines after he has referred to the judgment of God. Not long after this, when Beowulf tells of his battles with seamonsters, he says, "fate spares the man it has not already marked." He does not say God spares the man. And the poet's words, "fate, / the grim shape of things to come" (lines 1233-34) does not suggest Christian hope and joy. The two perspectives, pagan and Christian, therefore co-exist in the poem. .

Top Ten Quotes 1) They stretched their beloved lord in his boat, laid out by the mast, amidships. the great ring-giver. Far-fetched treasures were piled on him, and precious gear. (lines 34-37) The Danes give their dead lord, Shield Sheafson a royal send off. 2) In off the moors, down through the mist bands .God-cursed Grendel came greedily loping. The bane of the race of men roamed forth, hunting for prey in the high hall.(lines 710-13). 3) He has done his worst but the wound will end him. He is hasped and hooped and hirpling with pain, limping and looped in it. Like a man outlawed .for wickedness, he must await. the mighty judgement of God in majesty.(lines 974-78) Beowulf speaks after he has killed Grendel. 4) Grendel's mother,monstrous hell-bride, brooded on her wrongs. She had been forced down into fearful waters, he cold depths, after Cain had killed .his father's son, felled his own brother with a sword. (lines 1258-63) 5) A few miles from herea frost-stiffened wood waits and keeps watch above a mere; the overhanging bank is a maze of tree-roots mirrored in its surface. At night there, something uncanny happen: the water burns. (lines 1362-67) The poet describes the mere in which Grendel's mother lives. 6) It is always better to avenge dear ones than to indulge in mourning. lines 1384-85) Beowulf speaks, after Grendel's mother has killed Aeschere. 7) In pure gold inlay on the sword-guards there were rune-markings correctly incised, stating and recording for whom the sword had been first made and ornamented with its scrollworked hilt. (lines 1694-98) A description of the hilt of the sword Beowulf recovered from Grendel's mother. 8) The dragon began to belch out flames and burn bright homesteads; there was a hot glow hat scared everyone, for the vile sky-winger would leave nothing alive in his wake. (lines 2312-15) 9) Your deeds are famous,so stay resolute, my lord, defend your life now with the whole of your strength. I shall stand by you.(lines 2666-68) Wiglaf speaks to Beowulf before joining him in the fight against the dragon. 10) They said that of all the kings upon the earth he was the man most gracious and fair-minded, kindest to his people and keenest to win fame. (lines 3180-82) The Geats' tribute to Beowulf after his death.

Lines 1-98: The Danish Warrior Kings Beowulf begins with the legends of the warrior kings of the Danes. The most famous was Shield Sheafson, the founder of the ruling house. He was revered by his own subjects, and outlying clans were forced to pay tribute to him. Shield had a son named Beow, who became famous throughout the region for his exploits.

Shield died while still at the height of his powers. His warriors placed his body in a boat, piled it up with treasure, weapons and armor, and sent it out to sea. No one knows, the poet says, who salvaged all the treasure. After Shield's death, it was Beow's job to defend the Danish forts. He was well respected and ruled for a long time. He was succeeded by Halfdane, who had three sons, Heorogar, Hrothgar, and Halga, and an unnamed daughter who was married off to Onela the Swede. Hrothgar was an extremely successful king. People flocked to his service and he created a large army. He decided to build a huge hall, and intended it to be one of the wonders of the world. He called the hall Heorot. It was a magnificent, towering building. The poet states, however, that in the future it would be burned down during a battle between members of the same family.

Analysis The poet introduces the story by giving some background information about the Danish warrior kings. This a way of introducing Hrothgar, who plays an important role in the story. In 1939, archeologists discovered at Sutton Hoo, in Suffolk, England, a buried ship of treasure dating probably from the seventh century A.D. The find included a warrior's sword, a great gold buckle, silver serving vessels, and other items. It showed that warriors and kings from this period were indeed buried with their riches, just as the poet describes in the lines about the death of Shield.

Line 99-193: The Coming of Grendel But then Heorot is threatened by the appearance of a monster, a demon, who cannot bear to hear the sounds of the banquet and the songs of the harpers that come from the mead-hall. (Mead is an alcoholic drink made of fermented honey, malt, spices, and water, to which yeast has been added.) The name of the monster is Grendel. He prowls around the desolate heath and fens. He is identified as one of the clan of Cain, the Biblical character who killed his brother Abel and was made an outcast by God. At night Grendel sets off for the mead-hall. The men are all asleep following their evening's drinking. Grendel grabs thirty men and rushes back to his lair with their corpses. In the morning, the men wake and realize what has happened. They go into mourning. Hrothgar is stunned by the destruction wreaked by Grendel. The following night Grendel strikes again. He murders more men. And so it goes on. For twelve years Grendel raids and ravages the hall. The whole world hears about it. Heorot becomes deserted, except for the throne itself. As an outcast of God, Grendel is prevented from reaching it. The desperate Danes try to come up with a plan to repel Grendel's constant attacks. They make offerings to their pagan gods, since the one God of Christianity is unknown to them. But still the raids go on.

