French Revolution And Napoleon

FRENCH REVOLUTION Old Regime (aka Ancient Regime, the political and social system in France and the period before the French Revolution) had 3 classes: 1.) First Estate - higher and lower clergy 2.) Second Estate - higher and lower nobility 3.) Third Estate - the bourgeoisie, middle lass, city workers, peasants, commoners First Estate - provided religious services, operated schools and helped the poor - special privilege: did not pay tax to the government gave a yearly gift - luxurious life: collected tax from the peasants Higher Clergy - archbishops, bishops, and abbots (head of monasteries) - only nobles were given this position - some members of the clergy had great political power Lower Clergy - parish priests from middle and lower classes who lived in poverty - resented the luxurious lives of the clergy - sympathetic to the concerns of the people Second Estate - held the highest offices in the Church, the government, and the army - some nobles owned large estates but did not pay taxes - acquired great wealth from their feudal lands - received produce and money from the peasants living in their lands; the reason the peasants still paid taxes was because they were still under the lord’s bakeshop(?) - not all are rich because estates are run-down due to the wars in France - nobles tried to regain their power from the king’s absolute rule, thus expanding their privileges despite the poor Third Estate - though they were not serfs, they were still living in a feudal society - called for reform, wanted a fairer tax system and an end to feudalism City workers - also lived in poverty - consisted of laborers in small-scale industries and artisans Reasons of Poverty: - unable to support families in their farms - old fashioned agriculture method = food shortage - bad harvest caused food shortage and higher prices of goods - heavy taxation to both the Church and the King Middle Class - unlike Third Estate, the bourgeoisie had money, education and opportunities to achieve ambitions - did not have privilege, hence they could not hold any high positions in the army, government and the Church

-

once been able to buy some government. positions that gave them titles of nobility but was hindered by the old nobility influenced by the philosophers of the Enlightenment period who challenged the basic idea of the Old Regime – that monarchs, clergy, and nobility were the natural leaders of society attracted to Locke’s idea of equality and liberty

France Faces Bankruptcy Causes: - King Louis XIV left debts created by wars - Emptied the royal treasury when helping the Americans in their Revolution - Both Louis XV and Louis XVI borrowed heavily from bankers for their own benefit Effects: - unable to pay debts due to unfair taxation system - came up a conclusion to tax the First Estate(clergy) and the Second Estate(nobility), but they refused - led to the revolution French Revolution Achieves Reforms - All these groups resented the nobility’s wealth and influence but each group had a different motive: 1.) The bourgeoisie revolted because the social system kept them from having power in the state; wanted to hold power, while the political system suppressed liberty 2.) The peasants revolted against taxation and feudalism 3.) The city workers/poor people revolted to escape poverty and the hope to reform Meeting of the Esates-General - an assembly of 3 delegates from each Estates CAUSE: Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates General to agree on the taxation of the clergy and nobility - Instead, nobles used this opportunity to weaken the king’s power, protect their privileges, and control the government - Met at Versailles but it was not successful because of the unfair voting procedures - Nobles and clergy wanted the Estate-General to cast its vote as a body whereas the common people wanted everyone to vote individuall EFFECT: The Third Estate established the National Assembly in order to bring reform to France National Assembly CAUSE: The Third Estate wanted to bring reform to France - The Third Estate’s delegates decided to force the Estates to meet as one body, thus inviting the First and Second Estates to meet with them - Urged by the nobles, Louis XIV ordered the three estates to meet separately - The Third Estate were locked at their meeting place, so they moved to the palace’s indoor tennis court - Will not disband unless they have achieved their goal (to bring reform to France) - Comte de Mirabeau, a nobleman and spokesperson told the king’s messenger that the delegates would leave only ‘at the point of bayonets’

