General Knowledge Pearson Publication.pdf

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General Knowledge

Harsh Gagrani Abhishek Dubey

Copyright © 2019 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd First Impression Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128.

No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s prior written consent. This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time. ISBN 978-93-528-6507-9 eISBN 9789353067045 Head Office: 15th Floor, Tower-B, World Trade Tower, Plot No. 1, Block-C, Sector 16, Noida 201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India. Registered Office: 4th Floor, Software Block, Elnet Software City, TS-140, Block 2 & 9, Rajiv Gandhi Salai, Taramani, Chennai 600 113, Tamil Nadu, India. Fax: 080-30461003, Phone: 080-30461060 Website: in.pearson.com, E-mail: [email protected]

About the Authors Harsh Gagrani is a Law graduate from National

Law Institute University (NLIU), Bhopal and the Director of Legal Edge Tutorials, Bhopal. Furthermore, he is one of the most sought after quiz-masters and has conducted quizzes in various colleges and schools across Bhopal. He loves teaching, reading and writing, in that order. He has also authored The Pearson Guide to the CLAT.

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bhishek Dubey has completed his masters from Institute of Excellence for Higher Education (IEHE), Bhopal. He has started teaching at a very young age and now with his teaching experience, he has developed innovative ways of teaching general knowledge, suites to the need of a school student, as well as an IAS aspirant. He is a social activist and a quiz master and has conducted many online and offline quizzes.

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ow to Study for and Attempt the General Knowledge Section  

The importance of General Knowledge has been continuously increasing since the past few years, with more and more competitive examinations including it as one of their subjects and its weight age in these examinations has always been higher than several other subjects. Thus, if you are aspiring to crack any major examination like UPSC, State PSCs, CLAT, etc., you must have a strong command of General Knowledge and also have a clear understanding of how to attempt the General Knowledge questions while taking these examinations. Let us look at these two questions separately.

How to Study for the General Knowledge Subject? Use the following tips and techniques for mastering the General Knowledge section:

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1. ave a strategy: Failing to plan is planning to fail! If you straightaway dive into the subject without making a clear-cut plan, it may lead to wastage of time and unnecessary confusion. Thus, before starting to prepare General Knowledge for the examinations, formulate a strategy and decide on how much you need to finish up within a particular time frame. Create a weekly schedule and a monthly one, since daily schedules can be too rigid! Also, write down your schedule and stick it to the wall in front of your study table. This way, you will be continuously reminded of the course you have already completed, and of what needs to be finished, both on a weekly and a monthly basis.

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2. o not ratify, but try to understand: True, some part of GK just does not have enough material to be ‘understood’, and it has to be straightaway memorized (for example: sobriquets, superlatives, capital cities, etc.), but the major

How to Study for and Attempt the General Knowledge Section?  vii

sections like History, Geography, Science, Indian Polity, etc., can and should be understood properly. A deeper understanding of these topics will help you in memorizing even the bland facts related to them.

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3. o not try to break the whole mountain at once, break one stone at a time: Remember Dashrath Manji, the ‘Mountain Man’? He used a hammer and a chisel and carved out a way out of a mountain and shortened the distance between his village and another prominent village. How can just one person break the whole mountain? He did not try to move the mountain in a single day but he broke one stone at a time. That is how GK should be studied—do not make extremely big, unreasonable goals. Break your goals into chunks of small tasks, and try achieving a few such tasks in a day. Thus, rather than writing ‘I will start and complete Indian Constitution today’, write ‘I will complete the portions till Salient Features of the Constitution today’, ‘Fundamental Rights tomorrow’ and so on and so forth. Thus, if you break your tasks into small chunks, you will not be overburdened with studies and before you know it, you would have accomplished a lot more than you would have thought.

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4. now what to leave: In General Knowledge, knowing what to leave is as important as knowing what to cover. Thus, be in touch with your mentors and if they ask you to leave a particular sub-topic, topic or section, leave it! You cannot possibly cover everything under the sun and thus, understanding what to leave becomes very important to ace General Knowledge.

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5. ake a break: Take frequent, but short breaks. Our mind is tuned to work at its peak only for about 50–60 minutes without a break. Thus, take a 5–10 minutes break after each hour and you will be able to study for more number of hours, without getting tired.

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6. evise: This is the most underrated tool for scoring well in GK section. Most of the students spend all their time just reading and memorizing new topics, without revising what they have already learnt. Keep aside at least 10% of the time you spend studying GK for revising your topics. Follow the above-mentioned tips to improve and score well in the General Knowledge section. Note that these tips are not specific to just one examination and thus will help you in preparing for any examination that has General Knowledge as one of the sections.

viii  How to Study for and Attempt the General Knowledge Section?

How to Attempt Questions for General Knowledge Section? Moving on to the next part, it’s also important to understand how to attempt the General Knowledge section during the examination. Following are some tips for the same:

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1. ead quickly: Do not worry, most of the GK questions appearing in competitive examinations are not very tricky or demand reading between the lines. They are pretty straightforward. Thus, unlike Logical Reasoning or English questions, you should not be spending a lot of time reading GK questions. Try reading them as fast as you can, while also understanding the questions completely.

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2. uick decision making: A major mistake made by the students in GK section is that they spend a lot of time thinking and guessing the correct answer, without understanding that just spending a lot of time on a question, will not automatically give them the correct answer. Unlike Logical Reasoning and Mathematics, you do not have to ‘solve’ questions here. Thus, take quick decisions. Either you know the answer or you do not know. In either case, take the decision of marking or not marking the answer and move on to the next question.

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3. ttempt, in case of a confusion: Too often, a student is confused between two options in GK. In such a case, unless there is a negative marking of over half of the positive marking (for example: +1 for correct answer and more than –0.5 for a wrong answer), it is always advisable to mark one answer. Even if you get it wrong, you will lose only a fraction of a mark. But if you get it right, you will end up scoring one mark. Thus, even in case of confusion between two options, do not leave the question unanswered. All the Best!

Contents About the Authors How to Study for and Attempt the General Knowledge Section? Preface

v vi xxi

1. Indian History 1.1–1.102 Stone Age 1.1 Palaeolithic Age 1.1 Harappan Civilization (2500–1750 bce) 1.4 Major Harappan Sites and Their Excavators 1.7 Decline of Indus Civilization: Different Views 1.9 Vedic Age 1.9 Origin of Aryans 1.9 Later Vedic Period/Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000–600 bce) 1.12 The Vedic Literature 1.13 Epics 1.14 Religious Movements (6th century bce) 1.15 Buddhism 1.15 Jainism 1.18 Mahajanpadtenda Era 1.19 Magadha Empire 1.21 Rulers of Magadha 1.21 Greek Invasion in India 1.22 The Mauryan Empire (322–185 bce) 1.22 Shunga Dynasty (185–73 bce) 1.24 Kanva Dynasty 1.24 Satavahana Dynasty 1.25 The Indo-Greek 1.25 The Sakas 1.25 Kushans (1st century bce to 2nd century ce) 1.25 The Gupta Dynasty 1.26 Later Gupta Empires 1.31 The Palas of Bengal 1.33 The Senas 1.33

x  Contents



South Indian Dynasties 1.33 The Rajputs (8th–18th ce) 1.34 Medieval India 1.37 The Slave Dynasty (1206–90 ce) 1.38 Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414 ce) 1.42 The Sayyid Dynasty (1414–51 ce) 1.45 Lodhi Dynasty (1451–26 ce) 1.45 Religious Movements or Bhakti Movement 1.48 Saguna Saints (Ram-Bhakti) 1.51 The Mughal Empire 1.52 The Sur Empire 1.53 Later Mughals 1.57 The Maratha Empire 1.59 Emergence of European Powers in India 1.62 Nawabs of Bengal 1.64 Anglo-Maratha Conflict 1.66 Anglo-Sikh Conflict 1.66 Governors-General of Bengal 1.67 Land Revenue System 1.67 Governors-General of India 1.69 Viceroys of India (Key Events During their Tenure) 1.70 Social-Religious Reform Movements 1.73 Struggle for Independence 1.77 Chronology of Principal Events 1.94

2. Chronology of World History 2.1–2.14 Before Christ/Before Common Era (bc/bce) 2.1 Christian Era/Anno Domini (ce/ad) 2.2 3. Geography Section A: Physical and World Geography Introduction The Universe Galaxies Inner Planets Outer Planets The Earth Lithosphere Atmosphere Insolation (Solar Radiation) Hydrosphere Continents of the World

3.1–3.160 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.13 3.21 3.24 3.29 3.35

Contents  xi

Asia Europe North America Africa South America Australia and Oceania Antarctic Circle Rivers of the World (Length Wise) Major Lakes of the World Major Gulfs of the World Major Peninsulas of the World Agriculture: Top Five Producers Minerals: Top Three Producers Main Plateaus of the World Important Straits of the World Important Cites on River Banks (World) Famous Industrialized Countries of the World Famous Foreign Towns Associated with Industries World’s Geographical Surnames Famous Tribes of the World World Famous Sites Famous Boundaries between Countries Section B: Indian Geography Introduction Physical Features of India Climate of India Seasons in India Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Types of Vegetation Wildlife Need for Environmental Conservation Mineral Resources of India Industries in India Energy Production in India Transportation in India Census of India (2011) States and Union Territories of India 4. Indian Polity and Constitution Introduction The Supreme Document Constituent Assembly

3.36 3.41 3.43 3.46 3.48 3.50 3.50 3.51 3.52 3.52 3.52 3.52 3.53 3.53 3.54 3.54 3.56 3.57 3.58 3.60 3.60 3.61 3.63 3.63 3.72 3.80 3.81 3.93 3.96 3.99 3.101 3.105 3.106 3.109 3.110 3.132 3.134 4.1–4.90 4.1 4.1 4.2

xii  Contents

The Constitution of India Preamble Citizenship Fundamental Rights Directive Principles of State Policy Fundamental Duties Union Executive and Union Legislature Attorney General Union Judiciary Governor Chief Minister Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council Advocate General Emergency in India Amendment to the Constitution Miscellaneous Topics General Elections Centre-State Relations Election Commission of India Comptroller and Auditor General of India Finance Commission of India List of Important Articles List of Parts of the Constitution Schedules of the Constitution of India List of Prominent Constitutional Amendments Borrowed/Inspired Features of the Indian Constitution List of Prominent Cases The Constitution and Indian Polity Timeline Ready Reckoner 5. INDIAN ECONOMY Introduction Facts on Indian Economy Types of Economies Sectors of an Economy Types of Economies National Income Currency Planning Definition Types of Planning History of Planning in India

4.3 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.18 4.20 4.21 4.36 4.36 4.37 4.38 4.39 4.41 4.42 4.47 4.48 4.55 4.55 4.56 4.57 4.58 4.59 4.61 4.62 4.63 4.66 4.68 4.75 4.81 5.1–5.72 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.6 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.9

Contents  xiii



Planning Commission The NITI Aayog

5.9 5.12

Economic Reforms Background Economic Reforms in India Inflation

5.13 5.13 5.13 5.15

Agricultural Sector Introduction Land Reforms Green Revolution Food Management

5.18 5.18 5.19 5.19 5.19

Employment Introduction Types of Employment Prominent Government Initiatives Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act  (MNREGA) Swarn Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana Skill India—Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojna

5.22 5.22 5.22 5.22

Indian Financial Market Introduction Indian Money Market Indian Capital Market Regulatory Agencies Share Prices Index

5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.26 5.26

Industry Background Organizations Related to Industries

5.27 5.27 5.28



5.29 5.29 5.30 5.30 5.31 5.31 5.31 5.31 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.33

Banking System Development of Banking System in India Narasimham Committee Report on Banking Sector Reform Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Imperial Bank of India Scheduled Banks Public Sector Banks Non-Banking Financial Corporations (NBFCs) Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) Banking Sector Reforms Monetary and Credit Policy Non-Performing Assets

5.23 5.23 5.24

xiv  Contents

Demonetization Gold Monetization Scheme MUDRA Bank Digital Payment Scheme—BHIM App Jan Dhan Yojna Insurance National Pension Scheme Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA)

5.34 5.35 5.36 5.36 5.36 5.37 5.37 5.38

Tax Structure Definition Types of Taxes Surcharge and Cess Methods of Taxation Goods and Services Tax (GST)

5.38 5.38 5.39 5.39 5.40 5.40

External Sector Definition Forex Reserves External Debt Currency Regime International Economic Organizations and India Brazil-Russia-India-China-South-Africa (BRICS) Some Important Economic Events

5.41 5.41 5.41 5.41 5.41 5.43 5.47 5.48

Explanatory Terminology Abenomics Adverse Selection Antitrust Appreciation Asset Bad Debt Balanced Budget Balance of Payments Bond Budget Line Bullion Buyer’s Market Capital Capital Adequacy Ratio Carbon Credit Ceteris Paribus Classical Economics Collateral

5.49 5.49 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.51 5.51 5.51 5.51 5.51 5.51 5.51 5.51 5.52 5.52 5.52 5.53

Contents  xv

Collective Products Consortium Consumer Durables Consumer Non-durables Crony Capitalism Crowd Funding Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Debenture Debt Recovery Tribunal (DRT) Decoupling Theory Deindustrialization Demat Account Demerger Derivatives Direct Investment Domino Effect Dow-Jones Index E-Business E-Commerce Economies of Scale Engel’s Law Environmental Taxes Equity Share Escrow Account Employee Stock Option Plans (ESOPs) Foreign Currency Convertible Bond (FCCB) Fiduciary Issue Financial Stability Board (FSB) Free-on-Board (FOB) Forward Contract Forward Trading Free Trade Free Port Game Theory Giffen Good Good Hart’s Law Greenfield Investment Green Shoe Option Gresham’s Law Hedge Funds Hoarding Indifference Curve

5.53 5.53 5.53 5.53 5.53 5.54 5.54 5.54 5.54 5.55 5.55 5.55 5.55 5.56 5.56 5.56 5.56 5.56 5.56 5.56 5.57 5.57 5.57 5.57 5.57 5.58 5.58 5.58 5.58 5.58 5.59 5.59 5.59 5.59 5.60 5.60 5.60 5.60 5.60 5.60 5.61 5.61

xvi  Contents

Insider Trading Insolvency IPO Islamic Banking Kleptocracy London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) Liquidation Liquid Asset Liquidity Macro and Micro Economics Marginal Utility Market Capitalization Marshall Plan Merchant Banking Most Favored Nation Nash Equilibrium Oil Bonds Opportunity Cost Parkinson’s Law Penny Stocks Phillips Curve Piggyback Loan Pigou Effect Primary and Secondary Market Prisoner’s Dilemma Poverty Trap Predatory Pricing Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) Retail Banking Reverse Takeover Residual Unemployment Ricardian Equivalence Say’s Law Shadow Banking Standard Deviation Stealth Tax Third-Party Insurance Total Product Transfer Payment Underwriting Unsecured Loan Viability Gap Funding (VGF)

5.61 5.61 5.61 5.62 5.62 5.62 5.62 5.62 5.63 5.63 5.63 5.63 5.63 5.63 5.64 5.64 5.64 5.64 5.64 5.64 5.65 5.65 5.65 5.65 5.65 5.66 5.66 5.66 5.67 5.67 5.67 5.67 5.68 5.68 5.68 5.68 5.68 5.69 5.69 5.69 5.69 5.69

Contents  xvii



Venture Capital Vulture Funds Walras’s Law Welfare Economics Worker (Census Definition) Zero-Coupon Bond Washington Consensus The Policy Reforms Included Ten Propositions

6. Everyday Science Section A: Physics Physical Quantity Motion, Force, and Laws of Motion Force Gravitation Relative Density Archimedes’ Principle Work, Energy, and Power Power Sound Electricity Optics Structure and Function of the Human Eye India’s Space Program Section B: Chemistry Matter in Our Surroundings Periodic Classification of Elements Chemical Bonding Acids, Bases, and Salts Salts Metals and Their Compounds Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Calcium Copper Silver Gold Platinum Zinc Mercury Lead

5.70 5.70 5.70 5.70 5.70 5.71 5.71 5.71 6.1–6.182 6.1 6.1 6.4 6.8 6.11 6.17 6.17 6.18 6.21 6.21 6.23 6.30 6.34 6.36 6.38 6.38 6.42 6.49 6.50 6.54 6.58 6.58 6.59 6.60 6.61 6.62 6.63 6.63 6.64 6.64 6.65 6.65

xviii  Contents

Uranium Non-metals Hydrogen Silicon Nitrogen Phosphorus Oxygen Sulphur Chlorine Bromine Iodine Inert Gases Carbon Organic Chemistry Allotropes of Carbon Compounds in Our Surroundings Chemicals used in Our Surroundings Chemicals used in Medicines Chemicals used in Food Pollution Section C: Biology Cells Cell Organelles Carbohydrates Proteins Enzymes Vitamins Dietary Fibres Fat Cell Cycle and Cell Division Human Genome Project Genetic Diseases Classification Viruses, Viroids, and Lichens Microbes or Microorganisms Plant Kingdom Plant Physiology Transport of Water and Minerals in Plants Important Minerals and Nutrition for Plants Macronutrients and Micronutrients in Plants Phylum Chordata Human Physiology

6.66 6.66 6.66 6.68 6.68 6.69 6.69 6.70 6.70 6.71 6.71 6.71 6.72 6.72 6.73 6.76 6.80 6.85 6.87 6.88 6.91 6.91 6.92 6.97 6.98 6.99 6.99 6.101 6.101 6.102 6.102 6.104 6.105 6.106 6.108 6.108 6.115 6.119 6.122 6.122 6.123 6.130

Contents  xix

Human Neural System Endocrine Glands and Hormones Human Diseases Excretory System Reproductive Organs Muscular System Skeletal System Ecosystem Biotic Community Biogeochemical or Nutrient Cycles Adaptation in Organisms Adaptations in Animals Biotechnology Invention and Discoveries

6.136 6.137 6.141 6.146 6.147 6.151 6.153 6.158 6.158 6.160 6.162 6.163 6.169 6.175

7. Science and Technology Space Research Indian Atomic Energy Commission Defence and Security International Decades by UNO Computer and Technology

7.1–7.20 7.1 7.5 7.6 7.9 7.10

8. Miscellaneous India at a Glance Awards and Honours Books and Authors International Organizations List of Important Personalities Superlatives–World Superlatives–India Sobriquets–World Sobriquets—India Sobriquets—Persons Pioneers Important Days and Dates Abbreviations Countries of the World Sports & Games Major Multi-Sport Events in the World Prominent Sports List of Prominent Sporting Personalities

Credits

8.1–8.116 8.1 8.6 8.13 8.35 8.45 8.46 8.50 8.51 8.56 8.57 8.59 8.70 8.76 8.87 8.99 8.104 8.108 8.112 8.117

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Preface Writing any book on a subject as diverse as General Knowledge, is a herculean task. There is always a debatable question to be asked regarding what, and what not to include and how to differentiate the book from the ones already available in the market. Also there has to be a system for the verification of facts, data, etc. While writing this book, we asked ourselves these questions repeatedly and hence we sincerely hope that the book proves beneficial to all the aspirants taking entrance examinations with General Knowledge as one of the components. More importantly, any work of this magnitude could not have been completed without the assistance of various other people who have contributed significantly towards the writing of this book. We would like to acknowledge the support and encouragement extended to us by Charu Dubey, Raghav Singh, Divya Kumar Garg, Sawan Shrivastava and Harsh Vardhan Tiwari. Without their support, this book could not have reached its worthy readers. Laurels, as always, should be reserved for the team. Shortcomings in the book, if any, should come to our credit. Harsh Gagrani Abhishek Dubey

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  Chapter 1

Indian History Stone Age ❖❖ The age when pre-historic man began to use stones for utilitarian purposes is termed as the Stone Age. The Stone Age is divided into three broad divisions:

PalAeolithic Age Hunters and Food Gatherers (5,00,000–10,000 bce in India): ❖❖ The term Palaeolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865 and refers to a pre-historic era distinguished by the development of the first stone tools made of quartzite. Hence, Palaeolithic men are also called Quartzite Men. ❖❖ Homo sapiens first appeared towards the end of this phase. ❖❖ Traditionally, the Palaeolithic Age is divided into three periods: Lower Palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Palaeolithic, on the basis of the nature of stone tools made by human beings as well as due to the changes in the climate. ❖❖ Humans used the skins of animals, the bark of trees and large leaves as clothes. Humans organized themselves in small wandering groups consisting of a few men, women and children.

1.2  Chapter 1

❖❖ Lower Palaeolithic Age Sites: S. No. 1.

Sites

States

Belan Valley

Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh

2.

Bhimbetka, Jogdaha

Madhya Pradesh

3.

Bagor, Budha Pushkar

Rajasthan

4.

Patne

Maharashtra

5.

Renigunta, Kurnool Caves

Andhra Pradesh

6.

Singhbhum

Jharkhand

7.

Sohan Valley

West Punjab (Pakistan)

❖❖ Middle Palaeolithic Age Sites: S. No.

Sites

States

1.

Nevasa

Maharashtra

2.

Bhimbetka, Narmada Valley

Madhya Pradesh

3.

Bagor, Karmali Valley, Didwana

Rajasthan

4.

Singhbhum

Jharkhand

❖❖ Upper Palaeolithic Age Sites: S. No. Sites

States

1.

Kurnool Caves

Andhra Pradesh

2.

Belan Valley

Uttar Pradesh

3.

Nevasa

Maharashtra

4.

Sabarmati Valley

Gujarat

5.

Hathnora, Narmada Valley, Bhimbetka, Adamgarh Madhya Pradesh

6.

Kichler

Andhra Pradesh

7.

Attirampakkam, Kortallayar Valley

Tamil Nadu

8.

Pahalgam

Kashmir

Mesolithic Age (Hunters and Herders 10,000–6,000 bce in India) ❖❖ The Mesolithic period is technologically characterized by the use of microliths or small pointed and sharp stone tools. ❖❖ Domestication of animals began in this Age. ❖❖ Bhimbetka (in Raisen district) in Madhya Pradesh is known for ancient caves depicting pictures of birds, animals and humans.

Indian History  1.3

❖❖ Mesolithic Age Sites: S. No.

Sites

States

1.

Langhnaj

Gujarat

2.

Tilwara, Bagor

Rajasthan

3.

Patne, Hathkhamba

Maharashtra

4.

Damdama, Chopani Mando

Uttar Pradesh

Neolithic Age (Food Producers 6,000–1,800 bce in India) ❖❖ The Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age was the last phase of the Stone Age. It is characterized by the use of polished stone tools and the beginning of cultivation of crops. This period also saw the invention of the wheel and the controlled use of fire. ❖❖ The four major characteristics—traits that represent the Neolithic culture are: ●● ●● ●● ●●

Beginning of the practice of agriculture. (Evidence of 1st farming) Use of polished stone tools. The manufacturing of pottery. First controlled use of fire.

❖❖ Neolithic Age Sites: S. No. Sites

States

1.

Burzahom, Gufkral

Kashmir

2.

Mehrgarh, Kili Gul Muhammad

Baluchistan

3.

Daojali Hading

Assam

4.

Chopani Mando, Mahagarha

Uttar Pradesh

5.

Chirand, Chechar

Bihar

6.

Tekkalakota, Sangangakallu, Narsipur, Hallur, Karnataka Kupgal, Kodekal, Brahmagiri

7.

Nagarjunakonda, Piklihal, Utnur

Andhra Pradesh

8.

Paiyampalli

Tamil Nadu

Chalcolithic Age (1800–1000 bce) ❖❖ People from this age used copper and bronze to make a range of utilitarian tools. This phase or period is termed as the Chalcolithic Age. A number of such sites have been found in the Chota Nagpur plateau

1.4  Chapter 1

region, the upper Gangetic basin, Karnataka and near the banks of the Narmada river. Neither plough nor any other agricultural equipment has been found in Chalcolithic sites. They practised Jhum cultivation. ❖❖ Chalcolithic Age Sites: S. No.

Sites

States

1.

Ahar-Banas

Rajasthan

2.

Kayatha, Malwa, Eran

Madhya Pradesh

3.

Nevasa, Daimabad, Nanyang

Maharashtra

Harappan Civilization (2500–1750 bce) ❖❖ During 1922–23, archaeology revealed the existence of a vast civilization in the north-west of India, with its two urban centres at Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The man behind the excavation was John Marshall (Director General of Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1928). ❖❖ This civilization was as highly developed as its contemporaries like Mesopotamia (on River Tigris and Euphrates), Egypt (on River Nile) or China (on River Hwang Ho).

Geographical Area ❖❖ The Indus or the Harappan culture is older than the Chalcolithic cultures, but it is far more developed than these cultures. ❖❖ It arose in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent.

Afghanistan

Pakistan

us

Mohenjo-daro

Jhelu m

Indus

Islamabad

Lahore

Harappa Kalibangan

Ind

Rupar

New Delhi

Sutkagen Dor India

Karachi Arabian Sea

Lothal

Ahmedabad

Fig. 1.1  Geographical Span of Harappan Civilization

Indian History  1.5

❖❖ The Central Zone of the Mature Harappan culture lay in Sindh and Punjab, mainly in the Indus valley. ❖❖ The area formed a triangle and accounted for about 12,99,600 sq km, which is larger than Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Nearly 1500 Harappan sites are known so far in the subcontinent.

Major Characteristics of Harappan Sites Systematic Town Planning ❖❖ A common feature was the grid system, i.e., streets cutting across one another at right angles, dividing the town into large rectangular blocks. ❖❖ The towns were divided into two parts: upper part or citadel, and lower part. ❖❖ The fortified citadel on the western side housed public buildings and members of the ruling class. Below the citadel, on the eastern side lay the lower town inhabited by the common people. ❖❖ Houses, often of two or more storeys, generally had side entrances, and no windows faced the main street. There was large-scale use of burnt bricks and a complete absence of stone buildings. Round pillars were absent.

Drainage System ❖❖ The drainage system was very impressive and was built using burnt bricks. In almost all cities, every big or small house had its own courtyard and bathroom. Water flowed from the houses into the streets which had drains. ❖❖ An underground drainage system connected all houses to the street drains made of mortar, lime and gypsum, covered with either brick or stone slabs, and equipped with a manhole. This shows a developed sense of health and sanitation.

Social Life ❖❖ It was a highly developed urban way of life. Society principally consisted of middle class urban people. Existence of various classes like priests, merchants, craftsmen, peasants and labourers can be seen. ❖❖ The dress of men consisted of two garments: the upper and lower cotton garments. Wool was also used. ❖❖ Different kinds of necklaces have been discovered. ❖❖ Bracelets were used quite commonly.

1.6  Chapter 1

Political Life ❖❖ There is no clear idea about the political organization of the Harappans. It must be noted that the Harappans lacked weaponry, so Harappans did not have a system of kings or dynasties.

Religious Life ❖❖ The chief Female Deity—a terracotta figure where a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman, represents Mother Goddess (Goddess of Earth). ❖❖ The chief Male Deity—Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Siva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhino and a buffalo and two deer appear at his feet. Some trees like pipal, and birds like pigeons were also worshipped. ❖❖ Numerous symbols of one phallus (lingam) and female sex organs made of stone indicate the prevalence of lingam and yoni worship. ❖❖ No temple has been found, though idolatry was practised. ❖❖ Indus people believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets for protection against them.

Art and Architecture ❖❖ Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed, polychrome, incised, perforated and knobbed. The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the ancient world. ❖❖ On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character, though the painted designs on some pieces show a remarkable artistic touch.

Script and Language ❖❖ Script and language are undeciphered; the script is pictographic in nature. Fish and tree symbols are the most commonly found ones. ❖❖ Overlapping of letters shows that it was written from right to left in the first line and then left to right in the second line. This style is called boustrophedon.

Sutkagendor 1927

Chanhudaro

Kalibangan

Kot Diji

3.

4.

5.

6.

1955

1955

1931

1922

Mohenjodaro

2.

1921

Harappa

Year

1.

S. No. Name of Site Montgomery district of Punjab (Pakistan)

Region

Fazal Khan

A. Ghosh

N. Gopal Majumdar, Mackey

R.L. Stine

Situated on the left bank of Indus

Situated in Rajasthan

Situated in Sindh

Situated in Baluchistan

R.D. Bannerjee Larkana district in Sindh (Pakistan)

Daya Ram Sahni

Excavators

Indus

Ghaggar

Indus

Dask

Indus

Ravi

River

Major Harappan Sites and their Excavators

– (Contd.)

Ploughed field, camel bones, circular and square graves, neither bricks nor drainage system (TP not developed here)

Only city without citadel. Metal workers, bead makers lived here.

Largest of all Indus cities, Great Bath and Granary, Ship on seal, woven cloth discovered, 9 levels of occupation (300 ft above MSL), Impressive drainage system.

40% of the total seals found here, Great granary

Main Features

Indian History  1.7

Balakot

Surkotada

Banawali

11.

12.

13.

Lothal

9.

Rakhigarhi

Ropar

8.

10.

Rangpur

7.

S. No. Name of Site

1974

1964

1973– 79

1963

1955– 60

1953

1935

Year

R.S. Bisht

J.P. Joshi

George F. Dales

Professor Surajbhan

S.R. Rao

Y.D. Sharma

M.S. Vats, B.B. Lal and S.R. Rao

Excavators

Situated in Hisar (Haryana)

Situated in Kutch (Bhuj) (Gujarat)

Situated in the Arabian Sea

Drishdavati (Hisar district (Haryana)

Situated in Gujarat

Situated in Punjab

Situated in Gujarat

Region

Saraswati

No river

Saraswati

Ghaggar

Sabarmati and Bhogaya

Sutlej

Mahar

River

Clay bangles, animal and human figures

Only Indus site where remains of horses have been found, coastal city with port town.

–

–

Only Indus site with an artificial dockyard and hence main sea-port. (Coastal city with port town.) Earliest rice cultivation here, twin burial.

–

Rice husk

Main Features

1.8  Chapter 1

Indian History  1.9

Decline of Indus Valley Civilization ❖❖ According to different archaeologists, possible causes of the decline of the civilization include invasion by the Aryans, recurrent floods, social break up, and major earthquake.

Decline of Indus Civilization: Different Views S. No. Causes of Decline

Personalities

1.

War or external problem

Wheeler, Piggot, Gordon-Childe

2.

Inundation

M.R. Sahani

3.

Disease

K.V.R. Kennedy

4.

Earthquake

Marshall and Raikes

5.

Sudden decline

Wheeler

6.

Climatic change

R.L. Stein, A.N. Ghosh

7.

Deforestation, scarcity of Walter Fairservis resources, ecological imbalances

8.

Flood (like in Mohenjodaro)

Marshal, S.R. Rao, Maickey

Vedic Age ❖❖ We know about the Aryans in India from the various Vedic texts, especially the Rig Veda, which is the earliest specimen of Indo-European language and the chief source of information on the history of this period. ❖❖ They entered India probably through the Khyber Pass (in the Hindu Kush mountains) around 1500 bce. ❖❖ The holy book of Iran ‘Avesta’ indicates the entry of Aryans into India via Iran. But we have different stories and concepts regarding the origin of Aryans, according to different archaeologists.

Origin of Aryans S. No.

Origin Place

Scholars

1.

Sapta Sindhu region

A.C. Das

2.

Arctic region

B.G. Tilak

3.

Central Asia

Max Muller

4.

German plains

Professor Penka

5.

Tibet region

Dayanand Saraswati

1.10  Chapter 1

Early Vedic/Rigvedic Period (1500–1000 bce) ❖❖ The Rig Veda is a collection of prayers offered to Agni, Indra, Varuna and other gods by various families of poets and sages. ❖❖ The Brahamanas throw light on the socio-political life of the Aryans and form a sort of explanation of their religion, especially sacrifices. They also contain ritualistic formulae for the respective Vedas and their priests. ❖❖ The Aranyakas are forest books that are treaties on mysticism and philosophy and are the concluding portion of the Brahamanas. They explain the metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice. Their stress is on moral virtues. They form a bridge between the path of work (karmamarga, advocated by the Brahamanas) and the path of knowledge (gyanmarga, advocated by the Upanishads). Some important Aranyakas are Aitareya Aranyaka, Kaushitaki Aranyaka and Taittiriya Aranyaka.

Social Life ❖❖ Family was the basic unit of society and was patriarchal in nature. Marriage was usually monogamous and indissoluble, but there are a few instances of polyandry, levirate and widow marriage. There are no examples of child-marriage. The marriageable age seems to have been from 16 to 17. ❖❖ The word ‘Arya’ came to refer to any person who was respected. ❖❖ The four-fold division of society became clear, initially based on occupation which later became hereditary. There were Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (agriculturists, cattle rearers, traders) and Shudras (servers of the upper three). ❖❖ The institution of gotra appeared for the first time in this Age. Gotra signified descent from common ancestors. ❖❖ Women gradually lost their position of importance in the religious and social sphere. The king and the nobility had now begun to marry more than once and the birth of a daughter was now regarded as a source of misery.

Types of Marriages ❖❖ Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same class. ❖❖ Daiva: Marriage in which the father gave his daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his fees. ❖❖ Arsa: Marriage in which a token bride-price of a cow and a bull was paid to the daughter’s father.

Indian History  1.11

❖❖ Prajapatya: Marriage in which the father gave the girl without any dowry and without demanding bride-price. ❖❖ Gandharva: Marriage often clandestine, by the consent of the two parties, or love marriage. ❖❖ Asura: Marriage by purchase. ❖❖ Rakshasa: Marriage by capture or force. ❖❖ Paishacha: Marriage involving the seduction of a girl while sleeping, etc. ❖❖ Anuloma: Marriage of a higher Varna (each of the four Hindu castes i.e., Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Shudra) man with a lower Varna woman. ❖❖ Pratiloma: Marriage of a lower Varna man with a higher Varna woman.

Economy ❖❖ Aryans followed a mixed economy—pastoral and agricultural—in which cattle played a predominant part. ❖❖ Most of their wars were fought for cows and cattle (most important form of wealth). ❖❖ Cattle were in fact a sort of currency and values were reckoned in heads of cattle (man’s life was equivalent to that of 100 cows), but they were not held sacred at the time.

Religion ❖❖ The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings.

Gods Worshipped During the Vedic Age God’s Name Form of Worship Indra

Also known as Purandhara (Breaker of Forts). Plays the role of warlord and also considered a rain God as well as a warrior and a king. His white elephant is Airavata

Agni

Known as fire God. Acted as an intermediary between Gods and men

Varuna

Personified water; he was supposed to uphold Rita or the natural order. Known as the ‘Lord of human morality’ and the ‘world-sovereign’.

Soma

God of plants, third most important deity in the Rig Veda on the basis of number of hymnsa.

Prajapati

The creator God. Supreme position during Later Vedic Age.

1.12  Chapter 1

Later Vedic Period/Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000–600 bce) ❖❖ Vedic texts reveal that the Aryans expanded from Punjab to the whole of western UP covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab. ❖❖ In the Later Vedic period, many great cities like Vidisha, Kaushambhi, Kasi, Ayodhya, Hastinapur and Indraprashtha, etc. had sprung up. ❖❖ In the Rigvedic period, we hear of three main assistants of the king, i.e., the Purohita, the Senani and the Gramini. But now in addition to these officials, many new assistants of the king were present. References can be found for the priest (Purohita), commander-in-chief (Senapati), charioteer (Suta), treasurer (Sangrihita), tax collector (Bhagdugha), chief queen (Mahisi) and the great companion (Aksavapa). ❖❖ Political affairs, religious and social matters were discussed by the speakers in the local assemblies. These speakers sought the help of spells and magic herbs to stimulate their eloquence in debate (Pras) and overcome their rival debaters (Pratiprasita).

Economy ❖❖ Rig Veda mentions only gold and copper or bronze but Later Vedic texts mention lead, silver and iron.

Important Ratnas and Other Important Officials S. No.

Ratnas

Responsibilities

1.

Purohita

Priest

2.

Senani

Commander-in-chief

3.

Vrajapati

Head of the pasture land

4.

Spasa

Spies-cum-messengers

5.

Bhagadugha

Tax collector

6.

Gramani

Head of the village

7.

Kulapati

Head of the family

8.

Mahishi

Chief queen

9.

Takshan

Carpenter

10.

Duta

Messenger

11.

Kshatriya

Chamberlain

12.

Akshavapa

Accountant

13.

Sthapati

Chief judge

Indian History    1.13

The Vedic Literature The Vedas ❖❖ The word ‘Veda’ comes from the word ‘Vid’ which signifies knowledge. ❖❖ Vedas are also known as ‘Shruti’ (to hear) as they were passed from generation to generation through verbal transmission. ❖❖ There are four in all—Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda.

Rig Veda ❖❖ Oldest religious text in the world. Must have been composed around 1700 bce. ❖❖ A collection of 1028 hymns and 10 Mandals. ❖❖ The 10th Mandal contains the famous Purushsukta which explains that the four varnas (Brahmans, Ksatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet, respectively, of the creator, Brahma. ❖❖ Gaytri mantra is also mentioned in the Rig Veda (in the 3rd Mandal).

Sama Veda ❖❖ Derived from the root ‘Saman’, i.e., ‘Melody’. It is a collection of melodies. ❖❖ It consists of 1,549 unique verses, taken almost entirely from Rig Veda, except 75 verses.

Yajur Veda ❖❖ Deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. ❖❖ There are two main texts of Yajur Veda:

1. White Yajur Veda (or Shukla Yajur Veda). 2. Black Yajur Veda (or Krishna Yajur Veda).

Atharva Veda ❖❖ Divided into 20 Kandas (books), it has 730 hymns mostly dealing with magic (along with personal problems of people).

The Brahmans ❖❖ They explain the hymns of the Vedas in an orthodox manner. ❖❖ Each Veda has several Brahmans attached to it.

1.14  Chapter 1

❖❖ The most important one is the ‘Satpatha Brahmana’ attached to the Yajur Veda which is the most exhaustive. It recommends ‘One Hundred Sacred Paths’. Some Famous Upanishads are:

1. Brihadaranyaka 2. Katha 3. Kena 4. Chandogya 5. Ish 6. Jabala 7. Mundaka 8. Mandukya

Smritis ❖❖ Smriti is traditional knowledge and it designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:





1. Vedanga—post Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. 2. Shad-Darsana—six view points denoting the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy namely Nyaya, Vaiseshikha, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta. 3. Itihasa—specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharat, often extended to the Puranas. 4. Purana—being a fairly late compilation of ancient legends, is thus rather heavily coloured with superstition. 5. Upaveda—deals with medicine, music, architecture, eroticism, archery and various arts and crafts. Ayurveda was an Upveda of the Atharva Veda. 6. Tantra—contained writings of the Saka and Shaivite sects as well as those of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars. 7. Agama—contained scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Saktas. 8. Upanga—is a generic name for any collection of treaties. It is traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of Nyaya and Mimansa—the Dharma Sutra, the Puranas and the Tantra.

Epics ❖❖ The period that lies between the Rigvedic period and the rise of Buddhism in India, i.e., from 2000 to 700 bce has been designated by some as the Later Vedic Period and by some as the Epic Age.

Indian History    1.15

❖❖ The Ramayana written by Valmiki has 24,000 verses. Its composition started in the fifth century bce and passed through five stages, the fifth stage ending in the 20th century ce. ❖❖ The Mahabharat: Probably the longest of all the world’s epics, it is a vast anthological miscellany of pre-Aryan and Aryan material. There is no universally recognized standard text of the Mahabharat. Bhagvad Gita is extracted from Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharat. ❖❖ The Ramayana: Known as ‘Adi Kavya’, it had existed in a ballad form in Prakrit in more than one version. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work. The average date of its composition seems to fall in the 1st century bce, though it may have acquired its final shape by about 250 ce. At present it consists of 24,000 shlokas (verses) in 7 Kandas.

Religious Movements (6th century bce) ❖❖ Established orthodoxy and changing aspirations of groups gave rise to as many as 62 religious sects (heterodox sects) during the period. (Jainism and Buddhism were more prominent.)

Reasons for Social Movements ❖❖ Division of society into 4 varnas fueled the aspirations of Vaishyas, Kshatriyas against Brahmins to lead to an improved social position (as trade had enhanced their economic position). ❖❖ Desire of commoners to give up material life and lead a simple life. ❖❖ Vedic religion lost its purity and Vedic philosophy was becoming more complex and infected by dogmas, sacrifices, superstition, etc.

Buddhism ❖❖ Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in the world that originated in India. It was founded by a Kshatriya prince of Saka clans, Gautama Siddhartha, in the 6th century bce.

The Buddha ❖❖ Also known as Sakyamuni (the Sage of the Sakyas/the Victorious) or Tathagata (one who has reached the truth). ❖❖ Buddha was married at 16 to Yashodhara. He enjoyed a married life for 13 years and had a son named Rahula.

1.16  Chapter 1

❖❖ He first meditated with Alara Kalama. But he was not convinced that man could obtain liberation from sorrow by mental discipline and knowledge. His next teacher was Udraka Ramaputra. ❖❖ He then joined forces with five ascetics—Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mahanama and Assagi, who were practising the most rigorous selfmortification in the hope of wearing away their karma and obtaining final bliss. ❖❖ Attained Nirvana or Enlightenment at 35 at Uruvela, Bodh Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree. ❖❖ Delivered the first sermon at Deer Park in Sarnath where his five disciples had settled. His first sermon is called ‘Dharma Chakra Pravartan’ or ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’.

Doctrine of Buddhism The Four Great Truths:

1. The world is full of sorrow and misery. 2. The cause of all pain and misery is desire. 3. Pain and misery can be ended by killing or controlling desire. 4. Desires can be controlled by following eight-fold path.

Ashtangika Marg

1. Right View 2. Right Resolve 3. Right Speech 4. Right Concentration 5. Right Livelihood 6. Right Exercise 7. Right Recollection or Memory 8. Right Meditation ●● ●● ●●

Belief in Ahimsa—One should not cause injury to any living being, animal or man. Law of Karma—Man reaps the fruits of his past deeds. Existence of God—Buddhism is silent about the existence of God.

The Sangha ❖❖ Bhikshus acted as torch bearers of the Dharma.

Indian History    1.17

❖❖ The Sangha consisted of monks, i.e., Bhikshus, Shramanas and nuns. ❖❖ Worshippers other than those from the Sanghas, were called Upasakas.

Buddhist Councils ❖❖ First Council—at Rajgriha, in 483 bce under the chairmanship of - a- syapa ′ Mahak (king was Ajatshatru). Divided the teachings of Buddha into two Pitakas—Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka. ❖❖ Second Council—at Vaishali, in 383 bce under Sabakami (king was Kalasoka of Shishunaga dynasty). Followers were divided into Sthavirmadins and Mahasanghikas. ❖❖ Third Council—at Pataliputra, in 250 bce under Moggaliputta Tissa (king was Ashoka). In this the third part of the Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language. ❖❖ Fourth Council—at Kashmir (Kundalvan) in 72 ce under Vasumitra (king was Kanishka). Vice Chairman was Ashvaghosha. Divided into Mahayana and Hinayana sects. ❖❖ Fifth Council—in Mandalay, Burma (now Myanmar) in 1871 and was presided over by Theravada monks in the reign of King Mindon. ❖❖ Sixth Council—in Kaba Aye in Yangon in 1954 was sponsored by the Burmese Government.

Buddhist Literature ❖❖ Vinaya Pitaka contains the rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries. ❖❖ Sutta Pitaka is the largest and contains a collection of Buddha’s sermons. ❖❖ Abhidhamma Pitaka is the explanation of the philosophical principles of the Buddhist religion. ❖❖ Mahavamsa and Deepvamsa are other Buddhist texts. They provide information about the then Sri Lanka. ❖❖ Jatakas are the fables about the different births of Buddha.

Causes of Decline of Buddhism ❖❖ It succumbed to the Brahmanical rituals and ceremonies such as idol worship, etc., which Buddhism had earlier denounced. ❖❖ The use of Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals, in place of Pali, the language of the common people. ❖❖ Deterioration in moral standards of the monks living in Buddhist monasteries.

1.18  Chapter 1

Jainism ❖❖ Jainism is also a non-Brahminical religion founded as a result of a revolt against the Brahminism in the 6th century bce. ❖❖ In Jainism, a Tirthankar or Jina is a human being who achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge) through asceticism and who then becomes a role-model or teacher for those seeking spiritual guidance. ❖❖ Bhagwan Rishabhdev was the first Jain Tirthankara. He was the father of Chakravarti King of India ‘Bharat’. The name Rishabhdev was first described in Srimad Bhagwat (Rig Veda). He died in Attaway or Mount Kailash. His symbol was a bull. ❖❖ There were 24 Tirthankaras (Prophets/Gurus/Messengers) and all of them were Kshatriyas. ❖❖ The 24th and the last Tirthankara was Vardhman Mahavira. He added celibacy to his main teachings. ❖❖ His father Siddhartha was the head of the Jnatrika clan. His mother was Trishla, the sister of Lichchhavi Prince Chetak of Vaishali. ❖❖ He was married to Yashoda and had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first disciple. ❖❖ In the 13th year of his asceticism, outside the town of Jrimbhik Grama, he attained supreme knowledge (Kaivalya). ❖❖ At the age of 72, Mahavira attained death at Pawapuri, near Patna (Bihar) in 527 bce. It is said that at the time of Mahavir’s death at Pawapuri, the kings of the two clans namely the Mallas and the Lichchhavis, celebrated the lamp festival in his honour.

Teachings of Jainism

1. Non-violence 2. Never to steal 3. Always tell the truth 4. Detachment of wealth 5. Celibacy

The first four were given by Parshvanatha and the fifth was given by Vardhaman Mahavir: ●● ●●

The Jains reject the concept of the Universal soul or a Supreme power as the creator or sustainer of the Universe. Jainism does not deny the existence of Gods but refuses to give Gods any important part in the universal scheme. Gods are placed lower than the Jina.

Indian History    1.19

Jainism believes in universal brotherhood (non-belief in the caste system). Know More Three Ratnas of Jainism (Triratnas) are given The first Jain Council was held in the 3rd century bce in Pataliputra under the and they are defined as chairmanship of Sthulabhadra. the way to Nirvana. ●●

●● ●● ●●

The second Jain Council was held in the 5th century ce in Valabhi (Gujarat) under the chairmanship of Devardhi Kshamasramana.

Right Faith Right Knowledge Right Conduct

MahajanpadA Era ❖❖ From the 6th century bce onwards, the widespread use of iron in eastern UP and western Bihar created conditions for the formation of large territorial states. ❖❖ With this the ‘Janapadas’ started giving way to ‘Mahajanapadas’ and the land between the Himalayas and the Narmada was divided into 16 Mahajanapadas which are mentioned in the Buddhist literature ‘Anguttara Nikaya’.

List of Mahajanapadas and their Capitals S. No. Mahajanapada

Capital

Special Features

1.

Kashi (Banaras UP)

Varanasi

It was the most powerful Mahajanapada. Famous for cotton textiles and a market for horses.

2.

Kosala (Ayodhya UP)

Shravasti

Most popular king was Prasenjit. He was a contemporary and friend of Buddha.

3.

Anga (East Bihar)

Champa

It was a great centre of trade and commerce. It was annexed by Magadha in the 6th century bce.

4.

Vajji (North Bihar)

Vaishali

Vajjis represented a confederacy of eight clans of whom Videhas were the most well-known.

5.

Malla (Uttar Pradesh)

Kushinagar/ Buddha died in the vicinity of Pavapuri Kushinagara. Magadha annexed it after Buddha’s death. (Contd.)

1.20  Chapter 1

S. No. Mahajanapada

Capital

Special Features

6.

Chedi (Chhatisgarh)

Suktimati

Chedi territory corresponds to the Eastern parts of modern Bundelkhand. A branch of Chedi’s founded a royal dynasty in the kingdom of Kalinga.

7.

Vatsa (UP)

Kausambi

Situated around the region of Allahabad. The most powerful king was Udayana.

8.

Kurus (Delhi)

Hastinapur

During Buddha’s time, Kuru country was ruled by a titular chieftain named Korayvya.

9.

Panchala (UP)

Kampilya

Located in Rohilkhand and parts of central Doab (western UP).

10.

Matsya (Rajasthan)

Viratnagara

Located in the region of Rajasthan. King Sujata ruled over both the Chedis and Matsyas.

11.

Surasena (UP)

Mathura

It had a republican form of government

12.

Ashmaka (Maharastra)

Potana or Potali

It was located on the banks of river Godavari. It was the southernmost Mahajanapada ruled by the Ikshvaku Kshatriyas.

13.

Avanti (Madhya Pradesh)

Mahishmati

Located around the region of Ujjain district in Madhya Pradesh. It was divided into two parts—the northern part had its capital at Ujjain and the southern part at Mahishmati.

14.

Gandhara (Pakistan)

Taxila

Taxila was famous for education and the learning tradition in ancient India. Panini and Kautilya are the world renowned products of Taxila University.

15.

Kamboja (NorthEast Kingdom)

Rajapura

Kautilya’s Arthashastra and Ashoka’s Edict No. XIII attest that the Kambojas followed a republican constitution. (Contd.)

Indian History    1.21

S. No. Mahajanapada 16.

Capital

Magadha (Bihar) Girivraj

Special Features This Mahajanapada started the policy of imperialism. The founders of the kingdom were Jarasandha and Brihadratha. However, the real founders were Bimbisara and Ajatashatru.

MAGADHA Empire ❖❖ Due to a favourable geographical location and the rich, fertile soil of the lower Ganga region, trade flourished. Iron deposits in the region proved useful for making better agricultural implements which enabled peasants to produce more surplus and consequently provide more weapons for the army.

Rulers of Magadha Haryanka Dynasty ❖❖ The Haryanka dynasty was originally founded in 566 bce by the grandfather of Bimbisara, but the actual foundation in the true sense is credited to Bimbisara.

Ajatashatru (492–460 bce) ❖❖ His capital was Rajgir (Girivraja) and he strengthened his position by matrimonial alliances with the ruling families of Kosala, Vaishali and Modra (3 wives). He annexed Vaishali and Kosala.

Udayin (460–444 bce) ❖❖ He founded the new capital of Pataliputra, situated at the confluence of the Ganga and the Son. He was the last king of the Haryanka dynasty.

Shishunaga Dynasty (444–363 bce) ❖❖ The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by Shishunaga dynasty in 413 bce which ruled for about half a century. The kingdoms of Vatsa, Avanti and Kosala were annexed by Magadha. ❖❖ Kalashoka was the famous ruler of the Shishunaga dynasty who hosted the second Buddhist council in 383 bce.

1.22  Chapter 1

Nanda Dynasty (345–324 bce) ❖❖ It was founded by Mahapadma Nanda. He claimed to be the Ekarat—the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes. ❖❖ Nandas are described as the first empire-builders in India. The first Nanda king is described in the Puranas as the ‘destroyer of all Kshatriyas and a second Parasurama or Bhargava, etc.’ ❖❖ The Nandas were overthrown by the Maurya dynasty under which the Magadhan Empire reached the apex of its glory.

Greek Invasion in India ❖❖ Alexander was the son of Philip of Macedonia (Greece) who invaded India in 326 bce. At that time north-west India was split up into a number of small independent states like Taxila, Punjab (kingdom of Porus), Ghandara, etc. Except Porus, who fought the famous Battle of the Hydaspes (on the banks of Jhelum) with Alexander, all other kings surrendered. ❖❖ Ambhi (Omphis), the king of Taxila, submitted to Alexander about the same time. Later, impressed by Porus, Alexander reinstated him in power. Then Alexander captured the tribal republic of Glauganikai (Glachukayanaka) with its 37 towns.

Influence of Alexander’s Invasion 1. Techniques of coinage developed. 2. Cultural exchange took place, especially in the field of art and architecture. 3. Greeks influenced science and technology.

The Mauryan Empire (322–185 bce) ❖❖ The Mauryan empire was the largest empire ever to be established on the Indian soil till 324 bce. The Mauryan Empire was spread from the valley of the Oxus (present Amu River) to the delta of Kaveri. ❖❖ Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 bce): He was the first ruler who unified India under one political unit. The detailed information about the administrative system of the Mauryan Empire is mentioned in Arthashastra. It is a book written by Kautilya. He was also known as Chanakya. ❖❖ In 305 bce, Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Nicator, who surrendered a vast territory. Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Seleucus Nicator who wrote INDICA.

Indian History    1.23

❖❖ Chandragupta became a Jain in the last stage of his life and went to Shravanabelagola with Jain teacher Bhadrabahu, where he died (232 bce) by slow starvation.

Bindusara (297–273 bce) ❖❖ Bindusara extended the kingdom further and conquered regions as far south as Mysore. ❖❖ Divyavadana mentions that Bindusara appointed his eldest son Sumana (or Susima) as his viceroy in Taxila and Ashoka in Ujjain. It also mentions that when a revolt broke out in Taxila, Ashoka was sent to restore peace as Susima failed to suppress it. ❖❖ Bindusara continued his policy of friendly relations with other dynasties.

Ashoka the Great (273–232 bce) ❖❖ Ashoka succeeded to the throne after the death of his father Bindusara in 273 bce. Under Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire reached its peak. ❖❖ Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 bce in the 9th year of his coronation. The king was moved by massacre in this war and therefore abandoned the policy of physical occupation in favour of a policy of cultural conquest. ❖❖ Tamralipti in the Gangetic delta was the most prosperous port on the East Coast of India. Facts to Know! Arthashastra Kautilya’s views on social and economic management were interpreted as a combination of state-socialism and laissez-faire. The mantriparishad mentioned in Arthashashtra was compared with the Privy Council of Britain, and Kautilyan kingship with its constitutional monarchy. All this was intended to prove that Indians had long known the tradition of democratic government for which they were struggling against the British. Arthshashtra had 15 books of which the first 5 were based on internal administration, 8 based on relations with neighbouring nations and last two were based on miscellaneous topics.

Art and Architecture of the Mauryan Empire ❖❖ Sarnath Pillar: It shows four lions standing back to back on an abacus having 4 animals (elephant, bull, lion and horse) and a Dhamma Chakra, all on an inverted lotus. Stone masonry, Huge pillars of sandstone. ❖❖ Stupas: The main purpose of a Stupa is to enshrine some relics of Buddha, e.g., Sanchi Stupa.

1.24  Chapter 1

❖❖ Caves: Caves served as a residence for monks and as assembly halls. ❖❖ Ashoka’s edicts/inscription may be arranged in 8 groups in chronological order. ❖❖ Fragments of stone pillars, wooden floors and ceilings indicating the existence of an 80-pillar hall have been discovered at Kumhrar near Patna.

Decline of the Mauryan Empire ❖❖ After Ashoka, the empire didn’t last long. Pushyamitra Shunga defeated the Mauryan King in 185 bce and started the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. Some reasons cited are:

1. Brahmanical reactions against the Mauryan empire. 2. Over-centralization of administration. 3. Financial crisis.

Post Mauryan Era (185 bce to 319 ce) ❖❖ Disintegration of the Mauryan Empire gave rise to many centres of power, like:

1. North-west India: Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Partians, Kushans. (All foreign invaders) Shunglu, Kanvas (Locals). 2. Deccan India: Satavahanas. 3. South: Pandyas, Chelas, Cheras (3 Sangam Kingdom).

Shunga Dynasty (185–73 bce) ❖❖ Pushyamitra Shunga was a Brahmin commander-in-chief of the last Mauryan king. ❖❖ His capital was Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh. ❖❖ Pushyamitra built a great Buddhist Stupa at Bharhut. ❖❖ Kalidasa wrote Malavik agnimitram on the great Shunga king, Agnimitra who was the son of Pushyamitra. ❖❖ Patanjali (author of the ‘Mahabhasya’) was the priest of 2 Ashvamedha yajnas, performed by Pushyamitra Shunga. Patanjali was born in 1st century bce at Gonarda in central India. ❖❖ Shungas were famous for their art work like—chaityas and stupas of Bhaja (Pune), Amravati stupa, Nasik chaitya, etc.

Kanva Dynasty ❖❖ In 73 bce, King Vasudeva usurped the throne and founded the Kanva dynasty.

Indian History    1.25

Satavahana Dynasty ❖❖ In 60 bce, Simuka founded the Satavahana dynasty. ❖❖ Capital of the Satavahanas was Pratishtana (in Maharashtra). ❖❖ Other important rulers of the Satavahanas dynasty:

1. Satakarni I, third ruler 2. Hala, the 17th ruler 3. Vasishthiputra Sri Satakarni, the 24th ruler 4. Pulamavi III, 30th ruler of Satavahanas 5. Ikshvaku, 31st ruler

❖❖ Satavahanas built many stupas and chaityas like those in Nasik, Kanheri and Karle Vihara. ❖❖ Official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit.

The Indo-Greek ❖❖ They were the first foreign rulers of north-western India in the PostMaurya period. ❖❖ Meander was the ruler, who was famous as Milinda. He ruled from 165 to 145 bce. According to literature, he was converted to Buddhism by Nagarjuna. ❖❖ They were the first to issue gold coins in India. ❖❖ Greek features in art grew in this era and became famous as Gandhar Art in north-western India.

The Sakas ❖❖ They were famous as Scythians; they replaced the Indo-Greek in India. ❖❖ Rudradaman was the famous and important ruler, who ruled between 130–150 ce. Other famous rulers were Nahapana, Ghamatika, Chashtana, etc. ❖❖ In 58 bce, Vikramaditya, a king from Ujjain, defeated the Sakas and started an era called Vikram Samvat.

Kushans (1st century bce to 2nd century ce) ❖❖ They replaced the Parthians from north-western India and expanded to the lower Indus basin and the upper and middle Gangetic basin.

1.26  Chapter 1

Kanishka ❖❖ He was famous as ‘Second Ashoka’. He ruled from 78 to 101 ce. ❖❖ He was the main Kushana ruler and well known for starting the Saka era which starts from 78 ce. Kanishka’s empire probably included most of Afghanistan, the easternmost part of Xinjiang in China, and extended upto the north of the huge empire Bactria. His main capital was Purushpur (now Peshawar in Pakistan). Ancient/Medieval Eras ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Buddha Samvat: 544 bce Mahavira Samvat: 528 bce Vikram Samvat: 57 bce (Chandragupta) Saka Samvat: 78 ce (Vikramaditya) Gupta Samvat: 319 ce (Chandragupta) Valabhi Samvat: 319 ce Kalchuri Samvat: 248 ce (Isvarsena) Harsha Samvat: 606 ce (Harshavardhan) Hijarai Samvat: 622 ce (Prophet Muhammad) Laxman Samvat: 1119 ce (Laxmansena of Bengal) Ilahi Samvat: 1584 ce (Solar Calendar of Akbar)

The Gupta Dynasty ❖❖ The Guptas finally overthrew Kushans in 275, and on the ruins of the Kushan empire arose a new empire which established its hold over a good part of the former dominions of both the Kushans and the Satavahanas. ❖❖ This period is famous as the ‘Classical Age’ or ‘Golden Age’ of ancient India. ❖❖ Sri Gupta founded the dynasty, and kept a simple title of ‘Maharaja’.

Chandragupta I (319–335 ce) ❖❖ Chandragupta I was a ruler of considerable importance because he started the Gupta era in 319–20 ce which marked the date of his accession. ❖❖ He acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj.

Indian History    1.27

Samudragupta (335–380 ce) ❖❖ Samudragupta, called the ‘Napoleon of India’ by Vincent Smith, enlarged the Gupta Kingdom enormously. ❖❖ Harisena was the army commander in the famous southern campaign of Samudragupta. In the Allahabad inscription, Samudragupta is described as the hero of a hundred battles. ❖❖ He was a great patron of art, and adopted the title of ‘Kaviraja’. Poets like Harisena and Vasubandhu adorned his court; on some gold coins he was shown playing the Veena. ❖❖ A Buddhist monastery was built in Bodh Gaya by the Sri Lankan King during his reign.

Chandragupta II or Vikramaditya (380–413 ce) ❖❖ Chandragupta II was also a great conqueror like his father and his reign saw the high water mark of the Gupta Empire. ❖❖ Though Fa-hien (the Chinese pilgrim) travelled extensively in Chandragupta’s empire, it is interesting to note that the Chinese pilgrim never recorded the name of the king because he was totally pre-occupied with the study of Buddhism. ❖❖ He defeated the last Saka ruler Rudra Simha III and annexed the territories of western Malwa and Gujarat. He was also called ‘Vikramaditya’. He also took the title of Simhavikrama. ❖❖ He was a man of art and culture; his court at Ujjain was adorned by ‘Navratna’, including Kalidasa, Amarsinha, Fa-hien, Acharya Dinganaga, etc. ❖❖ List of Navratnas of Chandragupta II:

1. Kalidas (a poet) 2. Dhanavantri (a physician) 3. Amarsinha (a poet) 4. Varahmihir (writer of Pancha Siddhantika and Brihat Samhita) 5. Vararuchi (a writer) 6. Ghatkarna 7. Kshapanaka 8. Velabhatt 9. Shanku

1.28  Chapter 1

Kalidasa He was a great Sanskrit writer who wrote some romantic dramas and poetry like: 1. Meghdutam 2. Ritusamhara 3. Kumarasambhavam 4. Raghuvamsa 5. Vikramorvasiyam 6. Abhigyan Shakuntalam 7. Mālavikāgnimitram

Kumaragupta I (415–455 ce) ❖❖ He assumed the title of Mahendraditya and Mahendra Singh, and founded the Nalanda University in the 4th century ce. ❖❖ Kumaragupta I introduced a new type of gold coins. One of them figures God Kartikeya riding on his peacock on the reverse, and the king feeding a peacock on the obverse.

Skandagupta (455–467 ce) ❖❖ Skandagupta’s successors proved to be weak and could not resist the Huna invaders, who excelled in horsemanship and possibly used stirrups made of metal. ❖❖ He assumed titles like Vikramaditya, Kramaditya and Devaraja.

Trade and Economy in the Gupta Era ❖❖ The volume of trade with China greatly increased during the Gupta period and the Chinese silk was called ‘Chinansuka’ in India. ❖❖ Indian embassies visited the Roman Empire during the reigns of Aurelian, Constantine, Julian, and Justinian, and Alexandria became an important meeting place for the inhabitants and traders from India and Rome. ❖❖ Indians were the first in the world to advocate the internal use of mercury. ❖❖ Indian surgeons performed lithotomy and could remove external matter accidentally introduced into the body, e.g., iron, stones, etc. ❖❖ Gold coins were called dinars and silver coins were called rupyaka.

Indian History    1.29

Science and Technology ❖❖ Gupta period is unparalleled for its achievements in the fields of mathematics and astronomy. ❖❖ Brahmagupta, in the 7th century, developed rules for operating with zero and negative quantities. He began applying algebra to astronomical problems. He wrote Brahmasphutic Siddhanta in which he hinted at the law of gravitation. ❖❖ Aryabhatta—described the value of the first nine numbers and the use of zero in Aryabhattiyam. He also calculated the value of pie and invented Algebra. ❖❖ Varahamihira—his well-known work was Brihat Samhita. It stated that the Moon rotates around the Earth and the Earth rotates around the Sun. He also wrote Pancha Siddhantika which gives the summary of five astronomical books prevalent in his time. ❖❖ Vagbhata—was the most distinguished physician of the Ayurvedic system of medicine. ❖❖ Palakapya wrote Hastyagarved, a treatise on the diseases of elephants. ❖❖ Dhanvantri—was a famous physician with exhaustive knowledge of Ayurveda. Facts to Know! Six Schools of Hindu Philosophy 1. Nyaya—or the school of logic and epistemology deriving mainly from the Sutras of Akshapada Gautama, According to it, salvation can be attained by the acquisition of knowledge, and the veracity of a proposition or a statement can be tasted through interference, hearing and analogy. 2. Vaisheshika—this school gives importance to the discussion of material elements or dravya. According to it, the material objects are made up of atoms but the scientific view was diluted with belief in God, spiritualism, heaven and salvation. 3. Sankhya—according to the new view, both nature and the spiritual element create the world and that salvation can be attained through the acquisition of real knowledge. 4. Yoga—dealt with the control of body at the physical level. Its text goes back to the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali, it is believed that through these methods the mind gets diverted from worldly matters and achieves concentration. 5. Mimansa—literally means the art of reasoning and interpretation. According to this school, Vedas contain the eternal truth; one could attain salvation by performing the vedic sacrifices with all their rituals, which needed the services of the priests and legitimized the social distance between various Varnas. 6. Vedanta or Uttar mimansa—according to it Brahma is the reality and everything else is unreal (Maya). The self or atma is identical with Brahma.

1.30  Chapter 1

Art and Architecture ❖❖ The Gupta craftsmen distinguished themselves by their work in iron and bronze. ❖❖ Several bronze images of the Buddha were produced. ❖❖ This period marks the beginning of temple architecture in India. ❖❖ The temple at Bhitargaon near Kanpur is made of brick. ❖❖ Gupta stone sculptural art was related to the Mathura school. ❖❖ Different coins of gold and silver of artistic taste were issued, with Queen Kumaradevi standing face-to-face with Chandragupta I on one side, and Durga seated on the lion on the other. ❖❖ Terracotta (pottery, images, etc.) was most popular during the Gupta age. It was considered a poor man’s art. Iron and stone pillars near the Qutab Minar were constructed, probably by Chandragupta II. They were the lone examples of their own kind. ❖❖ They constructed pillars at different places which were used for engraving their inscriptions. ❖❖ The construction of stupas, chaitya halls, monasteries, cave temples and cave dwellings were prominent during the Gupta age. Buddhist buildings, the stupas at Rajagiri and the Dhamekha stupa at Sarnath are most prominent. ❖❖ The Ellora caves, the Bagh caves, the Sittanavasal temple in Tamil Nadu and Rocket chambers at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka are examples of Gupta paintings. ❖❖ The period also produced magnificent Brahmanical temples, Dasavatara temple of Devgarh, Vishnu temple of Tigawa, Shiva temple at Bhumarah and Khohand, two Buddhist shrines at Sanchi and Bodh Gaya. ❖❖ Greek influence resulting in Gandhara cult and late Mathura art, and Sarnath schools were fully Indianized. ❖❖ The Ekamukhi (one-faced) and Chaturmukh (four-faced) Shivalinga and the Ardhanarishvara form of Shiva representing the synthesis between male and female deity represent a few fine specimens of the art of the Gupta age.

Important Inscriptions of the Gupta Period ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Mathura inscriptions of Chandragupta II. Eran stone inscription of Samudragupta. Gadhwa inscription of Chandragupta II. Gadhwa stone inscription of Kumaragupta.

Indian History    1.31

❖❖ Indore Copper Plate inscription of Skandagupta. ❖❖ Different styles of architecture in the Gupta period:

1. Dravida Style—pyramidal tower (Vimana-South Indian style). 2. Nagara Style—Shikara (North Indian style). 3. Vesara Style—Mixed North and South Indian style.

Later Gupta Empires The Pushyabhutis or Vardhan Dynasty ❖❖ Capital—Thaneswar (Haryana). ❖❖ Dynasty was founded by King Pushyabhuti in the beginning of the 6th century ce. ❖❖ The first three rulers of this dynasty, i.e., Nara Vardhan, Rajya Vardhan and Aditya Vardhan were given the simple title of Maharaja. ❖❖ Pushyabhuti king united his kingdom with the Maukhari kingdom and ruled from Kannauj. Prabhakar Vardhan was succeeded by his elder son Rajya Vardhan, but he was killed shortly in a battle with Shasanka of Gauda (Bengal). He was succeeded by Harshavardhana, his younger brother, who was elected to the throne by the Mantri Parishad.

Harshavardhana (606–647 ce) ❖❖ Harshavardhana was the last Hindu king of Northern India. He belonged to the Pushyabhuti family who ruled in Thanesar, north of Delhi. In some literature, Harshvardhana was also known as Shiladitya and in 606 ce he was throned and started the Harsha Era. ❖❖ He established a strong empire by conquering Bengal, Malwa, eastern Rajasthan and the entire Gangetic plain up to Assam and made Kannauj his capital. After this Harshavardhana became the most powerful king of north India. ❖❖ He was defeated by the Chalukya king, Pulakeshin ii on the banks of the Narmada. That was the only defeat of Harshvardhan’s victorious life. ❖❖ In 643 ce, he hosted the Prayag assembly and used to celebrate a religious festival every five years at the junction of Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati rivers. According to some literature, it was the start of the Kumbha festival. ❖❖ Harsha wrote 3 plays: Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda.

1.32  Chapter 1

Facts to Know! Buddhism during Harsha’s reign Although the Chinese traveller Hiuen-Tsang counted nearly 2,00,000 Buddhist monks, it is clear that Buddhism was clearly on the path of decline against the resurgent Puranic Hinduism. Hieun-Tsang’s account:

❖❖ Hiuen-Tsang (or Yuan Chwang) was the most celebrated of all the Chinese pilgrims who came to India.

❖❖ During this period, he travelled all over the country and observed everything very minutely. Undoubtedly, he came to this country with the chief aim of collecting Buddhist scriptures and visiting all those places connected with the Lord, but his clever eyes left nothing unnoticed. ❖❖ After reaching his home land, he translated all his memories into a book entitled Si-yu-Ki or the Records of the Western World. This book is an invaluable source of information regarding Harsha and the political, social, religious and economic conditions of India during his reign (or in the first half of the 7th century ce).

The Vakatakas ❖❖ The Vakatakas came to control the parts of the Deccan and Central India till the rise of the Chalukyas. ❖❖ Pravarasena I was succeeded by Rudrasen I, Prithvisen I and Rudrasen II, respectively. ❖❖ Rudrasen II was succeeded by Divakarasena, Damodarasena and Pravarasena II who composed a Prakrit work titled Setu Bandha in glorification of Rama, though he was a devotee of Shiva.

The Rashtrakutas ❖❖ Dantidurga was the founder. ❖❖ Rashtrakuta king, Krishna I is remembered for constructing the famous rock-cut Kailasha temple at Ellora. It was constructed in the Dravidian style and elaborately carved with fine sculptures. ❖❖ Rashtrakuta king Amoghvarsha is compared to Vikramaditya in giving patronage to men of letters. He wrote the first Kannada poetry named Kaviraj Marg and Prashnottar Mallika. He built the city of Manyakheta as his capital.

Kalachuris ❖❖ In the early period, the Kalachuris were known as Haihayas, with Mahishmati as their capital.

Indian History    1.33

The Palas of Bengal ❖❖ In the middle of the 8th century, the Pala dynasty came into power. Its founder was Gopala (750 ce) who was elected to the throne as he had proved his valor and capability as a leader. ❖❖ He was succeeded by Dharamapala. He extended his control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam). He was a Buddhist.

The Senas ❖❖ They ruled Bengal after the Palas. ❖❖ The founder was Samantasena. His grandson Vijayasena (son of Hemantasena) brought the family into the limelight. ❖❖ He was succeeded by Ballalasena. He wrote Danasagara and Adbhut Sagar. ❖❖ He was succeeded by Lakshmana Sena. Jayadeva, the famous Vaishnava poet of Bengal and the author of Gita Govinda lived at his court.

South Indian Dynasties Imperial Cholas ❖❖ Vijayalaya Chola, who was probably a Pallava vassal, rose during the middle of the 9th century ce. Making use of the opportunity during a war between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, Vijayalaya rose out of obscurity and captured Thanjavur in 848 ce.

Rajaraja Chola ❖❖ Although the early Chola monarchs had captured parts of Tondai-nadu, Kongu-nadu and Pandi-nadu, the empire had shrunk to the area around the Kaveri delta in the year 985, when the 7th Chola monarch, Rajaraja, born Arulmoli Varman, assumed the throne. ❖❖ He captured the island of Sri Lanka as a province of the Chola Empire; it remained under direct Chola rule for 75 years. Rajaraja built temples in his own name in all these areas. He conquered the Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean and sent missions to the Indonesian Shrivijaya Empire.

Rajendra Chola ❖❖ Rajaraja’s son Rajendra (1012–44) further consolidated Chola power. ❖❖ He marched to the north to the river Ganga (Ganges) and brought back some of its sacred water in golden pots, emptied these into a tank named

1.34  Chapter 1

Chola-Ganga and adopted the title of Gangai-konda (Capturer of the Ganges).

Chalukyas of Vatapi/Badami (543–755 ce) ❖❖ This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan from 5th to 8th century ce and again from 10th to 12th century ce.

Pulakesin I (543–608 ce) ❖❖ A prominent ruler of the Chalukya dynasty was Pulakesin I. He founded the city of Vatapi (modern Badami in Bijapur district of Karnataka) and made it his capital. He is said to have performed the Ashwamedha Yagna to attain supremacy as a ruler.

Pulakesin II (608–642 ce) ❖❖ Pulakesin II, son of Kirtivarman was the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty, who ruled for almost 34 years. During his long reign, he consolidated his powers in Maharashtra and conquered parts of the Deccan stretching from the banks of the Narmada to the region beyond the Kaveri. ❖❖ Pulakesin II was defeated and killed by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman in 642 ce. His capital Vatapi was completely destroyed. ❖❖ The Aihole inscription is about his empire, written by his court poet ‘Ravikirti’.

Chalukyas of Kalyani ❖❖ Another branch of the Chalukyas established their supremacy under their ruler Tailpa II (973–997 ce), who was probably a feudatory of the Rastrakutas. He fought successful wars against the Latas of Gujarat, Kalachuris of Chedi, Parmars of Malwa and the Cholas of the South. ❖❖ The famous poet Bilhana and Vigneshwara, the authors of the well known work ‘Mitakshara’ flourished during his reign. After Vikramaditya VI’s death in about 1126 ce the Chalukya power began to decline rapidly.

The Rajputs (8th–18th ce) The Popular Rajputana Dynasties ❖❖ After Harshavardhana, the Rajputs emerged as a powerful force in western and central India and dominated the Indian political scene for

Indian History    1.35

nearly 500 years. There were nearly 36 Rajput clans. The major clans were: ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

The Pratiharas of Avanti The Palas of Bengal The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer The Rathors of Kannauj The Guhilas or Sisodiyas of Mewar The Chandellas of Bundelkhand The Paramaras of Malwa The Senas of Bengal The Solankis of Gujarat

Know More! Theories related to the origin of Rajputs 1. Theory of Kshatriya origin of the Rajputs: The Rajputs trace their origin to the legendary Solar and Lunar dynasties. Some of them claim to be lineal descendants of the Kshatriyas of Vedic fame. The word Rajaputra is mentioned in the Puranas. The term ‘Rajput’ seems to have been derived from the Sanskrit word Rajaputra. Bana uses the term to denote a high-born Kshatriya. 2. Theory of foreign origin of the Rajputs: Modern view is that noble Rajput sects have descended from the Sakas, Huns, Kushans and the Gurjaras or other foreigners, who converted to Hinduism. 3. Theory of Agnikula origin: Late legends, like the poet Chand Bardai in his poetical work Prithviraj Raso has recorded a legend that the Rajputs of Parmar, Chauhan, Pratihara and Chalukya (or Solanki) clans sprang from Vasishta’s sacrificial fire pit at Mount Abu. This was probably a hint at purificatory rites performed for removing the impurity of foreigners and absorbing them in Hinduism.

The Pratiharas 8th–11th Century ce ❖❖ The Pratiharas were also known as Gurjaras. They ruled over northern and western India from 8th to 11th century ce. ❖❖ Nagabhatta I (725–740 ce) was the founder of the Pratihara dynasty with Kannauj as his capital. ❖❖ Vatsaraja and Nagabhatta II played a vital role in consolidating the empire. ❖❖ Mihirabhoja was the most powerful Pratihara king.

1.36  Chapter 1

❖❖ Mahendrapala (885–908 ce), son of Mihirabhoja, was also a powerful ruler. He extended his control over Magadha and North Bengal. ❖❖ Rajyapala was the last Pratihara king. After the decline of the Prathiharas, their feudatories Palas, Tomars, Chauhans, Rathors, Chandellas, Guhilas and Paramaras became independent rulers.

Pala Dynasty ❖❖ The founder of the dynasty was Gopala (765–769 ce) who extended his power over Magadha. The Pala dynasty ruled over northern and eastern India. ❖❖ Dharmapala (769–815 ce), the son of Gopala, succeeded him. He brought Kannauj, Bengal and Bihar under his control and became the master of northern India after defeating the Pratiharas. ❖❖ He was a staunch Buddhist and founded several monasteries as well as the famous Vikramasila University and also renovated the Nalanda University. ❖❖ Devapala (815–855 ce). He captured Assam and Orissa but his successors were weak. The Pala dynasty started declining after the death of Mahipala. The last Pala king was Govinda Pala.

The Tomars of Delhi ❖❖ The Tomars were the feudatories of the Pratiharas. They rose to power and founded the city of Delhi in 736 ce. In 1043 ce, Mahipala Tomar captured Thaneshwar, Hansi and Nagarkot.

The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer ❖❖ The Chauhans who were the feudatories of the Pratiharas declared their independence in the 11th century at Ajmer. ❖❖ In the early part of the 12th century, they captured Ujjain from the Paramaras of Malwa and Delhi from the Tomars, then they shifted their capital to Delhi. The most important ruler of this dynasty was Prithviraj Chauhan. ❖❖ Prithviraj Chauhan: He ruled over Delhi and Agra and fought two important battles:

1. The First battle of Tarain was fought in 1191 between the forces of Prithviraj and Muhammad Ghori in which Ghori was defeated.

Indian History    1.37



2. The Second battle of Tarain was fought in 1192 when Muhammad Ghori again invaded India, in which Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated and captured by Ghori.

Rathors of Kannauj (1090–1194 ce) ❖❖ The Rathors established themselves on the throne of Kannauj from 1090 ce to 1194. Raja Jaichand was the last great ruler of this dynasty. He was killed in the Battle of Chandwar in 1194 ce by Muhammad Ghori.

The Chandellas of Bundelkhand ❖❖ The empire was established in the 9th century. The Chandella chief Yasovarman had his capital at Mahoba. The Chandellas built a number of beautiful temples at Khajuraho, the most famous being the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (1050 ce).

The Guhilas or Sisodiyas of Mewar ❖❖ The Rajput ruler Bapa Rawal was the founder of the Guhila or the Sisodiya dynasty with its capital at Chittor. ❖❖ The Sisodiya rulers—Rana Sangha and Maharana Pratap gave a tough fight to the Mughal rulers of India. ❖❖ Malik Mohammad Jaisi wrote Padmavat during the kingship of Shershah Suri, which is based on the Sisodiya king, Rana Rattan Singh and his beautiful wife Padmavati, who did jauhar when Alauddin Khilji tried to capture her.

The Paramaras of Malwa ❖❖ The Paramaras were also the feudatories of the Pratiharas. They asserted their independence in the 10th century and their capital was at Dhara. ❖❖ Raja Bhoja (1018–69) was the most famous ruler of this period. He constructed a beautiful lake (More than 250 sq miles) near Bhopal. He set up a college at Dhara for the study of Sanskrit literature. He also built a famous Shiv temple in Bhojpur near the city of Bhopal.

Medieval India Invasion of Islam ❖❖ Islam, originated in the 6th century ce in the Arabian desert. It was started by Prophet Muhammad.

1.38  Chapter 1

❖❖ Muhammad Bin Qasim invaded India in 712 ce and conquered Sind which became a province of Umayyad Khilafat. ❖❖ He conquered Multan city and acquired much wealth from there.

Expeditions of Mahmud Ghazni (1000–25) ❖❖ After over-running Punjab, Mahmud undertook three expeditions into the Ganga Valley. The purpose of these raids was to acquire wealth for his Central Asian campaigns, and also to destabilize the states in the area so that no coalition of powers could emerge against him. ❖❖ Towards the end of 1015, Mahmud, aided by feudatory rulers, crossed the Yamuna and defeated a local Rajput ruler at Baran (Bulandshahr) in modern western UP. Moving towards the pilgrim centre Mathura, he was opposed by the Kalachuri ruler Kokkala II, who was defeated due to his slow moving forces pitted against rapidly moving cavalry forces. After plundering Mathura and Vrindavan, Mahmud moved toward Kannauj, the capital of the Pratihara (who fled). In 1025, Mahmud plundered across Rajasthan to Somnath.

Mahmud Ghazni ❖❖ Mahmud Ghazni was a bold warrior and leader, who almost carved out one of the biggest empires in West and Central Asia. With the riches plundered from India, he adorned his capital, Ghazni, with magnificent buildings. He also gave patronage to literary men and poets, such as Firdausi, and carried forward the Persian renaissance which had begun with the Samanids. But he built no lasting institutions which could outlive him. Moreover, his rule outside Ghazni was tyrannical. He levied heavy taxes in Khurasan. ❖❖ Mahmud is remembered in India as a plunderer and did not earn a good name for himself even outside India among his contemporaries.

The Sultanate of Delhi (1206–1526) ❖❖ Muhammad Ghori’s conquests became the centre of a new political entity of India—the Delhi Sultanate. Muhammad had left his Indian possessions in the care of his former slave, General Qutub-ud-Din Aibak who was slave of Muhammad Ghori established Sultanate of Delhi.

The Slave Dynasty (1206–90 ce) ❖❖ The first dynasty of the Sultanate has been designated by various historians as the Slave dynasty or the Mamluk dynasty or the Ilbari dynasty.

Indian History    1.39

Qutub-ud-Din Aibak (1206–10 ce) ❖❖ He established his capital at Lahore and later Delhi. He began the construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi), Adhai Din Ka Jhopra (a mosque at Ajmer) and the Qutub Minar, a 72½ metre (238 feet) stone tower in Delhi (named after of Khwaja Qutub-ud-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki, a Muslim saint). The construction of Qutub Minar was finally completed by Iltutmish, his successor.

Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1210–36 ce) ❖❖ Iltutmish defeated Yildiz in Tarain (1217). Likewise, in 1228 he led a march against Qubacha and put him to death. ❖❖ In 1221 ce, the Mongol chief, Genghis Khan, one of the mightiest conquerors the world has ever seen, reached the Indus in pursuit of an enemy Jalal-ud-Din Meharghani (King of Khwarizm); Iltutmish at this time saved his sultanate by refusing to give any shelter to Jalal-ud-Din. ❖❖ He organized the Iqta system and introduced reforms in civil administration, which was then centrally paid for and recruited to. ❖❖ It was he who gave the country a capital, a sovereign state, a monarchial form of government and a governing class or nobility, known as Turkani-Chahalgani or Chalisa (a group of forty noble Turkish) which formed the ruling elite of the period. ❖❖ He issued the coins of silver (tanka) and copper (jital) to facilitate trade and commerce. These coins were the first purely Arabic coins issued from Delhi. ❖❖ He patronised Minhaj-us-Siraj (author of ‘Tabaqat-i-Nasiri’). ❖❖ Rukunuddin was the son of Iltutmish and was crowned after Iltutmish’s death. He was deposed by Razia, daughter of Iltutmish.

Razia Sultan (1236–40 ce) ❖❖ Razia was the daughter of Iltutmish and became the first and the last woman ruler in Indian history of the Sultanate period. ❖❖ Razia discarded parda, held the court attired in the male dress and commanded the army herself. ❖❖ She further offended the nobles by her preference for an Abyssinian slave Yakut. ❖❖ The contemporary historian Minhaj-us-Siraj accepts that she had the ability of a great king, her only weakness being that she was a woman. Her rule marked the beginning of a struggle for power between the monarchy and the Turkish chiefs (‘the forty’ or ‘Chahalgani’).

1.40  Chapter 1

❖❖ In 1240 she became the victim of conspiracy and was assassinated near Kaithal (a village in Haryana).

Successors of Razia ❖❖ Bahram Shah 1240–42 ce. ❖❖ Alaud-din Masid or Masud Shah 1242–46 ce. ❖❖ Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud 1246–64 ce.

Ghiyas-ud-Din Balban (1266–87 ce) ❖❖ Balban was an Ilbari Turk. His original name was Bahauddin. He was the slave of Iltutmish and gradually occupied the throne of Sultan. ❖❖ He broke the power of Chalisa and restored the prestige of the crown. ❖❖ He maintained that kingship was the Niyaba-i-Khudai (gift from God) and took the title Zil-e-Ilahi (shadow of God on Earth). He believed in Divine Right Theory which means ‘King is the representative of God on earth’. ❖❖ In his court, he introduced some formalities like Sijda (prostration before the monarch) and Paibos (Kissing the feet of the monarch). ❖❖ The Iranian festival of Nauroz or New Year was celebrated in the court. ❖❖ The army establishment was separated from the rest of the civil department. A separate military department known as Diwan-i-Arz and finance department known as Diwan-i-Wizarat were established. ❖❖ He introduced a well-organized spy system. ❖❖ An official Amir-e-Hajib was appointed to regularize the proceedings of the court. ❖❖ The well-known Hindi and Persian poet Amir Khusrau (1235–1325 ce) who was called the ‘Parrot of India’ adorned the court of Balban.

Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320 ce) ❖❖ The coming to power of the Khiljis was more than a dynastic change. Khiljis were basically Central Asians in origin.

Jalal-ud-din Khilji (1290–96 ce) ❖❖ He was the founder of the Khilji dynasty and made Kilokhari the capital. The most important event in his reign was the invasion of Devgiri, the capital of the Yadav king.

Indian History    1.41

❖❖ He wanted to rule without bloodshed. Hence, he was called Clemency Jalaluddin.

Alauddin Khilji (1296–1316 ce) ❖❖ He was the greatest ruler of the Khilji dynasty and was the first Muslim ruler to extend his empire right upto the extreme South of India. Alauddin was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate who did not ask for ‘Manshur’ (letter of investiture) from the Caliph, but called himself the Deputy of the Caliph. ❖❖ He annexed Gujarat (1298), Ranthambor (1301), Mewar (1303), Malwa (1305) and Jalor (1311). ❖❖ Many forts were built by him and the most important of them was ‘Alai Fort’. He also constructed the Alai Darwaja at the entrance gate of the Qutub Minar. He also built the palace of a thousand pillars called Hazar Sutun at Siri Fort, New Delhi. ❖❖ He proclaimed that ‘Kingship knows no Kinship’. ❖❖ He was the first Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics.

Administrative Measures for Prevention of Rebellions ❖❖ All religious endowments and grants of land (waqf and inam) by the State were revoked. He established a network of spies all over his kingdom known as Munhiyan. Apart from this, Barids (news reporters) were also appointed. ❖❖ In order to avoid problems created by nobles, he issued some ordinances like:

1. With the first order he aimed at the confiscation of religious endowments and free grants of land. 2. With the second order he reorganized his spy system. 3. With the third order he prohibited the use of wine. 4. And in the last order he prohibited social gatherings and decreed that nobles should not inter-marry without his permission.

Revenue/Agriculture Reforms ❖❖ Biswa was declared as the standard unit of measurement of cultivable land. Land revenue (Kharaj) was fixed at half of the produce. He established a new revenue department called Diwan-i-Mustakharaj.

1.42  Chapter 1

Market Control The markets were controlled by two officers, Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahana-iMandi. All merchants were required to register themselves in the office of the Shahana-i-Mandi and sell their goods at fixed rates. ❖❖ No hoarding was allowed and all merchants were registered at state ‘daftars’. ❖❖ The prices of essential commodities were fixed which were less than the usual market rates. Black marketing was strictly prohibited with a strong law.

Military Reforms ❖❖ He was the first sultan of Delhi to lay the foundation of a permanent standing army. ❖❖ Direct recruitment of the soldiers was done by Arz-i-Mamalik, the minister in-charge of the Army of the whole country. ❖❖ Introduction of Dagh (branding the horses) and Huliya or Chehra (descriptive rolls of soldiers) system. Horses were sold directly to the Military Department (Diwan-i-Arz). ❖❖ Introduction of three grades of soldiers:

1. Foot soldiers 2. Soldiers with one horse (ek-aspa) 3. Soldiers with two horses (do-aspa)

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414 ce) Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq (1320–25 ce) ❖❖ He was the first sultan of Delhi to add the word Ghazi after his name. He laid the foundation of a big palace fort which came to be known as Tughlaqabad. He was the first sultan credited with digging canals for the promotion of agriculture. ❖❖ He died in an accident and his son Jauna (Ulugh Khan) succeeded him under the title Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325–51 ce) ❖❖ He was well versed in the various branches of learning, i.e., astronomy, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, etc. ❖❖ Formulated a ‘famine-code’ to provide relief to famine affected people. To improve agriculture, he created the Department of Agriculture (Diwan-i-Amir Kohi).

Indian History    1.43

Ambitious Projects He tried to introduce many administrative reforms. He had five ambitious projects for which he became particularly debatable. 1. Taxation in the Doab (1326): Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq raised the taxes in the Doab region to fill up his empty treasury. To avoid heavy taxes the people ran away to the forests. As cultivation was neglected, severe famines occurred. 2. Transfer of Capital (1327): He ordered both government officials and the common people to shift from Delhi to Devagiri (Daultabad Maharashtra). Due to practical difficulties, he later ordered them to return to Delhi. 3. Introduction of Token Currency (1329): Copper currency system was introduced by the Sultan. The value of coins fell so low that the Sultan withdrew the copper token currency.

1.44  Chapter 1

4. Proposed Khurasan Expedition: The Sultan had a vision of universal conquest. He decided to conquer Khurasan and Iraq, and mobilized a huge army for the purpose. 5. Quarachil (Kumaon Hills of Himalayas) Expedition.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–88 ce) ❖❖ Firoz Tughlaq was termed as the Akbar of the Sultanate period, by Henri Eliot and Elphinstone. ❖❖ He was the cousin of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, after whose death (1351) the nobles of the courts selected Firoz Shah as the next sultan. ❖❖ He proclaimed that he was a true king and that the state under him was truly Islamic, so he tried to ban practices which the orthodox theologians considered un-Islamic. ❖❖ During his era, Jizya became a separate tax. Firoz refused to exempt the brahmins and women from payment of Jizya since this was not provided for in the Shariat.

Economic Reforms ❖❖ He was known as a welfare king as he introduced many public welfare reforms. He introduced the following new departments: ●● ●● ●●

Diwan-i-Khairat: For charitable purposes. Diwan-i-Risalat: Believed to be used for religious purposes. Diwan-i-Imarat: For architectural purposes.

Revenue Management ❖❖ Most important was Kharaj—Land revenue (Bhag) which was equal to 1/10 of the produce of land. ❖❖ Other taxes were Zakat (2% tax on property), Jizya (was levied on nonmuslims), Khams or Maal-e-Ghanimat (1/5 of the booty captured during war). ❖❖ He built towns like Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hisar. ❖❖ Firoz prohibited all kinds of mutilation and torture on the public. ❖❖ An employment bureau, marriage bureau, (Diwan-i-Khairat) and hospitals (Darul-shifa) were established. ❖❖ Diwan-i-Istihqaq was established to give financial help to the poor.

Indian History    1.45

Know More! Zakat: It was collected only from Muslims who had savings of more than 7.5 tolas of gold or its equivalent based on lunar calendar a at rate of 2.5% of total wealth. It was compulsory for both men and women. Jaziya: Jaziya originated in the Arab world in the early days of Islam. In that period and region, there were generally only Muslims and Christians. NonMuslims (called Zimmis or Dhimmis) had apprehension in joining the army, so they paid additional tax in lieu of protection. Khams: Also known as Mal-e-Ghanimat, it related to war booty. According to Islam, out of the total war booty, four-fifth would go to the soldiers and one-fifth to the State.

The Sayyid Dynasty (1414–51 ce) ❖❖ Khizr Khan was the founder of the Sayyid dynasty. He was appointed by Timur-e-Lang as his nominee in Delhi. He ruled as a deputy of Timur’s son and successor, Shah Rukh. He died in 1421 ce and was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah. ❖❖ Mubarak built a city called ‘Mubarakbad’ on the banks of the river Yamuna. ❖❖ On the death of Mubarak Shah, his nephew Muhammad Shah ascended to the throne. ❖❖ Muhammad Shah was succeeded by Alam Shah, who was dethroned by Bahlul Lodhi.

Lodhi Dynasty (1451–26 ce) Bahlul Lodhi (1451–89 ce) ❖❖ Bahlul Lodhi was the founder of this dynasty. ❖❖ The most successful war was against Mahmud Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur.

Sikandar Lodhi (1489–1517 ce) ❖❖ Bahlul Lodhi was succeeded by his able son Nizam Shah under the title of Sultan Sikandar Shah in 1489 ce. He conquered Bihar and concluded a friendship treaty with Ala-ud-Din Hussain Shah of Bengal. ❖❖ He introduced the unit ‘Gaz-i-Sikandari’ (Sikandar’s yard) of 39 digits or 32 inches, for the measurement of agricultural land. He transferred his capital from Delhi to Agra, a city which was founded by him. ❖❖ He enjoyed ‘Shehnai’ music. A reputed work on music titled ‘LahjatSikandar Shahi’ was prepared during his reign.

1.46  Chapter 1

❖❖ He built the city of Agra which became an important administrative and cultural centre of the Lodhis. ❖❖ Sikandar Lodhi was succeeded by Ibrahim Lodhi.

First Battle of Panipat, 1526 ❖❖ Daulat Khan Lodhi (father of Dilawar Khan) and Alam Khan invited Babur, the Timurid ruler of Kabul, to invade India.

Sultanate Architecture Structure

Location

Builder

Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque

Delhi

Qutub-ud-Din Aibak

Adhai Din Ka Jhopra

Ajmer

Qutub-ud-Din Aibak

Qutub Minar

Delhi

Iltutmish (Founded by Qutub-ud-Din Aibak)

Tomb of Hazarat Nizamuddin Auliya

Delhi

Ala-ud-Din Khilji

Alai Darwaza

Delhi

Ala-ud-Din Khilji

Jammat Khana Masjid

Delhi

Ala-ud-Din Khilji

Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

Delhi

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq

Tughlaqabad

Delhi

Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq

Moth ki Masjid

Delhi

Wazir Miya Bhoiya (Prime Minister of Sikandar Lodhi)

Vijayanagara Empire ❖❖ The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 ce by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty. The two Sangama brothers were in the service of the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal, Prataparudra II.

Monarchs: The Sangama Dynasty Harihara I (1336–56 ce) ❖❖ He was the founder of the Sangama dynasty. He took part in the confederacy organized by Krishna Nayak of Warangal in 1344 to drive out the Muslims from the Deccan.

Indian History    1.47

Bukka I (1356–79 ce) ❖❖ He is described in inscriptions as the master of the eastern, western and southern oceans. ❖❖ He brought about reconciliation between the Jains and the Vaishnavas by asking them to worship in their own manner with equal freedom. He was succeeded by Harihara II.

Harihara II (1379–1404 ce) ❖❖ Bukka I was succeeded by his son Harihara II. He was the first ruler to assume the legal title of Raja Parmeshwara, Maharajadhiraja.

Deva Raya I (1406–22 ce) ❖❖ He was defeated by the Bahmani ruler Firoz Shah, and had to pay a huge indemnity. ❖❖ In 1420, Niccolò de’ Conti Italian visited the city and had given a vivid description of it.

Deva Raya II (1422–46 ce) ❖❖ He employed a large number of Muslims in his service and gave them Jagirs.

The Saluva Dynasty (1486–1505 ce) ❖❖ Saluva Narasimha was the founder of the Saluva dynasty.

The Tuluva Dynasty (1505–70 ce) ❖❖ Vira Narasimha was the founder of the Tuluva dynasty. ❖❖ According to Nuniz, he was a pious king and distributed gifts at sacred places.

Krishna Deva Raya (1509–29) ❖❖ He was the greatest ruler of Vijayanagara. He took titles like Andhra Bhoja, Andhra Pitamah, and Abhinav Bhoja. Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller visited during his reign.

The Bahmani Kingdom ❖❖ The Bahmani kingdom was founded in 1347 by Ala-ud-Din Hasan Bahman Shah.

1.48  Chapter 1

❖❖ After 1518, this Sultanate broke up into five states: Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Qutb Shahi of Golconda, Baridshahi of Bidar, Imadshashi of Bedar and Adilshahi of Bijapur, who were collectively known as Deccan Sultanates.

Mahmud Gawan ❖❖ He was the Prime Minister of Mohammed Shah III between 1463–81. The Bahmani kingdom saw a resurgence under his guidance.

Other Independent Kingdoms of the Deccan ❖❖ The various kingdoms that emerged after the decline of the Bahmani kingdom are as follows: ●●

●● ●● ●●

●●

Bijapur: It was established in 1489–90 by Yusuf Adil Shah with Adil Shahi dynasty. It was annexed to the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1686. Ahmednagar: It was established by Malik Ahmed with Nizam Shahi dynasty. It was annexed to the Mughal Empire by Shah Jahan in 1637. Berar: It was established in 1490 by Fath Ullah Imad Shah with Imad Shahi dynasty. It was annexed by Ahmednagar in 1574. Golconda: It was established by Qutub Shah in 1512 with Qutub Shahi dynasty. It was annexed to the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1687. Bidar: It was established in 1526 by Amir Ali Barid with Barid Shahi dynasty. Ibrahim Adil Shah II of Bijapur annexed Bidar to Bijapur in 1618–19.

Religious Movements or Bhakti Movement Bhakti Saints: Shankaracharya (788–820 ce) ❖❖ He is known as the saviour of modern Hinduism or Adi Shankaracharya. He is honoured as ‘Jagatguru’, a title that was used earlier only for Lord Krishna. ❖❖ Shankaracharya is also seen as an incarnation (avtar) of Shiva (locally famous as Shankar). He is responsible for founding many punyakshetra or Hindu pilgrimages, which are famous Peeth.

1. In north India—Badrinath (Uttarakhand) 2. In west India—Dwarkapuri (Gujarat) 3. In east India—Jagannath Puri (Orissa) 4. In south India—Rameshwaram (Tamil Nadu)

Indian History    1.49

Ramanujacharya (1017–1137 ce) ❖❖ He was a Tamil Vaishnavite saint. ❖❖ He was the chief exponent of the Vishishtadvaita school of Vedanta. ❖❖ He wrote Vedanta Sangraha, commentaries on Brahma sutras and Bhagawad Gita. ❖❖ He established the Yatiraja math and the Cheluvarayaswamy temple at Melkote in Karnataka.

Kabir (1440–1510 ce) ❖❖ He was a great Nirgun saint and mystic poet of the Bhakti Movement. ❖❖ He opposed caste, creed, and image worship and propagated HinduMuslim unity. ❖❖ Kabir’s legacy survives and continues through the Kabir Panth; they follow the path of Kabir and famous Kabir Panthis. ❖❖ Kabir and his followers named his verbally composed poems of wisdom as Banis (utterances). These include songs and couplets, called Dohe, Shloka and Sakhi. The term ‘Sakhi’ means evidence from teachings of saint Kabir. ❖❖ Some work related to Saint Kabir—Kabir Bijak, Kabir Parchai, Sakhi Granth, and Kabir Granthawali.

Guru Nanak (1469–1539 ce) ❖❖ He was born at Talwandi in Lahore. He propagated monism, HinduMuslim unity and denounced idol worship.

Guru Gobind Singh ❖❖ He instituted the custom of baptization to become a Khalsa. He compiled Dasven Padshah Ka Granth. He was stabbed to death by an Afghan fanatic.

Dadu Dayal (1554–1603 ce) ❖❖ He was a famous saint from Gujarat. ❖❖ The word Dadu means brother and Dayal means compassionate one. ❖❖ He was born in Ahmedabad to Muslim parents, and brought up by a Hindu. His teachings are collected in a book called BANI. Some of his disciples were Sundaradasa, Rajjab, Bakham and Warid. ❖❖ He founded the Brahma sect or Param Brahma Sampradaya.

1.50  Chapter 1

❖❖ Dadu had 100 disciples who attained Samadhi. He instructed an additional 52 disciples to set up ashramas. The Sikh Gurus 10 Gurus of Sikhism established many of the customs and rituals of Sikhism. Guru Nanak Dev ●● ●● ●●

He founded Sikhism. His words are registered in the form of 974 poetic hymns in the holy text of Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib. He started Guru ka Langar.

Guru Angad Dev ●●

He standardized and popularized the Gurumukhi script.

Guru Amar Das ●● ●●

Established Manji and Piri system of religious missions for men and women respectively. He was a contemporary of Mughal King Akbar and asked him to remove Pilgrim Tax.

Guru Ram Das ●●

He composed the 4 lawans of ‘Anand Karaj’, a distinct marriage code for Sikhs.

Guru Arjun Dev ●● ●● ●●

Compiled the Guru Granth Sahib. He also founded the town of Tarn Taran Sahib near Goindwal Sahib. He was tortured and executed on the order of Mughal King Jahangir.

Guru Hargobind ●●

He built Akal Takhat.

Guru Har Rai ●●

Gave shelter to Dara Shikoh.

Guru Har Krishan ●●

He held the shortest term for any Sikh Guru.

Guru Tegh Bahadur ●●

Executed by Mughal King Aurangzeb.

Guru Gobind Singh ●● ●●

He founded ‘The Khalsa’ in 1699. He was the last human Sikh Guru.

Guru Granth Sahib ●●

The last and final eternal Guru.

Indian History    1.51

Saguna Saints (Ram-Bhakti) Tulsi Das (1532–1623 ce) ❖❖ He was a great hindu poet, saint, reformer and philosopher. ❖❖ He was a contemporary of Akbar. ❖❖ He was from the lineage of Jagatguru Ramanandacharya who was renowned for his devotion to Lord Shri Rama. ❖❖ He was the writer of several popular works in Sanskrit and Awadhi. ❖❖ His works in Awadhi Language:

1. Ramcharitmanas 2. Ramlala Nahachhu 3. Parvati Mangal 4. Janki Mangal 5. Ramagya Prasha 6. Krishna Gitavali 7. Sahitya Ratna 8. Vinaya Patrika

Vallabhacharya (1479–1531 ce) ❖❖ He was a devotional philosopher who founded the Krishna-centered sect of Vaishwanism in Uttar Pradesh. ❖❖ He was born a Telugu Brahmin in Varanasi (Banaras). ❖❖ He founded his own interpretation of the Vedanta philosophy. ❖❖ His works—Anubhashya and Shodash Granth. ❖❖ He was a Telangana Brahmin born at Banaras. He assumed the title of Jagat Guru Mahaprabhu. He established Pushti Marg and propounded the philosophy of Shudha Advaita.

Surdas (1483–1563 ce) ❖❖ He was a blind poet and musician. He is famous for his devotional songs dedicated to Lord Krishna. ❖❖ He was born in a Saraswat family of Ruktna village near Agra. ❖❖ He was a disciple of Vallabhacharya. He sang of the glory of Krishna in his Sursagar.

Meerabai (1498–1546 ce) ❖❖ She was a famous Hindu mystic poet in the 16th century, devoted to Lord Krishna.

1.52  Chapter 1

❖❖ She was a Rathore princess of Merata and the daughter-in-law of Rana Sanga of Mewar (husband—Bhoj Raj). ❖❖ Many poems attributed to Meera were likely composed later by others who admired Meera. These poems are commonly known as ‘Bhajans’ and are popular in North India. ❖❖ According to some stories, Raidas was her teacher.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533 ce) ❖❖ He was the spiritual leader in eastern India (Bengal). ❖❖ He founded Gaudiya Vaishnavism so he was known as Gaudiya Mahaprabhu. He was the founder of Gaurang or Bengal Vaishnavism. His teacher was Ishwapuri. He propounded the philosophy of Achintya Bhedabheda. ❖❖ Chaitanya was the proponent of the Vaishnava School of Bhakti Yoga based on the Bhagavata Purana and Bhagwad Gita.

Marathi Dharma Saints Jnanesvara/Jnanadeva ❖❖ He was a worshipper of Vithoba. He was associated with the Krishna Nagri sect. He was the founder of Marathi language and literature. He wrote commentaries on Bhagwat Gita called Dnyaneshwari/Bhavarthadipka.

Namdeva ❖❖ He was a tailor by caste, and opposed caste distinction. He founded the Vakart sect or the cult of Vithoba.

Eknath ❖❖ He was associated with a Varkari Sect. He wrote a commentary on the Ramayana called the Bhavartha Ramayana and another commentary on the 11th book of the Bhagwat Purana.

Tukaram ❖❖ He was associated with the Dharkari and Varkari sects. He wrote devotional poems called Abhangas. He was the teacher of Shivaji.

The Mughal Empire ❖❖ The Mughal Empire, self-designated as Gurkani, was an empire extending over large parts of the Indian subcontinent.

Indian History    1.53

Babur (1526–30 ce) ❖❖ He was the founder of the Mughal rule and belonged to the Chughtai section of the Turkish race. He defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526 ce) and sowed the seeds of Mughal empire in India.

Humayun (1530–56 ce) ❖❖ Humayun succeeded Babur to the throne at Agra. He divided the Mughal territories with his three brothers. He constructed a grand acropolis at Delhi known as Dinpanah. ❖❖ He was defeated in the Battle of Bilgram (Kannauj) by Shershah Suri in 1540. ❖❖ He defeated the forces of Sikandar Shah Suri and occupied Agra and Delhi in 1555.

The Sur Empire Shershah Suri (1540–45 ce) ❖❖ He was the founder of the Sur Empire. He began his career with the administration of his father Hasan’s ‘Iqta’ at Sasaram in Bihar. He moved to the court of the Afghan ruler of Bihar, Bahar Khan Lohani, who gave him the title Sher Khan for his bravery.

Local Administration ❖❖ Provinces were divided into Sarkars headed by Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (Incharge of law and order) and Munsif-i-Munsif (Incharge of local revenue). Sarkars were divided into Paraganas headed by Shiqdars and Munsif or Amin. ❖❖ Sher Shah’s land revenue policy is an important landmark in the history of Indian agrarian system. ❖❖ Dispensation of tribal levies and beginning of direct recruitment of soldiers were done in his reign. Payment of salaries to the soldiers was in cash. ❖❖ Sher Shah improved communication by building roads. Four important roads constructed by him were: ●● ●● ●● ●●

Grand Trunk (GT) road from Sonargaon in East Bengal to Peshawar. Road from Agra to Multan via Burhanpur and Delhi. Road from Multan to Lahore. Road from Mandu to Agra.

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❖❖ Of these four roads, the first was the most important. The roads built by Sher Shah were called the arteries of the empire. ❖❖ His currency reform deserves high praise. He issued a large number of silver coins (dam) and abolished all old and mixed metal currency. His silver rupia, after elimination of its inscription, was in use till 1835 and formed the basis of the later British Indian currency.

Akbar (1555–1605 ce) ❖❖ He was born at Amarkot in the palace of Rajput chieftain Rana Virsal in 1542. He was king of no land at the time of his coronation as the emperor of Hindustan. ❖❖ He was only 13 when he came to the throne and his tutor Bairam Khan was appointed as the regent. ❖❖ Akbar’s first conflict was with Hemu, a general of Adil Shah, under whom the Afghan resistance had regrouped itself. ❖❖ Administration—Akbar organized the nobility and his army by means of the ‘Mansabdari system’. Every officer was assigned a rank (mansab), valued in terms of a certain number of mounted soldiers. The ranks normally given to officers and nobles were valued from 10 to 5000. The ranks were divided into two: Zat and Sawar. Zat means personal— whereby the status and salary of the individual were fixed, the other rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (Sawar). ❖❖ For land revenue, Akbar initially followed Sher Shah’s system, but in 1580, Akbar instituted a new system called ‘Dahsala’. Land revenue was collected as a fixed share of the estimated produce, varying from 1/3rd to 1/2 of the production. It was always collected in cash, with state officials fixing the rates at which the produce was expected to sell in the market. ❖❖ Religious ideas—Akbar built the Ibadat Khana or the Hall of Prayer in 1575. Initially it was open only to the Sunnis but later it was opened to people of all religions—Sufis, Christians, Zoroastrian, Hindus, Jains and even atheists. His aim was to ascertain the truth to find out and disclose the principles of genuine religion. ❖❖ The academic, spiritual and metaphysical aspect of the Ibadat khana (the hall of prayer/worship) later transformed into Tauhid-i-Ilahi (Din-i-Ilahi in current form) which literally means divine monotheism. Akbar did not create a new religion but only suggested a new religious path based on the common truth of all religions.

Jahangir (1605–end of 1627 ce) ❖❖ He became king after the death of Akbar in 1605 ce.

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❖❖ He established a chain of justice called Zanjir-i-Adal at Agra Fort for every one. ❖❖ In 1611, he married Nurjahan (real name—Mihar-un-Nisa). She exercised tremendous influence over the State affairs. She was made the official Padshah Begum. ❖❖ He wrote his memories as Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. ❖❖ Captain W. Hawkins (a representative of the East India Company) came to his court. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe came to his court as ambassador of King James I of England. And after Jahangir’s permission, the East India Company started business with India and established a port at Surat. ❖❖ After death, he was buried in Lahore.

Shahjahan (1628–1658 ce) ❖❖ He ascended the throne in 1628 after his father Jahangir’s death. ❖❖ He built the Taj Mahal (in 1632–53) in the memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal, after her death. ❖❖ Some French travellers like Bernier and Tavernier have explained his reign. ❖❖ He also built the Red Fort and Jama Masjid in Delhi.

Aurangzeb (1658–1707 ce) ❖❖ He was the third son of Shah Jahan. During his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its territorial climax. His reign was marked by a gradual departure from Akbar’s policy of co-existence. ❖❖ He kept a regional title ‘Alamgir’. ❖❖ He was the sixth and widely considered the last effective Mughal emperor. ❖❖ His policy partly abandoned the legacy of pluralism which became the reason behind the downfall of the Mughal empire. ❖❖ In 1656, he fought a war of succession with his brother Dara Shikoh and defeated him. ❖❖ He reimposed Jizya tax on non-Muslims. Further, he levied discriminatory taxes on Hindu merchants.

Mughal Administration ❖❖ Subah was the largest administrative unit, equivalent to a province. The head was known as Nazim or Subedar (Subahdar). ❖❖ Sarkar was equivalent to district, headed by a Faujdar or Shiqdar. Other officers were Amalgujar and Kotwal. ❖❖ Village affairs were looked after by the Panchayat. The Lambardar was the head of the Panchayat.

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Mansabdari System ❖❖ It was introduced in 1595–96, showing a noble’s civil and military capacity. Twin rank(s) Zat and Sawar were allotted. It had a three-scale gradation—(1) Mansabdar, (2) Amir, and (3) Amir-i-Umda.

Land Revenue System ❖❖ Land was classified into four types: ●● ●● ●● ●●

Polaj: Continuously cultivated and very fertile. Parauti: Left fallow for a year or two to recover productivity. Chachar: Left fallow for 3 to 4 years. Banjar: Uncultivated for 5 years or more and infertile land.

Zabti or Bandobast System ❖❖ Todarmal framed a regulation or standard system of revenue administration known as the Zabti system. Under this system, lands were accurately surveyed and a new Jama was prepared.