Analysis Beowulf is largely a pagan poem to which has been added elements of Christianity and three mythological monsters. The warrior society of the Danes is a preChristian one (as these lines show), but the poem was written centuries later, in

recently Christianized England, so a Christian framework has been grafted on to it. Grendel is the first of the three monsters. The poet gives him a genealogy that links him to Christian ideas about the origin of evil. This is why he is presented as being descended from Cain, who was cast out by God for having killed his brother Abel. There is no reason given for Grendel's murderous acts other than the fact that he is evil. He is cursed by God and is referred to as a demon. He therefore comes close to fulfilling the role allocated by Christianity to the devil: he is evil and he perpetually struggles against good. In the poem, the "good" are the righteous Danes under Hrothgar, and Beowulf who comes to their aid.

Lines 194-709: Beowulf Arrives to Help the Danes In Geatland (part of modern-day Sweden), the mighty King Hygelac hears about Grendel and decides to help the Danes. He enlists the best men he can find, and they set sail for Denmark. There are fourteen well-armed warriors on the boat, and an as yet unnamed leader. When they land in Denmark after a smooth voyage and disembark, the coastal lookout man of the Shieldings spots them and challenges them. Never before has he seen a group of armed men disembark so openly, without even asking permission. He comments on the noble appearance of the leader and then asks who they are, where they come from, and why. The leader of the warriors replies that they are from Geatland and owe their allegiance to King Hygelac. He identifies himself as the son of a famed warrior named Ecgtheow, and then asks for directions to their leader. He says they have come to help Hrothgar in his battle against Grendel. He says he can show Hrothgar a way to defeat his enemy. The coast-guard believes the man's words are genuine, and offers to guide the warriors to the king. He orders some of his men to guard the visitors' ship. The men march to Heorot, which is dazzling in its splendor. When they arrive, the coast-guard offers them a blessing and bids farewell. The heavily armed men enter the hall, stacking their shields against the wall. They sit on benches and place their spears in the receptacles provided. Hrothgar's herald questions them. He is impressed by their appearance. The leader responds first with his name. He is Beowulf. He asks permission to see Hrothgar in person and report on the reason for his visit. The warrior Wulfgar agrees to convey the message to Hrothgar. Wulfgar speaks to Hrothgar, and advises the king to grant Beowulf's request. Wulgar thinks the warriors are noble and worthy of respect, especially Beowulf. Hrothgar replies that he knew Beowulf when he was a young boy. He has heard great tales of his prowess, and he hopes that Beowulf will defend them from Grendel. Hrothgar promises rich rewards if Beowulf succeeds. Wulgar conveys this message, and invites Beowulf to enter and meet Hrothgar. Beowulf greets Hrothgar and explains why he has come. He gives a history of his prowess in battle and says he will take on Grendel in single combat. He also announces that since he has heard that Grendel uses no weapons, he too will use none. It will be a hand-to-hand fight, and fate will decide the outcome. Hrothgar recalls a time when he had helped to end a feud between Ecgtheow, Beowulf's father, and another warrior lord. Ecgtheow gratefully acknowledged the assistance and pledged allegiance to Hrothgar. Hrothgar goes on to tell of how many other warriors have tried and failed to defeat Grendel. He invites Beowulf to join their feast. A bench is fetched and all the Geats sit together. There is plenty of mead available, and a minstrel sings.

Then Unferth, who is envious of Beowulf, upsets the cordial atmosphere. He speaks up about a swimming contest that Beowulf once engaged in with Breca. Unferth claims that Breca won. He adds that Beowulf has no chance of defeating Grendel. Beowulf replies, giving a very different account of the epic contest, which went on for five nights. The two swimmers became separated. In rough seas Beowulf killed nine sea monsters. He was exhausted but came ashore safely on the coast of Finland. Beowulf then tells Unferth that he cannot remember any comparable fight that Unferth was in. Neither he nor Breca had much of a reputation for bravery. Beowulf tells Unferth that he will go to hell because he killed his own kinsman. Grendel knows that he is never in danger from one such as Unferth. But, Beowulf says, it will be different when Grendel encounters him, Beowulf. The banquet continues and everyone is in good spirits. Wealhtheow, Hrothgar's gracious wife, enters. She offers drinks to everyone, welcomes Beowulf, and thanks God that someone has arrived who will deliver them from their sufferings. Beowulf promises her that he will fulfill the purpose for which he came, a promise that Wealhtheow is pleased to hear. The banquet resumes happily. When it is time for Hrothgar to retire to bed, he wishes Beowulf good luck and gives him command of the hall, knowing that Grendel will strike again that night. Beowulf removes his armor and lays down his sword, which he gives to his attendant with instructions to guard it. Before he lies down to rest he boasts of his strength and fighting ability, and says he will face Grendel unarmed. The Geat warriors lie down to rest. They do not expect to see their homeland again because they know how formidable a foe Grendel is. But the narrator says that God will give them victory through the strength of one man.