EFFECT: Louis XVI finally gave in and ordered all nobility and clergy to join the Third Estate in the National Assembly - The king’s recognition of the National Assembly served as the first victory for the bourgeoisie The Storming of Bastille (Parisians aka peasants) - bourgeoisie had the upper hand, but still had to overcome the resistance of the king and nobles in order to enact reforms - court nobles persuaded the King to send troops into Paris and Versailles, however, this spread the rebellion and brought upon the first violence of the revolution CAUSE: food shortages, unemployment and high prices of goods - feared that the soldiers would crush the National Assembly, so they gathered arms, guns and gunpowder to prepare themselves from the troops - The Parisians massed outside a fortress that had long been used as a prison and had become a hated symbol of oppression to the Parisians - Some soldiers sided with the Parisians EFFECT: many Parisians died - many Parisians also stormed into the fortress and killed the commander - the King withdrew his troops out of fear of the citizens and city militia of Paris - nobles fled from the country (thus, earning the title émigrés) to seek for aid Peasants Revolt - peasant upheaval is called the “Great Fear” CAUSE: spirit of rebellion were among the poor and uprisings broke out EFFECT: peasants burned the lords’ manors and destroyed feudal obligations; without these written records, the lords cannot demand payments from the peasants - middle class landowners and prosperous farmers also lost their homes and property to the rebelling peasants End of -

Feudalism nobles realize that the Old Regime is becoming ineffective nobles gave up their feudal rights in the National Assembly The National Assembly issued a declaration of rights, the ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen’ which was inspired by the American Revolution: followed the Enlightenment ideas, recognized the dignity of the citizens, and if recognized, ended the abuses in a new society - Put the August 4 decrees into action EFFECT: marked the end of feudalism and unfair taxation - serfdom ended, along with the Church’s special privileges and noble’s rights - the constitution would limit the king’s power, thus the development of a constitutional monarchy Women’s March to Versailles - since aristocratic families are fleeing, unemployment rates for the women grew worse - Parisian women made their living by making hats and dresses for noblewomen

CAUSE: Parisian women rallied to Versailles to protest the shortage of bread and high food prices - Thought that the nobles were keeping the food to themselves - Wanted the King and Queen to go back to Paris to deal with the food crisis National Assembly: 5 Major Reforms 1.) Equality and Individual Rights - The Third Estate gained equality, the clergy and the nobility lost their special privileges - All offices were open to all citizens regardless of birth - Based upon the ‘natural rights’ of liberty and equality - Followed the ides of Enlightenment, affirming the dignity of the individual and stating that government belonged to the people as a whole 2.) Government administration - divided France into departments, which had elected officials - land ownership: took land from the Church nobles who fled; land was sold to the peasants 3.) Church Influence - attempted to put the Church under state control, meaning bishops and priests were to be elected by popular vote and paid by the government - members of the clergy and French Catholics opposed to this, and the reformers lost support 4.) Aid to business - abolished taxes or goods transported within France - approval of the metric system Constitutional government 5.) Constitutional government - the Constitution of 1791 set up a new law-making body, the Legislative Assembly - to vote for representatives to the assembly, a male had to pay a certain amount of taxes - women could not vote or hold office Reaction of Revolution - brought about sympathetic and hostile reactions in other countries - In England, Edmund Bruke denounced the French revolutionaries, fearing that the violent changes in France would cause total disaster and tyranny in his Reflections on the Revolution in France - Thomas Paine, an American writer, defended the French and claimed that monarchy produced tyrannical rulers in his pamphlet The Rights of Man - Another response to Bruke was Mary Wollstonecraft, an English political writer who wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Man - The Constitution gave women no political rights - Many women had taken part in the events in the Revolution, some hoping for a share in the ‘equality’ promised in the Declaration of the Rights of Man - These women urged better education, marriage and divorce laws, and inclusion of women on juries - In Paris, Rose Lacombe founded a women’s political group supporting the principles of the Revolution - Olympe de Gouges created her own declaration of rights by writing Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of Women Citizens, which lead to her execution

-

Mary Wollstonecraft stated in A Vindication of the Rights of Women that the rights of man should be extended to women