Dahsala System ❖❖ On the basis of the above Zabti system, fresh reforms were undertaken by Todarmal. These reforms, collectively known as Ain-i-Dahsala, were completed in 1580. Under this system, land was classified into four categories, viz. Polaj—annually cultivated, Parauti—left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years), Chachar—left fallow for 3 to 4 years and Banjar—uncultivated for 5 years or more.

Mughal Architecture Forts ❖❖ The Mughal emperors were great builders and that is why the Mughal period is called the Golden Age of Architecture in Indian history. ❖❖ Babur built two mosques: Kabuli Bagh in Panipat and Shahi JamaMasjid mosque at Sambhal. ❖❖ Haji Begum (wife of Humayun) built a beautiful mausoleum in New Delhi, famous as ‘Humayun’s Tomb’. ❖❖ Akbar gave permission to build the Panch Mahal in Fatehpur Sikri, Marium Palace, Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas at the Sikri fort. ❖❖ Buland Darwaja formed the main entrance to Fatehpur Sikri, and was built by Akbar. ❖❖ In Fatehpur Sikri, Salim Chisti’s tomb was the first pure marble building.

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❖❖ Jahangir built the Moti Masjid in Lahore and his wife Narjahm built the mausoleum at Shahdara Lahore. ❖❖ Humayun laid the foundation of the city of Din Panah at Delhi. ❖❖ Akbar adorned his capital, Agra with magnificent buildings and the palace known as Jahangiri Mahal. ❖❖ Shahjahan built the Moti Masjid at Agra, which is the only marble Masjid of India. ❖❖ Aurangzeb built Moti Masjid in Red Fort, New Delhi.

Gardens ❖❖ The special contribution of the Mughals was the laying out of beautiful gardens. Babur laid the first such garden in Agra.

Literature of the Mughal Period Author

Name of the Work

Specifies

Gulbadan Begum

Humayun Nama

History of Humayun

Abul Fazl

Ain-i-Akbari

History of Akbar’s reign

Abul Fazl

Akbar Namah

History of Akbar’s reign

Jahangir

Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri

Autobiography

Mutamad Khan

Iqbal Namah

History of Jahangir’s reign

Dara Shikoh

Safinat-ul-Auliya

Biography of Sufi saints

Dara Shikoh

Sakinat-ul-Auliya

Translation of Upanishads

Aquil Khan Zafar

Namah-i-Alamgiri

History of Aurangzeb’s reign

Mohammad Rafi Khan Hamlai-Haidari

History of Aurangzeb’s reign

Later Mughals Bahadur Shah I (1707–12 ce) ❖❖ Bahadur Shah I killed his two brothers, and defeated Kam Baksh in the Battle of Jajau 1707. He recognized the independence of Mewar and Marwar.

Jahandar Shah (1712–13 ce) ❖❖ He captured the throne with the help of Zulfikar Khan.

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Farrukh Siyar (1713–19 ce) ❖❖ He was the son of Azim-us-Shah, also known as Sahid-i-Mazlum. He appointed Abdulla Khan as Wazir and Hussain Ali as Mir Bakshi. ❖❖ In his reign, the Sikh leader Banda Bahadur was taken prisoner at Gurdaspur and later executed at Delhi on 19 June 1716.

Mohammed Shah (1719–48 ce) ❖❖ He was the grandson of Bahadur Shah. His real name was Raushan Akhtar. He remained under the influence of the Sayyid brothers. ❖❖ Nadir Shah of Persia (the Napoleon of Iran) invaded India in 1739 with the help of Sadat Khan and defeated the Mughal army in the Battle of Karnal. He took away the peacock throne of Shah Jahan and the Kohinoor diamond from Delhi. Sadat Ali Khan (Governor of Awadh), Murshid Quli Khan (Governor of Bengal) and the Rohillas in the Ganges valley declared their independence.

Ahmed Shah (1748–54 ce) ❖❖ His reign saw the first invasion of Ahmed Shah Abdali, the ruler of Afghanistan and the former General of Nadir Shah. He attacked India five times between 1748 and 1767, which culminated in the Third Battle of Panipat.

Alamgir II (1754–59 ce) ❖❖ He is also known as Aziz-ud-Din. The battle of Plassey, 1757, took place during his reign. He was killed in 1759 by his wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk, and Shah Jahan II was placed on the throne, who was soon replaced by Shah Alam II.

Shah Alam II (1759–1806 ce) ❖❖ He is also known as Ali Gauhar. He was defeated in the Battle of Buxar in 1764. The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) was fought in this period. ❖❖ Shah Alam II was the first Mughal emperor to become a pensioner of the East India Company. He died in 1806.

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Akbar II (1806–37 ce) ❖❖ The circulation of Mughal coins was stopped in 1857. He conferred the title of Raja on Rammohan Roy and requested him to go to England to plead for a hike in the emperors’ pension.

Bahadur Shah II (1837–62 ce) ❖❖ Bahadur Shah participated in the 1857 revolt. Following the revolt, the British tried and exiled him to Rangoon in Burma. ❖❖ He died in 1862 at Rangoon. ❖❖ He was an Urdu poet with the pen name Zafar. He also patronized Mirza Ghalib and gave him the tag of ‘Loharu’.

The Maratha Empire Shivaji (1627–80 ce) ❖❖ Shivaji was born in the fort of Shivner in 1627 ce. ❖❖ Shahji Bhonsle, the father of Shivaji, was a military officer, first in the state of Ahmednagar and then from 1636, in the state of Bijapur. He also owned the territory of Poona as a Jagir. His mother was Jija Bai, a very religious lady. ❖❖ Shivaji was brought up in Poona under the careful supervision of his mother and an able Brahman, Dadaji Kondadev. Shivaji also came under the religious influence of Guru Samarth Ramdas.

Administration under Shivaji ❖❖ Shivaji laid the foundation of a sound system of administration. Shivaji’s system of administration was largely borrowed from the administrative practices of the Deccan states. Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were based on Malik Amber’s reforms in Ahmednagar.

Central Administration ❖❖ Shivaji appointed Hindus on high posts. Marathi was made the state language instead of Persian. He ordered Pandit Hanumant to prepare a dictionary of state craft for official use, titled Raja Vyakaran Kosh. ❖❖ The king was the supreme head of the State. He was assisted by a group of 8 ministers known as the Ashtapradhan.

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The Ashtapradhan Pradhans

Posts/Responsibilities

Peshwa or the Chief Minister/Mukhya Pradhan

Prime minister, he looked after general administration and later assumed great importance.

Amatya or Majumdar

Accountant general, he later became the Revenue and Finance Minister.

Sachiv or Surunavis (Surnis)

Also called Chitnis, he prepared Royal edicts.

Sumant or Dabir

Foreign affairs and the master of royal ceremonies.

Senepati or Sar-i-Naubat

Military Commander, he looked after the recruitment, training and discipline of the army.

Mantri or Waqianavi’s

Personal safety of the king; he looked after the intelligence, posts and household affairs.

Nyayadhish

Administration of Justice.

Pundit Rao

Looking after charitable and religious affairs of the State. He worked for the moral upliftment of the people.

Pratinidhi

Rajaram created the new post of Pratinidhi, thus taking the total number of ministers to nine.

Revenue Administration ❖❖ Shivaji abolished the Jagirdari system and replaced it with the Ryotwari system. Shivaji brought about changes in the position of hereditary revenue officials, called Deshmukhs, Deshpandes, Patils and Kulkarnis. Shivaji strictly supervised the Mirasdars, i.e., those with hereditary rights in land.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi ❖❖ These taxes were levied on those living outside the Maratha kingdom (Swarajya), on an undefined belt of land which was legally part of the Mughal empire or the Deccan states. ❖❖ The Chauth amounted to one-fourth of the standard revenue assessment of the place, paid to the Marathas as a safeguard.

Indian History    1.61

❖❖ The Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% demanded from areas outside his kingdom because he claimed to be the hereditary Sardeshmukh (Chief Headman) of the entire Maratha country.

Maratha Confederacy ❖❖ The origin of the Maratha confederacy may be traced to the revival of the Jagir or Saranjam system by Rajaram. But, it was only in the time of Baji Rao I that the system made a base for itself.

Prominent Dynasties ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Raghuji Bhonsle of Nagpur Gaekwad of Baroda Holkar of Indore Scindia of Gwalior The Peshwa of Poona

Rise of Regional States ❖❖ With the declining power of the Mughal empire in the 18th century, there emerged various autonomous states—Bengal under Murshid Quli Khan, Awadh under Sadat Khan, Burhan-ul-Mulk, Hyderabad under Nizam-ulMulk Asaf Jah, Carnatic under Sadatullah Khan, Mysore under Hyder Ali, the Jats under Ciraman and Surajmal and the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh, among others.

The Bengal ❖❖ After the death of Aurangzeb, Bengal became an independent viceroyship for all practical purposes under Murshid Quli Khan.

Murshid Quli Khan (1717–27 ce) ❖❖ He was granted the governorship of Orissa by the emperor Farrukh Siyar in 1719 ce. ❖❖ He improved the financial position of the region by measures such as the transfer of large parts of Jagir lands into Khalisa (crown) lands and the introduction of the system of revenue farming.

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Chapter 1

Shuja-ud-din (1727–39 ce) ❖❖ He was the son-in-law of Murshid. ❖❖ He continued the policies and reforms of Murshid. His principal advisers in the matter of administration were Rai-i-Rayan Alamchand (an able financer) and Jagat Seth (the famous banker).

eMergence oF euroPeAn PowerS in indiA the Portuguese ❖❖ Prince Henry of Portugal encouraged voyages for the discovery of searoutes to India. ❖❖ Bartolomeu was the first person who reached the Cape of Good Hope in 1488. ❖❖ Vasco da Gama (colonial man) from Lisbon, discovered a new sea route from Europe to Asia via the Cape of Good Hope in 1498. ❖❖ A second expedition took off under Pedro Alvares Cabral in 1500 ce. A fresh expedition under Vasco da Gama which started in 1502 ce, demanded from the Zamorin, the banishment of every Muslim resident from Calicut.

important Portuguese governors Francisco-de-Almeida (1505–09 ce) ❖❖ The first Governor of the Portuguese territory who also fortified fort Emmanuel in Cochin and built a fort at Anjediva. ❖❖ Almeida defeated the combined Muslim fleet in a naval battle near Diu (February, 1509).

Alfonso-de-Albuquerque (1509–15 ce) ❖❖ The conquest of Goa from the Adil Shahi Sultan of Bijapur was Albuquerque’s first achievement in February 1510.

do You Know?

Nino Da Cunha (1529–38)

The Portuguese introduced the cultivation of tobacco in India. The first printing press in India was set up by the Portuguese at Goa in 1556 ce.

❖❖ Established settlements at Santhome near Madras and at Hughli in Bengal and thus, developed on the eastern coast.

In 1661 ce, the king of Portugal gave Bombay to Charles II of England as dowry when Charles II married Catherine Braganza.

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The Dutch ❖❖ Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC), popularly known as Dutch United East India Company was formed in 1602 ce. ❖❖ The only port belonging to them on this side was Vengurla, to the north of Goa. ❖❖ After earlier abortive attempts to start trade at Surat and on the Malabar coast, Admiral Van Der Hagen opened up a permanent factory at Masulipatnam (early in 1605).

The English (British) ❖❖ Through the charter granted by Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, under the title of ‘The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies’, the East India Company was formed. ❖❖ William Hawkins journeyed from Surat and arrived at Jahangir’s court in 1609, but failed to get permission to erect a factory at Surat. However, the victory of the English under Captain Thomas Best, over the Portuguese fleet at Swally (near Surat) in 1612 ce, broke the tradition of Portuguese naval supremacy. ❖❖ A ‘Farman’ was issued by the Mughal King Jahangir, permitting the English to establish a factory at Surat 1613 ce and Surat became one of the chief centres for maritime trade. After some time, Bombay was declared as the headquarters of the company on the west coast in 1687 ce. ❖❖ In 1633, the Mughal Governor gave the English merchants permission to establish factories at Hariharapur (near the mouth of the Mahanadi), Balasore and Pipli.

The French ❖❖ ‘Compagnie des Indes Orientales’ popularly known as the French East India Company, was formed by Colbert, under state patronage in 1664 ce. Facts to Know! Anglo-French Conflict ❖❖ The British and the French were not only rivals in India, but also were at constant war with each other in Europe and some fronts outside the Indian border. ❖❖ In the 1720s, Saadatullah Khan (who was a governor of Carnatic and nominally under the control of the Nizam of Hyderabad) laid the foundation for the autonomous state of Carnatic with its capital at Arcot.

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First Carnatic War (1746–48 ce) ❖❖ Under the influence of the Austrian war of succession, both English and French companies came into conflict in India. The Treaty of Aix-laChapelle (1748 ce) brought the Austrian war of succession to an end.

Second Carnatic War (1749–54 ce) ❖❖ The conflict began with the issue of disputed succession to the thrones of Hyderabad and Carnatic.

Third Carnatic War/Wandiwash War (1756–63 ce) ❖❖ The final phase of the Anglo-French conflict started in 1756, when the 7-years war broke out in Europe. The French Army under Count-deLally (French Governor General) captured Fort St. Davis in 1758 ce.

British Occupation of Bengal ❖❖ The East India Company’s ambition of becoming a political power and the Nawab of Bengal’s ambition of consolidating his power over Bengal brought the two powers in direct conflict with each other.

Black Hole Tragedy ❖❖ After the first conflict between the Nawab and the Company, English prisoners at Calcutta, which included some women and children, were lodged at a prison room in the fort. The number of prisoners was 146. The conditions were so cramped that many of them died of suffocation.

Nawabs of Bengal Mir Jafar ❖❖ Mir Jafar was the first Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa under the British rule in India. He succeeded Siraj-ud-Daulah. He is remembered in India by the name of Gaddar-e-Hind.

Mir Qasim ❖❖ He was the oldest Nawab among the successors of Alivardi Khan. He transferred his capital from Murshidabad to Munger, because he wanted to be at a safe distance from Calcutta, away from the interference of the Company.

Battle of Buxar ❖❖ The reluctance of Mir Qasim to share the power with the Company led to the conflict between him and Robert Clive. Finally, Mir Qasim formed

Indian History    1.65

an alliance with Shuja-ud-Daula and Shah Alam II, but their combined forces were defeated by the English under the leadership of Hector Munro at the Battle of Buxar. ❖❖ The Treaty of Allahabad was concluded by Clive with Shuja-ud-Daula and the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, according to which the British got the right of free trade in Awadh and they were allowed to keep a British army at the expense of the Nawab of Awadh.

Anglo-Mysore Conflict ❖❖ The process of usurpation of the royal authority of the Wodeyar ruler Chikka Krishnaraja I started during 1731–34 ce when two brothers, Devaraja and Nanjaraja, controlled real power in the state and became the de-facto rulers.

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–69 ce) ❖❖ The rise of Haider Ali was seen as a source of danger by the British power in India. ❖❖ The panic-stricken Madras government was forced to sign a humiliating treaty (Treaty of Madras) on 2 April 1769. The treaty provided for a mutual restitution of each other’s territories, except for Karur and its district, which were to be retained by the Mysore ruler.

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–84 ce) ❖❖ The cause of the Second Anglo-Mysore war was the mutual distrust and refusal of the English to fulfill the terms of the defensive treaty with Haider when he was attacked by the Marathas in 1771.

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–92 ce) ❖❖ Lord Cornwallis worked on the anti-Tipu suspicion of the Nizam and the Marathas and formed a Triple Alliance (1790 ce) with them against Tipu. ❖❖ Tipu defeated Major General Medows in 1790, after which Cornwallis himself assumed the command of the English army. ❖❖ Cornwallis approached Srirangapatna with the help of the Marathas and the Nizam’s troops.

Treaty of Seringapatam ❖❖ The treaty resulted in the surrender of nearly half the Mysorean territory to the victorious allies (the British, the Marathas and the Nizam).

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Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–99 ce) ❖❖ The war against Tipu began in 1799 and he was defeated first by Stuart at Sedaseer (5 March) and then by General Harris at Malvelley (27 March). ❖❖ Then, the English captured Srirangapatna on 4 May 1799 and Tipu died defending his capital.

Anglo-Maratha Conflict First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82 ce) ❖❖ Fought between the British East India Company and Maratha Empire in India. The war began with the Treaty of Surat and ended with the Treaty of Salbai.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) ❖❖ Aurangabad and Gwalior were taken by the British in 1803. ❖❖ Both Scindia and Bhosle accepted the Treaty of Bassein and gave their sovereignty to the British.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–18) ❖❖ The third and the final phase of the struggle began with the arrival of Lord Hastings as Governor-General in 1813, who reassumed the aggressive policy of Wellesley and was determined to proclaim British paramountcy in India. ❖❖ A subsidiary treaty known as the Treaty of Mandsaur was signed with the Holkars.

Anglo-Sikh Conflict First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46) ❖❖ During the reign of Dalip Singh, in the First Anglo-Sikh War, the English invaded Punjab, occupied Lahore and dictated a peace treaty known as the Treaty of Lahore, on 9 March 1846.

Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49 ce) ❖❖ The Sikhs felt humiliated with the settlement of Punjab after the First Sikh war.

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❖❖ Punjab was annexed to the British dominion in March 1849 ce. Raja Dalip Singh, the minor son of Ranjit Singh and his mother, Rani Jindan, who acted as his regent, were sent away to London on fixed annual pensions.

Governors-General of Bengal Warren Hastings (1772–85) ❖❖ He became Governor of Bengal in 1772 and Governor-General of Bengal in 1773 through the Regulating Act of 1773. ❖❖ Terminated the system of dual administration in Bengal (1772). ❖❖ Created the Board of Revenue (1772). Created Diwani and Faujdari Adalat at the district level and Sadar Diwani and Nizamat Adalat. ❖❖ The Supreme Court was establishd in Calcutta in 1774. Impey was appointed as the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. ❖❖ He was the only Governor-General against whom impeachment proceedings were brought in. ❖❖ The Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by Hastings and Sir William Jones (1784). He was a conservator of the Asiatic society and helped in the translation of Abhigyan Shakuntalam, a book by Kalidas and the Gita Govinda by Jayadeva, into English.

Lord Cornwallis (1786–93) ❖❖ He brought in the Europeanization of administrative services, the introduction of civil services, and reforms to purify and improve administration. Cornwallis is called the Father of Civil Service in India. ❖❖ He was responsible for the introduction of the permanent revenue settlement or the Zamindari system in Bengal and Bihar (1793).

Cornwallis Code ❖❖ The Cornwallis code was introduced in 1793 with the following features. It was based on the concept of separation of power. The Collector was the head of the revenue administration and was divested of all the judicial and magisterial powers.

Land Revenue System Permanent Settlement ❖❖ Introduced in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, district of Banaras and northern districts of Madras by Lord Cornwallis in 1793. John Shore planned this settlement.

1.68  Chapter 1

Ryotwari Settlement ❖❖ It was introduced in Bombay, Madras and Assam. Munro and Charles recommended it. In this system, direct settlement was made between the Government and the Ryots.

Mahalwari System ❖❖ It was introduced in the area of the Ganga Valley, part of central India and Punjab. Revenue settlement was made with the village, which maintained a form of common ownership known as Bhai Chara, or with Mahals, which were groups of villages. Revenue was periodically revised.

Sir John Shore (1793–98) ❖❖ The Charter Act of 1793 came into force during his leadership. ❖❖ Battle of Kharda took place between the Nizam and the Marathas (1795).

Lord Wellesley (1798–1805) ❖❖ Called himself ‘The Tiger of Bengal’. Vigorously applied the policy of Subsidiary Alliance to achieve British paramountcy in India. (Dupleix was the first to start the Subsidiary Alliance). ❖❖ Formation of the Madras Presidency after the annexation of the kingdoms of Tanjore and Carnatic.

Subsidiary Alliances Year

Ruler

1795

Nizam of Hyderabad

1799

Mysore and Tanjore

1801

The Nawab of Oudh

1801

The Peshwa

1803

The Bhonsle Raja of Berar

1804

The Scindia

Lord Minto I (1807–13) ❖❖ The treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809). The rebellion in Travancore (Kerala).

Indian History    1.69

Lord Hastings (1813–23) ❖❖ Third Maratha War (1817–23) took place where Maratha power was finally crushed. Abolition of Peshwaship and annexation of all his territories and the creation of Bombay Presidency (1818). ❖❖ Bengal Presidency Act, 1822. ❖❖ First coffee plantation was done in 1823 at Fort Gloster (Bengal). Similarly, the first tree plantation was discovered in Assam with the help of Andrew Charlton and Robert Bruce.

Governors-General of India Lord William Bentick (1828–35) ❖❖ In 1829–37, suppression of the Thugi system. William Sleeman captured more than 1500 thugs in Meerut. ❖❖ In 1829, the Sati system was abolished. ❖❖ Educational reforms on the basis of Macaulay’s Minute (1835) and the introduction of English as the official language and medium of instruction in India. ❖❖ He established the first medical college in Calcutta.

Lord Hardinge I (1844–48) ❖❖ In 1845, the Danish possession was sold to the English. ❖❖ Prohibition of female infanticide and suppression of the practice of human sacrifice among the Khonds was brought about.

Lord Dalhousie (1848–56) ❖❖ In 1853, a new treaty was forced on the Nizam of Hyderabad, compelling him to cede Berar to the Company. ❖❖ In 1853, the recruitment of the Covenanted Civil Service was done through a competitive examination. ❖❖ Introduction of Doctrine of Lapse and annexation of Satara (1848), Jaitpur (1849), Sambhalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854). ❖❖ A new Post Office Act was passed in 1854, and postage stamps were issued for the first time. In 1856, Oudh was annexed on the pretext of misgovernance.

1.70  Chapter 1

❖❖ A separate Public Works Department (PWD) was established in every province. Work on the Grand Trunk (GT) road was started. Ganges canal was declared open (1854). ❖❖ The first engineering college, Thomson College for Civil Engineering was established at Roorkee.

Viceroys of India (Key Events During their Tenure) Lord Canning (1856–62) ❖❖ Outbreak of 1857 Mutiny. ❖❖ Queen Victoria’s proclamation and the Government of India Act of 1858. It ended the rule of East India Company, transferring power to the crown. ❖❖ Enactment of the Indian Penal Code. ❖❖ Withdrawal of the Doctrine of Lapse in 1860. ❖❖ In 1861, the Indian Council Act enactment of the Code of Criminal Procedure. ❖❖ Income tax was introduced with a uniform tariff of 10%, apart from convertible paper currency. ❖❖ In 1861, the Indian High Court Act was enacted.

Lord Mayo (1869–72) ❖❖ Establishment of colleges for the education and political training of the Indian princes. Rajkot College in Kathiawar and Mayo College at Ajmer are some examples. ❖❖ Organization of the statistical survey of India under W. Hunter (first census in 1871). ❖❖ In 1872, a convict in the Andamans assassinated Mayo, making him the only Viceroy to be murdered in office.

Lord Lytton (1876–80) ❖❖ The British parliament passed the Royal Titles Act, 1876, investing Queen Victoria with the title of Kaiser-i-Hind or Queen Empress of India. Imperial Durbar was held at Delhi in 1877. ❖❖ In 1878, appointment of the first Famine Commission under Sir Richard Strachey, the finance member of the Viceroy council.

Lord Ripon (1880–84) ❖❖ Repealed the Vernacular Press Act, 1882, and the first Factory Act, 1881.

Indian History    1.71

❖❖ Introduced local Self-Government in 1882. He was called the ‘Father of Local Self-Government’. ❖❖ Appointed the Hunter Commission in 1882 to review the education policy.

Lord Dufferin (1884–88) ❖❖ Formation of the Indian National Congress. The Aitchison Commission was constituted.

Lord Lansdowne (1888–94) ❖❖ Division of the Civil services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate. ❖❖ Appointment of Durand Commission in 1893. It defined the boundary, known as the Durand Line, between British India and Afghanistan.

Lord Curzon (1899–1905) ❖❖ The India Coinage and Paper Currency Act, 1899. ❖❖ Appointment of Police Commission (1902) under Sir Andrew Frazer, to review the police administration and suggest reforms. ❖❖ Appointed a commission under Sir Thomas Raleigh in 1902 to suggest reforms regarding universities. ❖❖ Ancient Monument Preservation Act, 1904. Implemented the Cooperative Credit Societies Act, 1904. ❖❖ Partition of Bengal in 1905 was declared. ❖❖ A new department of Commerce and Industry was established.

Lord Minto II (1905–10) ❖❖ On 16 October 1906, the Partition of Bengal came into force. It gave birth to the Anti-Partition and Swadeshi Movement. ❖❖ In 1906, Lord Minto received the Muslim delegation headed by Aga Khan. Foundation of the Muslim League (1906). ❖❖ Surat session of Congress and split in Congress (1907). ❖❖ In 1910, Press Act was passed.

Lord Hardinge II (1910–16) ❖❖ Partition of Bengal annulled. Capital shifted to Delhi. Delhi Darbar on 12 December 1911. ❖❖ In 1914, the Forest Research Institute and College was opened at Dehradun. ❖❖ In 1916, the Sadler Committee on universities was appointed.

1.72  Chapter 1

Lord Chelmsford (1916–21) ❖❖ Gandhi returned from South Africa. Foundation of the Sabarmati Ashram (1916) with the help of Ambalal Sarabhai. Satyagraha at Champaran (1917), Ahmedabad (1918) and Kheda (1918). ❖❖ September 1916, Home Rule League was formally inaugurated by Annie Besant. ❖❖ Lucknow Session and the reunion of Congress (1916). ❖❖ Appointment of S.P. Sinha as the Lieutenant Governor of Bihar. ❖❖ On 10 November, Rowlatt (sedition) committee appointed. Submitted its report in April 1918. ❖❖ Lahore High Court founded in 1919. ❖❖ Rowlatt Act (March, 1919) and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919).

Lord Reading (1921–26) ❖❖ Chauri Chaura incident (5 February 1922) and the withdrawal of NCM by Gandhi. ❖❖ Repeal of the Press Act of 1910 and the Rowlatt Act of 1919. ❖❖ On 22 August 1925, V. J. Patel elected the first Indian President of the Legislative Assembly.

Lord Irwin (1926–31) ❖❖ Appointment of the Harcourt Butler Indian States Commission in November 1927. ❖❖ 31 October 1929, Lord Irwin announced that the goal of the British policy was the attainment of dominion status by India. This announcement was also known as the Deepavali Declaration. ❖❖ On 12 March 1930, Gandhi started his Dandi March and started the Civil Disobedience Movement on 13 April 1930.

Lord Willingdon (1931–36) ❖❖ On 1 December 1931, Ramsay MacDonald (British PM) announced the constitution of North-West Frontier Province (NWEP) and Sindh was made a separate province. ❖❖ Ramsay MacDonald announcement of the Communal Award. Gandhi’s fast unto death in the Yerawada Prison. ❖❖ Government of India Act, 1935. ❖❖ Separation of Myammar Act, 1935.

Indian History    1.73

Lord Linlithgow (1936–43) ❖❖ Formation of All India Kisan Sabha in 1936. ❖❖ August Offer by Viceroy (1940), rejected by Congress. ❖❖ 7 August 1942, Congress Session started in Bombay. Passing of the Quit India Resolution (8 August 1942) and the launch of Quit India Movement.

Lord Wavell (1943–47) ❖❖ End of World War II (1945). ❖❖ On 28 January 1946, Wavell announced the Government’s intention to set-up an Executive Council of political leaders. ❖❖ On 15 March 1946, Attlee announced the Cabinet Mission under Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander. The mission arrived in Delhi on 24 March 1946. ❖❖ On 16 August 1946, Muslim League began the ‘Direct Action Day’. ❖❖ Formation of interim government by the Congress (September 1946). League joined in October 1946.

Lord Mountbatten (1947–48) ❖❖ Sworn in as Viceroy on 24 March 1947. ❖❖ 3 June 1947, the plan to partition India was announced. ❖❖ On 15 August 1947, India gained Independence.

C. Rajagopalachari (1948–50) ❖❖ The last Governor-General of free India. ❖❖ The only Indian Governor-General, remained in office till January, 1950.

Social-Religious Reform Movements ❖❖ Introduction of Western education and ideas played an important role in bringing the knowledge of some advanced ideas of the Western world and of modern science to India.

Characteristics of the Movements Brahmo Samaj ❖❖ The Brahmo Samaj was the first important organization of religious reform. The Samaj forbade its members from attacking any religion.

1.74  Chapter 1

To propagate the monotheistic doctrine of Hindu scriptures, Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded the Atmiya Sabha (1815–19). In 1828, he established the Brahmo Samaj. ❖❖ In the Brahmo conception of God, there is no place for such doctrines as incarnation and meditation. ❖❖ In 1866, Debendranath Tagore founded the Adi Brahmo Samaj and Brahmo Samaj of India was founded under the leadership of Keshab Chandra Sen.

Arya Samaj ❖❖ Another influential movement of religious and social reform in northern India was started by Dayanand Saraswati. ❖❖ At the age of fourteen, he became a rebel by rejecting idol worship. Soon after, he left home and led the life of a wandering scholar in search of knowledge. ❖❖ He said ‘go back to Vedas’; by this he meant a revival of Vedic learning and Vedic purity of religion and not the revival of Vedic times. ❖❖ In 1886, Lala Hardayal instituted the Dayanand Anglo Vedic School of Lahore, which soon developed into a premier college of Punjab and set the pattern for such institutions.

Shuddhi Movement ❖❖ Dayanand tried to reconvert those Hindus who had been converted to other religions, like Islam and Christianity. For this purpose, a purificatory ceremony called ‘shuddhi’ was organized by him.

Ramakrishna Mission ❖❖ Another important reformer of the latter half of the 19th century was Ramakrishna Paramahansa (1836–86), who was a priest at a temple in Dakshineswar, near Calcutta. ❖❖ The mission stood for social service. ‘The best way to serve God is to serve mankind’ was its motto.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar ❖❖ The Sanskrit College in Calcutta, of which Ishwar Chandra was the principal for few years, conferred on him the title of Vidyasagar. ❖❖ When, in 1855, he was made special inspector of schools; he opened 35 schools which were operated completely from his pocket.

Indian History    1.75

Gopal Hari Deshmukh and Jyotiba Phule ❖❖ Two other great reformers of western India were Gopal Hari Deshmukh, popularly known as Lokhitwadi and Jyotirao Govindrao Phule, popularly known as Jyotiba.

Theosophical Movement ❖❖ The Theosophical Society was founded by Westerners, who drew inspiration from Indian thought and culture. Madame H.P. Blavatsky (1830–91) laid the foundation of the movement in the USA in 1875. Later, Colonel H.S. Olcott (1832–1907) joined in New York. ❖❖ In India, the movement became popular with the election of Mrs Annie Besant as its president. ❖❖ Besant laid the foundation of the Central Hindu Collage in Banaras in 1898, where both the Hindu religion and the Western scientific subjects were taught. She also formed the Home Rule League on the lines of the Irish Home Rule movement.

Muslim Reform Movements ❖❖ Among the Muslims, the first signs of awakening appeared in the early 19th century, under the leadership of people like Syed Ahmed of Bareilly in Uttar Pradesh and Shariatullah of Bengal. ❖❖ Most of them stayed away from it because of the attitude of the ulema, who were traditional custodians of Islamic learning, and the unwillingness of the upper class Muslims to reconcile themselves to British rule. ❖❖ The Mohammedan Literary Society of Calcutta founded in 1863 by Nawab Abdul Latif was one of the earliest organizations to take steps in this direction. Table 1.1  Social and Cultural Awakening—Socio-Religious Movement Year

Place

Name of the Organization

Founder

1815

Calcutta

Atmiya Samaj

Ram Mohan Roy

1828

Calcutta

Brahmo Samaj

Ram Mohan Roy

1839

Calcutta

Tattvabodhini Sabha

Debendranath Tagore

1840

Punjab

Nirankaris

Dayal Das, Darbara Singh, Rattan Chand, etc.

1849

Bombay

Parmahansa Mandli

Dadoba Pandurang (Contd.)

1.76  Chapter 1

Year

Place

Name of the Organization

Founder

1861

Agra

Radha Swami Satsang

Tulsi Ram

1866

Deoband

Dar-ul-Ulum

Maulana Hussain Ahmed

1867

Bombay

Prarthana Samaj

Dr Atmaram Pandurang

1875

Bombay

Arya Samaj

Swami Dayanand Saraswati

1875

New York (USA)

Theosophical Society

Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Col H.S. Olcott

1884

Pune (Poona) Deccan Education Society

G.G. Agarkar

1886

Aligarh

Muhammadan Educational Conference

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

1887

Lahore

Deva Samaj

Shivnarayan Agnihotri

1897

Belur

Ramakrishna Mission

Swami Vivekanand

1905

Bombay

Servants of Indian Society

Gopalakrishan Gokhale

1909

Pune (Poona) Poona Seva Sadan

Mrs Ramabai Ranade and G.K. Devadhar

1911

Bombay Allahabad

N.M. Joshi

Social Service League

Know More! Various Social Legislations Under British Rule ❖❖ 1795: Abolition of infanticide by British Regulation. ❖❖ 1802: Abolition of infanticide by Lord Wellesley. ❖❖ 1811: Abolition of slavery under Regulation X by the Bengal Government. ❖❖ 1829: Abolition of Sati by Lord William Bentinck. Pioneering effort in this direction was made by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. ❖❖ 1891: Age of marriage for girls was increased by the Age of Consent Act, due to the effort of Behramji Malabari.

Birth of Indian National Congress (INC), 1885 ❖❖ Congress was the natural and inevitable product of various forces of the 19th century.

Indian History    1.77

Background of INC ❖❖ In 1884, at the annual convention of the Theosophical Society at Adyar in Madras, A.O. Hume proposed the formation of a committee, so as to make necessary preparations for a session at Pune to be held in 1885. ❖❖ A.O. Hume was a retired British member of the Indian Civil Services. He played an important role in the foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.

Formation of INC ❖❖ Indian National Congress was formed on 28 December 1885. ❖❖ The first session of the Indian National Congress was held on 28 December 1885 at Tejpal Sanskrit Pathshala, Bombay, under the presidentship of W.C. Bonnerjee.

Safety Valve Controversy This theory (popularly known as Safety Valve Theory because INC was started by Viceroy Lord Dufferin with the help of an ex Civil Services member as a ‘Safety Valve’ against the popular discontent) got enough support from radical critics like Lala Lajpat Rai, R.P. Dutt, etc. This theory however, lost its basis with the opening of Dufferin’s private papers.

Struggle for Independence Moderates (1885–1905) ❖❖ During this period (1885–1905) the Congress was dominated by leaders, who by their method of functioning were termed moderates or liberals.

Demands of Moderates ❖❖ The political demands of Congress were moderate while its economic demands were radical and anti-imperialist. ❖❖ Separation of the judiciary from the executive was one of their demands.

Early Political Life of Gandhiji ❖❖ Gandhi’s rise to power was ‘phenomenal’. Suddenly, he arrived at the Indian political scene and came to the centre-stage of all activities against the British rule.

Place

Bombay

Calcutta

Madras

Allahabad

Bombay

Calcutta

Surat

Calcutta

Amritsar

Belgaum

Kanpur

Calcutta

Date

December, 1885

December, 1886

December, 1887

December, 1888

December, 1889

December, 1890

December, 1907

December, 1917

December, 1919

December, 1924

December, 1925

December, 1928

Motilal Nehru

Sarojini Naidu

Mahatma Gandhi

Motilal Nehru

Annie Besant

Rash Behari Ghosh

Pherozeshah Mehta

William Wedderburn

George Yule

Badruddin Tyabji

Dadabhai Naoroji

W.C. Bannerjee

President

(Contd.)

First All India Youth Congress came into existence. Return of Gandhi to active politics after 6 years

First session to be presided by an Indian woman

The only session where Gandhiji was the president

Resignation of moderates like S.N. Banerjee

First woman president. She gave the first flag to the Congress—Green and Red.

The session witnessed the split between the moderates and the extremists. The candidate of the extremists at this session who lost the presidential election was Lala Lajpat Rai.

Kadambini Ganguly, the first woman graduate of Calcutta University, addressed the session

A committee on Indian National Congress was endorsed

First session to be presided over by an Englishmen

First session to be presided over by a Muslim president

–

Held at Gokaldas Tejpal Sanskrit Pathshala, Bombay. Earlier the session was to be held at Poona, but the venue was shifted due to the outbreak of cholera at Poona. Attended by 72 delegates

Related Facts

Prominent/Important Sessions of Congress 1.78  Chapter 1

Place

Lahore

–

Karachi

Faizpur

Haripur

Tripuri

Meerut

Delhi

Date

December, 1929

December, 1930

March, 1931

1936

February, 1938

March, 1939

November, 1946

1947

Rajendra Prasad

Acharya JB Kripalani

Subhash Chandra Bose, After defeating Dr Pattabhi Sitaramayya

Subhash Chandra Bose

Jawaharlal Nehru

Vallabhbhai Patel

–

Jawaharlal Nehru

President

–

He was the president of the Congress when India achieved independence.

Resignation of Subhash Chandra Bose (Rajendra Prasad took over) and formation of the Forward Bloc

National Planning Committee was set-up under the chairmanship of Pt Jawaharlal Nehru

Adoption of an Agrarian programme

Demanded the formation of a Constituent Assembly

First session to be held in a village

Resolution on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Policy

On account of the Civil Disobedience Movement, no Congress Session could be held in 1930, but Jawaharlal Nehru continued as the president

Poorna Swaraj Resolution; Congress Working Committee authorised to launch CDM. Nehru report got a decent burial

Related Facts

Indian History    1.79

1.80  Chapter 1

Gandhiji in Africa ❖❖ Gandhiji reached Durban in 1893 to sort out the legal problems of Dada Abdullah, a Gujarati merchant. ❖❖ He revolted against the racial injustice, discrimination and degradation to which Indians had to submit in the South African colonies. ❖❖ It was during this struggle that he evolved the technique of Satyagraha based on truth and non-violence. ❖❖ He founded a political association known as the Natal Indian Congress and also a newspaper called Indian Opinion, with a view to educate Indians in political matters, and giving publicity to their grievances.

Gandhiji in India ❖❖ On receipt of instructions from G.K. Gokhale, Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in January 1915. ❖❖ His only excursion into politics was his demand (October 1915) for the abolition of the system of indentured labour for manual work outside of India.

Initial Political Activities ❖❖ In Champaran, he took up the cause of peasants against landlords, in Kheda that of the farmers against revenue officials and in Ahmedabad that of the mill-workers against mill-owners.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917) ❖❖ The major problem at Champaran in Bihar was of the indigo planters. The European planters forced the peasants to grow indigo on 3/20th of the total land area (Tinkathia system) for poor remuneration. ❖❖ For the first time in India, Gandhi was displaying that magnetic personality which was to draw multitudes to him and to earn him the title of Mahatma and the nickname of Bapu. ❖❖ Some of the leaders associated with Gandhiji in this Satyagraha were J.B. Kripalini, Rajendra Prasad, Mahadev Desai, Narhari Parikh, etc. ❖❖ Based on this movement, a book, Neel Darpan was written by Dinbandhu Mitra.

Ahmedabad Satyagraha (1918) and Kheda Satyagraha (1918) ❖❖ It was the first non-cooperation movement in India. In 1917, most of the kharif crops of the farmers of Kheda district in Gujarat were destroyed

Indian History    1.81

due to heavy rains, thereby leaving them incapacitated to pay the land revenue to the government.

Ideology and Thoughts of Gandhiji ❖❖ One of the most important aspects of Gandhiji’s political ideology is Satyagraha, which means truth and non-violence. ❖❖ To Gandhiji, Satyagraha was the only road to achieve Swaraj. Satyagraha entails non-violence, non-cooperation and self-sacrifice. ❖❖ Gandhian Satyagraha was a weapon of the brave. It was in fact a struggle without fear and cowardice. According to Gandhi, a Satyagraha must be fearless.

Non-violence ❖❖ The doctrine of non-violence is another important aspect of Gandhi’s ideology. ‘My creed is non-violence under all circumstances. My method is conversion, not coercion; it is self-suffering, not the suffering of the tyrant’.

Swadeshi ❖❖ Gandhiji was a champion of swadeshi, which he believed was essential to Satyagrah and Swaraj. Swadeshi was an integral part of Gandhiji’s overall vision for an independent India—one in which self-sufficient, self-governing village republics were the foundation of the country.

Novel Ideas of Gandhiji ❖❖ The novelty value of Gandhi’s political method is of great significance. Besides Satyagraha, it includes civil disobedience, non-cooperation, court arrest hartal, hunger strikes, marches, etc.

Socio-economic Outlook ❖❖ His concerns regarding Hindu-Muslim unity, the upliftment of Harijans, raising the status of women in society, promotion of khadi, village reconstruction, etc. are expressions of the broad social outlook of Gandhiji.

Religious Outlook ❖❖ His idea of Hinduism revolved around a few fundamental beliefs: in the supreme reality of God, the unity of all life and the value of ahimsa as a means of realizing God.

1.82  Chapter 1

Simon Commission ❖❖ Simon Commission was officially known as the Indian Statutory Commission. All seven members of the commission were Englishmen who were Members of British Parliament. ❖❖ A commission with no Indian representative was greeted with strong protests. The Congress, at its session held at Madras in December, 1927, resolved to boycott the commission. ❖❖ The proposals of the Simon Commission were completely rejected by major political parties in the country, including the Muslim League.

Nehru Report ❖❖ In response to the appointment of the Simon Commission and the challenge given by Lord Birkenhead (Secretary of State for India), the All Parties Conference was called in Delhi on 12 February 1928.

Jinnah’s ‘Fourteen Points’ ❖❖ The Fourteen Points were announced by Jinnah in Delhi on 28 March 1929 at a meeting of the Muslim league.









1. The form of the future constitution should be federal, with the residuary power vested in the provinces. 2. A uniform measure of the autonomy shall be granted to all provinces. 3. All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the definite principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every province without reducing the majority in any province to minority or even equality. 4. In the Central legislature, Muslim representation shall not be less than one third. 5. Representation of the communal groups shall continue to be by separate electorates, provided that it shall be open to any community at any time to abandon its separate electorate in favour of the joint electorates. 6. Any terrestrial redistribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and NWF Province. 7. Full religious liberty, that is liberty of belief, worship and observance, propaganda, association and education shall be guaranteed to all communities. 8. No bill or resolution or any part thereof shall be passed in any legislature or any other elected body if three-fourth of the members

Indian History    1.83







of any community in that particular body oppose it for as being injurious to the interest of the community. 9. Sind should be separated from the Bombay Presidency. 10. Reforms should be made in the NWF Province and Baluchistan. 11. Provision should be made in the Constitution giving Muslims an adequate share along with the other Indians in all the services of the state and local self governing bodies having due regard to the requirements of efficiency. 12. The Constitution should embody adequate safeguards to the protection of the Muslim culture, education, language, religion, personal laws, and Muslim charitable institutions. They should get their due share in grant-in-aid. 13. No cabinet, either central or provincial, should be formed without there being at least one third Muslim ministers. 14. No change shall be made in the constitution by the Central legislature except with the concurrence of the states constituting the Indian Federation.

Lahore Session of the Congress (December 1929) ❖❖ The Annual Session of the Congress was held at Lahore in 1929. Jawaharlal Nehru was elected the president of this historic session. ❖❖ On 31 December 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru, the president of the Congress, unfurled the flag of India’s Independence on the banks of the Ravi in Lahore. The Dandi March Along with 79 followers, Gandhiji started his famous march from Sabarmati Ashram on 12 March 1930 to the small village Dandi to break the Salt Law. While Gandhiji was marching to Dandi, congress leaders and workers had been busy at various levels with the hard organizational tasks of enrolling volunteers and members, forming grassroot Congress committees, collecting funds, and touring villages and towns to spread a nationalist message.

Civil Disobedience Movement (First Phase) ❖❖ Gandhi placed as an ultimatum on 31 January 1930, the 11 points of administrative reform and stated that if Lord Irwin accepted them, there would be no need for agitation.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931) ❖❖ During the course of the Civil Disobedience Movement, the Simon Commission report was published, and to consider its recommendations, the First Round Table Conference was called in London in November 1930.

1.84  Chapter 1

❖❖ Gandhiji initiated talks with Irwin on 14 February 1931 which culminated in the Delhi Pact of 5 March 1931. The pact is popularly called the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. ❖❖ Gandhiji requested for remitting the death sentence of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru and the request was turned down by the Viceroy.

Civil Disobedience Movement (Second Phase) ❖❖ The Second Round Table Conference (September 1931) failed to satisfy the Congress or provide anything substantial to the country. ❖❖ Gandhi returned to India disheartened and disillusioned. ❖❖ On 4 January 1932, a fresh batch of Congress leaders including Gandhiji and Sardar Patel was arrested. Gandhi was kept in Yerwada prison (Pune) during the Civil Disobedience Movement and at Aga Khan Palace (Pune) during Quit India movement.

Communal Award and Poona Pact ❖❖ On 16 August 1932, Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced in the British Parliament, the proposal on minority representation, known as the Communal Award. ❖❖ The award declared the depressed classes (officially described as scheduled castes) also to be a minority community, entitled to separate electorates and thus, separated them from the rest of the Hindus. ❖❖ Gandhiji reacted strongly to the proposal and wrote to the British Prime Minister on 18 August 1932. ❖❖ He went on a fast unto death on 20 September 1932 to enforce his demand. The 20th of September was observed as a day of fasting and prayer. Temples, wells, etc. were thrown open to the depressed classes all over the country. ❖❖ On 25 September 1932, the sixth day of Gandhiji’s fast, they arrived at an agreement in Poona, popularly known as the Poona Pact. Poona Pact between Gandhi and Ambedkar was concluded with the following terms: ●● ●●

●●

The Principle of Joint and Common Electorate was accepted, for all Hindus. 48 seats in different Provincial legislature were reserved for the depressed classes, in place of 71 (as provided in the Communal Award). 18% of the seats in the Central legislature were reserved for the depressed classes.

Indian History    1.85 ●●

Adequate representation would be given to the depressed classes in the civil services.

Government of India Act, 1935 ❖❖ The new Government of India Act received the royal assent on 4 August 1935. The Simon Commission report of 1930 became the basis for this act. ❖❖ The act continued and extended all the existing features of the Indian Constitution. Popular representation, which went back to 1892, diarchy and ministerial responsibility, which dated from 1921, provincial autonomy, whose chequered history went back to the 18th century, presidential, communal representation, which first received overt recognition in 1909 and the safeguards devised in 1919, were all continued and in most cases, extended. But in addition, there were certain new principles introduced. It provided for a federal type of government. Thus the act: ●● ●● ●●

Introduced provincial autonomy Abolished diarchy in provinces Made ministers responsible to the legislative and federation at the centre

❖❖ The Act of 1935 was condemned by nearly all sections of Indian public opinion and was unanimously rejected by the Congress. The Congress demanded instead, the convening of a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise to frame a constitution for an independent India. In the beginning, Congress opposed the Act, yet it contested the election when the constitution was introduced on 1 April 1937, and formed ministries, first in six provinces and then in another two.

Election of 1937 and Congress Ministries ❖❖ In the Lucknow session of April 1936, presided by Jawaharlal Nehru, Congress resolved to contest the election. ❖❖ Jawaharlal Nehru in his presidential speech (Lucknow session) advocated socialism and took three socialists into the Congress Working Committee, namely Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Deo and Achyut Patwardhan.

All India Kisan Sabha (1936) ❖❖ The Lucknow session was important from another point of view as well. It was during this session that the first meeting of the All India Kisan Sabha was held under the presidentship of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati.

1.86  Chapter 1

The August Offer (1940) ❖❖ Viceroy Lord Linlithgow issued a statement from Simla on 8 August, popularly known as the ‘August Offer’. The main purpose of this proposal was to secure Congress co-operation during World War II.

Reaction to August Offer ❖❖ The Congress rejected the ‘August Offer’ because there was no suggestion for a National Government and it encouraged anti-Congress forces like the Muslim League. ❖❖ The immediate impact of the failure of August Offer was the launching of Individual Satyagraha.

The Individual Satyagraha ❖❖ The aim of the Satyagraha was to disprove the British claim of India supporting the war efforts wholeheartedly. ❖❖ On 17 October 1940, Acharya Vinoba Bhave (the first Satyagrahi) inaugurated the Satyagraha by delivering an anti-war speech at Paunar; Bhave had been personally selected by Gandhiji for this.

Cripps Mission, 1942 ❖❖ A mission headed by Sir Stafford Cripps (member of the British War Cabinet and a left-wing labour group) was sent to India to resume the dialogue between Congress and other political parties to join the British war efforts. ❖❖ To the provision relating to the non-accession of provinces to the union, Gandhiji rightly described it as ‘an invitation to the Muslim League to create Pakistan’. On overall assessment, Gandhiji termed the proposal as a post-dated cheque on a crashing or failing bank.

Quit India Movement or August Revolution, 1942 ❖❖ On 14 July 1942, the meeting of the Congress Working Committee, held at Wardha, passed the Quit India Resolution. Gandhiji asked the British ‘to leave India in God’s hands’. ❖❖ During the Quit India Movement, Gandhi gave the slogan of ‘Do or Die’. The historic August meeting took place at Gowalia Tank in Bombay and this place is now known as the August Kranti Maidan. ❖❖ On 9 August 1942, Gandhiji was arrested. Violence spread throughout the country, several government offices were destroyed and damaged,

Indian History    1.87

telegraph wires were cut and communication paralyzed. The movement was, however, crushed by the government.

Subhash Chandra Bose and INA ❖❖ He was born in 1897. He graduated from Calcutta University, studied Philosophy in Cambridge and qualified for the Indian Civil Services. His political mentor was Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das. ❖❖ In 1939, he defeated Gandhiji’s nominee Pattabhi Sitaramayya, to be reelected the Congress president. ❖❖ Rabindranath Tagore regarded him as Deshnayak. Subhash Chandra Bose founded the Forward Bloc in January 1941.

Indian National Army (INA) ❖❖ Major Fujiwara, a Japanese army officer persuaded Captain Mohan Singh, a prisoner of war, to work in collaboration with the Japanese for India’s freedom. Mohan Singh first conceived the idea of the INA in Malaya. ❖❖ The major role in its formation was played by Ras Behari Bose. ❖❖ Ras Behari Bose resigned from the chairmanship of Indian Independence League in favour of Subhash Chandra Bose, who was also named as Supreme Commander of INA. ❖❖ Bose set-up two INA headquarters i.e., in Rangoon and Singapore. The INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhiji, Azad and Nehru. Soon, other brigades were raised, namely the Subhash brigade and the Rani Jhansi brigade. ❖❖ Bose, in a broadcast on Azad Hind Radio had addressed Gandhiji as the Father of the Nation. Gandhi returned the compliment by describing Subhash as the Prince among Patriots. The slogans of INA were Jai Hind and Delhi Chalo. Facts to Know! INA Trial The British decided to hold public trials of several hundreds of the 20,000 INA prisoners (as well as dismissing them from service and detaining without trial no less than 7000). They compounded the folly by holding the first trial at the Red Fort, Delhi in November 1945, and putting on the dock together P.K. Sehgal (a Hindu), Shah Nawaz (a Muslim) and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon (a Sikh). Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru and Nehru appeared for the defence and the Muslim League also joined the country-wide protest.

1.88  Chapter 1

Desai-Liaquat Proposals (1945) ❖❖ Gandhiji directed Bhulabhai Jivanji Desai to make another attempt to appease the League leaders and to find a way out of the 1942–45 political impasse. ❖❖ Desai being the leader of the Congress in the Central Assembly and a friend of Liaquat Ali (Deputy Leader of the Muslim League), met him in January 1945, and gave proposals for the formation of an interim government at the centre. After Desai’s declaration at Peshawar on 22 April 1945, Liaquat Ali published the list of agreements. ❖❖ These agreements were: ●● ●● ●●

Nomination of equal number of persons by both in the central executive. Representation of the minorities, in particular of the scheduled castes (SCs) and the Sikhs. The government was to be formed and was to function with the framework of the existing Government of India Act, 1935.

Wavell Plan (1945) ❖❖ Viceroy Lord Wavell, to create a conducive atmosphere for dialogue, ordered on 14 June 1945, the release of all the Congress Working Committee members, who had been arrested three years ago owing to their participation in Quit India Movement. On this day, Wavell broadcast a plan, popularly known as the Wavell Plan. Facts to Know! Revolt of Royal Indian Navy Rating On 18 February 1946, the ratings (non-commissioned officers and sailors) of the RIN in Bombay and Karachi openly revolted. The Indian sailors, complaining of bad food and racial discrimination, hoisted the Congress and Muslim league flags on their ships. By 22 February, the strike had spread to naval bases all over the country, involving 20,000 ratings.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) ❖❖ The decision to send a Cabinet Mission was taken on 22 January 1946. On 19 February 1946, the British Prime Minister C.R. Attlee’s Government announced in the House of Lords, about the mission and the plan to quit India. ❖❖ The Cabinet Mission comprised three members—Lord Pethick Lawrence (Secretary of State for India), Sir Stafford Cripps (President of the Board of Trade) and A.V. Alexander (First Lord of the Admiralty).

Indian History    1.89

Purpose of the Cabinet Mission Plan ❖❖ On 16 May 1946, the Cabinet Mission announced its own recommendations, which were as follows: ●● ●●

●●

●●

●●

The unity of India had to be retained. All subjects other than union subjects and residuary power would vest in the provinces of British India. The Cabinet Mission also recommended a scheme for formulating a constitution which provided that the Union Constitution was to be framed by a Constituent Assembly, the members of which were to be elected on a communal basis by the Provincial Legislative Assemblies and the representatives of the states joining the Union. The Cabinet Mission suggested the establishment of an interim government. The Muslim League accepted the plan on 6 June 1946, while maintaining its rights of striving for a separate Muslim state. The Congress also partially accepted the plan.

Direct Action Day ❖❖ The League decided on 30 July 1946, that 16 August 1946 would be observed as Direct Action Day throughout the country. It turned into the ‘Great Calcutta Killing’. Following this day, 6000 Hindus and Muslims stabbed, shot, and battered by each other. The Bengal Government led by the League leader H.S. Suhrawardy had declared 16 August, a public holiday. Facts to Know! Attlee’s Announcement Attlee gave a famous speech in Parliament on 20 February 1947, and pronounced the British decision to quit India. The date for British withdrawal was fixed as June 1948 and Lord Mountbatten was appointed as the new Viceroy.

Interim Government ❖❖ On 12 August 1946, the Viceroy Lord Wavell invited Congress to form the government under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, which finally came into being on 2 September 1946. ❖❖ On 26 October, five nominees of the League joined the government. Congress appointees resigned to make room for the League nominees

1.90  Chapter 1

(two seats were already vacant while Mr Sarat Bose, Syed Ali Zahir and Sir Shafat Ahmed Khan resigned).

Ministers of Various Departments Minister

Department

Jawaharlal Nehru

Vice-President of the Executive Council, External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations

Vallabhbhai Patel

Home, Information and Broadcasting

C. Rajagopalachari

Education

Baldev Singh

Defence

Dr John Matthai

Industries and Supplies

C.H. Bhabha

Works, Mines and Power

Rajendra Prasad

Food and Agriculture

Asaf Ali

Railways

Jagjivan Ram

Labour

Liaquat Ali Khan

Finance (Shanmugam Chettiar after Liaquat Ali’s resignation)

T.T. Chundrigar

Commerce

Abdur Rab Nishtar

Communication

Ghazanfar Ali Khan

Health

Jogendra Nath Mandal

Law

Constituent Assembly ❖❖ The Constituent Assembly met for the first time on 9 December 1946 in the library of the Council Chamber, Delhi, and 205 members attended the meet. The league representative and the nominees of the princely states abstained. On 11 December, the assembly elected Dr Rajendra Prasad as its permanent president.

Objective Resolution ❖❖ The most important resolution known as the Objective Resolution which declared the assembly’s firm and solemn resolve that India would be an independent sovereign state, was adopted on 22 January 1947.

Indian History    1.91

Facts to Know! Rajaji Formula (Rajagopalachari’s Formula) Rajagopalachari had devised a formula which formed the basis of the talk. The Rajaji formula was that if the Muslims endorsed the demand for independence, Congress would agree to the demarcation of contiguous Muslim-majority areas in the north-west and north-east of India. In such demarcated areas, the inhabitants should be allowed to decide by plebiscite whether they would remain in India or form a separate state of their own.

Mountbatten Plan, 1947 ❖❖ The British Prime Minister Attlee announced on 20 February 1947 in the House of Commons that the British would withdraw from India by 30 June 1948; this was known as Attlee’s Declaration. ❖❖ Lord Mountbatten, the 34th and the last British Governor-General and Viceroy, arrived in India on 22 March 1947. ❖❖ Lord Mountbatten held final discussions with the Congress, the Muslim League and the Sikh leaders, to seek their agreement on his Partition Plan. Shortly, after this, Lord Mountbatten paid a visit to London for consultations, in May 1947. ❖❖ The plan declared that power would be handed over on 15 August 1947 on the basis of dominion status to India and Pakistan. The plan laid down the procedure by which power would be transferred. The procedure was as follows: ●●

●● ●● ●●

The Provincial Legislative Assembly of Bengal and Punjab would meet in two parts separately, one representing the Muslim-majority districts and the other representing the remaining districts, to decide by vote, the partition of the province. In the case of Sind and Baluchistan, the Legislative Assembly was to take its own decision at a special meeting. With regard to the Indian states, the British Government would cease to exercise the powers of paramountcy. The Congress Working Committee, which met on 3 June 1947, approved the Partition Plan. The All India Congress Committee which met in New Delhi on 14–15 June, ratified the proposal.

Some Nationalist Leaders who Disapproved the Plan ❖❖ Frontier Gandhi regarded the partition as treachery on the part of the Congress and felt that ‘The Khudai Khidmatgars were being thrown to the wolves’.

Battle of Plassey

Third Battle of Panipat

Battle of Buxar

Third Mysore War

Fourth Mysore War

First Sikh War

Indo-Pak War

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

S. No. Name of the Battle

1948

1854

1799

1790–92 English forces and Tipu Sultan

1764

1761

1757

Period

Ahmed Shah Abdali

English forces

Won by

India and Pakistan

English forces and Sikhs

English forces and Tipu Sultan

English forces

India

English forces

English forces

Tipu Sultan had to sign treaty of the Seringapattam

Joint forces of English forces Muslims Vs English

Ahmed Shah Abdali Vs Marathas

Siraj-ud-Daula and English forces under Clive

Battle between

Table 1.2  Important Battles in Modern Indian History

(Contd.)

Fought in Kashmir, ceasefire agreed to on actual line of occupation

Sikh kingdom came under the British

Dynasty of Mysore to end, Tipu Sultan died

Led to English occupation of India

Gave a setback to the Marathas in the north; sealed the destiny of the Mughal empire and made British entry easier

Fought at Plassey. The English became masters of Bengal; foundation of British rule

Significance

1.92  Chapter 1

Sino-Indian War

Indo-Pak War

Indo-Pak War

Indo-Pak War (Kargil War)

8.

9.

10.

11.

S. No. Name of the Battle

1999

1971

1965

1962

Period

India-Pakistan

India-Pakistan

India-Pakistan

China and India

Battle between

India

India

India

_

Won by

On 3 December 1971, Pakistan attacked; India helped Mukti Bahini on the eastern front and East Pakistan was liberated; the state of Bangladesh was formed

Fought in the western sector, led to Tashkent Pact between India and Pakistan; described as the heaviest tank battle since World War II

China invaded India on the northeastern front. Ceasefire was agreed to on the intervention of other countries

Significance

Indian History    1.93

1.94  Chapter 1

❖❖ They even boycotted the referendum held in North-West Frontier Province (NWFP). Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan wanted an independent Pathan State in NWFP. ❖❖ Suhrawardy and Abul Hasan were for an independent united Bengal. The Hindu Mahasabha too opposed the partition.

India Independence Act ❖❖ The British Government introduced in Parliament the Indian Independence Bill on 4 July 1947, which was enacted on 18 July. ❖❖ The territories of the dominion of India would include the whole of British India exclusive of the territories constituting Pakistan, i.e., West Punjab, Baluchistan, NWFP, Sind and East Bengal. The exact boundaries of the two dominions would be determined by a Boundary Commission.

Radcliffe Boundary Commission ❖❖ A Consultative Committee was created in July 1947 to recommend how the Punjab and Bengal regions of the Indian subcontinent were to be divided between India and Pakistan, shortly before each was to become independent from Britain.

Chronology of Principal Events BC (BCE) Ancient India ❖❖ 2500–1500: Indus Valley Civilization. ❖❖ 1500–1000: The Early Vedic Age—Rig Veda. ❖❖ 1000–500: Later Vedic Period—Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Samhitas, early Upanishads and Sutras. ❖❖ 600 bce: Age of the sixteen Mahajanpadas of northern India. ❖❖ 563–483: Gautama Buddha—foundation of Buddhism. ❖❖ 540–468: Mahavira—foundation of Jainism. ❖❖ 492–460: Rule of Ajatasatru, son of Bimbisara, king of Magadha. 1st Boddha Summit. ❖❖ 362–321: Rule of Nandas of Magadha. ❖❖ 326: Invasion of India by Alexander the Great, Battle of Hydaspes with Porus (327 bce). ❖❖ 322–298: Reign of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty.

Indian History    1.95

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

383: 2nd Buddha summit. 273–232: Reign of Ashoka. 261: Ashoka vs Kalinga war 257: Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism by Upagupta. 250: 3rd Buddhist Council at Pataliputra hosted by Ashoka. 90: Sakas invade India. 58: The Vikrama Samvat (Vikram Era) introduced by King Vikramaditya of Ujjain.

AD (CE) ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

20–46 ce: Gondophernes, the king of Indo-Parthians. 78: Accession of Kanishka. 100–300: The Sangam Age begins in south India. 50 bce–250 ce: Satavahana dynasty in the Deccan. 320–335: Reign of Chandragupta I. 335–375: Reign of Samudragupta known as Indian Napoleon. 375–414: Reign of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). 405–411: The visit of the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien to India. Formation of Nalanda University. 500–527: Rule of Huns over north India. 606–647: Harsha Vardhana became king of northern India (capitalKannauj). 630-644: Hiuen Tsang visited India. 500–757: First Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi: Beginning of Hijri Era. 973–1190: Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani. 760–1142: Palas Era in eastern India. 985–1014: Reign of Rajaraja, the Great. 1014–44: Reign of Rajendra Chola. Naval campaign against Sri Vijaya kingdom. 788–820: Shankaracharya and his philosophy of Advaita. 712: Arabs occupy Sindh. First Islam invasion by Mohammad Bin Qasim on Sind and Multan (city of gold). 871–1173: Era of Imperial Cholas of Tanjore. 916–1203: Construction of Khajuraho Temples by the Chandelas. 1000–27: Invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni (17 times). 1011: Raja Bhoj (Paramar dynasty) became king, capital Dhar.

1.96  Chapter 1

❖❖ 1191: Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First battle of Tarain. ❖❖ 1192: Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain. ❖❖ 1206: Foundation of the Sultanate of Delhi by Qutub-ud-Din Aibak. (Slave Dynasty). ❖❖ 1210: Death of Qutub-ud-Din Aibak (while playing chogan). ❖❖ 1210–36: Reign of Iltutmish. ❖❖ 1221: Mongol invasion under Changez Khan. ❖❖ 1231: Iltutmish completed the construction of Qutub Minar at Delhi (started by Qutub-ud-Din Aibak). ❖❖ 1236–40: Reign of Empress Raziya, daughter of Iltutmish, the first and last woman ruler of Medieval India. ❖❖ 1266–87: Reign of Sultan Balban. ❖❖ 1288–93: Visit of Marco Polo to India. ❖❖ 1290–96: Reign of Sultan Jalal-ud-Din Firuz Khilji, founder of the Khilji dynasty. ❖❖ 1296: Alauddin Khilji invades Devagiri. ❖❖ 1296–1316: Reign of Sultan Alauddin Khilji. ❖❖ 1309–11: Malik Kafur’s expedition into South India. ❖❖ 1320–25: Reign of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (Ghazi Malik), founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. ❖❖ 1325–51: Reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Transferred the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad. ❖❖ 1327: Issue of token currency (bronze coin). ❖❖ 1333: Ibn-e-Batuta arrives in India (wrote autobiography—Rihala). ❖❖ 1336: Foundation of the empire of Vijayanagar by Harihara and Bukka. ❖❖ 1346: Foundation of the Bahmani kingdom by Ala-ud-Din Hasan Bahman Shah (1347–58). ❖❖ 1351–88: Reign of Sultan Firuz Tughlaq. ❖❖ 1398: Invasion by Timur during the reign of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud. ❖❖ 1414–51: Reign of Sayyid dynasty. ❖❖ 1420: Visit of Nicolo Conti. ❖❖ 1451–1526: Reign of Bahlul Lodhi (1451–89), Sikandar Lodhi (1489– 1517) and Ibrahim Lodhi (1517–26). ❖❖ 1438–68: Reign of Rana Kumbha in Mewar. ❖❖ 1498: Vasco da Gama arrives at Calicut. ❖❖ 1505: De Almeida, the first Viceroy of Portuguese in India. ❖❖ 1509–30: Reign of Krishnadeva Raya, the greatest king of Vijayanagar.

Indian History    1.97

❖❖ 1510: Conquest of Goa from the Adilshahi Sultan of Bijapur 1510. ❖❖ 1526: Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodhi at the First battle of Panipat. Formation of Mughal Empire. ❖❖ 1527: Battle of Khanwa. Babur defeats Rana Sanga of Mewar. ❖❖ 1530: Accession of Humayun. ❖❖ 1539: Sher Shah defeats Humayun at Chausa and assumes sovereignty. ❖❖ 1540: Humayun’s defeat near Kannauj. ❖❖ 1545: Battle of Kalinjar. ❖❖ 1555: Battle of Sirhind. Sikandar Suri was defeated by Humayun; Humayun recovers the throne of Delhi. ❖❖ 1556: Death of Humayun and accession of Akbar. Second Battle of Panipat. ❖❖ 1556–1605: Akbar’s reign. ❖❖ 1564: Abolition of Jizya and pilgrimage tax. ❖❖ 1565: Battle of Talikota, decline of the empire of Vijayanagar. ❖❖ 1571: Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri by Akbar. ❖❖ 1576: Battle of Haldighati and defeat of Maharana Pratap. ❖❖ 1579: Infallibility decree issued by Akbar. ❖❖ 1582: Din-i-Ilahi promulgated by Akbar. ❖❖ 1600: Deccan expedition and siege of Ahmednagar: Charter to British East India Company. ❖❖ 1605: Death of Akbar and accession of Jahangir. ❖❖ 1605-27: Reign of Jahangir. ❖❖ 1609: William Hawking visited Jahangir. ❖❖ 1615: Sir Thomas Roe in the court of Jahangir and was granted permission for business with India. ❖❖ 1627: Death of Jahangir. ❖❖ 1628: Shah Jahan proclaimed Emperor. ❖❖ 1631: Death of Mumtaz Mahal. ❖❖ 1636: Treaties with Bijapur and Golcunda. ❖❖ 1658: Coronation of Aurangzeb. ❖❖ 1659: Murder of Afzal Khan by Shivaji. ❖❖ 1663: Death of Mir Jumla; Attack on Poona by Shivaji; Shaista Khan appointed Governor of Bengal. ❖❖ 1665: Conclusion of the Treaty of Purandhar signed between Shivaji and Jai Singh. ❖❖ 1666: Death of Shah Jahan. ❖❖ 1674: Shivaji’s coronation and assumption of the title of Chatrapati.

1.98  Chapter 1

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

❖❖ ❖❖

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

❖❖

1675: Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur. 1679: Jizya imposed on the Hindus by Aurangzeb. 1680: Death of Shivaji. 1707: Death of Aurangzeb at Ahmednagar. 1739: Invasion of Nadirshah. 1740–61: Peshwaship of Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb). 1746–48: First Carnatic war. 1748–54: Second Carnatic war. 1756–63: Third Carnatic war. 1757: Battle of Plassey. 1760: Battle of Wandiwash. 1761: Third Battle of Panipat: The Marathas defeated by the combined troops of Ahmad Shah Abdali; the Mughals, and other Muslim chiefs of India. 1764: Battle of Buxar: The English defeat Shah Alam, Shuja-ud-Daulah and Mir Qasim. 1765: Allahabad Treaty. Grant of the ‘Diwani’ of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the East India Company by Shah Alam II under the Treaty of Allahabad. Clive, the Company’s governor in Bengal. 1765–72: Dual government of Bengal (introduced by Robert Clive). 1767–69: The First Anglo Mysore War. 1770: The Great Bengal Famine. 1771: Marathas occupy Delhi and restore Shah Alam, who was till then under English protection at Allahabad. 1772–73: Warren Hastings appointed as governor of Bengal. Abolition of Dual Government of Bengal (1772). 1773: The Regulating Act was passed, bringing the Company partially under Parliament’s control and the Presidencies under Calcutta’s control. 1773–85: Warren Hastings became Governor-General. Establishment of Supreme Court, Calcutta. 1775–82: The First Anglo-Maratha War. 1776: Treaty of Purandar. 1780–84: Second Mysore War. 1783: Fox’s India Bills give more powers to Parliament and to the Governor-General. 1784: Treaty of Mangalore between Tipu and the English: Pitt’s Act passed, setting up a Board of Control for the East India Company. Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by Sir William Jones. 1786–93: Lord Cornwallis became Governor-General.

Indian History    1.99

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

1790–92: Third Mysore War. 1792: Treaty of Srirangapatnam signed between Tipu and the English. 1793–98: Sir John Shore made Governor-General. 1793: The Permanent Zamindari Settlement of Bengal. 1798: Lord Wellesley as Governor-General and brought in subsidiary alliance. 1799: Fourth Mysore War. Fall of Srirangapatnam. Death of Tipu. 1800: Establishment of the College of Fort William. 1802: The Treaty of Bassein between Peshwa and the English. 1803: Occupation of Delhi by Lord Lake. 1803–05: Second Anglo-Maratha War. 1807–13: Lord Minto as Governor-General. 1809: Treaty of Amritsar—Ranjit Singh and British sign treaty of perpetual amity. 1813–23: Lord Hastings as Governor-General. 1814–16: Anglo-Gurkha War. 1817–18: Pindari War—Peshwa defeated at Kirkee. 1818–19: Last Anglo-Maratha War. 1823–28: Lord Amherst as Governor-General. 1824–26: First Burmese War. 1828–35: Lord William Bentinck as Governor General. 1829: Prohibition of Sati. 1829–37: Suppression of Thuggee. 1833: Renewal of the Company’s charter. Abolition of the Company’s trading rights. 1835–36: Sir Charles Metcalf as Governor-General. 1835: Macaulay’s Education Resolution. English made the official language instead of Persian. 1835: Foundation of Calcutta Medical College. 1836–42: Lord Auckland as Governor-General. 1839: Death of Ranjit Singh. 1842–44: Lord Ellenborough as Governor-General. 1844–48: Lord Hardinge as Governor-General. 1845–46: First Anglo-Sikh War. Treaty of Lahore. 1848–49: Second Anglo-Sikh War. Defeat of Sikhs and annexation of Punjab. Opening of a Hindu girls’ school in Calcutta by Bethune. 1848–56: Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General. 1852: Second Anglo-Burmese War.

1.100  Chapter 1

❖❖ 1853: Railway opened from Bombay to Thana. Telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra. ❖❖ 1854: Charles Wood’s despatch on Education. ❖❖ 1855: Santhal insurrection in Bihar. ❖❖ 1856: Annexation of Awadh. University Act. Hindu Widow’s Remarriage Act. ❖❖ 1856–58: Lord Canning as Governor-General. ❖❖ 1857–58: Revolt of 1857. Revolt at Meerut begins on 10 May 1857. ❖❖ 1858: British India placed under the direct government of the Crown. Queen Victoria’s Proclamation. ❖❖ 1858–62: Lord Canning as Viceroy. ❖❖ 1861: Indian Councils Act; Archaeological Survey of India set up; Indian Civil Service Act; Introduction of the Penal code. ❖❖ 1862–63: Lord Elgin as Viceroy. ❖❖ 1864–69: Sir John Lawrence as Viceroy. ❖❖ 1865: Telegraphic communication with Europe opened. ❖❖ 1869–72: Lord Mayo as Viceroy. ❖❖ 1875: Visit of the Prince of Wales; Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayananda. ❖❖ 1877: Lord Lytton held Durbar at Delhi where Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. ❖❖ 1878: Vernacular Press Act. ❖❖ 1879: Theosophical Society at Adayar, Madras (was set up). ❖❖ 1880–84: Lord Ripon as Viceroy. ❖❖ 1881: Factory Act. ❖❖ 1883: Indian National Conference held in Calcutta. ❖❖ 1883–84: Ilbert Bill controversy. ❖❖ 1884–88: Lord Dufferin as Viceroy. ❖❖ 1885: First session of the Indian National Congress held at Bombay. ❖❖ 1887: Queen Victoria’s Jubilee. ❖❖ 1888–93: Lord Lansdowne became Viceroy. ❖❖ 1892: Indian Councils Act. ❖❖ 1894–99: Lord Elgin II became Viceroy. ❖❖ 1896: Ramakrishna Mission founded. ❖❖ 1899–1905: Lord Curzon became Viceroy. ❖❖ 1905: Partition of Bengal. ❖❖ 1905–10: Lord Minto II became Viceroy. ❖❖ 1906: Muslim League formed at Dacca.

Indian History  1.101

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1907: Surat Congress session, moderates-extremists clash. 1908: Newspapers Act. Tilak convicted of sedition. 1909: Morley-Minto Reforms: Indian Councils Act passed. 1910–16: Lord Hardinge II as Viceroy. 1911: Delhi Durbar: Partition of Bengal annulled. Census of India; Transfer of Capital to Delhi announced. 1915: Gandhi arrives in India (9 January). 1916: Lucknow Pact of Indian National Congress and All-India Muslim League. Foundation of Women’s University at Poona. The Home Rule League founded. 1916–21: Lord Chelmsford became Viceroy. 1919: Montague-Chelmsford Reforms. Rowlatt Act passed. Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar (13 April). 1920: Khilafat and Non-cooperation Movements started. 1921: Moplah Rebellion and Wagon Tragedy. 1921–26: Lord Reading became Viceroy. 1921: Harappa excavations begin. 1922: Mohenjodaro excavations begin. Chauri Chaura incident, Mahatma Gandhi withdraws Non-cooperation movement. 1923: Formation of Swaraj Party by Motilal Nehru and Deshbandhu Chitranjan Das. 1926–31: Lord Irwin became Viceroy. 1927: Appointment of Simon Commission. 1928: Simon Commission comes to India. Death of Lala Lajpat Rai following police assault. Nehru report. Jinnah gave his fourteen points. 1929: Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt drop bombs in the Legislative Assembly. Congress on 31 December at Lahore declaries its objective of Poorna Swaraj for India. 1930: Gandhiji’s Dandi March. Civil Disobedience Movement. 1930–31: First Round Table Conference. Mahatma Gandhi did not join. 1931: Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed. Gandhiji joined the Second Round Table Conference. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev got death sentence. 1931–36: Lord Wellingdon became Viceroy. 1932: Third Round Table Conference. Communal Award announced: Poona Pact signed. 1934: Civil Disobedience Movement called off, RBI Act 1934 passed; Mahatma Gandhi shifted his ashram from Sabarmati to Wardha.

1.102  Chapter 1

❖❖ 1935: Government of India Act, 1935, passed by British Parliament. Formation of RBI. ❖❖ 1936–44: Lord Linlithgow became Viceroy. ❖❖ 1937: Inauguration of Provincial Autonomy. Congress ministries formed in seven out of eleven provinces. ❖❖ 1938: Haripura session of the Congress and Subhash Chandra Bose became president of INC. ❖❖ 1939: Second World War begins (September). Subhash Chandra Bose resigned from the post of president of INC at the Tripuri Session of INC. ❖❖ 1940: Pakistan resolution passed by the Muslim League at Lahore. ❖❖ 1941: Subhash Chandra Bose escapes from India and joins INA at Singapore. ❖❖ 1942: Cripps comes to India with his proposals in March. Congress rejects Cripps Proposal (11 April). ‘Quit India’ resolution passed by Congress on 8 August. All Congress members were arrested. ❖❖ 1944–47: Lord Wavell became Viceroy. ❖❖ 1945: Labour Government in Britain. INA surrenders to the British (May). First trial of INA men (5 November). ❖❖ 1946: Cabinet Mission plan announced, formation of Interim Government, formation of Constituent Assembly. ❖❖ 1947–48: Lord Mountbatten became Viceroy (Last Viceroy). ❖❖ 1947: Announcement of Lord Mountbatten’s plan for Partition of India (3 June). Indian Independence Act passed (July). Creation of free India and Pakistan on midnight of 14/15 August, 1947, as dominions. ❖❖ 1947–64: Jawaharlal Nehru became the Prime Minister of India. ❖❖ 1948: Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi (30 January). Rajagopalachari appointed first Indian Governor-General (21 June). ❖❖ 1949: New Constitution of India adopted and signed (26 November). ❖❖ 1950: India became a Republic. The Constitution came into force (26 January). Dr Rajendra Prasad became the first President of the Indian Republic. Planning Commission was set up. ❖❖ 1951: Inauguration of First Five Year Plan.

  Chapter 2

Chronology of World History Before Christ/Before Common ERA (bc/bce) ❖❖ 5000: World’s first civilization develops in Sumer between the rivers of Tigris and Euphrates, the area later named Mesopotamia (now Iraq). The Sumerians invented the first form of writing. They are also credited with the invention of the wheel. ❖❖ 3500: Discovery of bronze in Egypt. Development of pottery in the Indus Valley; potter’s wheel used; Sumerians develop cuneiform writing. ❖❖ 3000–2000: King Khufu completes the construction of the Great Pyramids at Giza. ❖❖ 3000–1500: Hammurabi, the King of Babylon, develops the oldest existing code of laws and raises the first army of the world. Stonehenge erected in Britain. ❖❖ 2700–2600: Building of the pyramids in Egypt (one of the seven wonders of the ancient world). ❖❖ 2300: The Babylonians, Egyptians and Chinese built observatories upon the flat roofs of temples and this marked the beginning of Astrology. ❖❖ 2205–1122: Rise of the Chinese civilization along the banks of the Hwang Ho. ❖❖ 1500: Compilation of the Rig Veda, the first and the oldest among the sacred scriptures of Hinduism. Rise of the Ganges civilization—the Aryans advance towards India reaching the Ganges and the Yamuna rivers. ❖❖ 1013: Rise of the Israelites in Palestine; David (1013–973 bce) established Israelite hegemony. ❖❖ 776: First Olympic Games recorded. ❖❖ 753: Rome founded by Romulus. ❖❖ 604: Birth of Lao-Tse (China)—Founder of Taoism. ❖❖ 660: Birth of Zarathustra or Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism in Medea (Iran).

2.2  Chapter 2

❖❖ 553: Work of Pythagoras: A Greek settled in Italy, regarded as the greatest ancient Greek philosopher who discovered music and determined that an octave has eight notes. ❖❖ 550: Birth of Confucianism—the third, great religion which emerged from China and later its state religion. ❖❖ 509: Founding of the Roman Republic when great temples, baths, circuses and triumph arches were built. ❖❖ 500: Building of the theatre at Delphi: The first ‘man of theatre’ was a Greek called Thespis who founded the modern theatre around 500 bce. ❖❖ 399: Socrates, the Athenian philosopher, condemned to death. ❖❖ 347: Death of Plato: At this time he was working on his treatise ‘The Laws’. ❖❖ 300–280: Creation of the Colossus of Rhodes (one of the seven wonders of the ancient world)—an immense statue of Helios (Apollo), the Sun God. ❖❖ 279: Pharos Lighthouse at Alexandria built (one of the seven wonders of the ancient world). ❖❖ 215: The Great Wall of China built by Shih Huang Ti (221–206 bce). ❖❖ 100–51: Chinese developed the use of paper. ❖❖ 44: Julius Caesar murdered by Brutus and Cassius. ❖❖ 4: Birth of Jesus Christ.

Christian Era/Anno Domini (ce/ad) ❖❖ 30: Crucifixion of Jesus. ❖❖ 64: Burning of Rome—The fire that continued for 6 days almost demolished Rome. ❖❖ 300–349: Constantine the Great reunites eastern and western Roman empires; builds a new capital on the site of Byzantium. ❖❖ 400–449: Attila the Hun attacks Roman provinces. ❖❖ 450–499: Vandals destroy Rome; beginning of the Dark Ages in Europe. ❖❖ 550–559: Islam founded by Prophet Mohammed. ❖❖ 622: First year of the Islamic calendar. ❖❖ 1000: Hungary and Scandinavia converted to Christianity. Viking explorer Leif Erikson discovers North America, calls it Vinland. Beowulf, Old English epic dated to this period. ❖❖ 1008: Murasaki Shikibu finishes The Tale of Genji, the world’s first novel. ❖❖ 1009: Muslims destroy the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. ❖❖ 1013: Danes control England.

Chronology of World History  2.3

❖❖ 1040: Macbeth murders Duncan, the king of Scotland. ❖❖ 1053: Robert Guiscard, Norman invader, establishes his kingdom in Italy, conquers Sicily (1072). ❖❖ 1054: Final separation between Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman) churches. ❖❖ 1055: Seljuk Turks, Asian nomads, move west, capture Baghdad, Armenia (1064), Syria, and Palestine (1075). ❖❖ 1066: Norman conquest of Britain. ❖❖ 1095: Pope Urban II calls for the Crusades. ❖❖ 1100: Angkor Wat (world’s largest Hindu temple) is built. ❖❖ 1206: Genghis Khan begins creation of the largest land empire in history. ❖❖ 1260: Chartres Cathedral consecrated. ❖❖ 1271: Marco Polo begins travels to Asia. ❖❖ 1273: Thomas Aquinas’s Summa Theologica written. ❖❖ 1300: Renaissance begins in Italy. ❖❖ 1347: Bubonic plague (Black death) spreads across Europe. ❖❖ 1387: Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales published. ❖❖ 1399: Tamerlane begins his last great conquest. ❖❖ 1438: Incan Empire formed in Peru. ❖❖ 1455: Gutenberg’s movable-type printing press produces the Bible. ❖❖ 1492: Columbus reaches the New World. ❖❖ 1509: Michelangelo begins painting Sistine Chapel. ❖❖ 1517: Martin Luther initiates Reformation. ❖❖ 1519: Aztec Empire at its height as the Spanish arrive. ❖❖ 1520: Suleiman I, ‘the Magnificent’ presides over the Ottoman Empire’s greatest period. ❖❖ 1522: Magellan’s expedition circumnavigates the globe. ❖❖ 1543: Copernicus postulates a heliocentric universe. ❖❖ 1582: Pope Gregory XIII reforms the calendar. ❖❖ 1603: Shakespeare’s Hamlet. ❖❖ 1605: Cervantes’s Don Quixote written; it was the first modern novel. ❖❖ 1609: Galileo makes the first astronomical observations with a telescope. ❖❖ 1637: Descartes publishes Discours de la méthode. ❖❖ 1648: Taj Mahal completed substantially. However, it was completed entirely in 1653. ❖❖ 1667: Milton’s Paradise Lost. ❖❖ 1684: Leibniz’s calculus.

2.4  Chapter 2

❖❖ 1687: Newton published his law of motion and universal gravitation in ‘The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy’, commonly known as Principia, in 1687. ❖❖ 1690: Locke’s An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. ❖❖ 1721: Bach completes the Brandenburg Concertos. ❖❖ 1755: Johnson’s A Dictionary of the English Language. ❖❖ 1760: Industrial revolution begins in England. ❖❖ 1762: Rousseau’s The Social Contract. ❖❖ 1764: Mozart (aged eight) writes his first symphony. ❖❖ 1769: Watt patents the first practical steam engine. ❖❖ 1776: United States Declaration of Independence; Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations. ❖❖ 1787: United States Constitution signed. ❖❖ 1789: French Revolution begins. ❖❖ 1792: Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. ❖❖ 1796: Edward Jenner discovers smallpox vaccine. ❖❖ 1800: Napoleon conquers Italy, firmly establishes himself as First Consul in France. In the United States, federal government moves to Washington, D.C. Robert Owen’s social reforms in England. William Herschel discovers infrared rays. Alessandro Volta invents electric battery. ❖❖ 1804: Haiti declares independence from France; first black nation to gain freedom from European colonial rule. Napoleon transforms the Consulate of France into an empire, proclaims himself emperor of France, systematizes French law under Code Napoleon. In the United States, Alexander Hamilton is mortally wounded in a duel with Aaron Burr. ❖❖ 1808: Beethoven’s Fifth and Sixth Symphonies performed. ❖❖ 1812: Napoleon’s Grand Army invades Russia in June. Forced to retreat in winter, most of Napoleon’s 6,00,000 men are lost. ❖❖ 1814: French defeated by allies (Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Portugal) in War of Liberation. Napoleon exiled to Elba, off the Italian coast. Bourbon king Louis XVIII takes the French throne. George Stephenson builds first practical steam locomotive. ❖❖ 1815: Napoleon returns: ‘Hundred Days’ begin. Napoleon defeated by Wellington at Waterloo, banished again to St. Helena in South Atlantic. Congress of Vienna: Victorious allies change the map of Europe. War of 1812 ends with Treaty of Ghent. ❖❖ 1819: Simón Bolívar liberates New Granada (now Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador) as Spain loses hold on South American countries; named president of Colombia.

Chronology of World History  2.5

❖❖ 1820: Missouri Compromise—Missouri admitted as a slave state but slavery barred in the rest of Louisiana. ❖❖ 1822: Greeks proclaim a republic and independence from Turkey. Turks invade Greece. Russia declares war on Turkey (1828). Greece also aided by France and Britain. War ends and Turks recognize Greek independence (1829). Brazil gains independence from Portugal. Schubert’s Eighth Symphony (‘The Unfinished’). ❖❖ 1824: Mexico becomes a republic, three years after declaring independence from Spain. Bolívar liberates Peru, becomes its president. Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. ❖❖ 1825: First passenger carrying rail-road in England. ❖❖ 1826: Joseph Nicéphore Niepce takes the world’s first photograph. ❖❖ 1830: French invade Algeria. Louis Philippe becomes ‘Citizen King’ as revolution forces Charles X to abdicate. Church of Jesus Christ of Latterday Saints formed in the United States by Joseph Smith. ❖❖ 1833: Slavery abolished in the British Empire. ❖❖ 1834: Charles Babbage invents the ‘analytical engine’, a precursor to the computer. McCormick patents reaper. ❖❖ 1836: Boer farmers start ‘Great Trek’: Natal, Transvaal and Orange Free State founded in South Africa. Dickens’s Pickwick Papers. ❖❖ 1837: Victoria becomes queen of Great Britain. Mob kills Elijah P. Lovejoy, Illinois abolitionist publisher. ❖❖ 1839: First Opium War (to 1842) between Britain and China, over importation of the drug into China. ❖❖ 1840: Lower and Upper Canada united. ❖❖ 1841: United States President Harrison dies (April 4) one month after inauguration; John Tyler becomes first vice president to succeed to presidency. ❖❖ 1842: Crawford Long uses first anaesthetic (ether). ❖❖ 1844: Samuel F.B. Morse patents the telegraph. ❖❖ 1845: Congress adopts joint resolution for the annexation of Texas. Edgar Allan Poe publishes The Raven and Other Poems. ❖❖ 1846: United States declares war on Mexico. California and New Mexico annexed by United States. Brigham Young leads Mormons to Great Salt Lake. Sewing machine patented by Elias Howe. Frederick Douglass launches an abolitionist newspaper ‘The North Star’. ❖❖ 1848: Revolt in Paris: Louis Philippe abdicates; Louis Napoleon elected president of the French Republic. Revolutions in Vienna, Venice, Berlin, Milan, Rome, and Warsaw. Put down by royal troops in 1848–49.

2.6  Chapter 2

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United States–Mexico War ends; Mexico cedes claims to Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada. United States treaty with Britain sets Oregon Territory boundary at 49th parallel. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’s Communist Manifesto. Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery and joins the Underground Railroad. Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, N.Y. 1852: South African Republic established. Louis Napoleon proclaims himself Napoleon III (‘Second Empire’). Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin was published. 1853: Crimean War begins as Turkey declares war on Russia. Commodore Perry reaches Tokyo. 1854: Britain and France join Turkey in the war on Russia. In United States, Kansas—Nebraska Act permits local option on slavery; there was rioting and bloodshed. Japanese allow American trade. Antislavery men in Michigan form Republican Party. Tennyson’s Charge of the Light Brigade, Thoreau’s Walden. 1855: Armed clashes in Kansas between pro- and anti-slavery forces. Florence Nightingale nurses the wounded in Crimea. Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass was published. 1856: Flaubert’s Madame Bovary. 1857: Supreme Court, in the Dred Scott decision, rules that a slave is not a citizen. Financial crisis in Europe and United States. Great mutiny (Sepoy Rebellion) begins in India. India placed under Crown rule as a result. 1858: Proslavery constitution rejected in Kansas. Abraham Lincoln makes strong anti-slavery speech in Springfield—This Government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. Lincoln Douglas debates. First trans-Atlantic telegraph cable completed by Cyrus W. Field. 1859: John Brown raids Harpers Ferry; he is captured and hanged. Work begins on the Suez Canal. Unification of Italy starts under the leadership of Count Cavour, the Sardinian premier. Joined by France in war against Austria. Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir builds the first practical internal combustion engine. Edward Fitzgerald’s translation of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species. J.S. Mill’s On Liberty is completed. 1860: South Carolina secedes from the Union. 1861: United States Civil War begins as attempts at compromise fail. Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas secede; with South Carolina, they form the Confederate States of America,

Chronology of World History  2.7

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with Jefferson Davis as president. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina secede and join the Confederacy. First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas). Congress creates Colorado, Dakota, and Nevada territories; adopts income tax; Lincoln becomes president. Serfs emancipated in Russia. Pasteur’s theory of germs. Independent kingdom of Italy proclaimed under the Sardinian King Victor Emmanuel II. 1862: Several major Civil War battles: Battle of Shiloh, Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), Battle of Antietam. Salon des Refusés introduces impressionism. 1863: French capture Mexico City; proclaim Archduke Maximilian of Austria emperor. Battle of Gettysburg. 1865: Gen. Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox; the Civil War is over. Lincoln fatally shot at Ford’s Theater by John Wilkes Booth. Vice President Johnson sworn in as the successor. Booth gets caught and dies of gunshot wounds; four conspirators are hanged. Joseph Lister begins antiseptic surgery. Gregor Mendel’s Law of Heredity. Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. 1866: Alfred Nobel invents dynamite (patented in Britain, 1867). Seven Weeks’ War: Austria defeated by Prussia and Italy. 1867: Austria-Hungary dual monarchy established. French leave Mexico; Maximilian executed. Dominion of Canada established. United States buys Alaska from Russia for $72,00,000. South African diamond field discovered. Japan ends 675-year shogun rule. Volume I of Marx’s Das Kapital. Strauss’s Blue Danube. 1868: Revolution in Spain; Queen Isabella deposed, flees to France. In the United States, the Fourteenth Amendment giving civil rights to blacks is ratified. Georgia under military government after legislature expels blacks. 1869: First United States transcontinental rail route completed. James Fisk and Jay Gould’s attempt to control the gold market causes Black Friday panic. Suez Canal opens. Mendeleev’s periodic table of elements is published. 1870: Franco: Prussian War (to 1871): Napoleon III capitulates at Sedan. Revolt in Paris; Third Republic proclaimed. 1871: France surrenders Alsace Lorraine to Germany; war ends. German Empire proclaimed with Kaiser Wilhelm I as Prussian king. Fighting with Apaches begins in the American West. Boss Tweed corruption exposed in New York. The Chicago Fire, with 250 deaths and damage worth $196 million. Stanley meets Livingstone in Africa.

2.8  Chapter 2

❖❖ 1872: Congress gives amnesty to most Confederates. ❖❖ 1873: Economic crisis in Europe. United States establishes gold standard. Jules Verne’s Around the World in 80 Days. ❖❖ 1876: Sioux kill Gen. George A. Custer and 264 troopers at Little Big Horn River. Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone. ❖❖ 1877: After the presidential election of 1876, the electoral commission gives disputed electoral college votes to Rutherford B. Hayes despite Tilden’s popular majority. Russo-Turkish war (ends in 1878 with the power of Turkey in Europe broken). Reconstruction ends in the American South. Thomas Edison patents the phonograph. The Nez Perce leader Chief Joseph is forced to surrender. Tchaikovsky’s ‘Swan Lake’. ❖❖ 1878: Congress of Berlin revises the Treaty of San Stefano, ending the Russo-Turkish War; makes extensive redivision of southeast Europe. First commercial telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Connecticut. ❖❖ 1879: Thomas A. Edison invents practical electric light bulb. ❖❖ 1880: United States—China treaty allows United States to restrict immigration of Chinese labor. ❖❖ 1881: President Garfield fatally shot by assassin; Vice President Arthur succeeds him. Charles J. Guiteau convicted and executed (1882). ❖❖ 1882: Terrorism in Ireland after land evictions. Britain invades and conquers Egypt. Germany, Austria, and Italy form Triple Alliance. In the United States, Congress adopts the Chinese Exclusion Act. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Trust is the first industrial monopoly. In Berlin, Robert Koch announces the discovery of the tuberculosis germ. ❖❖ 1883: Congress creates Civil Service Commission. Brooklyn Bridge and Metropolitan Opera House completed. ❖❖ 1884: Berlin West Africa Conference held in Berlin (lasting until February 1885), at which the major European nations discuss expansion in Africa. ❖❖ 1885: British general Charles G. ‘Chinese’ Gordon killed at Khartoum in Egyptian Sudan. World’s first skyscraper built in Chicago. ❖❖ 1886: Bombing at Haymarket Square, Chicago, kills seven policemen and injures many others. Eight alleged anarchists accused, three imprisoned, one commits suicide, four hanged. (In 1893, Illinois governor Altgeld, critical of trial, pardons three survivors). Statue of Liberty dedicated. Geronimo, Apache Indian chief, surrenders. ❖❖ 1887: Queen Victoria’s Golden Jubilee. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s first Sherlock Holmes story, A Study in Scarlet. ❖❖ 1888: Historic March blizzard in northeast United States: Many perish, property damage exceeds $25 million. George Eastman’s box camera

Chronology of World History  2.9

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(the Kodak) developed. J.B. Dunlop invents the pneumatic tire. Jack the Ripper murders in London. 1892: Battle between steel strikers and Pinkerton guards at Homestead, Pa.; union defeated after militia intervenes. Silver mine strikers in Idaho fight non-union workers; United States troops dispatched. Diesel engine patented. 1893: New Zealand becomes the first country in the world to grant women the right to vote. 1894: Sino-Japanese War begins (ends in 1895 with China’s defeat). In France, Capt. Alfred Dreyfus convicted on false treason charge (pardoned in 1906). 1895: X-rays discovered by German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen. Auguste and Louis Lumière premiere motion pictures at a café in Paris. 1896: Supreme Court’s Plessy v. Ferguson decision: ‘separate but equal’ doctrine. Alfred Nobel’s will establishes prizes for peace, science, and literature. Marconi receives first wireless patent in Britain. William Jennings Bryan delivers ‘Cross of Gold’ speech at Democratic Convention in Chicago. First modern Olympic games held in Athens, Greece. 1897: Theodor Herzl launches the Zionist movement. 1898: Chinese ‘Boxers’, anti-foreign organization, established. They stage uprisings against Europeans in 1900; United States and other Western troops relieve Peking legations. United States battleship Maine is sunk in Havana harbor. Spanish-American War begins. United States destroys Spanish fleet near Santiago, Cuba. (For detailed chronology, see Spanish-American War). Pierre and Marie Curie discover radium and polonium. 1899: Boer War (or South African War): Conflict between British and Boers (descendants of Dutch settlers of South Africa). Causes rooted in longstanding territorial disputes as well as in friction over political rights for the English and other ‘uitlanders’ following the 1886 discovery of vast gold deposits in Transvaal. (British victorious as war ends in 1902.) Casualties: 5,774 British, and about 4,000 Boers dead. Union of South Africa established in 1908 as confederation of colonies; becomes British dominion in 1910. 1900: Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams. 1901: Distribution of Nobel prizes started in the fields of medicine, physics, chemistry, literature and peace. 1903: Wright brothers fly the first motorized airplane. 1905: Einstein announces his theory of relativity. 1907: Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’Avignon introduces cubism.

2.10  Chapter 2

❖❖ 1911: Roald Amundsen reaches the South Pole, thus becoming the first person to do so. Chinese Republic proclaimed after overthrowing the Manchu dynasty—Sun Yat-sen is named as the president. ❖❖ 1912: Titanic sinks on its maiden voyage due to crash with a huge iceberg. Establishment of the Chinese Republic. ❖❖ 1914: Austria declares war on Serbia, Germany on Russia and France and Britain on Germany; World War I begins; Panama Canal is officially opened. ❖❖ 1915: German submarine sinks British ship Lusitania. This results in the induction of United States forces into the world war. ❖❖ 1916: First World War spreads—Italy joins Allies (Bulgaria and Central powers). Battle of Verdun (France) between France and Germany (during World War I). ❖❖ 1917: United States declares war on Germany; Russian revolution ends Romanov family’s rule in Russia; Alexander Kerensky forms provincial government in Russia as its prime minister; Bolsheviks led by Lenin and Trotsky overthrow Kerensky’s government; Balfour Declaration promises Jewish homeland in Palestine. United States enters the World War. Outbreak of the Russian Revolution. ❖❖ 1918: Bolsheviks execute Czar Nicholas II and his family. Russian civil war breaks out between Reds (Bolsheviks) and Whites (antiBolsheviks). First World War ends—Armistice signed on November 11. Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic) and Poland become independent; Czar Nicholas II (Russia) assassinated. ❖❖ 1919: Allies and Germany sign Versailles treaty incorporating Woodrow Wilson’s draft on ‘League of Nations’ (precursor to the United Nations). ❖❖ 1920: League of Nations holds its first meeting at Geneva, Switzerland. Ottoman Empire dissolved after Treaty of Sevres. League of Nations formed under the Treaty of Versailles. International Court of Justice established at The Hague, Netherlands. ❖❖ 1922: Benito Mussolini forms fascist government in Italy. Kemal Ataturk, founder of modern Turkey, overthrows monarchy. Egypt gains independence from British rule. Formation of Irish Free State. ❖❖ 1924: Death of Lenin. Stalin wins Russian power struggles and rules as Soviet dictator until his death in 1953. Hitler writes ‘Mein Kampf ’, his autobiography, in prison. ❖❖ 1928: Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin. Oxford English Dictionary published in full after a research of over 44 years. ❖❖ 1929: Lateran Treaty establishes an independent Vatican City. ❖❖ 1930: Clyde W. Tombaugh discovers the planet Pluto.

Chronology of World History    2.11

❖❖ 1931: Spain becomes a republic with the ouster of King Alfonso XIII; Spanish Republic proclaimed. ❖❖ 1932: Amelia Earhart becomes first women to fly across the Atlantic Ocean. ❖❖ 1933: Adolf Hitler is appointed as German Chancellor. Germany and Japan withdraw from the League of Nations. ❖❖ 1934: Hitler becomes Fuhrer. USSR admitted to League of Nations. ❖❖ 1939: Hitler invades Poland; World War II begins. ❖❖ 1942: Nazi leaders at Wannsee Conference coordinate ‘final solution to the Jewish question’. ❖❖ 1945: Atomic bombs are dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki; first electronic computer, ENIAC, is built; Arab League launches modern pan-Arabism. ❖❖ 1946: First meeting of the U.N. General Assembly; Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ speech marks the beginning of the cold war. ❖❖ 1947: Gandhi’s civil disobedience movement leads to an independent India. ❖❖ 1949: Communist victory in China under Mao Zedong. ❖❖ 1950: Abstract expressionism introduced. ❖❖ 1953: Watson, Crick, and Franklin discover DNA’s structure. ❖❖ 1954: Brown v. Board of Education begins the unraveling of United States racial segregation. ❖❖ 1957: Russia launches its first satellite, Sputnik I. ❖❖ 1959: Mary and Louis Leakey uncover hominid fossils. ❖❖ 1969: Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin walk on the moon. ❖❖ 1973: Vietnam War ends with the signing of peace pacts. Afghanistan ends monarchy and becomes a republic. War breaks out in West Asia between Israel and Egypt and Syria. ❖❖ 1977: Maj. Gen. Ziaur Rahman sworn in as new Bangladesh’s president. ❖❖ 1980: Smallpox eradicated from the world. ❖❖ 1981: Scientists identify AIDS. ❖❖ 1989: Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, demolition of Berlin wall. ❖❖ 1990: Iraq troops invade Kuwait leading to the Persian Gulf War; East and West Germany are reunited; Margaret Thatcher resigns as British PM after three terms in office—John Major is new PM. Nelson Mandela freed from prison after 27 years. West and East Germany united. Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe re-elected. Lithuania, Latvia, Byelorussia (now Belarus) and Kazakhstan declare independence from

2.12  Chapter 2

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❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖ ❖❖

❖❖

❖❖ ❖❖

the USSR. Nawaz Sharif sworn in as Pakistan PM, Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad quits as Bangladesh President. 1991: The USSR formally disintegrates into 15 republics. Russian President Gorbachev ousted in bloodless coup. Begum Khaleda Zia appointed first woman prime minister of Bangladesh. Iraq refuses to withdraw from Kuwait and Gulf war begins; United States led coalition forces from 28 countries attack Iraq; ceasefire declared after 44 days and Kuwait liberated. 1992: President Bush of the United States and President Yeltsin of Russia formally proclaim an end to the ‘Cold War’; United States recognizes three former Yugoslav republics. Yugoslavia expelled from the UNO. The Earth Summit—United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)—held in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil. 1993: Bill Clinton is sworn in as the youngest ever president of the United States; Czechoslovakia breaks up into Czech Republic and Slovakia; President of Sri Lanka, Ranasinghe Premadasa is assassinated; Iraq accepts United Nations weapons monitoring; Europe’s Maastricht Treaty takes effect, creating the European Union; South Africa adopts ‘majority rule’ constitution. 1994: Nelson Mandela becomes South Africa’s first black president after its first multiracial elections; the Channel Tunnel (Chunnel) opens between France and England; North Yemen occupies South Yemen capital Aden. 1996: Yasser Arafat is re-elected President of the Palestinian Authority; United States President Bill Clinton signs the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) at the United Nations. 1997: Labour Party’s Tony Blair becomes PM of the United Kingdom. 1998: European nations agree to forbid human cloning; United States Congress passes the Iraq Liberation Act that states the United States government’s intention to replace Saddam Hussein’s government in Iraq with a democratic institution. 1999: The EU common currency, the euro, is introduced; a military coup led by Pakistani Army Chief General Pervez Musharraf ousts the government of PM Nawaz Sharif. 2000: Vladimir Putin is elected president of Russia. 2001: George W. Bush is sworn in as president of the United States; marriage allowing same-sex couples to marry legally comes into effect for the first time in the world; United States attack on Afghanistan begins; Former Yugoslav President Slobodan Milosevic tried on war crimes.

Chronology of World History    2.13

❖❖ 2002: Euro banknotes and coins become legal tender in 12 memberstates of the European Union; Switzerland becomes a full member of the United Nations; World Summit on sustainable development. ❖❖ 2003: The first United States bombs are dropped on Baghdad—soon United States forces seize control of Baghdad. ❖❖ 2004: Over 80,000 people are killed following a massive undersea earthquake (a tsunami) off Sumatra in Indonesia—over 28,000 are killed in Sri Lanka and over 4,500 in Thailand as the quake-triggered tidal waves lash the regions—thousands on the south eastern coastline of India are devastated. ❖❖ 2005: George W. Bush begins his second term as 43rd president of the United States. Pope John Paul II dies and is succeeded by Pope Benedict XVI. ❖❖ 2006: The United Nations General Assembly votes to establish the United Nations Human Rights Council, a new human rights organization to replace the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. Ban KiMoon is elected as the new Secretary General of the United Nations. Saddam Hussein, former Iraq president, is executed in Baghdad. ❖❖ 2007: Former Pakistani PM Benazir Bhutto is killed in a suicide bombing at a campaign rally in Rawalpindi. Nancy Pelosi becomes the first woman Speaker of the House in the United States. ❖❖ 2008: Cuban President Fidel Castro permanently steps down after 49 years in power; Sudan’s president formally charged with genocide for planning and executing the decimation of Darfur’s three ethnic tribes: The Fur, the Masalit and the Zaghawa; Nepal’s Constituent Assembly elects Maoist leader Pushpa Kamal Dahl, known as Prachanda, as prime minister. ❖❖ 2009: Sweden becomes the fifth European country to legalise same sex marriage. ❖❖ 2011: Arab Spring movement begins in Tunisia; United States troops and CIA operatives shoot and kill Osama Bin Laden in Abbottabad, Pakistan; South Sudan declares independence and becomes Africa’s 54th state; King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia grants women the right to vote. ❖❖ 2012: Vladimir Putin wins the presidential elections in Russia; Francois Hollande becomes the president of France; Hosni Mubarak, former president of Egypt, sentenced to life imprisonment for being an accomplice in the killing of unarmed protestors during the 2011 demonstrations; Russia joins the World Trade Organization (WTO). ❖❖ 2013: Nelson Mandela dies; Negotiations between Israelis and Palestinians resume after 5 years; Afghan president Karzai refuses to

2.14  Chapter 2

sign a security agreement with the United States; Violent protests in Egypt lead to ouster of Morsi. ❖❖ 2014: Latvia officially adopts the euro and becomes the 18th member of the Eurozone; Belgium becomes the first country in the world to legalise euthanasia for terminally ill patients of any age. The Republic of Crimea unilaterally declares its independence from Ukraine. Dr Kailash Satyarthi and Malala Yousafzai (youngest) win the Nobel Peace Prize. ❖❖ 2016: Mr Donald Trump elected as president of the United States; Leak of 11.5 m Panama paper files from the database of the world’s fourth biggest offshore law firm, Mossack Fonseca; The ceasefire between Armenia and Azerbaijan refrained; Twin blasts at Zaventem Airport, Brussels (Belgium); Brazil and South Korea impeach their presidents; Rodrigo Duterte becomes president of the Philippines; North Korea conducts missile and nuclear tests; Britain votes to leave the European Union—the United Kingdom is thus on course to leave the European Union in March, 2019.

  Chapter 3

Geography Section A: Physical and World Geography Introduction ❖❖ Geography: The sequential knowledge and the study of the earth and its relationship with all living species (especially human beings) is called geography. In other words, geography is the science that studies the land, its features, its inhabitants, and phenomena of the earth. ❖❖ Eratosthenes (a Greek Scholar) adopted the term ‘geography’. Some other scholars related with geography are Anaximander (created first map of the world), Ainville (made first map of India), and Friedrich Ratzel (wrote Anthropogeography).

Branches of Geography

Physical Geography It deals with the study of climate, seasons, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, physical problems, lithosphere, hydrosphere, pedosphere, biosphere, and any other natural phenomena.

3.2  Chapter 3

Human Geography It deals with the study of the development of life of human beings with respect to the earth’s surface and its other physical phenomena. In other words, ‘Human geography is the study of growth, survival, adaptability, flexibility, and development of humans within the earth’s environment’.

Other Branches of Geography ❖❖ Geomorphology: The study of landforms, their evolution, and related processes. ❖❖ Hydrology: The study of the realm of water over oceans, lakes, rivers, and other water bodies and its effect on different life forms including human life and their activities. ❖❖ Soil Geography or Pedology: The study of the process of soil formation, soil types, their fertility status, distribution, and use. ❖❖ Social/Culture Geography: The study of society and its spatial dynamics as well as the cultural elements contributed by society. ❖❖ Historical Geography: The study of historical process through which the space gets organized. ❖❖ Population and Settlements: The study of population growth, distribution, density, sex ratio, migration and occupational structure, etc. ❖❖ Economic Geography: The study of economic activities of the people including agriculture, industries, tourism, trade and transport, infrastructure, and services. ❖❖ Political Geography: In this field of geography, the administration zone of various countries and governments of the world, state boundaries, nation’s resources, colonies and empires, etc., are studied. ❖❖ Climatology: It is the study of climate, scientifically defined as the average weather condition over a period of time.

The Universe ❖❖ When we talk about the universe, we have to keep in mind that we are talking about something which is beyond our imagination; it is incomprehensibly large in size and dimension. It contains everything known to us, from a tiniest subatomic particle to the galactic super-clusters [which is the largest structure known]. It is estimated to have about 100 billion galaxies and each comprising an average of 100 billion stars. ❖❖ The universe is commonly defined as the totality of everything that exists, including all physical matter and energy. The planets, stars, galaxies, and the contents of intergalactic space are all included.

Geography  3.3

Scholars Related with the Study of the Universe 1. Ptolemy: In 140 ce, he propounded the theory that the earth was the centre of the universe and the sun and other heavy objects revolved around it. 2. Copernicus (in 16th Century ce): He said that the sun is the centre of the solar system and not the universe. 3. Edwin Hubble: He was the first person who demonstrated the existence of galaxies beyond the Milky Way.

Evolution of the Universe 1. Big Bang Theory: It is mostly Know More! believed that about 13.8 billion Big Bang theory is the most widely years ago a gigantic explosion accepted cosmological model for the happened, which also became explanation of the formation of the to be known as the Big Bang. world. Scientists have not yet clearly It caused matter to expand explained what banged, but we know to form billions of swirling from extrapolation that the universe galaxies, and over time, was infinitely hot at the time of its stars and planets. The huge birth; it expanded as it cooled down. clouds we know are made up of largely two of the lightest elements, helium and hydrogen, along with traces of the other elements including oxygen, silicon, and iron. 2. Steady State Theory: This theory states that although the universe is expanding, it nevertheless does not change its appearance over time; it has no beginning and no end. 3. The Pulsating Theory: According to this theory, the universe is supposed to be expanding and contracting alternately, i.e., pulsating. 4. Theory of Expansion of the Universe: The theory says that the distribution of the galaxies is uniform in all directions throughout the universe; therefore, to any observer from any galaxy, the average composition of the universe would appear the same.

Galaxies ❖❖ Galaxies are the major building blocks of the universe. The smallest of the galaxies contains at least about 1 billion stars, while the largest contains about 3 billion stars. ❖❖ All the galaxies are held by their own gravitational fields.