Analysis This section gives many clues about the nature of the Danish society depicted in the poem. It is a warrior society. Prowess in battle is how a man makes a name for himself. This secures his status in his community and brings desired fame to himself and his king (note how in line 435 Beowulf says that his decision to fight Grendel unarmed will add to the fame of his king). The frequent detailed descriptions of armor and weapons convey the importance of war in this society, in which each clan must be prepared at all times to defend itself against its neighbors. There is a history of feuds in the region. A glimpse of this can be seen in Hrothgar's story (lines 459-472) about when he helped end a feud between Ecgtheow, Beowulf's father, and another warrior lord. Many other feuds will be mentioned in the course of the poem. The warriors owe their allegiance to their king, a warrior-lord who has also proved himself in battle. The king has obligations to protect and reward his subjects. The ideal king is as generous as he is brave. This is why Hrothgar is not only famed in battle (line 608), he is also described as "giver of rings" (line 353), meaning gold rings. The society is bound together by this two-way concept of loyalty, of a king to his warriors and the warriors to the king. This section also shows the co-existence of pagan and Christian material. Beowulf seems to express both. In line 441, he says that whoever wins the battle between him and Grendel will be due to the just judgment of God. Although this is not a specific Christian reference, it does suggest monotheism rather than allegiance to pagan gods. But then in line 455, Beowulf says, "Fate goes ever as fate must," which sounds more like a pre-Christian worldview, where the destiny of men is controlled by a mysterious, unknowable force, not the almighty, loving God of Christianity. Both these concepts recur throughout the poem.

Lines 710-1069: Beowulf's Fight with Grendel Grendel makes his way to the hall from the moors. When he arrives he forces open the door. He is ready for blood, and is gleeful when he sees all the sleeping warriors and contemplates the deaths he will inflict. But Beowulf is awake and watches Grendel's every move. Grendel strikes suddenly and gobbles one man up. He comes closer and raises a talon to attack Beowulf. A fierce fight ensues. Beowulf gets Grendel in a grip from which the monster cannot escape. Benches are smashed in the struggle. Grendel howls in pain. The monster knows he is beaten, but Beowulf refuses to let him escape alive. Other Geat warriors join in the struggle, thrusting at Grendel with their swords, although they cannot hurt him because by magic the demon has made their weapons harmless. Grendel's strength begins to fail him. Beowulf rips his shoulder off, and Grendel, fatally wounded, creeps back to his lair. The victorious Beowulf has fulfilled his promise to the Danes. In triumph he displays Grendel's severed shoulder and arm. In the morning, men come from far and wide when they hear what has happened. Grendel left a bloody trail and then dived into his den in the marshes to die. After all the visiting warriors have seen the evidence of Beowulf's feat, they depart full of praise for him. A minstrel at Hrothgar's court sings in praise of Beowulf's triumphs. The minstrel also sings of another great hero, Sigemund, who killed a dragon that guarded a great treasure. The minstrel also sings of King Heremod, who had been defeated in battle, letting his own nobles down, unlike Beowulf, who had successfully defended the land. The Danes celebrate by racing their horses. In the mead-hall, Hrothgar gives praise to God for the ending of the menace from Grendel. He also praises Beowulf, adopting him in his heart as a son, and bestowing worldly goods upon him. He has made himself immortal by his glorious actions. Beowulf then tells the story of the fight with Grendel. The warriors eye the claw of Grendel that is hanging from the eaves. It is as hard as steel, and the warriors agree that no sword blade would have been sharp enough to cut it. The badly damaged hall is repaired and the women decorate it with weavings that they hang from the walls. When the hall is ready, everyone gathers for a victory feast. Hrothgar presents Beowulf with victory gifts: a gold standard, an embroidered banner, breast-mail, a helmet, and a sword. Then he gives him eight horses and a sumptuously designed saddle. Hrothgar then presents gifts to each of Beowulf's men, and pays compensation for the one Geat warrior who was killed by Grendel.