Revolution enters 2nd Stage - The Constitution of 1791 marked the end of the first stage of the French Revolution - Most of middle class and peasants were satisfied with the changes brought by the Revolution - Bourgeoisie put an end to the special privileges of the nobility, a limitation on the king’s powers, and a chance to participate in governments - However, there were still those who believed that more changes were needed - Led to the second stage which involved much of Europe as well as violence Radicals want to End Monarchy - the radical, or the most extreme revolutionaries wanted no king, not even one with limited power; they wanted France to become a republic - comprised of sans-culottes, or the common people of lower working class(wage earners and small shopkeepers); gained only few benefits even with their important role in the Revolution - “Let no one have more than one workshop, more than one store.” – ideal of the sans-culottes - supported the abolition of all privileges of authority, price control implementation and raising of wages - the bourgeoisie saw them as a threat to private property and the bourgeois control of the government Radicals Have The Advantage - the attempted flight of the royal family helped the Radicals take control of the French Revolution - the French favored Louis XVI, but not the queen – Marie Antoinette, because she of her Austrian birth and her extravagant, frivolous court life (Mother was Maria Theresa, the Hapsburg ruler of Austria; Father was the Holy Roman Emperor Francis I; Brothers were Holy Roman Emperors Joseph I and Leopold II.) - Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and their four-year-old son Louis slipped out of the palace, disguised as middle class citizens to escape to the Austrian-held Netherlands - King was recognized, arrested by guards and was forced to return to Paris - When they reached the city, they were no longer respected by the people - King’s subjects lost faith in him and took back their support - Royal family was suspected to be plotting with Austria and the emigres nobles who took refuge there and asked for Austrian aid France Wages War on Austria and Prussia - French revolutionaries feared that Austria was preparing to support the émigré nobles in a counterrevolution – a movement to restore the old way of government - Began to talk of spreading ‘a war of the people against kings’ - French were also scared of foreign nations - Austria and Prussia start to invade France - The two countries threatened to destroy Paris if the king and queen were harmed -> Parisians were enraged and rioted -> imprisoned the King by the Commune, a temporary radical government

-

The Commune seized control and held elections to choose representatives for a new assembly

Revolution Moves into a Radical Stage - the newly elected National Convention had their 1st meeting in Sept. 1792 - 1st act was to end the monarchy and declare France a republic - the radical members saw the royal family as a threat; executed Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette in the guillotine, while Louis died in prison at the age of 10 - the establishment of a republic and the execution of the king and queen – ‘the Second French Revolution’ - Republican leaders offer to help liberate people in other countries in an attempt to spread their revolutionary reforms - French troops drove out Austrian-Prussian soldiers and conquered AustrianNetherlands - Other European monarchs felt threatened by this and decided to ally with Austria Prussia - Countries: British, Netherlands, Spain and Sardinia French Republic Plunged into Crisis - as food prices were high, Parisians looted stores - French clergy and nobles led a counterrevolutionary movement with the aid of the peasants who objected to the changes forced on the Catholic Church - There were war conflicts in France, between the revolutionaries and counterrevolutionaries - Jacobins – radical group and political club - Jacobins and other radicals formed a strong minority to the National Convention called ‘The Mountain’ because its members occupied seats in the highest part of the assembly hall - Most prominent Jacobins: Georges Danton and Maximilien Robespierre (both lawyers) - Jean-Paul Marat – extreme in his beliefs and an editor of a revolutionary newspaper - More moderate members of the Convention were the Girondists, whose supporters were mainly from other parts of France The Committee to Public Safety - Jacobins established the Committee of Public Safety to keep their popular support and help France survive their crisis - The CPS had almost a dozen men with unlimited power - Regulated the prices and supply of bread of other essential goods to help the poor - Planned to regulate small industries to produce weapons - Called the whole of France to take part in war; everyone had a role/duty - Women – worked in hospitals and sew tents and uniforms - Children – collected bandages - Elderly – make speeches to arouse patriotism - New French army had one million men, united by their loyalty to the Republic More Reforms - Jacobins drew up a new constitution:

-

1.) declared the purpose of a government to be the protection of the welfare and rights to all citizens 2.) outlawed slavery in French colonies 3.) eliminated imprisonment and debts 4.) made plans to provide education for boys and girls 5.) gave all men the right to vote and work, but did not grant political rights to women new constitution was never put into effect because of the emergency caused by the war