3.4

Chapter 3

❖❖ Other than stars, they majorly comprise gases and dust particles. Galaxies are of three types: 1. Spiral Galaxies: Spiral galaxies have curved spiral arms; they encompass dust and gas, triggering the formation of bright young stars. About twenty-five percent of the galaxies have curved spiral arms. The Milky Way and the Great Galaxy of Andromeda are examples of the large spherical galaxies. 2. Elliptical Galaxies: These are probably the most abundant galaxies of all. Characteristically, these are smaller than the spiral galaxies and have old stars. Some of them are so small that the term dwarf has often been used for them. 3. Irregular Galaxies: These comprise about one-tenth of all galaxies. The stars are generally very old but some of them also have a mixture of old and new stars.

Milky Way (Akashganga)

Fig. 3.1 View of the Milky Way

❖❖ Our galaxy is in the shape of a do you Know? flat disc having a central bulge. A light year is about 9,460 trillion The diameter is about a hundred kilometers or 9.4607 × 1012 km. It thousand light years. In comparison, the solar system seems small, which is a unit of distance and not time. is approximately 12 light years across (about 13 billion km). The entire galaxy is rotating in space, though the inner stars travel faster than the outer stars. Scientists believe that 90% of our galaxy’s mass consists of ‘dark matter’, which means that all the luminous matter we see from our naked eyes or telescopes makes up less than 10% of the mass of the Milky Way. It is believed that the Milky Way is as old as the universe itself, which is about 13.6 billion years old. ❖❖ Nebulae: A cloud of gas and dust inside a galaxy is known as nebula; it becomes visible when the gas glows or the cloud reflects straight light from a distant object.

Geography

3.5

❖❖ Dwarfs: The dwarfs are very small stars but with a density more than that of any known terrestrial material. Their densities may be a million times more than that of water. ❖❖ Black Holes (Neutron Stars): A black hole is a place in space where the gravity pull is so strong that even light cannot escape from it. The gravity is so because matter has been squeezed into a tiny space. This only happens when a star dies. Since light cannot escape from it, people are unable to see black holes. They are invisible. Space telescopes with special equipment can help find black holes. ❖❖ Chandrasekhar Limit: A renowned Indian physicist, Chandrasekhar had predicted an upper limit to the mass of stars, which is called the Chandrasekhar limit. It is 1.44 times the mass of the sun. (Mass of the sun: 1.989 × 1030 kg)

the Solar System ❖❖ Popularly known as the solar system, it is the family of the sun, the eight major planets, one dwarf planet, satellites and countless minor planets (asteroids), meteors, and comets, all of which revolve around the sun to form the solar system.

Mars Uranus Neptune Venus Mercury

Jupiter Earth

Saturn

Fig. 3.2 The Solar System

❖❖ It was probably formed by the gravitational collapse of huge clouds of gas and dust. The bodies that are close to the sun were formed from the rock and the metal that crystallized at high temperatures. On the other hand, the outer planets were formed from the elements that turned into solids at low temperatures. The important parts of the family are discussed further: ❖❖ Sun: Sun is the natural source of light for us. It was formed when cloud of dust and gas contracted, pulling the matter into the centre. Owing to the process of nuclear fusion—the fusing of hydrogen

do you Know? The Sun is 13,00,000 times bigger than the earth in terms of volume.

3.6  Chapter 3

into helium, a constant stream of heat formed and light occurred and hence, the sun. The sun is the major source of energy in a solar system. Some of the important terms related to the sun are: ●●

●●

●●

●●

Photosphere: It is the bright outer layer of the sun that emits most of the radiation, particularly the visible light. It is basically a zone of burning gases, which is 300-km thick. Chromosphere: It is a thin layer of burning gases just above the photosphere. Beyond it is the magnificent corona which is visible during eclipses. Sunspot: A dark patch on the face of the sun is known as a sunspot. The reason for the darkness of the area is the comparatively lower temperature from other areas. The sun has a surface temperature of about 6000°C. It takes 224 million years to complete one revolution around the galactic circle called a cosmic year.

❖❖ Planet: It is a celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around a star. Generally, planets are divided into inner planets, outer planets, and dwarf planets. Planets are opaque bodies, which continuously revolve around and are lighted by the sun. ❖❖ The easiest way to learn the names of planets in sequence according to their distance from the sun in increasing order is—My Very Educated Mother Just Showed Us Nine Planets (read the first alphabet of every word and you will remember all the planets in order). But remember, the last planet, i.e., Pluto, is now considered a ‘dwarf planet’.

Inner Planets ❖❖ Mercury: It is also known as the God of Commerce and Skill. It is similar to the moon because its surface is dominated by craters (large bowl-shaped cavity in the ground or on a celestial object) and younger areas of dark plains presumably made from floods of lava. Facts to Know! ❖❖ The two moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos, were written about in the book ‘Gulliver’s Travels’ by author Jonathan Swift—151 years before they were discovered. ❖❖ Jupiter has the highest number of satellites (eight of Jupiter’s moons are regular satellites, with four large spherical moons and four smaller moons that orbit close to Jupiter. Jupiter has an additional 55 tiny irregular satellites). ❖❖ The planet with the second highest number of moons is Saturn, with 61 moons.

Geography  3.7

❖❖ Venus: Venus is considered as Earth’s twin, though they are not identical. The other names for it include ‘the Veiled Planet’ or the ‘Goddess of Love and Beauty’. It has high plateaus, folded mountain belts, and numerous volcanoes. It is sometimes called the ‘Evening Star’ or ‘Morning Star’. ❖❖ Mars: It is also known as the Red Planet or the God of War. It is the second smallest planet after Mercury and is fascinating for its geological features, as almost every geological feature is gigantic. The tallest mountain in the solar system is on Mars, known as the Olympus Mons with a height of 13.6 miles (22 km), which makes it about three times higher than Mt Everest.

Outer Planets ❖❖ Jupiter: Also known as the Giant Planet or the Ruler of Gods, it is the largest planet in the solar system. It is composed mostly of gases and liquid in complex forms, and hence, it does not have any geological history. The four large moons of Jupiter are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto; these are often referred to as the Galilean Satellites because they were discovered by Galileo in 1610. ❖❖ Saturn: It is also known as the Ringed Planet or the God of Agriculture. Saturn’s rings have been considered as the most dramatic features; they are made of billions of particles of ice and ice-covered rocks, each particle moves in its independent orbit around Saturn, producing an extraordinary complex ring structure. ❖❖ Uranus: It is also known as the Green Planet or the God of Heavens. We cannot see it with our naked eyes, and hence, it became the first planet that was discovered by the use of a telescope. While the other planets spin around the sun, Uranus rolls, because it is tipped on its sides, and hence it is also called the ‘Rolling Planet’. ❖❖ Neptune: Known as the Twin of Uranus or the God of the Sea. It is surrounded by a thick atmosphere of hydrogen, helium, and methane and has dozens of moons among which Triton is the largest. ❖❖ Dwarf Planet—Pluto: It is also known as the God of Death. Pluto is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond Neptune. It was reclassified from a planet to a dwarf planet in 2006. ❖❖ The redefinition of a planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) on 24 August 2006 states that in the solar system, a planet is a celestial body that: ●● ●●

has an orbit around the sun. has a sufficient mass so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round shape).

3.8

Chapter 3 ●❖

has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.

do you Know? Except the planet Earth, all

❖❖ A non-satellite body fulfilling the the other planets are named first two rules is classified as a dwarf after Greek Gods. planet. So, Pluto is considered a dwarf planet. ❖❖ Moon: It is the natural satellite of Earth and due to the development in the space programs, it is one of the best understood planetary bodies in the solar system. The moon is supposed to be of different shapes at different times because of the changing position in relation with the earth. We always see the same side of the moon; the other side is always hidden. When a month has two full moons, the latter one is called the Blue Moon. Moon is also known as Fossil Planet, and it is the only natural satellite of the earth. The moon has no atmosphere, due to a low escape velocity value. Owing to the absence of an atmosphere, the moon has no twilight and no sound. ●❖ Apollo 11 was the first space flight that landed humans on the surface of the moon. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were the first and second persons respectively to step on the moon in 1969. ❖❖ Constellations: Constellations are groups of stars that form any particular pattern in the night sky. There are 88 official constellations recognized by the IAU. ●❖

●❖

Hydra and Crux are the largest and the smallest constellations, respectively.

the eArth ❖❖ Earth is the third planet from the sun and the densest and the fifth-largest of the eight planets in the solar system. It is also the largest of the four terrestrial planets. ❖❖ Earth is also known as the ‘Blue Planet’. Facts to Know! ❖❖ The earth’s oceans and seas cover more than twice the surface of Mars and nine times the surface of the moon. ❖❖ The Pacific Ocean contains the deepest places on the earth’s surface— the ocean trenches. The deepest is the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench which is 11,022 m into the earth’s crust. Mount Everest which is the highest point on the land at 8,848 m, if dropped into the trench, will not even reach the surface of the Pacific.

Geography  3.9

❖❖ The age of the earth is estimated to be about 4.6 billion years. The history of the earth is studied in terms of geological eras, periods, and epochs. ❖❖ It is the only planet that holds all the favorable conditions for human life to exist. It is like a ball, but not completely round; the shape is often described as a flattened sphere or a ‘geoid’. It is special because its features such as the size, gravitational pull, and distance from the sun have created conditions which can accommodate life. ❖❖ Presence of water, more than anything else, makes it unique; the temperature is such that water exists on its surface in all the three forms, namely liquid, solid, and gas. About 71% of the earth’s surface is water and about 96.5% of all the earth’s water is in the oceans. ❖❖ The atmosphere on earth is composed of majorly nitrogen which is 78%, 21% oxygen, and traces of other gases such as argon and carbon dioxide. ❖❖ The earth has its own protective layer known as Ozone Layer, to protect life from harmful UV radiations coming from the sun. ❖❖ The first life on earth was developed in the oceans, by a process called abiogenesis through which life grows from a non-living organic compound.

Earth Movements The shape of the earth is an oblate spheroid or an oblate ellipsoid (that is, slightly flattened at the poles with a slight bulge at the centre). There are two types of earth movements: 1. Rotation or daily movement 2. Revolution or yearly movement Earth rotation: ●●

●●

Earth spins on its imaginary axis from west to east in 23 h 56 min and 40.91 s. Rotational velocity of the earth at the equator is 1,667 km/h and is zero at the poles.

Due to the earth’s rotation: ●● ●● ●● ●●

The phenomena of day and night occur. A difference of 4 min between two meridians which are consecutive. Change in the direction of wind and ocean currents. Rise and fall of tides every day.

3.10  Chapter 3

Increase and Decrease in Lengths of Day and Night: ●● Longest day in the northern hemisphere: 21 June (Summer Solstice) ●● Longest day in the southern hemisphere: 22 December (Summer Solstice) ●● Shortest day in the northern hemisphere: 22 December (Winter Solstice) ●● Shortest day in the southern hemisphere: 21 June (Winter Solstice) ●● Day and night are almost equal at the equator: 21 March and 23 September (equinox)

Earth’s Revolution ❖❖ It is the Earth’s motion in an elliptical orbit around the sun. Earth’s average orbital velocity is 29.79 km/s. ❖❖ One orbital revolution takes 365 days, 5 h 48 min and 45.51 s; this extra time results in one extra day every fourth year. ❖❖ This revolution of Earth results in: ●● ●● ●●

Changes in seasons. Variation in the lengths of days and nights at different times of the year. Shifting of wind belts.

Four Seasons Earth seasons are the periods in which a year can be divided as a result of climatic conditions, largely due to the changes in the duration and intensity of solar radiation.

Know More! The axis is an imaginary line running from North to South and passing through the centre of the earth. It always remains inclined at an angle of 66½° to the plane of the earth’s orbit and is tilted 23½° from a line perpendicular to this plane.

1. Spring: On 21 March, the sun is directly overhead the equator, and this happens in the spring season of the northern hemisphere. 2. Summer: On 21 June, the sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Cancer. Thus, the northern hemisphere experiences summer. 3. Autumn: On 23 September, the sun returns to the equator, and the northern hemisphere experiences autumn. 4. Winter: On 22 December, the sun is over the Tropic of Capricorn, and the northern hemisphere experiences winter.

Earth’s Position with Respect to the Sun ❖❖ Perihelion: The period of the shortest distance between the earth and the sun is perihelion. It happens on 3 January, and the distance is just 147 million km.

Geography    3.11

❖❖ Aphelion: The period of the farthest distance between the earth and the sun is aphelion. It happens on 4 July, and the distance is 152 million km.

Earth’s Latitudes There are imaginary lines drawn parallel to the equator; measured as an angle whose apex is at the centre of the earth. ❖❖ 0° latitude—Equator ❖❖ 23½° N represents—Tropic of Cancer ❖❖ 23½° S represents—Tropic of Capricorn ❖❖ 66½° N represents—Arctic Circle ❖❖ 66½° S represents—Antarctic Circle ❖❖ 90° N represents—North Pole ❖❖ 90° S represents—South Pole

Fig. 3.3  Important Latitudes

These are a total of 181 latitude lines including the equator. Each parallel of a latitude is a circle, but they are not equal. The circle becomes smaller towards the poles. The equator is ‘the greatest circle’ that can be drawn on the earth’s surface. The distance between any two parallels of latitude is 111 km at the equator and 0 km near the poles.

Earth’s Longitudes ❖❖ These are the angular distances of a place east or west of the prime meridian. On the globe, the lines of longitude are drawn as a series of semicircles that extend from the north pole to the south pole through the equator. They are also called meridians. ❖❖ The distance between any two meridians is not equal. There are 360° meridians of longitude. Prime meridian is the longitude of 0°, passing through the Royal observatory at Greenwich near London.

3.12  Chapter 3

❖❖ This 0° is taken by geographers to divide the earth into the eastern and the western hemispheres.

Fig. 3.4 Longitudes

❖❖ Each meridian of longitude is a semicircle. 180° meridian (International Date Line) lies exactly opposite to the prime meridian. Such points are called antipodal points. ❖❖ The earth is divided into 24 longitudinal zones, each being 15° or 1 h apart in time (4 min/degree). The earth rotates from west to east; hence, the places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time, whereas the places west of Greenwich see the sun later, and lose time. East-Gain: Add

West-Lose: Subtract

❖❖ Generally, the standard meridians are chosen to differ from the Greenwich meridian by multiples of 15° or 7½°. ❖❖ India, whose longitudinal extent is approximately 30°, has adopted only one time zone, selecting the 82.5° for the standard time, which is 5 h and 30 min ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). ❖❖ International Date Line: It is the 180° meridian running over the Pacific Ocean, deviating at Aleutian Island, Fiji, Samoa, and Gilbert Islands. This is the line where the date changes by exactly one day, when it is crossed.

Eclipses An eclipse occurs when the sun, the moon, and the earth are in a straight line. There are two types of eclipses—solar and lunar eclipses.

Geography    3.13

1. Lunar Eclipse: This occurs when the earth comes between the sun and the moon. It occurs only on a full moon day. However, it does not occur on every full moon day because the plane of its orbit is tilted about 5° with respect to the plane of the earth’s orbit. An eclipse does not occur every month. In a complete lunar eclipse, the moon does not become completely dark in many cases, but becomes reddish. The earth’s atmosphere bends a part of the sun’s light towards the moon. This colour of the light turns red because the atmosphere scatters the other colours present in sunlight in greater amounts than it. 2. Solar Eclipse: It occurs when the moon comes between the sun and the earth. It occurs only on a new moon day when the moon is in line with the sun. However, due to the inclination of the moon’s orbit, a solar eclipse does not occur on every new moon day.

Lithosphere It originates from a Greek word lithos, meaning stone. ‘Sphere’ is from the Greek word sphaira, meaning globe or ball. The solid outer crust of any celestial body can also be called the lithosphere. Basically, the lithosphere includes the earth’s crust and the uppermost part of the mantle. The lithosphere’s thickness varies depending on whether you measure the thin new crust on the ocean floor or the old crust of an established land mass. The earth’s lithosphere is broken down into the continental plates, also known as tectonic plates, which move over time and little movement can cause earthquakes when two plates of different continents bump into each another. Earth’s interior is divided into three parts:

The Crust The outermost layer or shell of the earth is known as the crust; it is generally defined as the part of the earth above the Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity. It is rigid and represents 1% of the earth’s total volume. This layer has the least density, and its thickness varies from about 8 to 40 km. The thickness of the crust is more in the continents and lesser in the oceans while the density of the continental crust is lower than that of the oceanic crust. The rocks forming the crust of the earth are rich in lighter minerals like silica and aluminum. Hence, this layer is also called SIAL (due to silicon

3.14  Chapter 3

and aluminum). Sima is the earth’s crust’s lower layer and contains rocks with an abundance of magnesium silicate minerals.

Fig. 3.5  Interior of the Earth

The Mantle The part of the earth between the crust and the core is the mantle. It is very thick and makes up about 80% of the earth’s total volume. It is made up of magma and rocks. It is about 2,900 km in thickness and composed of minerals in a semi solid state. It is further divided into two layers: upper mantle and lower mantle. The transition zone separating the mantle from the core is called the Gutenberg discontinuity.

The Core The central and innermost part of the earth, below the mantle; it consists of iron and nickel. The core is about 3,500 km in radius. The core is further divided into two layers:

Outer Core and Inner Core Outer core is liquid in nature, while inner core is solid or crystalline in nature. The inner core layer is also known as Nife, because it contains large concentrations of nickel (Ni) and iron (Fe). Density of this part of the earth is 13.6 g/cm3 and is many times greater than average density of the earth, i.e., 5.53 g/cm3.

Geography    3.15

Continental Drift The movement of all the continents relative to each other across the earth’s surface is known as the continental drift. German meteorologist and geologist, Alfred Wegener in 1915 had suggested that about 250 millions years ago, all of earth’s land was joined as one single supercontinent surrounded by an ocean and the continent was named Pangaea, meaning all earth, and it was surrounded by one mass of water body, named Panthalassa. He also suggested that the Pangaea had broken into pieces during the Carboniferous period, and since then it has moved to its present position and is still moving. The northern rift cut Pangaea from east to west creating Laurasia in the north and Gondwanaland in the south. A shallow sea called Tethys was situated between Laurasia and Gondwanaland.

Plate Tectonics The earth’s crust is made up of 7 major and several minor rigid continental and oceanic tectonic plates, which fit closely together. The continuous movement of these plates is relative to each other. The type of movement is detrimental to the structure of the earth. The theory of plate tectonics states that the lithosphere is divided into several rigid segments, which includes both oceanic and continental crusts. These segments are called plates and they are moving on the asthenosphere. The oldest part of the plates, known as the shields, is the most stable part of the earth and little tectonic activity occurs here. There are 3 types of movements that occur at the plate boundaries: Plates can 1. either move towards each other; 2. move apart; 3. slide past each other.





1. Convergent or Destructive Plate Margin: When the plates move towards each other, such margins are called convergent or destructive plate margins. When the oceanic plates of similar density meet, one plate overrides another, forming a deep sea level trench and volcanic island arcs above sea level. 2. Divergent or Constructive Plates Margin: When plates move away from each other, such margins are called divergent or constructive plates margin. 3. Shearing or Neutral Plate Margin: When the plates slide past each other, they neither construct the earth’s crust nor destroy it. When this happens, friction is caused along the fault lines which divide them.

3.16  Chapter 3

The plates do not move smoothly, and, therefore, this movement causes earthquakes. Facts to Know! ❖❖ The Andes Mountains are a typical result of the impact of convergence. ❖❖ The Alps were formed when the African plate collided with the Eurasian plate.

❖❖ The Himalayas are the example of the colliding of the Indian plate with the Eurasian plate.

❖❖ The Eyjafjoll volcano of Iceland which erupted on 17 April 2010, was on the divergent plate of the Atlantic Ocean.

Forces and Processes Affecting the Earth’s Crust ❖❖ The appearance of the surface of the earth is continuously changing, and these changes are produced under the influence of two types of forces.







1. Exogenetic or External Forces: The force affecting the surface of the earth from outside are called the external or exogenetic forces. Weathering and erosion are examples of external forces. 2. Endogenetic or Internal Forces: The forces originating in the interior of the earth are called the internal forces, like volcanoes, earthquakes, and landslides. Endogenetic forces are further divided into two categories. (a) Sudden endogenetic: These are the result of long periods of preparation deep within the earth but their cumulative effect on the earth’s surface is quick. (b) Diastrophic forces: These forces include both vertical and horizontal movements which are caused due to forces that operate very slowly, and their effects become discernible after thousands and millions of years. These forces termed as constructive forces, affect larger areas of the globe, for example, mountains, plateaus, plains, lakes, and big faults.

Rocks The earth’s crust is made up of mineral material called rocks. A rock can be defined as a solid substance that occurs naturally because of the effect of geological processes. As a result of these processes, three main types of rocks are formed: 1. Igneous rocks: These are produced by the solidification of the molten magma from the mantle. When magma cools and solidifies beneath the

Geography    3.17

surface of the earth, intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks are formed. It is believed that igneous rocks are formed during each period of geological history of the earth. There are two types of igneous rocks:



(a) Intrusive Rocks: Formed due to the solidification of rising magma below the surface of the earth, e.g., granite, lapolith, batholith, etc. (b) Extrusive Rocks: Formed due to cooling and solidification of hot and molten magma at the earth’s surface, e.g., basalt, gabbro, etc.

2. Sedimentary Rocks: They are formed by the burial, compression, and chemical modification of deposited weathered rock debris or sediments on the earth’s surface. They are formed due to the aggregation and compaction of sediments derived from the older rocks, plants, animals, and contain fossils of plants.   Sedimentary rocks can be classified on the basis of the nature of sediments as: mechanically, chemically, and organically formed rocks. 3. Metamorphic Rocks: Created when the existing rock is chemically or physically modified by intense heat or pressure. In other words, these are rocks that change either in form or composition without disintegration. Most rocks are composed of minerals. Metamorphic rocks may be of many types, such as gneiss, marble, phyllite, quartzite, schist, and slate.

Rock Transformations Sedimentary Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks

1. Limestone

Marble

2. Sandstone

Quartzite

3. Coal

Diamond

4. Shale and Mudstone

Slate

5. Clay

Slate

Characteristics of Igneous Rocks ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

The rocks are solidified from molten magma. These are granular and crystalline. Mostly associated with volcanic activities. Valuable minerals like iron-ore, copper, gold, silver, zinc, and lead are found in igneous rocks.

3.18  Chapter 3

Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks ❖❖ Metamorphic rocks are formed due to the change in texture and mineral composition of the pre-existing rocks. ❖❖ Some rocks after metamorphosis become harder than their original form. Examples are marble from limestone, diamond from carbon and quartzite from sandstone.

Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks ❖❖ Sedimentary rocks contain layers or strata, therefore are often called stratified rocks. ❖❖ These are deposited in the seas and oceans in a sequential order. ❖❖ Sedimentary rocks contain fossils. ❖❖ The riverine sedimentary rocks develop cracks when exposed to the sun.

Volcano A volcano is a vent or an opening through which heated materials consisting of gases, water, liquid lava, and fragments of rocks are ejected from the highly heated interior, to the surface of the earth. A volcano is a landform at the end of a conduit or pipe which rises from below the crust and reaches the surface of the earth. Earth’s volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. The magma that is issued from the volcano is called lava (molten rock). Types of Volcanic Eruptions: There are four types of volcanic eruption: 1. Central Eruption or Explosive Type: Here, the magma comes with a great force through the small vent and spreads to a distant position, e.g., Hawaiian eruption, Strombolian eruption. 2. Fissure Eruption or Quiet Eruption: Here, large quantities of lava quietly flow up from fissure and spread out over the surrounding areas. Successive flow of lava results in the growth of lava plateaus like the Deccan plateau, e.g., Vulcanian Eruption, Pelean Eruption. On the basis of periodicity of eruption, volcanoes may be divided into three categories: 1. Active Volcanoes: Volcanoes that continuously eject lava, gases, ashes, etc. are known as active volcanoes. There are about 600 active volcanoes in the world, most of which are located in the Pacific Ocean, e.g., Etna, Stromboli, Mt Mayon.

Geography    3.19

2. Dormant Volcanoes: A volcano that, although not extinct, has not erupted in a long time or erupted within the historic time. The Vesuvius volcano in Italy is one of the best examples as it erupted in 79 ce, remained dormant till 1550, and then suddenly erupted in 1631 ce. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania) is another example. 3. Extinct Volcanoes: A volcano that was active in the distinct geological past and the remains of which occur in an area where no such activity has been reported for long is known as an extinct volcano.

Landforms on Earth’s Crust There are four major landforms, namely mountains, hills, plateaus, and plains. Type of Landform

Total Global Surface Area

Plains

41%

Plateaus

33%

Hills

14%

Mountains

12%

Mountains Mountains are elevated landmasses with peaks smaller than their base and of a height above 600 m or 2,000 ft. The elevations below these are called hills. The Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, and Alps are examples of new or young mountains, while the Pennines (Europe), Appalachians (North America), and Aravallis (India) are examples of old mountains. On the basis of their mode of formation, four main types of mountains can be distinguished. 1. Fold Mountains: Mountains formed by the crumbling or folding of rocks, resulting in huge wrinkles or folds upon the earth’s surface as well as the ocean floor, are called fold mountains. They are formed due to the compressive forces generated by endogenetic forces. On the basis of age, fold mountains are grouped into: ●●

●●

Young/New Fold Mountains: They came into existence after the continental drift. The Himalayas and the Andes are regarded as the youngest mountains in the world. Old Fold Mountains: They belong to the pre-drift era, then subjected to denudation and uplift; Pennines in Europe and Aravallis in India.

3.20  Chapter 3

2. Block Mountain: A mountain mass formed by the lifting up of the land between the faults or by the sinking of the land outside the faults is called a block mountain. The Vosges in France and the Black Forest Mountain in western Germany are example. 3. Volcanic Mountain: A volcano is a mountain formed of material that erupted from inside the earth through an opening in the earth’s crust. Examples are Mt Fujiyama in Japan, Mt Vesuvius in Italy. Some Principal Mountain Peaks ❖❖ Mt Everest in Asia, Nepal-Tibet, in the Himalayas Range, is 8,848-m high.

❖❖ K2 (Godwin Austin) in India, Asia, in the Karakoram Range, is 8,611-m high.

❖❖ Kanchenjunga in Asia, Nepal-India, in the Himalayas Range, is 8,598-m high.

❖❖ Nanga Parvat in Asia, India, in the Himalayas Range, is 8,126-m high. It is India’s highest peak in the undisputed Indian territory.

Plateaus Tabular upland having relief of more than 500 ft may be defined as a plateau. According to their mode of formation and their physical appearance, plateaus may be grouped into the following types: (1) Volcanic Plateaus—formed when accumulation of lava occurs, like Deccan Plateau. (2) Dissected Plateau— formed by the continual process of weathering and erosion by running water, ice, and winds; Scottish Highland is the best example. (3) Tectonic Plateaus—formed by the earth’s movements. For example, Dhinodhar Hills in Gujarat, India.

Plains They are a relatively low-lying and flat land surface with the least difference between the highest and lowest points. On the basis of structure, plains are divided into three categories: 1. Structural Plain: They are formed due to the uplift of a part of the sea floor, e.g., Great Plains of the USA. 2. Depositional Plain: Formed due to filling up of sediments into depressions along the foothills, lakes, and seas, e.g., Indo-Gangetic Plain.

Geography

3.21

3. Erosional Plain: Formed when an elevated tract of land is worn down to a plain by the process of erosion, e.g., Plain of North Canada.

AtMoSPhere As we all know, without the atmosphere, there would be no life on Earth. An atmosphere consists of several protective gases around the planet. It obstructs several harmful rays from reaching the earth. The atmosphere is a thick gaseous envelope surrounding the earth.

composition of the Atmosphere There are several gases present in the atmosphere; among them, oxygen and nitrogen are the major gases. Compositions of gases is as follows: ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Oxygen: 21% Nitrogen: 78% Argon: 0.93% Carbon dioxide: 0.03% Neon: 0.0018% Helium: 0.0005% Ozone: 0.0006% Krypton: 0.00011% Hydrogen: 0.00005% Xenon: 0.0000087%

do you Know? ❖❖ Nitrogen prevents rapid burning of the earth’s surface.

❖❖ Argon is used in light bulbs. ❖❖ Oxygen is necessary for combustion or burning. ❖❖ Plants use carbon dioxide to make oxygen. ❖❖ Burning of fossil fuel causes an increase in carbon dioxide. ❖❖ Neon and helium are known as trace gases.

layers of the Atmosphere There are five distinct layers present in the atmosphere. These layers are: 1. Troposphere: ●❖ ●❖

It is the first layer of the atmosphere which extends up to 8 km at the poles and 18 km at the equator vertically. We live in this layer. At every 165 m, there is a drop of 1°C; this is called the normal lapse rate (decrease by 6.4°C per km).

3.22  Chapter 3

Fig. 3.6  Layers of the Atmosphere

Geography    3.23 ●● ●●

All weather changes occur in this layer, and cloud formation also occurs here. Tropopause is the point where the troposphere ends. This layer accounts for all water vapour and almost eighty percent of the atmospheric mass.

Ozone: Ozone is a colourless gas. Chemically, ozone is very active; it reacts readily with a great many substances. Near the earth’s surface, those reactions cause the rubber to crack, hurt plant life, and damage people’s lung tissues. But ozone also absorbs harmful components of sunlight known as ‘ultraviolet B or UV-B’. Ozone Destruction: Tiny man-made organic molecules containing chlorine and/or bromine enter the atmosphere due to low reactivity. CFCl3 + Radiation → CFCl3 + Cl The chlorine atoms change an ozone molecule to ordinary oxygen. Cl + O3 → ClO + O2 The ClO from the previous reaction destroys a second ozone molecule and restores the chlorine atom, which can repeat the first reaction and continue to destroy ozone. ClO + O3 → Cl + 2O2 2. Stratosphere: Know More! ●● It is the second layer of the Ozone Hole: Each year for atmosphere. the past few decades during ●● This layer extends upto 50 km the southern hemisphere from the tropopause. spring, chemical reactions ●● Ozone layer is present in this layer, involving chlorine and which absorbs UV rays coming bromine cause ozone in from the sun. the southern polar region ●● It is the ideal layer for flying large to be destroyed rapidly and jet planes. Temperature increases severely. This depleted region in this layer due to the presence of is known as an ozone hole. the ozone layer. 3. Mesosphere: ●● It is the third layer that is just above the stratosphere and extends above the stratosphere up to a height of about 80 km. ●● It is considered to be the coldest part of the atmosphere, temperature decreases with height and falls from 0°C to –160°C. Owing to very low temperatures, meteors are destroyed here. ●● Mesopause is the end of this layer.

3.24

Chapter 3

4. Thermosphere: ●❖ It extends up to 640 km. It is the hottest layer of the atmosphere. Electrically charged gases are present in this layer, which reflect the radio waves. This helps in long distance communication. ●❖ Thermosphere stops meteors and obsolete satellites and protects us from these. ●❖ Temperature increases with the increase in height. ●❖ In the thermosphere region, phenomenon of Auroras occurs. Aurora is phenomena based on the principal of photoelectric effect principles. Facts to Know! ❖❖ The troposphere contains 90% of the gases. Temperature and air pressure decreases with height.

❖❖ UV rays are harmful; they can increase the temperature of the earth. ❖❖ Mesosphere is the coldest layer of the atmosphere. ❖❖ Phenomenon of Aurora Borealis occurs near north pole and Aurora Australis occurs near south pole.

Ionosphere: This layer contains electrically charged ions that reflect the radio waves back to earth. Owing to the presence of these ions, this layer is termed as the ionosphere. Absorption of solar radiation by ionized particles causes an increase in temperature with increasing height in the ionosphere. 5. Exosphere: ●❖ This layer gradually mixes with the interplanetary space. ●❖ It extends upto 960 km. ●❖ This layer contains only traces of gases because lack of gravity allows the molecules to escape.

inSolAtion (SolAr rAdiAtion) The sun is the primary source of energy on the earth. This energy is radiated in all directions into space through short waves. This is known as solar radiation. Only two billionths (two units of energy out of 1,00,00,00,000 units of energy radiated by the sun) of the total solar radiation

do you Know? ❖❖ Satellites are present in the exosphere layer.

❖❖ The red and orange colours of the sky is because of the presence of dust particles in the atmosphere. ❖❖ Atmosphere is tied to earth because of gravitation. ❖❖ Anemometers are used to measure wind speed. ❖❖ A knot is a unit often used to measure wind speed.

Geography

3.25

reaches the earth’s surface. This small proportion of solar radiation is of great importance, as it is the only major source of energy on the earth for most of the physical and biological phenomena. Incoming solar radiation through short waves is termed as insolation. The amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface is far less than that radiated from the sun because of the small size of the earth and its distance from the sun. Moreover, water vapour, dust particles, ozone, and other gases present in the atmosphere absorb a small amount of insolation.

Factors Influencing Insolation 1. The angle of incidence. 2. Duration of day (daily sunlight period). 3. Transparency of the atmosphere.

heat Budget The insolation is made up of energy do you Know? transmitted directly through the Heat budget is the balance atmosphere and scattered energy. It is between insolation (incoming the amount of solar radiation that reaches solar radiation) and terrestrial the earth’s surface through shortwaves. radiation. The earth also radiates heat energy like all other hot objects. This is known as terrestrial radiation. The annual mean temperature on the surface of the earth is always constant. It has been possible because of the balance between insolation and terrestrial radiation. This balance is termed as the heat budget of the earth.

Atmospheric Pressure ❖❖ The pressure exerted by the air due to its weight is called atmospheric pressure on the earth’s surface. Atmospheric pressure is not the same for all regions; it varies due to altitude, temperature and the earth’s rotation. ❖❖ Due to a change in altitude pressure, at lower altitudes, temperature rises and volume of air increases, and outward pressure of its molecule is spread over a larger area and air pressure decreases. ❖❖ The pressure of air rises when its temperature at the poles causes the air to contract—high pressure develops. Whereas the high temperature along the equator causes the air to expand, and low pressure develops. ❖❖ Equatorial Low Pressure Belt: Located on both sides of the equator (between 5°N and 5°S). Owing to vertical rays of the sun, intense heating

3.26  Chapter 3

is observed here. The air therefore expands and rises as convection currents, causes low pressure to develop here. These currents are also known as Doldrums. N

Descending air

North Pole 90°N Polar high

W

E S

Polar Easterlies Ascending air Descending air

Temperate low

60°N South Westerlies (variable) 30°N

Subtropical high (Horse Latitudes) SW to NE

Ascending air

Descending air Ascending air

Descending air

NE to SW Equatorial Low (Doldrums)

0°

Subtropical High (Horse latitudes)

30°S

Temperate low

North-east trade winds South-east trade winds

North Westerlies (variable) 60°S Polar easterlies

Polar high 90°S South Pole

Fig. 3.7  Global Distribution of Pressure Belts and Wind Pattern

❖❖ Sub-tropic High-pressure Belts: At about 30° north and south of the equator lies the area where the ascending equatorial air current descends. This area is thus an area of high pressure. It is also called the Horse Latitude. ❖❖ Sub-polar Low-pressure Belts: These belts are located between 60° and 70° in each hemisphere. In the sub-tropical region, the descending air gets divided into two parts, one part blows towards the equatorial low pressure belt, and the other blows towards the sub-polar pressure belt. Centrifugal forces operating in this region create the low pressure belt appropriately called the sub-polar low-pressure belt. This region is marked by violent storms in winter. ❖❖ Polar High-pressure Belt: The earth is inclined 23½° towards the sun. On account of this inclination, difference in heating of the continents, oceans, and pressure conditions in January and July vary greatly. January

Geography    3.27

represents winter season and July, the summer season in the northern hemisphere; opposite condition prevails in the southern hemisphere.

Wind The phenomenon of movement of air from Know More! high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas Coriolis force is an apparent in a horizontal direction is known as wind. force caused by the earth’s Winds are caused by difference in the air rotation. It is responsible for pressure. This air difference is caused by deflecting winds towards the uneven heating of earth’s surface. Winds right in northern hemisphere are basically named by their direction and and towards left in the southern speed, like winds that flow from west to hemisphere. east are known as west winds. The direction of air movement should be perpendicular to the isobar (same pressure area) because the direction of pressure gradient is perpendicular to the isobars, but the direction is deviated from the expected one due to the Coriolis force caused by the rotation of the earth.

Some Factors that Control Air Motion on Earth 1. Rotation pressure gradient of the earth 2. Coriolis force 3. Centrifugal action of wind

Primary Wind Movement or Permanent Wind 1. Trade Winds: These are winds that blow in one regular course or continually in the same direction. Under the influence of the Coriolis forces, these winds flow from the north-east in the northern hemisphere and form south-east in the southern hemisphere. 2. Westerlies: The permanent winds blowing from the subtropical highpressure belt to the sub-polar low-pressure belt in both the hemispheres are called Westerlies. 3. Polar Winds: Polar winds blow from the polar high-pressure belts. They are north-easterly in the northern hemisphere and south-easterly in the southern hemisphere.

Secondary Wind Movement These are seasonal winds that reverse their direction completely every six months and are called seasonal winds, for example, monsoon winds.

3.28  Chapter 3

Local Winds Local winds are small-scale convective winds of local origin caused by temperature differences. Local terrain has a very strong influence on local winds, and the more varied the terrain, the greater the influence. ❖❖ Land Breeze and Sea Breeze: Both breezes, as the names suggest, occur along coastal areas or areas adjacent to large water bodies. Water and land have different heating abilities; water takes a bit more time to warm up and is able to retain the heat longer than land does. ●● ●● ●●

●● ●●

Sea Breeze: The cool air that comes from sea to land. Land Breeze: The cool breeze from the land to sea. Kaal Baisakhi: These are the local thunderstorms associated with violent wind and torrential downpours often accompanied by hail. They occur in West Bengal. Loo: These are strong, gusty, hot, dry winds blowing during the day over north and north-western India. Mango Showers: The pre-monsoon showers that help in the ripening of mangoes in coastal Kerala and Karnataka are known as Mango Showers.

❖❖ El-Nino: ●●

●●

●●

●●

This is an abnormal weather pattern that is caused by the warming of the Pacific Ocean near the equator, off the coast of South America. This occurs when the normal trade winds weaken (or even reverse), which lets the warm water that is usually found in the western Pacific, flow towards the east instead of west. The term ‘El-Nino’ is of Spanish origin, and it implies ‘the little one’ after Christ, as the event appears mostly in the month of December. It has occurred frequently since its first occurrence in 1591. The effects of El-Nino are strong and can wreak havoc on weather systems around the world. The changes vary drastically around the globe. The opposite of El-Nino is the La Niña, which is a climate pattern that describes the cooling of surface ocean waters along the tropical west coast of South America, as explained later.

❖❖ La Niña: La Niña is a phenomenon that describes cooler than normal ocean surface temperature in the eastern and central Pacific Ocean: regions close to the equator of the west. This phenomena occurs when the easterly trade winds get stronger and blow more warm water west allowing cold water below the sea’s surface to push towards the top near the South American coast to replace the warm water. During a La Niña

Geography    3.29

period, the sea surface temperatures across the eastern and central Pacific Ocean tend to be lower than the normal temperatures (between 3° and 5° C).

Greenhouse Effect Gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are known as greenhouse gases because they allow short-wave radiation to enter the earth’s atmosphere but help to stop the long-wave radiation from escaping. This traps the heat, raising the Earth’s temperature.

Merits of Greenhouse Effect ❖❖ For ages, humans have used the greenhouse effect to grow plants even if it is not the season for then. Out-of-season crops are grown by creating a greenhouse effect artificially. ❖❖ Solar-powered water heaters use the greenhouse effect to heat water. This contributes to energy saving and can save up to 20–30% of the domestic energy bill.

Demerits of Greenhouse Effect ❖❖ Since greenhouse gases help to maintain the temperature, the primary effect of the increase in greenhouse gases would be on the climate. This would mean warmer summers with natural disasters. Hurricanes have become common in recent years. ❖❖ Water-level balance of the earth would be destroyed. Polar ice caps would melt leading to an increase in ocean levels. Floods would inundate low-lying areas.

Hydrosphere About 71% of the earth’s surface is covered with water. The oceans, seas, lakes, and sometimes the water over the earth’s surface such as the clouds forms the component of hydrosphere. So, defining hydrosphere, it is the total mass of water on the surface of the earth.

Composition of Hydrosphere S. No.

Storage Component

1.

Salt water (ocean, sea, etc.)

2.

Ice caps and glaciers

% of Water 97.6 2.05 (Contd.)

3.30

Chapter 3

S. no.

Storage component

% of Water

3.

Ground water

0.68

4.

Soil moisture

0.01

5.

Fresh water lake

0.009

6.

Freshwater rivers

0.0001

7.

Water vapour

0.0009

Oceans: The oceans of the earth serve many functions, especially affecting the weather and temperature. They moderate the earth’s temperature by absorbing incoming solar radiation (stored as heat energy). The constantly moving ocean currents distribute this heat energy around the globe. This heats the land and air during winter and cools it during summer.

do you Know? The earth’s oceans are all connected to one another. Until the year 2000, there were four recognized oceans: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic. In the Spring of 2000, the International Hydrographic Organization delimited a new ocean, the Southern Ocean (it surrounds Antarctica and extends to 60° latitude).

ocean

Area

Average depth

deepest depth (ft)

Pacific Ocean

16,52,50,000 sq km

4,028 m

Mariana Trench, 11,033 m deep

Atlantic Ocean

10,64,00,000 sq km

3,926 m

Puerto Rico Trench, 8,648 m deep

Indian Ocean

7,35,60,000 sq km

3,963 m

Java Trench, 7,450 m deep

Southern Ocean 2,03,30,000 sq km

4,000 to 5,000 m South Sandwich Trench 7,236 m deep

Arctic Ocean

1,205 m

1,39,90,000 sq km

Eurasia Basin, 5,450 m deep

terms related with ocean Science Continental Shelf: The shallow submerged extension of the continents is called the continental shelf. They cover 7.5% of the area of the oceans. This area is famous for petrol and gas. About 20% of petrol and gas in the world is found here. They also provide the richest fishing grounds in the world. Continental Slope: Extends seaward from the continental shelf. The line between shelf and slope is known as Andesite Line.

Geography    3.31

Fig. 3.8  Basic Outline of Ocean Floor

Deeps/Trenches: Trenches are narrow and steep side depressions. Trenches are formed when two plates of the earth’s crust are moving together and one is being pushed down below the other. Continental Rise: Continental rise is an area at the foot of the slope, gradually rising due to the accumulation of debris transported over the slope. Oceanic Ridges: They are formed by the volcanic activity along the spreading boundary of plates. Coral Reefs: Corals are marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa of phylum Cnidaria; they typically live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps. This group includes the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton. Coral reefs are the most diverse of all marine ecosystems. Atolls: An atoll is a ring-shaped coral reef including a coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely. There may be coral islands on the rim. Salinity: There are many chemicals in seawater that make it salty. Most of them get there from rivers carrying chemicals dissolved out of rock and soil. The main chemical is sodium chloride. Most seawater has about 35 g of salt in every 1000 g of water. The salinity of the ocean varies from place to place, especially at the surface. The fresh water added at the surface dilutes the seawater, reduces the salinity, and hence makes seawater less dense. The ocean around Antarctica has low salinity. The Baltic Sea, almost enclosed by northern Europe and Scandinavia, has very low salinity. This is mainly due to the large amounts of fresh water added from hundreds of rivers. Composition of Sea water: Salt NaCl MgCl2 CaSO4

% Composition 77.8 10.9 3.6

3.32  Chapter 3

Most Saline Water Bodies: Water Bodies

Salt %

Lake Assal

34.8

Lake Van

33.0

Dead Sea

33.7

Great Salt Lake

32.0

Movement of Oceanic Water Waves ❖❖ Waves are the oscillatory movements in water, mainly produced by winds, manifested by an alternate rise and fall of the sea surface. ❖❖ Waves are the important agents of erosion in the coastal regions, where they carve out various landforms like caves, bays, gulfs, capes, and cliffs. ❖❖ Seismic waves or tsunamis are the waves caused by earthquakes in volcanic eruptions in the sea bottom. ❖❖ The tsunamis which hit the coast in South East Asia on 26 December 2004, caused havoc in that region.

Ocean Currents ❖❖ An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of ocean water generated by the forces acting upon it, such as breaking waves, wind, coriolis effect, temperature and salinity differences, and tides caused by the gravitation pull of the moon and the sun. ❖❖ Ocean currents circulate in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and in an anti-clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere. Ocean currents are of two types:

1. Warm Currents: The ocean currents flowing from lower latitudes to higher latitudes are called warm currents. 2. Cold Currents: The ocean currents flowing from higher latitudes to lower latitudes are called cold currents.

Currents of North Pacific Ocean Warm Currents ❖❖ North Equatorial Current: This flows westward from the western coast of Mexico to the Philippines.

Geography    3.33

❖❖ Kuroshio Current: This is an extension of north equatorial current near the Japan Coast. It flows towards the north. ❖❖ Alaska Current: They flow along the coast of British Columbia and the Alaska Peninsula.

Cold Currents ❖❖ Oyashio Current: They flow down from Bering Sea towards Japan from the North Pole and join the Kuroshio currents. ❖❖ Kurill Current: They flow down from the sea of Okhotsk and join Kuroshio currents to the north of Japan. ❖❖ West Wind Drift: They flow towards Alaska. ❖❖ California Current: It is an extension of Alaskan currents. It finally joins the North Equatorials Currents and completes a clockwise circulation of water.

Currents of South Pacific Ocean Warm Currents ❖❖ East Australian Current or Great Barrier Current: They flow towards the east coast of Australia from the equator towards the South pole. ❖❖ South Equatorial Current: They originate due to south-east trade winds and flow westward and bifurcate near New Guinea. ❖❖ Counter Equatorial Current: They extend upto Panama Bay. They flow exactly on the equator from west to east.

Cold Currents ❖❖ Peruvian Current (Humboldt Current): They flow from South Pole towards the equator on the coast of Chile and Peru. ❖❖ West Wind Drift: It flows from Tasmania to the Chile coast of South America.

Currents of North Atlantic Ocean Warm Currents ❖❖ North Equatorials Current: It is present between the equator and 10°N. ❖❖ Cayenne Current: They flow adjacent to French Guinea and enter the Carribean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. ❖❖ Florida Current: The Cayenne current near Florida (United States Coast) is called Florida current.

3.34  Chapter 3

❖❖ Antilles Current: It flows to the east of the West Indies and other islands. ❖❖ Gulf Stream: It flows from the United States coast towards north-west Europe under the influence of the westerly winds.

Cold Currents ❖❖ Labrador Current: It originates in Baffin Bay and Davis strait and merges with the Gulf Stream near Newfoundland, and is a famous zone of fishing, commonly known as the Grand Bank. ❖❖ Irminger Current or East Greenland Current: It flows between Greenland and Iceland and merges with the North Atlantic drift. ❖❖ Canaries Current: It flows along the western coast of North Africa between Madeira Cape Verde and joins the North Equatorial Current. ❖❖ West Wind Drift: It flows towards the United Kingdom.

Currents of South Atlantic Ocean Warm Currents ❖❖ South Equatorial Current: It flows between the equator, about 20° south. ❖❖ Brazilian Current: It flows to the east coast of Brazil from the equator towards the South pole.

Cold Currents ❖❖ Falkland Current: It flows along the south-east coast of South America from south to north. ❖❖ Benguela Current: It flows from south to north near the Cape of Good Hope. ❖❖ West Wind Drift: It is a continuance of the Brazilian and Falkland currents. ❖❖ Guinea Current: It flows near the coast of Guinea (Africa).

Currents of the Indian Ocean ❖❖ The Asiatic monsoon influences the currents of the north Indian Ocean, while the currents of south Indian Ocean are influenced by the atmosphere’s anti-cyclonic circulation. ❖❖ North Equatorial Current: The current flows from east to west, and upon reaching the east coast of Africa, a good portion turns southward, crosses the equator, and becomes the Mozambique current. ❖❖ Mozambique Current: The Mozambique current flows south along the east coast of Africa from the vicinity of the equator to about 35°S, where it becomes the Agulhas Stream.

Geography    3.35

❖❖ Agulhas Stream: The Agulhas stream flows westward along the south west of Madagascar and joins the Mozambique Current along the east Africa Coast. ❖❖ West Wind Drift Current: It flows across the Indian Ocean to the waters south-west of Australia. ❖❖ North-east Monsoon Drift: It flows along the coast of India during winter. ❖❖ South-west Monsoon Drift: It flows along the coast of India during summer. ❖❖ South Equatorial Current: It is a significant Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Ocean current that flows east-west between the equator and about 20° South. ❖❖ Somali Current: It is an ocean boundary current that runs along the coast of Somalia and Oman in the western Indian Ocean and is analogous to the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean. ❖❖ There is no counter equatorial current in the Indian Ocean, only monsoon currents which change their direction with respect to seasons. ❖❖ Tides: The periodic rise and fall of the sea level due to the gravitational interaction between the earth, sun, and moon. The moon creates greater impact due to its closeness to the earth. ❖❖ Spring Tides: On full moon and new moon, the tides are the highest, and are known as the Spring tides. When the earth, moon and sun are in a straight line (also called SYZYGY), the sun assists the gravitational pull of the moon, creating a condition of higher high tides and lower low tides known as Spring tides. ❖❖ Neap Tides: When the sun and Know More! moon are at right angles to the earth, Tidal power is taken from the earth’s the sun partially contracts the pull oceanic tides. Tidal force is used in of the moon, producing lower high the production of the electricity. It tides typical of a Neap tide. can have effects on marine life. ●● The highest tide in India has been recorded at Okha, Gujarat.

Continents of the World The earth has not always been as we see it now. Millions of years ago, there was only one large land mass and a large ocean surrounding it. Later, the land mass started to split and drift apart surrounded by ocean on all sides. This process still continuous. Now we have seven continents and five oceans which are home to all of us and millions of other living organisms. Continents

% of Earth Area

Asia

29.5

Africa

20.4

(Contd.)

3.36  Chapter 3

Continents

% of Earth Area

North America

16.3

South America

11.8

Antarctica

9.6

Europe

7.1

Australia

5.3

Ordered from largest in size to smallest, they are: Asia < Africa < North America < South America < Antarctica < Europe < Australia

Asia ❖❖ Asia is the largest and most populous continent in the world. ❖❖ Shares borders with Europe and Africa to its west, Oceania to its south, and North America to its east. Know More! ❖❖ Europe and Asia are technically Palestine, made up of the Gaza located on the same overall Strip and West Bank regions landmass, and the two combined in and around Israel, declared are referred to as Eurasia. As a its independence in 1988 and result of its porous land border, is currently recognized as some countries on Asia’s western independent by 136 (as of 2015) border have been at times referred countries, though it is not an official to as part of Europe’s east. member of the United Nations.

Population ❖❖ With a population of roughly 4.4 billion, or 62% of the global population (about 7.1 billion), Asia is by far the most populated continent on the planet. ❖❖ The most populous countries in Asia:

1. China (1.4 billion people) 2. India (1.3 billion people) 3. Indonesia (259 million people) 4. Pakistan (193 million people)

❖❖ Asia’s least populated countries are:

1. Maldives 2. Brunei 3. Bhutan 4. East Timor

Geography    3.37

Continent Size: Asia is the largest continent with in area of 44.58 million sq km (17.21 million square miles). Percentage of Earth’s Land: 29.5% Largest Country: Russia, including European Russia at 1,70,75,200 sq km (65,92,768 sq miles). Highest Point: Mt Everest in Nepal at 29,029 ft or 8,848 m. Lowest Point: Dead Sea, Israel and Jordan at –1,388 ft (–423 m) below sea level.

Mountain Ranges of Asia ❖❖ Himalayas: The Himalayas, a huge mountain range immediately to the north of the Indian subcontinent, is the world’s highest mountain range and home to the world’s highest peaks, including Mount Everest at 8,848 m (29,029 ft) and K2 at 8,611 m (28,251 ft) above sea level. The Himalayan system includes over 100 mountains exceeding 7,200 m (23,600 ft). ❖❖ Altai (or Altay): The Altai Mountains are a mountain range in EastCentral Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan come together, and where the rivers Irtysh and Ob have their sources. Belukha Mountain is the highest peak at 4,506 m (14,784 ft). ❖❖ Eastern and Western Ghats: The Western Ghats is a mountain range along the western side of India with an average elevation around 1,200 m (3,900 ft). The Eastern Ghats is a range of mountains along India’s eastern coast. ❖❖ Kunlun: The Kunlun Mountains are one of the longest mountain chains in Asia, extending across western China and the Tibetan Plateau. The highest mountain is the Kunlun Goddess at 7,167 m (23,514 ft). ❖❖ Tien (or Tian) Shan: The Tian Shan is a large mountain system located in Central Asia. It is positioned to the north and west of the Taklamakan Desert near the border region of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and western China. The highest peak is Victory Peak at 7,439 m (24,406 ft). ❖❖ Ural: The Urals are 1,640 miles (2,640 km) in length and extend from the northern-edge of the Russian Federation down through Kazakhstan. They form a natural border between Asia and Europe Russia. The highest point in this mountain range is Mt Narodnaya at 1,895 m (6,217 ft). ❖❖ Zagros: The Zagros are the largest mountain range in Iran and Iraq spanning the whole length of the western and southwestern Iranian plateau and ending at the Strait of Hormuz. The highest point is Zard Kuh Bakhtiari at 4,548 m (14,921 ft).

3.38  Chapter 3

Rivers of Asia ❖❖ Ganges: The Ganges is the river most sacred to Hindus and is also a lifeline to millions of Indians who live along its course and depend on it for their daily needs. It is 1,560 miles (2,510 km) in length. ❖❖ Lena: The Lena is the easternmost of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean (the other two being the Ob river and the Yenisei river). It is the 11th longest river in the world at 2,734 miles (4,400 km). ❖❖ Indus: The Indus river originates in Tibet and flows through India and Pakistan. It provides water resources for the economy of Pakistan— especially the breadbasket of the southeast, which accounts for most of the nation’s agricultural production. It is 1,800 miles (2,900 km) in length. ❖❖ Mekong: The Mekong is the world’s 12th longest river and the 7th longest in Asia. Its estimated length is 4,350 km (2,703 miles) and it provides inland transportation for the millions living along its banks and tributaries. ❖❖ Ob: The Ob is a major river in western Siberia, Russia. The Ob is used mostly for irrigation, drinking water, hydroelectric energy, and fishing. It is 2,268 miles (3,650 km) in length. ❖❖ Yangtze: China’s Yangtze is the longest river in Asia, and the third longest in the world at 3,915 miles (6,301 km). The Yangtze drains one fifth of the land area of the People’s Republic of China, and its river basin is home to one-third of China’s population. ❖❖ Yellow: The Yellow river is the second-longest river in China and the sixth longest in the world at 3,395 miles (5,464 km) in length. It is called ‘the cradle of Chinese civilization’ as its basin—specifically, the Wei valley—was the birthplace of ancient Chinese civilizations and the most prosperous region in early Chinese history. ❖❖ Irawaddy River: It is known as the lifeline of Myanmar. It falls into the Gulf of Martaban, which is famous for pearls.

Asia Deserts ❖❖ Arabian Desert: The Arabian Desert is a vast desert wilderness stretching from Yemen to the Persian Gulf and from Oman to Jordan and Iraq. It is the largest desert in Asia at 9,00,000 sq miles (2,330,000 sq km) and occupies most of the Arabian Peninsula. ❖❖ Gobi Desert: The Gobi Desert is the second largest desert in Asia, covering 5,00,000 sq miles. Extending from northern China into Mongolia, the Gobi Desert receives an average of 7 inches of rainfall each year because the Himalayas block rain clouds from reaching the region.

Geography    3.39

❖❖ Karakum Desert: The Karakum covers 1,35,000 sq miles, nearly 70% of Turkmenistan’s land. Because of the desert’s location along the Caspian Sea, the weather in Karakum is milder than in many Asian deserts which typically experience frigid winters and scorching summers. ❖❖ Kyzylkum Desert: Crossing over Kazakhstan into Uzbekistan, this 1,15,000 sq mile desert features a wide variety of flora and fauna. Though the area receives only 4 to 8 inches of rain per year, the rain occurs during the region’s cooler period so the water does not dissipate quickly and supports large migratory game. ❖❖ Takla Makan Desert: China’s largest desert extends over 1,30,000 sq miles. Composed primarily of shifting crescent sand dunes, the Takla Makan is one of the largest sandy deserts in the world. Despite the inhospitable and unpredictable nature of the desert sands, the Chinese government built a road across the desert in the mid-1990s.

Lakes ❖❖ Caspian Sea: The Caspian Sea, located in western Asia on the eastern edges of Europe, is the largest lake on the planet. Fresh water flows into the sea via the Volga River and Ural River in the north; however, the sea remains somewhat salty, in the central and southern parts. The measured surface area is 3,71,000 sq km (1,43,244 sq miles), and the maximum depth is 1,025 m (3,363 ft). ❖❖ Lake Baikal: Lake Baikal is positioned in south-eastern (Siberia) Russia, directly to the north of Mongolia. Recognized as the oldest (still existing) freshwater lake on the planet, it is also measured as the deepest continental body of water at 5,315 ft (1,620 m). In addition, it is the largest freshwater lake by volume, containing an astounding 22–23% of the planet’s fresh water. With a maximum width of 60 miles (96 km), Lake Baikal is about 389 miles (626 km) in length. Completely surrounded by mountains, over 300 rivers and streams drain into this massive lake. ❖❖ Aral Sea: Positioned in far-western Asia, the Aral Sea is located in the countries of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. The Aral Sea is disappearing (evaporating) and is today almost totally polluted by fertilizer runoff, weapon testing residue, left here by the former Soviet Union, and careless industrial projects. Diversion of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers for irrigation began in 1918, and this action, along with other factors, has now shrunk the Aral Sea to almost 60% of its former size.

Religions ❖❖ Several different religions are widely spread throughout the Asian continent.

3.40  Chapter 3

❖❖ Hinduism is strongest in India and Nepal (where it is followed by over 80% of the population), but it also has strong minority populations in several southeast and West Asian countries. ❖❖ Islam is followed by about 1.1 billion people, or approximately 25% of the continent, making it the most popular religion in Asia. Islam is particularly popular in West Asia, where it is the sole official religion of many countries and is practiced by close to 100% of the populations of countries like Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. ❖❖ Buddhism is followed by almost 30% of the population of Asia; in China and south-east Asia, Buddhism is widely spread. ❖❖ Christianity is also fairly widespread, with the majority of people in Armenia, Georgia, and Russia following various Orthodox churches, East Timor and the Philippines adhering to Roman Catholicism, and South Korea largely following Protestantism (though with a sizeable minority of Roman Catholics).

Languages ❖❖ Asia is home to a staggering number of languages ranging from local tongues spoken by only a few inhabitants to international languages used in entire regions. ❖❖ Mandarin: Regarding international languages, the most widely spoken language on the continent is Mandarin, which is spoken by 1.3 billion people and is an official language in China, Singapore, and Taiwan. ❖❖ Russian: It also crosses official language borders, being the official language of Russia, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan (alongside various other state and regional languages) and having roughly 260 million speakers. ❖❖ Arabic is perhaps the third major international language, recognized as official in most of the countries in West Asia and spoken by about 230 million people. ❖❖ English: It is also worth mentioning that English is internationally popular throughout Asia. Although it does not have many recognized native speakers, it is recognized as an official or regional language in Hong Kong, India, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Singapore. ❖❖ Hindi is one of India’s two official languages (though it recognizes a plethora of regional tongues), and with roughly 400 million speakers, it is also the second most popular language in Asia. ❖❖ Other populous national languages include Indonesian (240 million speakers), Bengali (150 million speakers), Japanese (120 million

Geography    3.41

speakers), and Filipino (90 million speakers), though most other countries in Asia also have their own national languages.

Europe ❖❖ European Russia comprising roughly 39,60,000 sq km (15,28,560 sq miles) spans across approximately 40% of Europe. Europe is a subcontinent or large peninsula, forming the westernmost part of Eurasia and west of Asia. ❖❖ It is bounded to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by the Mediterranean Sea and its eastern frontier is vague. ❖❖ Nearly 77% of the entire Russian population (about 11,00,00,000 people out of an approximate total Russian population of 14,10,00,000) lives in European Russia. ❖❖ Europe is the planet’s 6th largest continent and includes 47 countries and assorted dependencies, islands, and territories ❖❖ Continent Size: 99,38,000 sq km (38,37,081 sq miles). The only continent smaller in area is Australia/Oceania. ❖❖ Percentage of Earth’s Land: 6.8% ❖❖ Highest Point: (1) Mt Elbrus in Russia (5,642 m), if Russia is included in Europe. (2) Mt Blanc in France (if Russia is excluded in Europe). ❖❖ Lowest Point: Caspian Sea, Russia; –28 m (–92 ft).

Mountains in Europe ❖❖ Alps: Located in south-central Europe, they extend for almost 700 miles from the coastline of southern France (near Monaco) into Switzerland, northern Italy, and Austria, then southeast through Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina as the Dinaric Alps. ❖❖ Apennines: The source of almost all rivers in Italy including the Arno, Tiber, and Volturno, the Apennines Mountains (Ital. Appennino) 830 miles (1,350 km) in length, form the backbone of the country, and run the entire length of the Italian Peninsula, ending on the island of Sicily. The highest point is Mt Corno at 9,560 ft (2,914 m). ❖❖ Atlantic Highlands: Formed millions of years ago during the Caledonian mountain-building periods as western lands were (forced) or pushed against the Scandinavian Shield. Significant mountain ranges here include the Kjolen in Norway and Sweden, and the Pennines that stretch through the central United Kingdom.

3.42  Chapter 3

❖❖ Balkan Mountains: These mountains extend from Yugoslavia across Bulgaria. Additional ranges run through Albania, Greece, and Macedonia. Their most famous mountain is Mt Olympus, the highest and most aweinspiring peak in all of Greece. In ancient times, it was the mythical home of Zeus and was declared the first national park in Greece in 1939. It stands at 9,568 ft (2,918 m). ❖❖ Carpathian Mountains: This mountain system located in eastern Europe is the source of the Dniester, Tisza, and Vistula rivers. They form the natural border between Slovakia and southern Poland and then extend southward through Ukraine and into Romania. There are major subdivisions, and the highest point is Mt Gerlachovkain in northern Slovakia, standing at 8,711 ft (2,655 m). ❖❖ Caucasus Mountains: Stretching from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, these volcanic mountains have many peaks above 15,000 ft (4,572 m). The highest point (and the highest point in Europe) is located here; Mt Elbrus at 18,506 ft (5,642 m). ❖❖ Scandinavian Shield: An ancient area of rocky earth peppered with granite rock that was literally ground down by receding glacial ice sheets. It has a rolling area of land covered with thousands of lakes (mostly small), linked by rivers. ❖❖ Ural Mountains: The Urals are 1,600 miles (2,500 km) in length and extend from the northern edge of the Russian Federation down through Kazakhstan. They form a natural border between Asia and Europe. The highest point is Mt Narodnaya at 6,214 ft (1,894 m).

Rivers of Europe ❖❖ Danube: The blue Danube, celebrated in a song of the same name, flows through Germany, Hungary, Serbia, Croatia, Austria, Slovakia, Romania, and Bulgaria. At 1,780 miles, the Danube is Europe’s longest river (if Russia is not included as a European nation). ❖❖ Elbe: The Elbe river once comprised a part of the border between East and West Germany. Today, the Elbe flows through Germany and the Czech Republic. ❖❖ Loire: The Loire river is France’s longest river, bisecting the country east to west. The Loire irrigates the scenic Loire Valley, an area known for wine, cheese, fruits, and vegetables. ❖❖ Rhine: The Rhine river originates in Switzerland and flows 776 miles to the North Sea in the Netherlands. Along the way, it passes through Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, France, and the Netherlands.

Geography    3.43

❖❖ Volga: The Volga river is contained entirely in Russia for its 3,692 miles. About 40% of Russian people live near the Volga or its tributaries. The river irrigates farms, supplies fish, and is an artery of commerce. The Volga River is the largest river of Europe if Russia is included as a European nation. ❖❖ Balkan States: It is a group of countries Montenegro became located on the Balkan Peninsula in the an independent state southeast of Europe, namely Serbia and in 2006 and Kosovo got Montenegro, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, and independence in 2008. Herzegovina, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Albania, and Kosovo. ❖❖ Baltic States: A group of three countries namely Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia. ❖❖ Scandinavian States: Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark are collectively called Scandinavian states. Facts to Know! ❖❖ Finland is known as the land for ‘forests and lakes’. ❖❖ The continental shelf areas around Europe including ‘Dogger Bank’ are famous for fishing.

❖❖ United Kingdom is the name given to the combination of Great Britain and northern Ireland. Great Britain consists of England, Scotland, and Wales. ❖❖ Ukraine is the largest country of Europe by size if Russia is not included as a European nation. ❖❖ Vatican City is in Rome, Italy. It is the smallest country of the world, both in terms of area and size.

North America ❖❖ Percentage of Earth’s Land: 16.5% ❖❖ Highest Point: Mt McKinley in Alaska, 20,322 ft (6,194 m) ❖❖ Lowest Point: Death Valley in California, –282 ft (–86 m) below sea level ❖❖ Vertical Length: From Barrow, Alaska, directly southeast to Panama City, Panama: 5,347 miles (8,605 km) ❖❖ Namesake: Amerigo Vespucci, the Italian explorer ❖❖ Major Languages: English, French, and Spanish ❖❖ Population: 57,90,24,000 It is the fourth most populous continent, after Asia, Africa, and Europe. ❖❖ Population Density: 22.9 km2

3.44  Chapter 3

Rivers of North America ❖❖ Brazos: This Texas river begins in the northern part of the state in Stonewall County and flows southeast into Brazoria County and the Gulf of Mexico. It is 840 miles (1,351 km) in length. ❖❖ Churchill: This river of central Canada rises in northwestern Saskatchewan, then flows east into Manitoba, and on into the Hudson Bay. It passes through numerous lakes and is known for the rapids along its path. It is 1,000 miles (1,609 km) in length. ❖❖ Colorado: Beginning in the Rocky Mountains of northern Colorado, it moves southwest, ending in the Gulf of California. It is 1,450 miles (2,333 km) in length and, over the centuries, formed numerous canyons along its winding path. The most famous of these is the Grand Canyon in northern Arizona. The river has more than 30 electric power plants along its run, as well as dozens of dams and reservoirs. ❖❖ Columbia: This wide, fast-flowing river begins in the Canadian Rockies of southeast British Columbia, Canada, flowing south through the State of Washington, then forming the natural border between Washington and Oregon. It ends in the Pacific Ocean and is 1,152 miles (1,857 km) in length. Hydroelectric power development in the river basin brought inexpensive electricity to the Pacific Northwest, but it is severely affected by the salmon spawning and local fish migration. ❖❖ Mackenzie: It is the longest river in Canada and dissects the Northwest Territories. It flows generally northwest into the Mackenzie Bay and the Beaufort Sea. Sir Alexander Mackenzie discovered this historic river and, along its path are thick, green forests and dozens of major lakes. It is 1,080 miles (1,738 km) in length. If combined with its tributaries—the Slave, Peace and Finlay rivers—it extends to 2,635 miles (4,240 km) and becomes the second longest river in North America, second only to the Mississippi/ Missouri river system combination at 3,877 miles (6,236 km) in length. ❖❖ Mississippi: It is the major river of North America and the United States at 2,339 miles (3,734 km) in length. It flows from northwestern Minnesota south to the Gulf of Mexico, just below the city of New Orleans. It is a significant transportation artery and when combined with its major tributaries (the Missouri and Ohio rivers), it becomes the third largest river system in the world at 3,877 miles (6,236 km) in length. ❖❖ Missouri: It begins in southern Montana in the Rocky Mountains, first flowing north then generally southeast across the heart of the United States, ending at the Mississippi River, just to the north of St Louis, Missouri. It is the longest river in North America and is 2,500 miles (4,023 km) long.

Geography    3.45

❖❖ Great Lakes: Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. Their drainage basin of about 2,95,710 sq miles (which includes the areas of the lakes themselves and their connecting water ways) extends approximately 690 miles from north to south and about 860 miles from Lake Superior in the west to Lake Ontario in the east. Except for Lake Michigan, the lakes provide a natural border between Canada and the United States, a frontier that was stabilized by a Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909. It is a source of pride for both countries that there are no fortifications or warships along the boundary. The lakes drain roughly from west to east, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean through the St Lawrence Lowlands. Except for Lakes Michigan and Huron, which are hydrologically one lake, their altitudes drop with each lake, usually causing a progressively increasing rate of flow. Lake Superior, bordered by Ontario, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, is the northernmost and westernmost lake and can be considered the headwater of the system. It is the deepest lake (mean depth 483 feet [147 metres]), lies at an altitude of 600 feet above sea level, and discharges into Lake Huron through the St Marys River at an average rate of 75,600 cubic feet (2,141 cubic metres) per second. The tremendous volume of this lake (its deepest point is 732 feet below sea level) means that it has a retention time of 191 years.

Mountains of North America ❖❖ Alaska Range: These are mountains of south-central Alaska that extend from the Alaska Peninsula to the border of the Yukon Territory, Canada. The highest point in North America, Mt Denali, 20,320 ft (6,194 m), which is the highest peak of North America, is located here. ❖❖ Appalachian Mountains: The Appalachians, about 1,500 miles in length, extend from central Alabama in the United States up through the New England states and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick, Newfoundland, and Quebec. The highest point is Mt Mitchell in North Carolina at 6,684 ft (2,037 m). ❖❖ Brooks Range: Mountains of northern Alaska. Highest point: Mt Isto, 2,760 m. ❖❖ Canadian Shield: This plateau region of eastern and northern Canada and the Great Lakes area of North America mainly includes rough and rocky surfaces and large areas of coniferous (evergreen) forests. In addition, the northern regions along the Arctic Circle comprise rocky frozen tundra.

3.46  Chapter 3

❖❖ Cascades: A mountain range stretching from northeastern California across Oregon and Washington. Major peaks included Mt Hood, Mt Ranier, and Mt St Helens. ❖❖ Coast Range: Mountains running along the Pacific Ocean coastlines of California, Oregon, and Washington. They also extend along the western border of British Columbia, Canada, and the southern edge of Alaska, all the way to Kenai Peninsula and Kodiak Island. ❖❖ Coastal Plain: This area of the southern and southeastern United States extends to the continental shelf and is generally characterized by level (flat) land with assorted mixed forests. ❖❖ Rocky Mountains: The Rocky Mountains, about 3,000 miles in length, extend from the state of New Mexico up through the western United States and into the northernmost reaches of Canada’s British Columbia The highest point in the Rockies is Mt Elbert, located 10 miles southwest of Leadville, Colorado. It stands at 14,433 ft (4,399 m). ❖❖ Sierra Nevada: This mountain range of eastern California is about 400 miles in length. The highest point is Mt Whitney at 14,494 ft (4,418 m).

Africa ❖❖ Africa is the second largest continent in the world in terms of geographical area as well as population. The population of Africa is approximately 1.21 billion (14% of world), and it covers about 20% of the earth’s total land area. Nigeria is the most populated country and the Seychelles is the least populated. Algeria is the biggest country by area whereas Seychelles is the smallest country. ❖❖ It is surrounded by the Mediterranean in the north, the Red Sea in the north-east, the Indian Ocean in the east and south-east and the Atlantic Ocean in the west. ❖❖ Africa is commonly referred to as the black continent by many, due to underdeveloped countries. This large land mass comprises 54 countries and is home to one billion people. ❖❖ Africa lies at centre of the earth with the equator passing through its centre. It is the only continent that stretches from the northern temperate to the southern temperate zones and the only continent that stretches from Western, Eastern, Southern and Northern hemisphere. ❖❖ Africa is also considered to be the birth place of mankind. The oldest fossils of Homo sapiens found till date have been from the eastern parts of this continent.

Geography    3.47

❖❖ Africa is a large and diverse continent, and home to a lot of endangered species. ❖❖ Mt Kilimanjaro, Uhuru Peak on the volcano Kibo, at 5,895 m (19,340 ft), in Tanzania is the highest peak in Africa. ❖❖ The lowest point on the African continent is Lake Assal, located in Djibouti, at 502 ft below sea level. ❖❖ Lake Victoria or Victoria Nyanza, 68,870 km2, is the largest lake of the African continent, shared by Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. ❖❖ The river Nile, 6,695 km, flows through 11 countries and is the longest river. ❖❖ The Sahara is the largest desert in the world and is bigger than continental USA. ❖❖ Africa is the world’s hottest continent with deserts and dryland covering 60% of land surface area (e.g., Kalahari, Sahara, and Namib). ❖❖ Africa is the world’s second driest continent (after Australia). ❖❖ Africa has approximately 30% of the earth’s remaining mineral resources. ❖❖ The continent has the largest reserves of precious metals with over 40% of the gold reserves, over 60% of the cobalt, and 90% of the platinum reserves. ❖❖ South Africa has the highest GDP ($182 billion) in Africa. GuineaBissau has the lowest at $230 million. ❖❖ Madagascar is the fourth largest island in the world and the largest island group of the African continent. It is in the Indian Ocean off the east coast of Africa. ❖❖ All of Africa’s nations were colonized by the Europeans except two: Ethiopia and Liberia. The former was an Orthodox Christian country, while the latter was established by African-American settlers from the United States, who previously served as slaves. ❖❖ Currently, Africa is united under a political organization known as the African Union (AU). The AU was established in 2001. Only one African country, Morocco, wasn’t member of African Union, but joined AU recently after 30 years. ❖❖ Languages: Africa is a very diverse continent in terms of languages; there are lots of tribal languages but four major languages are Afro-Asiatic languages like Berber, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo, and Khoj-San. ❖❖ Religions: Approximately 46% of all Africans are Christians and another 40% are Muslims; the other 12% of Africans primarily follow indigenous African religions.

3.48  Chapter 3

South America ❖❖ Continent Size: 1,78,19,000 sq km; 68,79,000 sq miles ❖❖ It is the fourth-largest continent in terms of area, following Asia, Africa, and North America ❖❖ Percent of Earth’s Land: 12% ❖❖ Population Density: 21.4 sq km (56.0 sq miles) ❖❖ Highest Point: Cerro Aconcagua, Andes mountains, Argentina at 22,833 ft (6,959 m) ❖❖ Lowest Point: Peninsula Valdes, Argentina at 151 ft (–40 m) below sea level   South America, the planet’s fourth largest continent, includes independent countries and three major territories: the Falkland Islands, Galapagos Islands, and French Guiana. With a population of 37,95,00,000 (2009 EST), it is the fifth most populous continent falling below Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America.   The continent contains the world’s highest waterfall, Angel Falls in Venezuela; the largest river (by volume), the Amazon River; the longest mountain range, the Andes, and the second driest place on earth (only Antartica is drier), the Atacama Desert in Chile.   In addition, it includes the largest rainforest, the Amazon rainforest; the highest capital city, La Paz, Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca; and, excluding research stations in Antarctica, the world’s southernmost permanently inhabited community, Puerto Toro, Chile. ❖❖ Major Languages: Portuguese, Spanish, English, Dutch, French, Italian, Arabic, and dozens of indigenous languages. ❖❖ Largest Countries: (by population—2008 reference)

1. Brazil: 19,38,91,867 2. Colombia: 4,56,56,990 3. Argentina: 4,00,85,130

Landforms in Latin America ❖❖ Amazon Basin: The Amazon Basin (Amazonia) is covered by the largest tropical rain forest in the world, and running through its heart is the Amazon River which has more than 1,000 tributaries, seven of them more than 1,000 miles in length. Measurable rain falls on an average of 200 days a year and total rainfall often approaches 100 inches per year. The basin drains over 27,00,000 sq miles and covers about one-third of South America. Rising high in the Andes, the river’s network irrigates

Geography    3.49

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

almost half of the continent, and in terms of volume of water discharged into an ocean, it is the largest in the world. Andes Mountains: This toothy-edged mountain system, some 4,300 miles (7,000 km) in length, extends from the southern tip of South America all the way to Panama. It is the source of most major rivers on the continent, and its many ranges include dozens of peaks that reach over 20,000 ft, the highest point being Aconcagua in Argentina, at 22,384 ft (6,960 m). It is also home to some of the planet’s largest volcanoes, and in the far south along the coast of Chile, large glaciers and ice sheets are commonplace. Atacama Desert: Sparsely populated and positioned high into the Andes of Chile, this somewhat small desert (or plateau) is a cold place, and one of the few deserts on the earth that does not receive any rain. It’s approximately 100 miles wide and 625 miles long. The landscape is totally barren and covered with small borax lakes, lava flow remnants, and saline deposits. Brazilian Shield: The shield is a geologic formation lying south of the Amazon. Hundreds of rivers and streams flow through this area on their way to the Amazon. These rivers contain a large number of migratory fish species. Cape Horn: The southernmost tip of South America, remains a maritime legend to this day, as sailing around this remote point and through its violent stretch of chaotic water makes it one of the most challenging nautical routes on the planet. Llanos: This large and very fertile plain, located in eastern and central Colombia, and central and southern Venezuela, is drained by the Orinoco River and its many tributaries. It is approximately 2,25,000 sq miles (5,82,000 sq km) in size. Pampas: Famed for its many cattle ranches, this large plain in the southern part of the continent (in central Argentina) extends for almost 1,000 miles (1,600 km), and covers 2,94,000 sq miles (7,61,460 sq km). Pantanal: The Pantanal is the world’s largest wetland of any kind. It lies mostly within southwestern Brazil and covers an area estimated to be between 1,40,000 sq km (54,000 sq miles) and 1,95,000 sq km (75,000 sq miles). It contains an astonishing collection of aquatic plants and a wide variety of animal species. Tierra del Fuego: Located at the southern tip of South America, the Tierra Del Fuego archipelago includes one large island (18,571 sq miles; 48,100 sq km) in size and a series of smaller ones. It was reportedly named by the Portuguese adventurer, Ferdinand Magellan, the first explorer to

3.50  Chapter 3

circumnavigate the globe. His chosen route through the Magellan Strait proved to be the fastest and safest connection between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans for sea-going commerce and exploration.

Australia and Oceania Percent of Earth’s Land: 5.3% Highest Point: Mt Wilhelm, Papua New Guinea, 14,793 ft (4,509 m) Lowest Point: Lake Eyre, Australia (–52 ft) (–16 m) Horizontal Length: 5,889 miles (9,478 km) from Perth, Australia, eastward to Papeete, Tahiti ❖❖ Vertical Length: 3,910 miles (6,292 km) from Auckland, New Zealand northwest to Guam: ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

●●

●●

●● ●●

●●

Oceania, the planet’s smallest continent, is without doubt one of the most diverse and fascinating areas on the planet. A large percentage of geography experts now consider the long-established continent of Australia to be more accurately defined as Australia/Oceania. Collectively, it combines all of Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, as well as the thousands of coral atolls and volcanic islands of the South Pacific Ocean, including the Melanesia and Polynesia groups. Oceania also includes Micronesia, a widely scattered group of islands that run along the northern and southern edges of the equator. Oceania contains a wide variety of landforms, with most of the significant ones located in the countries of Australia, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea. And because most of the islands of Oceania are small in size (mere dots on the map), it is impossible for us to show their individual landforms on a single and readable map. Many of those small islands are remnants of ancient volcanic activity or coral atolls that encircle a lagoon partially or completely. Few have rivers of any considerable size, and for that matter, lakes.

AntArctic circle ❖❖ Also known as the ‘Continent of Science’ because it provides unique opportunity for scientists to learn about the world. Discovered in 1820 by Ronald Amundsen, the first man to reach geographical South Pole. ❖❖ Size: 1,40,00,000 sq km ❖❖ Percent of Earth’s Land: 8.9%

Geography    3.51

❖❖ Status: Antarctica, almost 98% solid ice, was finally considered a continent in 1840, and not just a group of isolated islands. Today, it has active territorial claims submitted by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom. ❖❖ Capital City: None ❖❖ Climate: Antarctica is the coldest and windiest spot on the planet. In fact, the lowest temperature ever recorded on earth was recorded in Antarctica (–129.3°F), and the mean winter temperatures range from –40 to –94°F. Winds are commonly measured at up to 200 miles per hour. ❖❖ Highest Point: Vinson Massif at 16,066 ft (4,897 m) ❖❖ Lowest Point: Bentley Subglacial Trench (–2,555 m) ❖❖ Official Language: None ❖❖ Official Currency: None ❖❖ Population: Officially none, but governmental research stations are populated with small groups of scientists at all times. In addition, during the 2011/2012 season, nearly 4,17,000 tourists visited the continent. ❖❖ Maitri and Bharati are two active Indian research stations in Antarctica. Dakshin Gangotri (India’s first station in Antarctica) is being used as a supply base.

Rivers of the World (Length Wise) River

Origin

Falls In

Nile

Victoria Lake

Mediterranean Sea

Length (in km) 6,853

Amazon

Andes (Peru)

Atlantic Ocean

6,428

Yangtze

Tibetan Kiang Plateau China Sea

6,300

Mississippi/ Itasca Lake (USA) Missouri

Gulf of Mexico (USA)

6,275

Yenisei

Tannu-Ola Mts

Arctic Ocean

5,539

Huang He

Kunlun Mts

Gulf of Chihli

5,464

Ob

Altai Mts

Gulf of Ob

5,410

Congo

Lualaba and Luapula Rivers

Atlantic Ocean

4,700

Amur

Northeast China

Sea of Okhotsk

4,444

Lena

Baikal Mts

Laptev Sea

4,400

Mekong

Tibetan Highlands

South China Sea

4,350

Mackenzie

Great Slave Lake

Beaufort Sea

4,241

Niger

Guinea

Gulf of Guinea

4,200

3.52   Chapter 3

MAjor lAKeS oF the World Largest Lake

Caspian Sea

Highest commercially navigable lake

Lake Titicaca in Bolivia

Largest saline water lake

Caspian Sea

Deepest lake

Lake Baikal in Siberia

Largest fresh water lake (by area)

Lake Superior in North America

India’s largest lake

Chilka Lake in Odisha

Largest fresh water lake (by volume)

Lake Baikal in Siberia

Major Gulfs of the World Name

Area (sq km)

Gulf of Mexico (largest gulf in the world)

15,44,000

Gulf of Hudson

12,33,000

Arabian Gulf

2,51,000

Gulf of St Lawrence

2,37,000

Gulf of California

1,62,000

English Channel

75,000

Major Peninsulas of the World Peninsula

Area (sq km)

Arabian

32,50,000

Labrador

14,00,000

Southern India

20,72,000

Scandinavia

8,00,000

Alaska

15,00,000

Iberian

5,84,000

Agriculture: Top Five Producers Crop

Countries

Rice

China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Vietnam

Wheat

China, India, USA, Russia, and France

Maize

USA, China, Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina

Groundnut

China, India, Nigeria, USA, and Indonesia (Contd.)

Geography    3.53

Crop

Countries

Tea

India, China, Sri Lanka, Kenya, and Turkey

Cotton

China, USA, India, Pakistan, and Brazil

Rubber

Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, India, and China

Coffee

Brazil, Vietnam, Indonesia, Colombia, and Mexico

Total Pulses

Brazil, India, China, Myanmar, and Mexico

Minerals: Top Three Producers Mineral

Producer Countries

Iron Ore

China, Brazil, and Australia

Tin

China, Indonesia, and Peru

Lead

China, Australia, and USA

Zinc

China, Australia, and Peru

Manganese

South Africa, USA, and Brazil

Aluminium

China, Russia, and Canada

Cement

China, India, and USA

Petroleum

Saudi Arabia, Russia, and USA

Natural Gas

Russia, USA, and Canada

Silver

Mexico, China, and Peru

Coal

China, USA, and India

Main Plateaus of the World Plateau

Situation

Tibetan Plateau

Between the Himalayas and Kunlun mountains

Deccan Plateau

Southern India

Arabian Plateau

South-west Asia

Plateau of Brazil

Central-eastern South America

Plateau of Mexico

Mexico

Plateau of Colombia

USA

Plateau of Madagascar

Madagascar

Plateau of Alaska

North-west North America

Plateau of Bolivia

Andes Mountains

Great Basin Plateau

South of Colombia Plateau, USA

Colorado Plateau

South of Great Basin Plateau, USA

3.54  Chapter 3

Important Straits of the World Straits

Water Bodies Joined

Area

Bab-al-Mandeb

Red Sea and Arabian Sea

Arabia and Africa

Bering

Atlantic Ocean and Bering Sea

Alaska and Asia

Bouphours

Black Sea and Marmara Sea

Turkey

Dover

North Sea and South Atlantic Ocean

England and Europe

Florida

Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Ocean

Florida and Bahamas Islands

Gibraltar

Mediterranean Sea and South Spain and Africa Atlantic Ocean

Malacca

Java Sea and Bay of Bengal

Palk

Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean India and Sri Lanka

Magellan

South Pacific and South Atlantic Chile Ocean

Sunda

Java Sea and Indian Ocean

India and Indonesia

Indonesia

Important Cites on River Banks (World) City

Country

River

Adelaide

Australia

Torrens

Amsterdam

Netherlands

Amsel

Alexandria

Egypt

Nile

Ankara

Turkey

Kazil

Bangkok

Thailand

Chao Praya

Basra

Iraq

Eupharates and Tigris

Baghdad

Iraq

Tigris

Berlin

Germany

Spree

Bonn

Germany

Rhine

Budapest

Hungary

Danube

Bristol

United Kingdom

Avon

Buenos Aires

Argentina

Laplata

Chittagong

Bangladesh

Majyani

Canton

China

Si-Kiang

Cairo

Egypt

Nile (Contd.)

Geography    3.55

City

Country

River

Chung King

China

Yangtze

Cologne

Germany

Rhine

Dandzing

Germany

Vistula

Dresden

Germany

Elbe

Dublin

Ireland

Liffy

Hamburg

Germany

Elbe

Kabul

Afghanistan

Kabul

Karachi

Pakistan

Indus

Khartoum

Sudan

Confluence of Blue and White Nile

Lahore

Pakistan

Ravi

Leningrad

Russia

Neva

Lisbon

Portugal

Tagus

Liverpool

England

Messey

London

England

Thames

Moscow

Russia

Moskva

Montreal

Canada

St. Lawrence

Nanjing

China

Yangtze

New Orleans

USA

Mississippi

New York

USA

Hudson

Ottawa

Canada

Ottawa

Paris

France

Seine

Philadelphia

USA

Delaware

Perth

Australia

Swan

Prague

Czech Republic

Vitava

Quebec

Canada

St. Lawrence

Rome

Italy

Tiber

Rotterdam

The Netherlands

New Mass

Stalingrad

Russia

Volga

Shanghai

China

Yang-tse-kiang/Yangtze

Sydney

Australia

Darling

Saint Louis

USA

Mississippi

Tokyo

Japan

Arakava (Contd.)

3.56  Chapter 3

City

Country

River

Vienna

Austria

Danube

Warsaw

Poland

Vistula

Washington DC

USA

Potomac

Yangon

Myanmar

Irrawaddy

Famous Industrialized Countries of the World Country

Associated Industry

Afghanistan

Carpets, Wool, and Dry Fruits

Australia

Wheat, Wool, and Meat

Austria

Machinery and Textiles

Belgium

Glass and Textiles

Brazil

Coffee

Canada

Wheat and Newsprint

Chile

Copper

China

Rice, Wheat, and Silk

Cuba

Sugar and Tobacco

Denmark

Dairy Products

England

Textiles and Machinery

Finland

Textiles

France

Textiles and Wine

Germany

Machinery

India

Mica, Tea, Jute, and Textiles

Indonesia

Rubber and Cinchona

Iran

Petroleum and Carpets

Iraq

Petroleum and Dates

Japan

Electronics and Automobiles

Italy

Mercury and Textiles

Kuwait

Petroleum

Malaysia

Tin and Rubber

Mexico

Silver

Netherlands

Electrical goods

Russia

Heavy Machinery and Petroleum (Contd.)

Geography    3.57

Country

Associated Industry

Saudi Arabia

Oil and Dates

Spain

Lead

Sweden

Machinery

Switzerland

Watches

Taiwan

Camphor

South Africa

Gold and Diamond Mining

USA

Automobiles and Machinery

Famous Foreign Towns Associated with Industries Town (Country)

Associated Industry

Baku (Azerbaijan)

Petroleum

Bangkok (Thailand)

Ship Building

Belfast (Ireland)

Ship Building

Buenos Aires (Argentina)

Meat

Cadiz (Portugal)

Cork

Chicago (USA)

Agricultural Implements, Meat

Cologne (Germany)

Cotton and Woollen Industries

Dhaka (Bangladesh)

Jute

Detroit (USA)

Motor Cars

Dresden (Germany)

Optical and Photographic Apparatus

Glasgow (Great Britain)

Machinery

Havana (Cuba)

Tobacco, Cigars

Hollywood (USA)

Film Industry

Johannesburg (S. Africa)

Gold Mines

Kimberley (S. Africa)

Diamond Mining

Leeds (England)

Woolen Goods

Lyons (France)

Silk Industries

Manchester (England)

Cotton Industry

Mauritius (Indian Ocean)

Fishing, Shipping, Sugar

Milan (Italy)

Silk (Contd.)

3.58  Chapter 3

Town (Country)

Associated Industry

Morocco (North Africa)

Leather

Munich (Germany)

Lenses

New Orleans (USA)

Cotton Industry

Osaka (Japan)

Cotton Fabrics

Pittsburg (USA)

Iron and Steel

Plymouth (England)

Ship-building

Sheffield (England)

Cutlery

Venice (Italy)

Glass Manufacturing

Vienna (Austria)

Glass Manufacturing

Wellington (New Zealand)

Dairy Product

World’s Geographical Surnames Surname (Sobriquet)

Name

Bengal’s Sorrow

Damodar River

Blue Mountains

Nilgiri Hills

City of Sky-scrapers

New York

City of Seven Hills

Rome

City of Dreaming Spires

Oxford

City of Palaces

Kolkata

City of Golden Gate

San Francisco

City of Magnificent Buildings

Washington DC

City of Eternal Springs

Quito (S. America)

China’s Sorrow

Hwang Ho

Emerald Isle

Ireland

Eternal City

Rome

Empire City

New York

Forbidden City

Lhasa (Tibet)

Garden City

Chicago

Gate of Tears

Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb

Gateway of India

Mumbai

Gift of the Nile

Egypt (Contd.)

Geography    3.59

Surname (Sobriquet)

Name

Granite City

Aberdeen (Scotland)

Hermit Kingdom

North Korea

Herring Pond

Atlantic Ocean

Holy Land

Jerusalem

Island Continent

Australia

Island of Cloves

Zanzibar

Isle of Pearls

Bahrein (Persian Gulf)

Key to the Mediterranean

Gibraltar

Land of Cakes

Scotland

Land of Golden Fleece

Australia

Land of Maple Leaf

Canada

Land of the Morning Calm

South Korea

Land of the Midnight Sun

Norway

Land of the Thousand Lakes

Finland

Land of the Thunderbolt

Bhutan

Land of White Elephants

Thailand

Land of Five Rivers

Punjab

Land of Thousand Elephants

Laos

Land of the Rising Sun

Japan

Loneliest Island

Tristan De Cunha (Mid-Atlantic)

Manchester of Japan

Osaka

Pillars of Hercules

Strait of Gibraltar

Pearl of the Antilles

Cuba

Playground of Europe

Switzerland

Quaker City

Philadelphia

Queen of the Adriatic

Venice

Roof of the world

The Pamirs, Central Asia

Rose Pink City

Jaipur

Sugar bowl of the World

Cuba

Venice of the North

Stockholm

Windy City

Chicago

Whiteman’s Grave

Guinea Coast of Africa

Yellow River

Huang Ho (China)

3.60  Chapter 3

Famous Tribes of the World Abhors

People of Mongolian blood living between Assam and Eastern Tribes

Afridis

Tribes residing in the north-west frontier (Pakistan)

Bantus

Negroes living in Central and South Africa

Boers

The Dutch settlers of South Africa

Cossacks

People living in the southern and eastern frontiers of Russsia

Eskimos

Inhabitants of Greenland and of Arctic regions

Flemings

A term used for the people of Belgium

Hamates

Inhabitants of north-west Africa

Khirgiz

People living in Central Asia

Kurds

Tribes living in Kurdistan (Iraq)

Magyars

Inhabitants of Hungary

Maoris

Inhabitants of New Zealand

Negroes

Mostly found in Africa

Pygmies

Short people found in the Congo basin in Africa

Red Indians

Original inhabitants of North America

Semites

Caucasian people of ancient times

Zulus

People of South Africa living in certain parts of Natal

World Famous Sites Site

Location

Bastille Prison

Paris

Brandenburg Gate

Berlin

Big Ben

London

Broadway

New York

Buckingham Palace

London

Colosseum

Rome

Downing Street

London

Eiffel Tower

Paris

Empire State Building

New York

Fleet Street

London (Contd.)

Geography    3.61

Site

Location

Grand Canyon

Arizona (USA)

Hyde Park

London

India House

London

Jodrell Bank

Manchester (UK)

Kaaba

Mecca (Saudi Arabia)

Kremlin

Moscow (Russia)

Leaning Tower

Pisa (Italy)

Louvre

Paris

Merdeca Palace

Djakarta

Oval

London

Pentagon

Washington DC

Porcelain Tower

Nanking

Potala

Lhasa

Red Square

Moscow

Pyramids

Egypt

Scotland Yard

London

Shwedagon Pagoda

Yangon

Sphinx

Egypt

Statue of Liberty

New York

Vatican City

Rome

Wall Street

New York

Wailing Wall

Jerusalem

Wembley

London

White Hall

London

White House

Washington DC

Famous Boundaries between Countries Boundaries Name 1. Durand Line

Between Countries Is the line demarcating the boundaries of Pakistan and Afghanistan. It was drawn up in 1896 by Sir Mortimer Durand. (Contd.)

3.62  Chapter 3

Boundaries Name

Between Countries

2. Hindenburg Line

Is the boundary dividing Germany and Poland. The Germans retreated to this line in 1917 during World War I.

3. 49th Parallel/ Medicine Line

Is the boundary between USA and Canada.

4. 45th Parallel North

Is often the halfway point between the equator and the North Pole. The 45th parallel makes up most of the boundary between Montana and Wyoming.

5. The Parallel 44° North

Is an imaginary circle of latitude that is 44°N of the earth’s equatorial plane.

6. 43rd Parallel North

Forms most of the boundary between the State of Nebraska and the State of South Dakota and forms the northern border of the historic and extralegal Territory of Jefferson;

7. 42nd Parallel North

Forms most of the New York-Pennsylvania Border.

8. 41st Parallel North

Forms the northern boundary of the state of Colorado with Nebraska and Wyoming and the southern boundary of the state of Wyoming with Colorado and Utah.

9. 40th Parallel North

Formed the original northern boundary of the British Colony of Maryland.

10. 39th Parallel North

Is an imaginary circle of latitude that is 39°N of Earth’s equatorial plane.

11. 38th Parallel North

Is the parallel of latitude which separates North Korea and South Korea.

12. 37th Parallel North

Forms the southern boundary of the historic and extralegal Territory of Jefferson.

13. 36°30′ Parallel

Forms the boundary between Tennessee and the Commonwealth of Kentucky between the Tennessee River and the Mississippi River, the boundary between Missouri and Arkansas west of the White River, and the northern-most boundary between Texas and Oklahoma.

14. 36th Parallel

Forms the southern-most boundary of the State of Missouri with the State of Arkansas. (Contd.)

Geography    3.63

Boundaries Name th

Between Countries

15. 35 Parallel North

Forms the boundary between the state of North Carolina and the state of Georgia and the boundary between the state of Tennessee arid the state of Georgia, the state of Alabama, and the state of Mississippi.

16. 33rd Parallel North

Is a circle of latitude which cuts through the southern United States, parts of North Africa, parts of the Middle East, and China.

17. 30th Parallel North

Is a line of latitude that stands one-third of the way between the equator and the North Pole.

18. 26th Parallel South

Is a circle of latitude which crosses through Africa, Australia, and South America.

19. 24th Parallel

Is the line which Pakistan claims for demarcation between India and Pakistan. This, however, is not recognized by India.

20. 17th Parallel

Defined the boundary between North Vietnam and South Vietnam before the two were united.

21. Radcliffe Line

Was drawn up by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, demarcating the boundary between India and Pakistan.

22. Order-Neisse Line

Is the border between Poland and Germany, running along the Order and Neisse rivers, adopted at the Poland Conference (Aug. 1945) after World War II.

23. Siegfried Line

Is the line of fortification drawn up by Germany on its border with France.

Section B: Indian Geography Introduction India has a unique culture and is one of the oldest and greatest civilizations of the world. It stretches from the snow-capped Himalayas in the north to the sun-drenched coastal villages of the south to the humid tropical forests on the south-west coast. From the fertile Brahmaputra valley on its east to the Thar Desert in the west. India is the seventh largest country in the world and ranks second in population.

3.64  Chapter 3

The countries having a common border with India are Afghanistan and Pakistan to the north-west; China, Bhutan and Nepal to the north; Myanmar to the far-east; and Bangladesh to the east. Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar. The country can be divided into six zones mainly north, south, east, west, central, and north-east zones.

Area and Geography ❖❖ Geographical Area of India: 32,87,263 sq km. Accounts for 2.4% of the total world area and roughly 17% of the world population. ●● In India, of the total land mass: ✶✶ Plains Geography: 43.3% ✶✶ Plateaus: 27.7% ✶✶ Hills: 18.6% ✶✶ Mountain Geography: 10.7% ●● In the South, on the eastern side, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait separate India from Sri Lanka.

General Information About India ❖❖ India is also called by various names as Aryavart, Bharat (on the name of the great ancient King Bharat). The people of the Arab countries gave two famous names, Hindustan (because it has been the residence of Hindus) and India (because of the Indus river). ❖❖ The land area of 32,87,263 sq km makes India the seventh largest country in the world after—(1) Russia, (2) Canada, (3) USA, (4) China, (5) Brazil, and (6) Australia. ❖❖ The smallest country in the world on the basis of area, is Vatican City, and the Republic of Maldives in Asia. India’s land area covers 90.08%, and 9.92% is water-covered. ❖❖ India is situated in the northern hemisphere and in the peninsula of southern Asia between 8°4′ to 37°6′ north latitude and 68°7′ to 97°25′ east longitude. ❖❖ 82°30′ East longitude declares the Indian Standard Time (IST) zone, which is 5 h 30 min ahead of GMT. This meridian also declares the time zone in Sri Lanka and Nepal (India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal have the same time zone). ❖❖ The last point of India in the north is Indira Col (POK) and in the south is Indira Point (Great Nicobar), and the distance between these two points is 3,214 km. Kanyakumari is the southernmost point on the mainland. The last point of India in the west is Guhar Moti (Gujarat) and in the

Geography    3.65

east is Kibithu town (Arunachal Pradesh) and the distance between these two points is 2,933 km. The centre point of India is Sehora DSIT, Umaria, Madhya Pradesh. ❖❖ India is the second largest country in the world on the basis of population. The current population of India is 1,33,42,57,855, equivalent to 17.84% of the total world population. ❖❖ Since India is a democratic republic, it is the largest democratic country having the maximum number of voters. The oldest democracy is the USA (since 1791) and Nauru (island country in Pacific Ocean) is the smallest republic nation in the world. ❖❖ According to the Constitution, India shall be a ‘Union of States’. At present there are 29 states, 7 union territories, and 649 districts. But at the time of independence there were approximately 565 independent princely states. State Reorganization Commission and Act, 1956: In December 1953, Prime Minister Nehru appointed the State Reorganization Commission to reorganize the Indian states under the chairmanship of Justice Fazal Ali (Retd. C.J.I.). Two other members were H.N. Kunzru and K.M. Pannikkar. This commission submitted a report on September 1955, recommending the reorganization of Indian states, which was passed by parliament in August 1956 and became the State Reorganization Act 1956. According to this Act, 14 states and 6 union territories were reorganized on 1 November 1956. Facts to Know! Story of India’s Integration: The first deputy prime minister and home minister, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, with the help of Mr V.P. Menon (constitutional adviser, civil servant, and political reforms commissioner to the last three viceroys during British rule) convinced the ruler to merge with India. But the rulers of Hyderabad, Junagarh, and Bhopal states decided to merge with Pakistan while Kashmir and Travancore’s rulers decided to be independent. But due to the strategic and administrative importance of these princely states, it was imperative that they become a part of India; that is why all these states were merged by one way or another. The Hyderabad princely state was merged by ‘Operation Polo’, a martial secret operation.

On 2 June 2014, the latest 29th Indian state Telangana was constituted after the recommendation of the Sri Krishna Sharma committee. Now, Hyderabad is the capital of the state and Amravati is the capital of Andhra Pradesh.

3.66

Chapter 3

JAMMU AND KASHMIR Srinagar

HIMACHAL PRADESH Shimla PUNJAB UTTARANCHAL Chandigarh Dehradun A AN RY HA DELHI RAJASTHAN

ARUNACHAL PRADESH

UTTAR PRADESH

Jaipur

BIHAR Patna

Gandhinagar

Dispur

ASSAM

Bhopal

NAGALAND Kohima

SHILLONG Imphal

MEGHALAYA Agartala JHARKHAND WEST Ranchi BENGAL TRIPURA H R A Kolkata ISG

MADHYA PRADESH

GUJARAT

Itanagar

SIKKIM Gangtok

Lucknow

MANIPUR Aizawl MIZORAM

TT

HA

CH

Diu (D&D) Daman

DADRA& NAGAR HAVELI Mumbai

MAHARASHTRA

Raipur

ORISSA Bhubaneshwar BAY OF BENGAL

Telangana ARABIAN SEA

Hyderabad

AK

A

GOA Panaji KA

Andaman and Nicobar Is

RN

AT

ANDHRA PRADESH

State Capital

Chennai

Union Territory Capital PONDICHERRY

International Boundary

TAMILNADU

Portblair

(IN D IA

m

I N D I A N

Fig. 3.9

200

400 Kilometers

s

ura

ap

N 0

lan d

nth

)

na

va

LA

iru

RA

Th

KE

(INDIA)

s Laksh a d w e e p I sl a n d

Kavaratti

Bangalore

O C E A N

Political Map of India

Note: Union territories are under the direct control of the central government of India. The special protection, rules, and rights are mentioned in Part-VIII (Article 239–242) of the Constitution. Each and every UT was formed for some specific reason, Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands are too far by distance and it was not feasible do you Know? to manage them as states, Puducherry was a French colony, while Daman & Diu, By the 7th Constitutional Dadra & Nagar Haveli were Portuguese Amendment Act 1956, the colonies. These colonies have their different same person can serve as a Governor of two or more language, culture, and systems. That is why states or UTs simultaneously. they did not want to join any nearby states of British colonies.

26 January 1950

Chandigarh

Dehradun

Lucknow

Jaipur

Bhopal

Patna

4. Haryana

5. Uttrakhand

6. Uttar Pradesh

7. Rajasthan

8. Madhya Pradesh

Ranchi

Gangtok

Kolkata

Bhubaneshwar

Raipur

Mumbai

Gandhinagar

Hyderabad

10. Jharkhand

11. Sikkim

12. West Bengal

13. Odisha

14. Chhatisgarh

15. Maharashtra

16. Gujarat

17. Telangana

9. Bihar

1 November 1956

Chandigarh

3. Punjab

2 June 2014

1 May 1960

1 May 1960

1 November 2000

15 August 1947

15 August 1947

16 May 1975

15 November 2000

1 November 1956

15 August 1947

9 November 2000

1 November 1966

September 1966

25 January 1971

Shimla

2. Himachal Pradesh

26 October 1947

Date of Formation

Shri Nagar

Capital

1. Jammu & Kashmir

State

Deer and Indian roller

Asiatic lion and greater flamingo

(Contd.)

Giant squirrel and green imperial pigeon

Wild buffalo and hill myna

Sambal and blue jay

Fishing cat and white-throated kingfisher

Red panda and blood pheasant

Elephant and koel

Gaur and Indian roller

Swamp deer and Paradise fly catcher

Chinkara & camel and Indian bustard

Swamp deer and sarus (crane)

Musk deer and Himalayan monal

Blackbuck and black francolin

Blackbuck and northern goshawk

Musk deer and monal

Hangul and Black-necked crane

State Symbols, Animal, and Bird

Geography    3.67

Bangalore

Panaji Thiruvananthpuram Chennai Itanagar Dispur Shilong Agartala Aizawl Imphal Kohima

19. Karnataka

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

Goa Kerala Tamil Nadu Arunachal Pradesh Assam Meghalaya Tripura Mizoram Manipur Nagaland

Hyderabad

Capital

18. Andhra Pradesh

State

30 May 1987 1 November 1956 14 January 1969 20 February 1987 26 January 1950 21 January 1972 21 January 1972 20 February 1987 21 January 1972 1 December 1963

15 August 1947

1 November 1956

Date of Formation

Gaur and black-crested bulbul Elephant and great hornbill Nilgiri tahr and emerald dove Mithun and great hornbill Indian rhino and white wing woo-duck Clouded leopard and hill myna Phayre’s langur and green imperial pigeon Hillock and Mrs Hume’s pheasant Sangai and Mrs Hume’s pheasant Mithun and Blyth’s tragopan

Elephant and Indian roller

Black buck and Indian roller

State Symbols, Animal, and Bird

3.68  Chapter 3

Port Blair

Chandigarh

Silvassa

Daman

Delhi

Kavaratti

Puducherry

1. Andaman & Nicobar

2. Chandigarh

3. Dadra & Nagar Haveli

4. Daman & Diu

5. Delhi

6. Lakshadweep

7. Puducherry (Tamil Nadu)

(c) Yanam (Andhra)

(b) Karaikalam (Tamil Nadu)

(a) Maahi (Kerala)

Capital

Union Territory

1954

1947

1947

1961

1961

1947

1947

France

Britain

Britain

Portugal

Portugal

Britain

Britain

7 January 1963

1 November 1956

30 May 1987

11 August 1961

1 November 1966

1 November 1956

Independence Independent Date of Year From Formation Hindi and English

Madras

Kerala

Delhi

Bombay

Bombay

Tamil, French and English

English, Malayalam and Divehi

Hindi and English

Konkani and Marathi

Gujarati and Hindi

Chandigarh Punjabi and Hindi

Kolkata

High Court Official Language

Geography    3.69

3.70  Chapter 3

❖❖ Chandigarh (a major city and the most planned city of India) was claimed by both Punjab and Haryana at the time of their division by the State Reorganization Act, 1956. Neither of them wanted to give it up, so the central government made it UT with neutral ownership. ❖❖ Delhi is a capital region and has a special status like other countries’ capitals, so it was made a UT and given some privileges [Article 239 (A)(a)]. Delhi UT has a legislative assembly but the Delhi government does not have three rights from the State Schedule—(1) Law & Order, (2) Police, and (3) Land. Moreover, Puducherry also has a legislative assembly. ❖❖ For Delhi, Puducherry, and Andaman & Nicobar islands, the UT head is in the position of lieutenant governor while other UTs have administrators. The governor of Punjab is the administrator of Chandigarh UT.

The Borders of India ❖❖ The international border of India (15,200 km) is the third largest in the world after China (22,150 km) and Russia (20,017 km). India shares its international borders with seven countries, which is 12th after China (16 countries), Russia (14 countries), Brazil (10 countries), Congo (9 countries), Germany (9 countries), France, Austria, Zambia, Turkey, Tanzania and Serbia (all 8 countries). ❖❖ Total (approx.) land border: 15,200 km ❖❖ Longest international land border of state: West Bengal 2,216 km with Bangladesh. ❖❖ Shortest international land border of state: Jammu & Kashmir (80 km) ❖❖ Total (approx.) coastline: 7,516 km ❖❖ Total coastline of mainland: 6,100 ❖❖ Longest coastline of state: Gujarat (1,214.7 km) ❖❖ Shortest coastline of state: Goa (113 km)

Boundaries with Neighbour Countries Neighbour Country

Adjacent State

Pakistan

Gujarat (506 km), Rajasthan (1,170 km), Punjab (425 km), Jammu & Kashmir (1,222 km)

Afghanistan (Shortest boundary)

Jammu & Kashmir (80 km)

Shared with India (in km) 3,323

80

(Contd.)

Geography    3.71

Neighbour Country

Adjacent State

Shared with India (in km)

China

Jammu & Kashmir (1,954 km), Uttarakhand (463 km). Himachal Pradesh (345 km), Sikkim (280 km). Arunachal Pradesh (1,015 km)

3,380

Nepal

Uttarakhand (303 km), Uttar Pradesh (651 km), Bihar (601 km), West Bengal (96 km), Sikkim (88 km)

1,236

Myanmar

Sikkim (28 km), West Bengal (197 km), Assam (294 km)

1,643

Bhutan

Sikkim (28 km), West Bengal (197 km), Assam (294 km)

699

Bangladesh (Longest boundary)

West Bengal (2,216 km), Assam (263 km), Meghalaya (443 km), Tripura (856 km), Mizoram (318 km)

4,967

Indian Coastline The coastline of mainland of India is 5,422 km while including the coastline (2,094 km) of island territories, Andaman & Nicobar (in Bay of Bengal), Lakshadweep (in Arabian sea), it becomes 7,516 km. Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Daman & Diu, and Puducherry are the four coastal union territories. Andaman & Nicobar islands have the longest coastline in India amongst the Union Territories and Gujarat has the longest coastline in India amongst all the states. Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal—all these nine states and two UTs, Daman & Diu and Puducherry, are in the coastal area. There are 69 coastal districts in the mainland, and three coastal districts are in Andaman & Nicobar islands and one in Lakshadweep. The population of these district is 171 million which is 14.2% of the total population of India, while the population of island territories is 0.44 million. A total of 560 million people live in coastal states and UTs. The area of continental shelf is 3,72,424 sq km, and the area of territorial sea/Exclusive Administrative Zone (up to 12 Nautical miles) is 1,93,834 sq km while the area of Exclusive Economic Zone (up to 200 km) is 2.172 million sq km.

3.72  Chapter 3

❖❖ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): By United Nations Convention on the ‘Law of the Sea Convention’—a country or government can use the marine resources, including energy production with the help of water and wind and sunlight in the sea up to 200 nautical miles from its coast in sea. This area/zone is called Exclusive Economic Zone. ❖❖ Exclusive Administration Zone (EAZ): Up to 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) from the coast in sea is regarded as the sovereign territory of a country or government. This sovereignty also extends to the airspace and seabed below. This zone will be under the jurisdiction of that government.