Analysis The passage about the minstrel shows how history was preserved in such warrior societies. The minstrel is himself a historian ("a carrier of tales") who knows all the stories of the past. He is the king's poet, with an honorable position in the society. He sings of past heroes, such as Sigemund, but he also composes on the spot, to a strict format ("strict metre") the emerging story of Beowulf. Everyone sits in the mead-hall, the center of community life, and listens to the songs of the minstrel. Readers of Homer's Odyssey will recognize that the minstrel in Homeric times played a similar role. The minstrels' tales help the society to encode its ideals, remember its origins and forge its common identity. The minstrel's mention of King Heremod, in his song about Sigemund, reveals an aspect of the poet's technique in Beowulf. He makes many contrasts between pairs

of characters, often to make a moral point about right and wrong, about those who fulfill their social responsibilities and those who do not. Here, Heremod behaved unwisely and was defeated in battle, letting his own nobles down. He is compared unfavorably to Beowulf, the warrior who successfully defended the land

Lines 1070-1157: The Saga of Finn and His Sons The minstrel sings about the saga of Finn and his sons. Hildeburth, a Danish princess married to Finn, the Frisian king, lost both her son and her brother in a battle at Finn's hall with the Danes. The battle was indecisive, and a truce was called. Under an agreement, the remaining Danes were to be quartered at the Frisians' hall; Finn agreed to honor the Danes with tribute, treating them as equals with the Frisians and their allies, the Jutes. A funeral pyre was built and the corpses from the battle were burnt. That winter the Danes lived uneasily with the Frisians. They were homesick and resentful, and they also wanted revenge. When spring came they renewed the feud. Finn was killed and his home looted, and Hildeburh his widow was taken back to Denmark.

Analysis This is one of several digressions in the poem. It gives more insight into the many feuds that took place between the different clans in the region. It also shows how such feuds might be settled, and how they tended to break out again before long.

Lines 1158-1250: More Gifts for Beowulf After the minstrel finishes his song, the feast resumes. Hrothgar's queen, Wealhtheow, tells her husband to enjoy his good fortune, and encourages him to bequeath his kingdom after his death to his nephew, Hrothulf, who is a good man and will not let them down. More gifts are presented to Beowulf, including a torque (necklace or collar) of gold. Beowulf will eventually pass this necklace on to King Hygelac, who will die in battle wearing it. Wealhtheow tells Beowulf to wear the torque for luck. She tells him that he has won fame far and wide, and she wishes him a lifetime's luck and blessings. She tells him also to look after her two sons, Hrethric and Hrothmund, who are sitting on either side of Beowulf. The feast over, the warriors prepare for bed. They place their armor close by them, since they must always be ready for action.

Analysis The lavish gift-giving and frequent allusions to triumphs in battle reveal the core values of the heroic society. The bestowing of gifts is vital because it represents gratitude and mutual loyalty. The gifts are signs of social status and are passed down to the recipient's descendants. The extent to which life in this society revolves around martial values is apparent from the passage in which the warriors sleep with their armor close at hand: It was their habit always and everywhere to be ready for action,

at home or in the camp, in whatever case and at whatever time the need arose. (Lines 1246-1249) When they are called into action, their rallying round their lord defines them as a "right people," since in that solidarity and loyalty lie their best hopes of survival as a group.

Lines 1251-1382: Grendel's Mother Attacks The Danes are soon to find that their triumph is not yet complete. Another danger lurks. Grendel's mother, who lives deep in the waters, is grief-stricken by her son's death, and seeks revenge. As the Danes sleep, Grendel's mother comes to Heorot. She pounces on Aeschere, Hrothgar's most trusted friend, with the intention of taking him back to the fens. Beowulf is not in the hall because he has been given a different lodging. Grendel's mother snatches Grendel's claw. There is turmoil in Heorot as the news spreads. Beowulf is urgently summoned to Hrothgar. Hrothgar mourns the death of Aeschere, and knows that Grendel's mother has struck in order to avenge her son. He tells Beowulf what he has heard from his advisers about those two monsters. Grendel's mother looks vaguely like a woman. The country people say the ancestry of Grendel and his mother is hidden in a past of demons and ghosts. No one really knows where they come from. Then Hrothgar tells of a haunted mere, where at night the water burns. No man knows how deep it is. Even animals will not go below the surface of the mere. In storms, it throws up columns of dirty water to the sky. That is where Grendel's mother lives, and Hrothgar asks Beowulf, if he dares, to go there and kill her. He will be well rewarded if he succeeds.

Analysis As in the earlier episode with Grendel, mythology and fairy-tale take over the narrative here. Other parts of the epic allude to historical events and give clues to the nature of the warrior society, but the two monsters (as later the dragon) belong only to folklore. However, as he did in his initial description of Grendel, the poet tries to bridge the gap between the folklore element and the Biblical framework he has chosen for the epic. He does this by emphasizing once more that Grendel and his mother are the offspring of Cain, who killed his brother Abel, as the Book of Genesis tells. To make clear that the struggle between Beowulf and the monsters is one of good against evil in a Christian context, he points out-harping back to the earlier episode-that Beowulf overcame Grendel through his faith in God (lines 1271-73).