Reign of Terror - Robespierre hated the Old Regime and wanted a new and better society in which all people are free, equal and educated - Jacobins set up a ‘tribunal’ or court to execute or arrest those who disagree politically in an attempt to make the Republic safe and secure - Massive execution – 20,00 to 40,000 between Sept. 1793 to July 1974 - Robespierre dominated the CPS and became the symbol of the Reign of Terror - Claimed more victims that even leaders didn’t feel safe - Danton and other politicians were executed for attempting to stop the Terror - Members of the National Convention arranged for Robespierre’s arrest; executed him and his followers to the guillotine Moderate Leaders Take Over - fall of Robespierre ended the Terror and restored control of the government to more moderate leaders - moderate leaders wanted no more of the Jacobins - 1795 – new constitution adopted a Republic headed by a committee of 5 men, called the Directory - only property owners were allowed to vote, and 5 directors suppressed uprising by the sans-culottes and supporters of monarchy - Directory was a weak government -> made no attempt to halt the discontentment among the French people Effects of French Revolution - transformed French society - ended feudalism, absolute monarchy, and special privileges of nobles and clergy - sparked the idea of nationalism - made an impact on other European nations - bourgeoisie gained political power to become the most important class in France - the written constitution guaranteed individual rights – trial by jury, freedom of religion and speech, and of the press NAPOLEON BONAPARTE - because the government of the Directory was weak and the French were tired of war, a group of politicians staged a coup to overthrow the Directory and install a popular general as the head of the French government - Napoleon was born in Italy, Corsica - Went to military school in France to become an officer

-

Joined the French revolutionary forces and showed great talent for planning and leadership Through him, French troops were able to win several crucial battles making him a hero; he was given command to fight the Sardinians and Austrians in Italy, forcing the Austrians to seek peace Led an expedition to Egypt to establish a strategic base for striking at Britain in both Africa and India, but failed However, he established French influence in Egypt – French scholars studied arts and history of ancient Egypt and discovered the Rosetta Stone Believed that a government should only have one capable ruler, which was him

The Consulate - when he returned to France, Napoleon became part of a plot to replace the Directory alongside Abbé Sieyès(a clergyman) -> made them resign - France was to remain a Republic under the new government, the Consulate, which had 3 officials called the consuls (based on Ancient Rome) - instead of Abbé Sieyès , Napoleon became the First Consul and concentrated power in his own hands As Dictator - remarkable organizer and politician, outstanding military leader - knew how to win and keep the support of all diff. classes of people in France: 1.) bourgeoisie – acquired positions in army and government 2.) middle class – promoting trade and industry, and establishing taxes on imports, which protected French business from foreign competition 3.) peasants and workers – allowed them to keep their land and food were at low prices - even most of the emigres nobles returned to France, promising loyalty to him Napoleonic Code - reflected some of the ideals of the Enlightenment and Revolution: 1.) feudalism and class privileges were abolished -> all men and women were equal 2.) allowed people to practice their own religion and protected property rights - contradicting factors – workers were treated less than employers, men gained more rights than women - also became the basis of law in areas where France was influenced, like Louisiana and Canada Napoleon and the Church - he sought to make peace with the Church, since many clergy and French Catholics resented the changes of the Revolution - reached an agreement with the Pope – French clergy are still appointed by the government, but the Church had the right to approve or decline the appointment - The Church also gave up on land claims Promotes Government Supported Education University of France - national military academy and administrative body established by Napoleon; became the center board of education for France