Regions of Indian Coast

1. Konkan coast: From the Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat to Goa. 2. Malabar coast: From Goa to Kanyakumari, Kerala. 3. Koromandal coast: From Kanyakumari to Puducherry. 4. Northern Surkas coast: From Puducherry to Sundarbans, West Bengal.

Physical Features of India India being a vast country consists of varied relief features, and these can be divided into the following: ●● ●● ●● ●●

The Himalayan Mountains The Northern Plains The Peninsular Plateau The Coastal Plains

The Himalayan Range The Himalayan mountains form the northern mountain region of India and separate the Indian peninsula from mainland Asia. They have been formed during different stages of continental drift of the Gondwanaland mass. The Himalayas form the highest mountain range in the world, extending 2,500 km over northern India. The Himalayan range starts from the Indus river in the west and stretches to the Brahmaputra in the east. Himalayas are divided into three parallel ranges namely: ●● ●● ●●

The Great Himalayas or the Himadri. Lesser Himalayas or the Himachal. Outer Himalayas or the Shiwaliks.

About Himalayas ❖❖ The word Himalaya means ‘Abode of Snow’ or ‘House of Snow’. They are one of the youngest fold mountain ranges in the world and comprise mainly sedimentary rocks.

Geography    3.73

❖❖ They stretch from the Indus river in the west to the Brahmaputra river in the east. Their total length is about 2,500 km while their width varies from 500 km in Kashmir to 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh. Their average height is 2,000 m. ❖❖ The Eastern Himalayas—made up of Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills and the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia Hills—are also known as Purvanchal. ❖❖ The Pamir being the connecting link between Himalayas and high ranges of Central Asia is popularly known as the ‘Roof of the World’. ❖❖ The first and oldest phase is the formation of the Inner Himalayas (formed during the Oligocene period). The second phase led to the formation of the middle Himalayas (Miocene period). The third and latest phase was the formation of the Outer Himalayas (post-Pliocene period).

The Great Himalayas or The Himadri ❖❖ These are the northernmost range of Himalayas and are known as Great/ Inner Himalayas, or the Himadri. ❖❖ These are the highest peaks of the Himalayas and the average height here is about 6,000 m. Some of the most famous peaks like Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, and Nanga Parbat are located in this range. ❖❖ Thre are perennially snow bound, and a number of glaciers descend from this range. ❖❖ Shipki La and Bara Lapcha La in Himachal Pradesh, Burzil and Zozi La in Kashmir, Niti, Lipulekh and Thag La in Uttarankhand, and Jelep La and Nathu La in Sikkim are a few passes in this range; almost all of them have a height above 4,500 m.

Lesser Himalayas or The Himachal ❖❖ This range lies to the south of the Himadri and forms the most rugged mountain system and is known as Himachal or Lesser Himalayas. The ranges are mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks. ❖❖ The altitude of the Himachals ranges from 3,700 to 4,500 m, having an average width of 50 km. ❖❖ From west to east, Middle Himalaya is divided into the following ranges: ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

Pirpanjal range (J&K) (longest range of the Middle Himalayas) Dhauladhar range (Himachal Pradesh) Mussoorie range (Uttarakhand) Nagtibba range (Uttarakhand) Mahabharat range (Nepal)

❖❖ Mountains and valleys in this range are disposed in all directions with mountains rising to a high of 5,000 m and valleys touching 1,000 m. The

3.74  Chapter 3

Himachal range also consists of the famous valleys of Kashmir, that is, the Kangra and the Kullu valleys. ❖❖ This region is also very famous for its hill stations such as Shimla, Chhail, Ranikhet, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nainital, Almora, and Darjeeling.

Outer Himalayas or The Shiwaliks ❖❖ The Shiwaliks or Outer Himalayas literally refers to ‘Tresses of Shiva’ and are identified with Manak Parbat in some Sanskrit texts. ❖❖ This range stretches over 2,400 km in length from Indus to Brahmaputra and the width ranging from 10 to 50 km. The height of these mountains ranges from 1,500 m to 2,000 m. ❖❖ They are the southernmost and geologically youngest east-west mountain chain of the Himalayas. ❖❖ Various large south-flowing rivers cut through this range at wide intervals. ❖❖ Dalfa, Miri, Mishmi, Abor, and Patkai in Arunachal Pradesh; Dhang range, Dundwa range, Churian, and Muria Ghats in Nepal; Jammu hills in Jammu & Kashmir, are important hills of the Shiwalik range.

Trans Himalayas ❖❖ These are also known as Tethys Himalaya or the Trans-Himalaya or Tibetan Himalaya and are located behind the Himalayas and comprise the Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zaskar ranges. ❖❖ Trans Himalayas include lofty peaks and big glaciers such as Siachin (Nubra valley), Baltaro, Biafo, and Hispar. ❖❖ The highest peak in this region is K2 or Godwin Austin (8,611 m, in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir). Other high peaks are Hidden Peak (8,068 m), Broad Peak (8,047 m), and Gasherbrum II (8,035 m). ❖❖ Some of the peaks of the Himalayas: Peak

Country

Height (in m)

1. Mt Everest

Nepal

8,848

2. Kanchenjunga

India

8,598

3. Makalu

Nepal

8,481

4. Dhaulagiri

Nepal

8,172

5. Nanga Parbat

India

8,126

The Northern Plains ❖❖ The Great Northern Plain was formed by the deposits brought down by the rivers Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, and their tributaries, and, thus, it is

Geography    3.75

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

popularly known as the Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain or the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It is located in the southern part of the Himalayan ranges. This plain is formed of alluvial soil. The deposition of alluvium in a vast basin lying on the foothills of the Himalayas over millions of years, formed this fertile plain. These rivers, as they descend, split into numerous channels due to deposition of silt, and these are known as tributaries. The rivers coming from the northern mountain carry a huge load of eroded soil and debris. As a river flows down towards the plains, due to the gentler slopes, its velocity decreases, and the material carried by it gets deposited on the way, creating riverine islands. The soil of the Northern Plain is very rich and fertile. This combined with adequate amount of water and favorable climate makes this area conducive to agriculture. Hence, these plains are very densely populated and a number of crops are grown here.

Features of the Northern Plain ❖❖ The plain cover an area of 7 lakh sq km. It is 2,400 km in length and 240 km to 320 km in width. ❖❖ Crops here are grown in rotation; wheat and rice are the major crops in the plains. Other crops grown here are maize, sugarcane, and cotton. ❖❖ The plains are conducive to irrigation through canals owing to their flatness; the plains are mostly treeless.

Divisions of the Northern Plain The Northern Plain is generally divided into three parts: 1. Punjab Plains: The western part of the Northern Plains is referred to as Punjab Plains and is formed by the river Indus and its tributaries. These tributaries originate in the Himalayas. The major tributaries of Indus are Chenab, Jhelum, Beas, and Ravi. Only a part of the plains lies in India while a larger part is in Pakistan. The Punjab Plains are dominated by Doabs (land lying between two converging, or confluent, rivers).   The plain slopes gently down towards the south-west; hence the rivers follow the slope of the land. The plain is mostly made of silt and the soil here is porous. The plain that is formed by the deposition of new alluvium near the river banks is called Bet.   The foot-hill regions of the Punjab Plain are made of large boulders, gravel, sand, and clay, and they are known as ‘Bhabar’ plains or ‘Bhabar’ soil. This soil cannot hold water.

3.76  Chapter 3

2. Ganga Plains: The major portions of the Great Indian Plains consist of the Ganga basin; they lie between the Ghaggar and the Teesta rivers. They extends from the eastern margin of the Punjab in the west to Bangladesh border in the east and extend over the states of Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, parts of Jharkhand, and West Bengal. They are largely alluvial plains with little undulation.   The Ganga originates in the Central Himalayas from the Gangotri glacier in the state of Uttarakhand and drains through its vast delta, in the Sunderbans, into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganga plains slope towards the south and south-east and are drained by the rivers such as Yamuna, Ganga, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, and Teesta from the Himalayas in the north and Chambal, Betwa, Son, and Damodar from the plateau in the south. The lower reaches of the Ganga plains are slightly above the sealevel; however, the upper portion rises up to 200 m.   The Ganga plains are the most populous part of India. People of these plains are mainly engaged in agriculture. Trade, industry, and commerce are also prosperous.     The Ganga plains may be divided into three regions:

(a) Upper Ganga Plain: It stretches from the Yamuna river in the west to Allahabad city in the east. (b) Middle Ganga Plain: It stretches from Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh) in the west to Rajmahal hill in the east. (c) Lower Ganga Plain: It stretches from Rajmahal hill to the Bay of Bengal.

3. The Brahmaputra Plains: The Brahmaputra plains lie to the east of the Ganga plains in the states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The valley presents a flat plain and is formed by the debris brought down by river Brahmaputra and its innumerable tributaries. The plains seldom rise to more than 100 m above sea level and slope gently towards the west. Ranges of hills are found standing on both sides of the river.   Innumerable sandbars and islets are found on the Brahmaputra, and the river flows out in different channels avoiding obstacles of sandbars. Majuli island is by far the largest sandbar ever formed on any river bed in the world. The green Brahmaputra valley is notable for tea plantations.   These plains have different relief features and on that basis can be divided into four different regions:

Geography    3.77









(a) Bhabar: The Bhabar region is a narrow belt of level surface in the Northern Plain, lying parallel to the slope of the Shiwaliks. It is formed of the pebbles, deposited, by the rivers descending from the mountains, in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km. All the descending streams disappear in this region. (b) Terai: The Terai region lies to the south of the Bhabar belt, and all rivers and streams that disappear in the Bhabar belt resurface in the Terai region. The Terai region consists of wet, swampy, and marshy land. It is thickly covered. (c) Bhangar: Bhangar is made up of older alluvium and is the largest part of the Northern Plain. The Bhangar region lies above the flood plains of the rivers. (d) Khadar: The fourth region of the Northern Plain is known as Khadar. It contains the newest and youngest deposits of the flood plains. The land is most fertile and used extensively for agriculture.

The Peninsular Plateau Peninsular Plateau is a tableland composed of old crystalline, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. This plateau is one of the oldest surfaces of the earth and was formed due to the breaking and drifting of Gondwanaland. This triangular-shaped plateau starts from the south of the Indo-Gangatic Plain and ends at Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari). The plateau has broad and shallow valleys and round hills. The Peninsular Plateau is divided into two parts:

Central Highlands ❖❖ Central Highlands lie to the north of River Narmada and cover a major portion of the Malwa plateau. It is bound by the Vindhya range on the south, while the Aravalis form the north-western boundary of these highlands. ❖❖ Westwards, it gradually merges into the sandy and rocky desert of Rajasthan. The Central Highlands are wider in the west than in the east. ❖❖ The major rivers draining the Central Highlands are the Chambal, Betwa, Sind, and Ken. ❖❖ Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand are the local names for the eastward extensions of the peninsular plateau. Further eastern extension of the central highlands is the Chota Nagpur Plateau, and Damodar is an important river that drains this region.

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Chapter 3

Deccan Plateau ❖❖ The Deccan Plateau is situated to the south of the Narmada and is a triangular landmass. ❖❖ It is almost encircled by mountains and hills. It is bounded by the Satpura range in the north and Mahadeo, Kaimur, and Maikal ranges in the northeast. On the west, it is bounded by the Western Ghats and on the east by the Eastern Ghats. ❖❖ The river Godawari and its tributaries including river Indravati drain most of the Deccan plateau. The plateau is higher in the west and gently slopes towards the east. Thus, these rivers rise in the Western Ghats and flow eastwards into the Bay of Bengal. ❖❖ The north-eastern extension of the Plateau is called the Meghalaya and Karbi-Anglong Plateau. A fault demarcates the Meghalaya and KarbiAnglong Plateau from the Chhota Nagpur Plateau. There are three prominent hill ranges on the north-eastern side of the plateau, namely, the Garo range, the Khasi ranges, and the Jaintia hills. ❖❖ The Western Ghats are tall and run parallel to the western coast. They are continuous and can only be crossed through passes. They are higher than the Eastern Ghats; their average height is between 900 to 1,500 m as against 600 m of the Eastern Ghats. ❖❖ The Eastern Ghats start at the Mahanadi valley in the north and end at the Nilgiris in the south; they are discontinuous and irregular and dissected by rivers such as the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, and the Kaveri draining into the Bay of Bengal.

Deccan Trap It is the black soil area of volcanic origin, hence consists of igneous rocks. The black soil is formed due to denudation of these rocks over time. A large portion of the Deccan Plateau consists of volcanic rocks (basalt). Several layers of volcanic eruptions that occurred for thousands of years resulted in the formation of the Deccan Trap. It is spread over Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.

Know More! ❖❖ The highest peak of the Western Ghats is Anai Mudi (2,695 m).

❖❖ The highest peak of the Eastern Ghats is Jindhagada peak.

❖❖ The Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats meet at the Nilgiri Hills in South Karnataka. ❖❖ The Sivasamudram falls and the Hogenakkal falls are located in the Deccan Plateau. Sivasamudram falls are the second largest waterfall in India and the sixteenth largest in the world. ❖❖ Dhupgarh in Pachmari (Madhya Pradesh) is the highest peak of central India.

Geography    3.79

The Coastal Plains of India Coastal plains of India consist of the waved platforms and the raised beaches above the water mark. These are mainly the emerged floors from the seas that are adjacent to land. The Coastal Plains of India confine the Peninsular Plateau and are located along the Arabian Sea coast in the west and along the Bay of Bengal coast in the east.

Divisions of the Coastal Plains 1. Western Coastal Plains. 2. Eastern Coastal Plains. ❖❖ Western Coastal Plains: ●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

Western coastal plains are located between the western coast of India and the Western Ghats and are about 50 kms wide. They starts on the south of River Tapi. They stretch from the Rann of Kachchh in the north to Kanyakumari in the south and extend across the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. The Western Coastal Plains become narrower gradually from the Kachchh coast to Kanyakumari. Unlike the Eastern Coastal Plains with large rivers and their wide mouths or large deltas, the western coast has short rivers coming down swiftly from the western slopes of the Western Ghats, draining into the Arabian Sea without forming any deltas. The rivers flowing here are fast flowing and perennial; these rivers form estuaries instead of deltas, and the major rivers flowing are the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi, and Zuari. The Western coastal plains are divided into three parts: ✶✶ Konkan coast (Northern part/Maharashtra coast) ✶✶ Kannad coast (Central part/Karnataka coast) ✶✶ Malabar Coast (Southern part/Kerala coast)

❖❖ Eastern Coastal Plains: ●● ●●

●●

The Eastern Coastal Plains are a vast stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. They stretch from West Bengal in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south, starting from the River Subarnarekha in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. They stretch over a length of around 1,500 km and have a width of about 100 km. They are spread over the states of Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha.

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Chapter 3 ●❖

●❖

A major area of these plains is formed by deltas of many rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri, and Krishna. The soil of these deltas is very fertile and conducive to agriculture. The Eastern Coastal Plains are divided into two parts: 1. Northern Circar (Northern part) 2. Coromandal Coast (Southern part) Northern Circar is the northern part on the Eastern Coastal Plains and lies between the rivers Mahanadi and Krishna. Coromandal is the southern part and is located between the rivers Krishna and Kaveri.

Difference between Western and Eastern Coastal Plains 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Western coastal Plains Dissected outline Occurrence of estuaries More rainfall Narrower Small rivers

eastern coastal Plains Smooth outline Occurrence of deltas Less rainfall Broader Long rivers

cliMAte oF indiA India has a ‘Tropical do you Know? Monsoon’ type of climate. ❖❖ The Chilka Lake that lies to the south of The word monsoon has been the Mahanadi delta in the state of Odisha, derived from the Arabic is the largest salt water lake in India. word ‘Mausim’ which means ❖❖ Nine states and four UTs have coastlines. seasonal reversal of the These are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, winds during the course of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra the year. The whole of India Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal. has a tropical monsoonal Daman & Diu, and Pondicherry, while climate, since the greater part Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands are island territories. of the country lies within the trophies, and the climate is influenced by the monsoons. The position of the mountain ranges and direction of the rain-bearing winds are the two main factors that determine the climate of India. Alternating seasons are the chief characteristic of India’s climate.

Factors Affecting the climate of india 1. Latitude: India lies between 8°N and 37°N latitudes. The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of India, thus making the southern half of India in the ‘Torrid Zone’ and the northern half in the Temperature Zone.

Geography    3.81

2. Himalayan Mountains: The Himalayas play an important role in lending a subtropical touch to the climate of India. The lofty Himalayan mountains form a barrier which affects the climate of India. It prevents the cold winds of north Asia from blowing into India, thus protecting it from severely cold winters. It also traps the monsoon winds, forcing them to shed their moisture within the subcontinent. 3. Altitude: Temperature decreases with height. Places in the mountains are cooler than places in the plains. 4. Distance from the Sea: With a long coastline, large coastal areas have an equable climate. Areas in the interior of India are far away from the moderating influence of the sea. Such areas have extreme climate. 5. Western Disturbances: The low-pressure systems that originate over the eastern Mediterranean region in winter and move eastwards towards India passing over Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan are responsible for the winter rain in northern India. 6. Conditions in the Regions Surrounding India: Temperature and pressure conditions in east Africa, Iran, Central Asia, and Tibet determine the strength of the monsoons and the occasional dry spells. For example, high temperatures in East Africa may draw the monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean into that region, thus causing a dry spell. 7. Conditions over the Ocean: The weather conditions over the Indian Ocean and the China Sea may be responsible for typhoons which often affect the east coast of India. 8. Jet Streams: Air currents in the upper layers of the atmosphere known as jet steams could determine the arrival of the monsoons and departure of the monsoons. Scientists are studying the jet streams and how they may affect the climate of India, but much remains to be learned about the phenomenon.

Seasons in India A distinct seasonal pattern is an important characteristic of the monsoon type of climate. The weather conditions in India greatly change from one season to another. These changes are particularly noticeable in the interior parts of the country. The coastal areas do not experience much variation in temperature though there is variation in rainfall pattern. There are basically six seasons identified in India. Traditional Seasons Seasons

Indian Calender

Gregorian Calender

Vasanta (Spring)

Chaitra–Vaisakha

March–April

Grishma (Summer)

Jyaistha–Asadha

May–June (Contd.)

3.82  Chapter 3

Seasons

Indian Calender

Gregorian Calender

Varsha (Rainy)

Sravana–Bhadra

July–August

Sharada (Autumn)

Asvina–Kartika

September–October

Hemanta (pre-Winter) Margashirsha–Pausa

November–December

Shishira (Winter)

January–February

Magha–Phalguma

Climatic Regions of India The following are the climatic regions of India: 1. Tropical Rain Forest:

(a) This type of climate is found on the Western Coastal Plain and the Sahyadris and in parts of Assam. (b) The temperatures are high, not falling below 18.2°C even during winter and rising to 29°C in April and May, the hottest months. (c) Dense forests and plantation agriculture with crops like tea, coffee, and spices are the characteristic vegetation in the area.

2. Tropical Savanna:



(a) Most of the peninsula, except the semiarid zone on the leeside of the Sahyadris, experiences this type of climate. (b) A long dry weather lasting through winter and early summer and high temperatures remaining above 18.2°C even during the winter seasons, and rising as high as 32°C in summer, are the chief characteristics of this climate. (c) Nagpur has a mean temperature of 35.4°C for May which is the hottest month and 20.7°C for December, the coldest month in the year. (d) The natural vegetation all over the area is Savanna.

3. Tropical Semi-Arid Steppe Climate:



(a) The rain-shadow belt, running southward from central Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu, on the leeside of the Sahyadris and Cardamom Hills comes under this type of climate of low and uncertain rainfall. (b) Temperatures varying from 20°C to 23.8°C for December and 32.8°C for May. Agriculturally, the climate is suitable only for dry farming and livestock rearing.

4. Tropical and Subtropical Steppe:

(a) This type of climate occurs over a broad crescent from Punjab to Kachchh between the Thar Desert on the west and the more humid climates of the Ganga Plain and the Peninsula on the east and south, respectively.

Geography    3.83



(b) The climate, therefore, is transitional between these two areas. The annual rainfall is not only low but is also highly erratic.

5. Tropical Desert:



(a) The western parts of Barmer, Jaisalmer, and Bikaner districts of Rajasthan and most part of Kachchh form the sandy wastes of the Thar which experiences a typical desert climate. (b) Ganganagar has recorded a maximum temperature of 50°C, a record high.

6. Humid Subtropical With Winter:



(a) A large area to the south of the Himalayas, east of the Tropical and Subtropical Steppe and north of the Tropical Savanna running in a long belt from Punjab to Assam with a south-westward extension into Rajasthan east of the Aravalli Range, has this type of climate. (b) Winters are dry except for a little rain received from the westerly depressions.

7. Mountain Climate:



(a) The Himalayan and Karakoram ranges experience this type of climate with sharp contrasts between the temperatures of the sunny and shady slopes, high diurnal range of temperatures, and high variability of rainfall. (b) The trans-Himalayan region, Ladakh, where the south-west monsoon fails to reach, has a dry and cold climate, and a sparse and stunted vegetation.

8. Drought in India:

(a) The dry areas of Rajasthan and the adjoining parts of Haryana and Gujarat are liable to frequent drought conditions. (b) Another area liable to frequent drought lies on the leeward side of the Western Ghats.

The Indian Monsoon Monsoon winds strongly influence the climate of India. The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20°N and 20°S. The following facts are important to understand the mechanism of the monsoon. ❖❖ The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on the landmass of India while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure.

3.84  Chapter 3

❖❖ The Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in the summer season shifts its position over the Ganga Plain. This is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the equator. It is also known as the ‘monsoon trough’ during the monsoon. ❖❖ The intensity and position of the high-pressure area east of Madagascar also affects the Indian monsoon. ❖❖ The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong vertical air currents and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level. ❖❖ The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer. Facts to Know! El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO): The difference in pressure over Tahiti (in the Pacific Ocean) and Darwin in northern Australia (near the Indian Ocean) is computed to predict the intensity of the monsoons. If the pressure difference were negative, it would mean below average and late monsoons. The El Nino phenomena are a feature connected with the southern oscillation. In this, a warm ocean current flows past the Peruvian coast in place of the cold Peruvian current. It occurs at an interval of 2 to 5 years.   The changes in pressure conditions are connected to the El Nino. Hence, the phenomenon is referred to as ENSO. La Nina: La Nina mostly causes the opposite effects of El Nino. Positive effect on Indian monsoon across the northern, midwest, southern and eastern regions.

Season based on Monsoon The climate of India may be described as a tropical monsoon. Even northern India, lying beyond the tropical zone, acquires a tropical touch marked by the relatively high temperatures. The large size of the country and its varied relief feature play a crucial role in determining the climatic variations in different parts of India. But the seasonal rhythm of the monsoon is apparent throughout India. It may conveniently form the basis for dividing the year into different seasons. The most characteristic feature of the monsoon is the complete reversal of winds. It eventually leads to the alternation of seasons. India is known as the land of the endless growing season.

Geography    3.85

The year is divided into four seasons: 1. The Cold Weather Season (north-east monsoons): The cold weather seasons starts in January. The north-east monsoon is fully established over India in this season. The mean January day temperature in Chennai and Calicut is about 24–25°C, while in the northern plains it is about 10–15°C. In December, the sun shines directly over the Tropic of Capricorn. The landmass of Asia, including the sub-continent, cools down rapidly. There is a high pressure over the continent. The Indian Ocean, being warmer, has a relatively low pressure. Three Reasons For Excessive Cold in North India: ✶✶ States like Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan being far away from the moderating influence of the sea, experience a continental climate. ✶✶ The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan ranges creates a cold wave situation. ✶✶ Around February, the cold winds coming from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan bring a cold wave along with frost and fog over the north-western part of India.   The north-east trade winds (prevailing winds in the tropical latitudes) blow from land to sea. These winds, being off-shore, do not give rain. In this season, western disturbances bring light rainfall, most beneficial to the rabi crop in north-west India. This rainfall decreases towards the east and the south. The peninsular region of India, however, does not have any well-defined cold weather season. There is hardly any seasonal change in the distribution pattern of the temperature in coastal areas because of the moderating influence of the sea and the proximity to the equator. 2. The Hot Weather Season: From mid-March to May, the sun moves over the equator towards the Tropic of Cancer. By 21 June, it is directly overhead the Tropic of Cancer. In March, the highest day temperatures of about 38°C occur in the Deccan Plateau. Therefore, the peninsular India, places south of Satpuras experience temperature between 26°C and 32°C. Central India, comprising Delhi and Madhya Pradesh experience temperatures between 40°C and 45°C. ●●

●●

●● ●●

North-west India, comprising mainly Rajasthan, has very high temperatures (45°C), due to features like sandy soil, direct insulation, and lack of cloud cover. Mango Showers (since the rain showers are good for the mango trees) occurs along the coast of Kerala. Nor’wester/Kalbaisakhi (dark clouds in the month of Baisakh) occurs in Assam and West Bengal. These are thunderstorms, accompanied with strong winds and heavy rainfall. This is good for the tea crop in

3.86  Chapter 3

Assam and the jute and rice in West Bengal. In Assam, these storms are called Bardoli Chherha. ●● Loo is the name given to the hot, dry winds that blow in the Northern Plains. It is very common in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh (called ‘aandhi’), and Bihar. ●● Blossom Shower: With this shower, coffee flowers blossom in Karnataka and nearby areas. 3. The South-west Monsoon Season: This season begins in June and lasts until September. The low pressure which existed over Norther Plains is further intensified. It is strong enough to attract the moisture bearing winds from the Indian Ocean.   The south-east trade winds from the southern hemisphere are drawn into India as the south-west monsoon winds after they cross the equator. Owing to the triangular shape of India, the south-west monsoon winds are divided into branches—the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch.   The Arabian Sea Branch: It gives very heavy rainfall, more than 200 cm, to the windward side of the Western Ghats. The Deccan Plateau, which lies on the leeward side of the Western Ghats, receives less than 150 cm of rainfall. Further east, rainfall decreases, for example, Hyderabad gets less than 100 cm while Chennai gets even less than 40 cm of rainfall. It does not give much rain to Rajasthan because the Aravalli Range lies parallel to the direction of winds and, hence, condensation does not occur. Therefore, Rajasthan gets less than 25 cm of rainfall. These winds advance northward, attracted to the low pressure in India. Punjab at the foothill of the Shiwalik gets Relief rainfall.   The Bay of Bengal Branch: The Bay of Bengal branch, which also blows from the southwest direction, is deflected by the Arakhan Mountains of Myanmar and the north-east hills of India (Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia) towards the Gangetic Plain. The delta of Ganga–Brahmaputra and the wind-ward side of the north-east hills of India get heavy rain. For example, Cherrapunji on the windward side gets 2,500 cm of rainfall, while Shillong on the leeward slope gets about 250 cm. The rainfall decreases as the winds reach the eastern Himalayas and blow westward into the Ganga Plain, attracted by the low pressure in Punjab and Rajasthan. Facts to Know! Facts about South-west Monsoon: ❖❖ The bulk of rainfall is received during this season in almost every part of India except Tamil Nadu. ❖❖ The amount of rainfall received depends on the relief of the region. ❖❖ The rain is unreliable, and there are dry intervals.

Geography    3.87

4. The Retreating of South-west Monsoon Season: This season lasts through October to December. The temperature in the Northern Plains begins to decrease as the sun’s rays no longer fall directly at the Tropic of Cancer. In September, the sun shines directly at the Equator. The low pressure over the Northern Plain is no longer strong enough to attract the monsoon winds into the heart of India. By the end of September, the monsoon winds are drawn only upto Punjab; by mid-October upto central India, and by early November upto southern India. Thus, the south-west monsoon winds seem to withdraw in stages during this season. That is why this season is known as the retreating south-west monsoon season. This season is marked by cyclones in the Bay of Bengal. They hit the east coast of India and Bangladesh, causing widespread damage to life, property, and crops. Retreating South-west Monsoon

North-east Monsoon

1. They blow during the months of 1. They blow during the months October to December. of January to mid-March. 2. This is a season of transition 2. This is the cold weather between the hot, rainy season and season. the cold, dry season. 3. Characterized by oppressive heat 3. This is a very pleasant season and humidity known as ‘October with low temperatures, low Heat’. humidity, and clear skies. 4. They blow in the south-west. 4. These winds blow in a northdirection but are not strong enough east direction from the land to to blow right into the Northern Plain. the sea. 5. They withdraw in stages which 5. They do not give rain. results in decreasing rain.

Distribution of Rainfall in India Rainfall is an important element in the Indian economy. Although the monsoons affect most part of India, the amount of rainfall varies from heavy to scanty in different parts. There is a great regional and temporal variation in the distribution of rainfall. Over 80% of the annual rainfall is received in the four rainy months of June to September. The average annual rainfall is about 125 cm, but it has great spatial variations. ❖❖ Areas of Heavy Rainfall (Over 200 cm): The highest rainfall occurs in the west coasts, on the Western Ghats as well as the sub-Himalayan areas in north-east and Meghalaya Hills, Assam, West Bengal, West Coast, and southern slopes of eastern Himalayas.

3.88  Chapter 3

❖❖ Areas of Moderately Heavy Rainfall (100–200 cm): Such rainfall occurs in southern parts of Gujarat, east Tamil Nadu, Western Ghats, eastern Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and the middle Ganga valley. ❖❖ Areas of Less Rainfall (50–100 cm): Upper Ganga valley, eastern Rajasthan, Punjab, southern plateau of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. ❖❖ Areas of Scanty Rainfall (less than 50 cm): Northern part of Kashmir, western Rajasthan, Punjab, and the Deccan Plateau. The two significant features of India’s rainfall are, that in north India, rainfall decreases westwards, and in peninsular India, except Tamil Nadu, it decreases eastward.

Soils in India Indian council of Agricultural Research has divided Indian soils into eight major groups. 1. Alluvial Soil: Rich in potash and lime but deficient in nitrogen and phosphoric acid. Mostly found in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Jharkhand. Largely suitable for rabi and kharif crops. 2. Black Soil: Rich in iron, aluminum, magnesium, and calcium but lacking in nitrogen, phosphorus, and humus. Mostly found in the Deccan Plateau, valleys of Krishna, and Madhya Pradesh; largely suitable for cotton, sugarcane, jowar, etc. 3. Desert Soil: Rich in soluble salt but deficient in organic matter. Mostly found in west and north India, Rajasthan, and north Gujarat. Generally unsuitable for agricultural activity, but with proper irrigation facility, useful for cultivation of drought-resistant lime, millets, barley, etc. 4. Laterite Soil: Rich in iron and potash but poor in silica, lime, and phosphorus. Mostly found at the junction of Eastern and Western Ghats. Suitable for tea, coffee, rubber, cashew, and millets. 5. Red Soil: Rich in iron and potash but deficient in lime, nitrogen, phosphorus, and humus. Mostly found towards the eastern part of the Deccan Plateau, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Odisha, etc. 6. Saline and Alkaline Soils: Rich in salts such as sodium and magnesium chloride. Generally unfit for agricultural work but suitable for mangrove forests. 7. Peaty and Marshy Soils: Originate in the humid regions as a result of accumulation of large amounts of organic matter in the soil. They contain considerable amounts of soluble salts and 10–40% of organic matter.

Geography    3.89

Peaty soil is found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala, where it is called Kari.

Agriculture in India India is predominantly an agricultural country, and it is one of the most important occupations for the Indian population. Agriculture is a primary activity, which produces most of the food consumed in the country. Apart from food grains, it also produces raw material for various industries. India is also engaged in exports of other agriculture products such as tea, coffee, and spices. Agriculture has been practised in India since ancient times, and over time, cultivation methods have changed significantly depending upon the characteristics of physical environment, technological know-how, and sociocultural practices. Various types of farming are practiced in India such as primitive subsistence farming, intensive subsistence farming, and commercial farming.

Indian Agriculture ❖❖ Indian agricultural produce is second largest in the world and India is one of the five countries that account for 80% of the world’s total produce. ❖❖ Agriculture provides employment to about two-thirds of the Indian population and has a share of about 16% in the GDP. ❖❖ Over 60% of India’s land area is arable, making it the second largest country in terms of total arable land. ❖❖ India is the seventh largest exporter of agricultural products, and the value of agricultural exports by India was 39 billion dollars in 2013. ❖❖ Cropping seasons in India: On the basis of seasons, crops are divided into three types:

1. Kharif crops 2. Rabi crops 3. Zaid crops

1. Kharif Crops: ●● ●● ●● ●●

These crops are summer or monsoon crops in India. Kharif crops are grown with the onset of the south-west monsoon, with the first rains in the month of July. These crops are harvested at the end of monsoon in the months of October and November. Rice, maize, soya bean, cotton, groundnut, sugarcane, turmeric, and millet are the major kharif crops in India.

3.90  Chapter 3

2. Rabi Crops: ●● ●● ●● ●●

These crops are spring or winter crops. Rabi crops are grown with the beginning of the winter season, at the end of the month of October. These crops are harvested in the month of March or April each year. Wheat, mustard, peas, and barley are the major rabi crops.

3. Zaid (Zayad) Crops: ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

These crops are grown in the short period between the rabi and kharif. Zaid crops are generally grown in irrigated areas where it is not necessary to wait for the monsoon. Zaid crops are grown in some parts of the country in the months from March to June. The main crops are seasonal fruits and vegetables. Watermelon, sugarcane, sunflower, and cucumber are some of the major crops grown in this season.

❖❖ Major Crops in India: India is one of the largest producers of many crops. Generally, most of the crops produced in India can be divided into the following four categories: 1. Food Grain Crops: Rice: ●● Rice covers one-third of the total area of the country and is the staple food of a large portion of the Indian population. ●● Rice is one of the kharif crops and is grown in almost all Indian states. ●● After China, India is the largest producer of rice in the world. ●● Rice in grown in areas having high temperatures, high humidity, and an annual rainfall above 100 cm. ●● West Bengal, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh are the largest rice producing states in the country. ●● Apart from these states, rice is also grown in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Odisha, Karnataka, Assam, and Maharashtra. It is also grown in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat, and the Kashmir valley. ●● In areas receiving less rainfall, such as Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan, it is grown with the help of canal irrigation. Wheat: ●● After rice, wheat is the second most important crop of India and is the staple food in north and north-western India.

Geography    3.91 ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

Wheat is one of the rabi crops. It is a winter crop, and requires a cool growing season and bright sunshine at the time of ripening. Wheat thrives well in areas having an annual rainfall of 50–75 cm. Well-drained fertile loamy soil and clayey soil is well suited for wheat cultivation. The Gangetic Plains and black soil region of Deccan Plateau are most important wheat-growing areas. Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana are the largest producers of wheat in India.

Coarse Cereals/Millets: ●● These crops are kharif crops and are used both as food and fodder. ●● Jowar, bajra, and ragi are some of the important millets. In addition, jowar is the third most important crop in terms of area sown and production. ●● These millets are very rich in iron, calcium, and other micro-nutrients and have high nutritional value. ●● The coarse cereals and millets are grown in areas with high temperature and are called dryland crops because they can be grown in areas with 50–100 cm rainfall. ●● These crops are less sensitive to soil deficiencies and can be grown in inferior alluvial or loamy soil. ●● Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Rajasthan are major coarse-cereals producing states. Pulses: India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world, which are a major source of proteins in a vegetarian diet. ●● Pulses require less moisture and can survive even in dry conditions. ●● Pulses are mainly leguminous crops and, therefore, help in nitrogen fixing, hence increasing fertility of the soil. ●● Important pulses produced in India are gram, tur, arhar, urad, peas, moong, etc. ●● Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra are major pulse producing states in India. ●●

Maize: ●● Maize is majorly a kharif crop and is used both as food and fodder. ●● Maize requires a mean temperature between 21°C and 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil. ●● It is also grown in the rabi season in Bihar and some other states. ●● Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh are major maize-producing states.

3.92

Chapter 3

2. Cash Crops: Sugarcane: ●❖ After Brazil, India is the largest producer of sugarcane. ●❖ It is a kharif crop and is indigenous to South Asia. ●❖ Sugarcane is grown in both tropical and subtropical areas. ●❖ It is generally grown in a humid climate with a mean temperature being between 21°C and 27°C, and annual rainfall from 75 cm to 100 cm. ●❖ Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu are some of the major sugarcane-producing states. Cotton: ●❖ India is believed to be the original home of cotton. ●❖ Cotton is the most important fibre crop and a very important raw material for textile industries. ●❖ Black soil in the Deccan area is well-suited for growing cotton. ●❖ Cotton cultivation requires high temperatures and modest rainfall. ●❖ It is a kharif crop and the major cotton-producing states are Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh. 3. Plantation Crops: Tea: ●❖ India is the largest black-tea producing and consuming country in the world. ●❖ Tea plantation is well-suited to tropical and subtropical areas having fertile and humus-rich soil. ●❖ Frequent showers evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves. ●❖ Tea is a labour-intensive industry and requires abundant, cheap, and skilled labour. ●❖ Assam, Darjeeling hills, West Bengal, and Kerala are major tea producing states in India. ●❖ 16 states in India are engaged in tea production. ●❖ 95% of the total tea produced in India comes from Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. Coffee: do you know? ●❖ Indian coffee is known for its good quality and has great demand worldwide. Coffee produced in ●❖ Coffee grows in areas having hot and India is of Arabic variety humid climate, and rainfall between 150 and was initially brought and 250 cm. from Yemen. ●❖ Optimum mean temperature for coffee cultivation is between 15°C and 28°C, and dry weather is required at the time of ripening of berries.

Geography ●❖ ●❖

3.93

Strong sunshine, high temperatures above 30°C, frost, and snowfall are harmful for coffee cultivation. Nilgiri hills in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu are major coffee producing states in India.

Rubber: ●❖ Rubber is generally an equatorial crop but can be grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas. ●❖ It is grown in humid areas having temperatures above 25°C and rainfall above 200 cm. ●❖ It is an important raw material for industries. ●❖ Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka are major rubber-producing states. 4. Horticulture Crops: Fruits: Both tropical and temperate fruits are produced in India as both the climatic regions are found here. Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal; oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya); bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu; lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar; do you Know? pineapples of Meghalaya; grapes of Andhra Starting from 1970, an Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra; agriculture census is apples, pears, apricots, and walnuts of conducted in India every Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh year. In such census, both are in great demand the world over. primary and secondary Vegetables: India accounts for about 13% data are collected about of the vegetables produced in the world. the operational holding, and funds are provided Potato, pea, onion, cabbage, cauliflower, by central government. tomato, and brinjal are some important vegetables produced and exported by India.

nAturAl veGetAtion And WildliFe India is one of the 12 mega bio-diversity countries of the world. They are a group of countries that have the majority of the Earth’s species and, therefore, considered extremely bio-diverse. Being a vast country, India having 47,000 plant species (out of which 15,000 are flowering plants, i.e., 6% in the world), occupies the 10th position worldwide and fourth in Asia. Non-flowering plants such as ferns, algae, and fungi also grow here. It also has around 90,000 species of animals (including marine and freshwater fishes) and insects.

3.94  Chapter 3

Natural Vegetation Natural or virgin vegetation means the plant community that has grown naturally without any human intervention for a long time. The natural vegetation which is left undisturbed over a long period of time, is called virgin vegetation. Virgin vegetation is of two types: 1. Endemic Species: Those plant species that originated from within the country are termed as endemic species. 2. Exotic Species: Those plant species that originated outside the country are termed as exotic species.

Factors affecting Diversity of Vegetation Factors which influence the variety of flora and fauna include relief (land and soil), climate (temperature, photoperiod, and precipitation), and the ecosystem.

Land It affects the natural vegetation both directly and indirectly. The nature of the land, i.e., whether it is plain, hilly, or a plateau, determines the kind of vegetation that will grow in it. Fertile lands are used for growing crops, vegetables, and fruits.

Flora and Fauna The term flora is used to denote plant species of a particular region, while the term fauna refers to the species of animals in a particular area or region. Undulating (wavy) and rough surfaces generally develop either into grasslands or woodlands (forests). Different types of land accordingly sustain and provide shelter to different kinds of wildlife.

Soil The soils also vary from place to place. Different kinds of soils provide different kinds of vegetation. For example, alluvial or deltaic soil of a river delta near the sea will sustain mangrove forests, while slopes of hills have conical trees. The sandy soils of a desert sustain thorny bushes.

Climate It includes temperature, photoperiod, and precipitation.

Geography

3.95

Temperature Temperature, along with the humidity in the air and precipitation determines the character of vegetation and its extent. As the climate gets colder, either by an increase in altitude (above 915 m) or by going away from the equator, the vegetation will change from tropical to sub-tropical, temperate, and then alpine. For example, on the slopes of the Himalayas and hills of the Peninsula, the fall in temperature affects the type of vegetation and its growth. vegetation zones

Mean Annual Average temp. (in degree c)

Mean temp. in january (in degree c)

remarks

Tropical

Above 24°C

Above 18°C

No Frost

Sub-tropical

17°C to 24°C

10°C to 18°C

Frost is rare

Temperate

7°C to 17°C

–1°C to (–10)°C

Frost; some snow

Alpine

Below 7°C

Below –1°C

Snow

Photoperiod (Sunlight) The amount and duration of the sunlight is known as ‘photoperiod’. The difference in latitude, altitude, and season brings variation in the duration of sunlight in different places. In warmer regions and climates, plant growth is faster due to longer duration of sunlight, especially with the availability of adequate moisture. An instance is the fact that the southern slopes of the Himalayas are covered with thicker vegetation than the northern slopes.

Precipitation Advancing south-west monsoon (June to September) and retreating northeast (October–November) monsoons bring almost all the rainfall in India. Areas of heavy rainfall always have do you Know? denser vegetation than other areas Biome: It is a major community with lesser rainfall. The south-west of plants and animals having monsoon rains on the windward side of similar life forms existing under the Western Ghats, thus cause a heavy similar environmental conditions. growth of tropical evergreen forests A biome is identified on the there, whereas the leeward side does not basis of plant existing there. It is have any such forests. also termed as ‘major life zone’.

3.96  Chapter 3

Ecosystem Various species of plants occur in areas having similar climatic conditions. To a large extent, its nature determines the animal life in that area. All the plants and animals in an area are interdependent on each other in their physical environment and form an ecosystem. Thus, an ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the non-living, physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water, and sunlight.

Human Influence in an Ecosystem Human beings influence ecosystems in the following manner: ❖❖ They utilize the vegetation and wildlife. ❖❖ The greed of human beings leads to over-utilization of natural resources. ❖❖ Human beings cut trees and kill the anima, creating an ecological imbalance. ❖❖ Owing to the activities of human beings, some of the plants and animals have reached the verge of extinction.

Importance of Forests Forests are advantageous for the environment. They influence the climate, reduce soil erosion, regulate stream flow, provide raw material for industries and livelihood for many, etc. They control wind force and temperature and cause rainfall. They also provide shelter to various animal species.

Change in the Nature of Vegetation In India Factors such as the growing demand for cultivated land, development of industries, mining, and urbanization have changed natural vegetation. The vegetation cover of India in large parts is no more natural in the real sense, except in some inaccessible regions like the Himalayas, the hilly region of Central India, and the Marusthali. In most of the places, it is either modified, replaced or degraded by human interference.

Types of Vegetation The relief and climatic factors develop different types of vegetation. On the basis of the major forest types, India has the following types of vegetation. 1. Tropical Evergreen Forests 2. Tropical Deciduous Forests

Geography    3.97

3. Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs 4. Montane Forests 5. Mangrove Forests

Tropical Evergreen Forests These are also called tropical rainforests. They cover about 12% of the total forested areas of India. They are found in areas where the annual rainfall is over 200 cm. Western slopes of the Western Ghats, both groups of islands (Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar Islands), upper parts of Assam and some parts of the coasts of Tamil Nadu, and Odisha contain tropical rain forests.

Know More! ❖❖ According to Indian State of Forest Report (SFR) 2015, the forest cover in India is 21.34% which was 21.05% in the year 2011. ❖❖ The state having the highest forest cover area is Mizoram (88.93%), whereas the state having the lowest forest cover area is Punjab (3.52%) according to the report.

❖❖ As these areas are warm and wet almost throughout the year, they have abundant vegetation with tall trees (up to 60 m), creepers, and bushes. ❖❖ The vegetation occurs in a multilayered structure. ❖❖ These appear green throughout the year, as the trees shed their leaves at different times. Plants: Ebony, mahogany, cinchona, rubber, and rosewood trees are useful commercial trees found here. Animals found here include rhinoceros, elephants, various species of monkey, lemur, deer, many bird varieties, bats, sloth, scorpions, and snails.

Tropical Deciduous Forests These cover about 64% of the total forested areas of the country and are the most abundant variety of forests in India. These are also called monsoon forests and spread over the region receiving rainfall between 200 and 70 cm. Trees of this forest type shed their leaves for about 6 to 8 weeks in dry summer. Types of Tropical Deciduous Forest: On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry deciduous. Moist Deciduous: Forests growing in annual rainfall areas between 100 and 200 cm are classified as moist deciduous. They cover about 34% of the country’s forested area.

3.98  Chapter 3

They are found mostly in the eastern part of the country such as NorthEastern states, West Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, foothills of Himalayas and the leeward side of the Western Ghats. Teak (dominant species), bamboo, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun, and mulberry trees are found in these forests. Dry Deciduous: Forests growing in annual rainfall areas between 70 and 100 cm are classified as dry deciduous. They cover about 30% of the country’s forested area. These are found in rainier parts of the Peninsular Plateau and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Flora and Fauna: Teak, sal, peepal, and neem trees grow in these areas. Many parts of these areas have been cleared for agricultural activities and for grazing. Besides lions, tigers, elephants, pigs, and deer, many varieties of birds, lizards, snakes, and tortoise are found in these forests.

Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs These cover about 5% of the total forested areas of India. These are found in areas where the annual rainfall is less than 70 cm. Region of Occurrence: These are found in the north-western part of the country including semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, some areas of Uttar Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh, as well as parts of the Deccan Plateau. Characteristics of Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs: ❖❖ The trees found in tropical thorn forests and scrubs are scattered. ❖❖ Other such plants which have long roots, succulent stems, and small thick leaves are also found here. All these characteristics have developed to minimize evaporation and conserve moisture. Only scrubs are found in desert areas with the least rainfall. Flora and Fauna: Trees like acacia, palm, euphorbia, and cactus are found in these areas. Fox, wolf, rats and mice, wild ass, horse, tiger, lion, camels, and similar animals are found in these areas.

Mountain Forests These forests cover about 17% of the total forested areas of India and are found in the mountainous areas of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Natural vegetation changes with the corresponding change in temperature with the increasing altitude in mountainous regions. The succession of natural vegetation belts is the same as in the order from tropical to tundra vegetation.

Geography    3.99

Altitudinal Distribution of Mountain Forests: ❖❖ Wet Temperate Forest: At lower altitudes between 1,000 and 2,000 m, wet temperate forests with evergreen broad leaf trees such as oak and chestnut are prominent. ❖❖ Temperate Forest: At the altitude between 1,500 and 3,000 m, temperate forests containing coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce, and cedar are found. These forests mostly cover the southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having high altitude in southern and north-east India. ❖❖ Temperate Grasslands: These are found at higher elevations. At high altitudes above 3,600 m, temperate forest and grasslands give way to alpine vegetation. ❖❖ Alpine Vegetation: This vegetation through shrubs and scrubs merges into alpine grasslands. These areas are extensively used by nomadic tribes like Gujjars and Bakarwals for grazing. ❖❖ Tundra Vegetation: Mosses and lichens are part of tundra vegetation and are found at higher altitudes. Flora and Fauna: Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels, shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare red panda, sheep, and goats with thick hair are found here. Silver fir, pine, juniper, birch, etc. are trees common here.

Mangrove Forests These are found in the coastal delta areas influenced by sea tides. Owing to this fact, they are also called tidal forests. The roots of the predominate mangroves are submerged under water. Such forests are found in the delta areas of rivers on the east coast of India (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri) due to mud and silt brought down by the rivers. Flora and Fauna: ❖❖ In the Ganga–Brahmaputra delta, sundari trees providing durable timber are prominent. Other trees are palm, coconut, keora, and agar. ❖❖ Animals found here include the Royal Bengal tigers, snakes, turtles, gharials, and crocodiles.

Wildlife India is also rich in its fauna [animal life, just as flora (plant life)]. It has approximately 90,000 animal species and 2,000 species of birds.

3.100  Chapter 3

They constitute 13% of the total world’s stock. There are 2,546 species of fish, which account for nearly 12% of the world’s stock. It also shares between 5 to 8% of the world’s amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. The existence of animals in our country varies from place to place.

Distribution of Wildlife in India ❖❖ The elephants are the most majestic animals among the mammals. They are found in the hot, wet forests of Assam, Karnataka, and Kerala. ❖❖ One-horned rhinoceroses are the other animals that live in the swampy and marshy lands of Assam and West Bengal. ❖❖ Arid areas of the Rann of Kachchh and the Thar desert are the habitat for wild ass and camels respectively. ❖❖ India is the only country in the world that has both tigers and lions. The natural habitat of the Indian lion is the Gir forest in Gujarat. Tigers are found in the forests of Madhya Pradesh, the Sunderbans of West Bengal, and the Himalayan region. ❖❖ Leopards too are members of the cat family. They are important among animals of prey. ❖❖ The Himalayas harbour a hardy range of animals, which survive in extreme cold. Ladakh’s freezing high altitudes are a home to the yak, the shaggy horned wild ox (weighing around 1 tonne), the Tibetan antelope, the bharal (blue sheep), wild sheep, and the kiang (Tibetan wild ass). ❖❖ The ibex, bear, snow-leopard, and rare red panda are found in certain pockets. ❖❖ In the rivers, lakes, and coastal areas, turtles, crocodiles, and gharials are found. Gharial is the only representative of a variety of crocodile found in the world today. ❖❖ Bird life in India is colourful. Peacocks, pheasants, ducks, parakeets, cranes, and pigeons are some of the birds inhabiting the forests and wetlands of the country. ❖❖ Indian bison, nilgai (blue bull), chousingha (four horned antelope), gazelle, and different species of deer are some other animals found in India in different places. It also has several species of monkeys. Note: ●● ●●

The Gir Forest is the last remaining habitat of the Asiatic lion. The Wildlife Protection Act was implemented in 1972 in India.

Geography  3.101

Facts to Know! Migratory Birds: Some of the wetlands of India are popular with migratory birds. During winter, birds such as the Siberian crane come in large numbers. One such place favourable with birds is the Rann of Kachchh. At a place where the desert merges with the sea, flamingo with their brilliant pink plumage, come in thousands to build nest mounds from the salty mud and raise their young ones. It is one among the many extraordinary sights in the country.

Need for Environmental Conservation Our crops consist of edible plants from a bio-diverse environment. Many medicinal plants are also used by us. The animals were selected from large stock provided by nature as milch animal. They also provide draught power, transportation, meat, and eggs. The fish provide nutritive food. Many insects help in the pollination of crops and fruit trees. They also exert biological control on such insects which are harmful. Thus, it can be said that every species has a role to play in the ecosystem. So, its conservation is essential. Owing to excessive exploitation of the plants and animal resources by human beings, the ecosystem has been disturbed. About 1,300 plant species are endangered, and 20 species are extinct. Quite a few animal species are also endangered, and some have become extinct. The main causes of threat to the ecosystem are: ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Hunting by greedy hunters for commercial purposes. Pollution due to chemical and industrial waste, acid deposits. Introduction of alien species. Reckless cutting of the forests to bring land under cultivation and inhabitation.

Governmental Steps for Protection of Flora and Fauna To protect animals and plants life, the government has taken many steps. Some of these are as follows: ❖❖ To protect flora and fauna, 18 biosphere reserves have been set up in the country. Ten of these, the Sunderbans in the West Bengal, Nanda Devi in Uttarakhand, the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu, the Nilgiris (Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu), Nokrek, Pachmarhi, Simlipal, Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve, Achanakmar-Amarkantak, and Agasthyamalai have been included in the world network of biosphere reserves.

3.102  Chapter 3

Eighteen Bio-reserves 1. Sunderbans 2.  Gulf of Mannar 3.  The Nilgiris 4.  Nanda Devi 5. Nokrek 6.  Great Nicobar 7. Manas 8. Seshachalam

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Simlipal Dihang-Dibang Dibru Saikhowa Agasthyamalai Knachenjunga Pachmarhi Achanakmar-Amarkantak Panna Great Rann of Kutch Cold Desert

❖❖ According to the National Forest Policy, the minimum desired forest area which is considered safe for a tropical country like India is about 33%. ❖❖ Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under forests followed by Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Arunachal Pradesh. ❖❖ As per the percentage of forest area to total area, the first is Andaman & Nicobar Islands, followed by Mizoram, Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, and Nagaland. They are in a very comfortable position as more than half of their area is under forests. ❖❖ Arunachal Pradesh has the highest per capita forest area. ❖❖ In Mangrove forests, West Bengal holds the first position, followed by Gujarat and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. ❖❖ The lowest forest percentage is in Haryana and Punjab, because of the extensive agriculture. Project Tiger: It was launched on 1 April 1973 to ensure maintenance of a viable population of tigers in India. There are 50 tiger reserves in the country: 1. Assam: Kaziranga Tiger Reserve, Manas Tiger Reserve, and Nameri Tiger Reserve 2. Arunachal Pradesh: Namdapha Tiger Reserve and Pakhui Tiger Reserve 3. Andhra Pradesh: Nagarjunsagar–Srisailam Tiger Reserve 4. Bihar: Valmiki Tiger Reserve 5. Chhattisgarh: Achanakmar Tiger Reserve, Indravati Tiger Reserves, Udanti and Sitanadi Tiger Reserve 6. Jharkhand: Palamau Tiger Reserve 7. Karnataka: Bandipur Tiger Reserve, Nagarhole (extension) Tiger Reserve, Bhadra Tiger Reserve, Anshi Dandeli Tiger Reserve, Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary

Geography  3.103

8. Kerala: Periyar Tiger Reserve, Parambikulam Tiger Reserve 9. Madhya Pradesh: Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve, Bori-Satpura Tiger Reserve, Kanha Tiger Reserve, Panna Tiger Reserve, Pench Tiger Reserve, Sanjay Dubri Tiger Reserve 10. Maharashtra: Melghat Tiger Reserve, Pench Tiger Reserve, Tadoba Andhari Tiger Project, Shahayadri Tiger Reserve, Nagzira-Navegaon Tiger Reserve, Bor Tiger Reserve 11. Mizoram: Dampa Tiger Reserve 12. Odisha: Satkosia Tiger Reserve, Simlipal Tiger Reserve 13. Rajasthan: Ranthambore Tiger Reserve, Sariska Tiger Reserve, Mukundara Hills Tiger Reserve 14. Tamil Nadu: Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Anamalai Tiger Reserve, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve 15. Telangana: Kawal Tiger Reserve, Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve 16. Uttar Pradesh: Dudhwa Tiger Reserve, Pilibhit Tiger Reserve 17. Uttarakhand: Corbett Tiger Reserve, Rajaji Tiger Reserve 18. West Bengal: Buxa Tiger Reserve, Sunderbans Tiger Reserve Nagarjunasagar Tiger Reserve in AP is the largest, while Pench in Maharashtra is the smallest. Bandipur in Karnataka was the first (1973–74), while Kaziranga is the latest (2006). Project Elephant: It was launched in February 1992 to assist states having wild elephants to ensure long-term survival of identified viable populations of elephants in their natural habitat. There are 32 elephant reserves in India. S. No.

Elephant Reserves

State

1.

Mayurjharna

West Bengal

2.

Singhbhum

Jharkhand

3.

Mayurbhanj

Odisha

4.

Mahanadi

Odisha

5.

Sambalpur

Odisha

6.

Baitarni

Odisha

7.

South Odisha

Odisha

8.

Lemru

Chhattisgarh

9.

Badalkhol

Chhattisgarh (Contd.)

3.104  Chapter 3

S. No.

Elephant Reserves

State

10.

Kameng

Arunachal Pradesh

11.

Sonitpur

Assam

12.

Dihing-Patkai

Assam

13.

South Arunachal

Arunachal Pradesh

14.

Kaziranga

Assam

15.

Dhansiri-Lungding

Assam

16.

Intanki

Nagaland

17.

Chirang-Ripu

Assam

18.

Eastern Dooars

West Bengal

19.

Garo Hills

Meghalaya

20.

Khasi Hills

Meghalaya

21.

Mysore

Karnataka

22.

Wayanad

Kerala

23.

Nilgiri

Karnataka

24.

Rayala

Andhra Pradesh

25.

Nilambur

Kerala

26.

Coimbatore

Tamil Nadu

27.

Anamalai

Tamil Nadu

28.

Anamudi

Kerala

29.

Periyar

Kerala

Elephant Corridor: There are 26 elephant reserves spread over about 1,10,000 sq km forests in north-east, central, north-west, and south India. Of the 88 elephant corridors identified, 12 are in north-western India, 20 in central India, 14 in north-west, 22 in north-eastern India, and 20 in southern India. Facts to Know! Hathi Mere Sathi Abhiyaan: It is an environment awareness programme that was started by a collaboration between the Environment Ministry and the World Wildlife Trust in 2011. Gajah was the Mascot of this awareness programme.

Geography  3.105

Ganges Dolphin: Forest and environment ministry declared the Ganges Dolphin as the National Aquatic Animal. Ganges Dolphin is a fresh water animal. Alongwith the Ganges Dolphin, three other species of dolphins are found in the world. 1. Baiji Dolphin: Found in the Yangtze river in China 2. Bhulan Dolphin: Found in the Indus river of Pakistan 3. Boto Dolphin: Found in the Amazon river of Latin America Operation Kachhapa: Conservation of the Olive Ridley sea turtle. The State of Odisha on India’s eastern coast witnesses a spectacular natural phenomenon—the arribada or mass nesting of hundreds of Olive Ridley sea turtles.

Mineral Resources of India ❖❖ Coal: West Bengal (Raniganj, Burdwan, Bankura, Purulio, Birbhum, Jalpaigudi, and Darjeeling), Jharkhand (Jharia, Giridih, Kharhawadi, Bokaro, Hazaribagh, Kamapura, Rampur, and Palamau), Odisha (Rampur, Hindgir, Talcher, and Sambal), Madhya Pradesh and Chhatisgarh (Rewa, Pench valley, Umaria, Korba, Sohagpur, Mand river area, Kanha valley, and Betul), etc. Power sector is the largest consumer of coal in India followed by the steel industry, cement industry, etc. ❖❖ Manganese: Odisha, Maharashtra (Nagpur, Bhandara, and Ratnagiri), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat and Chhindawara), Karnataka (Keonjhar, Bonai, and Kalahandi), and Andhra Pradesh (Kadur and Garibadi). ❖❖ Copper: Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Rajasthan (Khetri), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Masobani, and Surda), Karnataka (Chitradurg and Hassan). ❖❖ Mica: Jharkhand (Hazaribagh, Giridih, and Kodarma), Bihar (Goya and Bhagalpur), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Vizag, and Kurnool), Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Udaipur, and Jaipur). ❖❖ Petroleum: Assam (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Badarpur, Masinpur, and Pallharia), Gujarat, (Ankleshwar, Khambat, and Kalol), Mumbai High, Bassein (south of Mumbai High), etc. Recently, oil has been discovered in the Cauvery basin, the Krishna and Godavary basin, Khambat basin, etc. ❖❖ Iron: India possesses haematite, a very high-grade iron ore. It is found in Madhya Pradesh (Bailadila and Jabalpur), Goa (North Goa), Karnataka (Bababudan hills, Chikmagalur, and Hospet), Jharkhand (Singhbhum and Naomundi), Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha.   India is the fifth largest exporter of iron ore in the world. Japan is the biggest buyer accounting for about 3/4th of India’s total exports. Major

3.106  Chapter 3

ports handling iron ore export are Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Marmagao, and Mangalore. ❖❖ Bauxite (Aluminum): This is the chief ore for producing aluminum. It is found in Odisha (Kalahandi, Koraput, Sundargarh, Bolangir, and Sambalpur), Jharkhand (Lohardaga and Gumla), Madhya Pradesh (Jabalpur, Mandla, Shahdol, Kami, and Balaghat), Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu. ❖❖ Gold: Karnataka (Kolar, Hutti, and Raichur), Andhra Pradesh (Ramgiri and Yeppamanna goldfields in Chittor and Anantapur districts). ❖❖ Silver, Zinc, and Lead: Rajasthan (Zawar mines near Udaipur), Andhra Pradesh (Mysore and Chitradurg), Karnataka (Kolar mines). ❖❖ Uranium: Jharkhand (Jaduguda), Rajasthan (Ajmer), Andhra Pradesh (Nellore and Nalgonda), Karnataka (Gulbarga). ❖❖ Thorium: Kerala coast (from Monazite sand), rocks of Aravallis in Rajasthan. ❖❖ Oil: There are 23 refineries in India:   (1) Haldia Refinery (IOC), (2) Mumbai Refinery (HPCL), (3) Panipat Refinery (IOC), (4) Vishakhapatnam Refinery (HPCL), (5) Digboi Refinery (IOC), (6) Mumbai Refinery Mahaul (BPCL), (7) Gujarat Refinery (IOC), (8) Nagapattnam Refinery (CPCL), (9) Barauni Refinery (IOC), (10) Kochi Refinery (Kochi Refineries Ltd.), (11) Guwahati Refinery (IOC), (12) Numaligarh Refinery (NRL), (13) Mathura Refinery (IOC), (14) Mangalore Refinery (MRPL) (joint sector), (15) Bongaigaon Refinery (IOC), (16) Tatipaka Refinery (ONGC), (17) Manali Refinery (IOC), (18) Essar Refinery (Essar) (private sector), and (19) Jamnagar Refinery (Reliance Petroleum) (private sector). (20) Paradip Refinery. (21) Guru Gobind Singh Refinery. (22) Bina Refinery. (23) Jamnagar Refinery (there are two Jamnagar Refineries). Note that the work for the 24th oil refinery has recently begun in Barmer district of Rajasthan, and is expected to be completed by 2022–23.

Industries in India Cotton Textile Industry ❖❖ The first modern cotton textile mill was established in Bombay in 1854 by local Parsi entrepreneurs, with the name Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company. ❖❖ This is the most important industry in terms of employment and production of export goods. Present in Maharashtra (Mumbai, Sholapur,

Geography  3.107

Pune, Kolhapur, Satara, Wardha, and Hajipur), Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Vododara, Rajkot, Surat, and Bhavnagar), and Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore— Manchester of South India). Tamil Nadu has the largest number of cotton textile mills in India.

Silk Textile Industry ❖❖ India is the second largest producer of natural silk, after China, and is the only country producing all four varieties of natural silk. ❖❖ The location of the silk industry is governed by two factors: prevalence of sericulture practices and availability of skilled labour. ❖❖ Karnataka is the leading producer, followed by West Bengal, Bihar, and others.

Woollen Textile Industries ❖❖ The first woollen textiles mill was set up in 1876 at Kanpur. ❖❖ Jammu & Kashmir is the largest producer of handloom woollens. ❖❖ Industries are located in Punjab (Dhariwal, Amritsar, Ludhiana, and Ferozpur), Maharashtra (Mumbai), UP (Kanpur, Mirzapur, Agra, and Tanakpur), etc.

Jute Industries ❖❖ The first modern jute mill was set up in 1855 at Rishra near Kolkata (WB). ❖❖ India is the largest producer of jute while Bangladesh is the largest exporter of Jute. ❖❖ Industries are mainly located in West Bengal, followed by Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, UP, and MP.

Iron and Steel Industries ❖❖ The first steel industry was formed in 1874 in Bengal. ❖❖ Located near the sources of raw materials and fuel (coal). In Jamshedpur (Jharkhand), Durgapur, Burnpur (WB), Bhadrawati (Karnataka), Bokaro (Jharkhand), Rourkela (Odisha), Bhilai (Chhatisgarh), Salem (TN), and Vishakhapatnam (AP).

Aluminium Smelting in India ❖❖ Located mainly near the sources of raw materials, means of transport, and cheap electricity. In Hirakud, Koraput (Odisha), Renukoot (UP), Korba (MP), Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Mettur (TN), and Alwaye (Kerala).

3.108  Chapter 3

Copper Smelting Industry ❖❖ In Khetri, Alwar, Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan), Singhbhum (Jharkhand), and Agnigundala (AP).

Heavy Machinery Industry ❖❖ In Ranchi, Vishakapatnam, Durgapur, Tiruchirapalli, Mumbai, and Kami.

Heavy Electrical Equipment ❖❖ Power generation equipment. In Bhopal, Tiruchirapalli, Jammu, Ramchandrapuram (Hyderabad), Haridwar, Bangalore, and Jagdishpur (UP).

Railway Equipment and Locomotives in Indian Railways ❖❖ In Chittaranjan (WB), Varanasi, Jamshedpur, Bhopal. Coaches are manufactured in Perambur (TN), Kapurthala (Punjab), Bangalore and Kolkata.

Ship Building ❖❖ Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam, Cochin Shipyard, Mumbai (Mazgaon Dock), and Kolkata (Garden Reach Workshop). For the Indian Navy, only at Mazgaon.

Fertilizer Industries ❖❖ The Fertilizer Corporation of India (FCL) was set up in 1961. National Fertilizer Limited (NFL) was set up in 1974. ❖❖ In Sindri (Bihar), Nangal, Trombay, Gorakhpur, Durgapur, Namrup, Cochin, Rourkela, Neyveli, Varanasi, Vadodara, Vishakhapatinam, Kota, and Kanpur. ❖❖ The location of the fertilizer industry is closely related to petro-chemical units. About 70% of the plants producing nitrogenous fertilizers use naphtha as raw material. Naphtha is a by-product of oil refineries. Phosphate plants are dependent on mineral phosphate found in UP and MP. Now, natural gas-based fertilizer plants are also being set up.

Pharmaceuticals and Drugs Industries ❖❖ Antibiotics are prepared at Pimpri and Rishikesh. The Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Limited has five plants at Hyderabad, Rishikesh, Chennai, Gurgaon, and Muzaffarpur. A number of other units are concentrated in Mumbai, Baroda, Delhi, Kolkata, and Kanpur.

Geography  3.109

Sugar Industries ❖❖ India is the second largest producer of sugar in the world. ❖❖ Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of sugar in India, followed by Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Aircraft Industries ❖❖ Hindustan Aeronautics India Ltd. was formed by merging two aircraft factories at Bangalore and Kanpur. Four other factories are at Nasik, Hyderabad, Koraput (Odisha), and Lucknow.

Rubber Industries ❖❖ Bareilly (UP), Baroda (Gujarat) has Synthetic Rubber Units; Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Amritsar have Reclaimed Rubber Units.

Energy Production in India ❖❖ India is the fastest growing economy in the world; because of this, the country’s requirement for energy is also continuously growing. India is exploiting almost all the sources of energy, like hydro-electrical, wind energy, nuclear energy, and solar energy. ❖❖ Power development commenced in India with the commissioning of electricity supply in Darjeeling during 1897 followed by a hydropower station at Sivasamundaram in Karnataka during 1902. ❖❖ National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) was set up in 1975, under the public sector for the generation of hydropower in India.

Nuclear Power Stations ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Tarapur, Maharastra Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, called Indira Gandhi Nuclear Power Station Narora, UP Rawatbhata Kota, Rajasthan Kaiga, Karnataka Kakrapara, Gujarat Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu

Major Thermal Power Plants ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Neyveli, Tamil Nadu Korba, Chhatisgarh Obra, UP Harduaganj, UP

3.110  Chapter 3

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Rihand, UP Singrauli, UP Parichha, UP Talcher, Odisha Farakka, West Bengal Satpura, MP Ramagundam, AP Vindhyanchal, MP

TRANSPORTATION in India Transportation is the movement of people, goods, and animals from one place to another. India is a very large country both in terms of land and population, and is developing rapidly in all fields. Transport is an important factor on which the development of any country directly depends. It plays a vital role in the growth of the nation as well as the human civilization, because it also delivers raw materials to the manufacturing units and carries the products to distribute within the country and trade is made possible. We can say that it is a basic structure of development. Mode of Transport: This is a term used to differentiate between the different types of vehicles used.

Human Powered: The travelling of people or goods by the means of human muscle power in the form of walking, running, or swimming with the use of modern technology to enhance the human effort, or with the use of carts, which can be pulled or pushed, is human-powered mode of transport. This is a popular mode because it is cheaper, eco-friendly, does not need basic infrastructure, and easily available even in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions. Example: Rickshaws, cycles, row boats, etc. Animal Powered: The use of working animals for the transport of people or goods is animal-powered transport. Some animals may be used directly for load carrying or riding, or may be used to pull wheeled vehicles. Example: Horse riding, chariots, bullock-carts, etc. Machine Powered: The use of machines, like engines in bicycles, carts, boats, in place of human or animal power, makes the transport easier, more comfortable and efficient, and is known as machine-powered transport. It needs

Geography 3.111

a proper infrastructure and planning. This mode reflects the development of regions. Example: Motor cycles, cars, trucks, ships, trains, and airplanes.

types of transport

Land Transport: In this mode of transport the movement is done on the earth’s surface. This movement is done with the help of vehicles; on the basis of the vehicle used, this is further classified into following types: 1. Road transport 2. Train transport

road transport In this type of transport, bicycles, bikes, cars, motor buses, tractors and trucks, etc. are used, and these vehicles run on the road. Road transport is very flexible and is easy to construct and maintain. Only by road transport, can goods or passengers be carried to/from our door step. On the basis of location, construction, and maintenance, roads are classified into following categories: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

National Highways, State Highways, District Roads, Village Roads, and Border Roads.

road Classification

Authority responsible

National Highways

Ministry of Road Transport & Highways

do you Know? india is the second largest country in the world after USA with a total road network of 50 lakhs km (approx.). length (km) Share of the network length 1,00,087

2% (Contd.)

3.112  Chapter 3

Road Classification

Authority Responsible

State Highways

Public Works Dept. of state/UT

1,67,522

3.05%

Urban Roads

Local Govt. and Municipalities

4,67,106

8.54%

Rural Roads

Paanchayats, JRY, PMGSY

Project Roads

State/UT’s govt. dept and SAIL, NMDC, BRO

3,01,505

5.50%

Other PWD Roads

Public Works Dept. of state/UT

11,01,178

20.12%

Total

Length (km) Share of the Network Length

33,37,577

61%

54,74,975

❖❖ National Highways: National highways are the most important roads of a nation because they link the important cities and state capitals with others. ●● Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India is responsible for the construction and maintenance of national highways. ●● It carries about 40% of the total traffic in India. ●● To boost economic development, the Union Government has started the largest highway project—National Highway Development Projects (NHDP) (1998). ●● The government has targeted to construct and upgrade a minimum of 30 km NH per day or 11,000 km per year.

Classification of National Highways—HP Lanes

Length (km)

Single lane

22,250

Double lane

50,000

Four lane

26,204

Total

98,454

NHDP National Highway Development Projects Phase I

The Golden Quadrangle connecting four major cities, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata (length 5,846 km) was completed in January, 2012. (Contd.)

Geography  3.113

Phase II

North-south (Srinagar to Kanyakumari) length 4,000 km and east-west (Silchar to Porebandar) length 3,300 km corridors connecting four extreme points of the country.

Phase III

In this phase, 12,109 km of major highways in the country will be upgraded, rehabilitated and widened to a higher standard on BOT—Build, Operate, and Transfer basis.

Phase IV

20,000 km of single lane NH will be converted into double lane with paved shoulder.

Phase V

5,000 km of four-lane NH will be converted into six-lane roads.

Phase VI

Construction of expressways between major commercial and industrial townships like Vadodara–Mumbai (400 km), Chennai–Bengaluru (277 km), and Kolkata–Dhanbad. These roads are to be reconstructed from four-lane or six-lane roads.

Phase VII

This phase calls for improvements to city road networks by adding ring roads to enable easier connectivity with national highways to important cities.

Some important National Highways National Highway

Route

NH 1

Delhi–Pak Border (Amritsar)

1,226

NH 2

Delhi–Kolkata

1,490

NH 3

Agra–Mumbai

1,161

NH 4

Mumbai (Thane)–Chennai

1,415

NH 5

Kolkata (Baharagora)–Chennai

1,610

NH 6

Kolkata–Mumbai

1,945

NH 7

Varanasi–Kanyakumari

2,369

NH 8

Delhi–Jaipur–Mumbai

2,058

●●

●●

●● ●●

Length (km)

NH 1 and NH 2 are collectively called GT road (from Kolkata to Attari near Amritsar via New Delhi) which was constructed by Shershah Suri but GT road is actually from Peshawar (Pakistan) to Sonnagar (Bangladesh). NH 47-A is the shortest national highway of India (6 km), which is in Kerala’s Wellington Island, whereas NH 44, which covers the NorthSouth Corridor of National Highways Development Project (NHDP) is the longest National Highway in India. It is of 3,745 km (2,327 miles). NH 1-D (Leh-Srinagar) is the world’s highest altitude highway (3,450 m). There is no national highway in Lakshadweep.

2622.48

2622.48

2593.00

2653.64

6502.29

1811.52

5193.57

7434.79

1745.74

10. Haryana

11. Himachal Pradesh

12. Jammu & Kashmir

13. Jharkhand

14. Karnataka

15. Kerala

16. Madhya Pradesh

17. Maharashtra

18. Manipur

262.00

4970.90

8. Goa

9. Gujarat

80.00

7. Delhi

15.28

3078.40

4678.79

4. Bihar

6. Chhattisgarh

3811.67

3. Assam

5. Chandigarh

5231.74

2513.05

1. Andhra Pradesh

22.327

307.69

308.254

38.863

191.791

79.714

222.236

55.673

44.212

196.024

3.814

1.483

135.194

0.114

94.163

78.438

83.743

165.45

Length (km) Area in 1000 sq m

2. Arunachal Pradesh

State

78.2

24.2

16.8

46.6

33.9

33.3

11.7

47.1

59.3

25.4

68.7

53.9

22.8

134.0

49.7

48.6

30.0

31.6

Length of NH in km/1000 sq m

Distribution of Density of National Highway Lengths

27.22

1123.73

725.98

333.88

611.31

311.69

125.49

68.57

253.53

603.84

14.58

167.53

255.40

10.55

1038.05

311.69

13.83

500.00

Population in lakhs as per 2011 census

64.1

6.6

7.2

5.4

10.6

8.5

20.7

38.2

10.3

8.2

18.0

(Contd.)

0.5 (maximum)

12.1

1.4

4.5

12.2

181.7 (minimum)

10.5

Length of NH in km/lakh population

3.114  Chapter 3

309.00

100087.08

22.00

35. Daman & Diu

Total

31.00

2909.80

32. West Bengal

34. Dadra Nagar Haveli

8483.00

31. Uttar Pradesh

330.70

2841.92

30. Uttarakhand

33. Andaman & Nicobar Islands

2635.84

577.00

5006.14

29. Telangana

28. Tripura

27. Tamil Nadu

26. Sikkim

7906.20

25. Rajasthan

64.03

2769.15

24. Punjab

23. Puducherry

4644.52

22. Odisha

3292.575

0.112

0.487

8.249

88.752

238.566

55.854

114.84

10.486

130.058

7.096

342.239

50.362

0.495

155.707

16.579

21.081

1381.00

1150.09

20. Mizoram

22.429

1204.36

Length (km) Area in 1000 sq m

21. Nagaland

19. Meghalaya

State

30.4

196.4

63.7

40.1

32.8

35.6

50.9

23.0

55.0

38.5

43.5

23.1

55.0

129.4

29.8

69.4

65.5

53.7

Length of NH in km/1000 sq m

12086.69

2.43

3.43

3.80

913.48

1995.81

101.17

350.00

36.71

721.39

6.08

686.21

277.04

12.44

419.47

19.81

10.91

29.64

Population in lakhs as per 2011 census

8.3

9.1

9.0

87.0

3.2

4.3

28.1

7.5

15.7

6.9

50.8

11.5

10.0

5.1

11.1

58.1

126.6

40.6

Length of NH in km/lakh population

Geography  3.115

6 New, 31, 31B, 31C, 36, 37, 37A, 37E, 38, 39, 44, 51, 52, 52A, 52B, 53, 54, 3811.67 61, 62, 117A New, 127B New, 127E New, 151,152, 153, 154, 315A New, 127C New and 127D New, 329 New, 427 New, 627 New, 702 New, 702B New, 702C New, 702D and 715A New

2, 2C, 19, 28, 28A, 28B, 30, 30A, 31, 57, 57A, 77, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 4678.79 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 122A New, 131A New, 133 New, 133B New, 219 New, 227 A New, 327A New, 327 Ext. New, 333 New, 333A New, 333B New, 527A New, 527C New, 727A New and 766C

21

6, 12A, 16, 43, 78, 111, 130A New, 130B New, 130C New, 130D New, 149B 3078.40 New, 163A New, 200, 202, 216, 217, 221, 343 New, 930New

1, 2, 8, 10, 24 and 236

4A, 17, 17A and 17B

3. Assam

4. Bihar

5. Chandigarh

6. Chhattisgarh

7. Delhi

8. Goa

(Contd.)

262.00 (min. in states)

80.00

15.28 (min. in UTs)

52, 52A, 153, 229, 52B Ext., 37 Ext., 315A, 713 New, 513 New, 313 New, 2513.05 113 New and 713A New

2. Arunachal Pradesh

Total Length (in km)

4, 5, 7, 9, 16, 18, 18A, 42 New, 43, 63, 67 Ext. New, 150 New, 167 New, 5231.74 202, 205, 214, 214A, 216, 219, 221, 222, 234, 326, 326A, 67 New, 71 New, 161 New, 340 New, 340C New, 353 New, 363 New, 365 New, 544D New, 565 New,765 New

National Highway No.

1. Andhra Pradesh

States/UTs

List of State-wise National Highways in the Country 3.116  Chapter 3

1A, 3 New, 20, 20A, 21, 21A, 22, 70, 72, 72B, 88, 73A, 154A New, 305 New, 2622.48 503 New, 503A New, 503 Ext. New, 505 New, 705 New, 907 A New

1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 3 New, 144 New, 144A New, 301 New, 444 New, 501 New, 2593.00 701 New, 244 New

2, 6, 23, 31, 32, 33, 43 New, 75, 78, 80, 98, 99, 100, 114A New, 133 New, 2653.64 133A New, 133B, 143 New, 143A New, 220 New, 333 New, 333A New, 343 New and 419 New

4, 4A, 7, 9, 13, 17, 48, 50 New, 63, 67, 67New, 150, 150 Ext. New, 150A 6502.29 New, 167 New, 169A New, 173 New, 206, 207, 209, 212, 218, 234, 275 New, 367 New, 766C

17, 47, 47A, 47C, 49, 183A New, 185 New, 208, 212, 213, and 220

3, 7, 12, 12A, 25, 26, 26A, 26B, 27, 56 New, 59, 59A, 69, 69A, 75, 76, 78, 5193.57 86, 92, 927A New and 339B

11. Himachal Pradesh

12. Jammu & Kashmir

13. Jharkhand

14. Karnataka

15. Kerala

16. Madhya Pradesh

1811.52

1, 2, 8, 10, 11 New, 21A, 22, 54 New, 64, 65, 71, 71A, 72, 73, 73A , 71B, 2622.48 148B New, 236, 248A New, 254 New, 334B New, 352A, 444A New, 703 New, 709 Ext. New, 709A New and NE-II

10. Haryana

(Contd.)

Total Length (in km)

NE-I, 6, 8, 8A, 8B, 8D, 8E, 14, 15, 56, 58 New, 58 Ext. New, 59, 113 228, 4970.90 251 New, 753B New, 848 & 848A New, 848B New, 341 New, 68Ext. New, 147A New, 168 New, 168A New, 351 New, 927D New and 953 New

National Highway No.

9. Gujarat

States/UTs

Geography  3.117

40, 44, 51, 62 & 127B New

6 New, 44A, 54, 54A, 54B, 102B New, 150, 154, 302 New, 306 A New and 1381.00 502A New

36, 39, 61, 129 New, 150, 155, 702 New, 702A New and 702B New, 702D

5, 5A, 6, 23, 42, 43, 60, 75, 130C New, 153B New, 157 New, 200, 201, 203, 4644.52 203A, 215, 217, 220 New, 224, 326 New and 326 A New

45A and 66

1, 1A, 10, 15, 20, 21, 22, 64, 70, 71, 72, 95, 103 A New, 154A, 205A New, 2769.15 254 New, 344A New, 344B New, 503 Ext. New, 503A New, 703 New 703A New, 754 New and 148B New

3, 11New, 123 New (3A Old), 8, 11, 11A, 11B, 11C, 12, 14, 15, 25 Ext. 7906.20 New, 54 New, 65, 458 New and 65A Old, 71B, 76, 58 Ext New and 76A Old, 758 New and 76B Old, 79, 79A New, 89, 90, 113, 112, 114 , 116,148B New,148D New and 116A Old, 158 New, 162A New, 162 Ext. New, 168 New, 168A New, 248A New, 325 New, 709 Ext. New, 927A New,

19. Meghalaya

20. Mizoram

21. Nagaland

22. Odisha

23. Puducherry

24. Punjab

25. Rajasthan

64.03

1150.09

1204.36

39, 53, 102 New, 102A New, 102B New, 102 C New, 129A New, 108A New, 1745.74 129 New, 137 New, 137A New, 150, 155, 702A New

18. Manipur

(Contd.)

Total Length (in km)

3, 4, 4C, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 16, 17, 26B, 50, 50 New, 69, 150 Ext. New, 161 New, 7434.79 204, 211, 222, 348 New, 848 New, 160 New, 166 New, 166A New, 348 New, 348A New, 353C New, 353D New, 353E New, 361 New, 363 New, 547E New, 548 New, 753 New, 753A New, 753B New, 848A, 930 New and 953 New, 965 New

National Highway No.

17. Maharashtra

States/UTs

3.118  Chapter 3

7, 9, 16 202, 221, 222, 326 New, 167 New, 150 New, 363 New, 365 New, 2635.84 565 New, 161, 765 New, 50 New, 563 New and 365A New

9 New, 58, 72, 72A, 72B, 73, 74, 87, 94, 107A New, 108, 109, 123, 119, 2841.92 121, 125, 309A New, 309B New, 334A and 707A New

2, 2A, 3, 123 New (3A Old), 7, 11, 12A, 19, 24, 24A, 24B, 25, 25A, 26, 27, 8483.00 (max. in states) 28, 28B, 28C, 29, 56, 56A, 56B, 58, 72A, 73, 74, 75, 76, 86, 87, 91, 91A, 92, 93 ,96, 97 , 119, 219 New, 227 A New, 231, 232, 232A, 233, 235, 330, 330A New, 330 B New, 334B New, 709 A, 727 A New, 730 New, 730A New, 731 A New, 931 New, 931A New and NE-II

2, 2B, 6, 10, 31, 31A, 31C, 31D, 32, 34, 35, 41, 55, 60, 60A, 80, 81, 114A 2909.80 New, 116B New, 117, 131A, 133A New, 317A, 327B, 419 New, 512 New and 717

223

848A New

848B New and 251 New

29. Telangana

30. Uttarakhand

31. Uttar Pradesh

32. West Bengal

33. Andaman & Nicobar Island

34. Dadra Nagar Haveli

35. Daman & Diu

Total

44 , 44A, 108A & 208 New

28. Tripura

100,087.08

22.00

31.00

330.70 (max. in UTs)

577.00

4, 5, 7, 7A, 45, 45A, 45B, 45C, 46, 47, 47B, 49, 66, 67, 68, 205, 207, 208, 5006.14 209, 210, 219, 220, 226, 226 Ext., 227, 230, 234, 381 New and 532 New

309.00

31A, 310, 310A New, 510 New, 710 New

Total Length (in km)

27. Tamil Nadu

National Highway No.

26. Sikkim

States/UTs

Geography  3.119

3.120  Chapter 3

❖❖ State Highways: These highways are constructed and maintained by the State/UT’s government in their respective states. State highways link important cities, towns, and district headquarters within the state and connect them with national highways or neighbouring state highways. ●● ●● ●● ●●

The total length of state highways in India is more than 1,32,000 km. Maharashtra has the highest total length of state highways, more than 33,000 km. Uttar Pradesh and Odisha are in the second and third positions in the length of state highways. Sikkim has the minimum length of state highways.

❖❖ District Roads: ●● ●● ●●

These roads links the district headquarters to other places of that district. Construction, development, and maintenance of these roads are under the Zila Parishad or other district authorities. The total length of district road in India is more than 4,67,763 km.

❖❖ Village Roads: ●● ●● ●●

Construction and maintenance are the responsibilities of Gram Panchayats. These roads connect the villages with the neighbouring towns and cities. The total length of the rural/village road in India is more than 26,50,000 km. Facts to Know!

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana—PMGSY: (Launched on 25 December 2000 by the then P.M. Atal Bihari Vajpayee) is a nationwide plan in India to provide good all-weather road connectivity to unconnected villages. This project will be funded by the central government (60%) and state government (40%).

❖❖ Border Roads: ●●

●● ●●

For construction and maintenance of the road network near the international border areas and friendly neighbouring countries, the Border Road Organization (BRO) is responsible. BRO was formed on 7 May 1960. Only armed forces persons work in this organization. The BRO operates and maintains over 32,885 km of roads and about 12,200 m of permanent bridges in India.

Geography  3.121

Rail Transport ❖❖ The history of rail transport—In India, it began in the mid-nineteenth century. The core of the pressure for building railways in India came from London. In 1848, there was not a single kilometer of railway lines in India. ❖❖ The country’s first railway was built by the Great Indian Peninsula Railways (GIPR), opened on 16 April 1853, between Bombay [Bori Bunder] and Thane, covering a distance of 34 kms. During that time, Lord Dalhousie (1848–56) was the governor general of India. ❖❖ The British intentions behind laying down railways in India during colonial rule pertained to the industrial revolution, not for India but for Britain. ❖❖ Railways were built to accomplish their two-way goals, that is, to extract raw material from India and to sell their finished goods in India. Secondly, as England had undergone an industrial revolution in early 18th century, it had huge capital to invest. Laying down railways was a safe investment for the British as it helped them to gain further profit, as all the raw material for railways, right from iron ore, locomotives, wood, and all other resources were carried from India to England causing a commercial revolution in England. Thirdly, railways were introduced to administer India more effectively and efficiently by easily sending British troops in any area as and when required.

Indian Railway Zones ❖❖ Indian Railways is divided into areas called zones which are further subdivided into divisions. Each zone has its headquarter. ❖❖ The number of zones of the Indian Railways was six before 1951. Another two zones were added in 1951. In 1952, the number of zones became nine. At present, the Indian Railways has 18 zones. ❖❖ The headquarters of the various zones are listed in the table: S. No.

Zone

Headquarter

1.

Southern

Chennai

2.

Central

Mumbai

3.

Western

Mumbai

4.

Eastern

Kolkata

5.

Northern

Delhi

6.

North-eastern

Gorakhpur

7.

South-eastern

Kolkata

8.

Northeast frontier

Maligaon (Contd.)

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S. No.

Zone

Headquarter

South central

Secunderabad

10.

East central

Hajipur

11.

North-western

Jaipur

12.

East coast

Bhubaneswar

13.

North central

Allahabad

14.

South-east central

Bilaspur

15.

South-western

Hubli

16.

West central

Jabalpur

17.

Metro Railway

Kolkata

18.

Konkan Railway

Mumbai

9.

Each zone is headed by a general manager who directly reports to the Railway Board. The total length of track used by the Indian Railways is about 1,15,000 km (71,000 mi), while the total route length of the network is 67,312 km (41,826 mi). As of 31 March 2016, about 27,999 km (17,398 mi) or 42% of the route-kilometre was electrified. Points to remember regarding Indian Railways: ❖❖ Indian Railways has about 63,028 route-km of track. It carries over 13 million passengers and 1.3 million tons of freight every day; runs about 14,300 trains daily. Indian Railways has about 7,000 railway stations. ❖❖ Royapuram railway station is the oldest railway station currently operational in India (the original structures of the two older stations, Bombay and Thane, are no longer operational) and the first railway station of south India. ❖❖ The longest platform is at Gorakhpur railway station, Uttar Pradesh, India: 1,366.33 m (4,483 ft) in length. Earlier, this position was occupied by Kharagpur. ❖❖ Vembanad Rail Bridge on the backwaters of Vembanad lake is the longest railway bridge. ❖❖ Electric Locomotives are manufactured at Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, Chittaranjan. Coaches are manufactured at ICF/Chennai, RCF/ Kapurthala, and BEML/Bengaluru. ❖❖ The National Rail Museum at New Delhi was set up in 1977. ❖❖ Stations across state lines are Navapur (Maharashtra and Gujarat) and Bhawani Mandi (Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan). ❖❖ Classes of travel on the Indian Railways: 1st AC, 2nd AC, 3rd AC, AC Chair Car, 2nd sleeper and 2nd ordinary.

Geography 3.123

❖❖ A railway station with all the three gauges is the Siliguri railway station, West Bengal. ❖❖ Indian Railways employs 1.4 million people, ranking eighth in the largest employment-providing sectors in the world. ❖❖ Itanagar (capital of Arunachal Pradesh) do you Know? became the second state capital after The total distance covered the capital of Assam: Dispur (whose by the 14,300 trains on the nearest railway station is Guwahati, Indian Railways everyday distance: 5–7 km only), amongst the equals three and a half times capitals in north-eastern India to be put the distance to the moon. on the rail map of India. ❖❖ Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the 25 km-long KatraUdhampur railway line in Jammu in 2014. The rail link connects the base camp town of Katra directly with the rest of the country and facilitates millions of devotees who visit the Vaishno Devi shrine every year. ❖❖ Features like live station enquiry, spot your train, transaction through smart card at the counter, online system of e-diversions and e-demand were introduced in 2014 in the e-ticketing system of IRCTC by the Ministry of Railways and CRIS. In addition, an e-catering system was also introduced by which food could be ordered from outside the train by a passenger with a confirmed PNR number or through a phone call or SMS to a dedicated number. ❖❖ Meghalaya was added to the rail network of India for the first time in 2014. ❖❖ Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 14 March 2015 flagged off the first train from Talaimannar to Madhu Road in north Sri Lanka. It marks the completion and restoration of the prestigious project of Indian Railways to restore the north–south rail link of Sri Lanka after decades of civil war. The north–south rail link was completely destroyed by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) militants during the civil war in the 1980s. ❖❖ ISRO provided navigational support to the Indian Railways through GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) system on 19 June 2015. By using GAGAN software system, a train will get to know the location of any unmanned level crossing by a warning signal. ❖❖ Indian Railways named Haridwar Mail as Yoga Express in 2015. The train running between Ahmedabad–Haridwar–Ahmedabad famously known as Haridwar Mail had been christened as Yoga Express. This decision was taken by Indian Railways to mark 21 June which is celebrated as ‘International Yoga Day’. ❖❖ The West–Central Railways (WCR) zone headquartered in Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, became the first railways zone in Indian Railways to eliminate all unmanned level crossings in 2015.

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❖❖ Union Ministry of Railways had inaugurated the landmark Silchar– Lumding broad gauge rail line in Assam on 21 November 2015. Silchar– Lumding broad gauge rail line brings Assam’s underdeveloped but strategically important Barak Valley on the broad gauge map. The broad gauge line was a milestone for connectivity in the north-east region and one of the largest gauge conversion projects of the Indian Railways. ❖❖ Indian Railways also flagged off the first inaugural service of the Goa to Mumbai double-decker air-conditioned Shatabdi train on 7 December 2015.

First/Oldest/Longest of Indian Railways First passenger train ran on

16 April 1853 from Bombay to Thane

First railway bridge

Dapoorie Viaduct on the Mumbai– Thane route

First rail tunnel

Parsik Tunnel

First ghats covered by the rail lines Thal and Bhore Ghats First underground railways

Calcutta METRO

First computerized reservation system started in

New Delhi (1986)

First electric train ran on

3 February 1925 (between Bombay VT and Kurla)

Toilets on trains were introduced 1891 (1st Class) and 1907 (lower classes) in Shortest station name

Ib (Odisha)

Longest station name

Sri Venkatanarasimharajuvariapeta (Tamil Nadu)

Longest run (time)

Vivek Express (3,715 km in approximately 80 h 15 min)

Shortest run

Route between Nagpur and Ajni (3 km)

Longest run for daily train

Kerala Express (3,054 km in 42.5 h)

Longest non-stop run (distance)

Trivandrum Rajdhani (528 km in 6.5 h)

Longest railways platform in the world

Gorakhpur (1,366 m in length)

(Contd.)

Geography  3.125

Longest railways bridge

Vembanad Rail Bridge (15,160 ft in length)

Longest tunnel

Pir Panjal Railway Tunnel between Banihal and Hillar Shahabad in J&K (11.25 km)

Oldest preserved locomotive

Fairy Queen (1855), still in working order

Indian Railway’s fastest train

Gatiman Express which runs on DelhiAgra route (160 km/h), earlier it was Bhopal-Shatabdi (runs at a speed up to 150 km/h)

Train with maximum number of halts

Howrah-Amritsar Express (115 halts)

Indian Railways recognized by UNESCO (in world Heritage list)

(1) Darjeeling Himalayan Railways (1999). (2) Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus railways station (2004). (3) Nilgiri Mountain Railways (2005). (4) Kalka Shimla Railways (2008).

Airways Airways also form an important part of our system of transport. The aeroplanes carry passengers, cargo and air-mail. Air transport is the fastest mode of transport which has reduced distances and has led to a virtual shrinking of the world. ❖❖ Air transport in India made a humble beginning in 1911 when the world’s first air-mail operation commenced over a small distance of 10 km between Allahabad and Naini. ❖❖ The British, French, and Dutch introduced air transport in 1929–30. ❖❖ In 1933, the first air transport company, the ‘Indian National Airways’ was established, which initially served between Karachi and Lahore. ❖❖ The airline was started under the Air Corporation Act, 1953, with an initial capital of 3.2 crore and started operations on 1 August 1953. ❖❖ In 1953, the air transport was nationalized, and two corporations were formed:

1. Indian Airlines: For domestic air transport, Deccan Airways, Airways India, Bharat Airways, Himalayan Aviation, Kalinga Airlines, Indian National Airways, and Air Service of India were merged to form the new domestic national carrier, Indian Airlines Corporation.

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2. Air India International: It handles the international air transport services and operates from international airports, namely Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Nagpur, Panaji, Amritsar, Thiruvanantpuram Guwahati, Ahmadabad, Kochi, etc. It connects India with the rest of the world. ❖❖ On 7 December 2005, Indian Airlines was rebranded as Indian for advertising purposes as a part of a programme to revamp its image in preparation for an Initial Public Offering (IPO). ❖❖ Indian Airlines: It handled domestic transport and carried passengers, goods, and mail to various places across India. It also provided do you Know? 12 countries transport services, vayudoot was set up in February namely Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Ban1981 to augment the air transport gladesh, Nepal, Malaysia, Thailand, in the country. It provides links Myanmar, Maldives, Singapore, with remote and inaccessible Oman, Kuwait, and UAE. It ceased areas which were not covered by its operations in February 2011 and Indian Airlines. The government merged with Air India. had initially approved air services to 14 stations in the north❖❖ Pawan Hans Ltd. was established eastern region. in 1985 to provide helicopter services to the petroleum sector including ONGC, Oil India Ltd., and Enron Oil and Gas, Mumbai High, and to connect remote and inaccessible areas. It also provides services in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Tripura, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Lakshadweep and public sector undertakings likes NTPC, GAIL and BSF.

Private Sector in Airways Private air services have been started since 1990 and play a role of feeders to Indian Airlines. ❖❖ In addition, 37 Air Taxi operators have been given permits for chartered non-scheduled air transport services. ❖❖ Some of the operational private airlines in India are: Indigo, Jet Airways, SpiceJet, GoAir, etc. Airport Authority of India (AAI) is the body responsible for providing safe and efficient air traffic services and aeronautical communication services for effective control of air traffic in the Indian air space. AAI was formed after the merger of International Airport Authority of India and National Airport Authority on 1 April 1995.

Geography  3.127

It controls and manages the entire Indian space even beyond the territorial limits of India in accordance with the norms set by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).

Airports ❖❖ The International Airports Division (IAD) of AAI operates, maintains and develops the international airports. ❖❖ National Airport Division is responsible for domestic airports. ❖❖ There are around 500 airports/airstrips across the country in various stages of development. ❖❖ Of them, 300 are considered serviceable but only 80 airports are in operation. ❖❖ The top six airports (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru and Hyderabad) cover 70% of the total domestic air traffic.   The improvement of infrastructure at the airports needs heavy capital investment which is burden on our government. Therefore, private and foreign investment is encouraged for the modernization of airports. Improvement and modernization of Indira Gandhi Airport, Delhi, and Shivaji Maratha International Airport, Mumbai, are the latest examples of this.   There are some more airports which have been privatized: ●● ●● ●●

International Airport, Cochin Kempegowda International Airport, Bengaluru Rajeev Gandhi International Airport, Hyderabad

  Some Notable Airports in India: ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

Veer Savarkar International Airport—Port Blair Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel International Airport—Ahmedabad Shri Guru Ramdas Ji International Airport—Amritsar Lal Bahadur Shastri Airport—Varanasi Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport—Kolkata Dr Babasaheb International Airport—Nagpur Choudhary Charan Singh Airport—Lucknow

3.128  Chapter 3

Categories of Airports: Category

Description

Custom

Airports with custom checking and clearance facilities handling international flights but not elevated to international airport status

Defence

Indian Armed Forces handled airport

Domestic

Handles domestic flights

International

Handles international flights

Private

Private airports for specific purpose

Future

Proposed or under construction

Role of Airports: Role

Description

Civil enclave

Civil enclave in a Military airport, handles commercial flights

Commercial

Handles commercial flights

Airbase

Military Airbase

Flying school

Airport used to train commercial and/or fighter pilots

Some Popular Airlines in India: Type

Airlines

International

Air India, Air India Express, Air Asia India, Go Air, IndiGo, Jet Airways, and SpiceJet

Domestic

Air Carnival, Air Costa, Air India Regional, Jet Lite, True Jet, and Vistara

Charter

Air Odisha, Chhattisgarh Air Link, Club one Air, Pawan Hans, Taj Air, and Pushpaka Aviation

Cargo

Blue Dart Aviation and Quick Jet Airlines

Water Transport Water transport is the easiest and cheapest mode of transport. We do not have to construct ways in water unlike rail and road, because rivers and seas are given by nature. It plays a vital role in transport and trade across India and to other countries. Before independence, there were many shipping companies in India. ❖❖ In 1950, Eastern shipping corporation and, in 1956, Western shipping corporation were established, and in 1961, Indian Shipping Corporation was set up, merging these two corporations.

Geography  3.129

Types of Indian Water Transport: 1. External water transport 2. Internal water transport

External Water Transport Transport between India and the rest of the world through the ocean with the help of ships is known as external or international water transport. ❖❖ Most of the goods are transported through the ocean routes across the world.

Internal Water Transport Transport through lakes, rivers, canals, and creeks across the Indian territory is called internal or domestic water transport. ❖❖ At present, India has more than 14,500 km of navigated waterways. ❖❖ The length of waterways in India is the maximum in Uttar Pradesh, followed by West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, and Kerala. ❖❖ For the purpose of development, maintenance, and regulation of internal waterways in India, the Internal Waterways Authority of India was established in 1986; its headquarters are in Kolkata. Internal water transport is divided into two types: 1. Inland transport 2. Coastal transport 1. Inland Transport: It refers to the transport facilities available in the navigable waters, canals, and back-waters. It is the cheapest mode for certain kinds of traffic, provided the points of origin, and destination are located on the water bank. River and canal transport played an important role in the transport system of the country during early years, but with the development of rail and road transport, this channel suffered a setback. ●●

●●

●●

In Assam, West Bengal, and Bihar, this channel of transport is important. Half the traffic between Assam and Kolkata is shared by river transport and the remaining half is shared by road and rail transport. Water transport is important in Kerala where rivers and backwaters are used for ferrying goods and people. It has some importance in Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. More than 55 million tons of cargo is moved annually by inland water transport.

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Major inland waterways of India: ●● National Waterways-1: The Ganga–Bhagirathi–Hooghly river system between Haldia (sagar) and Allahabad (1,620 km) was declared as NW-1, during October 1986. ●● National Waterways-2: The river Brahamputra having a length of 891 km between the Sadiya–Dhubri stretch was declared as NW-2 on September 1, 1988. ●● National Waterways-3: It consists of three channels: (a) West coastal canal (Kottapuram–Kollam)—168 km (b) Udyogmandal canal (Kochi–Pathalam Bridge)—23 km (c) Champakara canal (Kochi–Ambalamugal)—14 km

●●

●●

●●

National Waterways-4: Godavari and Krishna rivers and canals between Kakinada and Puducherry (1,086 km) was declared as NW-4 on November 25, 2008. National Waterways-5: Brahamani river and Mahanadi delta system along with East coast canal, Talchar (Odisha) to Dhamra (Odisha) 623 km. National Waterways-6: Lakhipur to Bhanga (121 km) on river Barak was declared as NW-6 in 2013.

2. Coastal Transport: ●● India has a coastline of 7,516 km. Transport facilities available along the vast coastline of the country through ships is called coastal shipping. The shipping policy committee recommended that Indian ships should secure 100% of coastal trade. It is the cheapest mode of transport. There has been a sharp decline in coastal shipping operations. ●● There are 13 major and 200 minor/intermediate ports along the 7,516 km long coastline of India. All the major ports work under the ambit of Major Ports Trust Act, 1963. ●● The major ports are controlled by the central government, while the medium and minor ports are included in the concurrent list of the constitution and are managed and administrated by the respective states. Major ports on the West coast of India: 1. Deendayal Port or Kandla (Gujarat): ●● This port is a tidal port. ●● It has been declared as a Trade Free Zone. ●● This is the largest port serving northern India. 2. Mumbai: ●● This port is a natural harbour and the largest natural port in India. ●● It is the busiest port of India which handles one/fifth of the total traffic.

Geography  3.131

3. Nhava Sheva (Jawahar Lal Nehru Port): ●● Developed near Mumbai in order to reduce traffic on Mumbai port. ●● It is the most machined and largest artificial port of India. 4. Murmagao, Goa: ●● It is established on the estuary of the river Zuari. ●● It handles iron ore exports. 5. New Mangalore, Karnataka: ●● This port handles iron ore exports from Kudremukh Mines. 6. Kochi Port, Kerala: ●● This port is a natural harbour situated in the Vembanad lake and is known as ‘the best port in the West coast’. ●● It handles exports of spices and salts. Major ports on the East coast: 1. Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu: ●● It is the southernmost major port of India. ●● It handles the trade of petro-chemical products, fertilizers, and salt. 2. Chennai, Tamil Nadu: ●● This is an artificial port and the busiest one in India after Mumbai. ●● It is considered the most ancient serving port of the country. 3. Ennor, Tamil Nadu: ●● This has been developed near Chennai in order to reduce the traffic of the Chennai port. ●● It was the first corporatized port of India which started operations in 2001. Except Ennore, all other major ports of India are government administrated. 4. Vishakhapattanam, Andhra Pradesh: ●● This is the deepest port of India. ●● It handles exports of iron ore to Japan. ●● It is the best natural port of India; this port is protected from the monsoon spells by a hill named Dolphin nose. ●● Facilities for building and repairing of ships are available here. 5. Paradeep, Odisha: ●● This port is a natural harbour. ●● It handles exports of iron and aluminum ore to south-east Asian countries. 6. Haldia and Kolkata, West Bengal: ●● These are riverine ports on the Hooghly river. ●● These ports handle trade with south-east Asian countries. ●● It is also known as Diamond Harbour.

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7. Port Blair, Andaman & Nicobar Islands: ●● ●●

Declared as the 13th major port of India. Port Blair has the territorial jurisdiction over 23 ports, including East island port, Diglipur port (port Cornwalis), Maybunder port, and Neil island port.

Know More! The Sagar Mala Project: With this project, all major ports will be connected by high-speed express railways and road highways to strengthen the ports so that adequate line capacity and speed of movement of transport are available.

Census of India (2011) ❖❖ Lard Mayo started the census system in India in 1872 but it was during the tenure of Lord Ripon that the first complete census was conducted. After independence, the census has been conducted by ‘The Registrar General and Census Commissioner’ of India under the Ministry of Home Affairs of the Government of India. ❖❖ Census 2011 is the 15th census and the 7th census after independence. ❖❖ The post of Census Commissioner is the rank of Joint Secretary to the Govt. of India. Mr R.A. Gopalaswami was the census commissioner during the census of 1951, and Mr Chandramouli was the commissioner for 2011; Mr Shailesh is the present commissioner. ❖❖ The data related to Census 2011 were counted till 1 March 2011. National Population Register: National Population register is a Register of usual residents of the country. It is being prepared from local to national level under provisions of the Citizenship Act, 1955. It contains nine questions:

1. Name of the person and resident status 2. Name of the person as should appear in the population register 3. Relationship to head 4. Gender 5. Date of birth 6. Marital status 7. Educational qualification 8. Occupation/activity 9. Name of father, mother, and spouse Schedule in Census:

1. Total population 2. Child population (0–6 years age)

Geography 3.133

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Population rate Population density Literacy Sex ratio ST/SC population Working/non-working population

data Based on census 2011 ❖❖ Total Population: 1,21,01,93,422 (on 00:00 h of 1 March 2011) Largest three states in terms of total population ✶❖ First, Uttar Pradesh with a population of 19,95,81,477 ✶❖ Second, Maharashtra with a population of 11,23,72,927 ✶❖ Third, Bihar with a population of 10,38,04,637 ●❖ State with the least population ✶❖ Sikkim with a population of 6,07,866 ❖❖ Population growth (population increase in the last decade) ●❖

●❖

For India, the population growth for Census 2011 is 17.64% ✶❖ Largest Population Growth: do you Know? Meghalaya by 27.82% but Population growth rate was negmaximum population growth ative in the census of 1921 only. in terms of public is in Bihar.

❖❖ Literacy: According to the National Literacy Mission, literacy is the skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic and the ability to apply them to one’s day-to-day life. Persons older than 7 years are assessed as being literate or illiterate. ●❖

●❖

Total Literacy Rate: 74.04% (2011) which was an increase of almost 10% from the last census, 64.84% (2001) ✶❖ State with the Highest Literacy: Kerala with 93.91% ✶❖ UT with the Highest Literacy: Lakshadweep with 92.28% ✶❖ State with the Lowest Literacy: Bihar with 63.82% ✶❖ UT with the Lowest Literacy: Dadra & Nagar Haveli with 77.65% Female Literacy: 64% (2011), which was an increase of 9.67% from the last census, 53.67% (2001) ✶❖ State with the Highest Female Literacy: Kerala with 91.99% ✶❖ UT with the Highest Female Literacy: Lakshadweep with 88.25% ✶❖ State with the Lowest Female Literacy: Rajasthan with 52.66% ✶❖ UT with the Lowest Female Literacy: Dadra & Nagar Haveli with 65.93%

3.134  Chapter 3 ●●

Male Literacy: 82.16% (2011), which has increased by 7.55% from the last census ✶✶ State with the Highest Male Literacy: Kerala with 96.02% ✶✶ UT with the Highest Male Literacy: Lakshadweep with 96.11% ✶✶ State with the Lowest Male Literacy: Bihar with 73.39% ✶✶ UT with the Lowest Male Literacy: Dadra & Nagar Haveli with 86.46%

❖❖ Sex Ratio: The number of females per 1000 males is called the sex ratio. ●●

●●

Total Sex Ratio: 940 which has increased by 7 from the last census ✶✶ State with the Maximum Sex Ratio: Kerala (1,084) ✶✶ UT with the Maximum Sex Ratio: Puducherry (1,001) ✶✶ State with the Minimum Sex Ratio: Haryana (879) ✶✶ UT with the Minimum Sex Ratio: Daman & Diu (618) Total Child Sex Ratio: 919 ✶✶ Maximum Child Sex Ratio: Mizoram (970) ✶✶ Minimum Child Sex Ratio: Haryana (869)

❖❖ Population Density: The population per unit sq kilometer area is the population density. ●●

Total Density: 382 ✶✶ State with the Highest Density: Bihar (1,106) ✶✶ State with the Highest Density: Arunachal Pradesh (17) ✶✶ UT with the Highest Density: Delhi (11,320) ✶✶ UT with the Lowest Density: Andaman & Nicobar Islands (46)

States and Union Territories of India Andhra Pradesh Area: 1,62,970 sq km Population: 4.9 cr (Census 2011) Capital: Hyderabad (de jure) and Amravati (de facto) Principal Languages: Telugu, Urdu, Hindi and Banjara Andhra Pradesh is situated on the country’s south-eastern coast. The state is the eighth largest in India covering an area of 1,60,205 sq km. According to the 2011 census, the state is the tenth largest by population, with 4,93,86,799 inhabitants. ❖❖ Agriculture is the main occupation of about 62% of the people in Andhra Pradesh. Rice is a major food crop and the staple food of the ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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state contributing about 77% of the food grain production. Important forest products are teak, eucalyptus, cashew, casuarinas, bamboo, softwood, etc. Andhra Pradesh occupies the first position with respect to agricultural loans from commercial and cooperative banks. A total of 86 projects (44 major + 30 medium + 4 flood banks + 8 modernization) have been taken up under Jalayagnam programme. The programme aims at completing ongoing and new projects in record time to provide immediate irrigation to water starved areas on top priority by mobilizing funds from all possible sources. Important power projects in the state are the Nagarjunasagar and Neelam Sanjiva Reddy Sagar (Srisailam Hydel Projects), Upper Sileru, Lower Sileru, Tungabhadra Hydel projects and Nellore, Ramaundam, Jothagudam, Vijayawada, and Muddanur Thermal Power Projects. The 1000 MW coal-based Simhadri Thermal Power Station aims at supplying the entire energy generated to the state. Andhra Pradesh is well known globally for its variety of rocks and minerals and is called ‘Ratna Garbha’. The state has the largest deposits of quality chrysotile asbestos in the country. The Singareni Coal Mines supply coal to the entire south India. Charminar, Salarjung Museum, Golconda Fort in Hyderabad, Thousand Pillar Temple and Fort in Warangal, Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Swamy Temple at Yadagirigutta, Buddha Stupa at Nagarjunakonda, Nagarjuna Sagar, Sri Venkateswara Temple at Tirumala-Tirupathi, Sri Mallikarjunaswamy Temple at Srisailam, Kanaka Durga Temple at Vijayawada, Sri Satyanarayana Swamy Temple at Annavaram, Sri Varaha Narasimha Swamy Temple at Simhachalam, Sri Sita Rama Temple at Badrachalam, Araku Valley, Horsley Hills, Nelapattu, etc. are the major tourist attractions in Andhra Pradesh.