Lines 1383-1631: Beowulf's Fight with Grendel's Mother Beowulf replies that he will immediately set forth on this new task. He says he will not allow the monster to escape, and he encourages Hrothgar not to lose heart. They saddle the horses and Hrothgar, Beowulf and some of his men go off in pursuit, following the monster's tracks in the forest paths, across the moors and on difficult terrain. At the foot of a cliff, near the monster's sea-den, they find the head of Aeschere. The water of the mere is full of reptiles, and sea-dragons and other monsters slouch on the slopes of the cliff. Beowulf and his men attack and kill many of them. Beowulf arms himself for the underwater fight. Unferth, who is not courageous enough to fight the monster himself, gives Beowulf his rare and ancient sword

named Hrunting. Beowulf speaks to Hrothgar, asking him to take care of his men should he, Beowulf, not survive the battle. He also asks that the gifts Hrothgar bestowed on him should be sent to his king, Hygelac, and that the sword he is about to use should be returned to Unferth. With that, Beowulf dives into the lake. It takes him nearly a day to reach the bottom. From her lair, the monster senses the presence of a human. She grips Beowulf hard, but his armor saves him from injury. But she drags him to her lair. He is attacked by sea beasts. When they reach her lair, Beowulf manages to swing his sword at her, it lands on her head. But it fails to do any damage. Without losing heart, he flings his sword away. He grips the monster and throws her to the floor. She gets up and grips him again, and as they grapple, Beowulf stumbles and falls. Grendel's mother pounces on him with a knife. But again Beowulf's armor saves him, deflecting the blade. Beowulf manages to get to his feet again, and he grabs a huge sword from her armoury. He swings it and it cuts into her neck, severing the bone. The monster topples to the floor; Beowulf's sword drips blood. Beowulf then uses it to cut off the head of the monster's corpse. Above the lake, the watching warriors see the water fill with blood, and they assume that Beowulf has been killed. Hrothgar and his men go home, but the fourteen Geat warriors stay on, hoping against hope that Beowulf has survived. Beowulf returns to the surface carrying the hilt of the sword and the monster's head. His men rejoice to see him.

Analysis The first lines of this section reveal much about the social codes of the heroic society. Beowulf says, "It is always better / to avenge dear ones than to indulge in mourning" (lines 1384-85). Avenging a death is the best way for a hero to win glory. It is well to remember that although there are Christian elements in the poem, they all refer to the Old Testament rather than the New. The forgiveness of sins as taught by Christ is absent. The law of the heroic code is an eye for an eye. The lengthy descriptions of the formidable armor are familiar from earlier passages. Weapons are considered so important they are even given names and their owners boast of their history. Unferth's "rare and ancient" sword, for example, is named Hrunting. Readers familiar with Homer's Iliad will recall similar attitudes to weaponry expressed in that epic poem. Beowulf's fight with Grendel's mother is a much tougher battle than his earlier fight with Grendel. This seems appropriate. It is as if Beowulf is now having to track evil to its source, in the murky depths of water. The fairy-tale elements are strong herethe hero is able to hold his breath under water for nearly a day, which is how long it takes him to reach the bottom of the lake. But the poet has not forgotten his Christianity either. Beowulf wins because God gives him victory.

Lines 1632-1887: Beowulf Returns in Triumph to Heorot The warriors make their way home. It takes four men to hoist the head of Grendel's mother on a spear and bear it back to Heorot. At the mead-hall, everyone is shocked by the sight of the head. They stare at it in horror. Beowulf tells of the battle, and attributes his success to the help God gave him. He pledges that the Danes can now sleep in their hall without fear, and presents the sword-hilt to Hrothgar. Hrothgar studies the hilt. It is engraved with scenes from the Old Testament. It is also marked with the name of the warrior for whom it was first made. Hrothgar then repeats his promise of friendship to Beowulf, and contrasts the Geat with the bad

king Heremod. God had given Heremod power, but he had misused it, killing his own men, ceasing to give gifts, and bringing destruction to his own people. Hrothgar then goes on to speak of the dangers of power. After God rewards a man with power and happiness, that man sometimes becomes prideful and complacent. He starts to covet what he does not have and becomes resentful. He gives no gifts to his people. Then when he dies the treasure he has hoarded is inherited by someone else who dispenses it more liberally. Hrothgar warns Beowulf to be wary of this trap and not give way to pride. He must remember that his strength will not last long. Soon illness, old age or the sword will take it from him. He gives an example from his own life. He ruled for fifty years and believed he had defeated all his enemies. But then came Grendel and his life changed from pleasure to grief. The banquet takes place and then the warriors retire to bed. The following morning, Beowulf and his men are ready to depart. Beowulf expresses his appreciation to Hrothgar for how well they have been treated, and says that if he can ever perform another favor for him, he will do it swiftly. He will be Hrothgar's ally in war, and is confident that Hygelac, the Geat king, will support him. Hrothgar thanks Beowulf and says that if Hygelac should die, Beowulf would make an excellent king of the Geats. Hrothgar promises to preserve the new friendship between Danes and Geats, even though there has been hatred between them in the past. Beowulf is presented with more gifts, and Hrothgar, realizing that he will never see Beowulf again, is overcome with emotion.