-

purpose was to take charge of the schools and colleges

Political Liberty Lost - N. did not favor political liberty or free elections; ignored individual freedom - He believed that France should be governed by an absolute but enlightened ruler - Newspapers were censored and could only replace certain material that is approved by the government - Those who that didn’t were closed down and critics were punished Emperor Napoleon - broke alliance between Austria, Britain and Russia, then signed peace treaties between these nations - 1804, got approval for France to become an empire, Napoleon took the title ‘Napoleon I, Emperor of the French’ - went beyond being the French emperor – aimed to rule Europe - 1803 – Britain and France was at war again - 1805 – France and other European nations were at war too - Russia, Austria and Sweden were an alliance; Prussia tried to stop Napoleon proceeding into German states; all nations were against Napoleon Napoleonic Wars - 1805-1807, his army won many victories against Austria, Prussia and Russia - extended reforms of revolution to other places - administrators in conquered lands set up Napoleonic Code and fairer and taxations system and also abolished serfdom, promoted public education and supported religious toleration – helped speed up Europe’s modernization - downside: conquered lands were forced to provide for Napoleon’s soldiers – tax and raw materials – people soon grew to hate his rule Britain is Victorious - foremost enemy of Napoleon is Britain - British supported Napoleon’s enemies, seized French ships and prevented other ships from reaching French ports - 1805 – Spanish and French ships left the Mediterranean Sea to invade England at Trafalgar, Spain; they were stopped by British fleet led by Horacio, Lord Nelson - though Nelson was killed, half of Napoleon’s ships were destroyed - After Trafalgar, Napoleon gave up on conquering England Continental System - Napoleon tried to ruin Britain by striking at its trade, the heart of British prosperity through the ‘Continental System’ – prevents any countries under France to import British products - > his plan failed - > British mechants imply increased trade with United States and smuggled goods into Europe - His plan hurt European businesses by cutting the goods they needed -> middleclass merchants went against him Peninsular War - when Portugal refused to follow the Continental System, Napoleon took over Spain and made his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, the king

-

Portuguese and Spanish fought back with guerilla warfare – based on surprise attacks by small bands of fighters French soldiers at a disadvantage – only trained for regular battle and unfamiliar with Spanish terrain British General Arthur Wellesley sent support to Spain After 5 years of fierce battles, French were driven out of Spain Costly defeat for Napoleon Success of Spaniards inspired patriots to resist Napoleon

Napoleon Invades Russia - tension between France and Russia due to Czar Alexander I resuming trade with Britain in violation of the Continental System - In fear of Russia making an alliance with Britain, he decided to invade Russia - Gathered 614,00 men from France and other conquered countries to create the Grand Army - Grand Army invaded Russia -> Russians retreated eastward and set fires to farms as they retreated, since the French army would rely on these food - Disease, hunger, exhaustion, desertion and battle losses reduced soldiers - Russians make a stand at Borodino but retreated - Russian retreat allowed Napoleon to reach Moscow, but victory was useless -> the city was deserted and was set on fire by the Russians that eventually destroyed almost all of it Napoleon Retreats - realizing that his army could not survive the winter in the devastated city, Napoleon orders them to retreat - their retreat became one of the worst disasters in history – there was almost no food and clothes to keep them warm, many soldiers froze to death, and fewer than 40,000 soldiers survived and retreat from Moscow Battle of the Nations - reforms introduced in Prussia encouraged Prussians to stand together in defense of their country - other patriots in Europe called for the people to rebel against Napoleon - Austria, Russia, Prussia and Sweden defeated Napoleon at ‘Battle of the Nations’ at Leipzig, Germany - Allies invaded France and reached Paris -> Napoleon resigned; Louis XVIII was crowned King of France - Napoleon was exiled to Elba island, off the western coast of Italy Hundred Days - Napoleon was only 44 years old; still longed for excitement of battle, the cheers of his soldiers, and the glory of victory - He also knew many French people were dissatisfied with their new king - Escaped from Elba and landed on southern French coast with 1,000 soldiers - Louis XVIII orders his soldiers to arrest Napoleon - Napoleon won back soldiers’ loyalty and they rejoined him - Napoleon entered Paris and was received a hero’s welcome – began the period known as ‘Hundred Days’ - His return renewed the war against France

-

European allies were meeting at the Congress of Vienna and united against the French French army and European allies met at Waterloo in the Austrian Netherlands; Napoleon’s army defeated by British Duke of Wellington and the Prussian Field Marshal, Gerard von Blutcher Napoleon surrendered to the British – exiled to St. Helena in the South Atlantic – died at 51

Effect of Napoleonic Era - radically changed Europe through the spread of French Revolution’s reforms and ideals - governments were organized more efficiently, feudal ideas were rejected, ideas of freedom and equality took root - many European people sought to create independent nations – growth of nationalism ideas