Arunachal Pradesh Area: 83,743 sq km Population: 13.84 lakh (Census 2011) Capital: Itanagar Principal Language: Monpa, Miji, Aka, Sherdukpen, Nyishi, Apatani, and Tagin ❖❖ History: Arunachal Pradesh became a full-fledged state on 20 February 1987. Till 1972, it was known as the North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA). It gained Union Territory status on 20 January 1972 and was renamed as Arunachal Pradesh. On 15 August 1975, an elected Legislative Assembly was constituted, and the first council of ministers assumed office. ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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Arunachal Pradesh finds mention in the literature of Kalika Purana and Mahabharata. This place is the Prabhu Mountains of the Puranas. Agriculture is the mainstay of the people of Arunachal Pradesh and mainly depends on jhum cultivation. Encouragement is being given to the cultivation of cash crops like potatoes and horticulture crops like apples, oranges, and pineapples. Namchik–Namphuk coal fields have been taken up by APMDTCL. To provide training to craftsmen in different trades, there are two industrial training institutes at Roing and Daporijo. Some of the important festivals of the state are Mopin and Solung of the Adis, Lossar of the Monpas, Boori-boot of the Hill Miris, Sherdukpens, Dree of the Apatanis, Si-Donyi of the Tagins, Reh of the Idu-Mishmis, Nyokum of the Nyishis, etc. Animal sacrifice is a common ritual in most festivals. Places of tourist interest are Tawang, Dirang, Bomdila, Tipi, Itanagar Malinithan, Likabali, Pasighat, Along, Tezu, Miao, Roing, Daporijo Namdapha, Bhismaknagar, Prashuram Kund, and Khonsa.

Assam Area: 78,438 sq km Population: 3.12 cr (Census 2011) Capital: Dispur Principal Language: Asamiya and Bodo History: For centuries, people and communities have been attracted to the fertile environs of Assam and its abundant natural resources. Streams of people have met and mingled, cultures and customs have merged, and in this process, a rich and composite culture has evolved. ❖❖ Assam, also known as a ‘Land of Red River and Blue Hills’, is one of the most attractive and beautiful states of the country. The mighty river Brahmaputra flows through it, serving as a lifeline for its people settled on both sides of its banks. The word ‘Assam’ is believed to have been derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Asoma’ meaning peerless or unparalleled. ❖❖ The state also has an exclusive range of festivals which have enriched the cultural mosaic of the land. Bihu is by far the most important festival of Assam. While Rongali Bihu or Bohag Bihu coinciding with the Assamese New Year is the principal Bihu, the harvest festival known as the Bhogali Bihu or Magh Bihu is also equally important. There is a third Bihu called the Kangali Bihu or Kati Bihu, which is solemnly ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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observed to pray for love and yearning, sometimes having distinct erotic overtones, with characteristically catchy and earthy tunes. ❖❖ Over the years, Assam, the ‘Gateway of the North-East’ has emerged as a popular tourist destination. The five national parks, 19 wildlife sanctuaries and three bird sanctuaries are treasure houses of rare flora and fauna. ❖❖ Important places of tourism in the state are Kamakhya temple, Umananda Island (Peacock Island), Navagraha (temple of nine planets), Basistha Ashram, Dolgobinda, State Zoo, State Museum, Madan Karndev temple—a magnificent archeological place of interest, Saraighat Bridge, Srimata Sankaradeva Kalakshetra Science Museum, Kaziranga Park, etc.

Bihar Area: 94,163 sq km Population: 10.41 crore (Census 2011) Capital: Patna Principal Language: Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Angika, Bajjika, and Maithili ❖❖ History: Bihar finds mention in the Vedas, Puranas, epics, etc., and was the main scene of activities of Buddha and the 24 Jain Tirthankaras. Muslim rulers made inroads into the territory during the medieval period. The first conqueror of Bihar was Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji. The Tughlaqs and then the Mughals followed the Khiljis. ❖❖ Bihar has a number of rivers, the most important of which is the Ganga. The other rivers are the Sone, Poonpoon, Falgu, Karmanasa, Durgawati, Kosi, Gandhak, Ghanghara, etc. Main cash crops are sugarcane, potato, tobacco, oilseeds, onion, chillies, jute and mesta.

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Area: 1,35,192 sq km Population: 2.56 cr (Census 2011) Capital: Raipur Principal Language: Hindi and local tribal languages History: Chhattisgarh, carved out of Madhya Pradesh, came into being on 1 November 2000 as the 26th state of the Union. In ancient times, the region was known as Dakshin-Kosala. This finds mention in the Ramayana and Mahabharata also. Kalachuris ruled in Chhattisgarh from 980 ce to 1791. With the advent of the British in 1845, Raipur gained prominence instead of the capital Ratanpur.

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❖❖ Agriculture: The main kharif crop of this region is paddy which is about 76% of the total kharif crops. Apart from this, other main crops grown here are maize, soyabean, groundnut, uradbean, and pigeon pea. Similarly, the main rabi crops grown here are wheat, gram, Lathyrus, mustard, and linseed. ❖❖ Chhattisgarh has the perfect geological setup to host a number of economically crucial minerals. Large deposits of coal, iron ore, limestone, bauxite, and dolomite are found in various parts of the state. Districts of North Chhattisgarh such as Surguja, Raigarh, Koriya, and Bilaspur are known for huge coal deposits. ❖❖ The economy of Chhattisgarh is largely natural resource driven, and it leverages the state’s rich mineral resources. One of the most mineral-rich states in India, Chhattisgarh provides a lucrative opportunity for cement production at the most competitive prices. Along with vast natural resources, industries also find ample skilled human resources. ❖❖ Chhattisgarh, situated in the heart of India, is endowed with a rich cultural heritage and attractive natural diversity. The state is full of ancient monuments, rare wildlife species, carved temples, Buddhist sites, palaces, waterfalls, caves, rock paintings, and geographical formations.

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Area: 3,702 sq km Population: 14.59 lakh (Census 2011) Capital: Panaji Principal Language: Konkani is the state language; Marathi, Hindi, English, and Kannada are also spoken History: Goa, known in the bygone days as Gomanchala, Gopakapattam, Gopakapuri, Govapuri, Gomantak, etc. abounds in a rich historical heritage. The early history of Goa is obscure. In the first century of the Christian era, Goa was a part of the Satavahana empire, followed by the Kadamba, the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed, the Chalukyas, and the Silharas. After the discovery of the sea route to India by Vasco-da-Gama in 1498, many Portuguese expeditions came to India. In 1510, Alfonso de Albuquerque with the help of the emperor of Vijayanagar attacked and captured Goa. On 30 May 1987, Goa was conferred statehood and Daman & Diu was made a separate Union Territory. Goa is situated on the western coast of the Indian peninsula. The Tillari Irrigation Project, an ambitious joint venture project under major and medium irrigation, aimed at creating an irrigation potential of

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21,056 hectares and 117.03 MCM of water for domestic and industries has been taken-up. All schemes under the State Industrial Policy as well as the State Biotech Policy will continue to be in force and will be popularized further. There is a proposal to set up Goa IT Knowledge Centre at Verna to provide incubation facilities in the IT sector. An Entertainment Society of Goa has been established for organizing film-related activities including an International Film Festival of India. A scheme to provide financial assistance to produce films is implemented through this society. Important tourist centres are Colva, Calangute, Vagator, Baga, Harmal, Anjuna and Miramar beaches; Basilica of Bom Jesus and St Cathedral churches at Old Goa; Kavlem, Mardon, Mangeshi, Bandora temples; Aguada, Terekhol, Chapora, and Cabo de Rama forts. Goa became the first state in the country to launch a diabetic registry.

Gujarat ❖❖ Area: 1,96,024 sq km ❖❖ Population: 6.04 cr (Census 2011) Capital: Gandhinagar ❖❖ Principal Language: Gujarati ❖❖ The history of Gujarat goes back to 2000 bce. It is believed that Lord Krishna left Mathura to settle in the west coast of Saurashtra which later came to be known as Dwarka. ❖❖ Gujarat was officially formed as a state on 1 May 1960. It is situated on the west coast of India. The state is bounded by the Arabian Sea on the west, Pakistan and Rajasthan in the north and north-east respectively, Madhya Pradesh in the south-east and Maharashtra in the south. ❖❖ A ‘Krishi Mahotsav’ is organized every year to make farmers aware of the modern technologies and methods of scientific farming. Gujarat is the major producer of cotton, groundnut, and tobacco in the country and provides inputs for important industries like textiles, oil, and soap. Other important cash crops of Gujarat are paddy, wheat, and bajra. ❖❖ A 361-km-long bulk pipeline was laid at a cost of `2,457 crores at Dhanki in Surendranagar. Daily, 165 crores litres of water is distributed to about two crore people of 116 towns. ❖❖ Gujarat has become the first state in the country to come out with a solar policy in 2009, with a view to give a boost to the solar energy sector. ❖❖ Tourism: Important tourist centres are Gandhi Ashram in Ahmemdabad—reverberating with Mahatma Gandhi’s experiments with truth,

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Ambaji Shaktipith—centre of crores of devotees, Rani-ki-Vav step well at Patan—a world heritage site, a fine specimen of architecture in water conservation, Saputara-tourists’ boating in Gujarat’s hill station, Gir Lions Sanctuary—the only natural abode of Asiatic lions, Statue of Unity—world’s tallest statue of Sardar Patel taking shape near the Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) dam on the Narmada, Mahatma Mandir and Dandikutir in Gandhinagar—a majestic venue for world-class conferences and exhibitions, Polo City—ancient ruins of archaeological importance in north Gujarat tucked deep in the forest.

Haryana ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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Area: 44,212 sq km Population: 2.54 cr (Census 2011) Capital: Chandigarh Principal Language: Hindi History: Haryana has a proud history dating back to the Vedic Age. The state was home to the legendary Bharata dynasty, after which the country was named Bharat. Vamana Purana states that King Kuru ploughed the field of Kurukshetra with a golden plough, drawn by Nandi (of Lord Shiva), and reclaimed an area of seven ‘Kosas’. Replete with myths, legends and Vedic reference, Haryana’s past is steeped in glory. It was on the soil of Haryana that Saint Ved Vyas wrote the Mahabharata. The state enjoys the unique distinction of being among the first to provide electricity, metalled roads, and potable drinking water to all its villages. Ranked among the most prosperous states in the country, Haryana has the second highest per capita income in India, after Goa. The first state in the country to have achieved 100% rural electrification way back in 1970, Haryana is well on the way to becoming a power surplus state from being a power deficit one. Haryana is emerging as an education hub and shaping into a modern-day Takshila and Nalanda. Haryana today is the largest producer of passenger cars, tractors, motorcycles, bicycles, refrigerators, scientific instruments, etc. Besides, it is the largest exporter of basmati rice. Panipat handlooms and carpets are known all over world besides its tasty Pancharanga pickle. Haryana is one state where all villages are linked by metalled roads. The length of the roads in the state is more than 35,303 km. Some of the important tourist complexes are Surajkund and Badkhal Lake near Delhi; Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary (Sultanpur); Sohna and Damdama in Gurgaon; and the fascinating pocket of pines in the Morni

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Hills. Other popular resorts are Ethinic India Rai, Blue Jay (Samalkha), Skylark (Panipat), Karna Lake and Oasis (Uchana), Prakeet (Pipli), Kingfisher (Ambala), Magpie (Faridabad), Dabchick (Hodal), Shama (Gurgaon), Jungle Babbler (Dharuhera), Gaurriyya (Bhadurgarh), Myna (Rohtak), Blue Bird (Hisar), Red Bishop (Panchkula), and Pinjore Gardens (Pinjore).

Himachal Pradesh ❖❖ Area: 55,673 sq km ❖❖ Population: 68.65 lakh (Census 2011) ❖❖ Capital: Shimla (Dharamshala is the second capital of Himachal Pradesh state) ❖❖ Principal Language: Hindi and Pahari ❖❖ History: Himachal, situated in the heart of the western Himalayas, identified as ‘Dev Bhumi’ is believed to be the abode of gods and goddesses. Himachal Pradesh has immense hydro-potential in its five river basins. Chenab, Rabi, Beas, Satluj, and Yamuna which emanate from the western Himalayas and pass through the state.

Jammu & Kashmir Area: 2,22,236 sq km Population: 1.25 cr (Census 2011) Capital: Srinagar (summer capital) and Jammu (winter capital) Principal Language: Urdu, Dogri, Kashmiri, Pahari, Punjabi, and Ladakhi History: According to the most popular legend that is also recorded in Rajatarangini and Nilmat Purana, two authoritative books, Kashmir was once a large lake, and it was Kashyap Rishi who drained off the water, making it a beautiful abode. Ashoka introduced Buddhism to Kashmir in the third century bce which was later strengthened by Kanishka. Huns got control of the valley in the early sixth century. The name of Jammu figures in the Mahabharata. The findings of Harappan remains and artefacts of the Mauryan, Kushan, and Gupta periods at Akhnoor have added new dimensions to its ancient character. The land of Jammu was divided into 22 hills principalities. Raja Maldev, one of the Dogra rulers, conquered many territories to consolidate his kingdom. ❖❖ In July, 2014 Prime Minister Narendra Modi flagged off the first KatraUdhampur train in the state. ❖❖ The economy of J&K continues to be predominantly agrarian, as 49% (2011) of the total working force with 42% as cultivators and 7% as agriculture labourers depend directly on agriculture for their livelihood.

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❖❖ A major constraint to the development of agriculture in J&K is the fact that only 50% of the ultimate irrigation potential of the state has been harnessed. ❖❖ Jammu & Kashmir is well known for its horticulture produce both in India and abroad. The state offers a lot of scope for the cultivation of all types of horticulture crops covering a variety of temperate fruits like apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, almond, cherry, and sub-tropical fruits like mango, guava, citrus, litchi, etc. Apart from this, well-known spices like saffron and zeera are cultivated in some parts of the state. ❖❖ This is also a labour-intensive cottage industry having considerable potential for generation of employment opportunities. ❖❖ Jammu & Kashmir is an important tourist destination and has been a place of attraction for tourists since centuries. The lush green forests, sweet springs, perennial rivers, picturesque alpine scenery, and pleasant climate of the Kashmir valley—the paradise on earth—has helped it remain an internationally acclaimed tourist destination, whereas the Jammu region— the land of temples, attracts a large number of pilgrim tourists with important destinations like the Shri Mata Vaishno Devi Shrine. The Ladakh region— the moon land—has been a much sought-after destination, especially for foreign tourists and is famous for adventure tourism. ❖❖ The fairs and festivals are a reflection of the diverse cultural and social heritage of the state. All Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh fairs and festivals are celebrated with full vigour and enthusiasm, regardless of the religion.

Jharkhand Area: 79,716 sq km Population: 32.98 lakh (Census 2011) Capital: Ranchi Principal Language: Hindi History: Jharkhand, which came into being on 15 November 2000 as the 28th state of the Union, is the homeland of the tribals who had dreamed of a separate state for a long time. It largely comprises forest tracks of the Chhotanagar plateau and Santhal Pargana and has distinct cultural traditions. Damodar, Maurakshi, Barakar, North Koyel, South Koyel, Sankh, Subarnarekha, Kharkai, and Ajay are major water resources in the state. The net sown area is 1.8 million hectares of which 8% is irrigated. The state is rich in mineral resources. ❖❖ Minerals: The important available minerals are coal, iron ore, limestone, copper ore, bauxite, pyrite, china clay, kyanite, fine clay, dolomite, ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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graphite, bentonite, soap stone, quartz sand, and silica sand. The nascent state of Jharkhand has enormous potential for exploitation of coal, mica and other minerals, particularly in Singhbhum, Bokaro, Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Koderma, and Dhanbad. ❖❖ Tourism: There are many scenic attractions in the state, namely the Ichagarh Bird Sanctuary, Udhava Bird Sanctuary in Sahibganj (Pathara Lake), Charchro Crocodile Breeding Centre in Koderma (Tilaya Dam), Chandrapura Bird Sanctuary, Jawaharlal Nehru Zoological Garden (Bokaro), Tenughat Bird Sanctuary, Dalma Wild Life Sanctuary (Jamshedpur), Tata Steel Zoological Park (Jamshedpur), Palkote Wildlife Sanctuary (Gumla), Bhagwan Birsa Zoological Gardens (Ranchi), Birsa Deer Sanctuary (Kalmati Ranchi), Betla National Park (Palamau), Ranchi Aquarium (Ranchi), Hazaribagh National Park, Tatoloi Hot Water Stream (Dumka), and the Saranda Forest.

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Area: 1,91,791 sq km Population: 6.11 cr (Census 2011) Capital: Bengaluru Principal Language: Kannada History: Karnataka has a recorded history of more than 2000 years. The world renowned Gomateshwara monolith at Shravanabelagola was installed by a Ganga minister, Chavundaraya. The colossal rock cut image of Sri Gomateshwara is the most magnificent among all Jaina works of art. The Rashtrakutas (753–973 ce) of Malkhed who succeeded them heaped tributes on the rulers of Kannauj successively in the so-called ‘Age of Imperial Kannauj’. Kannada literature developed during this period. The Vijayanagar empire (1336–1646) patronized and fostered indigenous traditions and encouraged arts, religion and literature in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, and Tamil. Overseas trade flourished. The forest department manages about 20.15% of the geographical area of the state. Forests have been classified as reserved forests, protected forests, unclassified forests, villages forests, and private forests. There are five national parks and 23 wildlife sanctuaries. Several wildlife protection schemes such as Project Tiger and Project Elephant are being implemented with Central assistance. The concept of Joint Forest Planning and Management applied to the two externally aided projects, namely Western Ghats Forestry and Environment Project

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(DFID) and Forestry and Environment Project for Eastern Plains (JBIS), has resulted in village forest planning and management through establishment of Village Forest Committees. ❖❖ Karnataka is one of the major milk producers and the Karnataka Milk Foundation has 21 dairy processing plants with a capacity of 26.45 lakh litres a day and 42 chilling centres having a chilling capacity of 14.60 lakh litres. ❖❖ Karnataka state and Bengaluru city in particular have become the largest bio-clusters in the country. ❖❖ Karnataka ‘One State Many Worlds’ has become a hub of tourist attraction in south India. The IT and BT Centre, Bengaluru has received more tourists in the recent past. The state is known for its heritage monuments and eco-tourism destinations.

Kerala ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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Area: 38,863 sq km Population: 3.34 cr (Census 2011) Capital: Thiruvananthapuram Principal Language: Malayalam History: Kerala is in the extreme south-west of the Indian subcontinent. When independent India amalgamated small states, Travancore and Cochin states were integrated to form the Travancore-Cochin State on 1 July 1949. According to the geographical features, the state can be divided into hills, valleys, midland plains, and the coastal belt. Cutting across Kerala are 44 rivers (41 west flowing and three east flowing) with their innumerable tributaries and branches. The backwaters form an attractive and economically valuable feature of Kerala. Kerala, the land of lush green paddy fields, cool coconut groves, fragrant spice gardens, dubbed as ‘God’s own country’ is nestled in the southern tip of India. Kerala is a power-deficit state which imports 60% of power from other states. A major achievement is that Kerala has achieved full electrification in all villages. The need for power is increasing and the production of power should be increased accordingly. Monsoon is essential to sustain the hydropower base in the state. Hydel energy is the most reliable and dependable source of energy in Kerala. Kerala lies in the south-west corner of the Indian peninsula. It has a coastal length of 585 km and has an average width of about

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60 km with one major port at Kochi and 17 minor ports. The geographical location of Kerala is very close to the international shipping route. There are 17 minor ports in Kerala. ❖❖ Onam is the most typical of Kerala festivals which coincides with the harvest season. It is now celebrated on New Year Day. ❖❖ The Vallamkali or boat race is typical of Kerala. All the boat festivals have a religious origin except the Nehru Trophy Boat Race conducted in the Punnamada Lake. Thrissur celebrates the Pooram festival in April– May every year with an impressive procession of caparisoned elephants and unparalleled display of pyrotechnics. ❖❖ Kerala was selected by the National Geographic Traveller as one of the 50 destinations of a lifetime and one of the 13 paradises in the world.

Madhya Pradesh ❖❖ Area: 3,08,252 sq km Population: 7.27 cr (Census 2011) ❖❖ Capital: Bhopal Principal Language: Hindi ❖❖ History: Madhya Pradesh is the second largest Indian state in size with an area of 3,08,000 sq km. Geographically, it occupies a pivotal position in the country. King Ashoka, first of all, ruled over Ujjain. A sizeable portion of Central India was a part of the Gupta Empire (300–500 ce), During the period between the beginning of the influence of Marathas and the death of Madhoji Scindia in 1794, Marathas were on the ascent in Central India, but later small states started coming into existence. These small states became the cause of perpetuation of British power in the country. Madhya Pradesh came into being on November 1, 1956. It was reorganized on November 1, 2000 to create a new Chhattisgarh state. ❖❖ Madhya Pradesh has entered the era of high-tech industries such as electronics, telecommunications, automobiles, information technology, etc. The state produces optical fibre for telecommunication. A large number of automobile industries have been established at Pithampur near Indore. Prominent industries in the public sector are Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. at Bhopal, Security Paper Mill at Hoshangabad, Bank Note Press at Dewas, Newsprint factory at Nepanagar and Alkaloid factory at Neemuch and Oman Bina Refinery at Agasod near Bina in Sagar district. ❖❖ Madhya Pradesh is a mineral-rich state. It produces 21 types of minerals. The state is famous for its traditional handicrafts and handloom cloth

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manufactured in Chanderi and Maheshwari. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme has been implemented in all 51 districts. MP topped the country in its implementation. The National Horticulture Mission has been launched to boost horticulture production and productivity in the state. ❖❖ Festivals: An important tribal festival is Bhagoriya, marked by traditional gaiety and enthusiasm, celebrated in Khajuraho, Bhojpur, Pachmarhi and Ujjain and has its own local flavour while the Ramnavami festival at Chitrakoot and Orchha has a unique sense of devotion imbued with tradition. Festivals of Orchha, Malwa, Pachmarhi bring to the fore the repertoire of culture and art of the people. ❖❖ Some Tourist Centres: The tranquil beauty of Pachmarhi, the glittering splendour of marble rocks, and roaring sound of Dhuandhar Falls at Bedaghat, Kanha National Park with its unique Barasingha, and Bandhavgarh National Park with its prehistoric caves and wildlife are some of the major attractions of the state. Gwalior, Mandu, Datia, Chanderi, Jabalpur, Orchha, Raisen, Sanchi, Vidisha, Udavgiri, Bhimbetika, Indore, and Bhopal are places well-known for their historical monuments.

Maharashtra Area: 3,07,713 sq km Capital: Mumbai Population: 11.24 cr (Census 2011) Principal Language: Marathi History: The first well-known rulers of Maharashtra were the Satavahanas (230 bce to 225 ce) who were the founders of Maharashtra and have left a plethora of literary, epigraphic, artistic, and archaeological evidence. This epoch marks tremendous development in every field of human endeavour. ❖❖ Maharashtra was in the forefront during the freedom struggle, and it was here that the Indian National Congress was born. A galaxy of leaders from Mumbai and other cities in Maharashtra led the Congress movement under the guidance of Tilak and then Mahatma Gandhi. Maharashtra was the home of Gandhiji’s movement, while Sevagram was the capital of nationalistic India during the Gandhian era. ❖❖ About 65% of the total workers in the state depend on agriculture and allied activities. Principal crops grown in the state are rice, jowar, bajra, wheat, tur, mung, urad, gram, and other pulses. ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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❖❖ Tourist Centres: Some important tourist centres are Ajanta, Ellora, Elephanta, Kanheri and Karla caves, Mahabaleshwar, Matheran and Panchgani, Jowhar, Malshej ghat, Arnboli, Chikaldara, Panhala hill stations and religious paces at Pandharpur, Nashik, Shirdi, Nanded, Aundha Nagnath, Trimbakeshwar, Tuljapur, Ganpatipule, Bhimashanker, Harihareshwar, Shegaon, Kolhapur, Jejuri, and Ambajogai.

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Area: 22,327 sq km Capital: Imphal Population: 28.56 lakh (Census 2011) Principal Language: Manipuri History and Geography: Manipur has a long and glorious history from before the beginning of the Christian era. The political history of Manipur could be traced back to 33 ce, with the coronation of Nongda Lairen Pakhangba. Manipur came under British Rule on 27 April 1891. Manipur regained its independence in 1947 and merged into the Indian Union on 15 October 1950. Thus, it became a Part C State under the purview of a chief commissioner. Manipur is situated in the extreme north-eastern border of India. It is bound on the east by upper Myanmar, on the north by Nagaland, on the west by Cachar district of Assam, and on the south by Chin Hills of Myanmar and Mizoram. There is a small oval-shaped plain in the central part. This central plain known as Imphal Valley is at a height of about 790 m above Mean Sea Level (MSL). Agriculture: Agriculture and allied activities are the only mainstay of the state’s economy where about 70% of the population depends on it. Forest: In terms of forest canopy density classes, the state has 701 sq km of very dense forests, 5,474 sq km of moderately dense forests and 11,105 sq km of open forests. Festivals: A year in Manipur represents a cycle of festivals. Hardly a month passes by without a festival which to the Manipuris is a symbol of their social, cultural and religious aspirations. Important festivals of the state are Lai Haraoba, Rasa Leela, Cheiraoba, Ningol Chak-Kouba, Rath-Jatra, Idul Fitr, Imoinu Iratpa, Gaan-Ngai, Lui-Ngai-Ni, Id-ul Zuha, Yaoshang (Holi), Durga Puja, Mera Houchongba, Diwali, Kut, Christmas, etc.

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❖❖ Tourist Centres: Some important tourist centres in the state are Kangla, Shree Shree Govindajee temple, Khwairamband Bazar (Ima Keithel), War cemeteries, Shaheed Minar, Nupi Lan (Women’s War) Memorial Complex, Khonghampat Orchidari um, INA Memorial (Moirang), Loktak Lake, Keibul Lamjao National Park, Sendra, Moreh, Siroy hills, Dzuko valley, State Museum, Kaina Tourist Home, Khongjom War Memorial Complex, India Peace Memorial (Red Hill), etc.

Meghalaya ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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Area: 22,429 sq km Population: 29.67 lakh (prov. Census 2011) Capital: Shillong Principal Language: Khasi, Pnar, Garo, and English History and Geography: The state of Meghalaya came into existence on 21 January 1972. The Khasi hills and Taintia hills which form the central and eastern part of Meghalaya form an imposing plateau with rolling grasslands, hills, and river valleys. The southern face of the plateau is marked by deep gorges and abrupt slopes, at the foot of which a narrow strip of plain runs along the international border with Bangladesh. Agriculture: Meghalaya is basically an agricultural state with 81% of its population depending primarily on agriculture for their livelihood. The state has a vast potential for development of horticulture due to the agroclimatic variations, which offer much scope for cultivation of temperate, sub-tropical, and tropical fruits and vegetables. Forest: The principal timber species are sal, titachar gomari, bol, pine, birch, and makri-sal. Festivals: A five-day-long religious festival of the Khasis ‘Ka Pamblang Nongkrem’ popularly known as ‘Nongkrem dance’ is annually held at Smit village, 11 km from Shillong. ‘Shad Sukmynsiem’, another important festival of the Khasis is held in Shillong during the second week of April. ‘Behdeinkhlam’, the most important and colourful festival of the Jaintias is celebrated annually at Jowai in Jaintia hills in July. ‘Wangala festival’ is observed for a week to honour Saljong (SunGod) of the Garos during October–November. Tourist Centres: Meghalaya is dotted with a number of lovely tourist spots where nature unveils herself in all her glory. Shillong, the capital city, has a number of beautiful spots. A few of them are Ward’s Lake, Lady Hydari Park, Polo Ground, Mini Zoo, Elephant Falls, Shillong Peak overlooking the city, and the golf course which is one of the best in the country.

Geography  3.149

Mizoram ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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Area: 21,081 sq km Population: 10.97 lakh (prov. Census 2011) Capital: Aizawl Principal Language: Mizo, English, and Lushai History and Geography: With the implementation of the North-Eastern Reorganization Act in 1972, Mizoram, became a union territory and as a sequel to the signing of the historic memorandum of settlement between the Government of India and the Mizo National Front in 1986, it was granted statehood on 20 February 1987. The state also holds the highest child sex ratio with 971 females against 1,000 males according to the 2011 census. Agriculture: About 60% of the people of Mizoram are engaged in agricultural and allied activities. The main pattern of agriculture followed is jhum or shifting cultivation. To replace the destructive and unproductive jhum cultivation with sustainable means of occupation, the state government has launched an innovative programme called the New Land Use Policy covering all the districts of Mizoram. Horticulture: The main horticulture crops are mandarin orange, banana, passion fruit, grapes, hatkora, pineapple, papaya, etc. and flowers like anthurium, bird of paradise, orchid, chrysanthemum, rose, and other subsidiary seasonal flowers. Spices like ginger, turmeric, black pepper and bird’s eye chillies are also grown. A multi-purpose packaging house has been set up at the Horticulture Centre, Chite, in collaboration with M/s Argos (Agri Projects) Ltd., Israel. Forest: 91.27% of the total geographical area (21,081 sq km) is covered with forest, which is the highest in the country. Irrigation: Owing to the hilly nature of the state, all irrigation projects are confined to minor irrigation. Wet rice cultivation potential area of Mizoram is estimated as 74,644 ha (as per Mizoram Remote Sensing Application Centre). Festivals: Being a predominantly agricultural community, all the activities of Mizos centre around jhum cultivation. ‘Kut’ is the Mizo term for festival. Among the various cultural festivals, only three, namely Chapchar Kut, Mim Kut, and Thalfavang Kut are being observed nowadays. Music and dance is a vital part of Mizo society. Often called ‘Song bird of the East’, the Mizos are blessed with a precious talent in music.

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❖❖ Tourist Centres: Aizawl, located at nearly 4,000 ft above sea level, is a religious and cultural centre of Mizoram. Champhai is a beautiful resort on the Myanmar border. Tam Dil, a natural lake with virgin forests, is 80 km from Aizawl and 10 km from the Tourist Resort of Saitual. Vantawng Falls, 5 km from the town of Thenzawl, is the highest and most beautiful waterfall in the state.

Nagaland ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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Area: 16,579 sq km Population: 19.79 lakh (prov. Census 2011) Capital: Kohima Principal Language: English, Hindi and 16 tribal dialects, Nagamese History and Geography: Nagaland became the 16th state of the Indian Union on 1 December 1963. Nagaland is bordered by Myanmar on the East, Arunachal on the north, and Assam on the west and Manipur on the south. The major recognized tribes of Nagaland are Angami, Ao, Chakhesang, Chang, Khiamniungan, Kuki, Konyak, Kachari, Lotha, Phom, Pochury, Rengma, Sangtam, Sumi, Yimchungrii, and Zeliang. Agriculture: Nagaland is basically a land of agriculture. About 70% of the population depends on agriculture. The contribution of the agricultural sector in the state is very significant. Tourism: The Hornbill festival conceived by the Tourist Department and held in the first week of December is an annual event where all tribes of Nagaland participate. Music and dances are an intrinsic part of Naga life. Folk songs and ballads eulogizing bravery, beauty, love, generosity, etc. are transmitted from generation to generation. Names of the tribes and their festivals are Angami-Sekrenyi, AoMoatsu, Chakhesang-Sukhrunye and Tsukhenye, Chang-Naknyulem, Khiamniungan-Tsokum, Kuki-Mimkut, Konyak-Aoleang Monyu, Kachari-Bushu, Lotha-Tokhu Emong, Phom-Monyu, Pochury-Yemshe, Rengma-Ngada, Sumi-Tuluni, Sangtam-Amongmong, YimchungruMetemneo, and Zeliang-Meileingi/Hega Langsimngi/Chegagadi.

Odisha ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Area: 1,55,707 sq km Population: 4.2 cr (Census 2011) Capital: Bhubaneswar Principal Language: Odia

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❖❖ History and Geography: The history of Odisha dates back to antiquity, its most famous old names being Kalinga, Utkal, and Odra. By the time of Mahavir and Buddha, the Kalinga Utkal region on the entire east coast of India acquired recognition and fame. The Mauryan emperor, Ashoka’s invasion of Kalinga was an epoch-making event of ancient times, with far reaching consequences. ❖❖ Modern Odisha took birth on 1 April 1936. After Independence, princely states in and around Odisha surrendered their sovereignty to the Government of India. By the States’ Merger Order, 1949, the rest of the princely states of Odisha were completely merged with the State of Odisha in January 1949. ❖❖ Change of the Name: The Gazette of India was published to this effect on 1 November 2011 on the passing of the Odisha (Alternation of Name) Bill, 2010, and the Constitution (113th Amendment) Bill by the Parliament which effectuated the change of the name of ‘Orissa’ to ‘Odisha’ and its language ‘Oriya’ to ‘Odia’. ❖❖ Agriculture: Agriculture continues to the backbone of the state’s economy. About 65% of the population of the state is dependant on it. The government has been giving priority to the development of the agriculture sector through a number of pro-active measures. ❖❖ Irrigation and Power: The state has a cultivable land of 61.65 lakh hectares, out of which 49% was provided irrigation facilities. For accelerated irrigation development, The government is implementing various farmer centric schemes such as Biju Krushak Vikash Yojana (BKVY), Deep Bore Well Construction Programme, Megalift, and Check Dam Construction. ❖❖ Tourism: A new tourism policy is being formulated by the government, aiming at strengthening the tourism prospects of Odisha, increasing private sector participation, augmenting tourism infrastructure, improving marketing and promoting tourism. To further enhance the security of the tourists, the government has created a separate wing called tourist police and deployed them at the sea beaches at Puri, Konark, and Gopalpur. Tourist police cells have also been created in Golden Triangle and Diamond Triangle.

Punjab ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Area: 50,362 sq km Capital: Chandigarh Population: 2.77 cr (Census 2011) Principal Language: Punjabi

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❖❖ History and Geography: The 15th and 16th centuries marked a period of watershed in the history of Punjab. Through teachings of Guru Nanak, the Bhakti movement received a great impetus. Sikhism began as a socio-religious movement, which was more interested in fighting evils in religion and society. It was Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru, who transformed the Sikhs into the Khalsa. They rose to challenge tyranny and after centuries of servitude, established a humane Punjabi Raj based on secularism and patriotism. ❖❖ In all, eight princely states of east Punjab were grouped together to form a single state called PEPSU—Patiala and the east Punjab States Union— with Patiala as its capital. The PEPSU state was merged with Punjab in 1956 with its capital at Chandigarh. Later, in 1966, Haryana was carved out of Punjab. Situated in the north-western corner of the country, Punjab is bound on the west by Pakistan, on the north by Jammu & Kashmir, on the north-east by Himachal Pradesh and on the south by Haryana and Rajasthan. ❖❖ Agriculture: The state has 83% of its total geographical area (50,33 lakh hectares) under cultivation. The cropping intensity is around 191% with over 98% of the cultivable area being under assured irrigation. ❖❖ The paddy and wheat productivity in the state is 3,838 kg/ha and 4,347 kg/ha against the national average of 2,424 kg/ha and 3,075 kg/ha, respectively. ❖❖ Tourism and Cultural Affairs: Memorials of Virasat-e-Khalsa at Shri Anandpur Sahib, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur War Memorial at Chapparchiri, Wadda Ghallughara at Kup Rohira and Chhota Ghallughara at Kahnuwan have been opened for general public. Shri Guru Ravidas Memorial and Bhai Jaita Ji (Baba Jiwan Singh Ji) memorials are being set up by the state government. Work on the second phase of Virasat-eKhalsa has been taken up by the state government.

Rajasthan ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Area: 3,42,239 sq km Capital: Jaipur Population: 6.86 cr (Census 2011) Principal Language: Hindi and Rajasthani History and Geography: Rajasthan is the largest state in India areawise. Prior to Independence, it was known as Rajputana or Rajputs—a martial community that ruled over this area for centuries. The process of uniting scattered states commenced from 1948 to 1956 when the States Reorganization Act was promulgated; first came Matsya Union

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(1948) consisting of a fraction of states, and slowly and gradually other states merged with this Union. By 1949, Major states like Bikaner, Jaipur, Jodhpur. Jaisalmer joined this Union making it the United State of Greater Rajasthan. Ultimately in 1958, the present state of Rajasthan formally came into being, with Ajmer state, the Abu Road Taluka, and Sunel Tappa joining it. Agriculture: Principal crops in the state are wheat, jowar, maize, gram, oilseeds, kharif pulses, and cotton. Cultivation of vegetable and citrus fruits such as orange and malta have also picked up over last few years. Red chillis, mustard, cumim seeds, and methi are commercial crops of the state. Minerals: Rajasthan is one of the leading mineral-producing state in India. The state has a glorious heritage in the field of mining and is second only to Jharkhand as regards mineral wealth. Festivals: Important fairs are Teej, Gangaur, Holi-Dhulandi, Kite and Rajasthan Divas (Jaipur), annual Urs of Ajmer Sherif and Galiakot Pushkar Fair (Ajmer), Ramdevji Cattle Fair (Nagaur), Camel Festival (Bikaner), Desert Festival (Jaisalmer), Beneshwar Fair (Dungarpur), Braj-Holi Festival (Bharatpur), Kailadevi Fair, Shri Mahaveer Fair (Karouli), Ranakpur Festival, Godwar Festival (Pali), Mewar Festival (Udaipur), Summer and Winter Festival Mount Abu (Sirohi), Kajli Teej and Bundi Festival (Bundi), Dussehra Festival and Adventure Festival (Kota), Matsya Festival (Alwar). Tourists Centres: Jaipur, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Bikaner, Mount Abu. (Sirohi), Ranthambhore National Park (Tiger Reserve-Sawai Madhopur), Sariska Tiger National Park (Alwar), Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur), Ajmer, Jaisalmer, Pali, Bundi, Kota, Jhalawar, Shekhawati (Sikar), and Chittorgarh are important places of tourists interest in the state.

Sikkim ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Area: 7,096 sq km Population: 6.11 lakh (Census 2011) Capital: Gangtok Principal Language: Lepcha, Bhutia, Nepali, Limboo, and Sikkimese History and Geography: The early history of Sikkim starts in the 13th century with the signing of a blood-brotherhood treaty between the Lepcha Chietain Thekong Tek and Bhutia Chieftain Khye-Bumsa at Kabi Lungtsok in North Sikkim.

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❖❖ The world’s third highest mountain, Mt Khangchendzonga, is regarded as the guardian deity of Sikkim. Sikkim is one of the 18 biodiversity hotspots in the world. ❖❖ The rare and globally threatened snow leopard, tibetan argali sheep, red panda, as well as the highest altitude domesticated bovid, the yak, blacknecked crane, and fairrieanum orchid are some of the important species found here. ❖❖ Tourism: Sikkim is adorned with snowy mountains, luxuriant forests with exotic flora and fauna, pristine waterfalls, sacred lakes, holy caves, medicinal hot-springs, cascading rivers, and gentle streams, making it a tourist destination for all seasons. An interlace of mixed culture of various communities reside here, the state celebrates festivals and activities of each of them with grand fervour.

Tamil Nadu Area: 1,30,060 sq km Population: 7.21 cr (Census 2011) Capital: Chennai Principal Language: Tamil History and Geography: Tamil Nadu has an ancient history. Through early Sangam classics throw historical references, it is only from the Pallavas that we pass to recorded history. South India had remained under the hegemony of the Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas for centuries. ❖❖ Tamil Nadu was one of the first British settlements in India. The state is the successor to the old Madras Presidency which in 1901 covered the bulk of the southern peninsula. The composite Madras State was later reorganized and the present Tamil Nadu formed. ❖❖ Tourism: As a veritable treasure trove of art and culture, Tamil Nadu has always been a great attraction to tourists. Tamil Nadu is the consummate expression of art and culture of the past period compared to elsewhere in the country. Tamil Nadu proudly possesses glorious sculptures, frescoes and murals adorning walls and pillars, giant temple towers (gopurarns) due to the competitive spirit of the ancient Tamil kings in preserving the arts and culture. Tamil Nadu has multifarious tourist attractions which include 1,076 km of pristine coastline, more than 30,000 temples and places of worship that date back beyond the beginning of the Christian era, waterfalls, wildlife sanctuaries, hill stations, dam sites, arts, exotic culture, beautifully made handicrafts and handlooms, heritage, cuisine, business opportunities, etc. ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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❖❖ Ports: Major ports in the state are Chennai, Ennore, and Thoothukudi. There are 23 declared minor ports including seven government minor ports namely Cuddalore, Nagapattinam, Rameswaram, Pambam, and Colachel Kanyakumari.

Telangana Area: 1,12,077 sq km Population: 3.52 cr Capital: Hyderabad Principal Language: Telugu and Urdu In June 2014, Telangana was formed as the 29th state of India with Hyderabad as its capital. Earlier Telangana was a part of Andhra state as per the linguistic re-organization of states in 1956. ❖❖ History of Telangana: The name Telangana refers to the word Trilinga Desa, earned due to the presence of three ancient Shiva temples at Kaleswaram, Srisailam, and Draksharamam. A more historical reason is that during the reign of Nizams, the region was known as Telugu Angana to differentiate it from the areas where Marathi was spoken. ❖❖ Festivals: Bathukamma is a colourful and vibrant festival of Telangana and this unique festival of flowers stands as a symbol of the state’s cultural identity. ‘Bonalu’ is an annual Hindu festival celebrated in the state in which Goddess Mahakali is worshipped. Dussehra, Samakka Saarakka Jaathara, Peerla Panduga, Ramzan are also largely celebrated in Telangana. ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Tripura Area: 10,491 sq km Population: 36.74 lakh (prov. Census 2011) Capital: Agartala Principal Language: Bengali and Kokborok History: Tripura has a unique tribal culture and fascinating folklore. The history of Tripura can be learnt from Rajinala chronicles of King Tripura and writings of historians. There are references of Tripura even in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Tripura is strategically situated between the river valleys of Myanmar and Bangladesh. Encircled almost on three sides by Bangladesh, it is linked with Assam and Mizoram in the north-east. ❖❖ Tourism: Tripura is a small but picturesque state in the north-eastern region of the country. The area of the state is about 10,49,169 sq km. To its north, south, and south-east it has an international boundary with Bangladesh while to its east, it shares a common boundary with the

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two states of Assam and Mizoram. There are 19 ethnic tribes, Bengali, Manipuri and others, inhabiting this tiny, panoramic state.

Uttarakhand Area: 53,483 sq km Population: 1.01 cr (Census 2011) Capital: Dehradun Principal Language: Hindi, English, Garhwali, and Kumauni History: It is often called the land of the gods because of its various holy places and abundant shrines. The hilly regions of Uttarakhand offer pristine landscapes to the tourists. ❖❖ Festivals: The world-famous Kumbh Mela/Ardh Kumbh Mela is held at Haridwar at every twelfth/sixth year interval. Other prominent fairs/festivals are Devidhura Mela (Champawat), Purnagiri Mela (Champawat), Nanda Devi Mela (Almora), Gauchar Mela (Chamoli), Baisakhi (Uttarkashi), Magha Mela (Uttarkashi), Uttaraini Mela(Bageshwar), Vishu Mela (Jaunsar Bhabar), Peerane-Kalivar (Roorkee), and Nanda Devi Raj Jat Yatra held every 12th year. ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Uttar Pradesh Area: 2,43,286 sq km Population: 19.98 cr (Census 2011) Capital: Lucknow Principal Language: Hindi and Urdu History: The history of Uttar Pradesh is very ancient and interesting. It is recognized in the later Vedic Age as Brahmarshi Desha or Madhya Desha. Many great sages of the Vedic times like Bhardwaja, Gautam, Yagyavalkaya, Vashishtha, Vishwarnitra, and Valmiki flourished in this state. Several sacred books of the Aryans were also composed here. In the 6th century bce, Uttar Pradesh was associated with two new religions— Jainism and Buddhism. ❖❖ Agriculture: Agriculture is the main occupation of 66% of the population of the state. The net cultivated area is 164.17 lakh hectares. ❖❖ Festivals: The biggest congregation, perhaps of the world, the Kumbha Mela is held at Allahabad every 12th year and Ardh Kumbh Meta every sixth year. Magh Mela is also held at Allahabad in January when the people come in large numbers to have a dip in the holy Sangam. Among other fairs is the fortnight long Thocia fair of Mathura, Vrindavan, and Ayodhya, when dolls are placed in gold silver jhoolas or cradles. A dip in the Ganga on Kartik Poornamasi is said to be the holiest and there are ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Geography  3.157

big congregations at Garhmukteshwar, Rajghat, Kakora, Bithur, Kanpur, Allahabad, Varanasi, and Ayodhya. A far-cattle fair is held at Bateswar in Agra district. ❖❖ Tourist Centres: Besides ancient places of pilgrimage like Varanasi, Vindhyachal. Ayodhya, Chitrakoot, Prayag, Naimisharanya, Mathura, Vrindavan, Dewa Sharief, Dargah of Sheikh Saleem Chisti in Fatehpur Sikri, Sarnath, Shravasti, Kushinagar, Sankisa, Kampil, Piprahwa, Kaushambi, etc.

West Bengal Area: 88,752 sq km Population: 9.13 cr (prov. Census 2011) Capital: Kolkata Principal Language: Bengali History: The name of Bengal or Bangla is derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga or Banga. However, Stone Age tools dating back 20,000 years have been excavated in the state. It was one of the four main kingdoms of India during the times of Mahavir and Buddha, and consisted of several Janapadas. Bengal was referred to as Gangaridai by the ancient Greeks around 100 bce, meaning, speculatively, a land with the river Ganga in its heart. ❖❖ History of modern Bengal begins with the advent of the Europeans, more precisely, with the English-trading companies. The Battle of Massey in 1757 changed the course of history when the English first gained a strong foothold in Bengal and India as well. Bengal was partitioned in 1905 to achieve some political returns.

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Andaman & Nicobar Island Area: 8,249 sq km Population: 3,79,944 (2011 census) Capital: Port Blair Principal Language: Hindi, Nicobarese, Bengali, Tamil, Malayalam, and Telugu ❖❖ History and Geography: The islands located north of 10°N latitude are known as Andaman group of islands while islands located south of 10°N latitude are called Nicobar group of islands. The climate of the islands can be defined as a humid, tropical coastal climate. The islands receive rainfall from both the south-west and north-east monsoons and maximum precipitation is between May and December. ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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❖❖ Agriculture: Paddy, the main food crop, is mostly cultivated in the Andaman, group of islands, whereas coconut and areca nut are the cash crops of Nicobar group of islands. Field crops, namely pulses, oilseeds, and vegetables are grown followed by paddy during rabi season. ❖❖ Tourism: Andaman & Nicobar Islands have been recognized as an eco friendly tourist destination. As a tourist paradise, these islands have something very special to offer, like the historic Cellular jail, Ross, and Havelock Islands.

Chandigarh Area: 114 sq km Population: 10.55 lakh (Census 2011) Capital: Chandigarh Principal Language: Hindi and Punjabi History and Geography: Chandigarh is a fully grown town of modern architectural splendour. The city nestles in a picturesque setting in the foothills of the Shivalik hills and enjoys the popular epithet, ‘City Beautiful’. Representative of modern town planning, the city is a creation of the French architect, Le Corbusier. ❖❖ Tourism: Administration has taken many innovative and novel measures like Wedding Tourism. With the focus on extending efficient medical-, educational-, and entertainment-oriented facilities, the administration is promoting cinematic tourism, sports tourism, and medical tourism in a big way. ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Dadra & Nagar Haveli ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Area: 491 sq km Population: 3.44 lakh (Census 2011) Capital: Silvassa Principal Language: Hindi, Gujarati, and English History and Geography: The Portuguese ruled this territory until its liberation by the people on 2 August 1954. From 1954 till 1961, the territory functioned almost independently by what was known as ‘Free Dadra & Nagar Haveli Administration’. Silvassa is the capital of this UT. The Silvassa Municipal Council came into existence in 2006 and is formed of two towns namely—Silvassa and Amli. Another five villages, namely Dadra, Naroli, Samarvani, Mast, and Rakholi, have been treated as non-statutory census towns in the population census of 2011.

Geography  3.159

❖❖ Tourism: The prominent place of tourist interest are Tadekeshwar Shiva Mandir, Bindrabin, Deer park at Khanvel, Vanganga Lake and Island Garden, Dara, and Vanvihar Udhyan, Tribal Museum, and Hirvavan Garden at Silvassa. To attract tourists, annual celebration of festivals like Tarpa and World Tourism Day are regular events.

Daman & Diu Area: 111 sq km Population: 242,911 (prov. Census 2011) Capital: Daman Principal Language: Gujarati History and Geography: Daman & Diu along with Goa was a colony held by the Portuguese even after Independence in 1961. ❖❖ Tourist Places: Important tourist places in Daman are Born Jesus Church; Our Lady of Sea Church: Our Lady of Remedios Church; Forts of Moti Daman and Nani Daman; Tampon and Devka Beaches; Public Garden at Nani Daman and Moti Daman Jetty; Pargola Garden; Moti Daman; Amusement Park; Devka; Daman Ganga Tourist Complex, Kachigam, Satya Sagar Udyan; Mirasol Garden; Mirasol Water Park. ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Delhi Area: 1,483 sq km Population: 1.68 cr (Census 2011) Capital: New Delhi Principal Language: Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu, and English History and Geography: Ruled by Mauryas, Pallavas, Guptas of Central India and then the Afghan Turks during the 13th to 15th centuries, and finally the Mughals in the 16th century. In the latter half of the 18th century and early 19th century, British rule was established in Delhi. In 1911, Delhi became the centre of all activities after the capital was shifted from Kolkata (Calcutta). ❖❖ Tourist Places: Important tourist places are Lal Quila (Red Fort), Jama Masjid, Qutab Minar, India Gate, Laxmi Narain Mandir (Birla Mandir), Humayun’s Tomb, Lotus Temple, Akshardham, etc. Delhi Tourism and Transportation Development Corporation Limited conducts city sight-seeing and excursion tours. The Corporation has also introduced adventure tourism activities such as parasailing, rock-climbing, and boating in Delhi.

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3.160  Chapter 3

Lakshadweep Area: 32 sq km Population: 64,000 (Census 2011) Capital: Kavaratti Principal Language: Malyalam and Dhivehi History and Geography: The Laccadives, Minicoy, and Amindivi group of islands were renamed Lakshadweep in 1973. Lakshadweep, a group of coral islands, consists of 11 inhabited islands, 16 uninhabited islands, three reefs, and six submerged sand banks. These lie scattered in the Arabian Sea about 280 km to 480 km off the Kerala coast between 8° and 12°3′ North Latitude and 71° and 74° East Longitude. ❖❖ Tourist Centres: Tourism is developing into an important industry. Important tourist places are Agatti, Bangaram, Kalpeni, Kadmat, Kavaratti, and Minicoy, etc. ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Puducherry Area: 562 sq km Population: 12.48 lakh (prov. Census 2011) Capital: Pondicherry Principal Language: Tamil, Telgu, Malyalam, English, and French History and Geography: Puducherry, the capital of the territory, was once the original headquarters of the French in India. It was under French rule for 138 years and merged with the Indian Union on 1 November 1954. It is bound on the east by the Bay of Bengal and on the three sides by Tamil Nadu. ❖❖ Tourism: Located about 160 km south of Chennai, Puducherry (known in Tamil as Pudducherry), the former French colony of the early eighteenth century, is a charming Indian town with a few enduring pockets of French culture, and an Ashram set beside the sea. Together with the other former French enclaves of Karaikal (also in Tamil Nadu), Mahe (Kerala), and Yanarn (Andhra Pradesh), it now forms the union territory of Puducherry. The uniqueness of this town invariably lies in skilful town planning and the Franco-Tamil architecture. The town is built on the model of a ‘Bastide’, a fortified French coastal town of the late 18th century. ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

  Chapter 4

Indian Polity and Constitution Introduction The term ‘polity’ symbolizes the arrangement of government in a country and it covers powers, roles, responsibilities, functions and restrictions of that arrangement. Polity of a country derives its base from the Constitution. Indian Polity describes the primary structure according to which various channels/institutions of governance are organized. Some of the basic features of Indian Polity include: 1. Democratic form of government: where citizens elect their leaders through a system of fair elections by voting. 2. Parliamentary form of government. 3. Division of powers between the union and state governments. The term ‘Constitution’ originates from the Latin term ‘constituere’ which means regulations and orders. The Constitution contains the rights and duties of citizens along with the set of rules and regulations which define the relationship between the State and its citizens and the duties and powers of the State. A Constitution may be written (India) or unwritten (England). A written Constitution is also called an enacted Constitution, while an unwritten Constitution is called an evolved Constitution. A Constitution codifies the powers of the three organs of the State, namely the legislature, executive, and judiciary. It also provides for the limitations to the powers of the organs of the State. It embodies the spirit of the people of the country. A Constitution is often the reflection of the culture, values, ethos, sentiments, traditions, and customs of a particular place. It may be said that a Constitution shows the nationalistic character of the State and keeps the nation together by acting as a binding and unifying force.

The Supreme Document ❖❖ The Constitution of a country is often called the ‘Supreme Law’ as it forms the basis for is the origin of all the other laws. No law can be made in contravention of the Constitution. The Constitution defines the powers

4.2  Chapter 4

of the legislature to make laws. The legislature can make laws only to the extent that it is allowed to do so by the Constitution. ❖❖ The Constitution of India validated the laws which were made prior to the coming in force of the Constitution. This shows that no law in the country can exist unless it is in conformity with the Constitution. The Constitution also defines the limits of all the other laws which govern the country and the people. The Constitution is also ‘Supreme’ in the sense that nobody is above the Constitution—neither the State nor the citizens. It is like an umbrella which protects everyone and at the same time limits the scope or the field of operation.

Constituent Assembly ❖❖ The Constitution of India was framed by the Drafting Committee which was formed by the Constituent Assembly. ❖❖ The idea of a Constituent Assembly of India was first put forward by M.N. Roy in 1934. It was accepted in August 1940 in the August Offer. However, it was constituted under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. ❖❖ The membership plan was roughly as per suggestions of the Cabinet Mission Plan. The basis of division of seats was ‘population’, roughly in a 1 : 10 lakh ratio. The members of the Constituent Assembly were indirectly elected by the members of Provincial Assemblies, who themselves were elected in the year 1946. ❖❖ The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly of India took place in Constitution Hall, New Delhi, on 9 December 1946. Dr Sachchidananda Sinha was the first President (interim) of the Constituent Assembly, since he was the oldest member of the house. ❖❖ On 11 December 1946, Dr Rajendra Prasad became the President of the Constituent Assembly. Professor Harendra Coomar Mookerjee was the Vice-President of the Constituent Assembly, whereas B.N. Rau was the Constitutional Advisor. ❖❖ The Assembly appointed 22 committees to perform different tasks related to the framing of the Constitution, the most important among them being the ‘Drafting Committee’, headed by Dr B.R. Ambedkar, which had to draft the Constitution. The Drafting Committee was formed on 29 August 1947, with other members being N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar, Alladi Krishnaswamy Ayyar, Dr K.M. Munshi, Syed Mohammad Saadullah, N. Madhava Rao (he replaced B.L. Mitter who resigned due to ill health) and T.T. Krishnamachari (he replaced D.P. Khaitan who died in 1948). ❖❖ The Constituent Assembly took 2 years, 11 months, and 17 days to frame the Constitution. The Constitution of India was adopted, enacted and

Indian Polity and Constitution

4.3

given by the people of India to do you Know? themselves on November 26, On 24 January, some members could 1949. A total of 284 members not come to sign the Constitution appended their signatures to as it was raining heavily. it on 24 January 1950. The Also, The original copy of the signed Constituent Assembly held Constitution is still preserved in 11 sessions to complete the helium-fi lled  cases  in  the  library  of  drafting of the Constitution. the Parliament of India. ❖❖ The Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950. This date was selected, as on the same day 20 years ago (26 January 1930), the All India Congress Committee (AICC) had passed the Purna Swaraj Declaration or the Declaration of Complete Independence during its Lahore Session. ❖❖ Though the Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950, some provisions relating to citizenship, elections, provisional parliament, temporary and transitional provisions were given immediate effect on 26 November 1949.

the conStItutIon oF IndIA ❖❖ Article 393 of our Constitution provides that it may be called the ‘Constitution of India’. The Constitution includes a Preamble, 22 parts and 12 Schedules (initially, there were eight schedules) which extensively lays down the framework and structure of the State of India. ❖❖ Article 1 of the Constitution states that ‘India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States’. ❖❖ The Constitution of India is the lengthiest constitution in the world. India is a vast country with diverse regional and ethnical needs, interests, and ethos. The country being secular, does not have any official religion nor does it prohibit or promote any particular religion. The Constitution has thus been framed keeping in mind the needs of the people of different race, caste, sex, region, ethnical community, and other parameters. Know more! What are Schedules, parts, and Articles in the Indian constitution, and what is the difference between them? The Constitution of India has been written in the form of Parts, Schedules and Articles. Basically, Parts consist of the Articles, and they indicate the theme or subject of all the Articles inside them. For example, Fundamental Rights are given from Article 12 to Article 35, whereas all these rights are a part of Part III of the Indian Constitution.

4.4  Chapter 4

  Schedules exist primarily to allow a certain degree of flexibility to the main statute. They are appended to the legislation to avoid Sections or Articles from becoming too detailed. The division of the legislation into sections (in the case of the Constitution-Articles) and Schedules is primarily for the sake of convenience. Further, Sections provide the general framework, while Schedules contain details about how the policy set out in the Sections may be implemented. For example, the Third Schedule of the Constitution stipulates the form in which oaths of office are to be taken by ministers, judges, etc. The Schedules may also contain transitory provisions which may be subsequently brought into force or certain rules/forms which may be suitably amended at a later point of time, taking into consideration certain changing local conditions, etc.

The Constitution of India has certain essential features such as: ❖❖ It is a written Constitution. ❖❖ It is partly flexible and partly rigid. ❖❖ It provides for a federal as well as a unitary system. Historian and Constitution expert K.C. Wheare called the Indian Constitution ‘Quasi-Federal’. ❖❖ The Preamble describes India as Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, and Republic. ❖❖ The Constitution provides for the creation of new states and the alteration of boundaries of existing states. ❖❖ It lays down the conditions for acquiring the citizenship of India. ❖❖ It provides for a Parliamentary system of government at two levels— union and the state. ❖❖ It clearly defines the limitations of the union and state legislatures with regard to their specific fields of legislations. ❖❖ It provides for a system of checks and balances for the three organs of the State—the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary. ❖❖ It lays down the Fundamental Rights and duties of the citizens (and in some cases—even non-citizens) and the Directive Principles for the State. ❖❖ The President of India is the head of the State of India (and the Executive) and is advised by the Council of Ministers. ❖❖ Some states have bicameral legislature (Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council). ❖❖ It makes a provision for an independent judiciary consisting of the Supreme Court, the High Courts, and subordinate Courts. ❖❖ It makes elaborate provisions for local self-government by providing for panchayats and municipalities.

Indian Polity and Constitution  4.5

❖❖ Special provisions have been made for the union territories and the scheduled and tribal areas. ❖❖ The legislative and administrative relationship between the Union and the states has also been laid down by the Constitution. ❖❖ The financial relationship has also been laid down taking into account the special needs of states. ❖❖ In furtherance of the object of unifying India as a country, the trade, commerce, and intercourse has been made free throughout the territory of India (subject to regulations and reasonable restrictions). ❖❖ It also makes provisions for the Public Service Commissions for the Union and the states and the Services to aid and assist the State in performing its functions. ❖❖ Tribunals have been provided for, to reduce the burden on the Supreme Court and the High Courts and to provide specialized courts for dealing with matters. ❖❖ There are provisions for reservation for the weaker sections of society. ❖❖ Election Commission has been established to ensure free and fair elections in furtherance of the right of the citizens to vote. ❖❖ Last, but not the least, the Constitution also makes provisions for its own amendment. Know More! Why are there Articles in the Indian Constitution, and not Sections? When any fundamentally important document is formed/drafted which may be a grundnorm (which, in very simple words, is a fundamental norm to support all other legal norms) of that system—political, national or international level, then, generally, it is differentiated from the ordinary municipal laws by referring to its clauses as Articles rather than Sections. Thus, the Indian Constitution contains Articles, whereas all other legislations contain Sections.

Preamble ❖❖ In simple language, ‘Preamble’ means ‘a preliminary or preparatory statement or an introduction’. This is precisely the role that the Preamble to the Indian Constitution plays. It sets the ideals and the goals which the makers of the Constitution seek to achieve through the Constitution. Therefore, it is also regarded as ‘a key to open the mind of the makers of the Constitution, which may show the general purpose for which they made the Constitution’. For that reason, the Preamble is also a legitimate aid in the interpretation of the provisions of the Constitution.

4.6  Chapter 4

❖❖ Now let’s learn the meanings of some specific words from the Preamble: ●● ●● ●● ●●

●●

Sovereign: India is both internally as well as externally free and is not dependent upon any outside authority. Socialist (added by 42nd Amendment, 1976): Some form of ownership of means of production and distribution by the State. Secular (added by 42nd Amendment, 1976): The State does not have any official religion of its own. Democratic: The government draws its authority from the people (Remember how Abraham Lincoln defined democracy as ‘Government of the people, by the people, for the people’). Republic: Head of the State in India is an elected person and holds the office for a fixed term (The President of India is the Head of the State in India). Compare this with monarchy where the Head of the State is not an elected person but is chosen on the basis of heredity.

❖❖ The Preamble specifies that the Constitution of India was ‘adopted’, ‘enacted’ and given to themselves by the people of India on 26 November 1949. It should be noted that the Constitution came into effect on 26 January 1950. ❖❖ The Preamble was initially not considered as a part of the Constitution. This was held by the Supreme Court in the Berubari case in 1960. However, this interpretation was later changed in the case of Kesavananda Bharti Vs. State of Kerala in the year 1973, whereby the Supreme Court held that the Preamble is a part of the Constitution, and, thus, it can also be amended. ❖❖ The words ‘Socialist’, ‘Secular’, and ‘and integrity’ were not a part of original text of the Preamble and were added by the 42nd Amendment in the year 1976 (also known as ‘Mini-Constitution’). This is the only instance where the Preamble was amended. ❖❖ Is Preamble a part of the basic structure of the Constitution? Partially, yes! The objectives specified in the Preamble are a part of the basic structure of the Constitution and cannot be interfered with. (To know more about the basic structure of the Constitution, read the case of Kesavananda Bharti Vs. State of Kerala [1973]).

Citizenship ❖❖ Part II of the Constitution of India provides for the citizenship of India. It lays down the general principles of citizenship. India has a system of single citizenship. There is a single citizenship for the Union of India, and there is no citizenship for individual states. Also, a person cannot be a citizen of any other country apart from India while he continues to hold the citizenship of India.

Indian Polity and Constitution  4.7

Facts to Know! Citizenship of Jammu & Kashmir Though India has single citizenship and individual states cannot have their own concept of citizenship, Jammu & Kashmir is an exception to this rule. The Jammu & Kashmir Constitution has a concept known as ‘Permanent Residency’. People who are permanent residents of Jammu & Kashmir are given benefits not available to non-permanent residents. Thus, this concept is functionally similar to the concept of citizenship, and, thus, the residents of Jammu & Kashmir can be casually said to have dual citizenship.

A person (natural person and not any company, association, body of individuals) may become a citizen of India by the following means:

1. Citizenship by Birth 2. Citizenship by Descent 3. Citizenship by Registration 4. Citizenship by Naturalization 5. Citizenship by Incorporation of Territory Also, there are three modes of losing citizenship. They are:

1. Renunciation: If any citizen of India who is also a national of another country renounces his citizenship through a declaration in the prescribed manner, he ceases to be an Indian citizen. 2. Termination: Any person who acquired Indian citizenship by naturalization, registration, or otherwise, has voluntarily acquired citizenship of another country at any time between 26 January 1950 and 30 December 1955, shall have ceased to be an Indian citizen. 3. Deprivation: The government can deprive a citizen of his citizenship if he has acquired citizenship by fraudulent means.

Fundamental Rights ❖❖ Fundamental Rights are the basic rights which are guaranteed by the Constitution of India. They are provided for under Part III (Articles 12–35) of the Constitution. Any law which is inconsistent with or in derogation of these rights shall be void (Article 13). They are also known as the Magna Carta of the Indian Constitution. ❖❖ Initially, there were seven broad Fundamental Rights (encompassing several other rights) but now the number has reduced to six, after deletion of Right to Property by virtue of the 44th Amendment in 1978. Certain

4.8  Chapter 4

Fundamental Rights are conferred to Indian citizens only, whereas some others are given to all individuals, citizens as well as non-citizens. ❖❖ It should be noted that, with a few exceptions, Fundamental Rights are only available against the State. This is because the Constitution (in which Fundamental Rights are given) is not a promise by the people to the people but a promise by the State to the people. Thus, such a promise can only be enforced against the State and not individuals. Article 12 of the Constitution gives the definition of State and states that ‘the State includes the Government and Parliament of India and the Government and the Legislature of each of the States and all local or other authorities within the territory of India or under the control of the Government of India’.   The broad categorization of the Fundamental Rights is as follows:

1. Right to Equality (Article 14–18) 2. Right to Freedom (Article 19–22) 3. Right against Exploitation (Article 23–24) 4. Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25–28) 5. Cultural and Educational Rights (Article 29–30) 6. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32) Facts to Know! It was ruled on 24 August 2017 that Right to Privacy is a Fundamental Right under the Constitution of India (integral part of Article 21).

Right to Equality ❖❖ Article 14: Equality before law: Article 14 says that ‘the State shall not deny to any person equality before law or equal protection of laws within the territory of India’. It is conferred to all individuals as opposed to only citizens. Article 14 has two components viz., ‘equality before the law’ and ‘equal protection of laws’. Everyone, irrespective of rank and position, is subject to the jurisdiction of ordinary courts. The latter part of the Article confers a positive obligation over the State to ensure that everyone may enjoy equal protection, and remove existing inequalities, by bringing in necessary steps. ❖❖ Legislative classification is allowed. However, equality does not mean uniformity of treatment but that equals must be treated equally, whereas unequals must be treated differently. Therefore, a wide discretion has been given to the legislature to classify and distinguish persons for the purposes of legislation.

Indian Polity and Constitution  4.9

❖❖ Article 15: Prohibition of Discrimination: This Article applies the general principle laid down in Article 14 to particular situations. It prohibits the State from discriminating (treating unfairly) against its citizens, only on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. Further, they should also not be restricted in access to various public places including shops, public restaurants, hotels, and places of public entertainment; or the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads, and places of public resort maintained wholly or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public. But State can make special provisions for women and children or for socially and educationally backward classes or for the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes. It is to be noted that this is directed only at the citizens and not all individuals. ❖❖ Article 16: Equality of opportunity in public employment: It states that there should be an equality of opportunity for citizens and nondiscrimination in the matters of public employment. There are some exceptions though. The Parliament may enact a law requiring certain jobs to be filled only by the applicants domiciled in the area. The State may also reserve posts for members of backward classes, scheduled castes, or scheduled tribes which are not adequately represented in the services under the State. A law may require that the office holder of any religious institution shall also be a person professing that religion. ❖❖ Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability: It abolishes untouchability and renders enforcement of any disability arising out of untouchability to be an offence. ❖❖ Article 18: Abolition of Titles: It prohibits conferment of titles by the State or their acceptance from foreign states. It also prohibits any noncitizen holding an office of profit or trust under the State from accepting a title from a foreign State and any person holding such an office from accepting any present or future emolument or office from any foreign state, without the consent of the president. Facts to Know! Article 18 Simplified: Simply speaking, a title is a name or designation given to a person as a sign of privilege or distinction (For example: Badshah, Raja, Lord, etc). So, while our Preamble states that equality of status should be given to all persons, giving such titles creates an artificial distinction in the minds of people. Thus, Article 18 prohibits either giving of such titles by the Indian State or any Indian citizen accepting such a title from a foreign State without the consent of the President.

4.10  Chapter 4

Right to Freedom ❖❖ Article 19: Article 19(1) of the Constitution guarantees all the citizens of India six fundamental freedoms which they can exercise throughout the territory of India. They are as follows:









1. Freedom of Speech and Expression (19(1)(a)): It means the right to express one’s own ideas and opinions freely by any mode of expression or medium of communication. It includes freedom of the press as well and, therefore, incorporates the right to propagate or publish the views of others also. However, reasonable restrictions can be imposed in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation, or incitement to an offence. 2. Freedom to Assemble Peacefully without Arms (19(1)(b)): It provides for the right of assembly including the right to hold meetings and to take out processions. But this right has two limitations, that the assembly must be unarmed and peaceful. Further reasonable restrictions may be imposed in the interest of public order or sovereignty. 3. Freedom to form Associations, Unions or Co-operative Societies (19(1)(c)): It also confers on its citizens a freedom to form and continue associations or unions; and it has a very wide ambit including all kinds of associations like political parties, clubs, trade unions, etc. 4. Freedom to move Freely Throughout the Territory of India (19(1) (d)): This freedom is also guaranteed to the citizens, and it overlaps with the freedom to reside and settle in any part (19(1)(e)) of the territory of India. 5. Right to Property (19(1)(f)): (deleted by the 44th Amendment, 1978, and is now a part of Article 300A). 6. Right to Trade and Occupation (19(1)(g)): The Constitution also guarantees that all the citizens have the right to practise any profession or to pursue any occupation, trade, or business, within the territory of India.

  However, it is to be reiterated that these freedoms are not absolute in nature and that they are subject to reasonable restrictions which may be imposed by the State, in the interest of: ●● ●● ●● ●●

Sovereignty and integrity of India Security of the State Friendly relations with foreign States Public order

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.11 ●● ●●

Decency or morality Contempt of court, defamation, or incitement to an offence Know More!

Why was Right to Property deleted as a Fundamental Right and kept only as a constitutional/legal right? Right to Property was deleted as a Fundamental Right by the 44th Amendment, passed in 1978 by the Morarji Desai government. Thus, Article 19(1)(f), which guaranteed Right to Property as a Fundamental Right, was deleted and instead, Article 300-A was inserted, and Right to Property was demoted to the status of only a Constitutional Right. The reason behind this was that giving people a Fundamental Right to hold and dispose their property was hampering with developmental works (like laying down railway tracks, undertaking developmental projects on private lands, etc.) and, when such cases approached the courts, they tended to side with the parties holding the property, Right to Property being a Fundamental Right.   As a consequence of the deletion of Article 19(1)(f), no one could now approach the court and file a writ for the infringement of this right, and, thus, the sanctity and effectiveness of Right to Property was reduced by the legislature.

❖❖ Protection in Respect of Conviction of Offences (Article 20): It states that a person can only be convicted of an offence, if the act he is charged against was an offence under the law at the date of commission of the offence. Thus, one cannot be punished for an act which is not an offence at the date of its commission (Right against retrospective laws). ●●

●●

Further, this Article recognizes the concept of ‘Double Jeopardy’ and the Constitution doesn’t allow a person to be prosecuted for a criminal offense again for which he has already been tried once (Right against double jeopardy). It further protects an accused person against the compulsion of selfincrimination, stating that a person who is accused of an offence shall not be compelled to be witness against himself (Right against selfincrimination).

❖❖ Right to Life and Personal Liberty (Article 21): It confers the most fundamental right, that of life and personal liberty. However, protection of life and personal liberty afforded by this Article is not absolute. It can be restricted according to the procedure established by law. For example: court can grant capital punishment if a person is convicted of any offence punishable with death under the Indian Penal Code.

4.12  Chapter 4

Know More! Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law: While framing the Constitution of India, the drafters were in fix whether to go for the term ‘Procedure Established by Law’ or ‘Due Process of Law’. The concept of Due Process of Law is used in the USA. The difference between both is that while Procedure Established by Law says that if the Parliament has enacted any law while following the correct procedure, the court would not interfere, even if the law is unreasonable and arbitrary.   However, the concept of Due Process of Law says that the court has the power to check not only whether the correct procedure was followed in framing a law but also whether the law itself is ‘just, fair, and reasonable’ or not.   Thus, Due Process of Law = Procedure Established by Law + checking whether law is just, fair, and reasonable or not.   The Supreme Court, in the case of A.K. Gopalan Vs. State of Madras (1950) held that the term Procedure Established by Law (under Article 21) does not include Due Process of Law. However, the Court reversed this interpretation in the case of Maneka Gandhi Vs. Union of India (1978), whereby the Court held that Procedure Established by Law includes Due Process of Law and the Court has the power to check whether a law passed by the Parliament is just, fair, and reasonable.

❖❖ Protection against Arrest and Detention (Article 22): It confers certain rights to all persons against arrest and detention. It confers a right not to be detained in custody without being informed about the grounds of arrest, the right to consult and to be represented by a lawyer of one’s own choice, the right to be produced before the nearest magistrate within 24 hours of his arrest, and the right to not be detained in custody beyond 24 hours without authority of the court. It further lays down the mechanism to be followed in case of preventive detention.

Right Against Exploitation (Article 23) ❖❖ Abolition of Trafficking in Human Beings and Begar: The provisions pertaining to this right are laid under Articles 23 and 24. The former talks about the prohibition of trafficking in human beings and forced labour, and it would not only apply to the State but also to individuals. Trafficking refers to the treatment of human beings like goods, i.e., to sell or let or otherwise dispose them off. In furtherance of this Article, bonded labor system was abolished by Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976. Begar means involuntary work without payment, and the same has

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.13

already been specifically abolished. No one can be compelled to work without wages. ❖❖ Abolition of Employment of Children (Article 24): It forbids the employment of children below the age of 14 years in dangerous jobs like factories and mines. However, the employment of children in general is not prohibited under the Constitution.

Do You Know? Though the Constitution does not specifically prohibit the employment of children in non-hazardous employment, the Parliament passed an amendment to The Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Act, 1986, in the year 2016, which does that.

Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28) ❖❖ This right extends from Articles 25 to 28 of the Indian Constitution and highlights the secular nature of Indian polity. It provides for freedom of conscience and free profession, practice, and propagation of religion, and includes the right of establishing and maintaining religious and charitable institutions, managing one’s own religious affairs. Article 25 guarantees rights to individuals, whereas Article 26 confers right to religious denominations. Article 27 enshrines freedom from levying of taxes, the proceeds of which are utilized for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion. Lastly, Article 28 deals with imparting religious instructions in religious educational institutions, wherein only certain institutions are qualified to impart religious instructions.

Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30) ❖❖ This seeks to protect the interests of minorities, by conferring on them the right to converse in their own language, script, or culture. Further, no one can be denied admission to any educational institution maintained or aided by State funds, solely on the grounds of religion, race, caste, or language. Furthermore, all minorities, whether religious or linguistic, have been conferred a right to establish and administer an educational institution of their own choice.

Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32) There is a famous maxim, ‘Ubi Jus Ibi Remedium’, which means that ‘there is no right without a remedy’. There would be no use of Fundamental Rights for the citizens or non-citizens, if there was no mechanism to enforce such rights. Article 32 of the Constitution gives such a mechanism to the people. If any Fundament Right of any person to whom such right was granted is

4.14  Chapter 4

infringed, he can directly approach the Supreme Court under Article 32 of the Constitution. No wonder Dr B.R. Ambedkar, the chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution, termed this article as ‘the heart and soul of the Indian Constitution’. Article 32 gives the power to the Supreme Court to issue directions, orders, or writs.

Writs The Constitution of India has provided all citizens with Fundamental Rights, and they form an integral part of our democratic form of governance. So as to provide safeguards and to protect the citizens from suffering on abridgement of these fundamental rights, the Constitution has provided for various forms of writs.

What are Writs? A writ in its literal sense refers to ‘a written order issued by a court, commanding the party to whom it is addressed to perform or cease performing a specified act’. Writs are tools which have been evolved to put a check on the violation of the Fundamental Rights and provide an instant relief in cases as required. The Constitution, as a further safeguard, clearly states that—‘Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the Fundamental Rights are void and the same can be challenged through writs’.

Who can Issue Writs and Against Whom? The High Courts and Supreme Court have been empowered to issue writs for the enforcement of fundamental rights against an authority of the State (under Articles 226 and 32, respectively). Generally, only the people who have been aggrieved by the violation of a Fundamental Right are allowed to move the court, but over the years, it has been held by the courts that in public interest matters, or in matters affecting the public at large, any person may move the Court under a writ petition, and such petitions are given the name of Public Interest Litigations (PILs). The relief under a writ cannot be denied on the ground that the disputed facts have to be investigated or some evidence has to be collected. Courts can grant any writ they feel appropriate to an aggrieved person whose Fundamental Right has been violated even if the aggrieved person has not asked for a particular writ.

Types of Writs There are five different writs that can be issued by the courts for violation of Fundamental Rights. These are:

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.15

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Habeas Corpus Mandamus Quo-Warranto Prohibition Certiorari

The Writ of Habeas Corpus The term ‘Habeas corpus’ is a Latin term which in its literal sense means ‘you may have the body’. This writ has been provided in the Constitution with the aim of upholding the personal liberty of citizen. This serves as a remedy to any person who is confined without any legal justification. Through the writ of habeas corpus, the court can inquire into the reason for the detention of any person by the authorities, and if it finds the reason unjustified, it can order the release of the person. Thus, this writ provides an immediate relief from any illegal detention.

The Famous Habeas Corpus Case Historical Background It all began with a judgment delivered on 12 June 1975 by Justice Jagmohan Lal Sinha of the Allahabad High Court. In the State of Uttar Pradesh Vs. Raj Narain, the petitioner challenged Indira Gandhi’s election to the Lok Sabha and consequent victory from the Rae Barelli constituency in Uttar Pradesh. On 12 June, Justice Sinha convicted the then prime minister of having indulged in corrupt practices and declared her election invalid, which meant she could not contest elections or hold office for six years. Her appeal to the Supreme Court only granted her a conditional stay. She could not vote or speak in the Lok Sabha, rendering her dysfunctional. Faced with severe hostility from the opposition and a desperate desire to hold on to the chair of the PM, she requested the President, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed to declare a state of emergency under clause (1) of Article 352 of the Indian Constitution which he did obediently on 26 June 1975. The government cited ‘a grave emergency existed whereby the security of India was threatened by internal disturbances’. The war with Pakistan that had just ended (1971) and the drought (1972) were reported to have damaged the economy greatly and paralyzed the nation. On 27 June 1975, the exercise of powers conferred by clause (1) of Article 359 of the Indian Constitution were exercised, due to which the right of any person including a foreigner to move to the court to enforce Article 14 (right to equality), Article 21, and Article 22 (prevention against detention in certain cases) of the Constitution and all the proceedings

4.16  Chapter 4

pending in any court concerned with the enforcement of the aforementioned articles would remain suspended for the period of Emergency. What ensued was a string of illegal and hasty detentions without charge or trial, including those of the major leaders of the opposition party such as Morarji Desai, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Jayprakash Narayan, and L.K. Advani under the Maintenance of Internal Security Act, Preventive Detention Law (MISA). Consequently, several writ petitions were filed all over the country. Records show that nine High Courts ruled in favour of the petitioners, stating that even though Article 21 was not enforceable, a person could still demonstrate that their detention was not in compliance of the law under which they were detained, or that the action by the State was mala fide, or that it was a case of mistaken identity. Highly perturbed, the government decided to appeal against these decisions in the Supreme Court, which became what is called the Additional District Magistrate of Jabalpur Vs. Shiv Kant Shukla case or the Habeas Corpus case.

The Case The main question of the case was whether, under Presidential orders, the High Court could entertain a writ of Habeas Corpus filed by a person challenging the grounds for his detention. The arguments in the Supreme Court began on 14 December 1975, before a bench consisting of Chief Justice of India A.N. Ray, Justice H.R. Khanna, Justice M.H. Beg, Justice Y.V. Chandrachud, and Justice P.N. Bhagwati. They were considered the wisest and the most respectable judges of the Supreme Court at that time. The Attorney General of India, Niren De began his arguments in his powerful voice, almost terrorizing the court, much like the government’s rule at that time. No questions were asked until Justice Khanna asked, ‘Life is also mentioned in Article 21. Would government arguments extend to it also?’ Niren De didn’t seem to be hassled by this rather uncomfortable question and answered swiftly saying, ‘Even if life was taken away illegally, courts are helpless’. The main contention of the State was that the sole purpose and aim of the emergency provisions in the Constitution was that they guarantee special powers to the executive to hold complete discretion over the implementation of the laws and rights of the country. The reason behind this was that, during an emergency, the considerations of the State assume supreme importance.

The Decision The case was argued for over two months after which the Supreme Court came out with the following conclusion: The judgment ruled in favour of the

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.17

government with a four to one majority. Only Justice Khanna had the courage to take the right decision in favour of human nature and liberty.

The Writ of Certiorari The writ of Certiorari is issued by the Supreme Court or any of the High Courts when they feel that any court or tribunal has given a judgment without having the jurisdiction to do so. For invoking the writ of Certiorari, the affected party can move this writ to a higher court like the Supreme Court or High Court.

The Writ of Quo-Warranto The Latin term ‘Quo-Warranto’ in its literal sense means ‘by what warrant?’. This writ is a tool for preventing a person from occupying any public office to which he is not entitled. The writ of Quo Warranto is issued against a person occupying a public office without having the requisite qualifications for occupying the same. It is issued to restrain the authority or candidate from discharging the functions of public office.

The Writ of Prohibition Prohibition in its literal sense means preventing any person from doing something. This writ is issued by the courts to prevent other (lower) courts from doing something they are not supposed to do, in the discharge of their duties. This writ is generally issued by a superior court to a lower court, to prevent it from taking up a case for which the lower court has no jurisdiction. This writ is generally issued at the pre-trial stage or during the pendency of the trial and not after the final order or decree has been passed. There exists a great degree of similarity between the writs of Prohibition and Certiorari. The difference lies in the stage of application of the two. While the writ of Prohibition is available only in the pre-trial stage or during the pendency of the trial, the writ of Certiorari is available only once the final order has been made.

The Writ of Mandamus The writ of Mandamus in its literal sense is ‘an order issued by a court to compel performance of a particular act by a lower court or a governmental officer or body, to correct a prior action or failure to act’. Mandamus is Latin for ‘we command’. This writ is issued by the Supreme Court or any of the High Courts when the government or any other body fails to perform a task, which it is bound by duty to perform. The issuing of this writ may also

4.18  Chapter 4

be called for to prevent the mentioned parties from doing any particular act which may be detrimental to the general public or any act affecting a large section of people. Facts to Know! What is the difference between a writ and an order? The Supreme Court (under Article 32) and the High Courts (under Article 226) are empowered to issue writs for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights against any authority of the State, while a court order is a direction issued by a court or a judge requiring a person to do or not do something. Thus, writs are available for enforcement of Fundamental Rights, whereas orders are available for enforcement of any other right.

Directive Principles of State Policy ❖❖ The concept of Directive Principles of State Policy (hereinafter, referred to as DPSP) has been borrowed from the Irish Constitution. The DPSP are the guidelines laid down by the framers of the Constitution for the central and state governments. They are directives to the governments for a better functioning of the country and for the welfare of the citizens. The aim of DPSP is to achieve social and economic equality through the creation of a welfare state. ❖❖ Article 37 of the Constitution of India provides that the provision contained in Part IV (DPSP) shall not be enforceable by any Court. It further says that the principles are fundamental in the governance of the country, and it shall be the duty of the State to apply these principles to make laws. ❖❖ The DPSP can be said to be the unenforceable rights, which when implemented would improve the standard of living of the citizens and ensure that the society as a whole progresses and benefits from the planning done by the government. The DPSP are the non-justiciable (cannot be enforced by a court of law) rights of the people.   Some of the important DPSPs provided under the Constitution are listed here.

The Socialist Principles ❖❖ Article 38: To secure a social order for the promotion of the welfare of the people. ❖❖ Article 39: To strive to minimize inequalities of income. ❖❖ Article 39(b): Ownership and control of material resources of the community shall be so distributed so as to subserve the common good.

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.19

❖❖ Article 39(d): Equal pay for equal work. ❖❖ Article 39(e): Health and strength of workers, and the tender age of children must not be abused. ❖❖ Article 39A: Equal justice and free legal aid. ❖❖ Article 42: Provision of just and humane conditions for work and maternity relief. ❖❖ Article 43A: Participation of workers in the management of the industries.

The Gandhian Principles ❖❖ Article 40: Organization of village panchayats. ❖❖ Article 43: To promote cottage industry. ❖❖ Article 46: Promotion of educational and economic interests of the SCs, the STs, and other weaker sections of society. ❖❖ Article 47: To bring about the prohibition of intoxicating drinks and drugs that are injurious to health. ❖❖ Article 48: Organization of agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines to prohibit the slaughter of cows, calves, and other milch and draught animals.

The Western Liberal Principles ❖❖ Article 44: Uniform Civil Code for the citizens. ❖❖ Article 45: Provide free and compulsory education for children below 14 years. ❖❖ Article 50: Separation of judiciary from the executive. ❖❖ Article 51: To promote international peace and amity.

Short Notes on Some Prominent DPSPs ❖❖ Uniform Civil Code: The term ‘Uniform Civil Code’ refers to a secular law which would govern all people, irrespective of their religion, caste, and tribe. At present, India has different personal laws for people following different religions. The Uniform Civil Code aims at unifying the country by means of a uniform law for all citizens. The aim of the code is to include the laws related to property, succession, marriage, divorce, adoption, within its fold, to make the law consistent across the sections of society. The Uniform Civil Code is currently applicable only in Goa. The Goa Civil Code was not passed by the Indian Legislature, but we have inherited this law from the Portuguese.

4.20  Chapter 4

❖❖ Free Legal Aid: Article 39-A of the Constitution provides that the State should strive to ensure that no person is denied justice by reason of economic or other disabilities. The National Legal Services Authorities Act (NALSA), 1987 was enacted to ensure that this directive principle is implemented. The Act provides for constitution of Legal Services Authorities to provide free services by competent legal professionals. This Act ensures that no person is denied justice due to economic disabilities. This ensures a fair field for everyone seeking justice. As a result no one can be intimidated by the economic prowess of the other person while seeking justice before the courts of law.

Fundamental Duties ❖❖ The Fundamental Duties of the citizens are provided for in Part IVA of the Constitution, which were added by the 42nd Amendment in the year 1976. They were inspired from the Constitution of erstwhile U.S.S.R. Article 51-A was inserted in the Constitution enumerating the duties of the citizens towards the country. The aim behind adding the Fundamental Duties was to introduce some duties for Indian citizens, so that the culture, heritage, unity of the country is preserved. ❖❖ Initially, there were ten Fundamental Duties. By an amendment (86th Amendment) in 2002, the Parliament added the eleventh Fundamental Duty for the parents to provide an opportunity for education to their child between the age of six and 14 years.   The various Fundamental Duties of the citizens as enumerated in the Constitution are: ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

●● ●●

to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the national flag, and the national anthem; to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom; to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India; to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so; to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic, and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women; to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture; to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures;

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.21 ●● ●● ●●

●●

to develop a scientific temper, humanism, and the spirit of inquiry and reform; to safeguard public property and to abjure violence; to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement; and parents or guardians to provide opportunities for education to children or, as the case may be, wards between the age of 6 and 14 years.

Union Executive and Union Legislature ‘Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely’ ❖❖ The Monarchial system of government which existed almost everywhere centuries ago, was on the premise of the king being the supreme. He would be the all-powerful person and the judge, jury, and executioner in all matters. However, this resulted in the all-powerful person exercising authority in a whimsical and an arbitrary manner, without keeping the interests of the people in mind. ❖❖ To battle this, most of the modern democratic setups are based on a principle known as the principle of Separation of Powers, whereby the powers are divided between three wings of the Government, namely the legislature, executive, and judiciary. The Union legislature consists of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, and its purpose is framing laws to govern the country. The Union executive consists of the President, VicePresident, Prime Minister (and sometimes Deputy Prime Minister), and the Union Council of Ministers. Its purpose is to execute the laws passed by the Union Legislature. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and lower courts, and its purpose is to interpret and review the laws passed by the legislature. The judiciary can also declare a law unconstitutional if it goes against the Constitution of India.

Union Executive This branch of the government primarily consists of three broad components, namely the President, Vice President, and the Council of Ministers including the Prime Minister. As stated above, the primary function of the Union Executive is to implement the laws framed by the Union Legislature.

President Article 52 establishes the post of the President of India. He/she is the de jure head (by operation of law), Head of the State in India and the Nominal (or Titular) Head.

4.22  Chapter 4

1. Oath: The President has to take an oath or affirmation in the presence of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court or the seniormost judge of the Supreme Court in his absence. 2. Qualifications: ●● ●● ●●

●●

He should be a citizen of India; He should have completed the age of 35 years; He should be qualified to be elected as a member of the Lok Sabha, but must not be a member of either House of Parliament or State Legislature, and The President should not hold any office of profit, i.e., the candidate should not be a government servant. However, the office of the President, the Vice-President, the Governor, or the minister of the Union or the State is not considered as an office of profit for this purpose. (Article 58)

3. Manner of Election: The president is elected by an electoral college which consists of the elected members of: Both the Houses of Parliament and The State Legislative Assemblies. (Article 54)   The election is conducted by way of a secret ballot according to the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote. (Article 55) ●● ●●

4. Tenure: The President is elected for a period of 5 years and is eligible for immediate re-election. (Article 56 & 57) 5. Impeachment Procedure (Removal): ●●

●●

The President can only be removed from office through a process called impeachment. The resolution to impeach the President can be moved in either House of Parliament only after a 14-day notice is given by at least one-fourth of the total membership of the House. Such a resolution must be passed by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the total membership of that House, and then it goes to the other House, which should pass it with a majority of not less than two-thirds of the total membership of the House, to effect the impeachment. In case of vacancy in the office of President due to death, resignation or impeachment, the Vice-President officiates for a period of six months, and within that period an election for the new president must be held. (Article 61)

6. Emoluments of the President are determined by Parliament, and the same shall not be diminished during his term of office. [Article 59(3) & (4)]

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.23

7. Powers of the President: Some of the prominent powers of the President are as follows: ●● The President summons both the Houses of Parliament, can prorogue them, and can dissolve the Lok Sabha. ●● The President can declare war or conclude peace. ●● The President can issue an ordinance when the Parliament is not in session. Such an ordinance ceases to have effect on the expiration of six weeks from the start of the next session of Parliament. ●● When a bill is presented to the President for assent, The President can either: ✶✶ Give assent. ✶✶ Withhold assent. ✶✶ Send the bill back (if it is not a money bill) to the Parliament for reconsideration once. ●● The President appoints the following persons to their respective posts: ✶✶ Governors of States ✶✶ Judges of Supreme Court and High Courts ✶✶ Attorney General of India ✶✶ Prime minister and council of ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister ✶✶ Comptroller and Auditor General of India ✶✶ Heads of Armed Forces (Army, Navy, and Air Force) ✶✶ Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other countries ●● The President can grant pardons, reprieves, respites, and remissions of punishment or he/she can suspend, remit, or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence, if: ✶✶ The punishment was given under any union law ✶✶ The punishment or sentence is by a court martial ✶✶ The sentence is a sentence of death ●● The President can declare a National Emergency, State Emergency (President’s Rule), or Financial Emergency. List of Presidents of India S. President’s No. Name 1. Dr Rajendra Prasad 2. Dr S. Radhakrishnan

Tenure

Notes

26 January 1950 to 13 May 1962 13 May 1962 to 13 May 1967

First President and also had the longest tenure (12 years) Also the first Vice-President of India (Contd.)

4.24  Chapter 4

S. President’s No. Name 3. Dr Zakir Hussain V.V. Giri (Acting President) Justice Muhammad Hidayatullah (Interim Acting President)

Tenure

Notes

13 May 1967 to 3 May 1969

Shortest tenure; First Muslim President; First President to die in office First acting President of India

3 May 1969 to 20 July 1969 20 July 1969 to 24 August 1969

4. Varahagiri Venkata Giri 5. Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed

24 August 1969 to 24 August 1974 24 August 1974 to 11 February 1977

B.D. Jatti (Acting President) 6. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

11 February 1977 to 25 July 1977 25 July 1977 to 25 July 1982

7. Giani Zail Singh 8. R. Venkataraman 9. Dr Shankar Dayal Sharma 10. K.R. Narayanan 11. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 12. Pratibha Devisingh Patil 13. Pranab Mukherjee 14. Ram Nath Kovind

25 July 1982 to 25 July 1987 25 July 1987 to 25 July 1992 25 July 1992 to 25 July 1997 25 July 1997 to 25 July 2002 25 July 2002 to 25 July 2007 July 2007 to 25 July 2012 July 2012 to July 2017 July 2017 to till date

Was the Chief Justice of India when Dr Zakir Hussain (the then President) died suddenly and the acting President (Dr V.V. Giri) also resigned from the post. Thus, he became the acting president of India for a short period. – Was the President of India when the controversial Internal National Emergency was imposed. Died in office. Acting President Youngest President. Only President till date to have been elected unopposed. First Sikh President. Only President to use Pocket Veto till date. Oldest President (76 President) – First Dalit President First scientist to become President; People’s President First woman President First President from West Bengal Second Dalit President

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.25

Vice-President The Vice-President is the ex-officio (by the virtue of holding another post) Chairman of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha). Article 63 establishes the post of vice-president of India. ❖❖ Eligibility: ●● ●● ●● ●●

He/she has to be a citizen of India. Should be more than 35 years of age. Should not hold any office of profit. Should be eligible to be elected as a member of the Rajya Sabha, but not should not be a member of Parliament or State Legislature.

❖❖ Appointment: ●●

●●

The appointment procedure of the Vice-President is marginally different from that of the president, as, in the former case, the Electoral College consists of all (elected+nominated) members only of both Houses of Parliament, and not of State Legislatures. Further, the election is conducted by way of a secret ballot according to the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.

❖❖ Term and Removal: The Vice-President is elected for 5 years and is eligible for immediate re-election. However, the office can be terminated before 5 years, either by resignation to the President or removal by resolution of the Council of States, passed by majority and agreed to by the Lok Sabha.

Council of Ministers ❖❖ The Council of Ministers is in a way, the team of the Prime Minister which carries out the functions of the portfolios given to them by the Prime Minister. ❖❖ Appointment: They are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. ❖❖ Types: Council of Ministers includes ministers of three types: Cabinet, Minister of State, and Minister of State (Independent Charge). ❖❖ They are collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha and individually responsible to the President. ❖❖ Though normally any member of the Council of Ministers is a Member of Parliament (MP) either from the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha, a person can be a member of the Council of Ministers without being an MP for a maximum period of six months.

4.26  Chapter 4

❖❖ As per the 91st Amendment to the Constitution in 2003, the strength of the Council of Ministers shall not exceed 15% of the strength of the Lok Sabha. ❖❖ Resignation: The Council of Ministers can submit their resignation to the president. ❖❖ Oath and Removal: The President administers to the Council of Ministers, oaths of office and secrecy. Furthermore, they can be removed from their post by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Prime Minister ❖❖ The Prime Minister is the de facto (by operation of fact) head, head of the government, and the real Head of India. ❖❖ Appointment: The President appoints the Prime Minister of India. He is usually the leader of the ruling party in the Lok Sabha. ❖❖ The Prime Minister is the head of the Council of Ministers and allocates their portfolios to them. ❖❖ Resignation: The Prime Minister can submit his resignation to the President. ❖❖ Oath and Removal: The President administers to the Prime Minister, oaths of office and secrecy. Furthermore, he can be removed from his post by the President. ❖❖ Term of Office: The Prime Minister holds office so long as he/she enjoys the support of the Lok Sabha. The usual term of office is five years. ❖❖ On the death or resignation of the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers is automatically dissolved. List of Prime Ministers of India S. No. Name

Period

Notes

1.

Jawaharlal Nehru

15 August 1947 to 27 May 1964

First Prime Minister of India. Survived a no-confidence motion in 1963.

2.

Gulzarilal Nanda

27 May 1964 to 9 June 1964

First ‘Interim’ Prime Minister of India

3.

Lal Bahadur Shastri

9 June 1964 to 11 January 1966

Gave the popular slogan ‘Jai Jawan Jai Kisan’

4.

Gulzarilal Nanda

11 January 1966 to 24 January 1966 (Contd.)

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.27

S. No. Name

Period

Notes

5.

Indira Gandhi

24 January 1966 to 24 March 1977

First woman Prime Minister of india and longest serving woman Prime Minister in the world

6.

Morarji Desai

24 March 1977 to 28 July 1979

First non-Congress Minister of India.

7.

Charan Singh

28 July 1979 to 14 January 1980

Only Prime Minister who did not face the Parliament.

8.

Indira Gandhi

14 January 1980 to – 31 October 1984

9.

Rajiv Gandhi

31 October 1984 to 2 December 1989

Youngest ever Prime Minister of India.

10.

Vishwanath Pratap Singh

2 December 1989 to 10 November 1990

Pioneer of the ‘Reservation system’ prevalent in the employment and education system in India. Implemented the Mandal Commission report.

11.

Chandra Shekhar

10 November 1990 to 21 June 1991

First President of the Janata Party formed in 1977.

12.

P.V. Narasimha 21 June 1991 to Rao 16 May 1996

The policy of ‘Liberalization, Privatization & Globalization’ was adopted during his reign.

13.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

16 May 1996 to 1 June 1996

First Prime Minister from outside the Indian National Congress to serve a full term. His birthday (25 December) is celebrated as Good Governance Day.

14.

H.D. Deve Gowda

1 June 1996 to 21 Considered a champion of April 1997 farmers’ cause.

15.

Inder Kumar Gujral

21 April 1997 to 18 March 1998

Formulated ‘Gujral Doctrine’, a set of five principles to guide the conduct of foreign relations with India’s immediate neighbours.

16.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

19 March 1998 to 13 October 1999

–

Prime

(Contd.)

4.28  Chapter 4

S. No. Name

Period

Notes

17.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

13 October 1999 to 22 May 2004

In 1999, one of the coalition partners of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government withdrew its support due to which the government fell and Lok Sabha dissolved. After fresh Lok Sabha elections, Atal Bihari Vajpayee was again made the Prime Minister of the country.

18.

Dr Manmohan Singh

22 May 2004 to 17 May 2014

First Sikh PM of India. He had earlier been the Chief Economic Advisor, Reserve Bank Governor, and Finance Minister.

19.

Narendra Modi

26 May 2014 till date

Led the BJP in the 2014 elections, which gave the party absolute majority in the Lok Sabha for the first time since 1984.

Deputy Prime Minister ❖❖ The Deputy Prime Minister of India is a member of the Union Cabinet in the Government of India. He does not have specific powers, but usually also occupies key cabinet posts like that of Home Minister or Finance Minister. ❖❖ The post of Deputy Prime Minister is not a constitutional post, and, thus, there have been very few Deputy Prime Ministers. ❖❖ The first Deputy Prime Minister of India was Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. Since then, Morarji Desai, Charan Singh, Jagjivan Ram, Yashwantrao Chavan, Chaudhary Devi Lal, and L.K. Advani have been Deputy Prime Ministers.

Union Legislature The function of Union Legislature is to frame the laws for the whole of India. They can make laws only on matters given in the Union and the Concurrent List given under the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India. It consists of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.

Lok Sabha (House of People) ❖❖ The Lok Sabha is also known as the Lower House of Parliament, House of People, and Popular Chamber (since its members are directly elected by the people of India).

Indian Polity and Constitution

4.29

❖❖ Article 81 deals with the composition of the House of the People and states that the Lok Sabha consists of directly elected people from territorial constituencies, and its maximum strength cannot be more than 552. At present, the Lok Sabha comprises 545 members, out of which 543 members are directly elected by the people of India on the basis of universal adult franchise, and two are nominated. ❖❖ Quorum (minimum strength required to make the proceedings of any day valid) for Lok Sabha is 1/10th of the total strength. ❖❖ Article 84 deals with the qualification for membership of Parliament and states that any citizen of India, who has completed the age of 25 years and does not hold any office of profit, may contest Lok Sabha elections. ❖❖ Members of the Lok Sabha are elected by adult universal suffrage and a first-past-the-post system to represent their respective constituencies, and they hold their seats for five years or until the body is dissolved by the president on the advice of the council of ministers. Facts to Know! What is First past the post System? In the First-Past-the-Post system, each registered voter is asked to indicate in the ballot the candidate of his choice in the ballot, and the candidate who receives more votes than the others wins.

❖❖ The Lok Sabha (House of the do you Know? Leaders) was duly constituted for the The fi rst vote of independent  first time on 17 April 1952, after the India was cast in the Chini first General Elections held from 25 district of Himachal Pradesh. October 1951 to 21 February 1952. This fi rst vote is registered in  Shri G.V. Mavalankar was the first the name of Shyam Saran Speaker of the Lok Sabha, and M.A. Negi. Ayyangar was the Deputy Speaker. ❖❖ The two Houses of Parliament must meet at least twice a year. The ordinary term of the House of the people is 5 years, that can be extended during National Emergency. The 42nd Amendment, 1976, extended the normal life of the Lok Sabha to 6 years but the 44th Amendment, 1978, again reversed it to a period of 5 years. ❖❖ The presiding officers of the Lok Sabha are the Speaker and Deputy Speaker. Both of them are elected by the members of the house. The current speaker is Sumitra Mahajan of the Bharatiya Janata Party, who presides over the 16th Lok Sabha. The current Deputy Speaker is

4.30

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

Chapter 4

M. Thambidurai. When do you Know? the posts of Speaker Any Financial Bill which contains and Deputy Speaker are provisions listed in Article 110 of the vacant, the President Constitution of India is known as a appoints a Speaker Pro ‘Money Bill’. However, in case of any Tem (temporary speaker) ambiguity, only the Speaker of the Lok to fulfill the duties of the Sabha can decide whether a Bill is a Speaker. Money Bill or a simple Financial Bill. A Money bill can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha and not in the Rajya Sabha. Also, the assent of the President is required, to introduce a Money bill. The Rajya Sabha has only 14 days to pass the bill when it is presented for its approval. Also, during these 14 days, the Rajya Sabha cannot make amendments to the bill but can only give non-binding recommendations. Once the Money bill is presented to the President, he/she cannot send the bill back to the Parliament for reconsideration. Thus, he/she cannot use a Suspensive Veto on a Money bill. A motion of no-confidence can only be initiated and passed in the Lok Sabha. It cannot be introduced or passed in the Rajya Sabha as the ruling government needs to have a majority in the Lok Sabha and not in the Rajya Sabha. Three sessions of Lok Sabha take place in a year: ●❖ ●❖ ●❖

Budget session: February to May. Monsoon session: July to September. Winter session: November to mid-December.

Rajya Sabha (Council of States) ❖❖ The Rajya Sabha is also known as the Upper House of the Parliament of India, Council of States and ‘Elder House’. Since we have both the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha at the Union level, we follow a bicameral system of parliament at the Union level. ❖❖ Though the maximum strength of the Rajya Sabha is 250 members, at present the Rajya Sabha comprises 245 members, out of which the President nominates 12 members having special knowledge or practical experience in the field of literature, science, art, and social service. However, they are not entitled to vote in Presidential elections as per Article 55 of the Indian Constitution. ❖❖ Members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of the Assemblies of states and union territories in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of single transferable votes.

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.31

❖❖ The Rajya Sabha meets in continuous sessions and is not subject to dissolution. One-third members of the Rajya Sabha retire every second year. Thus, the tenure of each member is 6 years. ❖❖ The Vice-President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, who presides over its sessions. P.J Kurien is the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. ❖❖ Article 84 of the Constitution lays down the qualifications for the membership of Parliament. A member of the Rajya Sabha must be atleast 30 years old, must be a citizen of India, be a voter, and possess other mentioned qualifications. ❖❖ Special Powers: ●●

●●

Article 249 states that, by a resolution supported by not less than two-thirds of its members, present and voting, the Rajya Sabha may empower the Parliament to legislate on a matter of the State List, in national interest. Article 312 states that the Rajya Sabha has the power to decide, by a resolution that must be supported by a two-third majority, the question of setting up of All India Services.

❖❖ Under Article 75(3) of the Constitution, the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha which means Rajya Sabha cannot make or unmake the government. In matters of Constitutional amendments, electoral powers, impeachment of the president and the approval of emergency proclamations, the Rajya Sabha enjoys co-equal powers with the Lok Sabha. ❖❖ The quorum for the meeting of the House is fixed at one-tenth of the total members, that is, 25. When there is no quorum, the Chairman is authorized to adjourn the House or to suspend its meeting until the quorum is there. Facts to Know! The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and one-third of its members retire every 2 years when they individually complete their term of 6 years. Ever wondered how the members of the first Rajya Sabha retired then?   The President, in 1952, made an order known as ‘Council of States (Term of Office of Members) Order, 1952’, for curtailing the tenure of some members of the Rajya Sabha. Under this order and in accordance with the draw of lots, it was held that the term of one-third members of Rajya Sabha would expire on 2 April 1954, the term of another one-third members would expire on 2 April 1956 and the remaining members would retire on 2 April 1958. The elections to replace these members were held subsequent to their retirement. This is how the cycle of one-third members retiring every 2 years was started.

4.32  Chapter 4

Types of Parliamentary Committees Parliamentary Committees give close consideration to the details of all the legislative and other matters that come up before Parliament. There are various types of committees which are formed for a smooth functioning of the Parliament. Some of them are as follows: ❖❖ Based on purpose and duration: ●● ●●

Adhoc Committees: Appointed for a specific purpose, and they cease to exist when they finish the task assigned. Standing Committee (Advisory and Inquiry in Nature): Standing Committees are permanent committees. Each House of Parliament has Standing Committees.

❖❖ Based on composition: ●● ●●

Select—Single House, i.e., either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha. Joint—Both Houses.

❖❖ Committee on Estimates (Lok Sabha): ●● ●●

Consists of 30 members who are elected by the Lok Sabha every year from among its members. The main function is to report what improvements in organization, efficiency, or administrative reform, consistent with the policy underlying the estimates, may be effected.

❖❖ Committee on Public Undertakings (PUC): ●● Consists of 15 members elected by the Lok Sabha and 7 members of the Rajya Sabha. ●● The term of the committee is one year. ●● The functions of the Committee on Public Undertakings are to examine: the reports and accounts of the Public Undertakings, the reports of the CAG on the Public Undertakings, the context of the autonomy, the efficiency of the Public Undertakings and whether the affairs of the Public Undertakings are being managed in accordance with sound business principles and prudent commercial practices. ❖❖ Committee on Public Accounts (PAC): ●● Consists of 15 members elected by the Lok Sabha and 7 members of the Rajya Sabha. ●● The term of the committee is 1 year. ●● The main duty of the committee is to ascertain whether the money granted by Parliament has been spent by the government ‘within the scope of the demand’.

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.33 ●●

The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) is known as a friend, philosopher, and guide of the Committee on Public Accounts.

❖❖ Business Advisory Committee (Lok Sabha): ●● ●●

●●

The Business Advisory Committee of the Lok Sabha consists of 15 members including the Speaker who is the ex-officio Chairman. The members are nominated by the Speaker. Almost all sections of the House are represented on the committee as per the respective strength of parties in the House. The function of the committee is to recommend the time that should be allotted for the discussion of such government legislative and other business, as the Speaker, in consultation with the Leader of the House, may direct to be referred to the committee.

❖❖ Committee of Privileges (Lok Sabha): ●● ●●

●●

This committee consists of 15 members nominated by the Speaker. The function is to examine every question involving breach of privilege of the House or of the members of any committee thereof referred to it by the House or by the Speaker. It determines with reference to the facts of each case whether a breach of privilege is involved and makes suitable recommendations in its report.

❖❖ Committee on Petitions (Lok Sabha): ●● ●● ●● ●●

The committee consists of 15 members nominated by the Speaker. A minister is not nominated to this committee. The function of the committee is to consider and report on petitions presented to the House. Besides, it also considers representations from individuals and associations, etc. on subjects which are not covered by the rules relating to petitions and gives directions for their disposal.

❖❖ Committee on Subordinate Legislation (Lok Sabha): ●● ●●

The committee consists of 15 members nominated by the Speaker. The committee scrutinizes and reports to the House whether the powers to make regulations, rules, sub-rules, by-laws, etc. conferred by the Constitution or delegated by Parliament are being properly exercised by the executive within the scope of such delegation.

❖❖ Rules Committee (Lok Sabha): ●● ●●

The Rules Committee consists of 15 members including the Speaker who is the ex-officio Chairman of the committee. The members are nominated by the Speaker.

4.34  Chapter 4 ●●

The committee considers matters of procedure and conduct of business in the House and recommends any amendments or additions to the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha that are considered necessary.

Parliamentary Privileges ❖❖ Parliamentary privilege refers to rights and immunities enjoyed by Parliament as an institution and MPs in their individual capacity, without which they cannot discharge their functions as entrusted upon them by the Constitution. ❖❖ Privileges may be classified into two groups: ●● ●●

Privileges that are enjoyed by the members individually. Privileges that belong to each House (Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha) of Parliament collectively.

❖❖ Article 105 deals with the powers, privileges, etc. of the Houses of Parliament and of the members and committees thereof. Article 105, clause (1), expressly safeguards freedom of speech in Parliament. Clause (2) further states that no member of Parliament shall be liable to any proceedings in any court in respect of anything said or any vote given in Parliament or any committee thereof. Clause (3) of Article 105 declares that the privileges of each House of Parliament, its members, and committees shall be such as determined by Parliament. ❖❖ According to this privilege, no member of Parliament or a State Legislature shall be arrested or imprisoned in a civil proceeding during a period of 40 days before and 40 days after the session of the House. ❖❖ Rule 248 of Lok Sabha gives the Chair the power, whenever it thinks fit, of ordering the withdrawal of strangers from any part of the House. The Rules of Procedure of the House of People empower the Chair to expunge any part of the proceedings of the House. The House has the exclusive right to regulate its own internal proceedings. Representation of each State in the Lok Sabha S. No. State/UT 1.

Andhra Pradesh

2.

Arunachal Pradesh

3.

Assam

General

SC

ST

Total

32

7

3

42

2

–

–

2

11

1

2

14 (Contd.)