Analysis Hrothgar develops in more detail the contrast that was made earlier by the minstrel (lines 900 -914), in which the good warrior Beowulf is favorably compared to the bad warrior/king Heremod. Heremod was blessed with great power, but forgot his side of the bargain, that he must be generous to his nobles and uphold the traditions of his society. His people suffered as a result. The poet's purpose in inserting didactic passages such as this was no doubt to impress upon his listeners the contrast between right and wrong action and encourage them to choose the right. The importance of such choices is apparent from Hrothgar's story about how during his fifty-year reign he had to defend his tribe against constant assaults by many enemies (lines 1769-72). Since life is so perilous, the tribe's best chance of survival lay in each man fulfilling his obligations as tradition dictated. Throughout this section, and indeed throughout the poem, Beowulf is shown acting in an exemplary fashion. He is beyond reproach, even in the smallest of things. For example, when he returns Unferth's sword, which had failed him in the battle, he tells Unferth how useful it had been. He does not blame the sword for failing him. As the poet says, "He was a considerate man."

Lines 1888-2199: Beowulf Returns to Geatland The Geats march back to the shore and load up their ships. They give a sword with gold fittings to the man who had guarded the ships. Then they set sail from Denmark and arrive safely in Geatland, where they immediately head for Hygelac's stronghold on a cliff. It is a magnificent building, and Hygelac's wife, Hygd, is an ideal queen. The poet contrasts Hygd, who does what is expected of her, with the story of Queen Modthryrh, who was her opposite. She would condemn , to torture and death a servant who looked at her directly in the face, or any man other than her

husband who stared at her. But Modthryrh improved after her marriage to Offa, a king of the Angles. She became famous for her good deeds. Beowulf and his men arrive at Hygelac's hall. Hygelac greets Beowulf warmly and wants to hear all Beowulf's stories of his travels. He had not wanted Beowulf to go to help the Danes, and dreaded the outcome. So now he is especially glad that Beowulf has returned safely home. Beowulf tells of what happened after he arrived in Denmark. He has nothing but praise for the hospitality of Hrothgar and his queen. He also mentions Freawaru, Hrothgar's daughter, and her proposed marriage to Ingeld, of the house of Heathobard. The marriage is to pay for the Danes' killing of a prince in a feud, but Beowulf fears that there may still be bloodshed over the matter. He imagines what will happen when the Danes attend the wedding, wearing the spoils they looted after the battle in which the Heathobards were defeated. The young Heathobards will be stirred up, and there will be more deadly violence. The violence will escalate, Ingeld will no longer love his bride and the old feud between Danes and Heathobards will be resumed. Beowulf then returns to the story of his fight with Grendel. He adds a detail not mentioned before. Grendel had a pouch made out of dragon skins at the ready. He wanted to cram all his victims into it. Beowulf recalls the gifts bestowed on him, and the feast at Heorot, when a minstrel sang stories accompanied by the harp. Then he recalls Grendel's mother, and how he defeated her. He tells of the extra gifts presented to him, which he now presents to Hygelac. He reveals that the gift of the war-gear indicated Hrothgar's special favor, since it had belonged to his older brother, King Heorogar. Beowulf then hands over four horses, to the approval of the narrator, who lauds Beowulf for behaving like an ideal prince and kinsman. Beowulf also presents Hygd with the necklace that Wealhtheow had given him, as well as three horses. The narrator praises Beowulf's character. He is courageous and honorable, the possessor of every virtue. This marks a change in how he had been perceived before his adventures in Denmark. He had then been regarded as a weakling. But this judgment is now reversed. Hygelac presents Beowulf with a sword and a large amount of land.

Analysis The way of life at the court of King Hygelac of the Geats is largely the same that of Hrothgar's Danes. It is the same warrior code, the safe haven of the mead-hall, with the obligations of gift-giving placed on the king; also the loyalty of the warrior to hand over his treasure to the king. the same outbreak of feuds and their violent settlement. Just as in earlier passages, Heremod was contrasted with Beowulf, this section presents another pairing. Queen Hygd, who fulfils her appointed role to perfection, is contrasted with the failings of Queen Modthryrh

Lines 2200-2396: A Dragon Wakes Beowulf rules the Geats wisely for fifty years. He inherits the throne after Hygelac, and later his son, Heardred, fall in battle. (Heardred's story is told later.) A dragon that guards buried treasure is angered when a slave, fleeing from his master, accidentally stumbles on his lair. The dragon was asleep, and the slave stole a goblet. He had not intended to steal, but was so shocked when he saw the dragon he panicked and ran off with the goblet. An old warrior had buried the treasure a long time ago. All his companions had been killed in war, and he had nothing left to live for.