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.35

S. No. State/UT

General

SC

ST

Total

34

6

–

40

8

1

5

14

4.

Bihar

5.

Jharkhand

6.

Goa

2

–

–

2

7.

Gujarat

20

2

4

26

8.

Haryana

8

2

–

10

9.

Himachal Pradesh

3

1

–

4

10.

Jammu and Kashmir

6

–

–

6

11.

Karnataka

21

5

2

28

12.

Kerala

18

2

–

20

13.

Madhya Pradesh

19

4

6

29

14.

Chhattisgarh

6

1

4

11

15.

Maharashtra

39

5

4

48

16.

Manipur

1

–

1

2

17.

Meghalaya

–

–

2

2

18.

Mizoram

–

–

1

1

19.

Nagaland

–

–

1

1

20.

Orissa

13

3

5

21

21.

Punjab

9

4

–

13

22.

Rajasthan

18

4

3

25

23.

Sikkim

24.

Tamil Nadu

25.

Tripura

26.

Uttar Pradesh

27.

Uttarakhand

28.

West Bengal

29.

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

30.

1

–

–

1

32

7

–

39

1

–

1

2

63

17

–

80

4

1

–

5

30

10

2

42

1

–

–

1

Chandigarh

1

–

–

1

31.

Dadra and Nagar Haveli

1

–

–

1

32.

Daman and Diu

–

–

1

1

33.

Delhi

6

1

–

7

34.

Lakshadweep

–

–

1

1

35.

Pondicherry/Puducherry

1

–

–

1

4.36   Chapter 4

Attorney generAl ❖❖ The Attorney General is the chief legal advisor of the Union government and its chief lawyer in the Supreme Court of India. He is appointed by the President under Article 76 of the Constitution, and he should be qualified to be appointed as a Supreme Court judge. He is assisted by a Solicitor General and additional Solicitor Generals. ❖❖ He is not a Member of Parliament but has a right to participate in the proceedings of Parliament. However, he cannot vote. Also, he has a right to audience in all the courts in the country. ❖❖ His term is not fixed by the Constitution, and no procedure is listed for his removal. He holds office during the pleasure of the President. Also, he submits his resignation to the President. ❖❖ First Attorney General of India—M.C. Setalvad (Year 1950–63).

Union Judiciary The Supreme Court, based in New Delhi, occupies the apex of the judiciary. The State High Courts, District Courts, Judicial Magistrates, etc. follow the Supreme Court, in respective order. There are also some tribunals set up with quasi-judicial powers such as the Company Law Board, Tax Tribunal, Consumer Protection Forum, etc., under the supervision of the High Courts.

The Supreme Court ❖❖ The Supreme Court was established under Article 124 of the Constitution of India. As the name suggests, the Supreme Court is the highest court of redressal for all Indians and is the highest judicial body in the country. It is also the defender of the country’s Constitution. Hence, any law declared or interpreted by this apex body is binding on all the law courts in the country. ❖❖ The Supreme Court held its inaugural sitting on 28 January 1950, two days after the Constitution of India came into effect. Initially it comprised of the Chief Justice of India and 7 other judges, but can now legally accommodate the Chief Justice of India and upto 30 other judges. ❖❖ The President of India appoints the Chief Justice of India, after consulting with the Cabinet and the other judges. Usually, the seniormost judge’s name is recommended for the same. The President, in consultation with the Chief Justice, also appoints the other judges. The Supreme Court’s jurisdiction can be classified into: ●● ●● ●●

Original jurisdiction Advisory jurisdiction Appellate jurisdiction

Indian Polity and Constitution

4.37

Know more! Epistolary Jurisdiction: In addition to the abovementioned, the Supreme Court also exercised Epistolary Jurisdiction. However, the same has not been given in the Constitution and is a judicial innovation in India. For fi ling  a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in the Supreme Court, a person needs to go  there  physically,  but  a  PIL  can  be  fi led  merely  by  writing  a  letter  or  a  telegram to the court. This jurisdiction, whereby the court entertains letter petitions also, is known as Epistolary Jurisdiction. This is one of the most important innovations of the court to ensure justice for all without being entangled in legal procedures.

❖❖ The Supreme Court is also a court of record, that is, the records of its decisions and proceedings are preserved and published. The decisions of the Supreme Court are binding on the other courts. It even has the power to review its own judgments. In addition, the Supreme Court has the authority to punish for contempt of court. Facts to Know! What was the equivalent of the Supreme court before 1950? The Federal Court of India was a judicial body, established in India in 1937 under the provisions of the Government of India Act 1935, with original, appellate, and advisory jurisdiction. It remained functional until the Supreme Court was established in the year 1950. The seat of the Federal Court was at Delhi.

❖❖ The Supreme Court judges can only be removed by a special resolution passed by the Parliament by a majority of total members of the house and majority of not less than two-third members present and voting. Till date, no removal proceedings have been initiated against any Supreme Court judge.

governor ❖❖ A Governor is to the State, what the President is to the Centre. A governor is the de jure head (by operation of law) and Head of a State. ❖❖ Article 157 and Article 158 of the Constitution of India

do you Know? B.R. Ambedkar, father of the Indian Constitution, once said that he wanted to burn the Constitution as it does not serve any purpose (2 September 1953). He said this while he was arguing for increasing the powers of the governors.

4.38  Chapter 4

specify eligibility requirements for the post of Governor. A Governor must: ●● ●● ●● ●●

Be a citizen of India. Be at least 35 years old. Not be a member of either house of Parliament or house of State Legislature. Not hold any other office of profit.

❖❖ Governors are appointed by the President and do not face any elections. They also hold their office during the pleasure of the President but their tenure is 5 years. They can also submit their resignation to the President before the completion of the tenure. Their oath of office is administered by the Chief Justice of the High Court. ❖❖ Governors have the power to summon, prorogue, or dissolve both the houses of the State Legislature. Also, a Bill passed by both the Houses cannot become a law until the Governor gives his assent. ❖❖ Governor can issue Ordinances when the State Legislature is not in session (Article 213). Such an Ordinance ceases to be binding after 6 weeks of the start of next session. ❖❖ Governors exist in the states while Lieutenant-Governors exist in union territories. The union territories of Andaman and Nicobar, Delhi, and Puducherry are headed by Lieutenant-Governors. ❖❖ The primary function of the Governor is to preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution and the law. ❖❖ Sarojini Naidu was the first female Governor of an Indian state. She was the Governor of Uttar Pradesh from 15 August 1947 to 2 March 1949. ❖❖ Dr A.K. Kidwai is the longest serving Governor of India, serving as Governor for Bihar, West Bengal, and Haryana.

Chief Minister ❖❖ The Chief Minister is the de facto (by operation of fact) head of a state. He/ she is usually the leader of the ruling party in the Legislative Assembly. He/she is invited by the Governor to become the Chief Minister and form his/her cabinet. He is appointed under Article 164 of the Constitution. ❖❖ The Chief Minister recommends the name of the State Council of Ministers to the Governor who then appoints the same. The removal of the State Council of Ministers also happens on the advice of the Chief Minister. ❖❖ A person can be the Chief Minister of a state without being a Member of Legislative Assembly (MLA) or Member of Legislative Council (MLC), but only for a maximum period of 6 months.

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.39

❖❖ The usual term is 5 years. However, he/she can either be replaced sooner or has to resign if a no confidence motion is passed against his/her government. If a Chief Minister resigns, the Council of Ministers is dissolved and the new Chief Ministers brings a new Council of Ministers.

Some Important Functions of the Chief Minister ❖❖ He presides over the meetings of the Council of Ministers and plays a major role in their decision making. ❖❖ On his/her advice, the Governor usually summons or prorogues the Legislative Assembly. ❖❖ He/she can also recommend dissolution of the Legislative Assembly, to the Governor. ❖❖ He/she is a member of the Inter-State Council and the National Development Council, both of which are presided over by the Prime Minister of India. Facts to Know! Some Interesting facts about Chief Ministers ❖❖ The first woman Chief Minister of independent India was Sucheta Kriplani. She was the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh from 1963 to 1967.

❖❖ The longest serving Chief Minister from any state currently is Jyoti Basu (West Bengal) who was the Chief Minister from 1977 to 2000 (23 years—8,539 days). However, during the middle of his term in 2017, Pawan Chamling, the CM of Sikkim, broke his record. Chamling has been the CM of Sikkim since 1994.

❖❖ The first Chief Minister who died in office was C.N. Annadurai from Tamil Nadu.

❖❖ The first Muslim woman to become the Chief Minister of a state was S.A. Taimur. She was the CM of Assam from 1980 to 1981.

❖❖ The first dalit Chief Minister of any state is Mayawati of the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP). She was the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh.

Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council ❖❖ Part VI of the Constitution is concerned with the State Legislature. Article 168 deals with the constitution of legislatures in States. Article 169 provides for the abolition or creation of Legislative Councils in States. ❖❖ The states which are unicameral in nature only have a Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha), whereas the states which are bicameral

4.40  Chapter 4

in nature have both the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) and Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad).

Legislative Assembly ❖❖ Article 170 provides for the composition of the Legislative Assemblies. Their strength shall not be more than 500 and not less than 60. However, for Sikkim, Goa, and Arunachal Pradesh, the minimum strength shall not be less than 30. ❖❖ The members of Legislative Assemblies are elected directly by the people of that state on the basis of universal adult franchise. The Governor can appoint one Anglo-Indian if he/she is satisfied that they are not adequately represented in Parliament. ❖❖ Qualifications: ●● ●● ●●

Citizen of India Over 25 years of age Any such qualification as may be prescribed by Parliament

❖❖ Two union territories—Delhi and Puducherry, also have Legislative Assemblies. ❖❖ Every Legislative Assembly of every State, unless sooner dissolved, shall continue for 5 years from the date appointed for its first meeting. The 42nd Amendment increased assembly official term to 6 years, but the 44th Amendment restored it to 5 years. ❖❖ The Constitution provides for reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the assembly of each state on the basis of their population. Initially, this reservation was to operate for a period of 10 years (till 1960). However, its duration has been successively increased by 10 years each time. By the 95th Amendment in 2009, the reservation duration has been increased to 2020.

Legislative Council ❖❖ Legislative Councils have not been made mandatory for the states, and it is upto them to start the process of creation or abolition of Legislative Councils. ❖❖ Currently, only seven states follow the bicameral system (Legislative Assembly + Legislative Council): ●● ●● ●●

Karnataka (K) Uttar Pradesh (U) Maharashtra (M)

Indian Polity and Constitution ●❖ ●❖ ●❖ ●❖

4.41

Bihar (B) Jammu & Kashmir (J) Andhra Pradesh (A) Telangana (T)

Remember this by the acronym ‘KUMBJAT’. ❖❖ Power of abolition or creation of a Legislative Council lies with Parliament and the Legislative Assembly of that state. Legislative Council is a permanent body and not subjected to dissolution. However, the tenure of each member is 6 years. After every 2 years, one-third of its members retire. The retiring members are subjected to re-election and re-nomination. ❖❖ Strength → Not more than one-third of the strength of Legislative Assembly, but cannot be less than 40 (Except do you Know? Jammu & Kashmir—36). ❖ ❖ The biggest Legislative ❖❖ The Legislative Council is Assembly is that of Uttar merely an advisory body (unlike Pradesh (404 members) and Rajya Sabha) and cannot make the smallest is that of Sikkim amendments to the Bills passed (32 members). by the Legislative Assembly. ❖❖ The biggest Legislative However, it can hold the Bill for Council is that of Uttar 3 months during its first reading Pradesh (100 members) and and 1 month during its second the smallest is that of Jammu reading. & Kashmir (36 members).

AdvocAte generAl ❖❖ The Advocate General is the first law officer of a State. As per Article 165, each State shall have an Advocate General. ❖❖ He is appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Council of Ministers of the State and holds office during his pleasure. ❖❖ To be appointed to the office of the Advocate General, he/she must be qualified to be a judge of the High Court. ❖❖ The Advocate General has a right to participate in the proceedings of the State Legislature and its committees but does not have a right to vote. He/she has the right of audience in any court in the state. ❖❖ He/she can submit his resignation to the Governor, and his/her oath of office is administered by the Governor.

high courts ❖❖ The High Courts in India are situated in every State, or there are certain common High Courts for two or more states (Article 214). (Gauhati

4.42  Chapter 4

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

High Court is a common High Court for Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram, and Nagaland, Hyderabad High Court for Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Mumbai High Court for Goa and Maharashtra, and Punjab and Haryana High Court for Punjab and Haryana). The Calcutta High Court is the oldest High Court in the country, which was inaugurated on 2 July 1862, followed by the Madras High Court and Bombay (now Mumbai) High Court in the same year. The President in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the State Governor appoints High Court judges. A Chief Justice heads each High Court. Each High Court has jurisdiction over the state in which it is situated, or a union territory or several union territories, or a group of states. No law passed, or verdict declared by a High Court, is binding on any of the other High Courts of the country, unless the other High Courts choose to accept the said order. A judge of a High Court holds office till he attains the age of 62 years. However, he can be removed earlier by the Parliament in the same way as a Supreme Court judge. The High Courts are the appellate authority for a State or group of States and get many matters in appeal from the subordinate courts. They too have the power to issue writs, just like the apex court, under Article 226 of the Constitution. As in the case of the Supreme Court, the writ jurisdiction of the High Court is also part of their original jurisdiction, since all writ petitions are filed directly before the High Court. Apart from writ petitions, any civil or criminal case which does not fall within the purview or ambit of the subordinate courts of a State due to lack of pecuniary or territorial jurisdiction, can be heard by the High Court of that State. Like the Supreme Court, the High Courts are also courts of record and have all the powers associated with such a court including the power to punish for contempt of court. Also, a person who has held office of a judge of a High Court is not allowed to practice law before the authority of the same court except the Supreme Court and a High Court other than the one in which he/she served as a judge.

Emergency in India ❖❖ The emergency provisions in the Constitution of India range from Article 352 to Article 360. Emergency bestows the Central government with wide powers so as to handle adverse situations. These powers include

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.43

taking the executive and legislative functions of the states in its hands, curtailing (to a certain extent) the rights and freedom of individuals, etc. ❖❖ The provision of emergency in the Constitution is one of the reasons for India being a quasi-federal and not a completely federal nation, because during the term of emergency, the federal model of distribution of power between the Centre and the States ceases to exist and power is largely concentrated in the hands of the Central government. ❖❖ The Constitution of India recognizes 3 kinds of emergencies, which are as follows:

1. National emergency—Article 352 2. State emergency—Article 356 3. Financial emergency—Article 360

National Emergency (Article 352) ❖❖ The makers of the Constitution equipped the Union under Article 352 with absolute control during the time of emergency to preserve the integrity, security, and stability of the country. Under this Article, the President may declare emergency in the following cases:

1. War 2. External aggression 3. Armed rebellion (earlier ‘Internal Disturbance’ and was replaced by the 44th Amendment, 1978)

❖❖ The President can declare a National Emergency on the written advice of Cabinet ministers. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within one month. ❖❖ There have been three instances of declaration of National Emergency in India: ●● ●● ●●

1962–68: During the Indo-China war, when China attacked the northeastern borders of India. 1971–77: During the Bangladesh conflict. (Indo-Pakistan war) 1975–77: During the pendency of the Bangladesh conflict, on account of internal disturbances.

❖❖ The effects of proclamation of Emergency under Article 352 are mentioned in Article 353. In the situation of Emergency, the Union’s executive powers will extend to the States too, thereby temporarily doing away with the federal structure, and the Parliament will be allowed to legislate on topics mentioned in the State List. This two-fold expansion of power of the Union gives rise to a unitary form of government.

Allahabad High Court

Chennai High Court

Chhattisgarh High Court

Delhi High Court

Gauhati High Court

Gujarat High Court

High Court of Judicature at Hyderabad

Himachal Pradesh

Jammu and Kashmir High Court

Jharkhand High Court

Karnataka High Court

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Court Name

1.

S. No.

1884

15 November 2000

28 August 1943

1971

5 July 1954

1 May 1960

1 March 1948

31 October 1966

1 November 2000

15 August 1862

11 June 1866

Established

Seats and Jurisdiction of High Courts

Karnataka

Jharkhand

Jammu & Kashmir

Himachal Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh, Telangana

Gujarat

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram, Nagaland

National Capital Territory of Delhi

Chhattisgarh

Puducherry, Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

Jurisdiction

Bangalore

Ranchi

Srinagar/ Jammu

Shimla

Hyderabad

Ahmedabad

Guwahati

New Delhi

Bilaspur

Chennai

Allahabad

Seat

Dharwad, Gulbarga

–

–

–

–

Aizwal, Itanagar, Kohima

–

–

Madurai

Lucknow

Benches

(Contd.)

40

12

09

49

42

27

43

12

42

79

Judges

4.44  Chapter 4

Madhya Pradesh High 2 January 1936 Court

Manipur High Court

14.

15.

14 August 1862

3 April 1948

Mumbai High Court

Odisha High Court

Patna High Court

Punjab and Haryana High Court

Rajasthan High Court

Sikkim High Court

Tripura High Court

Uttarakhand High Court

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

9 November 2000

26 March 2013

16 May 1975

21 June 1949

15 August 1947

2 September 1916

Meghalaya High Court 23 March 2013

16.

17.

25 March 2013

2 July 1862

1956

Kerala High Court

Kolkata High Court

Established

13.

Court Name

12.

S. No.

Uttarakhand

Tripura

Sikkim

Rajasthan

Chandigarh, Haryana, Punjab

Bihar

Odisha

Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Maharashtra

Meghalaya

Manipur

Madhya Pradesh

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Kerala, Lakshadweep

Jurisdiction

Nainital

Agartala

Gangtok

Jodhpur

Chandigarh

Patna

Cuttack

Mumbai

Shillong

Imphal

Jabalpur

Kolkata

Kochi

Seat

–

–

–

Jaipur

–

–

–

Aurangabad, Nagpur, Panaji

–

–

Gwalior, Indore

Port Blair

–

Benches

09

04

03

40

53

43

27

60

03

03

42

63

40

Judges

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.45

4.46  Chapter 4

State Emergency (Article 356) ❖❖ If the President is satisfied, on receipt of a report from the Governor or otherwise, that a situation has arisen in which the governance of a state cannot be carried on according to the provisions of the Constitution, he is empowered to proclaim an emergency under Article 356. ❖❖ The State Emergency (President’s Rule) thus imposed may enable the President to:

1. Take under his control all or any of the functions of the State. 2. Declare that the powers of the State Legislature be exercisable by the Parliament. 3. Make any other supplementary or consequential provision essential to the object of the proclamation.

❖❖ However, the power of the High Courts cannot be transferred to the President. ❖❖ Such an Emergency must be approved by the Parliament within two months and must be successively renewed every 6 months. The maximum tenure of a State Emergency is three years. ❖❖ As of March 2016, President’s Rule has been imposed in India for a total of 115 times since the Constitution came into force. It has been imposed the maximum number of times (10 times) in Uttar Pradesh. It has been imposed in all states in India at least once, except in Chhattisgarh and Telangana. ❖❖ In the landmark case of S.R. Bommai Vs. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that State Emergency is justiciable in nature, meaning that it can be reviewed by the Court, and it can also order the Centre to remove the Emergency from a state if it feels that it was not imposed in accordance with the Constitution.

Financial Emergency (Article 360) ❖❖ Financial Emergency, under Article 360, is imposed in a situation where the President is satisfied that the financial stability or credit of India or any part of it is threatened. ❖❖ This should be approved by both the Houses of Parliament within two months. Financial Emergency has never been declared in India. ❖❖ In case of a Financial Emergency, the President can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of various courts and direct the State to observe certain measures to regain and retain financial stability.

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.47

Effect on Fundamental Rights during Emergency ❖❖ During the term of National Emergency, the Fundamental Rights as well as the freedoms enlisted under Article 19 are suspended. Also, the President is vested with the power to suspend the right of the individual in case of infringement of their Fundamental Rights, except for Articles 20 and 21 (Article 359). However, this power must be exercised with great care and be restricted to the absolute minimum. It should be noted that Article 359, as it originally stood, gave power to the President to suspend all Fundamental Rights during National Emergency. However, this power was restricted through the 44th Amendment in 1978, by which ‘except Article 20 and 21’ was added to Article 359.

❖❖ In India, Fundamental Rights have never been suspended during any State emergency.

Amendment to the Constitution ❖❖ The Constitution of any country is an ever-changing document, more so of a country like India, with the longest written Constitution of any independent country. Amendments or modifications to the Constitution are an inevitable part of democracy, for keeping up with changing times and changing ideologies. The founding fathers of our Constitution accordingly drafted the amendment provisions of the Constitution. The amendment procedure of the Indian Constitution is inspired from that of the South African Constitution. ❖❖ There are primarily three types of amendment procedures provided for by the Constitution of India, namely those requiring (a) Simple majority, (b) Special Majority, and (c) Special Majority + Ratification by half of the state legislatures.

Amendment by Simple Majority Such amendments are those which only require the assent of the simple majority of both the Houses of the Parliament (assent of more than half of the total members of the House). Examples include matters relating to qualifications for Indian citizenships, matters relating to creation/ reorganization of States etc. Amendment of this type is specifically excluded from the procedure prescribed by Article 368 of the Constitution.

Amendment by Special Majority Amendments by Special Majority are those which require the assent of the majority of the total membership of each House of Parliament as well as

4.48  Chapter 4

the assent of not less than two-thirds of the members of that House present and voting. This form of amendment is provided for in Article 368 of the Constitution. Most of the amendments to the Constitution are effected according to these provisions.

Amendment by Special majority + Ratification by Half of the State Legislatures Some of the Articles of the Constitution cannot be amended simply on being passed by a special majority, but they also need the ratification or endorsement by a resolution passed by not less than one-half of the State legislatures. This procedure largely applies to those amendments which seek to amend provisions in which the interests of States are directly involved. Some of the provisions which require such ratification are: 1. The election and manner of election of the President (Articles 54 and 56 respectively). 2. The representation of States in the Parliament (Fourth Schedule). 3. Distribution of Legislative Powers (Chapter I of Part XI). 4. The setting up of a High Court in a union territory (Art. 241).

Procedure of Amendment to the Constitution The procedure of amendment is fairly simple. The Bill to amend the Constitution can be initiated in either House of Parliament. Except for the Bills which seek to (and are mandated to) amend provisions by the third procedure given above (Special Majority + Ratification), other Bills must be passed by a majority of the total membership of the house, and two-third of the members present and voting. Once the Bill is passed by both the Houses of the Parliament, it shall be presented to the President, and he shall give his assent to the same. Once the President has given his assent, the Constitution stands amended.

Miscellaneous Topics Panchayats and Municipalities Panchayats ❖❖ The present day Panchayati Raj system was introduced in 1959 on the recommendations of the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee. The first panchayat was held in Nagaur district in Rajasthan. Organization of village panchayats has also been made a Directive Principle of State Policy (Article 40).

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.49

❖❖ In December 1977, the Janata Government appointed a committee on Panchayati Raj institutions under the chairmanship of Ashok Mehta. It submitted its report in August 1978, but its recommendations were not paid much heed to. ❖❖ In 1986, the Rajiv Gandhi Government appointed a committee on ‘Revitalization of Panchayati Raj Institutions for Democracy and Development’ under the chairmanship of L.M. Singhvi. ❖❖ On the recommendations of the L.M. Singhvi committee, the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 was passed which constitutionalized the system of panchayats. In addition, the amendment has also added a new 11th Schedule to the Constitution. It contains 29 functional items of the panchayats (items on which the State Government can delegate work to panchayats) and the creation of a 3-tier Panchayati Raj at district, block, village levels.

Municipalities ❖❖ The 74th Amendment Act, 1992 has added a new Part IX-A to the Constitution of India. It is entitled ‘The Municipalities’ and consists of provisions from Articles 243-P to 243-ZG. In addition, the Act has also added a new Twelfth Schedule to the Constitution. ❖❖ Every municipality, unless sooner dissolved under any law for the time being in force, shall continue for 5 years from the date appointed for its first meeting and no longer. ❖❖ The Finance Commissions constituted under Article 243(1) shall review the financial position of the municipalities and make recommendations to the governor. ❖❖ In simple words, the municipalities are the to urban areas, what the panchayats are to the rural areas. ❖❖ Reservation: Some seats in panchayats and municipalities are reserved for SCs and STs. This is proportionate to the ratio of population of SC/STs to the total population in the panchayat. Also, one-third of the total seats are reserved for women, which includes reserved seats for SC/ST women also.

Delimitation Commission of India ❖❖ Delimitation means the act or process of fixing limits or modifying the limits of any constituency. Article 82 makes provision for the delimitation of electoral boundaries. ❖❖ Delimitation Commission is a statutory body and not a Constitutional body established by the Central government. This Delimitation Commission

4.50  Chapter 4

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

demarcates the boundaries of the parliamentary constituencies as per provisions of the Delimitation Act. Delimitation commissions have been set up 4 times in the past, namely 1952, 1963, 1973, and 2002 under the Delimitation Commission Acts of 1952, 1962, 1972, and 2002. The 42nd Amendment Act 1976 had put a ban on any further delimitation of the constituencies till the year 2000. The 84th Amendment Act 2002 extended the freeze till the year 2026. Pursuant with the 84th Amendment Act 2002, the Delimitation Act 2002 was passed. Under this Act, the Delimitation Commission was constituted in July 2002. The Government of India suspended the Delimitation Commission in 1976 keeping in view that the ‘family planning’ programme would affect their elections. It resumed in 2002 under the chairmanship of Justice Kuldeep Singh. The Commission consists of the Chief Election Commissioner of India and two judges of the Supreme Court or any of the High Courts in India. Under the 31st Amendment Act, the delimitation exercise doesn’t apply to states and union territories having a population less than 6 million. Delimitation under 2002 Act, has increased Scheduled Caste (78 to 84) and Scheduled Tribe Constituencies (38 to 42). Karnataka became the first state to hold elections to the Legislative Assembly as per a fresh delimitation exercise.

Anti-Defection Law ❖❖ Back in the late 1960s, some of the major political parties started facing a peculiar problem—that of their elected MPs or MLAs leaving their parties to join another party, usually because they were granted ministries by the other party. Between 1967 and 1971, around 142 MPs and 1900 MLAs migrated their political parties, due to which multiple governments collapsed. An Anti-defection law was passed later to address this issue. ❖❖ The Anti-defection law was passed by Parliament in 1985. The 52nd Amendment to the Constitution added the Tenth Schedule which laid down the process by which legislators may be disqualified on grounds of defection. The tenth Schedule, together with Articles 102 and 192 of the Constitution of India are known as the Anti-defection law. ❖❖ A member would be disqualified under the Tenth Schedule: ●● ●●

If he voluntarily gives up membership of his political party. Votes or abstains from voting contrary to any direction (whip) without obtaining prior permission and the same has not been condoned by his party.

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.51 ●● ●●

When an elected member elected as a candidate from a party joins any other political party after such election. A nominated member joins any political party after six months of having taken up the seat.

❖❖ The Chairman or the Speaker of the House takes the decision to disqualify a member. The Goswami Committee, the Election Commission, and the Venkatachaliah Commission to Review the Constitution (2002) have recommended that the decision should be made by the President or the Governor on the advice of the Election Commission. ❖❖ According to the Tenth Schedule, it requires at least two-third members of a legislature party to form a new political group or ‘merge’ with another political party without getting disqualified under the Anti-defection law. Earlier, a ‘defection’ by one-third of the elected members of a political party was considered a ‘merger’. The 91st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003, changed this. So now, at least two-thirds of the members of a party have to be in favour of a ‘merger’ for it to have validity in the eyes of the law. ❖❖ The Supreme Court, in the case of Kihoto Hollohan Vs. Zachilhu and others held that the law does not violate any rights or freedoms, or the basic structure of parliamentary democracy. Thus, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutional validity of the Tenth Schedule. ❖❖ Defection to another political party is casually known as ‘Crossing the Floor’.

Public Interest Litigation ❖❖ Public Interest Litigation, in Indian law, means litigation for the protection of public interest and not just the interest of the party filing the suit. Public Interest Litigation is the power given to the public by courts through judicial activism. The court can also itself take cognizance of the matter and proceed suo moto (on its own), or cases can commence on the petition of any public-spirited individual. ❖❖ A Public Interest Litigation can be filed against a State/Central govt., municipal authorities, and not any private party. The definition of State is the same as given under Article 12 of the Constitution. PIL is remedial in nature, provides representative standing, and promotes non-adversarial litigation. ❖❖ Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer and Justice P.N. Bhagwati recognized the possibility of providing access to justice to the poor and the exploited people by relaxing the rules of approaching the Court. PIL emerged as a result of an informal nexus of pro-active judges, media persons, and social activists.

4.52  Chapter 4

❖❖ Public Interest Litigation (PIL) comes within the ambit of Epistolary Jurisdiction of the courts. This means that the court’s attention can be drawn towards an issue even through written letters. ❖❖ The first reported case of PIL in 1979 focused on the inhuman conditions of prisons and under-trial prisoners (Hussainara Khatoon Vs. State of Bihar). ❖❖ Article 32 of the Constitution of India reads: ‘The right to move the Supreme Court by appropriate proceedings for the enforcement of the rights conferred by this part is guaranteed’. Ordinarily, only the aggrieved party has the right to seek redress under Article 32. However, in the case of S.P. Gupta Vs. Union of India, it was held that ‘any member of the public or social action group acting bona-fide (without intention to deceive)’ can invoke the Writ Jurisdiction of the High Courts or the Supreme Court seeking redressal against violation of legal or constitutional rights of persons who due to social or economic or any other disability cannot approach the court. ❖❖ Some prominent PILs: In Bandhua Mukti Morcha Vs. Union of India, the Supreme Court ordered the release of bonded labourers. In Murli S. Dogra Vs. Union of India, the Supreme Court banned smoking in public places. In a landmark judgment of Delhi Domestic Working Women’s Forum Vs. Union of India, the Supreme Court issued guidelines for rehabilitation and compensation for rape on working women. In Vishaka Vs. State of Rajasthan, the Supreme Court has laid down exhaustive guidelines for preventing sexual harassment of working women in their place of work.

Consolidated Fund of India ❖❖ Provided for under Article 266(1) of the Constitution. ❖❖ There is both for the Centre and each of the States, a Consolidated Fund to which all incomes received by the government are credited. ❖❖ All government expenditure is made from this fund, except for exceptional items met from the Contingency Fund or the Public Account. No money can be withdrawn from this fund without Parliament’s approval. ❖❖ Article 112 mentions the expenditures which shall be charged from the Consolidated Fund of India.

Contingency Fund of India ❖❖ Provided for under Article 267(1) of the Constitution of India. ❖❖ It is in the nature of an imprest, that is, money maintained for a specific purpose. It’s at the disposal of the President of India to make advances to meet urgent unforeseen expenditure like natural disasters.

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.53

❖❖ The fund is held by the Finance Secretary on behalf of the President of India, and it can be operated by Executive action. ❖❖ The current corpus for the Union government at present is `500 crores (`5 billion) and can be enhanced further by the Union legislature.

Judicial Activism ❖❖ When the judiciary acts beyond the limited power given to it by the Constitution of India, in the interest of providing justice to people, such a situation is described as Judicial Activism. It is a philosophy of judicial decision making whereby judges allow their personal views about public policy, among other factors, to guide their decisions. It mainly occurs due to the non-activity of the other organs of the government (legislature or executive). ❖❖ There are two major aspects of Judicial Activism:



1. Public Interest Litigation (PIL) where various directions are issued by the courts to the government authorities protecting the rights of the citizen, for example, cases like Agra Protection Home case and Bihar undertrail case. 2. Interpretation of Fundamental Rights, particularly the Right to Equality (Article 14), Right to Freedom (Article 19), and the Right to Life and Personal Liberty (Article 21). For example, in Kesavananda Bharti case, 1973, the Supreme Court formulated the doctrine of ‘Basic Structure’ which restricts the power of Parliament to amend certain features of the Constitution.

❖❖ Judicial Activism played an important role in cases like the Bhopal gas tragedy and the Jessica Lal Murder case. ❖❖ Judicial Activism is understandably criticized by other organs of the Constitution, namely the legislature and executive.

Special Status to Jammu & Kashmir and Other States ❖❖ The Temporary, Transitional, and Special provisions are provided in part XXI of our Constitution. Article 370 deals with the State of Jammu & Kashmir which forms a part of the ‘territory of India’ as defined in Article 1 of the Constitution. ❖❖ No law passed by the Parliament regarding the state of Jammu & Kashmir can be applied to the state without the order of President of India in concurrence with the State government.

4.54  Chapter 4

❖❖ Article 371 contains special provisions for Maharashtra and Gujarat. Articles 371(A) for Nagaland, 371(B) for Assam, 371(C) for Manipur, 371(D) and (E) for Andhra Pradesh, 371(F) for Sikkim, 371(G) for Mizoram, 371(H) for Arunachal Pradesh, and 371(I) for Goa are such Articles which provide special provisions to various states. ❖❖ Apart from this, the Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the Constitution grant special provisions to the tribal areas and the northeastern states. ❖❖ Although these Articles are a part of ‘Temporary provisions’, they are deemed to have been made a permanent part of the Constitution.

Official Language ❖❖ Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language. The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script (Article 343). However, English shall also be used for official purposes. ❖❖ The use of English as an associate official language was initially decided to be done only for a period of 15 years from the date the Constitution came into force. However, owing to anti-Hindi protests primarily in South Indian states, Nehru, the then prime minister, enacted the Official Languages Act, 1963 to ensure the continued use of English beyond 1965. ❖❖ The Eighth Schedule to the Indian Constitution contains a list of 22 Languages with official status namely Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu. By the 92nd Amendment, 2003, Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were added to this list. ❖❖ The legal framework governing the use of languages for official purpose currently includes the Constitution, the Official Languages Act, 1963, Official Languages (Use for Official Purpose of the Union) Rules, 1976, and various state laws, as well as rules and regulations made by the Central government and the States. ❖❖ As per Article 120 of the Constitution, business in Parliament shall be transacted in Hindi or English. Any other language may be used but only with the permission of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha or the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. ❖❖ The Constitution provides that all proceedings in the Supreme Court of India, the country’s highest court, and the High Courts shall be in English. (Article 348) ❖❖ It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language. (Article 351)

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.55

Know More! Does India have a National Language? The Supreme Court, on multiple occasions, has held that India does not have a National language, owing to the fact that the same has never been declared in any piece of written law by the Government.

General Elections ❖❖ India being the largest democracy of the world, elections in India have been the largest electoral exercise in the world since the first General Elections of 1952. ❖❖ According to Article 324, the Election Commission (EC) of India is the only entity that has been given the authority to supervise, direct, and control elections. The EC should comprise the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and other Election Commissioners, who will be appointed by the President. ❖❖ India has been divided into single member territorial constituencies. Every constituency will have one electoral roll for both Parliamentary and Assembly elections, and no person shall be included or excluded from the electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste, and sex. ❖❖ Article 326 of the Constitution guarantees the right to be registered as a voter, to every citizen above the age of 18. Further, Section 62 of the Representation of Peoples Act (RoPA), 1951 states that every person who is in the electoral roll of that constituency will be entitled to vote. ❖❖ Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) were commissioned in 1989 by EC of India in collaboration with Electronics Corporation of India Limited. The highest number of candidates that an electronic voting machine can support is 64. ❖❖ In 2014, owing to a Supreme Court decision, the option of ‘None of the Above’ was added to all Electronic Voting Machines. Earlier, in order to cast a negative vote, the voter had to inform the presiding officer at the polling booth.

Centre–State Relations ❖❖ The Indian Constitution declares India as federal. That means it is a union of states where power is divided between the Centre and States as per the procedure mentioned in the Constitution. ❖❖ Legislative Centre–State Relations: Articles 245 to 255 in the Indian Constitution deal with the legislative aspect of Centre–State relations. The

4.56  Chapter 4

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖ ❖❖

❖❖

7th Schedule of the Indian Constitution mentions lists which categorize the subjects on which the Centre/State can legislate. The Union List has 100 subjects, State List contains 61 subjects, and the Concurrent List has 52 subjects. Administrative Centre–State Relations: Articles 256 to 263 in the Indian Constitution deal with the administrative aspect of Centre–State relations in India. Regarding administration, state governments are like subordinates to the Centre. Financial Centre–State Relations: Articles 268 to 293 in the Indian Constitution deal with the financial aspect of Centre–State relations in India. It mainly deals with the imposition and collection of taxes. Articles 270, 273, 275, and 280 provide for the Constitution of a Finance Commission (at stated inter­vals) to recommend to the President certain measures relating to the distribution of financial re­sources between the Union and the States. The Constitution of the Finance Commission is laid down in Article 280. Y. Venugopal Reddy is the Chairman of 14th Finance Commission of India. Sarkaria Commission was set up in June 1983 by the Union government of India. The Sarkaria Commission’s charter was to examine the relationship and balance of power between State and Central governments in the country and suggest changes within the framework of the Constitution of India. Inter State council is a Constitutional body set up on the basis of provisions in Article 263 of the Constitution of India by a Presidential Order dated 28 May 1990 on recommendation of the Sarkaria Commission. Article 263 of the Constitution envisages establishment of an institutional mechanism to facilitate coordination of policies and their implementation between the Union and the State governments.

Election Commission of India ❖❖ Election Commission of India is a permanent constitutional body. The Election Commission was established in accordance with the Constitution on 25 January 1950 (now celebrated as ‘Voters' Day’). Originally, the Commission had only a Chief Election Commissioner. It currently consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners. ❖❖ For the first time, two Additional Commissioners were appointed on 16 October 1989, but they had a very short tenure till 1 January 1990. Later, on 1 October 1993 two Additional Election Commissioners were

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.57

appointed. The concept of a multi-member Commission has been in operation since then, with decision-making power by majority vote. ❖❖ The President appoints the Chief Election Commissioner and the Election Commissioners. They have a tenure of six years, or up to the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. They enjoy the same status and receive the salary and perks as available to judges of the Supreme Court of India. The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed from office only through impeachment by Parliament. To ensure that the Election Commissioners can perform their tasks through utmost transparency and without any external influence, their removal is not in the hands of the President but the whole Parliament. The Election Commissioners can submit their resignation to the President. ❖❖ The Constitution of India has vested in the Election Commission of India the superintendence, direction, and control of the entire process for conduct of elections to Parliament and legislature of every State and to the offices of the President and Vice-President of India. ❖❖ First Chief Election Commissioner of India—Sukumar Sen.

Comptroller and Auditor General of India ❖❖ Article 148 provides for the post of Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG), who is appointed by the President of India by warrant under his hand and seal. The position of CAG was created with the intent to enhance accountability of the executive to the Parliament and State Legislatures by carrying out audits in the public sector and providing accounting services in the states in accordance with the Constitution of India. ❖❖ It is his/her responsibility to ensure that public money is spent and revenues received not only in accordance with the law but also with due regard to economy, efficiency, and effectiveness. ❖❖ He/she holds his/her office for a term of 5 years or till he/she attains the age of 65 years, whichever happens earlier. ❖❖ He/she is the head of the Indian Audits and Accounts Department and is also known as the Guardian of Public Purse. ❖❖ To ensure independence of this office from the executive, removal is not given in the hands of the President but in the hands of Parliament. A CAG cannot be removed from office except on grounds of proven misbehaviour or incapacity, on an address passed by each of the two Houses of the Parliament by two-thirds majority of those present and voting and a majority of the total membership of each House in the same manner as applicable to judges of the Supreme Court of India under Article 124(4). He/she can also submit his/her resignation to the President of India. ❖❖ First CAG of India—V. Narahari Rao.

4.58  Chapter 4

Finance Commission of India ❖❖ Article 280 of the Constitution provides for a Finance Commission as a quasi-judicial body. It is constituted by the President every fifth year or at such earlier time as he/she considers necessary. ❖❖ It was formulated for the purpose of allocation of resources between the Union and the States. It is required to make recommendations to the President of India on the following matters: ●●

●●

●●

●●

The distribution of net proceeds of taxes to be shared between the Centre and the states and the allocation between the states of the respective shares of such proceeds. The principles that should govern the grants-in-aids to the states by the Centre. The measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement the resources of the panchayats and the municipalities in the state on the basis of the recommendations made by the State Finance Commission. Any other matter referred to it by the President in the interests of sound finance.

❖❖ The Finance Commission consists of a Chairman along with four other members and a Secretary. They are eligible for reappointment, and they hold their office for a period as specified by the President in his order. ❖❖ The Chairman of the Finance Commission should be a person having experience in public affairs and the four other members should be selected from amongst the following: ●● ●●

●●

●●

A judge of a High Court or one qualified to be appointed as one. A person who has specialized knowledge of finance and accounts of the government. A person who has wide experience in financial matters and administration. A person who has special knowledge of economics.

❖❖ A member of the Finance Commission can be disqualified on the following grounds—when a member is found to be of unsound mind, is involved in a vile act or if his interests are likely to affect the functioning of the Commission. A member of the Finance Commission can resign by addressing his resignation to the President. ❖❖ Chairman of the first Finance Commission—K.C. Neogy.

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.59

List of Important Articles 1. Article 1: Name and territory of the Union 2. Article 2: Admission or establishment of new states 3. Article 3: Formation of new states and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing states 4. Article 5: Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution 5. Article 9: Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign State not to be citizens 6. Article 13: Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the Fundamental Rights 7. Article 14: Equality before law 8. Article 17: Abolition of untouchability 9. Article 19: Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc. 10. Article 20: Protection in respect of conviction for offences 11. Article 21: Protection of life and personal liberty 12. Article 21A: Right to education 13. Article 22: Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases 14. Article 23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour 15. Article 24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc. 16. Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions 17. Article 32: Remedies for enforcement of rights conferred by Part III of the Constitution. 18. Article 39A: Equal justice and free legal aid 19. Article 40: Organization of village panchayats 20. Article 44: Uniform Civil Code for the citizens 21. Article 45: Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years 22. Article 51A: Fundamental Duties 23. Article 52: The President of India 24. Article 54: Election of President 25. Article 63: The Vice-President of India 26. Article 64: The Vice-President to be ex-officio Chairman of the Council of States 27. Article 74: Council of Ministers to aid and advise President 28. Article 75: Other provisions as to Ministers (this Article establishes the post of Prime Minister)

4.60  Chapter 4

29. Article 76: Attorney-General for India 30. Article 79: Constitution of Parliament (Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha) 31. Article 105: Powers, privileges, etc. of the Houses of Parliament and of the members and committees thereof 32. Article 108: Joint sitting of both Houses in certain cases 33. Article 110: Definition of ‘Money Bills’ (Union) 34. Article 112: Annual Financial Statement (casually known as ‘Union Budget’) 35. Article 123: Power of President to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Parliament 36. Article 124: Establishment and constitution of the Supreme Court 37. Article 129: Supreme Court to be a court of record 38. Article 131: Original Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court 39. Article 136: Special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court 40. Article 141: Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts 41. Article 143: Power of President to consult Supreme Court 42. Article 148: Comptroller and Auditor-General of India 43. Article 153: Governors of states 44. Article 155: Appointment of Governor 45. Article 163: Council of Ministers to aid and advise Governor 46. Article 165: Advocate-General for the State 47. Article 168: Constitution of Legislatures in States 48. Article 191: Disqualifications for membership 49. Article 194: Powers, privileges, etc. of the House of Legislatures and of the members and committees thereof 50. Article 199: Definition of ‘Money Bills’ (State) 51. Article 202: Annual Financial Statement (casually known as ‘State Budget’) 52. Article 213: Power of Governor to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Legislature 53. Article 214: High Courts for States 54. Article 215: High Courts to be courts of record 55. Article 226: Power of High Courts to issue certain writs 56. Article 233: Appointment of District Judges 57. Article 266: Consolidated Funds and Public Accounts of India and of the States 58. Article 267: Contingency Fund 59. Article 300A: Persons not to be deprived of property save by authority of law

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.61

60. Article 312: All-India Services 61. Article 343: Official language of the Union 62. Article 348: Language to be used in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts and for Acts, Bills, etc. 63. Article 352: Proclamation of Emergency 64. Article 356: Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States 65. Article 359: Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during emergencies 66. Article 360: Provisions as to Financial Emergency (Repealed) 67. Article 368: Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure therefore 68. Article 370: Temporary provisions with respect to the State of Jammu & Kashmir

List of Parts of the Constitution Part

Subject

Articles

I

The Union & its Territory

1–4

II

Citizenship

5 – 11

III

Fundamental Rights

12 – 35

IV

Directive Principles of State Policy

36 – 51

IVA

Fundamental Duties

51A

V

The Union

52 – 151

VI

The States

152 – 237

VII

Repealed by Constitution (7th Amendment) Act, 1956

VIII

The Union Territories

IX

The Panchayats

239 – 242 243 – 243O

IXA

The Municipalities

243P – 243ZG

IXB

The Co-operative Societies

243ZH - 243ZT

X

The Scheduled & Tribal Areas

XI

Relations between Union and States

XII

Finance, Property, Contracts, and Suits

XIII

Trade, Commerce, and Intercourse within the Territory of India

244 – 244A 245 – 263 264 – 300A 301 – 307 (Contd.)

4.62  Chapter 4

Part

Subject

Articles

XIV

Services under the Union and the States

XIVA

Tribunals

323A – 323B

XV

Elections

324 – 329A

308 – 323

XVI

Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes

330 – 342

XVII

Official Language

343 – 351

XVIII

Emergency Provisions

352 – 360

XIX

Miscellaneous

361 – 367

XX

Amendment to the Constitution

XXI

Temporary, Transitional, and Special Provisions

369 – 392

XXII

Short title, Commencement, Authoritative text in Hindi, and Repeals

393 – 395

368

Schedules of the Constitution of India Schedule

Subject

First Schedule

List of States & Union Territories

Second Schedule

Salary of President, Governors, Chief Judges, Judges of High Court and Supreme Court, Comptroller and Auditor General

Third Schedule

Forms of oaths and affirmations

Fourth Schedule

Allocation of seats for each state in the Rajya Sabha

Fifth Schedule

Administration and control of scheduled areas and tribes

Sixth Schedule

Provisions for administration of tribal area in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh

Seventh Schedule

Gives allocation of powers and functions between Union and states. It contains 3 lists, Union List (For Central govt) States List (Powers of State govt) Concurrent List (Both Union and states)

Eighth Schedule

List of 22 languages of India recognized by the Constitution—(1) Assamese, (2) Bengali, (3) Gujarati, (4) Hindi, (5) Kannada, (6) Kashmiri, (7) Manipuri, (8) Malayalam, (9) Konkani, (10) Marathi, (11) Nepali, (12) Oriya, (13) Punjabi, (14) Sanskrit, (15) Sindhi, (16) Tamil, (17) Telugu, (18) Urdu, (19) Santhali, (20) Bodo, (21) Maithili, and (22) Dogri (Contd.)

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.63

Schedule

Subject

Ninth Schedule

Added by first amendment in 1951. Contains acts and orders related to land tenure, land tax, railways, industries. Acts in the Ninth Schedule cannot be reviewed by the courts.

Tenth Schedule

Added by the 52nd Amendment in 1985. Contains provisions of disqualification of grounds of defection

Eleventh Schedule

By the 73rd Amendment in 1992. Contains provisions of Panchayati Raj (Rural panchayats)

Twelfth Schedule

By the 74th Amendment in 1992. Contains provisions of Municipal Corporation (Urban panchayats)

List of Prominent Constitutional Amendments Amendment

Date of Objectives Enforcement

1st Amendment

18 June 1951

To fully secure the constitutional validity of zamindari abolition laws. To place reasonable restriction on freedom of speech. A new constitutional device, called Schedule IX introduced to protect laws that are contrary to the Constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights.

7th Amendment

1 November 1956

Reorganization of states on linguistic lines. Abolition of Class A, B, C, D states. Introduction of union territories.

9th Amendment

28 December 1960

Minor adjustments to the territory of the Indian Union consequent to agreement with Pakistan for settlement of disputes by demarcation of border villages, etc.

10th Amendment

11 August 1961

Incorporation of Dadra & Nagar Haveli as a union territory after acquisition from Portugal.

12th Amendment

20 December 1961

Incorporation of Goa, Daman & Diu as a union territory, after acquisition from Portugal.

13th Amendment

1 December 1963

Formation of the State of Nagaland, with special protection under Article 371(A). (Contd.)

4.64  Chapter 4

Amendment

Date of Objectives Enforcement

14th Amendment

28 December 1962

Incorporation of Pondicherry into the Union of India. Creation of Legislative Assemblies for Himachal Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur, and Goa.

15th Amendment

5 October 1963

Raise retirement age of judges from 60 to 62.

24th Amendment

5 November 1971

Enable Parliament to dilute Fundamental Rights through amendments to the Constitution.

26th Amendment

28 December 1971

Abolition of privy purse paid to former rulers of princely states which were incorporated into the Indian Republic.

31st Amendment

17 October 1973

Increased size of Parliament from 525 to 545 seats.

36th Amendment

26 April 1975

Formation of Sikkim as a state within the Indian Union.

39th Amendment

10 August 1975

Negated the judgment of Allahabad High Court invalidating Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s election to Parliament. Amendment placed restrictions on judicial scrutiny of the post of prime minister.

41st Amendment

7 September 1976

Raised retirement age limit of chairmen and members of Union and State Public Commissions from 60 to 62.

42nd Amendment

1 April 1977

Amendment passed during Internal Emergency by Indira Gandhi. Provides for curtailment of Fundamental Rights, imposes fundamental duties and changes to the basic structure of the constitution by making India a ‘Socialist, Secular Republic’.

43rd Amendment

13 April 1978

Amendment passed after revocation of Internal Emergency in the country. Repeals some of the more ‘Anti-Freedom’ amendments enacted through Amendment Bill 42. (Contd.)

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Amendment

Date of Objectives Enforcement

44th Amendment

6 September 1979

52nd Amendment

1 March 1985 Anti-defection law. Provides disqualification of members from Parliament and assembly in case of defection from one party to other.

61st Amendment

28 March 1989

Reduced age for voting rights from 21 to 18.

64th Amendment

16 April 1990

Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years and six months in the state of Punjab.

65th Amendment

12 March 1992

National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes formed and its statutory powers specified in the Constitution.

71st Amendment

31 August 1992

Include Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali as National Languages.

73rd Amendment

24 April 1993

Statutory provisions for Panchayat Raj as third level of administration in villages.

74th Amendment

1 June 1993

Statutory provisions for local administrative bodies as third level of administration in urban areas such as towns and cities.

86th Amendment

12 December 2002

Provides Right to Education until the age of 14 and Early childhood care until the age of six.

87th Amendment

22 June 2003

Extend the usage of 1971 National Census population figures for state wise distribution of Parliamentary seats.

91st Amendment

1 January 2004

Restricted the size of the council of ministers to 15% of legislative members and to strengthen Anti-defection laws.

Amendment passed after revocation of Internal Emergency in the country. Provides for human rights safeguards and mechanisms to prevent abuse of executive and legislative authority. Annuls some Amendments enacted in Amendment Bill 42.

(Contd.)

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Amendment

Date of Objectives Enforcement

92nd Amendment

7 January 2004

Enable levy of service tax. Include Bodo, Dogri, Santali, and Maithili as National Languages.

93rd Amendment

20 January 2006

To enable provision of reservation for Other Backward Classes (OBC) in government as well as private educational institutions

95th Amendment

25 January 2010

Extended the reservation of seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for SC and ST from 60 to 70 years.

96th Amendment

23 September 2011

Substituted ‘Odia’ for ‘Oriya’.

99th Amendment

13 April 2015

The amendment provided for formation of National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC). However, it has now been quashed by the Supreme Court.

100th Amendment

1 August 2015

Exchange of certain enclave territories with Bangladesh and conferment of citizenship rights to residents of enclaves consequent to signing of Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) Treaty between India and Bangladesh.

101th Amendment

1 July 2017

Goods and Services Tax Act (GST)

Borrowed/Inspired Features of the Indian Constitution From United Kingdom

1. Nominal head–President 2. Cabinet System of Ministers 3. Post of the Prime Minister 4. Parliamentary Form of Government 5. Bicameral Parliament 6. Lower House (Lok Sabha) being more powerful

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7. Council of Ministers being responsible to Lower House (Lok Sabha) 8. Speaker in the Lok Sabha 9. Single citizenship

From the United States of America 1. Written Constitution 2. Executive Head of the State known as President 3. Provision of states 4. Judicial review 5. Removal of Supreme Court and High Court Judges 6. President being the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces 7. Vice-President as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha 8. Fundamental Rights 9. Supreme Court 10. Independence of judiciary 11. Preamble

From Ireland 1. Nomination of members to the Rajya Sabha by the President 2. Concept of Directive Principles of State Policy 3. Manner of election of the President

From Australia 1. Concurrent List 2. Preamble (Language) 3. Provisions regarding trade and commerce

From Japan 1. Law on which the Supreme Court functions

From Canada 1. Scheme of federation (with a strong Centre) 2. Distribution of powers between the Centre and States (and placing residuary powers with the Centre)

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From Germany (Weimar Constitution) 1. Suspension of Fundamental Rights during Emergency

From South Africa 1. Procedure of Constitutional Amendments

From erstwhile U.S.S.R. 1. Fundamental Duties 2. Five-year Plans

List of Prominent Cases Re Berubari Case Issue: Whether the Preamble forms part of the Constitution. Held: The Court held that the Preamble to the Constitution containing the declaration made by the people of India in exercise of their sovereign will, is without a doubt ‘a key to open the minds of the framers of the Constitution’ which may show the general purposes for which they made the several provisions in the Constitution but nevertheless the Preamble is not a part of the Constitution.

Golaknath Vs. State of Punjab Issue: Whether any part of the Fundamental Rights provisions of the Constitution could be limited by an amendment to the constitution. Held: In 1967, a bench of 11 judges (such a large bench constituted for the first time) of the Supreme Court debated over the above-mentioned issue and decided that the Parliament could not curtail any of the Fundamental Rights as they occupy a transcendental position in the Constitution, and, therefore, amendments which ‘take away or abridge’ the Fundamental Rights provisions cannot be passed.

Kesavananda Bharti Vs. State of Kerala Issue: Whether the ruling of the Supreme Court in Golaknath case was correct. Held: The court held that the power of amendment is plenary and can be used to amend all the articles of the constitution (including the Fundamental Rights). Seven out of 13 judges held (six judges dissented on this point) that the power to amend does not include the power to alter the ‘basic structure’ of

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the Constitution so as to change its identity. The judges indicated a list of what may be considered forming part of the basic structure; sovereign, republican, and democratic form of government, the secular character of the Constitution, separation of powers, welfare state, etc. In extremely simple words, basic structure of the constitution would be those parts of the constitution, which, if amended to altered, would destabilize the whole constitution.

Minerva Mills Ltd. Vs. Union of India Issue: Validity of Clauses (4) and (5) of Article 368 inserted by the 42nd amendment which gave the Parliament the power to amend the Constitution, and such amendment could not be questioned in a court of law. Held: This case expanded on the Basic Structure doctrine propounded in the Kesavananda Bharti case, and the court held that ‘judicial review’, that is the power of the judiciary to review and decide on the constitutionality of any amendment or law passed by the Parliament, is a part of the Basic Structure of the Constitution and cannot be taken away by the Parliament. Therefore, clauses 4 and 5 of Article 368 were struck down.

Mohd. Ahmed Khan Vs. Shah Bano Begum and others (The Shah Bano case) Issue: This case pitted the rights of a religious minority to follow their personal law against the right of a woman to receive alimony. Muslim law entitles a woman to receive maintenance from her husband for a limited period called the ‘iddat period’ observed right after the divorce. It does not entitle the woman to claim ongoing maintenance. Held: On an application filed under for maintenance under Section 125 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, which applies to everyone and provides for a quick remedy to a class of persons who are unable to maintain themselves, the court ruled that despite the Muslim personal law, a woman would be entitled to ongoing maintenance from her husband after divorce. However, subsequently, this led to the enactment of the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986, which gave a Muslim woman the right to maintenance for the period of iddat (about three months) after the divorce only, thus discriminating between Muslim women and women of other religions for the right to claim basic maintenance.

Vishakha and others Vs. State of Rajasthan Issue: Sexual harassment at workplace and increasing number of crimes against women.

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Held: The immediate cause for the filing of this writ petition was an incident of alleged brutal gang rape of a social worker in a village of Rajasthan. For the first time, the court explicitly defined sexual harassment to mean ‘such unwelcome sexually determined behavior (whether directly or by implication) as: ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

physical contact and advances; a demand or request for sexual favours; sexually-coloured remarks; showing pornography; and any other unwelcome physical, verbal, or non-verbal conduct of sexual nature’.

The court also laid down guidelines for prevention of sexual harassment at workplace; some of which include; that the employer has to include a rule in the company code of conduct for preventing sexual harassment, and every organization must establish complaint committees to address complaints of sexual harassment that are headed by women, and on investigation, disciplinary action must be initiated against offenders.

Naz Foundation Vs. Govt. of NCT of Delhi (The Naz Foundation Case) Issue: Constitutionality of Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code, which criminalizes ‘carnal intercourse against the order of nature’. Held: The Court held that consensual homosexual sex between adults cannot be considered a crime as that would be a violation of fundamental rights protected by India’s Constitution. Article 21, which guarantees the right to life and liberty, encompasses the right to dignity and privacy as also the right to good health and criminalization of homosexual sex would impede the efforts to combat HIV. Furthermore, the court also held that by treating homosexuals differently as a class would be unreasonable and violative of Article 14, which guarantees equality to all. The court did not declare the whole section invalid; it only de-criminalized consensual sexual acts of adults in private.

S.R. Bommai Vs. Union of India Issue: The justifiability and extent of the power of the President to issue proclamation under Article 356 of the Constitution (President’s rule in a State). Held: The court while holding that a presidential proclamation is justiciable, also said that this power is not unfettered and absolute, it is

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.71

conditional, and in case the constitutional machinery in a state has broken down or there is a deadlock, the President can issue proclamations as a last resort. However, this action will not be immune from judicial review (i.e., the court can decide on the validity of the proclamation so issued, and if the court thinks it to be a mala fide (in bad faith) exercise of power, it can strike the proclamation down.

Hussainara Khatoon Vs. Union of India Issue: Rights of under-trial prisoners. The precursor to this case was a shocking number of people who were in prison awaiting trial. Some of them were charged with minor offences, which would entail punishment of imprisonment for a few months, but they remained in jail for years without having their case even considered. Held: The court held that right to a speedy trial was implicit under Article 21 even though it was not specifically listed and that the State cannot be permitted to deny the constitutional right of speedy trial to the accused on the ground that the State does not have the adequate financial resources to incur the necessary expenditure required for improving the administrative and judicial machinery in order to provide a speedy trial to the accused.

D.K. Basu Vs. State of West Bengal Issue: Death in police custody and instances of custodial violence. Held: The court in this case, issued guidelines that the law enforcement agencies are required to follow while making arrests, detention, and interrogation. These include: The accused must be told the grounds of arrest and be shown the warrant, the accused must be afforded dignity and use of force should be avoided unless the accused is resisting arrest; the accused should be made aware of his rights including the right to legal aid at State expense; the methods of interrogation must be consistent with the recognized rights to life, dignity and liberty and right against torture and degrading treatment; medical assistance should be provided if need be. The person under arrest must be produced before the appropriate court within 24 hours of the arrest.

Indira Sawhney Vs. Union of India Issue: Constitutionality of Reservation for backward classes. Held: The Court specifically laid down that affirmative action or conferring benefits in the form of reservations was not wrong. However, the State while conferring such benefits must keep in mind various factors

4.72  Chapter 4

and indices to decide and determine and reasonably classify the class of individuals that genuinely needed differential treatment. The Constitution itself provides for special treatment to be given to the backward classes. Therefore, reservations were validated for Backward Classes; however, a 50% cap was imposed to ensure equality of opportunity and maintenance of efficiency and standards. The court also identified the concepts of ‘creamy layer’ and ‘means test’. While the former excludes the better half of the backward classes, which are socially and economically advanced and as such do not need reservation, and the latter imposes an income limit, and people with means beyond that limit are also precluded from claiming the benefits of reservation.

T.M.A. Pai Foundation Vs. State of Karnataka Issue: This case decided on constitutional rights of the religious and linguistic minorities to establish and administer educational institutions. In this case, various minority educational institutions filed a number of petitions challenging the unnecessary control exercised by the government in the functioning of the institution thereby hampering their progress. Held: The Court held that the state governments and universities cannot regulate the admission policy of unaided educational institutions run by linguistic and religious minorities, but they can specify academic qualifications for students and accordingly make rules and regulations for maintaining academic standards. However, minority educational institutions receiving aid from the state would have to admit a reasonable number of students from non-minority groups and cannot deny admission to a citizen on the grounds of only religion, race, caste, or language.

Unnikrishnan and others Vs. State of Andhra Pradesh Issue: The court considered the conditions and regulations, if any, which the state could impose in the functioning of private unaided/aided, recognized, or affiliated educational institutions, the fees that could be charged by such an institution, and the admission procedure. Held: It was observed in Unnikrishnan’s case that Article 21 is the heart of Fundamental Rights, and it has extended the scope of Article 21 by observing that the life includes the education as well as the right to education flows from the right to life. The Court further held that private unaided institutions could charge a fee higher than that charged by government institutions, but such a fee could not exceed the maximum limit fixed by the state. The court stated that commercialization of education was not permissible and was opposed to public policy and Indian tradition, and, therefore, charging capitation fee was illegal.

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.73

Maneka Gandhi Vs. Union of India Issue: Whether right to travel abroad was a part of right to liberty under Article 21 of the Constitution and whether the passport act prescribes a ‘procedure’ as required by Article 21 before depriving a person from the right guaranteed under the said Article. Held: The Court in this case expanded on the meaning of ‘personal liberty’ in Article 21 and took it to engulf a variety of rights within itself. Article 21 provides that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except in accordance with procedure established by law. The court held that the right to travel and go outside the country is included in the right to personal liberty guaranteed under Article 21 and that a law which prescribes a procedure for depriving a person of ‘personal liberty’ has to fulfill the litmus test of reasonableness and fairness.

M.C. Mehta Vs. Union of India Issue: Regarding measuring of liability of an enterprise which is engaged in a hazardous or inherently dangerous industry or activity. Held: The court held where an enterprise is engaged in a hazardous or inherently dangerous activity and harm results to anyone on account of an accident in the operation of such hazardous or inherently dangerous activity resulting, for example, in escape of toxic gas, the enterprise is strictly and absolutely liable to compensate all those who are affected by the accident, and such liability is not subject to any of the exceptions which might be available under the rule of strict liability (thus ‘absolute’). The court also held that as far as compensation to the affected people is concerned, the ‘deepest pocket principle’ should apply which means the degree of compensation should be directly co-related to the size of the enterprise. The larger and more prosperous the enterprise, the greater must be the amount of compensation payable by it for the harm caused on account of an accident caused.

Additional District Manager of Jabalpur Vs. Shiv Kant Shukla Case (Habeas Corpus Case) Issue: During the Emergency declared in 1975 under the Prime Minister ship of Indira Gandhi, several detentions took place. Consequently, several writ petitions were filed all over the country challenging the grounds for these detentions. Nine High Courts held in favour of the petitioners. The Government of India then appealed to the Supreme Court against these decisions. The issue before the court was whether, under Presidential Orders of Emergency, the High Court could entertain a writ of Habeas Corpus filed by a person challenging the ground for his detention.

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Held: The Supreme Court ruled in favour of the government with a 4:1 majority, stating that, ‘In view of the Presidential Order dated 27 June 1975, no person has any locus to move any writ petition under Article 226 before a High Court for Habeas Corpus or any other writ or order or direction to challenge the legality of an order of detention on the ground that the order is not under or in compliance with the Act or is illegal or is vitiated by mala fides factual or legal or is based on extraneous considerations.’ That is, the writ of Habeas Corpus (challenging the grounds for detention) shall remain suspended during Emergency. Only Justice H.R. Khanna dissented, on grounds of protecting liberty, and observed, ‘Dissent in a Court of last resort is an appeal to the brooding spirit of the law, to the intelligence of a future day, when a later decision may possibly correct the error into which the dissenting Judge believes the court to have been betrayed’.

People’s Union for Democratic Rights and others Vs. Union of India and Others (Asia Workers Case) Issue: The issue before the Supreme Court was whether the definition of the term ‘forced labour’ under Article 23 of the Indian Constitution included labour where remuneration less than the minimum wage was paid to the worker. Held: It was held that when a person provides labour of service to another for remuneration which is less than the minimum wage, the labour, or service provided by him clearly falls within the scope and ambit of the words ‘forced labour’ under Article 23 (of the Constitution of India). It was agreed upon— on the basis of this judgment—that all the workers in the unorganized sectors, barring a few, are ‘forced labour’ in so far as they do not get the minimum wages as notified by the appropriate Government. The Court has said that it is for the employer and the Government to rebut the presumption, rather than for the workmen to establish, that they are bonded labourers.

A.K. Gopalan Vs. State of Madras Issue: A.K. Gopalan had been detained according to the provisions of the Preventive Detention Act, 1950. He filed a writ of Habeas Corpus. The issue before the Supreme Court was whether his detention could be justified according to the provisions of Article 21 simply because it was carried out ‘according to the procedure established by the law’. Held: The Supreme Court restricted the scope of fundamental rights (given in Article 19) by reading them in isolation from Articles 21 and 22 which provided guidelines for preventive detention. Foreign precedent like cases of UK and US were used in limiting the scope of Article 21. Justice

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.75

Kania said that the courts were restricted from engaging in substantive analysis in determining the reasonableness of the process provided by the Legislature. A law affecting life and liberty could not be declared unconstitutional merely because it lacked natural justice.

The Constitution and Indian Polity Timeline ❖❖ 1919: Parliament of India is founded. ❖❖ 26 January 1930: The Purna Swaraj Declaration is promulgated by Indian National Congress. 26 January observed as Independence Day since then, till 15 August 1947. ❖❖ August 1935: Government of India Act 1935 is passed. The Constitution of India is majorly inspired by this Act. ❖❖ 19 February 1946: British Government (under the initiative of Prime Minister Clement Attlee) declares that it’ll send a Cabinet Mission to India to resolve disputes relating to freedom and making of the Constitution. After various rounds of negotiations, the final plan is announced in June 1946. ❖❖ 24 August 1946: The first National (interim) government of India is announced. ❖❖ 9 December 1946: First session of Constituent Assembly starts, with Dr Sachchidananda Sinha as a temporary, 2-day President. ❖❖ 11 December 1946: Dr Rajendra Prasad is elected as the President of Constituent Assembly. ❖❖ 3 June 1947: The Mountbatten Plan (also known as June 3 Plan) is announced. It laid down the particulars of independence, partition, and accession of princely states. ❖❖ 18 July 1947: Indian Independence Act is passed by the British Parliament. ❖❖ 22 July 1947: National flag is adopted by the Constituent Assembly. ❖❖ 14 August 1947: State of Pakistan is officially created. ❖❖ 15 August 1947: India wins freedom. ❖❖ 29 August 1947: Drafting committee is appointed with Dr B.R. Ambedkar as the Chairman. ❖❖ 26 October 1947: Maharajah Hari Singh, ruler of princely state of Jammu & Kashmir, signs the Instrument of Accession, thereby agreeing to accede to the dominion of India. ❖❖ 26 November 1947: First Union Budget of Independent India is presented by R.K. Shanmukham Chetty, independent India’s first Finance Minister.

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❖❖ 26 November 1949: The Constitution of India is enacted by the Constituent Assembly. ❖❖ 24 January 1950: ‘Jana Gana Mana’ is officially adopted as the National Anthem of India by the Constituent Assembly. ❖❖ 25 January 1950: Election Commission of India is established, with Sukumar Sen as the first Chief Election Commissioner of India (appointed on 21 March 1950). 25 January is celebrated as Voters’ Day since then. ❖❖ 26 January, 1950: The Constitution of India comes into force. ❖❖ 28 January 1950: The Supreme Court of India holds its inaugural sitting, with Justice H.J. Kania as the first Chief Justice of India. Justice H.J. Kania was the last Chief Justice of Federal Court of India, the predecessor of Supreme Court. ❖❖ 15 March 1950: Planning Commission established with the then Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as the first Chairman. ❖❖ June 1951: First Amendment comes into effect. Schedule IX is introduced. Laws under this schedule are kept outside judicial review. ❖❖ November 1951: First Finance Commission of India is appointed. Mr K.C. Neogy is appointed as its first Chairman in April 1952. ❖❖ December 1951: Jawaharlal Nehru presents the first Five-Year Plan (1951–56) to the Parliament of India. ❖❖ 21 February 1952: First General Elections (started on 25 October 1951) concludes. Indian National Congress comes to power. A.K. Gopalan becomes the first leader of opposition in Lok Sabha. ❖❖ 2 May 1952: First Presidential Elections are held. Dr Rajendra Prasad becomes the first elected President of independent India. Dr S. Radhakrishnan becomes the first Vice-President of independent India. ❖❖ 13 May 1952: First sitting of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha is held, with G.V. Mavalankar elected as the first Speaker of Lok Sabha. By virtue of his post (Vice-President), Dr S. Radhakrishnan becomes the first Chairman of Rajya Sabha (Vice-President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha). ❖❖ October 1953: Andhra State becomes the first state in India to be formed on linguistic basis (on the basis of language). ❖❖ 1955: First Law Commission of India established with Mr M.C. Setalvad (also the first Attorney General of India) as the Chairman. ❖❖ November 1956: Seventh Amendment comes into effect. States reorganized on linguistic basis. Union Territories established. Andhra State also merged with Telangana region of Hyderabad State to form Andhra Pradesh.

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.77

❖❖ September 1958: First Law Commission submits its last (14th) report. ❖❖ February 1959: Justice Anna Chandy becomes the first female High Court judge of India (Kerala High Court). Earlier, she was also the first woman district court judge of India by being appointed to the post in 1937. ❖❖ October 1959: Rajasthan becomes the first State to introduce Panchayati Raj in India. ❖❖ August 1961: 10th Amendment comes into effect. It incorporates Dadra, Nagar and Haveli as a Union Territory. ❖❖ December 1961: 12th Amendment comes into effect. It incorporates Goa, Daman and Diu as Union Territories. ❖❖ October 1962: First ever proclamation of National Emergency (under Article 352), by President S. Radhakrishnan, owing to Indo-China war. ❖❖ August 1963: First ever no-confidence motion of independent India in Lok Sabha moved by socialist Acharya Kriplani against Jawaharlal Nehru, which he survives. ❖❖ October 1963: Sucheta Kriplani becomes the first ever woman Chief Minister of an Indian state, by virtue of being elected Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh. ❖❖ December 1963: 13th Amendment comes into effect. Nagaland formed as a State. ❖❖ February 1967: The Supreme Court in I.C. Golaknath Vs. State of Punjab held that the Parliament cannot amend any part of the Fundamental Rights provided under the Indian Constitution. ❖❖ April 1967: 21st Amendment comes into effect. Sindhi included as an official language. ❖❖ May 1967: Dr Zakir Hussain becomes the first Muslim President of India. ❖❖ January 1968: National emergency (which was imposed in October 1962) is lifted. ❖❖ November 1971: 24th Amendment comes into effect. Article 13 and 368 amended to remove doubts regarding powers of the Parliament to amend any part of the Constitution. In effect, the Parliament could now amend any part of Fundamental Rights, a privilege which was taken away from the Government pursuant to ruling in the Golaknath case. ❖❖ December 1971: 26th Amendment comes into effect. Privy Purse paid to former rulers of princely states abolished. ❖❖ April 1973: Kesavananda Bharati Vs. State of Kerala case is decided by a 13-judge bench (largest ever). Supreme Court held that the wide powers

4.78  Chapter 4

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of the Parliament to amend any part of the Constitution did not include power to amend the ‘basic structure’ of the Constitution. The Supreme Court, however, remains silent on what constitutes ‘basic structure’. April 1973: Justice A.N. Ray appointed as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, breaking up with the convention of appointing the senior-most judges as the Chief Justice. The three judges superseded were Justice Shelet, Justice Hegde, and Justice Grover. All of them resigned in protest. Interestingly, all these judges decided the Kesavananda Bharati case against the Government. October 1973: 31st Amendment comes into effect. The size of Parliament increased from 525 to 545 seats. April 1975: 36th Amendment passed. Sikkim conferred full-fledged statehood. June 1975: In the case of State of Uttar Pradesh Vs. Raj Narain, the Allahabad High Court convicted the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of electoral malpractices. The case starts the series of events eventually leading to imposition of emergency. June 1975: State of Emergency proclaimed by President F.A. Ahmed, on the request of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, under Article 352 of the Constitution of India. August 1975: 39th Amendment comes into effect. Restrictions placed primarily on judicial scrutiny of election to the post of Prime Minister, Speaker, Vice-President, and President. Widely seen as an attempt to negate the effects of the judgment of Allahabad High Court, which invalidated Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s election to the Parliament. November 1976: 42nd Amendment comes into effect. Passed during internal emergency and known as a ‘Mini-Constitution’ in itself. It (a) declares India as socialist and secular republic, by adding these words to the Preamble (b) lays down Fundamental Duties (c) extends the term of President’s rule from six months to a year, besides other far-reaching changes to the Indian Constitution. January 1977: Justice M.H. Beg appointed as the Chief Justice of India, superseding Justice H.R. Khanna, who was the senior-most judge of India at that time. Interestingly, in the Habeas Corpus case (A.D.M. Jabalpur Vs. Shivkant Shukla), decided in favour of the Government during the Emergency, Justice H.R. Khanna was the lone dissenter. March 1977: State of Emergency is lifted. March 1977: Janata Party forms the first non-Congress ruling government in the history of independent India. Morarji Desai becomes the first non-Congress Prime Minister of India.

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.79

❖❖ July 1977: Neelam Sanjiva Reddy becomes the first President (and still the only one) of India to have been elected unopposed. ❖❖ August 1977: Justice M. Hidayatullah becomes the first person in India to have served in all three offices—Chief Justice of India (February 1968 – December 1970), Vice-President of India (August 1977 – August 1982), and President (Acting) of India (July 1969 – August 1969). ❖❖ July 1979: Morarji Desai becomes the first Prime Minister to resign from office. ❖❖ August 1979: First instance of Confidence Motion occurs when President N.S. Reddy directs Prime Minister Charan Singh to seek the confidence of Lok Sabha. However, even before the motion was taken up, Charan Singh resigns as he was unable to gather required support. ❖❖ September 1979: 44th Amendment comes into effect. Right to Property deleted from the list of Fundamental Rights and made only a legal right (under Article 300A). Safeguards provided for future subversion of the Constitution, as had happened during Emergency. ❖❖ March 1982: First Lok Adalat is organized at Una in Junagarh district of Gujarat. ❖❖ July 1982: Giani Zail Singh becomes the first Sikh President of India. ❖❖ March 1985: 52nd Amendment comes into effect. It provides for disqualification of members from Parliament and Cabinet who defect from one party to another after elections. ❖❖ August 1987: The first Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) of independent India is instituted by Lok Sabha to inquire into the Bofors contract. ❖❖ March 1989: 61st Amendment comes into effect. Voting age lowered from 21 years to 18 years. ❖❖ October 1989: Justice Fathima Beevi becomes first female judge to be elevated to the Supreme Court of India. ❖❖ August 1992: 71st Amendment comes into effect. Eighth Schedule amended to include Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali as official languages. ❖❖ May 1993: Justice V. Ramaswami becomes the first judge against whom impeachment proceedings are initiated in independent India. ❖❖ August 1997: The Supreme Court, in the landmark judgment of Vishaka and ors. Vs. State of Rajasthan, defines sexual harassment at workplace for the first time, provides general guidelines, and holds that every instance of sexual abuse would be a breach of fundamental rights. ❖❖ February 2000: National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution, headed by Justice M.N. Venkatachaliah, set by President K.R. Narayanan.

4.80  Chapter 4

❖❖ March 2002: National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution submits its final report. ❖❖ December 2002: 86th Amendment comes into effect. Article 21A inserted with a view to make Right to Free and Compulsory education (of children aged 6 to 14 years) a Fundamental Right. ❖❖ July 2007: Smt. Pratibha Patil becomes the first woman President of India. ❖❖ May 2009: Mamata Banerjee becomes the first woman Railway Minister of India. ❖❖ June 2009: Meira Kumar becomes the first woman Speaker of Lok Sabha. ❖❖ August 2011: Justice Soumitra Sen becomes the first ever judge in independent India to be impeached by Rajya Sabha. However, before his impeachment motion could be taken up in Lok Sabha, he resigned. ❖❖ April 2015: 99th Constitutional Amendment enforced, which formed the National Judicial Appointments Commission. However, this amendment was completely held unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in the case of Supreme Court Advocates on Record Association Vs. Union of India (Fourth Judges case). ❖❖ November 2015: By a gazette notification, the Central Government declared 26 November as Constitution day. It is also known as National Law Day. ❖❖ September 2015: The 101st Constitutional Amendment receives Presidential assent. It paves the way for the introduction of Goods & Service Tax (GST) by making special provision for the same in the Constitution.

Appointed Under (Article or Rule)

Article 52

Article 63

Designation

President

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on which he enters upon his office.

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forthwith be communicated to the Speaker of Lok Sabha.

by the Parliament.

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per month along with emoluments and allowances.

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palli Rad-

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(1950)

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Indian Polity and Constitution    4.81

President. Usual term is

tice of the High Court of that State

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pleted the age of

35 years.

Article 74

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within six months.

ther of the Houses

be elected from ei-

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per month

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confidence

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(1947)

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4.82  Chapter 4

such term can end sooner, in case he loses confidence of the Legislative

from either of the

Houses within six

months. 2. Should

be of 25 years of

age or more.

years.

for atleast ten

more High Courts

(Contd.)

(1950)

advocate of one or

H.J. Kania

Justice

India—

Justice of

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2. Has been an

years

ment

for at least five

per month

–

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years.

of sixty-five

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after removal

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Article

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Assembly.

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member of the

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Resignation To

163

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Article

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Qualifications (in addition to being a Citizen of India)

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Indian Polity and Constitution    4.83

of sixty-two years

ment

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`110,000 per month

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of 35 years.

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of Lok Sabha

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office for at least

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Resignation To

214

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High Court Judge

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the opinion of the

guished jurist in

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–

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4.84  Chapter 4

`80,000 per month

of 65 years whichever is earlier

er can only be removed by Parliament through the

Cabinet Secretary.

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cation mentioned

in the Constitution.

sioner.

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Chief Election

the advice of

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removed by

ers can be

Commission-

Election

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impeachment.

process of

President the till the age

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President

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vant of the rank of

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Resignation To

324

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(Contd.)

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First Office Holder

Indian Polity and Constitution    4.85

Article 76

Article 84

Member of Parliament 1. Holds any office of profit.

basis of Universal

Adult Franchise

of age for being

a member of the

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years for being

India.

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3. Is insolvent.

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if he:

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pleted 25 years

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by way of

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to be appointed as

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prescribed.

148

Attorney General of India

No qualification

Article

Comptroller & Auditor General

Qualifications (in addition to being a Citizen of India)

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–

(Contd.)

(1950)

Setalvad

M.C.

Rao (1949)

V. Narhari

First Office Holder

4.86  Chapter 4

if he: 1. Holds any

pleted 25 years

of age

State elections

Must have com-

173

India.

citizen of

4. Is not a

3. Is insolvent.

sound mind.

2. Is of un-

office of profit.

Governor,

Schedule.

the Tenth

fied under

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if he:

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other law.

under any

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to State.

from State

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–

(Contd.)

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Indian Polity and Constitution    4.87

Chairman of Union Public Service Commission

Governor

Sh. H.K. Kripalani (1947)

years of age, whichever happens ear-

Government of

India.

lier.

(1926) or sixty-five

ten years under

(Contd.)

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office for at least

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–

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316

to State.

from State

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a High Court judge

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pleasure of

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Term

to be appointed as

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165

Governor

Resignation To

Should be qualified

the Tenth

fied under

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if he:

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other law.

under any

5. Disqualified

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Appointed by

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Qualifications (in addition to being a Citizen of India)

Appointed Under (Article or Rule)

Designation

4.88  Chapter 4

Article

Chairman of Finance Commission

280

Appointed Under (Article or Rule)

Designation

Not fixed

Qualifications (in addition to being a Citizen of India)

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after every 5

cided by

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K.C. Neogy

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Indian Polity and Constitution    4.89

This page is intentionally left blank

  Chapter 5

Indian Economy Introduction The word ‘economics’ comes from the Greek word ‘oikos’ meaning ‘family, household, or estate’ and ‘nomos’ stands for ‘custom, law’. Probably the most cited definition of Economics is that it is ‘the study of man in the ordinary business of life’. It enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on one side, the study of wealth and on the other, and more important side, a part of study of man’ (Alfred Marshal in Principles of Economics [1890]). Facts to Know! 1. What were the reasons for economic crisis of India in 1991? The primary reason of economic crisis was the growing fiscal imbalances over the 1980s. Due to the Gulf war, India’s oil import bill increased significantly, exports slumped, and credit dried up. 2. What was the trigger point of the crisis? India’s foreign exchange reserves were $1.2 billion in January, 1991, which were depleted by half by June and were barely enough to last for roughly 3 weeks of essential imports. Had India not taken severe actions, it would have defaulted on its external balance of payments obligations in the next few weeks! 3. What actions were taken by the Government? The Government of India secured an emergency loan of $2.2 billion from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) by pledging 67 tonnes of India’s gold reserves as collateral. Manmohan Singh, the then recently appointed Finance Minister, opened the economy and initiated reforms which led to the liberalization of the Indian economy.

Facts on Indian Economy The basic characteristics of the Indian economy as a developing economy are: ❖❖ Low Per Capita Income: The per capita income of India during 2016–17 was `1,03,219.

5.2  Chapter 5

❖❖ Occupational Pattern: A very high proportion of the working population is engaged in agriculture. ❖❖ Heavy Population Pressure: One of the biggest problems in India is the high level of birth rates. Rising population imposes greater burden on the economy and consequently leads to a slow growth of the country. Terms related to population: ❖❖ Death Rate: Number of people dying per thousand population. ❖❖ Birth Rate: The number of births in a year per thousand population. ❖❖ Density of Population: The average number of persons living per square kilometre. According to Census 2011, India’s density of population is 382 per square km. ❖❖ Literacy Rate: A literate is ‘a person who can read and write with understanding’. Percentage of literate people in a given age group would be the literacy rate. ❖❖ Sex Ratio: Number of females per thousand males. ❖❖ Prevalence of Chronic Unemployment and Underemployment: Unemployment exists in the rural as well as the urban areas. ❖❖ Mixed Economy: India is a mixed economy, that is, supports the coexistence of private and the public sectors. ❖❖ Unemployment: India is a developing nation and one of the chronic problems it has been facing for many decades is unemployment. The current unemployment rate (as of March 2017) in India is 4.68%.

Types of Economies The division of economies across the world is done according to the involvement of the government in the economic decision making of the country.

Capitalist Economy ❖❖ Capitalism can be understood as the economic system wherein private or corporate ownership is encouraged. ❖❖ It involves a system of free enterprise where there is no interference of the government in the economy. The basic laws of supply and demand are responsible for an efficient economy which shall cater to the needs of the people. ❖❖ The main characteristic of this economy is that competition regulates the market, meaning that there is a rivalry in supply or getting a service or goods.

Indian Economy  5.3

Socialist Economy ❖❖ In a socialist economy, there is a system wherein the methods of production are owned by the State, which are used to satisfy human needs instead of generating profits.

Communist Economy ❖❖ Where on the one hand, a socialist economy gave emphasis to the collective ownership of the State (property and assets), similarly, on the other hand, it attributed a large role to the State in running the economy. ❖❖ In a Communist Economy, the working class owns everything and there are, theoritically, no rich or poor people. However, it often results in low production and mass poverty.

Mixed Economy ❖❖ In a mixed economy, there is a combination of public sector and private sector units. ❖❖ In this kind of economy, the government makes the decisions for the public sector units whereas the businessmen make the decisions for the private sector units.

Sectors of an Economy The economy of a country can be divided into various sectors to identify the proportion of people engaged in a particular sector.

Primary Sector Primary sector is one in which there is the direct use of natural resources including agriculture, forestry, fishing, fuels, metals, minerals, etc.

Secondary Sector ❖❖ The sector of the economy which is concerned with the production and manufacture of finished goods is known as the secondary sector. All kinds of manufacturing, processing, and construction activities fall in this sector of the economy.

Tertiary Sector The sector of the economy concerned with activities involving different ‘services’ such as those of education, banking, insurance, transportation, tourism, etc., is called the tertiary or services sector.

5.4  Chapter 5

Types of Economies On the basis of the proportion of the particular sectors in the total production of an economy and the ratio of the population dependent on them for their livelihood, economies are categorized as:

Agrarian Economy An agrarian economy is one in which the share of the primary sector is 50% or more in the total GDP of the economy.

Industrial Economy An industrial economy is one where the secondary sector contributes more than 50% of the total produce value of the economy.

Service Economy If the service sector or the tertiary sector of the economy contributes 50% or more to the economy of the country, it is known as a service economy.

National Income Definition The National Income of a country is the total net earnings acquired from the production of goods and services in the country, which is calculated over a period of time. It basically consists of wages, salaries, rent profits, and interest. The formula for National Income is as follows:       NI = C + I + G + (X – M) Where, C = Total Consumption expenditure      I = Total Investment expenditure     G = Total Government Expenditure      X = Exports    M = Imports

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) The Gross Domestic Product is defined as the value of all the final goods and services produced within the boundary of a country within a period of one year.      GDP = C + I + G + NX

Indian Economy  5.5

Where,      C = Consumption     I = Investment     G = Government Expenditure      NX = Net Export

Net Domestic Product (NDP) ❖❖ When the GDP is calculated after adjusting the weight of the value of depreciation, it is known as Net Domestic Product (NDP). ❖❖ This forms the net GDP which is the GDP minus the total value of the ‘wear and tear’ (depreciation), which took place in the assets while the production of the goods and services was taking place. ❖❖ Thus, the formula for calculating the Net Domestic Product is: NDP = GDP – Depreciation.

Gross National Product (GNP) ❖❖ Gross National Product (GNP) quantifies the size of a country’s economy, taking into consideration both what is produced within its borders and what is generated by its citizens abroad. ❖❖ It also includes the trans-boundary economic activities of an economy. ❖❖ The formula is: GNP = GDP + Net income inflow from abroad – Net income outflow to foreign countries.

Net National Product (NNP) The value of GNP calculated after deducting depreciation of plant and machinery is known as the Net National Product (NNP). Thus, NNP = GNP – Depreciation National Income (N) = NNP – Indirect taxes + subsidies

Cost and Price of National Income ❖❖ Within an economy, there are two different sets of costs and prices which are calculated. To calculate the national income, we need to choose the basis on which the calculation of the national income should be done. ❖❖ The income of any economy may be calculated at the ‘factor cost’ or the ‘market cost’. Income of an economy, that is, value of the total produced goods and services may be calculated at either the ‘factor cost’ or the ‘market cost’.

5.6  Chapter 5

❖❖ ‘Factor cost’ is the input cost at which the production of something takes place. It includes the cost of capital, that is, interest on loans, raw material, labour, rent, power, etc. ❖❖ The market cost is calculated after adding the indirect taxes to the factor cost of the product. It is the final cost at which the goods reach the market.

Taxes and National Income ❖❖ In the Indian scenario, there is no difference as to the extent of the direct taxes, and there is no requirement of any adjustment to be made whether the national income is calculated at the ‘factor cost’ or the ‘market cost’. This is so as both the ‘costs’ have to be the same. ❖❖ Besides, these taxes are collected at the source of income of the concerned person or group. National Income at Factor Cost = NNP at Market Cost – Indirect Taxes

Subsidies and National Income The various subsidies given by the government need to be adjusted when calculating national income. The subsidies are added to the national income in India. This is because the prices at which subsidized goods and services are made available by the government are not their real factor costs (subsidies are forwarded on the factor costs of the goods and services); otherwise, we will have a distorted value (which will be less than its real value). National Income at Factor Cost = NNP at Market Cost + Subsidies

Currency Historical Background ❖❖ The first gold coins in India, which can definitely be attributed to the kings, were issued by Indo-Greeks around 245–125 bc. ❖❖ Rupee was first minted in India during the reign of Sher Shah Suri around 1542 ce. It was a silver coin weighing around 179 g, and it replaced the gold coins. ❖❖ The British introduced paper currency for the first time in 1882. ❖❖ In 1935, when the Reserve Bank of India was established, the Indian rupee became independent. ❖❖ In 1947, India became a member of the IMF, and the exchange value of the rupee came to be fixed by IMF standards.

Indian Economy  5.7

❖❖ In 2010, India officially adopted the symbol for Indian Rupee (`), derived from the Devanagari consonant (`) or ‘Ra’. Uday Kumar Dharmalingam has designed this Indian Rupee symbol.

Systems of Currency The Decimal System ❖❖ The Indian Coinage (Amendment) Act 1955, which was brought into force from 1 April 1957, converted the Indian Currency system into the decimal system. ❖❖ The old system of rupee, annas, and paise (1 rupee = 16 annas) was replaced by the rupee and paise system. The first one-paise coin under the decimal system was issued in March 1962 and the first one rupee coin in July 1962.

Issue and Distribution of Currency All coins and one-rupee notes are issued by the Government of India and therefore, the one rupee note does not bear the signature of the Governor of the RBI. However, all other currency notes are a form of promissory notes issued by the Reserve Bank of India and thus, they are signed by the RBI Governor.

Devaluation of Currency ❖❖ Devaluation refers to the reduction in the value of the Indian rupee in comparison to the US dollar in the world market. ❖❖ In 1947, India became a member of the IMF, which necessitated fixing of exchange value of the Indian rupee as per the IMF standards. ❖❖ As a result, India was obliged to devalue the rupee, and so far, the following devaluations have taken place: ●● ●● ●●

First Devaluation in June 1949, the Indian rupee was devalued by 30.5%. Dr John Mathai was the Finance Minister. Second Devaluation in June 1966, when the Indian rupee was further devalued by 57%. Sachindra Chaudhury was the Finance Minister. Third and Fourth Devaluations: On 1 July 1991, the Indian rupee was devalued by 9% and again further devalued by 11% on 3 July 1991, bringing the total devaluation to 20%. This was during the Finance ministership of Dr Manmohan Singh. Since 20 August 1994, the rupee has been made a freely convertible currency on current account.

5.8  Chapter 5

Coins System in India ❖❖ The Government of India has the sole right to mint coins. The responsibility for coinage vests with the Government of India in terms of the Coinage Act, 1906. ❖❖ The designing and minting of coins in various denominations is also the responsibility of the Government of India. ❖❖ Coins are minted at four Indian Government mints: Mumbai, Alipore (Kolkata), Cherlapally (Hyderabad), and Noida (UP). The coins are issued for circulation only through the Reserve Bank in terms of the RBI Act. ❖❖ Coins in India till 2011 were issued in denominations of 10 paise, 20 paise, 25 paise, 50 paise, one rupee, two rupee, and five rupees (though recently, the Government has introduced ten rupees coins also). Coins of denomination of 25 paise and below ceased to be legal tender from 30 June 2011. These were not accepted for exchange at bank branches and RBI Issue Offices from 30 June 2011. ❖❖ Coins up to 50 paise are called ‘small coins’, and coins worth one-rupee or more are called ‘Rupee Coins’. ❖❖ Coins can be issued up to the denomination of 1,000 as per the Coinage Act, 1906. The government has, in the recent past, imported coins to augment the indigenous production. ❖❖ Notes in denomination of 5 have been reintroduced to supplement the supply of coins.

Planning Definition ❖❖ Economic planning refers to the path of actions in terms of policy measures to be followed in future, in pursuance of pre-determined objectives. ❖❖ Planning Commission defines economic planning as the utilization of the country’s resources for developmental activities in accordance with national priorities. ❖❖ It is a consciously and judiciously carried out process for optimum utilization of existing resources in order to fulfill some well-defined objectives.

Types of Planning Imperative Planning The planning process followed by the state economies (that is, the socialist or communist) is known as imperative planning. Such planning is also called directive or target planning.

Indian Economy  5.9

Indicative Planning ❖❖ In the years following the formation of the Soviet Union, two decades after the Soviet planning commenced, the idea of planning got attention from the democratic world. A time came when some such economies started national planning. ❖❖ As they were neither state economies nor communist/socialist political systems, the nature of their planning was different from the command economies. Such planning has been termed as indicative planning by economies and experts.

History of Planning in India ❖❖ The first attempt to initiate economic planning in India was made by M. Visvesvaraya, a noted engineer and politician, in 1934, through his book ‘Planned Economy for India’. ❖❖ In 1938, the National Planning Commission was set up under the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru by the Indian National Congress. ❖❖ It stated that the objective of planning was to ensure an adequate standard of living for the masses. It emphasized heavy industry and land reforms. ❖❖ In 1944, the Bombay Plan was presented by 8 leading industrialists of Bombay including J.R.D. Tata, G.D. Birla and others. ❖❖ It saw future progress based on textile and consumer industries and saw an important role for the state in post-independence India. ❖❖ In 1944, the ‘Gandhian Plan’ was given by Shriman Narayan Agarwal. It emphasized decentralization, agricultural development, cottage industries, etc. ❖❖ In 1945, the People’s Plan was given by M.N. Roy. ❖❖ In 1950, the Sarvodaya Plan was given by Jai Prakash Narayan. A few points of this plan were accepted by the government.

Planning Commission For format planning to begin for the whole economy at the national level, there was a need for a permanent expert body which could take over the responsibility of the whole gamut of planning, that is, plan for formation, resource aspects, implementation and review—as planning is a technical matter. Thus, in March 1950, the Planning Commission (PC) was set up by the government by a Cabinet Resolution.

5.10  Chapter 5

Five Year Plans First Five Year Plan (1951–56) (Harrod-Domar Model) ❖❖ It gave priority to development of agriculture, irrigation, power, and transport in order to create a base for rapid industrial growth of the country. ❖❖ Highest priority was accorded to agriculture in view of large imports of food grain and inflation.

Second Five Year Plan (1956–61) (Nehru-Mahalanobis Plan) ❖❖ Rapid industrialization with particular emphasis on the development of basic and heavy industry, also called the Nehru-Mahalanobis Plan. ❖❖ To increase national income by 25%, expansion of employment and reduction of inequality. ❖❖ To increase the rate of investment from 7% to 11% of GDP.

Third Five Year Plan (1961–65) ❖❖ The Plan specifically incorporated the development of agriculture as one of the objectives of planning in India besides, for the first time, considering the aim of balanced, regional development. ❖❖ Due to heavy drain and diversion of funds, this Plan utterly failed to meet its targets.

Fourth Five Year Plan (1969–74) ❖❖ The Plan was based on the Gadgil strategy with special focus on the ideas of growth with stability and progress towards self-reliance. ❖❖ Droughts and the Indo-Pak War of 1971–72 led the economy to capital diversions, creating financial crunch for the Plan.

Fifth Five Year Plan (1974–79) ❖❖ It was formulated against the back-drop of severe inflationary pressure. ❖❖ The major objectives of the Plan were to achieve self-reliance and adopt measures for raising the consumption standard of people living below the poverty line. ❖❖ This Plan also gave high priority to bringing inflation under control and to achieve stability in the economic situation.

Sixth Five Year Plan (1980–85) ❖❖ Removal of poverty through strengthening of infrastructure for both agriculture and industry.

Indian Economy  5.11

❖❖ The emphasis was laid on greater management, efficiency, and monitoring of various schemes. ❖❖ Involvement of people in formulating schemes of development at the local level.

Seventh Five Year Plan (1985–90) ❖❖ The Plan (1985–90) emphasized on rapid food grain production, increased employment creation, and productivity in general. ❖❖ The basic tenets of planning, which are growth, modernization, selfreliance, and social justice remained as the guiding principles. ❖❖ The Jawahar Rojgar Yojana (JRY) was launched in 1989 with the motive to create wage-employment for the rural poor. Some of the already existing programmes, such as the IRDP, CADP, DPAP, and the DDP were reoriented.

Eighth Five Year Plan (1992–97) ❖❖ The economic reforms were already started (in July 1991) with the initiation of the structural adjustment and macro-stabilization policies necessitated by the working balance of payments, higher fiscal deficit, and unsustainable rate of inflation. ❖❖ This was the first Plan that went on for an introspection of the macroeconomic policies which the country had been pursuing for many decades.

Ninth Five Year Plan (1997–2002) ❖❖ Growth with social justice and equality. ❖❖ Emphasis on seven Basic Minimum Services (BMSs), which included safe drinking water, universalization of primary education, streamlining PDS among others. ❖❖ Pursued the policy of fiscal consolidation. ❖❖ Decentralization of planning with greater reliance on states. ❖❖ Ensuring food and nutritional security to all. ❖❖ Empowerment of women, SC/STs/OBCs.

Tenth Five Year Plan (2002–07) The Plan aimed at further developing the NDC mandated objectives, of doubling the per capita income in 10 years and achieving a growth rate of 8% of GDP per annum.

5.12  Chapter 5

Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007–12) ❖❖ Average GDP growth of 8.1% per year. ❖❖ Agricultural GDP growth of 4% per year. ❖❖ Sex ratio for the age group 0–6 years to be raised to 935 by 2011–12 and to 950 by 2016–17.

Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012–17) ❖❖ The Approach Paper of the 12th Five Year Plan is concerned with faster, sustainable, and more inclusive growth. In it, the challenge of urbanization has been identified as one of the key focus areas. ❖❖ There were 25 core monitorable targets of the 12th Five Year Plan, including Real GDP Growth of 8%, Agriculture Growth of 4%, Manufacturing Growth of 10% etc. ❖❖ This was the last Five Year Plan of India.

The NITI Aayog ❖❖ On 1 January 2015, the National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog was set up. ❖❖ It replaced the Planning Commission of India. ❖❖ The government notified a resolution constituting the NITI Aayog and laid down inter-alia its objectives and structure. This notification states that the NITI Aayog has the Prime Minister as the chairperson; its governing council includes the Chief Ministers of all the states and the Lt. Governors of the union territories, specialists, experts, and practitioners with relevant knowledge in the concerned field and a fulltime organizational frame work. ❖❖ The NITI Aayog is to be a medium to the developmental process, overseeing an overall conducive environment, through a holistic approach to development moving beyond the restricted field of the public sector and Government of India.

National Development Council (NDC) The National Development Council (NDC), also known as the Rashtriya Vikas Parishad, was set up in August, 1952 and is an extra-constitutional and a non-statutory body. It is one of the apex bodies in India for deliberations over developmental matters in India. The Secretary of the Planning Commission acts as the Secretary of the Council. From a strictly legal point of view, NDC is essentially an advisory body.

Indian Economy    5.13

15-Year Vision Document in Place of Five Year Plan ❖❖ The Narendra Modi Government has decided to discontinue the Five Year Plan and replace it with a 15-Year Vision Document. The first 15-Year Vision Document will come into effect from 2017–18 after the end of the 12th Five Year Plan. ❖❖ It will be formulated with the central objective of eradication of poverty. It will come along with a 7-year National Development Agenda, which will lay down the programmes, schemes, and strategies to achieve a longterm vision. The long vision document (Perspective plan) will comprise a three-year mass economic framework. ●● ●● ●●

2017–18 to 2032–33: Vision Document 2017–18 to 2024–25: National Development Agenda 2017–18 to 2019–20: Review of Development Agenda (to be repeated after every three years)

Economic Reforms Background ❖❖ Popularly, economic reforms denote the process in which a government prescribes a declining role for the state and expanding role for the private sector in an economy. ❖❖ It is safer to see economic reform as a policy shift in an economy from one to another or ‘alternative development strategies’. ❖❖ Economists attribute the differences in the performance of economies to the difference in the ‘strategies’ they follow. The different strategies of development evolved through a long period of trial and error by different countries under the influence of different sets of ideologies.

Economic Reforms in India ❖❖ On 23 July 1991, India launched a process of economic reforms in response to a fiscal and balance-of-payment (BoP) crisis. The reforms were historic and were going to change the very face and nature of the economy in the coming times. ❖❖ Back in the mid-1980s, the government had taken its first steps towards economic reform. While the reforms of the 1980s witnessed rather limited deregulation and ‘partial liberalization’ of only a few aspects of the existing control regime, the reforms started in the early 1990s in the fields of industries, trade, investment and later in the field of agriculture, were much ‘wider and deeper’.

5.14  Chapter 5

❖❖ The whole Seventh Plan (1985–90) promoted further relaxation of market regulations with heavy external borrowings to increase exports (as the thrust of the policy reform).

Liberalization ❖❖ The term liberalization has its origin in the political ideology ‘liberalism’, from the early 19th century. ❖❖ Pro-market or pro-capitalistic inclination in the economic policies of an economy is the process of liberalization. ❖❖ In the Indian case, the term liberalization is used to show the direction of the economic reforms with decreasing influence of the State or the planned or the command economy and increasing influence of free market or the capitalistic economy. It is a move towards capitalism.

Privatization ❖❖ Privatization in its purest sense and lexically means de-nationalization, that is, transfer of the public sector ownership of the assets to the private sector to the tune of 100%. ❖❖ The sense in which privatization has been used is the process of disinvestment all over the world. This process includes selling of the shares of the State-owned enterprises to the private sector. Disinvestment is de-nationalization of less than 100% ownership transfer from the State to the private sector. ❖❖ Basically, all the economic policies which directly or indirectly seem to promote the expansion of the private sector or the market (economy) have been termed by experts and the government as the process of privatization. We may cite a few examples from India-licensing and dereservation of industries, even cuts in subsidies, permission to foreign investment, etc.

Globalization ❖❖ Globalization is generally termed as ‘an increase in economic integration among nations’. ❖❖ The concept was popularized by the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in the mid-1980s again after the wars. ❖❖ India became one of the founding members of the WTO and was obliged to promote the process of globalization, though its economic reforms

Indian Economy    5.15

started with no such obligations. However, India started the process of globalization right after the reforms of 1991.

Various Generations of Reforms First-Generation Reforms The ones which had been initiated by then (that is, from 1991 to 2000) were termed by the government as the reforms of the First Generation. Some of the key points:

1. Promotion of private sector 2. Public sector reforms 3. External sector reforms 4. Financial sector reforms 5. Tax reforms

Second-Generation Reforms The government launched the second generation of reforms in 2000–01. Basically, the reforms India launched in the early 1990s were not taking place as desired, and a need for another set of reforms were felt by the government, which were initiated with the title of the Second Generation of economic reforms. Some of the key points were:

1. Factor market reform 2. Public sector reform 3. Reform in government and public institutions 4. Legal sector reform

Third Generation Reforms Currently, India is under the third generation of reforms. The challenge in the third generation of reforms for India was creation of world class infrastructure, not just in terms of railways and roads but also in terms of manufacturing and manpower infrastructure. Furthermore, another area of focus was creating and nurturing the spirit of entrepreneurship.

Inflation Definition ❖❖ Inflation refers to the persistent rise in the general price level in the country over a period of time. Inflation could be monetary or price inflation. During periods of inflation, there is an increase of the money supply.

5.16  Chapter 5

❖❖ During times of Inflation, more money is being circulated, which causes the currency to lose its purchasing power, which leads to an increase in the price of goods and services. Over the course of many years, economic cycles go through periods of inflation, deflation, and stagflation.

Why Inflation? Inflation is caused due to a mismatch between demand and supply, that is, when demand exceeds supply. Thus, inflation can occur due to changes in the demand side or the supply side or both.

Demand-pull Inflation A mismatch between demand and supply pulls up prices. Either the demand increases over the same level of supply, or the supply decreases with the same level of demand, and thus the situation of demand-pull inflation arise. A demand-pull inflation is the creation of extra purchasing power to the consumer over the same level of production (which happens due to wage revisions at the micro level and deficit financing at the macro level). This is the typical case of creating extra money (either by printing or public borrowing) without equivalent creation in production/supply, that is, ‘too much money chasing too little output’—the ultimate source of demand-pull inflation.

Cost-push Inflation An increase in factor input costs (that is, wages and raw materials) pushes up prices. The price rise which is the result of increase in the production cost is cost-push inflation.

Types of Inflation Low Inflation Such inflation is slow and on predictable lines, which might be called small or gradual. This is a comparative term which puts it opposite to the faster, bigger, and unpredictable inflations. Low inflation takes place in a longer period and the range of increase is usually in a single digit. Such inflation has also been called ‘creeping inflation’.

Galloping Inflation This is a ‘very high inflation’ running in the range of double digit or triple digit (that is, 20%, 100%, or 200% in a year).

Indian Economy    5.17

Hyperinflation This form of inflation is ‘large and accelerating’, which might have annual rates in millions or even trillions. In such cases of inflation, not only is the range of increase very large, but the increase takes place in a very short amount of time. In other words, prices shoot up overnight.

Inflation in India Wholesale Price Index (WPI) It measures the change in wholesale prices on a weekly basis. On the basis of weekly indices, an average annual WPI is worked out. Average annual wholesale prices of the current year are related to average annual wholesale prices of the base year (Assumed as 100). This index covers 676 commodities and does not account for services.

Consumer Price Index (CPI) ❖❖ It measures the change in retail prices on a monthly basis. On the basis of monthly indices, average annual CPI is worked out. Average annual retail prices for the current year are related to the average annual retail price of the base year (assumed as 100). Like the wholesale price index, different goods are accorded weights depending on their relative significance. ❖❖ It needs to be emphasized that while WPI includes goods only, CPI includes both goods as well as services. Another important feature of CPI is that it focuses on a homogeneous group of consumers.

Business Cycles Depression 1. An extremely low aggregate demand in the economy causes activities to decelerate. 2. The inflation is comparatively lower. 3. The employment avenues start shrinking, forcing the unemployment rates to grow faster. 4. To keep the businesses going, production houses go for forced labourcuts or retrenchment (to cut down production cost and be competitive in the marked), etc.

5.18  Chapter 5

Recovery The business cycle of recovery may show the following major economy traits: 1. An upturn in aggregate (total) demand which has to be accompanied by an increase in the level of production. 2. Production process expands and new investments becomes attractive. 3. As demand goes upwards, inflation also moves upwards making borrowing cheaper for investors. 4. With an upturn in production, new employment avenues are created and unemployment rate starts declining, etc.

Boom A strong upward fluctuation in the economic activities is called a boom as economies try to recover out of the phases of slowdown, recession, and depression. Boom is a phase when measures taken by government and private sector might put the economic activities as such, which the economic system fails to digest.

Recession

1. There is a general fall in demand as economic activities take a downturn. 2. Inflation remains lower or/and shows further signs of falling down. 3. Employment rate falls/unemployment rate grows. 4. Industries resort to ‘price cuts’ to sustain their business.

Growth Recession An expression coined by economists to describe an economy that is growing at such a slow pace that more jobs are being lost than are being added. The lack of job creation makes it ‘feel’ as if the economy is in a recession, even though the economy is still advancing.

Agricultural Sector Introduction With the twin objectives of achieving social equality and ensuring economic growth, the land reforms programme was built around three major issues as follows: 1. Abolition of intermediaries. 2. Settlement and regulation of tenancy. 3. Regulation of size of holdings.

Indian Economy    5.19

Land Reforms The India economy continues to be predominantly an agricultural economy in terms of employment of labour force and as a source of subsistence for the millions in the countryside. It is an undisputed fact that the dream of ‘inclusive growth’ will remain a far-cry if the growth plans fail to account for the significance of agriculture.

Green Revolution ❖❖ It is the introduction of new techniques of agriculture, which became popular by the name of Green Revolution (GR) in the early 1960s—at first for wheat and by the next decade for rice, as well. ❖❖ It revolutionized the traditional idea of food production by giving a boost by more than 250% of the productivity level. ❖❖ The Green revolution was centered on the use of the High Yielding Variety (HYV) of seeds developed by the US agro-scientist Norman Borlaug doing research on a British Rockfellor Foundation Scholarship in Mexico by the early 1960s. Some of the components of the Green Revolution were: ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

HYV seeds Chemical fertilizers Irrigation Chemical pesticides and germicides Chemical herbicides and weedicides Credit, storage, marketing/distribution

Food Management ❖❖ Minimum Support Price (MSP) is a form of market intervention by the Government of India to insure agricultural producers against any sharp fall in farm prices; a guarantee price to save farmers from distress sale. ❖❖ The MSPs are announced at the beginning of the sowing season for certain crops on the basis of the recommendations of the commission for agricultural costs and prices.

Market Interventions Scheme ❖❖ The Market Intervention Scheme (MIS) is similar to MSP, which is implemented on the request of State governments for procurement of perishable and horticultural commodities in the event of a fall in marked prices.

5.20  Chapter 5

❖❖ The scheme is implemented when there is at least 10% increase in production or 10% decrease in the ruling rates over the previous normal year.

Procurement Prices In 1966–67, the Government of India, for the first time, announced a procurement price for wheat, for a bit higher price than its MSP (the purpose being security of food procurement of the PDS).

Issue Price The price at which the government allows offtake of food grains from the Food Corporation of India (FCI) or the price at which the FCI sells its food grains.

Buffer Stock ❖❖ India has a policy of maintaining a minimum reserve of food grains (only for wheat and rice) so that food is available throughout the country at affordable prices round the year. ❖❖ The main supply from here goes to the TPDS (the PDS was restructured as the targeted PDS in 1997) and, at times, goes for open marked sale to check the rising prices, if needed.

Public Distribution System (PDS) ❖❖ Presently, PDS is operated under the joint responsibility of the Central and the State governments. The Central government, though FCI, has assumed the responsibility for procurement, storage, transportation, and bulk allocation of food grains to the State government. ❖❖ The operational responsibility including allocation within states, identification of families below the poverty line, issue of ration cards and supervision of the functioning of fair price shops rests with the State governments. ❖❖ Under the PDS, presently, the commodities—namely wheat, rice, sugar, and kerosene are being allocated to the states/UTs for distribution. Some states/UTs also distribute additional items of mass consumption like oils, iodized salt, spices, etc.

Food Corporation of India ❖❖ The Food Corporation of India was set up on 14 January 1965, having its first district office at Thanjavur, and headquarters at Delhi under the Food Corporations Act, 1964.

Indian Economy    5.21

❖❖ The Food Corporation of India has been set up for the implementation of the following objectives of the National Food Policy: ●● ●● ●● ●●

Effective price support operations for safeguarding the interests of the farmers Distribution of food grains throughout the country for the Public Distribution System Maintaining satisfactory level of operational and buffer stocks of foodgrains to ensure National Food Security Regulate market price to provide food grains to consumers at a reliable price

National Food Security Act ❖❖ The National Food Security Act, 2013 is also known as the Right to Food Act. It is an Act which aims to provide subsidized food grains to approximately two-thirds of India’s 1.2 billion people. ❖❖ It includes the Midday Meal Scheme, Integrated Child Development Services Scheme, and the Public Distribution System. Further, the NFSA 2013 recognizes maternity entitlements. The Midday Meal Scheme and the Integrated Child Development Services Scheme are universal in nature, whereas the PDS will reach about two-thirds of the population. ❖❖ Under the provisions of the Bill, beneficiaries of the Public Distribution System (or PDS) are entitled to 5 kilograms (11 lb) per person per month of cereals at subsidized prices. ❖❖ Pregnant women, lactating mothers, and certain categories of children are eligible for daily free cereals.

Crop Insurance Crop insurance is the insurance given to agricultural producers, including farmers, ranchers, and others to protect themselves against either the loss of their crops due to natural disasters, such as hail, drought, and floods or the loss of revenue due to declines in the prices of agricultural commodities.

The Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (Prime Minister’s Crop Insurance Scheme) It was launched by the Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi on 18 February 2016. It envisages a uniform premium of only 2% to be paid by farmers for kharif crops and 1.5% for rabi crops.

5.22  Chapter 5

This insurance scheme, unlike the previous ones, covers local calamities too, such as landslides, hailstorms, inundation, etc. Inundation was not covered by the previous schemes.

Old Schemes ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme (CCIS) Experimental Crop Insurance Farm Income Insurance Scheme National Agriculture Insurance Scheme (NAIS)

Employment Introduction In common parlance, anybody who is not gainfully employed in any productive activity is called unemployed. However, unemployment can be of two kinds— (1) voluntarily unemployment and (2) involuntarily unemployment. Here, we are concerned with the second category of unemployed persons. Hence, unemployment can be defined as a situation when persons able and willing to work are seeking jobs at the prevailing wage level but they are unable to get the same.

Types of Employment

1. Cyclical unemployment 2. Frictional unemployment 3. Open unemployment 4. Seasonal unemployment 5. Educated unemployment 6. Under employment (Disguised unemployment) 7. Compulsory unemployment 8. Structural unemployment

Prominent Government Initiatives Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 The Government, on the advice of the National Advisory Council, has passed the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act. The main features of the Act are:

Indian Economy    5.23

1. Every household in rural India will have a right to at least 100 days of guaranteed employment every year for at least one adult member. The employment will be in the form of casual manual labour at the statutory minimum wage, and the wages shall be paid within 7 days of the week during which work was done. 2. Work should be provided within 15 days of demanding it, and the work should be located within a 5 kilometer distance. 3. If work is not provided to anybody within the given time, he/she will be paid a daily unemployment allowance, which will be at least one-third of the minimum wages. 4. Workers employed on public works will be entitled to medical treatment and hospitalization in case of injury at work, along with a daily allowance of not less than half of the statutory minimum wage. In case of death or disability of a worker, an ex-gratia payment shall be made to his legal heirs as per provisions of the Workmen Compensation Act. 5. 5% of wages may be deducted as contribution to welfare schemes like health insurance, accident insurance, survivor benefits, maternity benefits, and social security schemes.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA) ❖❖ The National Rural Employment Guarantee Bill was passed by Parliament on 7 September 2005. It secured Presidential assent later in 2005 itself and became an Act. ❖❖ The Act provides for at least 100 days of employment to one able bodied person in every rural household every year. ❖❖ The wages admissible are around `120 per day. ❖❖ The Act (NREGA) came into force from 2 February 2006.

Swarn Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana The urban self-employment programme and urban wage employment programmes of the Swarn Jayanti Shahari Yojana, substituted (in December 1997) various programmes operated earlier for poverty alleviation.

5.24  Chapter 5

Skill India—Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojna ❖❖ Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) is a skill development initiative scheme of the Government of India for recognition and standardization of skills. ❖❖ The scheme aims to encourage aptitude towards employable skills and to increase work efficiency of probable and existing daily wage earners, by giving monetary awards and rewards and by providing quality training to them. ❖❖ Those wage earners already possessing a standard level of skill will be given recognition as per scheme, and an average award amount for them is `2,000 to `2,500. In the initial year, a target to distribute `15 billion (US $ 220 million) has been laid down for the scheme. ❖❖ Training programmes have been worked out on the basis of National Occupational Standards (NOS) and qualification packs specifically developed in various sectors of skills. For this qualification, plans and quality plans have been developed by various Sector Skill Councils (SSC) created with the participation of industries. National Skill Development Council (NSDC) has been made the coordinating and driving agency for the same. ❖❖ The scheme aims to train upto 1 crore youth of the country by the end of 2020.

Startup India—Standup India ❖❖ The Startup India campaign is based on an action plan aimed at promoting bank financing for start-up ventures to boost entrepreneurship and encourage startups with jobs creation. ❖❖ The campaign was first announced by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2015. ❖❖ It aims to restrict the role of States in policy domain and to get rid of ‘license raj’ and hindrances like land permissions, foreign investment proposals and environmental clearances. ❖❖ It was organized by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP). ❖❖ The Startup India initiative is also aimed at promoting entrepreneurship among SCs/STs, and women communities. ❖❖ Rural India’s version of Startup India was named the Deen Dayal Upadhyay Swaniyojan Yojana.

Indian Economy    5.25

❖❖ To endorse the campaign, the first magazine for startups in India ‘The Cofounder’ was launched in 2016.

Indian Financial Market Introduction ❖❖ The market of an economy where funds are transacted between the fundsurplus and fund-scarce individuals and groups is known as the financial market. ❖❖ Financial markets in every economy have two separate segments today, one catering to the requirements of short-terms funds and the other to the requirements of long-term funds. ❖❖ The short-term financial market is known as the money market, while the long-term financial market is known as the capital market. ❖❖ The money market fulfils the requirements of funds for the period up to 364 days (that is, short term), while the capital market does the same for the period above 364 days (that is, long term).

Indian Money Market ❖❖ It was the Chakravarthy Committee (1995) which, for the first time, underlined the need for an organized money market in the country, and the Vaghul Committee (1987) laid the blue print for its development. ❖❖ Today, the money market in India is not an integrated unit and has two segments—unorganized money market and organized money market.

Indian Capital Market ❖❖ The long-term financial market of an economy is known as the ‘capital market’. This market makes it possible to raise long-term money (capital), that is, for a period of minimum 365 days and above. ❖❖ Though the capital market of India is far stronger and better today as compared to the period just after Independence, the process of emergence has not been easy and smooth. ❖❖ Once India opted for ‘industry’ as its prime moving force, the first challenge was to raise long-term funds for industrial establishments and their expansion. ❖❖ As banks in India were weak, small, and geographically unevenly distributed, they were not in a position to play the pivotal role they played in the case of industrializing Western economies.

5.26  Chapter 5

Regulatory Agencies India has product-wise regulators—Reserve Bank of India (RBI), established in 1935, regulates credit products, saving, and remittances; the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), established in 1988 regulates investment products; the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA), established in 1999 regulates insurance products; and the Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA), established in 2003 regulates pension products. The Forward Market Commission (FMC), established in 1953 regulates commodity-based exchange-traded futures (which was merged with the SEBI by late 2015).

Share Prices Index Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) ❖❖ Established in 1875, BSE Limited, formerly known as the Bombay Stock Exchange Limited is Asia’s first stock exchange and one of India’s leading exchange groups. Over the past 137 years, BSE has facilitated the growth of the Indian corporate sector by providing it an efficient capital raising platform. ❖❖ BSE’s popular equity index: The Sensex is India’s most widely tracked stock market benchmark index. It is traded internationally on the EUREX as well as leading exchanges of the BRCS nations (Brazil, Russia, China, and South Africa).

SENSEX ❖❖ The S&P BSE SENSEX (S&P Bombay Stock Exchange Sensitive Index), is also called the BSE 30 or simply the SENSEX. ❖❖ It is a free-float market-weighted stock market index of 30 well-established and financially sound companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE). ❖❖ The 30 component companies, which are some of the largest and most actively traded stocks, are representative of various industrial sectors of the Indian economy. ❖❖ Published since 1 January 1986, the S&P BSE SENSEX is regarded as the pulse of the domestic stock markets in India. ❖❖ The base value of the S&P BSE SENSEX is taken as 100 on 1 April 1979, and its base year as 1978–79.

Indian Economy    5.27

National Stock Exchange (NSE) ❖❖ NSE was promoted by leading financial institutions at the behest of the Government of India and was incorporated in November 1992, as a taxpaying company, unlike other stock exchanges in the country. ❖❖ On the basis of the recommendations of the high-powered Pherwani committee, the National Stock Exchange was recognized in November 1992. In April 1993, it was recognized as a stock exchange and commenced operations in 1994. In October 1995, NSE became the largest stock exchange in the country.

NIFTY ❖❖ NIFTY is National Stock Exchange of India’s (NSE) stock market index. It represents the weighted average of 50 Indian company stocks in 12 sectors. It was launched on 21 April 1996.

CRISIL ❖❖ CRISIL (formerly Credit Rating Information Services of India Limited) is India’s first credit rating agency, which was incorporated on 29 January 1987, promoted by the erstwhile ICICI Ltd, along with UTI and other financial institutions. ❖❖ CRISIL’s majority shareholder is Standard & Poor’s, a division of McGraw Hill Financial and provider of financial market intelligence.

Industry Background The Industrial Policy (first announced on 6 April 1948) as adopted by the Government of India envisages a mixed economy, that is, coexistence of public sector, with an overall responsibility of industries in the country. Before Independence, the industrial policy of the government was characterized by Laissez-Faire, that is, policy of non-interference in the affairs of industries. Industrial development was left to the exclusive care of the private sector. However, in the post-Independence era, the government has been taking an active interest in the development of industries in India. So far, the government has formulated five industrial policies, that is, Industrial Policy 1945, 1956, 1977, 1980, and 1991, respectively.

5.28  Chapter 5

Organizations Related to Industries Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI) ❖❖ Industrial Finance Corporation of India was set up in 1948, with the sole aim to provide medium- and long-term finance to industry. ❖❖ With an authorized capital of `20 crore, it became the first such termlending institution. Since 1948, when it started moderately, IFCI has sponsored many new schemes such as risking and hire purchase concerns, suppliers’ credit schemes, assistance for the development of technology through in-house research and development efforts, etc.

The Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India Ltd (ICICI) ❖❖ The ICICI was set up in 1955, with the basic objectives of financing the private sector industrial concerns to create, expand, and modernize the various institutions in the country with an authorized capital of 2,000 crore. The various functions of IDBI involve participation of foreign capital in these units. ❖❖ The ICICI was formed with an authorized capital of 60 crore, and since then, it has become a leading institution in the country for providing foreign currency loans.

Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI) Established in 1964, by an Act of Parliament, the IDBI has grown into the largest long-term financial institution which provides: 1. Refinancing loans given by various institutions working in India 2. To accommodate short-term finances to industrial concerns 3. Direct subscription of the IFCI, State Financial Corporations (SFCs), or other financial institutions 4. To grant loans/advances and underwriting the issues of shares/debentures of individuals 5. Granting deferred payments and arranging assistance for the promotion, management or expansion of any industry.

Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) ❖❖ It was established in October 1989, by the amalgamation of Small Industries Development Fund (SIDF) and Natural Equity Fund (NEF). ❖❖ SIDBI is the apex financial institution for small enterprises sector.

Indian Economy    5.29

❖❖ It provides finance to SSI, refinances assistance, and coordinates the activities of credit to SSIs.

Industrial Reconstruction Bank of India (IRBI) ❖❖ The Industrial Reconstruction Bank of India was set up by the Government of India in April 1971, under the Indian Companies Act. ❖❖ It was constituted to look after the special problems of sick units and provide assistance for their speedy reconstruction and rehabilitation, if necessary, by undertaking the management of the units and developing infrastructure facilities like those of transport, marketing, etc. ❖❖ It provides specific term loans and working capital finance to all different sizes of sector units: medium, large, sick, small, and tiny sector units. ❖❖ It also provides ancillary services, such as consultancy, preparation of schemes of amalgamation, merger, sale, reconstruction, equipment leasing, merchant banking, etc.

Banking System Development of Banking System in India ❖❖ The first bank in India managed by Indians was Oudh Commercial Bank, founded in 1881. It was a bank of limited liability. However, many institutions undertook banking business under the British regime as agency houses which carried on banking business along with their trading business. ❖❖ The second Indian bank to be established was Punjab National Bank in 1884, and with the onset of ‘Swadeshi Movement’ in 1906, a number of commercial banks surfaced. ❖❖ In 1921, three presidency banks operating in India were amalgamated into the Imperial Bank of India following serious financial troubles. ❖❖ In the 1940s, a need for regulating and controlling commercial banks was felt, and, in January 1946, the first Banking Act—The Banking Companies (Inspection Ordinance) was introduced, which was followed by another, The Banking Companies (Restriction of Branches) Act in February 1946. ❖❖ After Independence, the Banking Companies Act was amended in 1949, and its name was also changed to The Banking Regulation Act. ❖❖ Though Banks have been nationalized on many other instances, 14 of the biggest banks in India of that time, which held about 85% of the deposits of the country, were nationalized in 1969 through the issuance of an ordinance.

5.30  Chapter 5

❖❖ In 1993, new private sector banks were allowed to be set up in the Indian banking system as the government recognized that greater competition would lead to a more efficient and competitive economy.

Narasimham Committee Report on Banking Sector Reform ❖❖ The Narasimham Committee was formed under the Chairmanship of former RBI Governor M. Narasimham in August 1991 to look into various aspects of the financial system in India. ❖❖ It made a series of sweeping recommendations which could be used as a launching pad to take Indian banking into the next century. ❖❖ Among other things, the committee recommended the merger of strong banks, as this would have a ‘multiplier effect’ on industry. However, it also recommended not to merge strong banks with weak banks as it would have a negative impact.

Reserve Bank of India (RBI) ❖❖ The RBI was set up on the basis of the Hilton Young Commission recommendation in April 1935, with the enactment of the RBI Act, 1934. ❖❖ The RBI continued to serve as the Central Bank to Burma (Myanmar), until Japanese occupation of Myanmar in April 1947. It also continued to serve as Central Bank to Pakistan, until June 1948. ❖❖ The RBI was nationalized in 1949, and its first Indian Governor was C.D. Deshmukh.

Functions 1. The RBI regulates the issue of bank notes above one rupee denominations; Government of India issues one rupee notes/coins of all denominations below one rupee. The RBI undertakes distribution of all notes and coins on behalf of the government. 2. It acts as the banker of the Government of India and the State government, commercial banks, and state co-operative banks. 3. It formulates and administers the monetary policy. 4. It maintains the exchange value of the rupee. 5. It represents India at the IMF.

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Imperial Bank of India Before nationalization of the RBI, the functions being performed by the RBI were performed by the Imperial Bank of India. It was created in January 1921, by an amalgamation of three presidency banks, namely: 1. Bank of Bengal, 2. Bank of Bombay, and 3. Bank of Madras. After nationalization in 1955, the Imperial Bank of India was named the State Bank of India.

Scheduled Banks The RBI maintains a schedule of banks which undertake to maintain the minimum percentage of their liability with the RBI and the paid up capital of 5 lakhs. The banks covered under this schedule are called scheduled banks.

Public Sector Banks After 1969, commercial banks were broadly classified into nationalized or public sector banks and private sector banks. The State Bank of India and its five associate banks along with nationalized banks are the public sector banks.

Non-Banking Financial Corporations (NBFCs) ❖❖ NBFCs (Non-Banking Financial Corporations) are fast emerging as an important segment of the Indian financial system. ❖❖ It is a heterogeneous group of institutions (other than commercial and co-operative banks) performing financial intermediation in a variety of ways, like accepting deposits, making loans and advances, leasing, hire purchase, etc. ❖❖ They cannot have certain activities as their principal business— agricultural, industrial and sale-purchase or construction of immovable property.

Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) ❖❖ The RRBs were brought into existence by a Presidential Ordinance in September 1975, and the first regional rural bank in the country, called ‘Prathama Grameen Bank’ sponsored by the Syndicate Bank was set up in October 1975, at Moradabad (UP).

5.32  Chapter 5

❖❖ At present, the largest number of RRBs are in Uttar Pradesh. There are 82 RRB in India with a network of over 18,300 branches.

Banking Sector Reforms Narasimham-I ❖❖ As already discussed, the purpose of the Narasimham-I Committee was to study all aspects relating to the structure, organization, functions, and procedures of the financial systems and to recommend improvements in their efficiency and productivity. ❖❖ The committee submitted its report to the Finance Minister in November, 1991.

Narasimham-II ❖❖ The Narasimham-II Committee was tasked with the progress review of the implementation of the banking reforms since 1992 with the aim of further strengthening the financial institutions of India. ❖❖ It focused on issues like the size of banks and capital adequacy ratio among other things. M. Narasimham, Chairman, submitted the report of the committee in April 1998.

Damodaran Committee The committee, headed by former SEBI Chairman M Damodaran, was set up by the Central Bank to look into the issues of customer services and evaluate the existing system of grievance redressal mechanism prevalent in measures for expeditious resolution of complaints.

Khandewal Committee Report ❖❖ The government constituted a committee on Human Resources Issues of Public Sector Banks (PSBs) under the Chairmanship of Dr A.K. Khandelwal in 2012. ❖❖ The committee made 105 recommendations on matters related to manpower and recruitment planning, training, career planning, performance management, reward management, succession planning and leadership development, motivation, professionalization of hr, wages, service conditions and welfare, etc.

Nachiket Mor Committee ❖❖ The RBI appointed a committee on Comprehensive Financial Services for Small Businesses and Low Income Households under the Chairmanship of Sri Nachiket Mor.

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Recommendations of the committee are as follows: ●●

●● ●● ●● ●●

Every adult (above 18 years) of the country should have a bank account by 1 January 2016. This account will be known as Universal Electronic Bank Account (UEBA). Every resident should be issued an account at a time of receiving Aadhaar number (UIDAI) by a bank itself. It recommends abolition of interest subsidies and loan waivers. It recommends raising priority sector lending cap for banks to 50% from the current 40%. It also proposes creation of a payment bank to provide payment services including credit, insurance, and risk management products.

Monetary and Credit Policy ❖❖ Monetary policy is conducted by rule and/or discretion: By rule, if policy makers reveal in advance the policy behaviour such as how it will respond to the changing market situations, and by discretion, if policy makers enjoy the freedom to size up the situation case by case and choose the most appropriate policy to deal with the changing situations. ❖❖ It has been customary for the RBI to announce a set of measures both of short term and structural nature in two bi-annual statements on monetary and credit policy, released in April and October of each year. ❖❖ Keeping in view the significant changes in the framework for financial markets, the government has decided with effect from the current financial year to give more importance to structural measures in monetary and credit policy for the current year. ❖❖ The short-term measures like the bank rate, CRR, repo rates, etc., will be included in the first half of the statement only if they coincide with the timing of its release. The second statement of the year, the October statement, covers the mid-term review of the monetary and credit developments.

Non-Performing Assets ❖❖ Non-performing Assets (NPAs) are the bad loans of banks. The criteria to identify such assets have been changing over time. In order to follow international best practices and to ensure greater transparency, the RBI shifted to the current policy in 2004. ❖❖ Under the new policy, a loan is considered an NPA if it has not been serviced for one term (that is, 90 days). This is known as a ‘90 day’ overdue norm. For agriculture loans, the period is tied with the period

5.34  Chapter 5

of the concerned crops—ranging from two crop seasons to one year overdue norm. NPAs were classified into three types:

1. Sub-standard: remaining NPAs for less than or equal to 18 months, 2. Doubtful: remaining NPAs for more than 18 months; and 3. Loss Assets: where the loss has been identified by the RBI inspection but the amount has not been written off.

Demonetization Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 8 November 2016, publicly announced the Central government’s decision to demonetize the high value currencies that is, currency notes of `500 and `1,000 with an aim to unearth black money, and to restrain the corruption, counterfeit currency as well as terror financing. Demonetization refers to the ending of legal tender of any currency in an economy prevailing at that time, by a competent public authority, to curb the parallel or ghost economy. Demonetization is necessary (this happened when the Euro was introduced) whenever there is a change of national currency. The old unit of currency must be retired and replaced with a new currency unit.

When did Demonetization Happen Before? 1946: `1,000, `5,000 and `10,000 notes were taken out of circulation in January 1946. The `10,000 notes were the largest currency denomination ever printed by the Reserve Bank of India, introduced for the first time in 1938. All three notes were reintroduced in 1954. 1977: The Wanchoo Committee (1970), a direct tax inquiry committee, suggested demonetization as a measure to unearth and counter the spread of black money. The High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetization) Act deemed the `1,000, `5,000 and `10,000 notes illegal for the second time. At the time, then-RBI governor I.G. Patel disagreed with the measure.

What was the Need for Such a Move? 1. The incidence of fake Indian currency notes in higher denomination had increased. 2. Unaccounted money, often used in any form of corruption or illicit deals, usually takes the form of high-value notes, which in this case were the `500 and `1,000 bills.

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3. The Financial Action Task Force, a global body that looks at the criminal use of the international financial system, notes that high-value bills are used in money laundering schemes, racketeering, and drug and human trafficking.

What were the Previous Actions taken by the Government to Curb Black Money? 1. Jan Dhan Scheme, under which 22 crore new bank accounts were opened in one-and-a-half years (May 2016). Most of these accounts brought those people into the network who were outside the ambit. According to the Economic Survey for 2015–16, leakages in LPG subsidy transfers fell 24% and the exclusion of beneficiaries had been greatly reduced, thanks to the infrastructure created by Jan Dhan accounts, Aadhaar and mobile network, or the JAM trinity. 2. Income Declaration Scheme, by 30 September, all illegal asset holders had the chance to declare their holdings and pay 45% tax and a penalty in exchange for anonymity and immunity from criminal proceedings.

How will it Curb Black Money? ❖❖ Cash transactions resulted in a parallel economy with unaccounted money, even stronger than the regular economy. The parallel economy contributes to black money, corruption, counterfeit currency and terror financing. These issues hamper the growth and development of the economy. ❖❖ Demonetization of `500 and `1,000 currency notes will address issues like black money and corruption and also help the economy become more digital. ❖❖ Demonetization also help in the digitization of economy, will curb the menace of black money and will help check stashing of funds to a large extent. ❖❖ Similarly, it has major impact on corruption that exists in India and also on the financing of terror activities in India. Hence, it was considered a courageous step in the fight against unaccounted money.

Gold Monetization Scheme ❖❖ Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has certified Collection, Purity Testing Centers (CPTC) to collect the gold from the customer on behalf of the banks. The gold deposits can be monetized in the form of loans or interest. ❖❖ The minimum quantity of gold (bullion or jewelry) which can be deposited is 30 grams, and there is no limit on the maximum deposit.

5.36  Chapter 5

❖❖ Gold Saving Accounts can be opened with any of the designated banks, and denominations in grams of gold, for a short-term period of 1–3 years, a medium-term period of 5–7 years, and a long-term period of 12–15 years. ❖❖ The CPTCs transfer the gold to the refiners. The banks will have a tripartite/bipartite legal agreement with refiners and CPTCs.

MUDRA Bank ❖❖ Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency Bank (or MUDRA Bank) was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 8 April 2015 with a corpus of `20,000 crore and a credit guarantee corpus of `3,000 crore. ❖❖ It is a public sector financial institution in India. It provides loans at low rates to small entrepreneurs. MUDRA Bank will be setup through a statutory enactment. ❖❖ It will be responsible for developing and refinancing all Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs) which are in the business of lending to micro and small business entities engaged in manufacturing, trading, and service activities.

Digital Payment Scheme—BHIM App ❖❖ The Government of India, with an aim to encourage digital payment schemes and to promote cashless transactions, had launched the new BHIM (Bharat Interface for Money) app. ❖❖ It uses the Unified Payments Interface (UPI) technology, launched in India in April 2016, which allows users to transact from accounts in various banks through one single app, even offering the possibility to shop in retail stores. ❖❖ The main feature of the app is that merchants can download the Aadhar cashless merchant app on their smartphones and sync it to a biometric reader. The customer can then put their Aadhar number into the app, select the specified bank, and the biometric scan will work as the password for the transaction.

Jan Dhan Yojna Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) is a National Mission for Financial Inclusion to ensure access to financial services, namely, banking/ savings and deposit accounts, remittance, credit, insurance, pension in an

Indian Economy    5.37

affordable manner. It was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 28 August 2014.

Insurance Definition In terms of economics, anything used to cut down the risk is known as insurance. But in familiar terms, insurance is provided by an insurance company which covers a person’s life (called life segment) or covers loss of assets, property (called non-life or general segment).

Insurance Industry LIC The life insurance business/industry in the country was nationalized by the Government of India in 1956, and a fully government-owned company, the Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) was set up.

GIC In 1971, the government nationalized the private sector companies and a government company—the General Insurance Corporation of India (GIC) was formed in 1972. The GIC started operation on 1 January 1973, with its four holding companies:

1. National Insurance Company Ltd. 2. New India Assurance Company Ltd. 3. Oriental Fire and Insurance Company Ltd. 4. United India Insurance Company Ltd.

National Pension Scheme ❖❖ National Pension System (NPS) is a voluntary, defined contribution retirement savings scheme. ❖❖ The NPS has been designed to enable systematic savings during the subscriber’s working life. It is an attempt towards finding a sustainable solution to provide an adequate retirement income to every citizen of India. ❖❖ Under the NPS, an individual’s savings are pooled in a pension fund. ❖❖ These funds are invested by Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA) regulated professional fund managers as per the approved investment guidelines in diversified portfolios comprising government bonds, bills, corporate debentures, and shares.

5.38  Chapter 5

❖❖ These contributions are expected to grow and accumulate over the years, depending on the returns earned on the investment made. ❖❖ The eligibility is from 18 years to 60 years of age, including NRIs.

Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA) ❖❖ The Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA) was set up in 2000 (the Act was passed in 1999) with one chairman and five members (two as full-time and three as part-time members) appointed and nominated by the government. ❖❖ The authority is responsible for the regulation, development, and supervision of the Indian insurance industry.

New Insurance Schemes During the fiscal 2015–16, the Government of India launched two new insurance schemes aimed at creating a universal social security system for all Indians, especially the poor and the underprivileged.

Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY) ❖❖ It offers a renewable one-year accidental-death-cum-disability cover to all subscribing bank account holders in the age group of 10 to 70 years for a premium of `12 per annum per subscriber. ❖❖ The risk coverage available will be rupees two lakh for accidental death and permanent total disability and rupees one lakh for permanent partial disability, for a one-year period stretching from 1 June to May 31.

Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY) The scheme offers a renewable one-year term life cover of rupees two lakh to all subscribing bank account holders in the age group of 10 to 50 years.

Tax Structure Definition Tax is a compulsory contribution by the citizens to the government to meet public expenditure. It is legally imposed by the government on the

Indian Economy    5.39

taxpayer, and, in no case can an eligible taxpayer deny to pay taxes to the government.

Types of Taxes Direct Tax A direct tax is that which is borne by the person on whom it is levied. Direct as well as indirect money burden of the direct tax is on the person on whom the tax is imposed.

Indirect Tax ❖❖ Indirect taxes are those taxes, which have their primary burden or impact on one person, but that person shifts his burden on to the consumer of his goods or services. ❖❖ Consequently, the final or the real burden of the taxes or the incidence has to be borne by a third person.

Surcharge and Cess Surcharge ❖❖ Surcharge is a fee or other charge that is added to the cost of a good or service. ❖❖ A surcharge is typically added to an existing tax and may not be included in the stated price of a good or service. It may be a temporary measure to defray the cost of increased commodity pricing, such as with a fuel surcharge, or it may be permanent. ❖❖ A surcharge does not have to be imposed by the government.

Cess ❖❖ Cess is a tax that is levied by the government to raise funds for a specific purpose. ❖❖ A cess is also different from the usual taxes such as personal income tax, excise duty, and customs duty in another respect. ❖❖ All the taxes collected by the government usually go into the Consolidated Fund of India (CFI), which can be spent on any legitimate activity. But the collections from a cess are required to be kept outside the CFI to be spent only on the specific purpose for which it was levied.

5.40  Chapter 5

Methods of Taxation Progressive Taxation ❖❖ This method has increasing rates of tax for increasing value or volume for which the tax is being imposed. Indian income tax is a typical example of this. ❖❖ The idea here is that less tax on the people who earn less and higher tax on the people who earn more—classifying income earners into different slabs.

Regressive Taxation ❖❖ This is just the opposite of the progressive method, having decreasing rates of tax for increasing value or volume on which the tax is being imposed. ❖❖ There are not any permanent or specific sectors for such taxes.

Goods and Services Tax (GST) Goods and Services Tax (GST), a tax reform, came into effect from 1 July 2017. GST will completely transform the Indirect Taxation landscape in the country involving both the Central and State levies. It will be administered together by the Centre and States. GST is a dual concept tax system. Under this system, tax is administered, collected and shared by both Centre and States based on the nature of transaction (within state or interstate). In the majority of supplies of goods, the tax incidence approved by the GST Council is much lower than the present combined indirect tax rates levied (on account of central excise duty rates/embedded central excise duty rates/service tax post-clearance embedding, VAT rates or weighted average VAT rates, cascading of VAT over excise duty and tax incidence on account of CST, Octroi, Entry Tax, etc.) by the Centre and State(s).

What is the GST Structure? (As of February, 2018) ❖❖ The threshold limit for exemption from levy of GST is `20 lakh for the States except for the Special Category, where it is `10 lakh. ❖❖ A four-slab tax rate structure of 5%, 12%, 18%, and 28% has been adopted for GST. ❖❖ A cess would be levied on certain goods such as luxury cars, aerated drinks, pan masala and tobacco products, over and above the GST rate of 28% for payment of compensation to the states.

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❖❖ The threshold for availing the Composition Scheme is `75 lakh except for special category states where it is `50 lakh and they are required to file quarterly returns only. Certain categories of manufacturers, service providers (except restaurants) are out of the Composition Scheme.

External Sector Definition All economic activities of an economy which take place in foreign currency fall in sectors such as export, import, foreign investment, external debt, current account, capital account, balance of payment, etc. to name a few.

Forex Reserves The total foreign currencies (of different countries) an economy possesses at a point of time is its ‘foreign currency assets/reserves’. The Forex Reserves (short for ‘foreign exchange reserve’) of an economy is its ‘foreign currency assets’ added with its gold reserves, SDRs (Special Drawing Rights), and Reserve Tranche in the IMF.

External Debt ❖❖ After the Balance of Payment Crisis of 1991, India’s external debt policies and management have helped contain the increase in size of external debt to a moderate level, and it is compositionally better with a longer term maturity profile. ❖❖ India’s total external debt by September 2015 was US $ 483.2 billion (1.7% increase since March 2015). The rise in the debt was on account of long-term commercial borrowings and NRI deposits.

Currency Regime Fixed Currency Regime ❖❖ In this system, the exchange rate of a particular currency was fixed by the IMF keeping the currency in front of a basket of important world currencies (they were UK $, US $, Japanese Y, German Mark DM, and the French Franc FFr).

Floating Currency Regime ❖❖ In the floating exchange rate system, a domestic currency is left free to float against a number of foreign currencies in its foreign exchange market and determine its own value.

5.42  Chapter 5

❖❖ Such exchange rates are also called market-driven exchange rates, which are regulated by factors such as the demand and supply of the concerned currency.

Exchange Rate in India ❖❖ In 1992–93 financial years, India moved to the floating currency regime with its own method which is known as the ‘dual exchange rate’. ❖❖ There are two exchange rates for rupee, one is the ‘official rate’ and the other is the ‘market rate’.

Trade Balance The monetary difference of the total export and import of an economy in one financial year is called the trade balance. It might be positive or negative, known to be either favourable or unfavourable, to the economy.

Depreciation ❖❖ This term is used to mean two different things. In the foreign exchange market, it is a situation when the domestic currency loses its value in front of a foreign currency if it is market-driven. In a domestic economy, depreciation means an asset losing its value either due to either its use, wear and tear or due to other economic reasons.

Devaluation In the foreign exchange market when the exchange rate of a domestic currency is cut down by its government against any foreign currency, it is called devaluation.

Revaluation A term used in the foreign exchange market which refers to a government increasing the exchange rate of its currency against any foreign currency.

Appreciation ❖❖ In a foreign exchange market, the increase in the value of a free floating domestic currency against the value of a foreign currency is termed as ‘appreciation’. ❖❖ In a domestic economy, if a fixed asset has seen increase in its value, it is also known as appreciation.

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Balance of Payments (BoP) When the difference in the value of imports and exports of all the three items, which are visible, invisible, and capital transfers is taken into account, it is called Balance of Payments (BoP).

Convertibility ❖❖ If domestic currency is allowed to be converted into foreign currency for all current account purposes, it is a case of full current account convertibility. ❖❖ Similarly, in cases of capital outflow, if the domestic currency is allowed to be converted into foreign currency, it is a case of full capital account convertibility.

International Economic Organizations and India International Monetary System ❖❖ The International Monetary System (IMS) refers to the customs, rules, instruments, facilities, and organizations facilitating international (external) payments. ❖❖ Sometimes, the IMS is also referred to as an international monetary order or regime. ❖❖ The evaluation of an IMS is done in terms of adjustment, liquidity, and confidence which it manages to wield.

Bretton Woods ❖❖ Preparing to rebuild the international economic system while World War II was still raging, 730 delegates from all 44 Allied nations gathered at the Mount Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United States, for the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, also known as the ‘Bretton Woods Conference’. ❖❖ The Bretton Woods system of monetary management established the rules for commercial and financial relations among the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and Japan in the mid-20th century. ❖❖ The Bretton Woods system was the first example of a fully negotiated monetary order intended to govern monetary relations among independent nation states.

5.44  Chapter 5

❖❖ The chief features of the Bretton Woods system was an obligation for each country to adopt a monetary policy that maintained the exchange rate (±1%) by tying its currency to gold and the ability of the IMF to bridge temporary imbalances of payments. ❖❖ The delegates deliberated during 1–22 July 1944, and signed the Bretton Woods agreement on its final day. Setting up a system of rules, institutions, and procedures to regulate the IMS, these accords established the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which today is part of the World Bank Group.

International Monetary Fund ❖❖ The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization headquartered in Washington, DC, which was formed in 1944 of 189 countries working to foster global monetary co-operation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world. ❖❖ It came into formal existence in 1945 with 29 member countries and the goal of reconstructing the international payment system. ❖❖ It plays a central role in the management of BoP difficulties and international financial crises. ❖❖ Countries contribute funds to a pool through a quota system from which countries experiencing BoP problems can borrow money. ❖❖ Through the fund, and other activities such as the gathering of statistics and analysis, surveillance of its members’ economies and the demand for particular policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its member countries. ❖❖ The organization’s objectives stated in the Articles of Agreement are: to promote international monetary co-operation, international trade, high employment, exchange-rate stability, sustainable economic growth, and making resources available to member countries in financial difficulty.

World Bank The World Bank, whose motto is Working for a World Free of Poverty, was established in July, 1945 and is headquartered in Washington D.C., in the USA. The World Bank (WB) Group today consists of five closely associated institutions propitiating the role of development in the member nations in different areas. The five institution are as follows:

Indian Economy    5.45

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) ❖❖ The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development is the oldest of the World Bank institutions, which started functioning (1945) in the area of reconstruction of the war-ravaged regions (World War II) and later for the development of the middle-income and creditworthy poorer economies of the world. ❖❖ Human development was the main focus of the developmental lending with a very low interest rate (1.55% per annum)—the areas of focus being agriculture, irrigation, urban development, healthcare, family welfare, dairy development, etc. It commenced lending for India in 1949.

International Development Agency (IDA) ❖❖ The International Development Agency (IDA), which is also known as the soft window of the World Bank was set up in 1960 with the basic aim of developing infrastructural support among the member nations, longterm lending for the development of economic services. ❖❖ Its loans, known as credits, are extended mainly to economies with less than $ 1,175 (in 2010 dollars) per capita income. ❖❖ The credits are for a period of 35–40 years, interest-free, except for a small change to cover administrative costs. Repayment begins after a 10-year grace period.

International Finance Corporation (IFC) ❖❖ The International Finance Corporation (IFC) promotes sustainable private sector investment in developing countries. It is a member of the World Bank Group and is headquartered in Washington DC. ❖❖ It shares the primary objective of all World Bank Group institutions: to improve the quality of the lives of people in its developing member countries.

Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) ❖❖ The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) is a member organization of the World Bank Group that offers political risk insurance. It was established to promote foreign direct investment into developing countries. ❖❖ It promotes foreign direct investment into developing countries by insuring against political risk, advising governments on attracting

5.46  Chapter 5

investment, sharing information through online investment information services, and mediating disputes between investors and governments.

International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes ❖❖ The ICSID was established in 1965 for legal dispute resolution and conciliation between international investors. It is headquartered in Washington DC, in the USA.

Bilateral Investment and Promotion Agreement (BIPA) ❖❖ As part of the Economic Reform Programme initiated in 1991, the foreign investment policy of the Government of India was liberalized and negotiations undertaken with a number of countries to enter into Bilateral Investment and Promotion Agreement (BIPA) in order to promote and protect on reciprocal basis, investment of the investors. ❖❖ Government of India has so far signed BIPAs with 83 countries, out of which 72 BIPAs have already come into force, and the remaining agreements are in the process of being enforced. ❖❖ The objective of the BIPA is to promote and protect the interests of investors of either country in the territory of the other country.

Asian Development Bank (ADB) ❖❖ The Asian Development Bank was established following the recommendations of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. ❖❖ It was formed to foster economic growth and co-operation in the region of Asia and the Pacific and to contribute to the acceleration of economic development of the developing countries of the region. ❖❖ The Asian Development Bank (ADB), an international partnership of 67 member countries, was established in 1966, with its headquarters at Manila, Philippines. India is a founder member.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) ❖❖ The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development is an international economic organization of 34 countries founded in 1961, to stimulate economic progress and world trade. ❖❖ It defines itself as a forum of countries committed to democracy and the market economy, providing a platform to compare policy experiences,

Indian Economy    5.47

seeking answers to common problems, identifying good practices, and co-coordinating domestic and international policies of its members.

World Trade Organization (WTO) ❖❖ The World Trade Organization (WTO) came into being as a result of the evolution of the multilateral trading system starting with the establishment of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1947. ❖❖ The WTO provides a rule-based, transparent and predictable multilateral trading system. ❖❖ The WTO rules envisage non-discrimination in the form of National Treatment and most favoured nation (MFN) treatment to India’s exports in the markets of other WTO Members. ❖❖ National treatment ensures that India’s products once imported into the territory of other WTO members would not be discriminated vis-à-vis the domestic products of these countries. MFN treatment principle ensures that members do not discriminate among various WTO members in their tariff regimes and other rules, regulations and incentives.

Brazil-Russia-India-China-South-Africa (BRICS) ❖❖ BRICS stands as an acronym for the association comprising of the five national economies of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa. ❖❖ The first summit of BRICS was held in Yekaterinburg, Russia on 16 June 2009, and the term was coined by economist Jim O’Neill.

BRICS Bank ❖❖ The BRICS bank comprising all these five nations aims to provide funding for infrastructure and sustainable development projects in the member countries. ❖❖ For this purpose, a Contingent Reserve Agreement (CRA) of $100 billion has been created to provide additional liquidity protection to prevent balance of payment problems.

1. The capital base is to be used for funding infrastructure and ‘sustainable development’ projects in the BRICS countries initially. 2. Other low and middle-income countries will be able get funding as time progresses. 3. A CRA of $ 100 billion is also to be created to provide additional liquidity protection to member nations during balance of payments problems.

5.48  Chapter 5



4. The CRA is being funded 41% by China, 18% each by Brazil, India, and Russia, and 5% by South Africa.

Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank ❖❖ The proposal for the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank was given by the Chinese President Xi Jinping in October 2013. ❖❖ It was officially launched in Beijing, wherein 21 Asian nations including China were its founding members. ❖❖ It aims to provide finance to infrastructure projects in the Asian region to its members. ❖❖ It has been planned to work in the same fashion as the Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank, respectively.

Some Important Economic Events Wall Street Crash, 1929 ❖❖ It is also known as Black Tuesday (29 October 1929). ❖❖ It is the most devastating stock market crash in the history of the United States. ❖❖ It was mainly a result of speculative boom that had taken hold mainly in the late 1920s.

Great Depression, 1930 ❖❖ The Black Tuesday (of 1929) is said to be the official beginning of the Great Depression of 1930. ❖❖ It was the deepest and the longest lasting downturn of the Western industrialized world. ❖❖ The decline of the US economy had devastating effects on the poor as well as rich countries.

Oil Crisis, 1973 ❖❖ Members of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) announced an oil embargo against Canada, Japan, Netherlands, UK and USA. ❖❖ This decision was taken in response to the US decision to re-supply the Israeli military during the Yom Kippur war. ❖❖ One of the Arab-Israel wars was the Yom Kippur war which began in October 1973 when Egypt and Syria attacked Israel on the holy day of Yom Kippur.

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Black Wednesday, 1992 ❖❖ It happened on 16 September 1992. ❖❖ It happened because UK was forced to withdraw its membership from the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, since it was not able to maintain the agreed limit of pound sterling. ❖❖ George Soros, the most high profile of the currency market investors, is said to have made over 1 billion GBP (pound sterling).

Wall Street Crash, 1987 ❖❖ The stock market crash of 1987 or ‘Black Monday’ was the largest oneday market crash in history. ❖❖ The main cause of the 1987 crash was the overvalued stock market. On 19 October 1987, the stock market was flooded with billions of dollars, causing both the future and present stock market to crash. ❖❖ The Dow Jones stock index lost $500 billion in a day.

Financial Crisis of 2007–08 ❖❖ Considered by many experts as the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s. ❖❖ Triggered by bursting of US housing bubble, which caused the valuation of securities tied to the US real estate pricing to plunge, which damaged financial institutions. ❖❖ Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch, and Washington Mutual were some of the most prominent victims of the financial crisis.

Explanatory Terminology Abenomics The term originates from the name of the Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe and indicates the ‘set of economic measures’ he took to rejuvenate the sluggish Japanese economy from the spells of a recession-like situation, after his December 2012 re-election to the post he last held in 2007. This is also known as the ‘Three arrows of Abenomics’; the three economic measures under it are: 1. Fiscal stimulus 2. Quantitative easing 3. Structural reforms

5.50  Chapter 5

Adverse Selection Adverse selection can be a problem when there is an asymmetry in information between the seller and the buyer of an insurance policy as insurance will not be profitable when buyers have better information about their risk of claiming than the seller does of the insurance policy. In the ideal case, insurance premiums are set in accordance to the risk of a randomly selected person in the insured bracket (such as 40-year-old male smokers) of the population.

Antitrust A category of the government policy which deals with monopoly. Such laws intend to stop abuses of ‘market power’ by big companies and at times to prevent corporate mergers and acquisitions that would strengthen monopoly.

Appreciation It shows an increase in value and is used in economics in the following two senses: 1. It is an increase in the price of an asset over time, such as price rises in land, factory building, houses, offices, etc. It is also known as capital appreciation. 2. It is an increase in the value of currency against any foreign currency or currencies. It is market-based if the economy follows the floatingcurrency exchange-rate system.

Asset Anything which has a ‘money value’ owned by an individual or a firm is an asset. It is of three types: 1. Tangible Asset: All physical assets such as land, machinery, building, consumer durables (refrigerator, car, TV, radio, etc.), etc. (the assets which are in the material form). 2. Intangible Assets: All non-physical/immaterial assets such as brand names, good-will, creditworthiness, knowledge, know-how, etc. 3. Financial Assets: All financially valid valuables other than tangibles and intangibles such as currencies, bank deposits, bonds, securities, shares, etc.

Bad Debt An accounting term to show the loans which are unlikely to be paid back by the borrower as the borrower has become insolvent/bankrupt. Banks might write off such bad debts against the profits of trading, as a business cost.

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Balanced Budget The annual financial statement (that is, the budget) of a government which has the total expenditures equal to the taxes and other receipts.

Balance of Payments The balance of payments (BP) record the transactions in goods, services and assets between the residents of a country with the rest of the world for a specific time, usually a year.

Bond An instrument of raising long-term debt on which the bond-issuer pays a periodic interest (known as ‘coupon’). In theory, bonds could be issued by a government as well as private companies. Bonds generally have a maturity period. However, some bonds might not have any definite maturity period (which are known as ‘Perpetual Bonds’). Bonds are supported/secured by collateral in the form of immovable property (that is, fixed assets), while debentures, also used to raise long-term debt, are not supported by any collateral.

Budget Line A line on the dual axis graph showing the alternate combinations of goods that can be purchased by a consumer with a given income at given prices.

Bullion Precious metals such as gold, silver, and platinum that are traded in the form of bars and coins for investment purposes and are used for jewellery as base metals.

Buyer’s Market A short period of market situation in which there is an excess supply of good/ services forcing price fall to the advantage of the buyers.

Capital Capital is one of the three main factors of production (labour and natural resources are the other two), classified into physical capital (that is, factories, machines, office, etc.) and human capital (that is, trading, skill, etc.).

Capital Adequacy Ratio A regulation on commercial banks, co-operative banks, and non-banking financial companies to maintain a certain amount of capital in relation to their

5.52  Chapter 5

assets (that is, loans and investments) as a cushion (shock-absorber) against probable losses in their investments and loans. A concept devised by the Bank for International Settlements (BIS), Basel, the provision was implemented in India in 1992 by the RBI.

Carbon Credit Amidst growing concern and increasing awareness on the need for pollution control, the concept of carbon credit came into vogue as part of an international agreement, known popularly as the Kyoto Protocol. Carbon credits are certificates issued to countries that reduce their emission of GHG (greenhouse gases) which lead to global warming. It is estimated that 60–70% of the GHG emission is through fuel combustion in industries like cement, steel, textiles, and fertilizers. Some GHGs like hydro fluorocarbons, methane, and nitrous oxide are released as byproducts of certain industrial process which adversely affect the ozone layer, leading to global warming. The concept of carbon credit trading seeks to encourage countries to reduce their GHG emissions, as it rewards those countries which meet their targets and provides financial incentives to the others to do so as quickly as possible. Surplus credits (collected by overshooting the emission reducing target) can be sold in the global market. One credit is the equivalent of one ton of carbon dioxide emission. Carbon Credit (CC) is available for companies engaged in developing renewable energy projects that offset the use of fossil fuels. The trading of CC takes place on two stock exchanges, the Chicago Climate Exchange and the European Climate Exchange. CC trading can take place in the open market as well. European countries and Japan are the major buyers of carbon credits. Under the Kyoto Protocol, global warming potential (GWP) was an index that allowed for the comparison of greenhouse gases with each other in the context of the relative potential to contribute to global warming. For trading purposes, one credit is considered equivalent to one ton of carbon dioxide emission.

Ceteris Paribus A Latin phrase which means ‘other things being equal’. The phrase is used by economists to cover their forecasting.

Classical Economics A school of thought in economics based on the ideas of Smith, Ricardo, Mill, etc., the school dominated the economic thinking of the world until about 1870, when the ‘marginality revolution’ took place.

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Collateral Any item/asset which accompanies/subordinates/supplements a primary item is known as collateral. The term is used in the banking industry while providing loans. This is also known as ‘secondary/subordinate security’, which borrowers/guarantors provide in the form of an asset (like land, building, etc.) while seeking a loan. The principal/primary security is usually the borrower’s personal guarantee or the cash flow of a business. Except for highly creditworthy customers (who can get loans against their signatures), lenders always demand a collateral if the primary security is not considered to be reliable or sufficient enough to recover the loan in case of a default, when lenders have the legal right to seize the collateral.

Collective Products A product which can only be supplied to a group. Many goods and services provided by the governments fall in this category, such as, national defense, police administration, etc.

Consortium An ad-block grouping of firms, government, etc. brought together to undertake a particular project by pooling their resources and skills for major construction projects, loans, etc.

Consumer Durables Consumer goods that are consumed over relatively long periods of time rather than immediately (opposite to the consumer non-durables) such as cars, houses, refrigerators, etc.

Consumer Non-durables Consumer goods which yield up all their satisfaction/utility at the time of consumption (opposite to the consumer durables); examples are cheese, pickles, jam, etc.

Crony Capitalism An approach of doing business when the firms look after themselves by looking after their own people (that is, families and friends). Crony Capitalism allows for preferential regulation and favorable government intervention based on personal relationships. Used in a negative sense.

5.54  Chapter 5

Crowd Funding This is a method of mobilizing finance/funds. Crowd funding refers to the collective effort of individuals who pool money—mostly through the Internet—to support start-ups. There are two basic forms of crowdfunding— Community Crowdfunding and Financial Return Crowdfunding. The former includes donation-based concepts (donators get no financial returns in it), while in the latter, contributors of funds get financial returns (from the project set up with the fund). In the financial model of crowdfunding, contributors might be given equity/shares in the upcoming project.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is swiftly (or rapidly) gaining popularity in the corporate sector of the world. As per the experts, the CSR is qualitatively different from the traditional concept of passive philanthropy by the corporate houses. Basically, the CSR acknowledges the debt that the corporates owe to the community within which they operate. It defines the corporate’ partnership with social action groups (that is, the NGOs) in providing financial and other resources to support development plans, especially among disadvantaged communities. There is stress on longterm sustainability of business and environment and the distribution of wellbeing.

Debenture An instrument of raising long-term loan by companies, having a maturity period bearing an interest (coupon rate). Theoretically, they may be secured or unsecured by assets such as land and building of the issuing company (known as collateral). Debenture holders are provided with a prior claim on the earnings (by interest) and assets of the company in the case of liquidation of the company over the preference and equity shareholders of the company.

Debt Recovery Tribunal (DRT) Banks and financial institutions have often faced a tough time in recovering loans on which the borrowers have defaulted. To expedite the recovery process, the committee on the financial system, headed by Mr Narasimham, considered the setting up of special tribunals with special adjudicator powers. This was felt to be necessary to carry through the financial sector reforms. Since there is an immense overload on the Indian legal system currently, recovery of many unpaid debts, due to banks or financial institutions, are held

Indian Economy    5.55

up, indefinitely. This affects the balance sheets of the banks as the amounts involved are very large. It was thought that an independent forum was needed to deal with debts of these types. Thus, in 1993, the Recovery of Debts Due to Banks and Financial Institutions Act was passed. The Act, however, imposes a limitation and states that only those debts which are in excess of `10 lakhs (or up to `1 lakh, where the Central government specified certain types of debts) would come under its purview.

Decoupling Theory Decoupling theory holds that Asian economies, especially emerging ones, no longer depend on the United States economy for growth, leaving them insulated from a severe slowdown there, even recession. This seemed true for some time as Asian stocks rose while stocks in the US fell. However, as fears of recession mounted in the US, stocks declined heavily. Looking at this happen in late 2008, the decoupling theory regarding the Asian as well as the EU economies have now lost ground. But still, the emerging economies are able to have higher growth rates and exports in comparison to the US; which is why the theory is still debated by the experts.

Deindustrialization Sustained decrease in the share of the secondary sector in the total output (GDP) of an economy.

Demat Account It is a way of holding securities in electronic or dematerialized form. Demat form of shares can be traded online. As such, the transactions are concluded much faster, which prevents theft, misuse, forging of original shares certificates or other documents, and allows an investor to buy or sell shares in any quantity. Demat account allows for faster refund of money in case an application is not accepted. Demat accounts are offered by the depository (National Securities Depository Ltd.—[NSDL] or Central Securities Depository Ltd.—[CSDL]). The investor needs to fill up the requisite forms, submit the documents, and pay the applicable charges in order to have the demat account opened.

Demerger The breaking-up of a company into multiple separate companies. Such companies (that are demerged) are usually formed through mergers.

5.56  Chapter 5

Derivatives The financial assets that derive their value from other assets, such as shares, debentures, bonds, securities, etc.

Direct Investment The expenditure on physical assets (that is, plant, machinery, etc.).

Domino Effect An economic situation in which one economic event leads to others that happen one after the other. For example, experts believe that the falling of share indices around the world in early-2008 was a domino effect of the subprime crisis faced by the US economy. A similar case is cited from the mid-1996 when all major stock markets crashed around the South East Asian currency crisis.

Dow-Jones Index The US share price index which monitors and records the share price movements of all companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange (with the exception of high-tech companies which are listed on the nasdaq stock exchange). India has its equivalent in the BSE Sensex:

E-Business Using computers and the Internet to link both the internal operations (that is, transactions and communications between the various departments/divisions of the business firm) and its external operations (that is, all its dealings with the suppliers, customers, etc.).

E-Commerce Method of buying and selling goods and services over the Internet, a kind of direct marketing, that is, without the help of any middle arrangement of sales.

Economies of Scale The long-run reduction in average/unit cost that occurs as the scale of the firm’s output increases. The opposite situation is known as diseconomies of scale.

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Engel’s Law The law which says that people generally spend a smaller part of their budget on food as their income rises. The idea was suggested by Ernst Engel, a Russian statistician, in 1857.

Environmental Taxes As against the ‘Command and Control’ approach to managing the environment, the Economic or Market-Based Instruments (MBIs) approach sends economic signals to the polluters to modify their behaviour. The MBIs used for environmental taxes include pollution charges (emission/affluent & tax/pollution tax), marketable permits, deposit refund system, input taxes/ product charges, differential tax rates, user administrative changes, and subsidies for pollution abatement, which may be based on both price and quality. India has already been collecting taxes on water and air via the Water Act and the Air Act. Due to its experience, India is among the chief participants in devising the MBIs in the world.

Equity Share A security issued by a company to those who contributed capital in its formation shows ownership in the company. The other terms for it are ‘stock’ or ‘common stock’. Such shares might be issued via public issue, bonus shares, convertible debentures, etc. and may be traded on the stock exchanges. Such shareholders have a claim on the earnings and assets of the company after all the claims have been paid for. This is why such shareholders are also known as the residual owners.

Escrow Account In simple terms, as ‘escrow account’ is a third party account. It is a separate bank account to hold money which belongs to others, where the money parked will be released only under fulfillment of certain conditions of a contract. The term escrow is derived from the French term ‘escroue’ meaning a scrap of paper or roll of parchment, an indicator of the deed that was held by a third party till a transaction is completed.

Employee Stock Option Plans (ESOPs) Employee Stock Option Plan (ESOP) is used by companies as a scheme of selling shares to its employees. Through this, they become a shareholder in the

5.58  Chapter 5

company and thus hold a small level of ownership in the company. It helps the employer in retaining the high-performing employees for a longer duration of time.

Foreign Currency Convertible Bond (FCCB) Foreign Currency Convertible Bond (FCCB) is an unsecured instrument to raise long-term loan in foreign currency by an Indian company which converts into shares of the company on a predetermined rate. It is a safer route to raise foreign currency requirements of a company.

Fiduciary Issue Issuance of currency by the government not matched by gold securities, also known as fiat money.

Financial Stability Board (FSB) The Financial Stability Forum (FSF) was established by the G7 Finance Ministers and central bank Governors in 1999 to promote international financial stability through enhanced information exchange and international co-operation in financial market supervision and surveillance. It decided at its plenary meeting in London on March 2009 to broaden its membership by inviting the new members from the G20 countries, namely, Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, and Turkey. The FSF was relaunched as the Financial Stability Board (FSB) on 2 April 2009, in order to mark a change and convey that the FSF in future would play a more prominent role in this direction.

Free-on-Board (FOB) This is when, in the BoP ‘free-on-board’ accounting, only the basic prices of export and imports of goods (including loading costs) are counted. It does not count the ‘cost-insurance-freight’ (CIF) charges incurred in transporting the goods from one country to another.

Forward Contract It is a transaction contract of a commodity on an agreed price that binds the seller as well as the buyer to pay and deliver the commodity on a future date. The price agreed upon is known as the forward rate.

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One must not confuse this with the term ‘future contract’, as in it, the term of the contract cannot be decided by the mutual needs of the parties involved (which is possible in a ‘forward contract’).

Forward Trading A trading system in certain shares (as allowed by the SEBI in India) in which buyers and seller are allowed to postpone/defer payment and delivery, respectively, after paying some charges. If the buyer wants deferment, it is known as badla (an Indian term for contango), and, if the seller goes for deferment of delivery of shares, it is known as aundha-badla (in India, elsewhere it is known as backwardation).

Free Trade The international trade among an agreed-upon group of countries without any barriers (such as tariffs, quotas, forex controls, etc.), promoted with the objective of securing international specialization and an edge in their foreign trade.

Free Port A port that is designated as a free port is one where imports are allowed without any duty, provided they are re-exported (that is, entrepot). If the same is correct in the case of an area, it is known as the free trade zone.

Game Theory The analysis of situations involving two or more interacting decision makers (that may be individuals, competing firms, countries, etc.) who have conflicting objectives. It is a technique which uses logical deduction to explore the consequences of various strategies that might be adopted by game players having competing interests. Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that studies strategic interactions between agents—where the agents try maximizing their pay off. It gives a formal modeling approach to social situations in which decision makers interact with other agents. The theory generalizes maximization approaches developed to analyze markets such as supply and demand model. The theory has found significant applications in many areas outside economics as usually construed, including formulations of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary theory.

5.60  Chapter 5

Giffen Good A product for which the demand increases as its price increases, rather than falls (opposite to the general theory of demand) named after Robert Geffen (1837–1910). It applies to the household budget (such as flour, rice, pulses, salt, onion, potato, etc. in India) where an increase in their prices produces a large negative income effect completely overcoming the normal substitution effect, with people buying more of the goods.

Good Hart’s Law The idea of Good Hart which suggests that attempts by a central bank (such as RBI in India) to regulate the level of lending by banks imposing certain control can be circumvented by the banks searching the alternatives out of the regulatory preview.

Greenfield Investment An investment by a firm in a new manufacturing plant, workshop, office, etc.

Green Shoe Option A term associated with the security/share market. This is a clause in the underwriting agreement of an initial public offer (IPO) by a company which allows to sell additional shares (usually 15%) to the public if the demand for shares exceeds the expectation and the share trades above its offering price. It gets its name from the Green Shoe company, which was the first company to be allowed such an option (in the USA, early 20th century). This is also known as ‘over-allotment provision’. The company availing this option uses the proceeds (that is, from the green shoe option) to prevent any decline in market price of shares below the issue price in the post-listing period (in such cases, the aforesaid company uses the money to purchase its own shares from the market; as demand increases, the market price of its shares picks up).

Gresham’s Law The economic idea that ‘bad’ money forces ‘good’ money out of circulation, named after Sir Thomas Gresham, an adviser to Queen Elizabeth I of England.

Hedge Funds These are basically mutual funds (MFs) which invest in various securities in order to contain or hedge risks. They are investment vehicles that take

Indian Economy    5.61

big bets on a wide range of assets and specialize in sophisticated techniques of investment. They are meant to perform well in falling as well as rising markets! Run by former bankers or traditional investment managers by setting up their own funds, they make a lot of money by charging high fees, typically 2% management fees besides 20% of the profits out of the investment. As they are unregulated in most of the economies (for example the USA, India, especially) and risky, they accept investments from wealthy and sophisticated investors. Hedge funds made news in recent times as some of them were caught out by betting the wrong way on the market movements. Some of them also incurred huge losses by buying the complex packages of debt that contained many of the US mortgage loans which turned sour.

Hoarding An act of unproductive retention of money or goods.

Indifference Curve A curve on the graph showing the alternative combinations of two products, each giving the same utility/satisfaction.

Insider Trading A stock market terminology which means transactions of shares by the persons having access to confidential information which is not yet public. Such persons stand to gain financially out of this knowledge (the person might be an employee, director, etc. of the share issuing company or the merchant bank or the book runner to the issue, etc.). Such kind of trading in stocks is illegal all over the world.

Insolvency The situation when the liabilities of an individual or a firm to creditors exceeds its assets, or the inability to pay the liabilities from the assets. It is also known as bankruptcy.

IPO An IPO or initial public offering refers to the issue of shares to the public by the promoters of a company for the first time. The shares may be made available to the investors at face value of the share or at a premium as per the perceived market value of the share by the promoters. The IPO can be in the form of a fixed price portion or book building portion. Some companies

5.62  Chapter 5

offer only demat form of shares, others offer both demat and physical shares.

Islamic Banking It is a banking practised as per the Islamic principle prescribed in the Shariah known as Fiqh-al-Muamalat (Islamic rules on transaction). The Islamic law prohibits interest on both loans and deposits. Interest is also called riba in Islamic discourse. It operates on the principle of sharing both profits and risks by the borrower as well as the lender. As such, the depositor cannot earn a fixed return in the form of interest as is the case in conventional banking. But the banks are permitted to offer incentives such as variable prizes or bonuses in cash or kind on these deposits. Islamic banks have come into being since the early 1970s. There are nearly 30 Islamic banks all over the world from Africa to Europe to Asia and Australia and are regulated even within the conventional banking system.

Kleptocracy A government which is corrupt and thieving with the politicians and bureaucrats in charge using the power of the state to earn personal benefits/ profits. Russia after the disintegration is considered to be a clear cut example when mafia-friendly government allotted valuable shares of the government companies when they were privatized.

London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) The London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) is the interest rate on dollar and other foreign currency deposits at which larger banks are prepared to borrow and lend these currencies in the Euro-currency market. The rate reflects market conditions for international funds and is widely used by the banks as a basis for determining the interest rates charged on the US dollar and foreign currency loans to the business customers.

Liquidation A process of ‘winding up’ a joint-stock company as a legal entity.

Liquid Asset The monetary asset that can be used directly as payment.

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Liquidity The extent to which an asset can be quickly and completely converted into currency and coins.

Macro and Micro Economics In economics, two different ways of looking at the economy have been developed by economists, namely macroeconomics and microeconomics. Macroeconomics (‘macro’ in Greek language means ‘large’) looks at the behaviour of the economy as a whole, such as the issues like inflation, rate of unemployment, economic growth, balance of trade, etc. It is the branch of economics which studies the economy in its total or average term. Microeconomics (in Greek language ‘micro’ means ‘small’) looks at the behaviour of the units like individuals, households, firms, specific industries, etc. which together make up the economy.

Marginal Utility The increase in satisfaction/utility a consumer derives from the use/ consumption of one additional unit of a product in a particular time period— it goes on decreasing, that is, there is a diminishing marginal utility.

Market Capitalization A term of the security market which shows the market value of a company’s share calculated by multiplying the current price of its share with the total number of shares issued by the company.

Marshall Plan A program of international aid named after General George Marshall (a US Secretary of State) under which North America contributed around 1% of its GDP in total (between 1948 and 1952) to western Europe to rebuild the economies ravaged in the Second World War.

Merchant Banking A financial world business of providing various financial services other than lending such as public issue management, underwriting such issues, loan syndication management, mergers and acquisition related services, etc.

5.64  Chapter 5

Most Favored Nation As per the WTO agreements, members cannot normally discriminate between their trading partners. If any country grants one country a special favour such as lower customs duty rate for one of their products, the same would need to be extended to all other WTO members. This principle is known as Most Favoured Nation (MFN) treatment.

Nash Equilibrium A concept in game theory named after John Nash, a mathematician and Noble prize winning economist, which occurs when each player is pursuing the best possible strategy in the full knowledge of the strategies of all the other players; once the equilibrium is reached, none of the players have any incentive to change their strategy.

Oil Bonds Oil bonds are special bonds issued by the Government of India (GoI) to the oil marketing public sector companies to cover-up their losses in marketing. In case of global price rise in crude oil, the companies need to increase prices of their products. But to avoid inflationary effects on the economy, the oil marketing companies are not allowed to do so, ultimately leading them to fetch huge losses. After the domestic prices of petrol, diesel, lubricants and aviation turbine fuel (ATF) have been linked to the international crude price, the need of issuing such bonds has not been felt. The declining global crude oil prices of recent times have also helped the GoI to avoid such instances.

Opportunity Cost A measure of the economic cost of using scarce resources to produce one particular good or service in terms of the alternative thereby foregone, also known as the economic cost.

Parkinson’s Law A proposition by C. Northolt Parkinson, which suggests that work expands according to the time available, in which it is done.

Penny Stocks Very low-priced shares of small companies which have a low market capitalization. The term made news in mid-2006 when some of the ‘penny

Indian Economy    5.65

stocks’ did show a high rise in their trading prices in India at the BSE as well as the NSE.

Phillips Curve A graphic curve depicting an empirical observation of the relationship between the level of unemployment and the rate of change of money wages and by inference, the rate of change of prices. It was in 1958 that an economist from New Zealand, A.W.H. Phillips (1914–75) proposed that there was a tradeoff between inflation and unemployment; the lower the unemployment rate, the higher the inflation rate. The government simply needs to choose the right balance between the two evils.

Piggyback Loan A term associated with the mortgage business got popular in the wake of the US subprime crisis mid-2007. Piggyback loan is a second mortgage enabling a borrower to buy a house with little or no equity.

Pigou Effect Named after Arthur Cecil Pigou (1877–1959), a sort of wealth effect resulting from deflation/disinflation (that is, price fall)—a fall in price level increases the real value of people’s money, making them wealthier, inducing increased spending by them; higher demand creation leads to higher unemployment.

Primary and Secondary Market Primary market refers to buying of shares in an initial public offering. The shares are bought by applying through a share application form. Secondary market refers to transactions where one investor buys shares from another investor at the prevailing market price or at an agreed price.

Prisoner’s Dilemma A popular example in game theory which concludes why co-operation is difficult to achieve even if it is mutually beneficial, ultimately making things worse for the parties involved. It is shown giving an example of two prisoners arrested for the same offence held in different cells. Each prisoner has two options, that is, to confess or say nothing. In this situation, there are three possible outcomes:

5.66  Chapter 5

1. One could confess and agree to testify against the other as a state witness, receiving a light sentence, while his fellow prisoner receives a heavy sentence. 2. They can both say nothing and may turn out to be lucky getting light sentences or even be let off due to lack of firm evidence. 3. They may both confess and get lighter individual sentences than one would have received had he said nothing and the other had testified against him. The second outcome looks the best for both the prisoners. However, the risk that the other might confess and turn state witness is likely to encourage both to confess, landing both with sentences that they might have avoided had they been able co-operate by remaining silent. In reality, firms behave like these prisoners, not setting prices as high as they could do if they only trusted the other firms not to undercut them. Ultimately, the firms are worse off, i.e., all firms suffer.

Poverty Trap A situation where an unemployed getting unemployment allowance is not encouraged to seek work/employment because his/her after tax earning as employed is less than the benefits as unemployed, also known as the unemployment trap.

Predatory Pricing The pricing policy of a firm with the express purpose of harming rivals or exploiting the consumer. By price-cutting, firstly the rivals are ousted from the market, and later the consumers are exploited as monopolistic suppliers, by the firm.

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) is a method of calculating the correct/real value of a currency which may be different from the market exchange rate of the currency. Using this method, economies may be studied comparatively in a common currency. This is a very popular method handy for the IMF and World Bank (introduced by them in 1991) in studying the living standards of people in different economies. The PPP gives a different exchange rate for a currency which may be made the basis for measuring the national income of the economies. It is on this basis that the value of gross national product (GNP) of India becomes the fourth largest in the world (after the US, Japan

Indian Economy    5.67

and China) though on the basis of market exchange rate of rupee, it stands at the thirteenth rank. The concept of the PPP was developed by the great European conservative economist, Gustav Cassel (1866–1944), belonging to Sweden. This concept works on the law of one price, that is, identical good and services (in quantity as well as quality) must have the same price in different markets when measured in a common currency. If this is not the case, it means that the purchasing power of the two currencies is different.

Retail Banking A way of doing banking business where the banks emphasize the individual based lending rather than corporate lending, also known as high-street banking. Such banking focuses on consumer loans, personal loans, hirepurchase, etc. considered more cumbersome and risky.

Reverse Takeover The term is used to mean two different kinds of takeovers; 1. Takeover of a public company by a private one, and 2. Takeover of a bigger company by a smaller one.

Residual Unemployment Unemployment of those who remained unemployed even when there is full employment (for example, employing a severely handicapped person may far outweigh the productivity obtained), hence leading to umemployability.

Ricardian Equivalence An idea which (generated too much controversy) originally suggested by David Ricardo (1772–1823) and, more recently by Robert. J. Barro, that government deficits do not affect the overall level of demand in an economy. This is because tax-payers know that any deficit has to be paid later, and so they increase their savings in anticipation of a higher tax bill. Thus, government attempts to stimulate an economy by increasing public spending and/or cutting taxes will be rendered impotent by the private sector reaction. The equivalence can be seen as part of a thread of economy thinking which holds that only decisions about real variables (e.g., consumption and production) matter, and that decisions about financing will, in a perfectly functioning market, never have an effect.

5.68  Chapter 5

Say’s Law Named after the French economist Jean Baptise Say (1767–1832), the law proposes that aggregate supply creates its own aggregate demand. The logic of the law goes like this—the very act of production generates an income (in the form of wages, salaries, profits, etc.) exactly equal to the output, which if spent is just sufficient to purchase the whole output produced. Ultimately, it gives an important clue, that is, in order to reach full-employment level, all that is needed is to increase the aggregate supply. The key assumption behind the law is that the economic system is ‘supply-led’ and that all income is spent. But in practice, some income ‘leaks’ into saving, taxation, etc., and there is no auto-guarantee that all income is ‘injected’ back as spending. This is why others suggest a ‘demand-led’ idea of the economic system under which demand creation is attended vigorously.

Shadow Banking When financial institutions create credit (forward loan) like a bank but are not under the banking regulatory framework of the country, they are supposed to be involved in shadow banking. Hedge funds are one such example. It also includes unregulated activities of regulated entities. Credit default swaps (CDS) are examples of this. Regulated entities (like banks) provide loan protection to other lenders against default risks by the borrowers.

Standard Deviation It is a statistical technique to measure how far a variable moves over time, away from its mean (average) value.

Stealth Tax A popular name given to an obscure tax increase, for example, stamp duty, property tax, etc., which get implemented months later, by which time they usually fade out from public memory.

Third-Party Insurance Motor third-party insurance or third-party insurance is a statutory requirement under the Motor Vehicle Act in India also known as ‘act only’ cover. A person purchasing a motor vehicle has to go for this compulsory insurance which benefits the third person (that is, neither the vehicle owner nor the insurance company)—the person who becomes a victim of an accident by the vehicle.

Indian Economy    5.69

The amount of compensation is largely decided by the earning capacity of the accident victim.

Total Product The main/core product supported by many peripheral product/services, for example a car, coming with loan facility, warranties, insurance, and after sale service, etc.

Transfer Payment The expenditure by the government for which it receives no goods or services. For example, the expenditures on tax collection, social sector, unemployment allowance, etc. As such expenditures are not done against any products, they are not counted in the national income of the economy.

Underwriting The process of acceptance by a financial institution of the financial risks of a transaction for a fee. For example, merchant banks underwrite new share issues, guaranteeing to buy up the shares not sold in a public offer (that is, in situations of under subscription).

Unsecured Loan The loan that is forwarded by banks only against the creditworthiness of the borrower is known as an ‘unsecured’ loan. Such loans are also known as signature loans and personal loans. If the loan is supported by some form of collateral (of secondary type, such as land, building, etc.), it is a ‘secured’ loan. Basically, loans are provided by banks against two kinds of securities the creditworthiness of the borrower (known as the ‘primary security’) and collateral (known as the ‘secondary security’).

Viability Gap Funding (VGF) The Viability Gap Funding (VGF) is a fund assistance facility provided by the government to the private players in the infrastructure projects being developed under public private partnership (PPP). The fund is given by the Government of India as one-time ‘grant’, and it could be a maximum of 20% of the project cost (in special cases, an additional 20% might be approved by the States/Ministries/authorities).

5.70  Chapter 5

Venture Capital Generally, a private equity capital which lends capital to entrepreneurs who are innovative and cannot get the required fund from the conventional set up of the lending mechanism. In India, it was the Government of India which set up the first such fund the IVCF, in 1998.

Vulture Funds Vulture funds are privately owned financial firms which buy up sovereign debt issued by poor countries at a fraction of its value, and then file lawsuits (sue) against the countries in courts, usually in London, New York, or Paris for their full face value plus interest.

WALRAS’S Law As per this law, ‘the total value of goods demanded in an economy is always identically equal to the total value of goods supplied’. For this to happen, the economy should be in equilibrium. It also means that if there is an excess supply of certain things in one market, it must be matched by excess demand in another market so that it balances out. The idea was part of the ‘general equilibrium theory’ developed by the French mathematical economist MarieEsprit-Leon Walras (1834–1910), after whom it is named.

Welfare Economics The branch of economics which is concerned with the way economic activity ought to be organized so as to lead to maximum economic welfare. The idea applies to the welfare of individuals as well as countries. This is normative economics, that is, it is based on value judgments. It is also called ‘economics with a heart’; this focuses on questions about equity as well as efficiency.

Worker (Census Definition) The first definition of ‘worker’ by the Census was given in 1872. Over time, the terms ‘work’ and ‘worker’ as defined by the Census of India have undergone several amendments to suit the changing dimensions of work. ‘Work’ is defined as participation in any economically productive activity with or without compensation, wages, or profit. Such participation may be physical and/or mental in nature. As per the Census of India, all persons engaged in ‘work’, defined as participation in any economically productive activity with or without

Indian Economy    5.71

compensation, wages, or profit, are workers. The reference period for determining a person as worker and non-worker is one year preceding the date of enumeration. The Census classifies ‘Workers’ into two groups namely, Main Workers (those workers who had worked for the major part of the reference period, that is, 6 months or more) and Marginal Workers (those workers who had not worked for the major part of the reference period, that is, less than 6 months).

Zero-Coupon Bond A bond bearing zero-coupon rate (that is, no interest) sold at a price lower than its face value. Investors book profit when they sell it (at its face value). Such bonds are popularly used by the governments to raise long-term funds. In a situation of rate cut by the RBI, zero-coupon bonds gain value—it means, they sell at higher prices. In case of an increase in the rate, the opposite scenario takes place.

Washington Consensus ❖❖ The term ‘Washington Consensus’ was given by a US economist John Williamson in 1989. ❖❖ It included a set of policy reforms which most of the officials of Washington from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank thought would be good for solving the crisis in the Latin American countries at that time and thus the name ‘consensus’.

The Policy Reforms Included Ten Propositions



1. Fiscal discipline. 2. A redirection of public expenditure priorities towards fields offering both high economic returns and the potential to improve income distribution, such as primary health care, primary education, and infrastructure. 3. Tax reform (to lower marginal rates and broaden the tax base). 4. Interest rate liberalization. 5. A competitive exchange rate. 6. Trade liberalization. 7. Liberalization of FDI inflows. 8. Privatization. 9. Deregulation (In the sense of abolishing barriers to entry and exit). 10. Secure property rights.

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  Chapter 6

Everyday Science Section A: Physics Physical Quantity ❖❖ It is the physical property of a body, substance, or of a phenomenon, that can be quantified by measurement.

Measurement of a Physical Quantity ❖❖ It is done by assigning a value to a physical quantity by comparing it with a standard value (calibrated value) of that physical quantity which is called unit. ❖❖ To know the value (or magnitude) of a physical quantity, we generally measure it in different systems of units.

System Units ❖❖ Physical quantities are measured in four systems of units: ●●

●●

●● ●●

CGS (Centimetre, Gram, Second): In this system of units, Length, Mass, and Time are measured in Centimetre, Gram, and Second, respectively. CGS system is also called the Metric or French System of Units. FPS (Foot, Pound, Second): In this system of units, Length, Mass, and Time are measured in Foot, Pound, and Second. FPS system is also called British System of Units. MKS (Metre, Kilogram, Second): In this system of units, Length, Mass, and Time are measured in Metre, Kilogram, and Second. SI system (International System of Units) of units was adopted and accepted on the basis of a comprehensive consensus. In fact, the SI system is an extended and modified form of the MKS system.

6.2  Chapter 6

Fundamental Quantities in SI System S. No.

Fundamental Quantity

Fundamental unit

Symbol

1.

Length

Metre

m

2.

Mass

Kilogram

kg

3.

Time

Second

s

4.

Electric current

Ampere

A

5.

Temperature

Kelvin

K

Unit of Length ❖❖ The SI unit of length is metre (m). One metre is the distance travelled by 1 light in vacuum in of a second. 299792458 Facts to Know! ❖❖ A vector is a quantity that has magnitude as well as direction, e.g., force, position, etc.

❖❖ A scalar quantity has only magnitude and no direction, e.g., temperature, mass, etc.

Other Units of Length ❖❖ Light year: The distance travelled by light in one year in vacuum. 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m ❖❖ Parsec (Parallactic Second): The distance at which an arc of length equals to one astronomical unit subtends an angle of one second at a point. Units of Length or Distance 1 Nautical Mile

1.825 km

1 Mile

1.609 km

1 km

1000 m

1 cm

10–2 m

1 mm

10–3 m

1 mm

10–6 m

1 Nano metre

10–9 m

1Å

10–10 m

1 pico metre

10–12 m

1 Fermi metre

10–15 m

Everyday Science  6.3

❖❖ Area is related with square of length; some units of area are: 2 ●● 1 acre = 4047 m 4 2 ●● 1 hectare = 10 m ❖❖ Volume is related with cube of length; some units of volume are: ●● ●● ●●

1 cubic centimetre (cm3) = 1 millilitre (mL) 1 Gallon = 3.7 Litre 1 barrel = 159 Litre

Unit of Mass ❖❖ The SI unit of mass is kilogram. One kilogram is defined as the mass of 5.0188 × 1025 atoms of carbon-12.

Other Units of Mass ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

1 gram = 10–3 kg 1 ounce-oz = 28.35 gram 1 milligram = 10–6 kg 1 atomic mass unit (amu) = 1.66 × 10–27 kg 1 quintal = 100 kg 1 tonne or metric ton = 1000 kg 1 Chandra Sekhar Limit (CSL) = 1.4 times the mass of sun = 2.8 × 1030 kg

Unit of Time ❖❖ The SI unit of time is second. One second is defined as

1 part of 86400

a mean solar day.

Other Units of Time ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

1 picosecond =10–12 s 1 nanosecond = 10–9 s 1 microsecond = 10–6 s 1 hour = 60 minute = 3600 seconds 1 day = 24 hours = 1440 minute = 86400 seconds 1 solar month = 30 or 31 days 1 lunar month = 29.5 days or 4 weeks 1 year = 13 lunar months and 1 day = 12 solar months = 365.25 days 1 leap year = 366 days

6.4  Chapter 6

Indian Measurement System 1. System in the Ancient Period: 8 Parmanus = 1 Rajahkan (dust particle from the wheel of a chariot) 8 Rajahkans = 1 Liksha (egg of lice) 8 Likshas = 1 Yookamadhya 8 Yookamadhyas = 1 Yavamadhya 8 Yavamadhyas = 1 Angul 8 Anguls = 1 Dhanurmushti 2. System in the Medieval Period: Gaz was divided into 24 equal parts, and each part was called Tassuj.

Motion, Force, and Laws of Motion ❖❖ The change of position or the movement of any object from one position to another position with respect to the observer is called Motion. It can be described in terms of the distance moved or displacement. ❖❖ Motion of any body is defined by its position with respect to its observer. ❖❖ Distance is the actual path travelled by the object from its initial point to final point, and it is a scalar quantity. ❖❖ Displacement is the shortest straight line path between initial and final positions. If the initial and final positions are the same, then the displacement is zero. ❖❖ Distance depends upon path but displacement does not. ❖❖ Distance is greater than or equal to displacement; they are equal only when in straight line motion, without taking a U-turn. ❖❖ The SI Unit of both distance and displacement is Metre (m).

Uniform and Non-uniform Motions ❖❖ Uniform motion is the motion in which equal distance is covered in equal time intervals. ❖❖ Non-uniform motion on the other hand is one in which an unequal distance is covered in equal intervals of time.

Speed and Velocity ❖❖ Speed is the distance travelled by an object per unit of time. Speed = Distance travelled/Time taken ❖❖ Average speed, the ratio of total distance travelled to the total time taken by the body to cover it, is known as the average speed.

Everyday Science  6.5

Average speed = Total distance travelled/Total time taken ❖❖ Instantaneous Speed is the speed of the object at a particular moment in time. ❖❖ Velocity is the displacement of the body per unit time. Velocity = Displacement of object/Time taken ❖❖ Average Velocity: the ratio Know More! of the total displacement to ❖ ❖ Velocity has both magnitude the total time taken by the and direction while speed has body is the average veloonly magnitude and no direction. city. Velocity has the same direction as Average Velocity = Total displacement. Displacement/Total time taken ❖❖ Average speed is always greater than the average velocity except in the ❖❖ Instantaneous Velocity is case of straight line motion without a the velocity of an object in U-turn, where both are equal. motion at a particular point ❖ ❖ When a body returns to its initial in time. position, the average velocity will be ❖❖ Speed is a scalar quantity, zero but the average speed will not and its SI unit is metre/ be zero. sec, while on the other ❖❖ When the direction of motion hand, velocity is a vector changes, the velocity also changes. quantity, and its SI unit is metre/sec.

Acceleration ❖❖ Acceleration is the measure of change of velocity with respect to time. It is also called the rate of change of velocity. Acceleration = (Final velocity – Initial velocity)/Total time taken ❖❖ SI unit of acceleration is metre/sec2. It is a vector quantity. ❖❖ Acceleration has the same direction as velocity if the velocity increases. Whereas it has opposite direction as velocity if velocity decreases, and in this case, the acceleration is negative. Negative acceleration is also known as Retardation or De-acceleration.

Uniform and Non-uniform Acceleration ❖❖ When the velocity of a body changes by equal amounts in equal time intervals, the acceleration is said to be uniform. ❖❖ When the velocity of a body changes by unequal amounts in equal time intervals, the acceleration is said to be non-uniform.

6.6  Chapter 6

Graphical Representation of Motion ❖❖ Graphical representation of motion shows the dependence of one physical quantity such as distance, velocity on another, such as time.



1. Distance-Time Graph: The change in the position of an object with respect to time can be represented on the distance-time graph. This graph is used to calculate the speed of the body. (a) Straight Line Graph: The distance time graph for a body moving at a uniform speed is always a straight line, as the body moves equal distance in equal time intervals.

Fig. 6.1  Distance-Time Graph



(b) Curved Graph: When the distance time graph is plotted for an object moving at a non-uniform speed, the result will not be a straight line but instead it will be a curved line. The rising trend of the slope shows the increasing trend of velocity.

Fig. 6.2  Acceleration and Deceleration Graph

Everyday Science  6.7

The distance-time graph is parallel when the body is at rest.

Fig. 6.3  Distance-time graph of a body at rest



2. Velocity-Time Graph: (a) If a body moves with uniform velocity and no acceleration, then the velocity-time graph for this body will be a straight line parallel to the time axis.

Fig. 6.4  (a) Velocity-time graph for uniform velocity



(b) If the object moves with a non-uniform speed, then the speedtime graph will be a straight line. The pattern of the slope will depend on the sign of the velocity.

Fig. 6.4  (b) Velocity-time graph

6.8  Chapter 6

If the velocity increases (positive uniform acceleration), the graph will be upward sloping (Fig. I). While if the velocity decreases (negative uniform acceleration), the graph will be downwards sloping (Fig. II).

Circular Motion Uniform circular motion is the motion in which an object moves on a circular path with the same speed. Non-uniform motion is the motion in which an object moves on a circular path with a varying speed.

Force A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object’s interaction with another object. It is the force which enables us to do any work. The pull or push in order to do something is the force. There are mainly two types of force: 1. Balanced Force: If the result of the applied forces is equal to zero, the force is called a balanced force. Balanced forces do not cause any change in the state of an object. Balanced forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.   For example, in a tug of war, if both the teams apply similar magnitude of forces in opposite directions, the rope does not move on either side. This happens because of balanced forces that make the resultant of applied forces zero. 2. Unbalanced Force: If the resultant of applied forces is greater than zero, the forces are called unbalanced forces. An object in rest can be moved by applying unbalanced forces.   Force is a quantity that is measured using the standard metric unit known as the Newton. A Newton is abbreviated by ‘N’. To say ‘10.0 N’ means 10.0 Newton of force. 1 Newton = 1 kg m/s2 Force is a vector quantity. To describe force you have to describe both magnitude and the direction.

Momentum The power of motion of an object is called the momentum. Technically, it is the product of the mass and the velocity. It is denoted by ‘p’.

Everyday Science  6.9

Therefore, Momentum = Mass × Velocity or, p = m × v. Since momentum is the product of the mass and the velocity, it is directly proportional to the mass and the velocity. Momentum increases with the increase in the mass as well as the velocity. SI unit of Momentum is kg m/s. To understand, consider an example. A person gets injured by a moving object, let’s say a stone; because of the momentum of the stone. A small bullet when fired from a gun can kill a person because of the momentum of the bullet.

Newton’s Law of Motion The relationship between forces and motion was first fully explained by  Sir Isaac Newton in the sixteenth century. This has been explained below: 1. Newton’s First Law of Motion: The first law of motion deals with a body at rest or a body moving at a constant speed.   ‘Any object remains in the state of rest or of uniform motion along a straight line, until it is compelled to change its state by an external force’.   Explanation: If any object is in a state of rest, then it will remain in rest until an external force is applied to change its state. Similarly, an object will remain in motion until an external force is applied on it to change its state. This means all objects resist change in their state. The state of an object can be changed by applying external forces only.   Inertia is the tendency of an object to remain in its original state of motion in the absence of a resultant force. Every material object has inertia and the amount of matter present in the object. In other words, the natural tendency of objects to resist a change in their state of rest or of uniform motion is called inertia. The mass of an object is the measure of its inertia. Its SI unit is kilogram (kg). Facts to Know! Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) embraced a heliocentric (Sun-centered) model of the universe—a position the Church forced him to renounce publicly on pain of death. As a result of his censure, Galileo realized that in order to prove the Copernican model, it would be necessary to show why the planets remain in motion as they do. In order to explain this, he coined the term inertia to describe the tendency of an object in motion to remain in motion, and an object at rest to remain at rest. Galileo’s observations, in fact, formed the foundation for the laws of motion.

6.10  Chapter 6

2. Newton’s Second Law: It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on it, and the change takes place in the direction of the force.   Newton’s second law describes the change of motion when a non-zero net force is applied on an object. The amount of momentum, which an object has, depends on its mass and velocity. It is the same momentum we studied above.   The linear momentum (p), of a body is the product of its mass (m), and its velocity (v). The more momentum an object has, the harder it is to stop and the greater effect or impact it will experience if it is brought to rest. 3. Newton’s Third Law: It states that if a body A exerts a force on a body B, then body B exerts a force of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction, on body A. In other words, every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

(a) It does not matter which force is called action and which is called reaction. (b) The two forces must be of the same type, that is, if one is an electrical force, then the other must also be electrical. (c) The two forces act on different bodies. Thus they do not produce zero resultant force (do not cancel each other) on any one object. Facts to Know! Sir Isaac Newton:

❖❖ The story of a falling apple that inspired Newton’s theory of gravitation is actually popularized by the famous author Voltaire.

❖❖ Sir Isaac Newton wrote more about religion and the Bible than about astronomy, mathematics, or physics. He studied the Bible mainly to extract scientific information. In 1704, Newton wrote a manuscript that contained different scientific notes based on the Holy Bible. One of his most fascinating observations in the manuscript was a prediction that the Earth will end in 2060!

❖❖ He published all three books of his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (known popularly as Principia) between 1686 and 1687. These books dealt specifically with the theory of gravitation and three laws of motion. In 1665, Sir Isaac Newton began working on a theory that white light is a combination of different colours through his popular ‘prism’ experiment. He published his observations on his discovery on the spectrum of light in his Opticks (Optics) in 1704.

Everyday Science

GrAVitAtion

6.11

Do you Know?

Gravitation is the force of implications of Gravity! attraction that acts between ❖❖ It binds us to the Earth. all the objects because of their ❖❖ The gravity of the sun and moon mass, that is, the amount of causes the ocean tides on the earth. matter they are made up with. ❖❖ Gravitation holds the hot gases It is because of gravitation together in the sun. that objects which are near ❖❖ It keeps the planets in their orbits around the sun and all the stars in our the earth are pulled towards galaxy in their orbits around its centre. it. The gravitational attraction that an object has for objects near it is called the Force of Gravity.

newton’s law of Gravitation/the law of universal law of Gravitation It states that any two bodies having mass are attracted to each other with a force directly proportional to the product of their mass and inversely proportional to the objects anywhere in the universe. Therefore, the law is said to be universal. The mathematical formula for the law of gravitation is F = Gm1m2/d2 where F = Force, G is the Universal Gravitational Constant, m1, m2 = mass of first and second body respectively, and d = the distance between the objects. The value of G, the Universal Gravitational Constant is 6.673 × 10–11 2 Nm kg–2. The value of G was found out by Henry Cavendish. Newton’s law of gravitation led to many more discoveries. The most important one is the discovery of the planet Neptune. Using this law, the French astronomer Urbain Leverrier and British astronomer John Couch, each independently discovered the existence of a distant planet that was disturbing the orbit of Uranus, and hence Neptune was found in 1894, in an orbit close to what was predicted.

Free Fall The earth attracts objects towards it due to gravitational force. When an object moves such that only the gravitational force of the earth acts on it, it is said to be in a state of ‘free fall’. When an object falls towards the earth, there is a change in its acceleration due to the gravitational force of the earth. This acceleration is called acceleration due to gravity.

6.12  Chapter 6

The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g. The unit of g is the same as the unit of acceleration, ms–2. The value of g is  9.8 ms–2.

Falling Bodies (Practical Questions Popular with Examiners) There are certain questions from solutions in daily life which are important from the perspective of the exam. Case 1: When an object is released from a height, let’s say a rooftop, it falls down due to the gravitational force of Earth. As the force acts downwards, acceleration ‘a’ would a in a downward direction. As the object is moving downwards and acceleration is also in downward direction, velocity increases. So, when an object is released from the top, it goes down in an accelerated motion (increasing velocity).

Fig. 6.5  Free Falling Body from a Distance h

Here, it is important to know the value of ‘a’, i.e., acceleration. By Newton’s 2nd law of motion,             F = ma, ... Eq. (1) Then, a = F/m, using the value of F from Eq. (1) a = ma/a a=m Thus, the value of a = g = 9.8 m/s2, the acceleration on the falling body is equal to g (acceleration due to gravity). Case 2: If we throw a ball upward in the air, a gravitational force acts downwards on it. As the force acts downwards, acceleration is in the

Everyday Science

downward direction. It means velocity will decrease with time, and, at one point, it becomes zero. Due to the gravitational force, the ball takes a U-turn and reaches the ground with the same speed with which it was thrown up. As the object is moving downwards and the acceleration is also in a downward direction, velocity increases.

6.13

Do you Know? Variation in the Value of g: ❖❖ As we go to large heights, g decreases. ❖❖ Since Earth is not a perfect sphere, but is an oblate spheroid, therefore, the radius at the equator is greater than at the poles. Since the value of ‘g’ is a reciprocal of the square of the radius of Earth, the value of ‘g’ will be greater at the poles and less at the equator. ❖❖ The geography of the earth is different at different locations such as mountains, plains, oceans. This causes variations in the value of g.

Air resistance Theoretically, all objects of different shape, size, and mass should take the same time to fall through the same distance. But practically, it is observed that two objects of different mass hit the ground at different times due to different air resistance on them.  Factors affecting Air Resistance: 1. More the mass, lesser the effect of air resistance. 2. More the surface area of the object, more the effect of air resistance. Facts to Know! Galileo and Gravity ❖❖ In 1588, Galileo discovered that different objects fall at the same speed, given there is no air resistance. He did this by dropping different sized cannon balls from the Leaning Tower of Pisa; their size and mass did not impact the speed at which they fell.

❖❖ A simple rule to bear in mind is that all objects (regardless of their mass) experience the same acceleration when in a state of free fall. When the only force present is gravity, the acceleration is of the same value for all objects. On Earth, this acceleration value is 9.8 m/s2. This is such an important value in physics that it is given a special name—the acceleration of gravity and a special symbol g.

Mass and weight Mass: Mass is the quantity of matter present. The mass of a body is always constant and does not change with place. Mass has no direction, and thus it

6.14  Chapter 6

is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of mass is kg. Mass can be measured using a beam balance.

Fig. 6.6  Both the Feather and Ball Fall at the same Speed in a Vacuum

Weight: Weight of an object is the gravitational force applied by the Earth on that object. W=m×g The weight of a body changes from place to place depending on the mass of the object. Since weight always acts vertically downwards, therefore, weight has both magnitude as well as direction, and thus it is a vector quantity. The SI unit of weight is Newton. Weight can be measured using a spring balance. Know More! Key Points about Mass ❖❖ Mass is indestructible; regardless of where you are in the universe, your mass will never change.

❖❖ Mass can never be zero. This means that everything in the universe has mass. If it didn’t, it simply wouldn’t exist.

❖❖ Mass is not related to gravity, centrifugal force, etc., and these forces have no effect whatsoever on mass.

❖❖ Mass is commonly measured in kilograms and grams. It is a scalar quantity. Key Points about Weight ❖❖ The weight of an object changes depending on where the body is.

❖❖ Weight is a vector, and its direction of pull is towards the centre of the planet you’re standing on, due to gravity. It is measured in Newton.

Everyday Science

6.15

❖❖ The weight of any given object can go up or down depending on the amount of gravity acting on it. More the gravity—the heavier the object. Lesser the gravity—the lighter the object.

❖❖ Unlike mass, weight can be zero. An example of this is an astronaut floating in space—there is no gravity acting on his/her body and, therefore, he/she has no weight.

circular Motion and Gravitational Forces In circular motion, a force must Do you Know? act on a body as its direction ❖ ❖ What is the weight of a person on of velocity changes. This force the Moon if their weight on Earth is is called centripetal force. A 60 kg? centripetal force is the net force ❖❖ You must know that the weight of a that acts on an object to keep it body on Moon is 1/6 of the weight moving along a circular path. of the body on Earth. So, the body The centripetal force is not whose weight is 60 kg on Earth will be only 10 kg on Moon. a  fundamental force, but just a label given to the net force that causes an object to move in a circular path. For example, the tension force in the string of a swinging tethered ball and the gravitational force keeping a satellite in orbit. When the Moon revolves around Earth in a circular path, the gravitational force of Earth provides the centripetal force to the Moon for circular motion. When planets revolve around the Sun, the gravitational force of the Sun provides the centripetal force to the planets.

thrust and Pressure Thrust is the force exerted by an object perpendicular to the surface, while, Pressure is defined as the thrust or force per unit area or surface. SI unit of Pressure is Pascal (Pa). Since Pressure (pressure = thrust/ area) is indirectly proportional to the surface area of the object, pressure increases with a decrease in surface area and decreases with an increase in surface area.

Examiner’s Favourite from Thrust and Pressure Camels can run easily over sand: The feet of a camel are large. Larger feet mean larger area, which results in low pressure. Due to this, a camel can easily walk on sand without its feet sinking into it.

6.16  Chapter 6

A tank can easily run over sand and mud: Caterpillar tracks surrounding the wheels provide a larger surface area. Due to this, a tank can move on any terrain without sinking. The sharp end of a nail: When a nail is pushed in a wall or wood, it is pushed from the pointed side. Because of the pointed shape, the nail exerts more pressure over the wall or wood and is easily pushed by hammering. Straps of school bags are broader: Since larger surface area exerts less pressure, therefore school bags with broader straps exert less pressure over the shoulder of a student while being slung over the shoulder, and a student finds it easy to carry even a heavy bag. A knife with a sharp edge cuts easily: A knife with a sharp edge exerts more pressure because of less area in contact with an object such as a vegetable. Hence it cuts more easily than a knife with a blunt edge.

Buoyancy A fluid applies an upward force on a solid which is partially or fully submerged in liquid. This phenomenon is called buoyancy (Upward thrust), and the applied upward force is called buoyant force. The two factors that affect the buoyancy are: 1. Volume of the Object: Buoyancy or upward thrust exerted by a fluid increases with the volume of the object immersed in it. 2. Density of the Fluid: The buoyant force or upward thrust increases with increase in density of the fluid. A denser liquid exerts more upward thrust.

Examiner’s Favourite from Buoyancy Why does an object either sink in or float on water? When an object is immersed in water, it exerts pressure over water due to its weight. At the same time, water also exerts an upward thrust over the object. If the force exerted by the object is greater than the upward thrust or buoyancy by water, the object sinks in water; otherwise, it floats on water. Swimming in water is possible only because of the upward thrust exerted by the water. Flying of a bird or airplane: Since air is a fluid, it also exerts an upward thrust over the object. Therefore, because of the upward thrust of air, a bird or an aeroplane can fly in air. Swimming in fresh water or saline water: We already know that with the increase in the density of the fluid, the pressure exerted by the water also increases. So, when the salt dissolves in sea water, it increases the density of the water, and, therefore, it exerts more pressure than fresh water.

Everyday Science    6.17

Density: Mass per unit volume of an object is called density or mass density. Density is denoted by the Greek letter rho (r). The SI Unit of density is kg m–3. Density = mass/volume

Relative Density For convenience, the density of water is expressed in comparison with water. Thus, when the density of a substance is expressed in comparison with water, it is called relative density. Relative Density = Density of substance/Density of water Since relative density is a ratio of similar quantities, it has no unit. Facts to Know! ❖❖ Water is taken as a reference material because it is easily available at most places, and it is easy to carry out the measurement related to density in a field visit.

❖❖ When the relative density of a substance is less than 1, floats on water; otherwise, it sinks in water.

❖❖ The relative density of ice is 0.91; thus, it floats in water. ❖❖ One pound of feathers is equal to the weight of one pound of gold. But the space needed to make up one pound of feathers is much greater, because the feathers are less dense than gold.

Archimedes’ Principle Archimedes’ Principle states that when an object is immersed fully or partially in a liquid, it experiences an upward force which is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the object.

Application of Archimedes’ Principle in Daily Life Use in submarines: In submarines, there is a tank that can be filled or emptied as per requirement. It is called the buoyancy tank. Explanation: When submarines go under water, the buoyancy tank is filled with water so that the weight of the submarine would become more than the weight of water displaced by it. And when submarines come to the surface of water, the buoyancy tank is emptied and water is replaced by air. In this condition, the weight of water displaced by the submarine will become more than the weight of the submarine and the submarine will come to the surface of water.

6.18  Chapter 6

Air Balloons: To raise an air balloon in air, the air inside the balloon is heated. Air expands because of heat and becomes lighter. Thus, the balloon gets an upward thrust from the surrounding air and rises up. Know More! Escape Velocity: Escape velocity is the minimum speed an object must attain in order to leave the gravitational pull of another body. In most cases, this refers to the Earth. It was the first body of mass that scientists could learn how to leave. Later on, it was the Moon. Perhaps someday, we will learn to leave other bodies in our solar system. For Earth, escape velocity is about 7 miles per second or 25,000 miles per hour.

Ship Floats on Water: A ship is much heavier than water, yet it floats on water. This happens because of the unique shape of a ship. Because of its shape, the volume of the ship is larger compared to its weight. Due to this, water displaced by the ship provides a proper upward thrust to the ship and the ship floats on water.

Work, Energy, and Power Work Work done by a constant force (F) is equal to the dot product of the force applied on a body and the displacement (s) of the body. W = F · s = Fs cos q where, q is the angle between F and s. Work is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is joule, and CGS unit is erg.         1 joule = 107 erg. Work done by a force is positive if the angle between F and s is an acute angle and negative if angle q is an obtuse angle. Work done by a force is zero when: ●● ●●

Body is not displaced actually, that is, s = 0 Body is displaced perpendicular to the direction of force, that is, q = 90°.

Energy Energy of a body is its capacity of doing work. It is a scalar quantity, and its SI unit is joule. Energy can be transformed into work and vice-versa, with the help of some mechanical device.

Everyday Science    6.19

There are two types of mechanical energy, which are as follows:

Kinetic Energy The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called its kinetic energy. Kinetic energy of a body of mass (m) moving with velocity (v) is given= by K

1 p2 = mv 2 2 2m

where, p = mv = momentum of the body.

Potential Energy The energy possessed by any object by virtue of its position or configuration is called its potential energy. Gravitational potential energy, U = mgh where, m = mass of the body g = acceleration due to gravity and h = height through which body is lifted.

Heat ❖❖ Heat is the form of energy which produces the sensation of warmth. Its SI unit is joule and another unit, calorie, is also widely used. (1 calorie = 4.2 joule) ❖❖ A body when heated, undergoes various types of changes such as expansion, contraction, change of state, change of electrical properties etc. ❖❖ The transfer of heat is always from the hotter to the colder body. The heat energy that is transferred from one body to another can change into mechanical energy, electrical energy, etc.

Temperature ❖❖ Temperature is the measure of hotness or coldness of a body. ❖❖ The heat flows from one body to another due to the difference in their body temperatures. ❖❖ To measure the temperature of a body, the following temperature scales are used, where Lower Fixed Point (LFP) = Ice point and Upper Fixed Point (UFP) = Boiling point of water. ●●

Celsius scale of temperature, ice point is 0°C. Boiling point of water = 100°C

6.20  Chapter 6 ●●

●●

●●

●●

Fahrenheit scale of temperature, ice point = 32°F. Boiling point of water = 212°F Kelvin or absolute scale of temperature, ice point = 273°K. Boiling point of water = 373°K Reaumur scale of temperature, ice point is 0°R. Boiling point of water = 80°R Rankine scale of temperature, ice point = 491.67°R. Boiling point of water = 671.641°R

Different scales of temperature are related as follows: C F − 32 R K − 273 = = = 100 180 80 100 K = 273 + °C ❖❖ Temperature of –40°C = –40°F ❖❖ The temperature at which the three phases of water remain at equilibrium is called the triple point of water (273.16 K).

Different Forms of Energy Solar Energy It is the emission of energy by the sun, used in solar cookers, solar water heaters, solar cells, etc.

Fossil Energy Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy formed by natural processes such as the anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. Fossil fuels contain coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

Hydroelectric Energy The production of electrical power through the use of gravitational force of falling or flowing water gives hydroelectric energy. In our country, more than 23% of water is used in the production of hydroelectric power.

Nuclear Energy It is found that when U235 nucleus breaks-up into lighter nuclei on being bombarded by slow moving neutrons, a large amount of energy is released which is called nuclear energy. Nuclear reactors and nuclear bombs are the sources of nuclear energy.

Everyday Science    6.21

Einstein’s Mass—Energy Relation According to this relation, mass can be transformed into energy and viceversa. When Dm is the reduction in mass, then the energy produced is E = Dmc2 where, c = speed of light in vacuum.

Law of Conservation of Energy Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transformed into another form of energy. Only for conservative forces, (total mechanical energy) initially = (total mechanical energy) finally.

Power The rate of doing work (by a body) is called (its) power. Power =

Work Done W F⋅s = = F ⋅ v = Fv cos ∅ ,P = Time Taken t t

where, ∅ is the angle between F and v. It is a scalar quantity, and its SI unit is joule second–1 (joule per second) or watt. Other units are kilowatt and horse power. 1 kilowatt = 1000 W and 1 HP = 746 W

Sound Sound is a form of energy which produces the sensation of hearing. Sound is produced by vibrating objects. Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal waves that require a medium for their propagation. Sound waves cannot propagate through vacuum. If a sound wave propagates from one medium to another, then its speed and its wavelength changes, but its frequency remains constant. Sound waves are of three types: 1. The sound waves with frequency between 0 and 20 Hz are called infrasonic waves. 2. The sound waves with frequency between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz are called audible waves. 3. The sound waves with frequency greater than 20,000 Hz are called ultrasonic waves.

6.22  Chapter 6

Speed of Sound Speed of sound = 332 m/s (in air), 1,483 m/s (water), and 5,130 m/s (in iron). If VS, VL and Vg are speeds of sound waves in solid, liquid, and gases, then VS > VL > vg. Sound waves cannot be heard on the surface of the moon or in outer space because there is no air on the moon. Some important points related with the speed of sound waves are: ❖❖ The speed of sound waves in air increases with an increase in temperature. ❖❖ The speed of sound increases by 0.61 m/s per °C rise in temperature. ❖❖ The dependence of speed of sound waves on temperature is given as V ∝ T, where, v = speed of sound, T = temperature. ❖❖ Sound waves are faster in humid air and slower in dry air. ❖❖ The speed of sound in air is slower as compared to the speed of light in air. Therefore, during a storm, the flash of lightning is seen first and the sound of thunder is heard a little later.

Characteristics of Sound Intensity It is the characteristic of sound by which weak and loud sounds can be identified. The intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude of vibration of the source. It is also a measure of quality of sound. It is generally represented by Hz. When two sound waves of nearly equal frequency interfere, then the intensity of the resultant wave increases and decreases with time. This phenomenon is known as beats, and beat frequency is equal to the difference of frequencies of the two waves.

Loudness ❖❖ It is related with sound level given by  I  β = 10 log10   dB,  I0  where, I is intensity of the source producing sound waves and I0 = reference intensity = 10–12 W/m2.

Everyday Science    6.23

Doppler Effect ❖❖ The apparent change in the frequency of sound due to relative motion between the source and observer is called Doppler effect.

Sonar ❖❖ SONAR stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging. It is used to measure the depth of a sea, or to locate enemy submarines and shipwrecks. ❖❖ The transmitter of a sonar produces pulses of ultrasonic sound waves of frequency of about 50,000 Hz. The reflected sound waves are received by the receiver.

Human Ear ❖❖ We are able to hear with the help of an extremely sensitive organ of our body called the ear. There are three parts of human ear. ❖❖ The outer ear is called pinna. It collects the sound from the surroundings. The middle ear transmits the amplified pressure variations received from the sound wave to the inner ear. ❖❖ In the inner ear, the pressure variations are turned into electrical signals by the cochlea. These electrical signals are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve, and the brain interprets them as sound.

Electricity We cannot imagine our lives without electricity; it is one of the most essential components of our day to day life.

Who Discovered/Invented Electricity? Electricity is a form of energy, and it occurs in nature, so it was not ‘invented’. As to who discovered it, many misconceptions abound. Some give credit to Benjamin Franklin for discovering electricity, but his experiments only helped establish the connection between lightning and electricity, nothing more. The term ‘electricity’ is derived from a term used by William Gilbert in 1600 to describe static electricity. In 1752, Benjamin Franklin conducted his experiment with a kite, a key, and a storm. This simply proved that lightning and tiny electric sparks were the same thing.

6.24  Chapter 6

In 1831, electricity became viable for use in technology when Michael Faraday created the electric dynamo (a crude power generator), which solved the problem of generating electric current in an ongoing and practical way. This opened the door for American inventor Thomas Edison and British scientist Joseph Swan who each invented the incandescent filament light bulb in their respective countries around the year 1878. Swan and Edison later set up a joint company to produce the first practical filament lamp, and Edison used his direct-current system (DC) to provide power to illuminate the first New York electric street lamps in September 1882. The first power plant—owned by Thomas Edison—opened in New York City in 1882. Thomas Edison invented more than 2000 new products, including almost everything needed for us to use electricity in our homes: switches, fuses, sockets, and metres. Later in the 1800’s and early 1900’s, Serbian American engineer, Nikola Tesla became an important contributor to the birth of commercial electricity. He worked with Edison and later had many revolutionary developments in electromagnetism and had competing patents with Marconi for the invention of radio. He is well known for his work with alternating current (AC), AC motors, and the polyphase distribution system. American inventor and industrialist George Westinghouse purchased and developed Tesla’s patented motor for generating alternating current, and the work of Westinghouse, Tesla and others gradually convinced American society that the future of electricity laid with AC rather than DC. The above discussion leads us to the conclusion us to a conclusion that inventing electricity was not the work of a single man but rather a collective effort of many people through the times.

What is Charge? All matter contains protons, electrons, and neutrons. The charge possessed by the protons is the positive charge, while the charge carried by the electrons is the negative charge. The neutrons behave according to their name, i.e., they are neutral. Like charges repel each other, while unlike charges attract each other.

Know More! The charge acquired by a glass rod when rubbed with silk is a positive charge. On the other hand, the charge acquired by an ebonite rod when rubbed with wool is a negative charge.

Everyday Science

Electric charges are made up of positive charges, i.e., electrons. The SI unit of charge is coulomb. Charge on an electron is –1.6 × 10–19 coulomb, while charge on a proton is +1.6 × 10–19 coulomb. One coulomb is defined as the amount of charge which repels an equal and similar charge with a force 9 × 109 N when placed in a vacuum at a distance of 1 metre from it.

6.25

charges, i.e., protons and negative

Do you Know? Static electricity is the branch dealing with electric charge at rest, while current electricity is the branch which deals with the motion of charge.

electric current Flow of electric charge across a cross-section of a conductor constitutes electric current, or we can simply say that flow of electric charge is known as electric current. It is denoted by the letter ‘I’. It is expressed as the rate of flow of electric charge through any section of a conductor. Rate of flow means the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time. Electric current = Net charge/Time SI Unit of electric current is Ampere. Ampere Ampere is the unit of current. If one coulomb of charge flows through any section of conductor in one second, then the current through it is said to be one Ampere. 1 Ampere = 1 coulomb/1 sec 1 milliampere = 10–3 A 1 microampere = 10–6 A

If the positive charges flows, the direction of the electric current is the same as the direction of the flow of charge. If the negative charge flows, the direction of the electric current is opposite to the direction of the flow of charge. Electric current cannot flow through an insulator, because in an insulator the protons and electrons are fixed at their position.

6.26  Chapter 6

Facts to Know! ❖❖ Electric Circuit: The closed path along which electric current flows is called an electric circuit. Current flows only if the electric circuit forms a closed loop.

❖❖ Conventional Current: Conventionally, the direction of motion of the positive charge is taken as the direction of the current.

❖❖ Electric Field: It is the region around the charged body within which its influence can be experienced.

Conductors and Insulators A substance that allows an easy passage of electric charge through it easily is called a conductor. A conductor offers very low resistance to the flow of electric current. For example, copper, silver, aluminum, etc. A substance that has infinitely high resistance due to which it does not allow the passage of electricity is called an insulator. For example, rubber, glass, plastic, etc. Semi-conductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or compound, which can conduct electricity under some conditions but not others, making it a good medium for the control of electrical current. For example, the most common semi-conductor materials are silicon and germanium. These materials are doped to create an excess or lack of electrons.