The dragon, who was driven to search out and guard such hoards, discovered the buried treasure. He has been protecting it for three hundred years and is furious when he discovers the theft. He hunts without success for the thief, and plots his revenge. At night, he wreaks havoc on the people far and wide, leaving nothing alive after his attacks. Before daybreak, he returns to his lair. The dragon also attacks and destroys Beowulf's home. When Beowulf hears the bad news he falls into deep distress. He feels he must have sinned against God to have deserved such misfortune. Plotting his revenge against the dragon, he orders the construction of an all-iron shield. He does not fear the dragon, and refuses to take a large army with him. He has, after all, always triumphed in the past. In a brief flashback, the poet recalls how, through his prodigious swimming ability, Beowulf escaped from the battle in which Hygelac was killed. Queen Hygd offered him the throne, since she had no faith in the ability of her son, Heardred, to defend the kingdom. But Beowulf turned down the offer, and supported Heardred as the new king. But then raiders from Sweden, led by Onela, arrived. Although Heardred offered them hospitality, they killed him. Beowulf then ascended to the throne. He avenged the death of Heardred by forming an alliance with the Eadgils. In the ensuing military campaign, Beowulf killed Onela.

Analysis Mythology intrudes on history again with the coming of this fifty-foot fire-breathing dragon. This is the third and last great challenge for Beowulf, and it reveals the structure of the epic. The poem is about evenly divided between these three episodes involving different kinds of monsters, and they loosely follow the same structure: the ravages of the demon and its awful strength are described, as are the effects on the human communities. Beowulf then comes to the rescue, the fight itself is described at length, as is the aftermath of the struggle. There is a difference between the two Grendel monsters and the dragon. Grendel and his mother have vaguely human forms, and Grendel at least is pure evil. There is no reason for his attacks. The other two monsters are goaded into action because they have suffered a wrong. Grendel's mother wants to avenge the death of her son, and the dragon, who quietly minded his own business for centuries, goes on the rampage because a thief stole some of the treasure he was guarding.

Lines 2397-2820: Beowulf Fights the Dragon Now Beowulf must face the dragon. He takes eleven men with him, as well as the reluctant slave, since he is the only one who knows the location of the dragon's den. Beowulf sits on a cliff-top, sensing that this will be his last battle and that he will be killed. He recalls his early life. At the age of seven he was sent by his father as a ward at King Hrethel's court, where he was well treated. There was tragedy in the house, though. Hrethal's eldest son, Herebeald, was accidentally killed by his brother, Haethcyn, with an arrow. Hrethel was devastated by his son's death, which could be compensated for by an act of revenge, as would normally have been the case. Heartbroken, he ceased to want to live, and soon died. Beowulf then tells of the wars between the Swedes and the Geats, which began after Hrethel's death. The Swedes, led by the sons of Ongentheow, refused to make peace and frequently ambushed the Geats. The Geats in turn took their revenge, although their king, Haethcyn, was killed. Eventually, Hygelac avenged the death of his brother Haethcyn by killing Ongentheow.

As a loyal subject of Hygelac, Beowulf was rewarded with gifts and land, and always fought bravely. He recalls how he killed Dayraven the Frank with his bare hands. He says that now he will fight again if the dragon will forsake his lair and meet him in the open. Then he turns to his warrior companions. He says he would sooner not use a weapon, but because of the heat from the fire the dragon breathes forth, he will put on a mail-shirt and carry a shield. He tells his men to remain where they are. This is his battle alone, and he will either be victorious or die. He goes down to the dragon's den, which gives out deadly heat, and shouts out a challenge to the dragon. The fight begins. Beowulf slashes at the dragon with his sword but it does little damage. It is the first time his sword has failed him. The dragon recovers from the blow and counter-attacks. Beowulf's men are frightened and run away, except for Wiglaf. When he sees his king tormented by the heat of his own helmet, he cannot hold back. He is young and this is the first time he has been tested in battle. He takes his shield and an ancient sword that has been handed down to him by his father and prepares to enter the fray. He speaks to the other warriors, telling them that their lord needs help. He remembers how good Beowulf has been to them all. He gave them gifts and picked them out of the army as being worthy of this great enterprise. Wiglaf says he would rather die in battle than go home without slaying the enemy and defending his king's life. Wiglaf calls out to Beowulf that he will stand with him. The dragon hears him and attacks again. Wiglaf's shield is burned to ashes, and Beowulf protects him with his own. Beowulf aims his sword with all his strength at the dragon's skull. But the sword snaps. The dragon attacks for a third time. He clamps his fangs around Beowulf's neck. Wiglaf thrusts his sword into the dragon's belly. Then Beowulf thrusts his knife deep into the dragon's flank. This is the death blow. But Beowulf is also mortally wounded. He sits down on the rampart, and Wiglaf bathes his wounds. Beowulf knows he is close to death. He thinks back on his life, and is satisfied because he knows that he always acted rightly. He tell Wiglaf to go and get the dragon's treasure; he wants to examine it. Wiglaf does as he is asked, and finds the treasure trove. He gathers it up and returns to Beowulf, hoping to find his leader still alive. Beowulf is still alive, but he is bleeding profusely. When he sees the treasure he gives thanks to God that he has been able to leave his people so well provided for. He orders that after his body has been cremated, a barrow be constructed for him on a headland on the coast. (A barrow is a mound of earth marking a grave.) It will remind his people of him, and be called "Beowulf's Barrow." He removes the gold collar from his neck and gives it to Wiglaf. Then he dies.

Analysis Beowulf shows himself to be a true hero because he does not fall into despair, even at the approach of death. He shows that performing his duty as a king is more important to him than his own life. He lives and dies by the values he believes in. The bravery of Wiglaf is contrasted not only with the cowardice of the other warriors, but also with that of Unferth in the fight with Grendel's mother. (Unferth lent Beowulf his sword rather than do battle himself.) Wiglaf fulfills his responsibilities because he remembers the gifts and favors he has received from Beowulf. He lives up to the honor of the heroic code, while the other warriors find it convenient to forget. Before he describes how Wiglaf jumps into battle, the poet is also careful to describe Wiglaf's sword in detail-who owned it before, how it came down to Wiglaf.

The sword, its prowess and its history, are vital for the heroic society, because it is the chief means by which the society maintains itself. It is as sacred to their society as, say, the bal lot box is to a modern democracy.

Lines 2821-3182: Beowulf's Funeral Pyre It is hard for Wiglaf to watch his king die. The poet says that few warriors could have held out and killed the dragon as Beowulf had done. The warriors who had fled now return, ashamed. Wiglaf tries to revive Beowulf with water, but he can do nothing because God has decreed that Beowulf should die. Wiglaf rebukes the other warriors. He says that when Beowulf gave them gifts and the best armor he had, he was just throwing weapons away, because these men were of no use when a battle broke out. Wiglaf says that when he went to help Beowulf, he felt new strength welling up in him. He then predicts a grim future for the Geats. They will lose everything as soon as princes from other lands learn what cowards they are. A messenger takes the news of Beowulf's death to the crowd of retainers that are waiting at the top of the cliff. He also tells them that soon there will be war with the Franks and the Frisians, who have been enemies of the Geats since the Geat king Hygelac raided their lands. Nor, says the messenger, with there be any peace with the Swedes, with whom the Geats have a history of enmity. The Swede Ongentheow once cornered a Geat force and threatened to annihilate it, until Hygelac arrived with a relief force. In the ensuing battle, Ongentheow was struck by Wulf, and then killed by Wulf's brother, Eofor. The Geats were victorious. When they returned home, Hygelac gave Wulf and Eofor gifts worth a fortune, as well as land. The messenger is convinced that the feud with the Swedes will continue when the Swedes hear of Beowulf's death. He then says they must go to prepare the royal funeral pyre, burning the body of Beowulf with much treasure. Going to the scene of the battle, they find the dragon lying on the ground facing Beowulf. The dragon is fifty feet long. The riches he guarded are piled up beside him. Wiglaf ponders Beowulf's fate. Nothing had been able to stop Beowulf meeting his destiny. The treasure has been retrieved, but the price paid is high. Wiglaf then reports on Beowulf's last wishes, that a barrow be built in a commanding position, as a memorial to him. Wiglaf says they are to look once more on the hoard of treasure and then make a bier for Beowulf. He gives orders for the funeral pyre, and selects seven warriors to go with him to collect the remainder of the treasure. They throw the dragon over the cliff-top. The Geats build a funeral pyre for Beowulf and place his body in the middle of it. The pyre is lit. A Geat woman sings out in grief for Beowulf. She fears the disasters that may happen to the Geats now that Beowulf is gone. The Geats construct a mound on a headland. In ten days the work is done. They bury in the barrow much of the treasure they found. Twelve warriors ride around the tomb, chanting dirges. They praise Beowulf's heroic nature and his exploits. The Geats mourn for Beowulf, the most gracious and kind of all the kings on earth, and the most eager to win fame.

Analysis Beowulf ends on an ominous note. There is a sense that an era has passed for the Geats, and that the future is grim and uncertain: "So it is goodbye now to all you know and love" (line 2884), says Wiglaf to the other warriors.

The end of the epic mirrors the beginning, in that it deals with the death of a revered king and describes burial rites. There are some marked differences, however. The body of Shield Sheafson was put out to sea in a boat, while Beowulf was cremated and his ashes buried under a barrow. Perhaps the Geats had different funeral rites than the Danes, or perhaps customs had changed in the four generations that separated the two heroes. But in death, the two kings did at least have one thing in common: they were both dispatched with their treasure.