Electrostatic Potential and Potential Difference between Two Points Electrostatic potential at any point in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point. Its unit is volt. Positive charges move from higher to lower potential regions. Electrons, being negatively charged, move from lower to higher potential regions. The Potential Difference between two points in an electric field is the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to another. Potential Difference = Work done/Charge 1 volt is the potential difference between two points if 1 joule work has to be done in taking 1 coulomb of charge from one point to another. Galvanometre: It is a device to detect current in an electric circuit. Ammetre: It is a device to measure current in a circuit. It is always connected in series in a circuit.

Everyday Science    6.27

Voltmetre: It is a device to measure potential difference. It is always connected in parallel to the component across which the potential difference is to be measured. The speed of sound through air is about 340 metres per second. (The speed of sound in water is about 4 times faster than this). The speed of light in air is about 300 million metres per second. If you could travel at the speed of light, you could go around Earth 7.5 times in one second. Coal is the world’s biggest source of energy for producing electricity. Coal is burned in furnaces that boil water. The steam from the boiling water then spins turbines that are attached to generators. Role of electricity in your heart: Electricity causes muscle cells in the heart to contract. Electrocardiogram (ECG) machines, used by medical professionals, measure the electricity running through the heart. As the heart beats in a healthy person, the ECG machine displays a line moving across the screen with regular spikes. The first successful electric car was built in 1891 by American inventor William Morrison.

Ohm’s Law This law states that the current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided the physical conditions like temperature, density, etc. remain unchanged. V a I or V = RI Where R is constant for the given conductor and is called the Resistance. Resistance is a property of a conductor by virtue of which it opposes the flow of current through it. It is equal to the ratio of the potential difference applied across its ends and the current flowing through it. Resistance = Potential difference/Current or R = V/I Factors on which resistance of a conductor depends: Resistance of a conductor depends upon four things namely, length of conductor, area of cross-section, nature of material, and the temperature. Length of Conductor: Know More! Resistance is directly proportional A conductor has a resistance of one to the length of the conductor. This ohm if a current of one ampere flows means resistance increases with the through it on applying the potential increase in the length of a conductor. difference of 1 volt across its ends. This is why a long electric wire 1 ohm = 1 volt/1 ampere creates more resistance.

6.28  Chapter 6

Area of Cross-section: Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the conductor. This means the resistance will decrease with the increase in the area of cross-section of the conductor. Nature of the Material: The resistance of a conductor depends upon the material of the conductor, and every material has a different resistivity. Therefore, the resistance is directly proportional to the resistivity of a material. Temperature: Resistance also differs with the temperature. Resistance increases with increase in temperature and decreases with decrease in temperature.

Resistivity

Rheostat It is defined as the resistance offered The device that is used to vary the by a cube of a material of side 1 m resistance in an electric circuit, when current flows perpendicular without changing the voltage from to its opposite faces. Its S.I. unit is the source is called a rheostat, ohm-metre (W m). and that resistance is called a Materials that have resistivvariable resistance. ity ranging from 10–8 to 10–6 are considered as good conductors of electricity. Silver has a resistivity of 1.60 × 10–8 W m, and copper has a resistivity of 1.62 × 10–8 W m. Rubber and glass are very good insulators. They have resistivity in the order of 1012 W m and 1017 W m.

Resistance of a System of Resistors There are two kinds of systems in which resistors are joined, namely, series and parallel. Resistors in Series Current through each resistance is the same. Total voltage across the combination = Sum of the voltage drops. V = V1 + V2 + V3 Voltage drop across any resistor is proportional to its resistance. Equivalent resistance is larger than the largest individual resistance.

Resistors in Parallel Voltage across each resistance is the same and is equal to the applied voltage. Total current = sum of the currents through the individual resistances. I = I1 + I2 + I3 Currents through various resistances are inversely proportional to the individual resistances. Equivalent resistance is less than the smallest individual resistance.

Everyday Science    6.29

Merits and Demerits of Resistance in Parallel Merit Every unit that is connected in a parallel circuit gets an equal amount of voltage. It becomes easy to connect or disconnect a new element without affecting the working of other elements. If any fault occurs in the circuit, then even the current is able to pass through the circuit through different paths.

Demerits It requires the use of a lot of wires. We cannot increase or multiply the voltage in a parallel circuit. Parallel connection fails when it is required to pass exactly the same amount of current through the units.

Merits and Demerits of Resistance in Series Merits Series circuits do not overheat easily. This makes them very useful for something that might be around a potentially flammable source, like dry plants or clothes. Series circuits are easy to learn and to make. Their simple design is easy to understand, making it simple to conduct repairs. We can add more power devices. They have a higher output in terms of voltage. The current that flows in a series circuit has to flow through every component in the circuit. Therefore, all of the components in a series connection carry the same current.

Demerits If one point breaks in the series circuit, the total circuit will break. As the number of components in a circuit increases, so does the circuit’s resistance.

The Joule’s Law of Heating Effect It states that the heat produced in a conductor is directly proportional to: 1. The square of the current (I) through it; 2. Proportional to its resistances R; and 3. The time t for which the current is passed This is known as the Joule’s Law of Heating Effect. Electric Bulb: When electric energy is supplied to an electric bulb, the filament gets heated, because of which it gives light. The heating of the

6.30  Chapter 6

electric bulb happens because of the heating effect of the electric current. The filament of the bulb is generally made up of tungsten, which has a melting point of 3,380 degree Celsius. Electric Iron: When an electric iron is connected to an electric circuit, the element of the electric iron gets heated, which heats the electric iron. The element of an electric iron is made up of alloys having high melting point. Electric Fuse: Electric fuse is used to protect electric appliances from high voltage. Electric fuse is made up of alloys of aluminium, copper, iron, lead etc. In case of flow of higher voltage than specified, the fuse wire melts to protects the electric appliance.

Electric Power The rate at which electric work is consumed is called electric power. SI unit of Power is Watt. 1 Watt = 1 V × 1 A 1 kilowatt or 1 kW = 1000 W Unit of energy is kilowatt hour 1 kWh = 1000 W × 1 hour = 1000 W × 3600 s 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 watt second = 3.6 × 106 Joule

Optics We all know that we cannot see in the dark room, but once the light in the room is switched on, we are able to see everything around us, which means we are able to see things because of the light. But why is this so? Is light so important for us to see? And how does that phenomenon work? All the answers to these questions lie with optics. We define optics as the scientific study of sight and the behavior of light (such as reflection, refraction, deflection, etc.)

Reflection Reflection is when a ray of light from one medium strikes a polished surface and comes back in the same surface again. ❖❖ Laws of Reflection: ●● ●●

The incident ray, the normal ray, and the reflected ray lie in the same plane. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection of a ray of light striking a smooth polished surface, i.e., i = r.

Everyday Science

❖❖ Spherical Mirror and the Formation of the Image: A mirror can be curved inwards or outwards. A spherical mirror that is curved inwards is called a concave mirror, and a spherical mirror that is curved outwards is called a convex mirror.

6.31

Do you Know? It takes 8 minutes and 17 seconds for sunlight to reach the earth.

The various terms associated with spherical mirrors are: 1. Centre of Curvature: The centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is the central point of the hollow sphere of which the mirror is a part. 2. Radius of Curvature: The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the radius of the hollow sphere of which the mirror is a part; in other words, it is the distance between the centre of curvature and the pole of a mirror. It is represented by the letter R. 3. Pole: The pole of a spherical mirror is the centre or middle point of the spherical mirror. It is represented by the letter P. 4. Principal Axis: Principal axis of a spherical mirror is the line passing through the centre of curvature and its pole. In other words, it is the line joining the pole and the centre of curvature of a mirror. 5. Secondary Axis: Any straight line other than the principal axis passing through the centre of a spherical mirror is referred to as the secondary axis. It is usually represented by the letters SS′. 6. Aperture of a Mirror: Aperture of a mirror is the portion of a mirror from which reflection of light takes place. In other words, it is the maximum size of a mirror. It is usually represented by the letters M and M1.

refraction Refraction, on the other hand, is when the same ray of light strikes the separation of two media but instead of coming back passes through it and goes to some other medium. ❖❖ Laws of Refraction: The two laws of refraction of light are: 1. The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane. 2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for a given media pair, that is, sin i = constant sin r Light travels with different speeds in different mediums. However, its speed in vacuum is the fastest, with the highest speed of 3 × 10 ms–1.

6.32  Chapter 6

Refractive Index Refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum to the velocity of light in the medium, that is, u = Velocity of light in vacuum or air/Velocity of light in the given medium

Image If a ray of light passes through an object and suffers a change in the direction due to reflection or refraction, the reflected or refracted rays of light converge or appear to diverge from another point. This point is referred to as an optical image of the first point. The optical images formed by spherical mirrors are of the following types: Real Images: The images that can be transferred or formed on a screen are called real images. These images are formed by the actual intersection of reflected or refracted light rays. Virtual Images: The images that can be seen only by looking into a mirror but cannot be transferred or formed on a screen, are called virtual images. These images are formed by the apparent intersection of the reflected or refracted light rays. Erect Images: The images that are formed above the principal axis are referred to as erect images. Inverted Images: The images that are formed below the principle axis are referred to as inverted images. These images are bottom up in appearance. Magnified Images: The images which are larger in size than the size of the object are referred to as magnified images. Diminished Images: The images that are smaller in size than the size of the object are referred to as diminished images. Facts to Know! Uses of Concave Mirrors ❖❖ Used as shaving or dressing mirrors. ❖❖ Used to concentrate light on specific body parts during treatment. ❖❖ Used as reflectors in car headlights or torches, etc. Uses of Convex Mirrors ❖❖ Used in vehicles as rear view mirrors. ❖❖ Used in street lights so that the light is diverged in a wider area. ❖❖ Two convex mirrors are placed back to back to make a magnifying glass.

Everyday Science

6.33

A glass prism has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces are inclined to each other, and hence the angle made by two lateral surfaces is known as the angle of the prism. Sir Isaac Newton was the first to study the refraction of light through a prism. He discovered that the prism splits the white colour light into a coloured band called the spectrum. As you can see in the image below, the white light is dispersed into a band of seven colours namely, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red (VIBGYOR). The splitting up of the white light into different colour rays is called dispersion. Each of the colours has its own wavelength, and all the colours bends toward the base. The violet colour deviates the most, and the red deviates the least.

Fig. 6.7

Dispersion of White Light Through a Glass Prism

cause of Dispersion Different colours have same speed in air/vacuum, but every colour has its own frequency and wavelength, and, hence, in any refractive media like glass, the speed is different. Therefore, the refractive index of the medium for different colours is different. As a result, different colours undergo different deviations on passing through the prism.

Applications of Dispersion Twinkling of Stars: When we see the stars from the earth, they appear like they are twinkling. It is because of the fact that we are seeing them through the thick layer of moving air in the earth’s

Do you Know? Sun is white when seen from space because its light is not scattered by the atmosphere. From Venus you wouldn’t see the Sun at all because the atmosphere is too thick.

6.34

Chapter 6

atmosphere. As the light of the stars is refracted many times in random directions, this random refraction results in the twinkling of the stars. Stars would not twinkle if we see them from outer space/the moon because they don’t have atmosphere. Advanced Sunrise and Delayed Sunset: Sunrise is when the Sun reaches the horizon; therefore, by definition, we must be able to see the Sun only when it reaches the horizon and not prior to that, but we can see the Sun even when it is below the horizon both at the time of sunset as well as sunrise. That is because of the refraction of light from the Sun due to Earth’s atmosphere. Rainbow: The formation of a rainbow is due to the dispersion of white light from the Sun and the phenomenon of total internal reflection of light from the water droplets suspended in the air after a shower.

Scattering of light

Do you Know?

The way light scatters off the molecules Some animals can see the light in the atmosphere explains why the we cannot see. Bees can see colour of the sky is blue and why the ultraviolet lights, while pit vipers can see infrared light, puppies Sun looks red at sunrise and sunset. can meanwhile see your heart. The Tyndall effect is the scattering of light as a light beam passes through a colloid. The individual suspension particles scatter and reflect light, making the beam visible. It is named after physicist John Tyndall. The colour of the sky and the Sun at the sunrise or sunset: The colour of the sky is blue because molecules in the air scatter blue light more than any other light. While on the other hand, when we look at the sun during sunset or sunrise, all the blue light is scattered out away from the line of sight and only red and orange colours remain.

Structure AnD Function oF the huMAn eye The human eye is one of the most essential parts of the human body, but is also a complex part. To understand these complexities we have to understand the various main parts and working of the human eye. These parts of the eye are: Cornea, Iris, Lens, Optical nerve, Retina, Cilliary muscles, Pupil, Vitreous humor, Aqueous humor; these are explained below. The shape of a human eye is spherical and a thick opaque layer called Sclera covers it. The working of eye is just like camera forming an inverted and real image. Cornea: It is known as the window or aperture of the eye and acts as the outermost lens of the eye. The function of the cornea is to admit the entry of light into the eye. The cornea and lens act as a camera lens.

Everyday Science

Fig. 6.8

6.35

Human Eye Anatomy

Iris: The diametre and size of the pupil is controlled by the iris. It is a dark, circular, and opaque diaphragm present behind the cornea. The main function of the iris is to regulate the amount of light entering through the pupil, by controlling the size of the pupil. Lens: It is a transparent double Do you Know? convex lens. The position of the lens is ❖❖ Your corneas are the only just behind the iris and it is held by the tissues that do not have blood. ciliary muscles. Function of the lens ❖❖ A fingerprint has 40 unique is to focus the images of the object on characteristics, but an iris the retina of the eye. has 256, a reason why retina scans are increasingly being Ciliary Muscles: The function of used for security purposes. these muscles is to hold the lens and also to control the focal length of the lens. Focal length decreases when they expand while focal length increases when they contract. These muscles expand when viewing a distant object, and while seeing a nearby object, these muscles contract. Retina: The image of the object is obtained on the retina, and it acts as a screen. The retina has a number of cells which convert light energy into nerve impulses. Optic Nerve: The function of the optic nerve is to carry nerve impulses and signals to brain, and, finally the brain interprets these impulses.

working of the human eye The light which travels in a straight line reflected from an object, falls on the exposed area. These light rays fall on the eye lens after entering through

6.36  Chapter 6

the pupil. A real and inverted image of the object is formed on the yellow spot of the retina. Then this image is converted into nerve impulse with the help of the retina and carried by the optic nerves to the brain, which give a sensation of seeing the image. The amount of incident light that enters the eye is regulated by the iris, by adjusting the size of the pupil, that is, when our eyes come into light, our pupil size reduces in order to reduce the intensity of the light. A normal eye can see distant as well as nearby objects. This is done with the help of ciliary muscles that change the thickness of the lens. The ability of the eye to focus on nearby as well as distant objects by changing the focal length is called Accommodation. A normal human eye can focus from 25 cm to infinity. That means a normal human eye cannot focus on the object that is kept before the eye at a distance less than 25 cm.

Vision Problems/Defects Diseases/defects in the human eye may lead to various difficulties in life. There are several ailments or conditions that can afflict a human eye. Two of these are myopia (short-sightedness) and hypermetropia (far-sightedness). Myopia or Short-sightedness: When a human cannot see distant objects clearly, the problem is known as myopia or short-sightedness. This defect is caused by an insufficient relaxation of the ciliary muscles because of which the converging power of the lens becomes high. As a result, the image is formed in front of the retina. This disease is cured by wearing spectacles containing a concave lens. Because of this concave lens, light rays coming from a distant object diverge and an image is formed on the retina. Hypermetropia or Far-sightedness: When a human eye cannot see a nearby object clearly, the condition is known as hypermetropia or farsightedness. This defect is caused when ciliary muscles are weak, due to which the lens converging power becomes low. As a result, an image is formed behind the retina. However, this disease/defect can be cured by wearing convex lens spectacles. There is one more disease that is more common in old people. Because of this disease, human eye cannot see distant as well as nearby objects. This disease is known as presbyopia. It is cured by using bifocal lens spectacles.

India’s Space Program ❖❖ India’s space program was launched in 1962. ❖❖ ISRO was established in 1969, with its headquarters at Bengaluru. ISRO provides the research base for the development of space technology. The Space Commission was set up in 1972.

Everyday Science    6.37

❖❖ Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching station near Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala was set up in 1963 for launching facilities. ❖❖ Sriharikota Range (SHAR) is a satellite launching station set up in Sriharikota in lake Pulicat of Andhra Pradesh. SHAR has been renamed as Satish Dhawan Space Centre. ❖❖ The first Indian satellite Aryabhatta was launched on 19 April 1975 from Baikanpur (with the help of USSR). ❖❖ The first Indian Remote Sensing Satellite was launched on 17 March 1988.

Geo Stationary Satellite (GSS) or Geo Synchronous Satellite ❖❖ It orbits the Earth above the equator at a height of about 36,000 km taking the same time to complete one orbit as taken by the Earth to spin once on its axis. Therefore, a GSS is fixed in space in relation to Earth and can cover a fixed area of the surface of Earth. ❖❖ It normally covers a little over 1/3 surface of Earth for communication.

INSAT System (Indian National Satellite) ❖❖ The Indian National Satellite System or INSAT was launched by ISRA for the purposes of tele-commincations, broadcasting, meteorology, and search and rescue operations. ❖❖ It is a joint venture of DOS (Dept. Of Space) and DOT, IMD (India Metrological Department), D.D. (Door Darshan), AIR (All India Radio). Facts to Know! Important Scientific Laws and Theories 1. Archimedes’ Principle: It states that a body wholly or partially immersed in a liquid experiences an upward thrust, which is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it. Thus, the body appears to lose a part of its weight. This loss in weight is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body. 2. Aufbau Principle: It states that, in an unexcited atom, electrons reside in the lowest energy orbitals available to them. 3. Avogadro’s Law: It states that equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules. 4. Brownian Motion: It is a zigzag, irregular motion exhibited by small solid particles when suspended in a liquid or gas due to irregular bombardment by the liquid or gas molecules.

6.38  Chapter 6

5. Bernoulli’s Principle: It states that as the speed of a moving fluid, liquid, or gas increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases. The aerodynamic lift on the wing of an aeroplane is also explained in part by this principle. 6. Boyle’s Law: It states that temperature remaining constant, volume of a given mass of a gas varies inversely with the pressure of the gas. Thus, PV = K (constant), where, P = Pressure and V = Volume. 7. Charles’s Law: It states that pressure remaining constant, the volume of a given mass of gas increases or decreases by 1/273 part of its volume at 0 degree celsius for each degree celsius rise or fall of its temperature. 8. Coulomb’s Law: It states that force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is proportional to the amount of charge on both charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. 9. Heisenberg Principle (Uncertainty principle): It is impossible to accurately determine with accuracy, both the position and the momentum of a particle such as electron simultaneously. 10. Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes: Gases react together in volumes which bear simple whole number ratios to one another and also to the volumes of the products, if gaseous—all the volumes being measured under similar conditions of temperature and pressure. 11. Graham’s Law of Diffusion: It states that the rates of diffusion of gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities under similar conditions of temperature and pressure.

Section B: Chemistry Matter in Our Surroundings Matter is anything which has mass and occupies space. All solids, liquids, and gases around us are made up of matter. Scientists believe that matter is made of tiny particles that clump together. A substance is a pure kind of matter having only one kind of constituent particle (atom or molecule). Water, iron, gold, copper, aluminium, and oxygen are examples of substances. All substances are matter, but all forms of matter are not substances. Matter can ordinarily exist in three states—solid, liquid, and gas. These three states of matter have different properties. Water exists in all the three states namely steam or water vapour (gas), water at room temperature (liquid), and ice (solid). This is the only substance that exists naturally in all the three states.

Everyday Science    6.39

Matter can be classified in many ways. However, the following are the two main ways of classifying matter: 1. By the physical state of matter, as a solid, liquid, or gas. 2. By the chemical composition of matter, as an element, a compound, or a mixture. We shall discuss these classifications in the next section. Classification of matter based on physical states. Matter can ordinarily exist in three states—(1) Solid, (2) Liquid, and (3) Gas. Water exists in all the three states, namely steam or water vapour (gas), water at room temperature (liquid) and ice (solid). This is the only substance that exists naturally in all the three states. ❖❖ The characteristic properties of different states of matter depend on intermolecular forces. The forces holding molecules together are called intermolecular forces. Intermolecular forces try to keep molecules together, but thermal energy always tries to keep them far apart. ❖❖ It is the competition between molecular interaction energy and thermal energy that decides whether a given substance under given conditions will be a solid, liquid, or gas. ❖❖ Thermal or heat energy can convert one state of matter into another state. Thus, a particular state of matter depends on both intermolecular force and the thermal energy that basically depends upon temperature. Solid: We are surrounded by innumerable solid objects. A piece of wood, a stone, a pencil, a pen, and a computer are all examples of solids. A solid has a definite size and shape which does not change on its own. Liquid: Water is a liquid. Mustard oil and kerosene oil are other examples of liquids. Can you think of some more examples? A liquid has a definite volume. However, a liquid does not have a definite shape. It takes the shape of its container. A liquid can flow. You can pour a liquid or spill it. Liquids have properties intermediate between solids and gases. The intermolecular forces in liquids are weaker than those in solids but stronger than those in gases. In liquids, the constituent particles do not occupy a fixed position as in solids, but they have the freedom of movement as in gases. Gases: A gas occupies the entire volume of the container, irrespective of its size. In gases, molecules move freely because the intermolecular forces are very weak and are unable to keep the gas molecules together in bulk. We cannot see gases, but they are all around us. We can feel the presence of air when the wind blows. Wind refers to the moving air and is a mixture of many gases like oxygen, nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide, and others.

6.40

Chapter 6

Plasma: The fourth state of matter is called plasma. This state contains ionised gas with super energetic and super excited particles. Know More! Bose-einstein condensate: In 1924–25 Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein gave information about Bose-Einstein condensate. It is a state of matter of a lower density gas of boson cooled up to a temperature which is very close to absolute zero or –273.15°C. It is the fifth state of matter.

Different characteristics of the three States of Matter State Volume Density Shape of Matter

Fluidity

Solid

Does not Negligible flow

Fixed

cominterpressibility molecular Forces

High

Definite shape

liquid Fixed

Lower when compared to solids

It takes Flows Very small the smoothly shape of the container

Gas

Low

Has no definite shape

Has no fixed volume

Very strong Weak when compared to solids

Flows Highly com- Very weak smoothly pressible

Classification of Matter According to Chemical composition Pure Substance Elements: A chemical element is a pure substance, and it consists of one type of atom distinguished by its atomic number. Examples of some elements are: helium, carbon, iron, gold, silver, copper, aluminium, hydrogen, oxygen, etc. Do you Know? Elements are the building blocks of the Only two elements, Universe. In total, 118 elements have been listed namely hydrogen (92%) so far. Out of the total 118 known elements, and helium (7%), make about 94 occur naturally on earth, and the up about 99% of the total remaining have been synthesized artificially by mass of the Universe. nuclear reactions.

Everyday Science    6.41

Compounds: These contain more than one kind of atoms. These can not be separated into their constituent atoms by simple physical methods. Example: C6H12O6 (glucose), NaCl (salt), SiO2 (silica).

Impure Substance A substance is said to be impure if all the constituent particles of that substance are not same in their chemical nature. Mixtures: These are obtained by mixing two or more substances in any proportion. Mixtures can be divided into two categories: 1. Homogeneous Mixture: They have a uniform composition throughout, like sugar solution, air, true solutions. 2. Heterogeneous: They have a non-uniform composition like a mixture of salt and sugar in unknown concentration, colloidal solutions. Colloidal Solutions: These kinds of solutions are heterogeneous in nature and contain two phases, that is, dispersed phase and dispersed medium. They can scatter light because of the presence of large solute particles, that is, they show Tyndall effect and Brownian movement. (Blue colour of the sky is also due to scattering of light by dust particles suspended in air). ❖❖ Colloidal solutions are purified by dialysis. ❖❖ They can be classified into the following types, on the basis of dispersed phase and dispersed medium. Type of Colloid

Dispersed Phase

Dispersed Medium

Example

Emulsion

Liquid

Liquid

Milk

Aerosol

Liquid

Gas

Fog clouds

Gel

Liquid

Solid

Jelly, cheese

Aerosol (solid)

Solid

Gas

Smoke, automobile

Sol

Solid

Liquid

Milk of magnesia

Solid sol

Solid

Solid

Coloured gemstone

Foam

Gas

Liquid

Shaving cream

Foam

Gas

Solid

Foam rubber

6.42  Chapter 6

Separation of Mixtures: Some important chemical and physical methods are discussed further: 1. Distillation: It is a method of separating mixtures based on the difference in volatilities of compounds in a boiling liquid mixture. 2. Fractional Distillation: It is used to separate liquids having very little difference in their boiling points. For example, a mixture of acetone (329 K) and methyl alcohol (338 K). 3. Crystallisation: It is used to separate a mixture of inorganic solids with the help of a suitable solvent; examples include separation of a mixture of sugar and salt by using ethyl alcohol. 4. Vacuum Distillation: It is also known as distillation under reduced pressure. It is used to obtain glycerol and H2O and to concentrate sugarcane juice in the sugar industry. 5. Steam Distillation: It is used to separate a steam volatile compound from non-volatile or non-steam volatile compounds. It is used to purify sandwood oil, aniline, nitrobenzene, etc. 6. Chromatography: It is the modern technique used for the separation and the purification of organic compounds. It is used for the separation of coloured pigments from a plant.

Properties of Matter 1. Melting Point: It is the temperature at which a substance converts from its solid state to its liquid state. After adding impurities, the melting point decreases. 2. Boiling Point: It is the temperature at which vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure and at which a substance converts from its liquid state to gaseous state. Atmospheric pressure usually decreases with height; hence, at high altitudes, the boiling point of water is less than 100°C. 3. Evaporation: It is the process of conversion of a liquid into vapours at any temperature below its boiling point. It increases with increase in surface area. 4. Condensation: It is the process of conversion of gas into liquid. Solid, liquid, and gases are interconvertible by changing the condition of temperature and pressure.

Periodic Classification of Elements 1. Dobereiner’s Triads: When elements are arranged in order of their increasing atomic masses, the atomic mass of the middle element is

Everyday Science    6.43

nearly equal to the arithmetic mean of the other two, and its properties are intermediate between those of the other two.  Example: Lithium (7), Sodium (23), Potassium (39)   Mean of 7 and 39 is 23. 2. Newlands’ Law of Octaves: An English chemist John Alexander Newlands arranged the elements in the increasing order of their atomic masses (then called atomic weight). He observed that every eighth element had properties similar to the first element.   Example: Starting from lithium (Li), the eighth element is sodium (Na), and its properties are similar to those of lithium. Similarly, beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), and calcium (Ca) show similar properties. Fluorine (F) and chlorine (Cl) are also similar chemically. 3. Mendeleev’s Periodic Law and Periodic Table: It is a tabular display of the chemical elements organized on the basis of their properties. It states that the physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses.   But in the modern periodic table, it states that ‘physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers’. Long form of the Periodic Table: It is a graphical representation of the Aufbau principle. It is based on the electronic configuration of elements and contains 118 elements.

Types of Elements 1. Main Group Elements: The elements present in groups 1 and 2 on the left side and groups 13 to 17 on the right side of the periodic table are called representative or main group elements. Their outermost shells are incomplete,which means their Groups: There are 18 vertical outermost shell has less than eight columns in the periodic table. electrons. Each vertical column is called 2. Noble Gases: Group 18 on the a group. The groups have been extreme right side of the periodic numbered from 1 to 18. table contains noble gases. Their Periods: There are seven outermost shells contain 8 elechorizontal rows in the periodic trons except He which contains table. Each row is called a only 2 electrons. Their main period. The elements in a characteristics are: (a) They have period have consecutive atomic 8 electrons in their outermost shell numbers. The periods have (except He which has 2 electrons). been numbered from 1 to 7.

6.44  Chapter 6

(b) Their combining capacity or valency is zero. (c) They do not react, and so are almost inert. (d) All the members are gases. 3. Transition Elements: The middle block of the periodic table (groups 3 to 12). These elements represent a transition (change) from the most electropositive element to the most electronegative element, so they are named as transition elements. Their important characteristics are as follows:

(a) All these elements are metals and have high melting and boiling points. (b) They are good conductors of heat and electricity. (c) Some of these elements get attracted towards magnets. (d) Most of these elements are used as catalysts. (e) They exhibit variable valencies.

4. Inner Transition Elements: These elements, also called rare-earth elements, are shown separately below the main periodic table. There are two series containing 14 elements each.



(a) The first series is called lanthanoids, which consists of elements from 58 to 71 (Ce to Lu). They are all placed along with the element 57, lanthanum (La) at the same position (group 3, period 6) because of very close resemblance between them. It is only for the sake of convenience that they are shown separately below the main periodic table. (b) The second series of 14 rare-earth elements is called Actinoids. It consists of elements from 90 to 103 (Th to Lr), and they are all placed along with the element 89, actinium (Ac) in the same position (group 3, period 7), but for convenience, they are shown below the main periodic table. In all rare-earths (lanthanoids and actinoids), three outermost shells are incomplete. They are therefore called inner transition elements. It is interesting to note that the element lanthanum is not a lanthanoid, and the element actinium is not an Actinoid.

5. Metals: Metals are present in the left hand portion of the periodic table. The strong metallic elements, alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr), and alkaline earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) occupy groups 1 and 2, respectively. 6. Non-metals: Non-metals occupy the right hand portion of the periodic table. Strong non-metallic elements, that is, halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, At) and chalkogens (O, S, Se, Te, Po) occupy groups 17 and 16, respectively.

Everyday Science    6.45

7. Metalloids: Metalloids are elements that show mixed properties of both metals and non-metals. They are present along the diagonal line starting from group 13 (Boron) and going down to group 16 (Polonium).

Element are Divided into Four Blocks 1. S-Block: It contains groups 1 and 2. The general electronic configuration of these elements is ns0–2. 2. P-Block: It comprises the last six groups, and the general electronic configuration of this block of elements is ns2np1–6. It is the only block that contains metals, non-metals, and metalloids. Heavier elements show inert pair effects. S- and P-block elements are collectively called representative elements. 3. d-Block: It comprises 10 groups (3 to 12). These elements are called transition elements, the general electronic configuration of d block is (n–1) d1–10ns1–2. Elements of this block contain unpaired electrons and are paramagnetic. These elements are generally transition metals but some elements are not in the transition category. For example, Zn, Cu, and Se. 4. f-Block: General electronic configuration of d-block elements is (n–2) f1–14(n–1)d1–10ns1–2. There are two series in this block, 4f and 5f series. 4f series elements are called lanthanides [Xe]4f1–145 d0–1 6s2, and 5f series elements of this block are called inner transition elements and are present in IIIB group only.

Periodic Properties Atomic Size: Atomic size is the distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell of an isolated atom. It is also known as atomic radius. The size of atoms decreases from left to right in a period but increases from top to bottom in a group. Metallic and Non-metallic Character: The tendency of an element to lose electrons to form cations is called the electropositive or metallic character of an element. Alkali metals are most electropositive. The tendency of an element to accept electrons to form anions is called the electronegative or non-metallic character of an element. 1. Variation of Metallic Character in a Group: Metallic character increases from top to bottom in a group as the tendency to lose electrons increases. This increases the electropositive character and the metallic nature. 2. Variation of Metallic Character in a Period: Metallic character decreases in a period from left to right. This is because the ionization energy increases in a period. This decreases the electropositive character and metallic nature.

6.46  Chapter 6

Properties of Atoms according to the Periodic Table Property

In a Period (From Left to Right)

In a Group (From Top to Bottom)

Atomic number

Increases

Increases

Atomic size

Decreases

Increases

Metallic character

Decreases

Increases

Non-metallic character

Increases

Decreases

Valency: It is the combining capacity of an element, and it increases from 1 to 7 along a period with respect to oxygen, whereas with respect to hydrogen, it first increases from 1 to 4, and then decreases to 0. Ionisation Energy: It is the energy required to remove an electron from the outermost shell of an isolated gaseous atom. It generally increases along a period from left to right. And generally decreases along a group on moving downwards. Electron Affinity: It is defined as the energy liberated when an extra electron is added to an atom. Generally, it increases across a period from left to right. 15 group and 0 group is 0 or positive. Electron affinity decreases on moving down a group. Oxidation State: It is the hypothetical charge that an atom would have if all the bonds to atoms of different elements were removed. It is typically represented by integers, which can be positive, negative, or 0.

Atoms and Molecules In 1803, Dalton published a new system of chemical philosophy in which the following statements comprise the atomic theory of matter: 1. Matter consists of indivisible atoms. 2. All the atoms of a given chemical element are identical in mass and in all other properties. 3. Different chemical elements have different kinds of atoms, and, in particular, such atoms have different masses. 4. Atoms are indestructible and retain their identity in chemical reactions. 5. The formation of a compound from its elements occurs through the combination of atoms of different elements in small whole number ratios. Atomic Mass: One atomic mass unit (amu), equals exactly one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Atomic mass unit (amu) is nowadays written as a unified mass unit and is denoted by the letter ‘u’. The relative atomic mass of an element expressed in atomic mass unit is called its atomic weight. Nowadays, we use atomic mass in place of atomic weight. Atomic mass = mass of protons + mass of neutrons

Everyday Science    6.47

The total number of protons and neutrons is called the mass number (A). By convention, atomic number is written at the bottom left corner of the symbol of the atom of a particular element, and mass number is written at the top left corner. For example, symbol 12C6 indicates that there is a total of 12 particles (nucleons) in the nucleus of a carbon atom, 6 of which are protons. Thus, there must be 12 – 6 = 6 neutrons. Similarly, 16O8 indicates 8 protons and 16 nucleons (8 protons + 8 neutrons). Since an atom is electrically neutral, oxygen has 8 protons and 8 electrons in it. Further, atomic number (Z) differentiates the atom of one element from the atoms of the other elements. Facts to Know! Law of Multiple Proportions: This law states that when two elements form more than one compound, the mass of one element in these compounds for a fixed mass of the other element is in the ratio of small whole numbers. For example, carbon and oxygen form two compounds: Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide contains 1.3321 g of oxygen for each 1.000 g of carbon, whereas carbon dioxide contains 2.6642 g of oxygen for 1.0000 g of carbon.

In 1961, C-12 (or 12C6) atomic mass scale was adopted. This scale depends on measurement of atomic mass by an instrument called mass spectrometre. Isotopes and Atomic Mass: Atoms of an element that have the same atomic number (Z) but different mass number (A) are called isotopes. Molecule: A molecule is an aggregate of two or more than two atoms of the same or different elements in a definite arrangement. An atom is the smallest particle of a substance but it can not exist freely. Contrary to this, molecules can be considered as the smallest particles of an element or of a compound that can exist alone or freely under ordinary conditions. Molecular Mass: Molecular formula of a compound is normally used for determining the molecular mass of that substance. If a substance is composed of molecules, for example: CO2, H2O, or NH3, it is easy to calculate the molecular mass. Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of all the atoms present in that molecule. Thus, the molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of all the atoms present in that molecule. Mole: A mole is the amount of substance that contains as many elementary entities (atoms, molecules, formula unit, or other fundamental particles) as there are atoms in exactly 0.012 kg of carbon-12 isotope. Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance is called its molar mass. A substance may be an element or a compound. Mass of one mole atoms of oxygen means the mass of 6.02 × 1023 atoms of oxygen.

6.48  Chapter 6

Molecular and Molar Masses Formula

Molecular Mass (u)

Molar Mass (g/mole)

O2 (oxygen)

32.0

32.0

Cl2 (chlorine)

71.0

71.0

P4 (phosphorus)

123.9

123.9

CH4 (methane)

16.0

16.0

Chemical Reaction: A chemical reaction is the process in which substances react to form new compounds. A substance that undergoes a chemical change is called a reactant, and the substance that is formed as a result of a chemical change is called a product. Types of Chemical Reactions: 1. Reversible Reaction: Reversible reactions are those which occur in the forward as well as in backward direction but never reach completion. Example: A + B ↔ C + D 2. Irreversible Reaction: Irreversible reactions occur only in forward direction and go to completion. Example: A + B → C 3. Combination Reaction: In such a reaction, two or more substances combine to give a single substance. Example: A + B → C + D 4. Decomposition Reactions: These are irreversible reactions in which a molecule dissociates into two or more simple molecules. 5. Dissociation Reaction: These are reversible reactions in which a molecule dissociates into two or more simple molecules. 6. Double Displacement Reaction: These involve exchange of ions between two compounds. For example, a reaction occurring between the ions or ionic compounds is very fast. 7. Exothermic Reactions: These are the reactions in which energy is released. For example, burning of natural gas, respiration, decomposition of vegetable matter into compost, combustion reaction, etc. 8. Endothermic Reaction: These are the reactions in which energy is consumed. For example, digestion, photosynthesis, evaporation of water, and melting of ice. 9. Redox Reaction: Redox reactions are such reactions where oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously. These are called disproportionate reactions when the same element is oxidised as well as reduced.

Everyday Science    6.49

Catalysis: It is a term used for the reaction processes which occur in the presence of a certain substance that increases the rate of the reaction without being consumed. Such a substance is called a catalyst. Catalysis is homogenous when the reactant and the catalyst are in the same phase; catalysis is heterogeneous when the reactant and the catalyst are in different phases. Autocatalysis: This chemical reaction occurs when one of the products increases the rate of the reaction, or it acts as a catalyst.

Chemical Bonding Atoms are held together in compounds by the forces of attraction which result in the formation of chemical bonds. The formation of chemical bonds results in the lowering of energy, which is lesser than the energy of the individual atoms. The resulting compound is lower in energy when compared with the sum of energies of the reacting atom/molecule and, hence, is more stable. Ionic Bonding: The chemical bond formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal is known as an ionic or electrovalent bond. For example, when sodium metal and chlorine gas are brought into contact, they react violently and we obtain sodium chloride. This reaction is shown below: 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s) Properties of Ionic Compounds: Since ionic compounds contain ions (cations and anions) which are held together by the strong electrostatic forces of attraction, they show the following general characteristic properties: 1. Ionic compounds are crystalline solids. In the crystal, the ions are arranged in a regular fashion. Ionic compounds are hard and brittle in nature. 2. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. 3. Ionic compounds conduct electricity in their molten state and in aqueous solutions. Since ions are free to move in the molten state, they can carry current from one electrode to another in a cell. Thus, ions can conduct electricity in the molten state. 4. Ionic compounds are generally soluble in water but are insoluble in organic solvents such as ether, alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, etc. Covalent Bonding: A covalent bond forms when the forces of attraction and repulsion balance each other out and the potential energy is minimum. It is this lowering of energy that leads to the formation of the covalent bond. Formation of a covalent bond in H2 can be shown as: H. + .H → H: H → H2

6.50  Chapter 6

Properties of Covalent Substances 1. Covalent compounds consist of molecules that are electrically neutral in nature. The forces of attraction present between the molecules are less strong when compared with the forces present in ionic compounds. 2. Because of the weak forces of attraction present between discrete molecules, called intermolecular forces, the covalent compounds exist as a gas or a liquid or a solid. 3. The melting and boiling points of covalent compounds are lower than those of ionic compounds. 4. Covalent compounds contain neutral molecules and do not have charged species such as ions or electrons which can carry charge. 5. Covalent compounds are generally not soluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents such as alcohol, chloroform, benzene, ether, etc. Coordinate Bond: It is a special type of covalent bonding in which both the electrons for sharing (i.e., shared pair of electron) are given by only one atom. Their properties lie between those of ionic compounds and covalent compounds. Hydrogen Bond: It is an attractive interaction of a hydrogen atom attached to highly electronegative atom (such as N, F, and O) with another electronegative atom, such as F, O, and N. Van der Waals’ Interaction: These are the attractive forces among the non-polar molecules in solid or liquid states. These are relatively weaker compared to normal chemical bonds. This force is weaker than a hydrogen bond.

Acids, Bases, and Salts Acids: An acid is a substance that furnishes hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. For example, in its aqueous solution, hydrochloric HCl (aq) dissociates as: HCl (aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

Some examples of acids are: 1. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) in gastric juice. 2. Carbonic acid (H2CO3) in soft drinks. 3. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in lemon and many fruits. 4. Citric acid in oranges and lemons. 5. Acetic acid in vinegar. 6. Tannic acid in tea. 7. Nitric acid (HNO3) used in laboratories. 8. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) used in laboratories.

Everyday Science    6.51

Strong and Weak Acids Strong Acid The acids that completely dissociate in water are called strong acids. Nitric acid completely dissociates in water HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3–(aq) There are only seven strong acids: 1. HCl-Hydrochloric Acid 2. HBr-Hydrobromic Acid 3. HI-Hydroiodic Acid 4. HClO-Perchloric Acid 5. HClO3-Chloric Acid 6. H2SO4-Sulphuric Acid 7. HNO3-Nitric Acid

Weak Acid The acids that dissociate partially in water are called weak acids. All organic acids like acetic acid and some inorganic acids are weak acids. Since their dissociation is only partial, it is depicted by double half arrows. HF (aq)  H+ (aq) + F– (aq) The double arrow indicates that: (i) the aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid not only contains H+ (aq) and F– (aq) ions but also the dissociated acid HF (aq). (ii) there is an equilibrium between the dissociated acid HF (aq) and the ions furnished by it, H+ (aq) and F– (aq) Examples: (a) CH3COOH Ethanoic (acetic) acid, (b) HF Hydrofluoric acid

Bases: A base is a substance that furnishes hydroxide ions (OH–) when dissolved in water. For example, sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq), In its aqueous solutions dissociates as: NaOH (aq) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq) Some examples of bases are: 1. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or caustic soda used in washing soaps. 2. Potassium hydroxide (KOH) or potash used in bathing soaps. 3. Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) or lime water used in white wash. 4. Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) or milk of magnesia used to control acidity. 5. Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) used in hair dyes.



Strong Base and Weak Base Strong Bases

Weak Bases

These bases are completely Weak bases do not furnish OH– ions dissociated in water to form the by dissociation. They react with water to furnish OH– ions. cation and hydroxide ion (OH–). (Contd.)

6.52  Chapter 6

Strong Bases

Weak Bases

For example, potassium hydroxide NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq) dissociates as: KOH (aq) → K+ (aq) + OH– (aq)

Examples of weak bases:

There are only eight strong bases.   (i) NH4OH These are the hydroxides of the (ii) Cu(OH) 2 elements of the Groups 1 and 2 of (iii) Cr(OH) 3 the periodic table like: (iv) Zn(OH)2 1. LiOH Lithium hydroxide 2. NaOH Sodium hydroxide 3. KOH Potassium hydroxide

Difference between Acid and Base Nature

Acids

Bases

Taste

Sour

Bitter

Solution

Corrosive to metals

Slippery in nature

Litmus test

Blue to red

Red to blue

Neutralization

After adding base

After adding base

Phenolphthalein Test

Colourless

Pink

Methyl orange

Red

Yellow

pH and its Importance We use the pH scale to denote the concentration of hydrogen ions. pH notation was devised by the Danish biochemist Soren Sorensen in 1909. The term pH means ‘power of hydrogen’. The pH is the logarithm (see box) of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration. It is written as pH. Alternately, the pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration, i.e., pH = – log [H+]

pH Scale The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 on this scale. pH 7 is considered neutral, below 7 acidic, and above 7 basic.

Everyday Science    6.53

The farther from 7, the more acidic or basic the solution is. 1. HCl (4%) 0 2. Stomach acid 1 3. Lemon juice 2 4. Vinegar 3 5. Oranges 3.5 6. Soda, grapes 4 7. Sour milk 4. 8. Fresh milk 5 9. Human saliva 6–8 Pure water-7 10. Blood plasma 7.4 11. Egg white 8 12. Sea water 8 13. Baking soda 9 14. Antacids 10 15. Ammonia water 11 16. Lime water 12 17. Drain cleaner 13 18. Caustic soda 4% (NaOH) 14

Logarithm Logarithm is a mathematical function. If x = 10y Then y = log 10x Here log 10x mean log of x to the base 10. Usually, the base 10 is omitted in the notation thus, y = log x. e.g., log 103 = 3 × log 10 = 3 × 1 = 3 log 10–5 = –5 × log 10 = –5 × 1 = –5 Note: log 10 = 1

Importance of pH in Everyday Life ❖❖ Most of the biochemical reactions taking place in our body are in a narrow pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. Even a small change in pH disturbs these processes. ❖❖ When the pH of rain water falls below 5.6, it is called acid rain. When acid rain flows into rivers, the pH of the river water also falls, and it becomes acidic. As a result, the survival of aquatic life becomes difficult. ❖❖ Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid, which helps in digestion of food. When we eat spicy food, the stomach produces excess acid which causes ‘acidity’, that is, irritation and sometimes pain too. To get rid of this, we use ‘antacids’, which are bases like ‘milk of magnesia’ (suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water). ❖❖ Tooth enamel is made of calcium phosphate, which is the hardest substance in our body and can withstand the effect of various food articles that we eat. If the mouth is not washed properly after every meal, the food particles and sugar remaining in the mouth undergo degradation due to the bacteria present in the mouth.

6.54  Chapter 6

Salts Salts are ionic compounds made of a cation other than H+ ion and an anion other than OH– ion. Formation of salts: Salts are formed in many reactions involving acids and bases. 1. By neutralization of acids and bases: Salts are the product (besides water) of a neutralization reaction. For example, Base + Acid → Salt + Water NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O 2. By the action of acids on metals: In a reaction between an acid and a metal, salt is produced along with hydrogen. Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H 3. By the action of acids on metals: Carbonates and hydrogen carbonate salts are produced in reactions between acids and metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates (bicarbonates) along with water and carbon dioxide. CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO Type of salt and the nature of its aqueous solution: Salt of Acid

Salt of Base

Nature of Salt Solution

pH (at 25°C)

Strong

Strong

Neutral

7

Weak

Strong

Basic

>7

Strong

Weak

Acidic

<7

Weak

Weak

More information required

–

Some Commonly used Salts Baking Soda ❖❖ Used for cooking of certain foods; for making baking powder (a mixture of sodium hydrogen carbonate and tartaric acid). ❖❖ On being heated during baking, baking soda gives off carbon dioxide. It is this carbon dioxide that raises the dough. The sodium carbonate produced on heating the baking soda gives a bitter taste. Therefore, instead of using the baking soda alone, baking powder is used. ❖❖ In medicines, being a mild and a non-corrosive base, baking soda is used in medicines to neutralize the excessive acid in the stomach and provide relief. ❖❖ In soda acid fire extinguishers.

Everyday Science    6.55

Washing Soda Washing soda is sodium carbonate dehydrate, Na2CO3.10H2O. It is used: ❖❖ in the manufacture of caustic soda, glass, soap powders, borex, and in paper industry. ❖❖ for removing permanent hardness of water. ❖❖ as a cleansing agent for domestic purpose.

Plaster of Paris Chemically, it is 2CaSO4.H2O or CaSO4.1/2 H2O. It is used: ❖❖ in making casts for manufacture of toys and statues. ❖❖ in medicine for making plaster casts to hold fractured bones in place while they set. It is also used for making casts in dentistry. ❖❖ for making the surface of walls and ceilings smooth. ❖❖ for making decorative designs on ceilings, walls, and pillars. ❖❖ for making ‘chalk’ for writing on blackboards. ❖❖ for making fire-proof materials.

Bleaching Powder Chemically, it is calcium oxychloride, CaOCl2. It is used: ❖❖ in the textile industry for bleaching of cotton and linen. ❖❖ in the paper industry for bleaching of wood pulp. ❖❖ in making wool unshrinkable. ❖❖ as a disinfectant and germicide for sterilization of water. ❖❖ for the manufacture of chloroform. ❖❖ as an oxidizing agent in the chemical industry.

Copper Sulphate Copper sulphate is white when anhydrous and blue in colour when associated with water of crystallisation CuSO4.5H2O. It is used to test the presence of water.

Lime The chemical name for Lime is Calcium Oxide(CaO). It is also known as ‘quicklime’. Excessive use of fertilizers makes the soil more acidic. To neutralize it, quicklime is added to the soil, as acidic soil is not good for the growth of plants.

6.56  Chapter 6

Potassium Nitrate: It is used as a fertilizer, and in gun powder (C+S+KNO3). Magnesium Hydroxide: It is used as a remedy for hyper-acidity in the stomach. Electrolysis: It is the process in which a non-spontaneous reaction is carried out by using electrical energy. This reaction is used: for production of hydrogen for fuel. in layering metals to fortify them. in production of oxygen for space crafts and nuclear submarines. in electrolytic etching of metal surfaces like tools or knives with a permanent mark or logo. ❖❖ electrometallurgy, which is the process of reduction of metallic compounds into pure metal by electrolysis. ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis First Law of Electrolysis: It states that the quantity of elements separated by passing an electric current through a molten or dissolved salt is proportional to the quantity of electric charge passed through the circuit. w ∞ Q; w = ZQ = Zit Second Law of Electrolysis: The amounts of different substances liberated at the electrodes by the same quantity of electric charge passing through the electrolytic solution are proportional to their chemical equivalent weights: w∞Q Battery: An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells, with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. In simple terms, ‘it is an arrangement of one or more cells connected in series. So, it is basically a Galvanic cell. Batteries are of two types: 1. Primary Batteries: They can produce current immediately on assembly. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain. Example: Zinc-Chloride batteries, Alkaline batteries. 2. Secondary Batteries: They are also known as rechargeable batteries and must be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re) charged

Everyday Science    6.57

by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reaction that occurs during discharge. Example: Useful batteries in mobile phones and laptop computers.

Corrosion It is the deterioration of a metal as a result of chemical reactions between it and the surrounding environment. Both, the type of metal and the environment condition, particularly gases that are in contact with the metal, determine the form and rate of deterioration. Types of Corrosion: There are many different reasons for metal corrosion. Some can be avoided by adding alloys to a pure metal. Others can be prevented by a careful combination of metals, or management of the metal’s environment. 1. General Attack Corrosion: This is a very common form of corrosion that attacks the entire surface of a metal structure. It is caused by chemical or electrochemical reactions. 2. Localized Corrosion: Localized corrosion attacks only portions of a metal structure. There are three types of localized corrosion.

(a) Pitting—the creation of small holes in the surface of a metal. (b) Crevice corrosion—corrosion that occurs in stagnant locations such as those found under gaskets. (c) Filiform corrosion—corrosion that occurs when water gets under a coating such as paint.

3. Galvanic Corrosion: Galvanic corrosion can occur when two different metals are located together in a liquid electrolyte such as salt water. In essence, one metal’s molecules are drawn towards the other metal, leading to corrosion in only one of the two metals. 4. Environmental Cracking: When environmental conditions are stressful enough, some metals can begin to crack, fatigue, or become brittle and weakened.

Corrosion Prevention In virtually all situations, the corrosion of metals can be managed, slowed, or even stopped by using proper techniques. Corrosion prevention can take a number of forms depending on the circumstances of the metal being corroded. Corrosion prevention techniques can be generally classified into 6 groups. 1. Environmental modifications 2. Metal selection and surface conditions

6.58  Chapter 6



3. Cathodic protection 4. Corrosion inhibitors 5. Coating 6. Plating

Metals and their Compounds Those elements which can donate electrons and form cations are called metals, like Na, Ca, and Mg.

Physical Properties of Metals

1. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. 2. They are ductile in nature. 3. They have lustre. 4. They are solid at room temperature [only (Hg) Mercury is liquid in nature at room temperature]. 5. They all have high values of boiling point and melting point. 6. They all have high density (only sodium and potassium have low density). 7. Metals are sonorous in nature (means they produce sound). 8. Metals have high tensile strength.

Chemical Properties of Metals 1. Produce many compounds after reactions with non-metals. 2. They form cations after losing an electron. 3. They produce metal oxides after reaction with oxygen, and metal oxides are basic in nature. 4. They produce metal hydroxides after adding water to them.

Sodium Symbol: Na, Atomic Number—11, Mass Number—23 Sodium is a highly reactive metal in the periodic table and found in Earths crust (2.27% of total metals); sodium is a soft metal and can easily be cut with a knife. Occurrence and Extraction: Due to highly reactive element, it does not exist freely in nature, but it is found in the form of ores of chloride, nitrate, carbonate, borate, etc. Physical and Chemical Properties: Sodium is white like silver, but it is very soft and light, so it can be cut with a knife and it floats in water. Due to a

Everyday Science    6.59

highly reactive nature, sodium is kept under kerosene oil (K-oil). But sodium is soluble in benzene and ether. Uses: As a reducing agent, in synthetic reactions, and in making tetraethyl lead (anti-knocking) compound by the use of an alloy of sodium-lead.

Compounds of Sodium ❖❖ Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH): The compound NaOH is called caustic soda, which is used as a petroleum purifier, in the manufacture of soaps, to produce glazing in pulp paper, cotton cloth, etc., and in the production of artificial silk. ❖❖ Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3): It is also called edible soda, and is used in the manufacture of bread. It releases CO2, causing the dough to rise. ❖❖ Sodium Chloride (NaCl): This is called common salt or ordinary salt, which is prepared by the vaporization process of sea water. ❖❖ Borax-sodium Tetraborate Decahydrate (Na2B4O7.10H2O): This is a white crystalline solid that is soluble in water.

Magnesium Symbol: Mg, Atomic Number—12, Mass Number—24 Physical and Chemical Properties: The metal, magnesium, doesn’t exist in nature in free state, because it is highly reactive. This is a white and extremely glazed metal like silver. The metal magnesium is malleable and ductile; that’s why it can easily be transformed into a thin wire or ribbon. The boiling point and melting point of this metal are 650°C and 110°C, respectively. Uses: The metal magnesium is used in making flashlight ribbon, in photography and in fire crackers, in the composition of alloys, etc. Alloys: Magnalium—Mg + Al + Cu + Fe Duralumin—Al + Cu + Mg Elektron—Mg + Zn + Cu

Compounds of Magnesium 1. Magnesia (MgO): Magnesia (MgO) is also called milk of magnesia, which is a white coloured powder. This is slightly soluble in water and it is fluorescent to light. It is fused at a very high temperature, therefore is used in layer lining of blast furnaces. 2. Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4): This compound occurs naturally in the form of Epsom salt, which is abundantly found in hot water springs.

6.60  Chapter 6

This is a colourless crystalline solid substance. This is frequently used in the cotton industry, in the manufacture of soap, paint, etc. This is also used as a catalyst with platinum in the manufacturing or production of sulphuric acid (H2SO4). 3. Magnesium Alva [Mg (OH)2 ⋅ MgCO3 ⋅ 3H2O]: This compound is used in removing acidity from the human stomach and it is also used as an antacid tablet.

Aluminium Symbol: Al, Atomic Number—12, Mass Number—24 Physical and Chemical Properties: Aluminium doesn’t occur in nature in a free state but occurs in the forms of compounds like bauxite (Al2O3 ⋅ 2H2O), corundum (Al2O3), diaspore (Al2O3 ⋅ H2O). Al is a white glazing metal like silver. This is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and is malleable and ductile. Its melting point and boiling point are 659.8°C and 2,200°C, respectively. Uses: Aluminium and its alloys are frequently used in aircrafts, motor vehicle industry, and in the manufacture of cooking utensils.

Alloys of Aluminium Alloys

Composition

Aluminium bronze

Al + Cu

Magnelium

Al + Mg + Cu + Fe

Nickelloy

Al + Ni + Cu

Duralium

Mn + Mg

Compounds of Aluminium Aluminium Chloride (AlCl3): This is used as a catalyst in Friedel Craft reaction which occurs on an extensive level. This is also used as a catalyst in the production of Gasoline. It is also used in cracking of petroleum (as anhydrous AlCl3). Potash Alum [K2SO4 ⋅ Al(SO4)3 ⋅ 24H2O]: This is a double salt that appears as a colourless crystalline solid. This is also used in pulp-paper and leather industries, as an antiseptic and a germicide after shaving, as a germicide for purification of water, etc. Aluminium Hydroxide [Al(OH)3]: This is a white amorphous powder insoluble in water, and it is a covalent compound. This is used in making fire proof and waterproof clothes; in the name of aluminium gel, it is used as a

Everyday Science    6.61

drying agent, freshly precipitated Al(OH)3 absorbs colouring matter forming insoluble lakes.

Calcium Symbol: Ca, Atomic Number—20, Mass Number—40 Physical and Chemical Properties: This is a white metal like silver and it is soft when compared with other metals but hard when compared with lead, whose relative density is 1.55. This metal also exhibits the phenomenon of malleability and ductility. The boiling point and melting point of this metal are 851°C and 1439°C, respectively. Uses: This metal is used in removing water which is present in small amounts in alcoholic solutions. It is also used in removing elements like nitrogen, sulphur, and oxygen, which are present in small amounts during the process of metal extraction.

Compounds of Calcium Calcium Oxide (CaO): This is also called quick lime. This is basically a white porous solid substance that reacts rapidly with water forming calcium hydroxide. Calcium Hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]: This is also called slaked lime, and it is obtained by reacting quick lime (CaO) with water. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2): This occurs in tiny amounts in sea and ocean water. It is basically a colourless, crystalline solid substance in which each molecule has six crystals of water. Bleaching Powder [Ca(OCl)Cl]: This is an oxychloride of calcium, and is produced on a large scale by Hasen Clever’s process. It is an extremely temporary compound used in the bleaching action of paper, cloth or garments. This is also used as an insecticide or a germicide, as a water purifier, and as an anti-infective agent.

Iron Symbol: Fe, Atomic Number—26, Mass Number—56 Physical and Chemical Properties of Iron: Pure iron is like a silverwhite, soft, ductile, and malleable metal. The specific gravity of iron is 9.85, its melting point and boiling point are 1,533°C and 2,450°C, respectively. It is a transition metal and ferromagnetic, and it is attracted by magnets. Fe is a transition metal, and it doesn’t occur in nature in a free state, but it is found in the form of ore. In nature, it is also found abundantly in green vegetables and in the haemoglobin of blood.

6.62  Chapter 6

Alloys of Iron Steel

Other Element with Fe

Special Feature Uses or Properties

Stainless Cr steel

Very hard and Used in making cooking strong, doesn’t utensils, surgical instruform rust. ments, blades, etc.

Nickel steel

Ni

Very hard and Used in making axles, elastic, free from electric wire, aircraft, auto rusting. parts, etc.

Tungsten W steel

Very hard and Used in making spring, strong. magnets, saws, axles, and cutting tools.

Compounds of Iron Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO4): The hydrated ferrous sulphate is called green vitriol (FeSO4 ⋅ 4H2O). This is a light green, crystalline solid, highly soluble in water. Ferric Chloride (FeCl3): It is used as a laboratory reagent in the production of blood coagulating medicines. Mohr’s Salt [FeSO4 ⋅ (NH4)2SO4 ⋅ 6H2O](CaCl2): This is a green coloured crystalline solid, soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol. This is used in volume synthesis, in the manufacture of blue ink, in the coloration of leather and garments, as an insecticide, as a reducing agent in the laboratory, etc.

Copper Symbol: Cu, Atomic Number—29, Mass Number—64 Physical and Chemical Properties: This is a tough, reddish colour metal whose specific gravity is 8.95, and its melting point and boiling point are 1083°C and 2310°C, respectively. It is malleable and ductile. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

Alloys of Copper Alloys

Composition

Uses

Brass

Cu + Zn

Used in making idols, household utensils, etc.

German silver

Cu + Zn + Ni

Used in making idols and utensils. (Contd.)

Everyday Science    6.63

Alloys

Composition

Uses

Bell metal

Cu + Sn

Used in making bells, utensils, idols, coins, etc.

Delta metal

Cu +, Zn

Used in making propellers of ships, as resistant to sea water.

Compounds of Copper Cupric Sulphate (CuSO)4: This is the main compound of copper, and it is also called blue vitriol (CuSO)4 ⋅ 5H2O. This is basically a solid crystalline substance of blue colour. A mixture of CuSO4 ⋅ 5H2O and Ca(OH)2 is called Bordeaux Mixture, and it is used as a fungicide. Cuprous Oxide (Cu2O): This is a red coloured solid substance, insoluble in water. It is obtained as a red precipitate by heating CuSO4 with glucose and NaOH solution.

Silver Symbol: Ag, Atomic Number—47, Mass Number—108 Physical and Chemical Properties: This is a white, shining, solid metallic substance, malleable and ductile. This is the best conductor of heat and electricity. The relative density is 10.47, while its melting point and boiling point are 960°C and 1,955°C, respectively. Uses of Silver: Silver is used in making ornaments, utensils, coins, silver alloy in filling of tooth cavities, silver plating, etc.

Compounds of Silver Silver Chloride (AgCl): This is called Horn silver, which is frequently used in making photochromic glass. Silver Iodide (AgI): It is used in producing artificial rains. Silver Nitrate (AgNO3): This is used as a laboratory reagent in making hair dyes, in electroplating of silver compounds, in making special ink which is used by washermen in clothes marking, and as a voter-marker on the finger of the hand.

Gold Symbol: Au, Atomic Number—79, Mass Number—197 Physical and Chemical Properties of Gold: This is a golden, yellowish solid substance insoluble in acids like HCL, HNO3, and H2SO4, but soluble

6.64  Chapter 6

in aqua regia and NaCN solution. It is the most malleable metal, is ductile, and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It doesn’t react with air but dissolves in sodium cyanide (NaCN) and potassium cyanide (KCN) forming sodium aurocyanide and potassium aurocyanide respectively. Uses of Gold: This is used in making ornaments, coins, salt in electroplating, and in sugar industries. Thin layers of gold are used in the pharmaceutical industry. Facts to Know! Purity of Gold: The purity of gold is expressed in carats. The gold that is completely (absolutely) pure is 24 carats, but this does not exist because it is brittle. Thus, copper is mixed up in tiny amounts. Normally, gold of 23 carats or 22 carats is assumed to be pure in which 1 or 2 parts copper is intermixed.

Compounds of Gold Auric Chloride (AuCl3): This is a green powder insoluble in water, and, on heating, it explodes violently. That is why it is called fulminating gold. Thus, it is used as a detonator. Rold Gold (Cu + Al + Gold): This is called the artificial form of gold, which resembles gold and is used in making cheap ornaments.

Platinum Symbol: Pt, Atomic Number—78, Mass Number—195 Uses of Platinum: This is used in making ornaments, laboratory equipment and devices, electrodes, alloys, and as a catalyst in Oswald’s process.

Zinc Symbol: Zn, Atomic Number—30, Mass Number—65 Physical and Chemical Properties: This is a bluish white, hard, and brittle metallic substance. At a normal temperature, it is neither malleable nor ductile. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity. The melting point, boiling point, and specific density of zinc are 419.5°C, 907°C, and 7.1 kg/dm3 respectively. Uses of Zinc: This is used in the laboratory in the preparation of H2 gas; it is also used in the galvanization of iron sheets to protect iron from rusting. Buckets, boxes, and many household articles are made from these sheets.

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Compounds of Zinc Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO4): This is used in the textile industry for soaking cotton threads before spinning, in the preservation of wood and hides, in the manufacture of lithopone white pigment, and in Calico printing and dyes industries. Zinc Sulphide (ZnS): This occurs in nature in the form of zinc blende. It is a white solid that is insoluble in water. This exhibits the virtue of phosphorescence, and therefore it is used in making phosphorescent screens. Zinc Chloride (ZnCl2): Anhydrated zinc chloride compound acts as a water absorber. The electroplating of ZnCl2 is done to protect costly wooden furniture from germs or insects.

Mercury Symbol: Hg, Atomic Number—80, Mass Number—200 Physical and Chemical Properties: Mercury is a white, shining metal like silver, which occurs in the liquid state at an ordinary temperature. Uses of Mercury: Mercury is a very useful liquid metal used in making mercury thermometres, barometres, and used as a contact liquid in electrical switches. It is also used in the industrial preparation of vermillion.

Compounds of Mercury Mercurous Chloride (Hg2Cl2): This is also called calomel. It is a white, crystalline powder which is insoluble in water and dilute acids. Mercuric Chloride (HgCl2): This is also called corrosive sublimate and is a deadly poison. This is a colourless, crystalline solid which is moderately soluble in cold water but extremely soluble in hot water. Mercuric Sulphide (HgS): This is also called vermillion, which is a red coloured solid crystalline substance.

Lead Symbol: Pb, Atomic Number—82, Mass Number—207 Physical and Chemical Properties of Lead: Lead is a soft, bluish grey metal with a bright lustre, and it is used as a paper marker. It doesn’t react with dry air but reacts with moist air and forms a layer of hydroxide first and then of carbonate. It also reacts with conc. H2SO4 in which SO2 gas is released. When it reacts with dil. HNO3, then nitric oxide is formed, while with conc. HNO3, NO2 gas is formed in the form of brownish smoke.

6.66  Chapter 6

Uses of Lead: Lead is a very useful metal, and it is used in making alloys, lead accumulators, lead shots (bullet) and coverings of electric cables, lead chambers, lead pipes, lead-arsenic bullets, in nuclear research, etc.

Compounds of Lead Lead Dioxide (PbO2): It is used in the match Industry for making the ignition surface of match boxes. It is also used for the preparation of KMnO4. Lead Acetate [Pb(CH3COO)2]: This is also called ‘sugar of lead’, and it is a white crystalline sugar-like substance soluble in water; its crystals are sweet in taste. Lead Tetra Ethyl [Pb(C2H5)4]: It is a colourless liquid having a special smell, soluble in petrol.

Uranium Symbol: U, Atomic Number—92, Mass Number—238 Physical and Chemical Properties: This is a lustrous, white metal. It is malleable and very ductile but an impure brittle metal. This is the most radioactive element which occurs naturally. Uranium is also called the ‘metal of hope’. Melting point and boiling point are 1850°C and 3500°C respectively. Isotopes of Uranium: There are three isotopes of uranium—92U234, 235 238 92U , and 92U . The most abundantly occurring uranium in nature is 238 (99.28%), while 92U235 (0.71%) and 92U234 (0.006%) occur in very 92U small amounts. The isotope 92U235 is used in nuclear (atomic) reactors as a nuclear fuel.

Non-metals In the modern periodic table, there are 22 non-metals, which include 11 gases, 1 liquid, and 10 solids. Bromine occurs in the state of liquid, while hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine, etc. are in gaseous state.

Hydrogen Symbol: H, Atomic Number—1, Mass Number—1 Uses of Hydrogen: This is used as a fuel (liquid hydrogen) in rockets, in the production of ammonia (NH3) by Haber’s process, in the manufacture of vegetable ghee, in the production of Gasolene, for filling balloons, etc.

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Various forms of Hydrogen Nascent Hydrogen: Nascent Hydrogen is that which is produced in situ and is highly reactive Hydrogen compared to the ordinary forms. Isotopes of Hydrogen: There are three isotopes of hydrogen— protium (1H1), deuterium (1H2), and tritium (1H3). 1. Protium (1H1): It has equal atomic number and mass number, equal to 1. 2. Deuterium (1H2): This is called heavy hydrogen and it has atomic number = 1, mass number = 2. It was discovered by Urey, Brickwedde and Murphy in 1931. It is used in explaining the mechanism of organic reactions and as a bombarding particle of nuclear reactions. 3. Tritium (1H3): Tritium (1H3) is a rarely occurring isotope of hydrogen, and it is a beta emitter and a radioactive substance. Atomic number and mass number are 1 and 3 respectively, while its half-life period is 12.4 years.

Compounds of Hydrogen and its Isotopes 1. Heavy Water (D2O): The density of heavy water (D2O) is more than that of ordinary water (H2O). 2. Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2): This is a light bluish dense liquid without any smell, and due to the presence of hydrogen bonding, it (H2O2) looks like ordinary water (H2O) and is an associated liquid. 3. Ordinary Water (H2O): This is a compound whose pure form is neutral, and its pH is 7. Pure water is a bad conductor of electricity, but acidic water is a good conductor of electricity. At 4°C, the density of water is maximum and its volume is minimum. Ordinary water transforms into ice at 0°C. Rain water is the purest form of water, and 97% parts of the entire water resources of the earth are assumed to be confined in ocean surroundings, while the remaining 3% are only assumed to be confined in the pure form. The conversion of water into ice and into water vapour are examples of physical changes.

Types of Water Hard Water: Hard water is not good for drinking because its taste is not good, and it is harmful for health. It contains (dissolved) chloride, sulphate and bicarbonate of calcium and magnesium salts. Also, washing soap doesn’t produce lather with hard water. Soft Water: Soft water is good for drinking because its taste is good, and it is not harmful for health. Washing soap produces lather with soft water.

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Hardness of Water: The hardness of water is of two types: 1. Permanent Hardness: The hardness of water due to the chloride and sulphate salts of calcium and magnesium is called permanent hardness of water. The permanent hardness of water is removed by mixing sodium carbonate into it, and sometimes it is also removed by boiling the hard water by the means of distillation. 2. Temporary Hardness: The hardness of water due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium is called temporary hardness of water. The temporary hardness of water can be removed by boiling it. If sodium carbonate is mixed with water and boiled, then both permanent and temporary hardness can be removed. Facts to Know! ❖❖ Water is said to be a universal solvent, because it has the ability to dissolve many substances within itself. Also, due to a larger value of the dielectric constant, water is assumed to be the best solvent.

❖❖ The purest form of ice that is virus free, geologically primitive, and nearly 2000–3000 years old is called blue ice. It is generally found in Greenland. Blue ice is used in making whisky.

❖❖ If ordinary water is boiled in a container for a long time, then a white coloured thick layer laminates the inner surface of the container, which is the carbonate of calcium and magnesium.

❖❖ Water exists in a liquid state because of hydrogen bonds. ❖❖ Water is purified by KMnO4, Cl2 gas, potash alum, etc. ❖❖ Poly Water: The chemical composition of poly water is similar to ordinary water, and it is prepared in a hair-shaped capillary. It freezes at –40°C, and its boiling point is 500°C. Poly water is assumed to be the most dangerous substance on the earth’s surface.

Silicon Symbol: Si, Atomic Number—14, Mass Number—28 Occurrence and uses of Silicon: Silicon occurs in nature abundantly in the form of sand and stone but is never found in free state. This is a nonmetallic element, which also exhibits the characteristic of allotropy. The hydride of silicon is called Silane.

Nitrogen Symbol: N, Atomic Number—7, Mass Number—17 Occurrence and uses of Nitrogen: Nitrogen is the main component of the atmospheric air, and in the form of compounds it is also found as

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ammonia, as ammonium compounds, and in nitrate forms. There are no allotropes of nitrogen as there are for carbon, and according to the volume, it is 78% of the atmospheric air. Nitrogen is also used in electric bulbs and thermometres for measuring high temperatures. It is also used in the storage of bull sperm for artificial pregnancy of cows. Fixation of Nitrogen: The process of transformation of atmospheric nitrogen by the bacteria in the roots, to useful nitrogenous compounds is called fixation of nitrogen. The fixation of nitrogen takes place both naturally and artificially. Symbiotic bacteria namely rhizobium take part in the nitrogen fixation process in the joints of the roots of leguminous plants. The process of transformation of nitrogenous compounds into nitrogen is called denitrification. Such a process is performed by certain bacteria called denitrifying bacteria. Also, in the process of denitrification, nitrogen released by its compounds goes directly into the atmosphere.

Compounds of Nitrogen Ammonia (NH3): Ammonia is manufactured at industrial level by Haber’s process. Liquefied ammonia is used in freezing ice in refrigerators. Ammonia is used in the production of ammonium salts and urea, in cleaning, in the production of nitric acid (HNO3) by Oswald’s process and in the production of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) by Solvay’s process, in the production of hydrogen, etc.

Phosphorus Symbol: P, Atomic Number—15, Mass Number—31 Occurrence and Extraction of Phosphorus: Phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal and easily catches fire in the air in nature. Animal bones contain nearly 58% calcium phosphate, while it is found in small amounts in the blood and urine of animals as well as in plants. There are various ores of phosphorus existing in nature, and a few of them are phosphorite [Ca3(PO4)2], chloraphite [Ca3(PO4)2CaCl2], and redonda phosphate (AlPO4).

Oxygen Symbol: O, (molecule formula—O2) Atomic Number—8, Mass Number—16

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Element – P-block Occurrence and Preparation of Oxygen Gas: Oxygen gas was first discovered by a Sweden based scientist Scheele, in 1772. It is a colourless, odourless gas, which is slightly heavier than atmospheric air. It reduces into a deep blue liquid on cooling; it doesn’t burn by itself but favours the process of combustion. A mixture of Helium, Hydrogen and Oxygen gas is used in artificial inhalation. There are three isotopes of oxygen—8O16, 8O17, and, 8O18.

Sulphur Symbol: S, Atomic Number—16, Mass Number—32 Allotropes of Sulphur: 1. Crystalline Allotropic Forms:

(a) Rhombic or Octahedral or a-sulphur. (b) Prismatic or Monoclinic or b-sulphur.

2. Non-crystalline Allotropic Forms:

(a) Plastic sulphur (b) White sulphur (c) Milky sulphur

Compounds of Sulphur 1. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2): During a volcanic eruption, the main gas which is released is sulphur dioxide. It is a colorless, suffocating gas with a bitter smell. This gas is also used as an antichlor. It exhibits the property of bleaching action, but it is temporary. The structure of SO2 is angular. 2. Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4): It is called the chemical king of all the acids, and is also known as oil of vitriol. On the industrial level, H2SO4 is manufactured by two processes—Contact process and Lead Chamber process. 3. Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S): During a volcanic eruption, hydrogen sulphide gas is also released in small amounts. This is basically a colourless gas, which is poisonous (toxic), and smells like rotten eggs.

Chlorine Symbol: Cl, Atomic Number—17, Mass Number—35 Uses: Chemical substances like bleaching powder, chloroform, etc. are manufactured by chlorine. It is also used as a drinking water purifier, as a germicide, in removing colours from garments and cloth, in whitening sugar,

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etc. It is also used in the production of toxic gases like phosgene, mustard gas, etc.

Bromine Symbol: Br, Atomic Number—35, Mass Number—80 Uses: In the production of salts of bromide, hypobromide, bromates etc. in making toxic and weeping gases, in the production of AgBr used in photography. It is also used as a reactant in organic chemistry, in the production of KBr, which is used in the form of sleeping drugs and pain relievers.

Iodine Symbol: I, Atomic Number—35 Uses: It is used as a tincture of iodine and iodoform in the form of antiseptics and analgesics. Iodex (compound of iodine) is used as an external application of pain reliever medicine for bone injuries. This is also used in the manufacture of several dyes and drugs, and in the preparation of photographic paper, film, and plates. Iodine is also used as a stronger germicide (insecticide).

Inert Gases Helium (He): This is a light non-volatile gas, and it is the second most abundant element found in the universe. Helium is used in filling aircraft tyres and due to its lightness with comparison to air, it helps in lifting the aircraft upward. To obtain weather related information or observations, helium gasfilled balloons are floated in the open sky, and relevant information is gathered for making calculations and predictions. The mixture of helium and oxygen is used by deep sea divers (sailor) in place of air, because, at higher pressure, helium is less soluble than nitrogen. A mixture of helium and oxygen is also used in artificial breathing, specially for patients suffering from asthma in hospitals. Liquid helium is used as a low temperature reagent in experiments occurring at a low temperature. Neon (Ne): This gas is frequently used in discharge lamps, fluorescent bulbs and in glazing advertisements. This is also used in neon lamps through which symbolic indication is given to aircraft pilots at the aerodrome or airport. In fact, these lamps shine brightly in the fog. Argon (Ar): This is the most abundantly occurring gas in the atmosphere, and it is used in filling ordinary electric bulbs, because in the presence of this gas, filaments of the bulb have a longer life and remain intact even after regular and longer use. This gas is also used in high temperature metallurgical

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operations and the processes involved in it or in creating vacuum (being evacuated) in arc welding of alloys. Xenon (Xe): This gas forms the maximum number of chemical compounds. Redon (Rn): This is a radioactive element. This element is used in radiotherapy in the treatment of cancer.

Carbon Carbon is the sixth most abundant element in the universe. It can exist in the free state or in the form of its compounds. It is the major chemical constituent of most organic matter. Carbon is the second most common element in the human body after oxygen. Carbon is present in coal, oil, and natural gas. Carbon atoms can form compounds by combining with other carbon atoms as well as with atoms of other elements. Carbon has the unique property of forming long chains of carbon atoms. These long chains serve as a backbone on which various groups can attach to give a large variety of compounds. Carbon can form bonds with atoms of other elements such as hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), There are three naturally occurring sulphur (S), and halogens. It also has isotopes of carbon—12C, 13C,14C. the property of self-combination, 14C is radioactive, and its half life that is, bond formation with other is 5,730 years. It is used in radio carbon atoms. This unique property carbon dating to determine the age of forming long chains is known as of formerly living things. catenation.

Organic Chemistry The chemical substances found in living beings were called organic substances in earlier time. But the modern day modified concepts about organic chemistry which are internationally accepted by IUPAC on the basis of consensus are given below:

Classification of Organic Compounds Organic compounds are broadly classified into two categories: 1. Aliphatic or Open Chain Compounds: Organic compounds in which carbon atoms are attached in an open chain are called aliphatic compounds. These compounds exist in such a way that carbon atoms are attached in branched or straight chains. 2. Cyclic Compounds (a) Carbocyclic or Homocyclic Compounds: Those cyclic compounds which are composed of carbon atoms only are called carbocyclic or

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homocyclic compounds. These carbocyclic compounds may further be divided into two groups:





(i) Aromatic Compounds: The word aromatic is derived from the word ‘aroma’ which implies smell. The cyclic carbon compounds in which six carbon atoms form a closed chain are called aromatic compounds. The organic compounds like benzene, phenol, aniline, etc. are examples of aromatic compounds. (ii) Alicyclic Compounds: Some characteristics of cyclic compounds which have closed chains exhibit more resemblance to the aliphatic. (b) Heterocyclic Compounds: The cyclic compounds in which the closed chain is made from elements other than carbon are called heterocyclic compounds.

Methane is called the father of all the aliphatic organic compounds. Benzene is called the father of all the aromatic organic compounds.

Allotropes of Carbon Diamond Diamonds are formed inside the earth under conditions of high temperature (about 1,500°C) and high pressure (about 70,000 atmospheres). The three-dimensional network of covalently bonded carbon atoms provides a rigid structure to diamonds. This rigidity makes diamond a very hard substance. The density of diamond is high. It has a value of 3.51 g cm–3. The melting point of diamond (in vacuum) is also very high, i.e., 3,500°C, because a large amount of heat energy is required to break the three-dimensional network of covalent bonds. Diamond has the following uses: ❖❖ It is used in cutting and grinding of other hard materials. ❖❖ It is also employed in instruments used for the cutting of glass and the drilling of rocks. ❖❖ It is used in jewellery. Beautiful ornaments are made with diamonds. The high refractive index of diamond (2.5) makes it brilliant when it is properly cut and polished.

Graphite In contrast to diamond, graphite is a soft, black, and slippery solid. It has a metallic lustre. It is also a good conductor of electricity and heat.

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Graphite contains layers of carbon atoms. In each layer, a particular carbon atom is linked to three other carbon atoms in a trigonal planar arrangement with a bond angle of 120°. Thus, three electrons of carbon are covalently bonded to the other three carbon atoms. The fourth electron, which does not participate in bonding, is free. These electrons of various carbon atoms are free to move along between the layers, and, hence, are able to conduct electricity. Graphite can be converted into diamond by applying a very high atmospheric pressure and temperature. Graphite has the following uses: ❖❖ It is used as a dry lubricant for moving machine parts which operate at a high temperature and where ordinary oil lubricants cannot be used. ❖❖ It is used for making electrodes in dry cells and in electric arcs. ❖❖ It is used for making pencil leads. Because of its soft nature and layered structure, it leaves black marks on paper. Hence, it is used for writing, as lead in pencils. ❖❖ It is used for making containers which are used for melting metals.

Fullerenes Fullerenes are formed when vaporized carbon condenses in an atmosphere of an inert gas. These materials would find uses as superconducting materials, new catalysts, polymers, etc. Charcoal is formed when wood is heated strongly in the absence of air. It has a large surface area. Activated charcoal is a pulverized form whose surface has been made free from any adsorbed materials by heating with steam. It is widely used for adsorbing coloured impurities and bad odors from water and other substances. Coke is an impure form of carbon. It is formed when coal is strongly heated in the absence of air. It is used as a reducing agent in metallurgy.

Compounds of Carbon The compounds of carbon can be classified as organic and inorganic compounds. Earlier, the organic compounds were defined as those compounds which originated from living organisms, but it is now possible to synthesize organic compounds in the laboratory; therefore, they are now defined as compounds of carbon. The compounds of carbon which are not organic compounds are called inorganic compounds.

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Oxides of Carbon Carbon monoxide is formed when carbon or hydrocarbons are burned in a limited supply of oxygen. 2C(s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g) It is a major air pollutant and is released in large quantities from automobile engines. Its low level poisoning causes headache and drowsiness, whereas large amounts can even cause death. It is toxic because it reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood by binding with haemoglobin, the red pigment of blood. Carbon dioxide is formed when carbon containing substances are burnt in excess of oxygen. C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O Uses of carbon dioxide: ❖❖ Solid carbon dioxide, also called dry ice, is used as a refrigerant because when it is cooled at atmospheric pressure, it condenses into a solid rather than as a liquid. This solid sublimes at –78°C. ❖❖ It is used in the production of carbonated drinks. ❖❖ It is used in the production of washing soda (Na2CO3 ⋅ 10H2O) and baking soda (NaHCO3).

Hydrocarbons As the name suggests, hydrocarbons are compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen. The main source of hydrocarbons is petroleum.

Hydrocarbons can be divided into various classes Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: The word aliphatic is derived from the Greek word aleiphar meaning fat. Aliphatic hydrocarbons were named so because they were derived from fats and oils. Hydrocarbons can be acyclic compounds, which are straight chain compounds, or cyclic compounds, which have rings of carbon atoms. Aromatic Hydrocarbons: The word aromatic is derived from the word aroma meaning fragrance. Aromatic compounds have a characteristic smell. Structurally, they include benzene and its derivatives. The aliphatic

6.76  Chapter 6

hydrocarbons can be divided into two categories: saturated hydrocarbons and unsaturated hydrocarbons. In saturated hydrocarbons, carbon atoms are linked to each other by single bonds, whereas in unsaturated hydrocarbons, multiple bonds (double and triple bonds) are present between carbon atoms.

Compounds in Our Surroundings Alcohols They are named by replacing the final ‘e’ of the parent alkane by ‘ol’. Some examples of alcohols are given: Example: CH3OH—Methanol and C2H5OH—Ethanol Alcohols are soluble in water because they can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. Methanol (CH3OH): Methanol is also called wood alcohol because it was earlier obtained by heating wood in the absence of air. It has many industrial uses. It is used in the synthesis of acetic acid and many adhesives, fibres, and plastics. It is also used as an additive to petrol and also as a fuel. Ethanol (C2H5OH): Ethanol is present in beer, wine, and medicines. It is produced by the fermentation of carbohydrates such as glucose and starch present in grapes, barley, etc.

Fuels These are substances which produce heat and light on combustion. Substances such as wood, charcoal, and kerosene are used as sources of heat energy for domestic and industrial purposes. These substances are called fuels.

Calorific Value It is defined as the heat obtained when 1 g of a fuel is burnt in excess of oxygen and is expressed in kCl/g.

❖❖ An ideal fuel is cheap, readily combustible, and easy to transport. It has high calorific value. It does not produce gases or residues that pollute the environment. ❖❖ Fuels differ in their efficiency and cost. Fuel efficiency is expressed in terms of calorific value which is expressed in units of kJ/g.

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Calorific Values of different Fuels Name of the Fuel Charcoal Coal Wood Cow dung cake Kerosene Fuel oil Ethyl alcohol Hydrogen Methane Butane Biogas

Calorific Value (kJ/g) 33 25–33 17 7–8 48 45 30 150 55 55 35–40

Coal: It is believed to have been formed by the slow carbonization of vegetable matter buried underneath the earth centuries ago, in limited supply of air under high temperature and pressure. It is available in different varieties:

1. Peat—contains 60% carbon 2. Lignite—contains 70% carbon 3. Bituminous—contains 80% carbon 4. Anthracite—contains 90% carbon

❖❖ Coal contains a number of aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene, toluene, xylene, and naphthalene. These aromatic hydrocarbons are obtained by destructive distillation of coal. On heating at 1270–1675 K in the absence of air, coal decomposes and gives products like Coke. ❖❖ Coke is the solid residue left after the distillation. It is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in different metallurgical processes. ❖❖ Coal tar is a thick black viscous liquid with unpleasant odour. It is a mixture of about 700 substances. Products obtained from coal tar are used as the starting material for manufacturing various substances used in everyday life and in industry, like synthetic dyes, drugs, explosives, perfumes, plastics, paints, photographic materials, roofing materials, etc.

Petroleum ❖❖ Petroleum (Petra = rock, oleum = oil) is a fossil fuel with a mixture of hydrocarbons. It is a dark viscous liquid. It occurs at various depths under the crust of the earth.

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❖❖ It is believed that it was formed beneath the earth’s strata by the decomposition of dead remains of organisms living in the sea. When these organisms died, their bodies settled at the bottom of the sea and got covered with many layers of sand and clay. Over the years, these dead organisms transformed into petroleum and natural gas due to the absence of air, high temperature, and pressure.

Refining of Petroleum ❖❖ Petroleum gas, light petrol, petrol, kerosene oil, fuel oil (diesel oil), lubricating oil, and paraffin wax are the various constituents of petroleum. ❖❖ The process of separating various constituents/fractions of petroleum is known as refining. It is carried out in a petroleum refinery.

Various Fractions of Petroleum and their Uses Fractions

Composition Boiling Range (K) Uses

Gaseous hydrocarbons

C2 – C4

Crude naphtha C3 – C10 (Petroleum ether, petrol, benzene)

More than 303°C

As fuel gas after liquefaction, carbon black.

303–423°C

As a solvent in varnish and rubber industry for dry-cleaning, motor fuel.

Kerosene Oil

C10 – C13

423–513°C

As a fuel, manufacturing of oil gas.

Fuel oil (gas oil, diesel, furnace oil)

C13 – C18

513–623°C

Fuel of diesel engines, cracking stock for gasoline.

Lubricant oil (medicinal oil, motor oil and grease)

C15 – C18

Above 543°C

Paint oil, transformer oil, lubrication.

Paraffin wax (Petroleum jelly, petroleum wax, petroleum coke)

C18 – C30

More than 673°C

Ointment, paints, water proofing, solid fuel, candles, etc.

Heavy fuel oil and bitumen

C–30 onwards

Residue

Paints, road surfacing.

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Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) It is a mixture of n-butane, iso-butane, and some propane. It is easily compressed under pressure as a liquid and stored in iron cylinders. A strong foul smelling substance called ethyl mercaptan is added to LPG which helps to detect gas leakage.

Compressed Natural Gas It consists mainly of methane (95%), which is a relatively unreactive hydrocarbon. Octane Number Octane number is the percentage of iso-octane in the mixture of iso-octane and n-Heptane which has the same knocking properties as the fuel sample. Higher the octane number, better is the fuel.

Cetane Number Cetane number is the percentage of cetane in the mixture of cetane and a-methyl naphthalene which has the same knocking properties as the fuel sample.

Biogas ❖❖ It is a mixture of gases produced during decay of biomass in the absence of oxygen. ❖❖ Methane (75%) is the main constituent of biogas. ❖❖ It is an excellent fuel and burns without producing smoke. Ethylene (CH2 = CH2): It is used as an anaesthetic for the preservation and artificial ripening of green fruits and also used in the manufacture of ethyl alcohol, ethylene glycol, polythene, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Acetylene (CH = CH): A colourless gas with a sweet smell. The characteristic odour associated with acetylene is due to phosphine present as an impurity. It is dangerously explosive in liquid state, so its use or storage is prohibited by law. Benzene (C6H6): It is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon. It was discovered by Faraday in 1825. He obtained it by the destructive distillation of whale oil. It is used as a solvent for fats, resins, etc. in dry-cleaning, and it is also used as a motor fuel under the name benzol. Toluene (C6H5CH3): It was first obtained by the dry distillation of Tolu Balsam. It is used as a commercial solvent in the manufacture of explosive (TNT), drugs (chloramine-T) and dyestuffs. It finds use in the manufacturing

6.80  Chapter 6

of saccharin and printing inks. With petrol and benzene, toluene is used as an antifreeze. Xylene (C8H10): It is used in the manufacturing of lacquers and as solvents for rubber. Naphthalene (C10Hg): It constitutes about 6–10% of coal tar. It is a colourless crystalline solid with a strong characteristic odour. It is used for preventing moths in clothes, as an insecticide and in the manufacture of azodyes, eosin, and indigo.

Chemicals used in Our Surroundings Fertilizers ❖❖ These are the chemical substances which are rich in a particular nutrient. They supply nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Continuous use of fertilizer in an area can destroy soil fertility. A chemical fertilizer should be completely soluble in water, easily assimilated by plants, and stable so that elements are retained in the soil for longer durations. It should not disturb the pH of the soil. ❖❖ Major nitrogenous fertilizers are ammonium sulphate, calcium cyanamide, basic calcium nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate, and urea. ❖❖ Urea is the best fertilizer as it leaves only carbon dioxide after ammonia, which has been assimilated by plants. It has 46.6% nitrogen, and it does not alter the pH of the soil. ❖❖ Mixture of Ca (CN)2 and C is known as nitrolim. Commercially, calcium nitrate is known as Norwegian salt-peter. ❖❖ Calcium superphosphate, nitro phosphate, triple phosphate, and phosphatic slag (Thomas slag) are some important phosphatic fertilizers. ❖❖ The mixture of nitrogenous, phosphatic, and potash fertilizers in suitable amounts, is called NPK fertilizers. ❖❖ NP fertilizers are prepared by mixing nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers in a definite ratio. Dihydrogen ammoniated phosphate and calcium superphosphate are examples of NP fertilizers.

Pesticides ❖❖ Pesticides are chemicals which are applied to crops, e.g., DDT and Malathion to kill those pests which adversely affect the growth and strength of plants.

Insecticides ❖❖ These kill the insects which attack crops, livestock, buildings, and human beings.

Everyday Science    6.81

Fungicides ❖❖ Control parasitic and saprophytic fungi that live at the expense of growing and stored crops.

Nematicides ❖❖ Kill eelworms that feed on growing crops.

Molluscicides ❖❖ Kill slugs and snails and are usually active after ingestion.

Herbicides ❖❖ These are commonly known as weed killers and are pesticides used to kill unwanted plants. The first widely used herbicide was 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, often abbreviated 2,4-D. Atrazine and glyphosate are other examples. Phenoxy herbicides are often contaminated with dioxins such as TCDD. Researchers have suggested that such contamination results in a small rise in cancer risk after exposure to these herbicides.

Rodenticides ❖❖ This is a category of pest-control chemicals intended to kill rodents. Rodents are difficult to kill with poisons because their feeding habits reflect their place as scavengers. They will eat a small bit of something and wait, and if they do not get sick, they continue. An effective rodenticide must be tasteless and odourless in lethal concentrations and must have a delayed effect.

Explosives ❖❖ These are substances that contain a great amount of stored energy which is enough to produce an explosion. A sudden expansion of the materials after initiation leads to the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. A chemical explosive may consist of either a chemically pure compound, such as nitroglycerine or a mixture of a fuel and an oxidiser.

Fire Crackers ❖❖ A firecracker is a small explosive device primarily designed to produce a large amount of noise, especially in the form of a loud bang; any visual effect is incidental to this goal. Fire crackers are generally made up of

6.82  Chapter 6

cardboard or plastic with black powder as the propellant. Black powder or gun powder contains potassium nitrate (KNO3), charcoal, and sulphur. The entire firecracker must be very tightly packed in order for it to work best.

Polymers ❖❖ The word polymer comes from two Greek words; ‘poly’ means many and ‘mer’ means unit or part. So, a polymer is made up of many repeating units. These are used to manufacture plastic toys, cups, buckets, synthetic clothing materials, machine parts, automobile tyres, gears and seals, electrical insulating materials, etc. ❖❖ Polymers are the backbone of four major industries: plastics, fibres, elastomers, paints and varnishes. ❖❖ A polymer is a compound of high molecular weight formed by the union of a larger number of molecules of one or two types with low molecular weight (known as monomers), and the process involving the formation of a polymer is called polymerization.

Plastics ❖❖ These are cross-linked polymers (a substance having high molecular weight and repeating unit) and are very tough. ❖❖ Lac is a natural plastic (polymer). These are two types:

1. Thermoplastics are polymers which can be easily softened on heating, for example, polythene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, Teflon, etc. 2. Thermosetting plastics are polymers which undergo permanent change on heating due to excessive cross-linking. These cannot be reused. Example, Bakelite.

Fibers ❖❖ They have strong intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonding. Examples are nylon-66, Dacron. Orlon, etc.

Natural Rubber ❖❖ Natural rubber is a linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-l, 3-butadiene). It is also called c/s-l, 4-polyisoprene. It is obtained from latex of the bark of rubber trees.

Everyday Science    6.83

❖❖ Vulcanization of rubber is the heating of rubber with sulphur. It makes rubber hard, strong and more elastic. ❖❖ Rubber made with 1–3% sulphur is soft and stretchy and used in making rubber bands, while rubber made with 3–10% sulphur is more rigid and is used in the manufacture of tyres. ❖❖ Synthetic rubber was discovered by Mathews and Harris. Neoprene, Buna-N, Buna-S, and thiokol are some examples of synthetic rubber. ❖❖ Neoprene (Polychloroprene) has a superior resistance to vegetable and mineral oils. It is used for manufacturing conveyor belts, hoses, and gaskets. ❖❖ Buna-N is a copolymer of butadiene and styrene. It is resistant to the action of petrol, lubricating oil, and organic solvents. It is used in making oil seals, tank linings, etc. ❖❖ Buna-S is a copolymer of 1, 3-butadiene and styrene. It is also known as SBR. It is used in the manufacture of automobile tyres, rubber soles, etc.

Rayon ❖❖ It is a semisynthetic polymer (obtained from natural polymers). It is obtained by chemical treatment of wood pulp (cellulose). It is also known as artificial silk because its properties are similar to those of silk. It is mixed with cotton to make bed sheets, and mixed with wool to make carpets.

Alcoholic Products ❖❖ The slow decomposition of organic matter into simpler substances in the presence of enzymes is known as fermentation. ❖❖ It is used to prepare alcoholic beverages from grape juice and other fruit juices in the presence of yeast. The liquid appears as boiling (in Latin, ferntre means to boil) due to the release of CO2 gas. ❖❖ Souring of milk and kneaded flour on keeping in hot weather are the examples of fermentation. ❖❖ Alcoholic beverages are used for drinking purposes. These are prepared from different materials and contain different percentages of alcohol.

Soaps ❖❖ Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids, such as oleic acid (C17H33COOH), stearic acid (C17H35COOH) and palmitic acid (C15H31COOH). Soaps are prepared by saponification of glycerides.

6.84  Chapter 6

❖❖ Only sodium and potassium soaps are soluble in water and are used for cleaning purpose. Some important soaps are: ●● ●●

Sodium palmitate (C15H31COONa), Sodium stearate (C17H35COONa)

❖❖ Toilet soaps are prepared by using better grades of fats and oils. Colour and perfumes are also added to make these more attractive. ❖❖ Transparent soaps are prepared by dissolving the soap in ethanol and then evaporating excess ethanol. ❖❖ Medicated soaps contain substances of medicinal value. ❖❖ Laundry soaps contain sodium rosinate, sodium silicate, borax, and sodium carbonate.

Detergents ❖❖ Synthetic detergents are soap less as they do not contain any soap. These are cleansing agents and have all the properties of soaps. Detergents contain a sulphonic acid group (—SO3H) instead of a carboxylic acid group (—COOH) on one end of the hydrocarbon chain. ❖❖ Detergents get preference over soaps because they work even in hard water. ❖❖ Detergents with straight chains of hydrocarbons are preferred over branched chains as the latter are non-biodegradable and cause environmental pollution. ❖❖ Detergents are of three types: ●● ●● ●●

Anionic detergents (sodium lauryl sulphate and sodium dodecyl benzene sulphonate). Cationic detergents (cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide). Non-ionic detergents (polyethylene glycol stearate).

Fire Extinguishers ❖❖ For combustion to take place, three essential requirements are, fuel (combustible substance), air (to supply oxygen), and ignition temperature. ❖❖ Fire can be controlled by removing one or more of these requirements. The job of a fire extinguisher is to cut off the supply of air or to bring down the temperature of the fuel, or both. ❖❖ Fire extinguishers are of different types: ●●

Water as a Fire Extinguisher: The most common fire extinguisher is water. But water works only when things like wood and paper are on fire.

Everyday Science    6.85 ●●

●●

●●

Soda-acid Fire Extinguishers: These are used to extinguish fire caused by oil burning. These release carbon dioxide and also cool the burning substance. Carbon dioxide is the best extinguisher because it is heavier than oxygen, and it covers the fire like a blanket. As the contact between the fuel and oxygen is cut off, the fire is controlled. Foams Extinguishers: These are used in case of burning oils. Foam is lighter than oil, so it rests on the oil surface and cuts off the supply of oxygen. Electrical Fire Extinguishers: Water and foam conduct electricity, so these cannot be used in case of electrical fire. Carbon tetrachloride is heavier than air, non-combustible, and a non-supporter of combustion, so it is used as an electrical fire extinguisher.

Chemicals used in Medicines Drugs Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses. These interact with macromolecular targets and produce a biological response. When the biological response is useful, these chemicals are called medicines. These are used in diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases.

Analgesics (Pain Relievers) These reduce pain without causing disturbance in the nervous system. These are of two types—non-narcotic analgesics and narcotic analgesics. ❖❖ Aspirin and paracetamol are non-narcotic analgesics. ❖❖ Narcotic analgesics are morphine, heroin, and codeine.

Tranquilizers These are used for the treatment of stress and mild or even severe mental diseases. They form an essential component of sleeping pills. Different types of tranquilizers function by different mechanisms. For example: ❖❖ Anti-depressant drugs—For example, Iproniazid and phenelzine, Chlordiazepoxide and meprobamate are mild tranquilizers used for relieving tensions. ❖❖ Equanil is used in controlling depression and hypertension. ❖❖ Hypnotic (sleep producing agents)—Derivatives of barbituric acid such as luminal, and amytal are known as barbiturates.

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Chapter 6

Anaesthetics ❖❖ These drugs are generally administered by an anaesthesia provider in order to reduce or maintain general anaesthesia (reversible loss of consciousness) to facilitate surgery. ❖❖ These are given as gases (or vapours) or by injections (intravenous desflurane, isoflurane and sevoflurane are the most widely used volatile anaesthetics today). These are combined with nitrous oxide. ❖❖ Anaesthetists prefer to use intravenous injections as they are faster. The most widely used drugs are propofol, etomidate, barbiturates, benzodiazepine, etc.

Antibiotics ❖❖ These drugs are used to treat infections. Initially, these are produced from microorganisms. These have either a killing effect (cidal effect) or inhibitory effect (static effect) on microbes. Some commonly used antibiotics are sulphanilamide, sulphapyridine, penicillin, chloramphenicol, vancomycin, ofloxacin, and dysidazirine.

Antiseptics and Disinfectants ❖❖ These are chemicals that either kill or prevent the growth of microorganisms. Antiseptics are applied to living tissues, while disinfectants are applied to inanimate objects such as floors and instruments. Some examples of antiseptics are: ●❖

●❖ ●❖ ●❖ ●❖

Do you Know? Alexander Fleming isolated penicillin from penicillium fungus (1929). Penicillin-G is effective against short range of bacteria (narrow spectrum antibiotics). Ampicillin and amoxycillin are synthetic modifications of penicillins. They are effective against a wide range of bacteria (broad spectrum antibiotics).

Dettol is a commonly used antiseptic. It is a mixture of chloroxylenol and terpineol. Bithionol is added to soap due to its antiseptic properties. Tincture of iodine a 2–3% solution of I, in alcohol-water mixture. Boric acid in dilute aqueous solutions is used as an antiseptic for eyes. Some examples of disinfectants: ✶❖ 1% solution of phenol, ✶❖ 0.2 to 0.4 ppm of chlorine in aqueous solution (disinfectant for

drinking water), and ✶❖ sulphur dioxide (SO2) in very low concentration (preservation of

squashes).

Everyday Science    6.87

Antacids ❖❖ They remove the excess acid and raise the pH to an appropriate level in the stomach. Sodium hydrogen carbonate, a mixture of aluminium and magnesium hydroxide (gel), is used as an antacid. However, excessive use of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) makes the stomach alkaline and triggers the production of even more acid.

Chemicals used in Food ❖❖ Chemicals that are added to food for adding nutritive value, enhancing their appeal and their preservation are called food additives. Some important food additives are food colours, flavours and sweeteners, fat emulsifiers and stabilising agents, flours improvers—antistaling agents and bleaches, preservatives, antioxidants, and nutritional supplements. ❖❖ These food additives, except nutritional supplements, increase the shelf life of stored food and are also used for cosmetic purposes. Minerals, vitamins, and amino acids are used as nutritional supplements.

Artificial Sweeteners ❖❖ Aspartame, saccharin, sucralose, and alitame are some of the examples of artificial sweeteners. ❖❖ Ortho sulphobenzimide, commonly known as saccharin, was the first popular artificial sweetening agent. It is about 550 times as sweet as cane sugar. ❖❖ Aspartame is used in cold foods and soft drinks, because it is unstable at cooking temperature. ❖❖ Artificial sweetening agents do not provide calories; therefore, they are used by the people who need to control intake of calories and by diabetic people.

Food Preservatives They prevent spoilage of food due to microbial growth. Salt, sugar, and vegetable oils are the most commonly used preservatives. Sodium benzoate is used in limited quantities and is metabolised to hippuric acid and excreted in urine. Salts of propionic acid and sorbic acid are also used as preservatives.

Food Colouring The chemicals that are used to impart colour to food and increase the visual appeal are called edible colours.

6.88  Chapter 6

Common Natural Colours Common natural colours are chlorophyll, saffron, caramel, turmeric, etc. Some important synthetic colours are indigo, carmine, erythrosine, etc.

Chemicals in Cosmetics Coal tar is an important source of various chemicals used in cosmetics such as perfumes, deodorants, creams, nail polish, etc. Chemical

Cosmetics

Acetone

Nail polish remover

Benzaldehyde

Vaseline, shaving cream, perfume, etc.

Benzoic acid

Creams and lotions

Benzyl acetate

Perfumes, deodorants, soaps, detergents

Benzyl alcohol

Colognes, fibre softeners

Pollution Pollution is the contamination of material particles or energy into the natural environment. It causes adverse effects on the ecosystem.

Types of Pollution Air Pollution: It occurs when any harmful gases, dust, smoke enter into the atmosphere and make it difficult for plants, animals, and humans to survive. Common respiratory diseases associated with air pollution are asthma, bronchitis, etc. Water Pollution: It is due to the presence of foreign substances like sewage, algae, and soluble salts in water. It can also be due to the presence of metals in water. This pollution causes the following diseases. Metal

Disease

Chromium and Arsenic

Cancer

Cadmium

Itai-itai disease

Mercury

Minamata disease

For a healthy aquatic life, dissolved oxygen (DO) is 5–6 ppm. For clean water, BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) is less than 5 ppm, while for highly polluted water, it is 17 ppm or more.

Everyday Science    6.89

Soil Pollution It is an alteration in the soil. It is caused by pesticides like insecticides (e.g., DDT, BHC, etc.), herbicides (e.g., sodium chlorate), and fungicides (e.g., organomercury compounds).

Hazardous Effects of Pollution Greenhouse Effect: It is the heating of the earth and its objects because of trapping of IR radiations by carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH3), nitric oxide (NO), ozone (O3), chlorofluoro carbons (CCFCs), and water vapours. Global Warming: It is the result of an increased concentration of greenhouse gases. It may result in melting of ice caps and glaciers, spreading of several infectious diseases like malaria and sleeping sickness. Acid Rain: It has pH less than 5. It is due to the presence of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur in the air that dissolve in rain water and form nitric acid and sulphuric acid. ❖❖ It damages buildings and other structures made up of limestone and results in several diseases such as skin infections. ❖❖ pH of normal rain water is 5.6. Pollutants: These are substances that contaminate the environment, and are of two types: 1. Primary Pollutants: These persist in the environment in the form they are produced in, for example, sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), etc. 2. Secondary Pollutants: These are the products of reactions of primary pollutants, for example, PAN (perocyacylnitrates), ozone (O3), aldehydes, etc. Smog: It is a consequence of particulate pollution and is of two types: 1. Classical Smog: It is also called London type smog. It is reducing in nature. 2. Photochemical Smog: It is also called Los Angeles smog. It occurs in warm, dry, and sunny climates by the action of sunlight on unsaturated hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide. It is oxidizing in nature.

Tropospheric Pollution This is the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air. Gaseous air pollutants are S, N and C, H2S, hydrocarbons, ozone, and other oxidants. Particulate pollutants are dust, mist, fumes, smoke, smog, etc.

6.90  Chapter 6

Stratospheric Pollution Stratospheric pollution means depletion of the ozone layer (ozone hole) by certain compounds like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), oxides of nitrogen (which are released into the upper atmosphere from engines of supersonic transport planes).

Common and Chemical Names of Some Compounds Common Name

Chemical Name

Chemical Formulae

Dry Ice

Solid Carbon dioxide

CO2

Bleaching Powder Calcium Oxychloride

CaOCL2

Caustic Soda

Sodium Hydroxide

NaOH

Rock Salt

Sodium Chloride

NaCL

Caustic Potash

Potassium Hydroxide

KOH

Potash Alum

Potassium Aluminium Sulphate K2SO4 ⋅ Al2(SO4)3 ⋅ 24H2O

Quick Lime

Calcium Oxide

CaO

Plaster of Paris

Calcium Sulphate

(CaSO4) ⋅ ½H2O

Gypsum

Calcium Sulphate

CaSO4 ⋅ 2H2O

Green Vitriol

Ferrous Sulphate

FeSO4 ⋅ 7H2O

Mohr’s Salt

Ammonium Ferrous Sulphate

FeSO4(NH4)2SO4 ⋅ 6H2O

Blue Vitriol

Copper Sulphate

CuSO4 ⋅ 5H2O

White Vitriol

Zinc Sulphate

ZnSO4 ⋅ 7H2O

Potash Ash

Potassium Carbonate

K2CO3

Hypo

Sodium Thiosulphate

Na2S2O3 ⋅ 5H2O

Baking Powder

Sodium Bicarbonate

NaHCO3

Washing Soda

Sodium Carbonate

Na2CO3 ⋅ 10H2O

Chalk (Marble)

Calcium Carbonate

CaCO3

Lunar Caustic

Silver Nitrate

AgNO3

Laughing Gas

Nitrous Oxide

N 2O

Chloroform

Trichloro Methane

CHCl3

Heavy Water

Deuterium Oxide

D 2O

T.N.T.

Tri Nitrotoluene

C6H2CH3(NO2)3

Everyday Science    6.91

Section C: Biology Cells The structural and functional unit of all the organisms or living beings is called a cell, and the study of the function and structure of cells is known as Cytology. With the discovery of the electron microscope in 1940 by Zacharias Janssen, it was possible to observe and understand the complex structure of the cell and its various organelles. The cell was first invented by an English Scientist Robert Hooke in 1665, and he asserted that cell has been made from a life-saving substance.

Difference between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells Organisms

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

Monera, Eubacteria and Archaebacteria

Protists, Fungi, Plants, and Animals

Meaning of name Pro = before

Eu = after

Karyon = nucleus

Karyon = nucleus

Evolution

3.5 billion years ago

1.5 billion years ago

Cell number

Unicellular

Multicellular

Cell Wall

Almost all have cell walls

Fungi and plants (made up of chitin and cellulose, respectively): not present in animal cell

Organelles

Usually none

Many different ones with specialized functions

Metabolism

Anaerobic and aerobic both

Mostly aerobic

Genetic material

Single circular doublestranded DNA

Complex chromosomes usually in pairs; each with a single doublestranded DNA molecule and associated proteins contained in a nucleus

Location of genetic information

Nucleoid region

Nucleus

(Contd.)

6.92  Chapter 6

Mode of division

Image*

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

Binary fission mostly; budding

Mitosis and meiosis using a spindle: followed by cytokinesis

Ribosome

Pilus

Cell wall

Cell membrane Nucleus Nucleolus Vacuole Lysosome

Capsule Ribosome

Cytoplasm

Flagellum Nucleoid (DNA) Cell membrane

Fig. 6.9

Mitochondrion

Endoplasmic Golgi reticulum complex

Fig. 6.10

* Refer p. 6.181 for the enlarged images

Cell Organelles Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane ❖❖ Cell membrane is also called the plasma membrane. It can be observed only through an electron microscope. Plasma membrane is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from its external environment. ❖❖ The plasma membrane is flexible and is made up of organic molecules called lipids and proteins. ❖❖ Endocytosis: The flexibility of the cell membrane also enables the cell to engulf food and other materials from its external environment. Such processes are known as endocytosis (endo → internal; cyto → of a cell). Amoeba acquires its food through such processes. ❖❖ Plasmolysis or Exocytosis: When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis, there is shrinkage or contraction of the contents of the cell away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis (plasma → fluid; lysis → disintegration, decomposition). ❖❖ Diffusion: Plasma membrane is a selectively permeable membrane. The plasma membrane is porous and allows the movement of substances or materials both inward and outward. Some substances like carbon dioxide or oxygen can move across the cell membrane by a process called diffusion (spontaneous movement of a substance from a region of high concentration [hypertonic solution] to a region of low concentration [hypotonic solution]). ❖❖ Osmosis: Water also obeys the law of diffusion. The movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane is called

Everyday Science    6.93

osmosis. Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a semi-permeable membrane to a region of low water concentration. Thus, osmosis is a special case of diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane. ❖❖ Reverse Osmosis (RO): Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification technology that uses a semi-permeable membrane to remove larger particles from drinking water. In RO, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure. RO is the phenomenon where pure water flows from a dilute solution (hypotonic) through a semi-permeable membrane to a higher concentrated solution (hypertonic).

Cell Wall The cell wall is found in fungi and plant cells. The cell wall is made from a non-living substance, and in various plant communities, the composition of the cell walls are different. The cell wall of algae and developed green plants are made of cellulose, while the cell walls of bacteria and fungi are made from carbohydrates.

Cytoplasm It is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane and the nucleus. The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane. It also contains many specialized cell organelles (mitochondria, Golgi bodies, ribosomes, etc.).

Nucleus It is an important component of the living cell. It is generally spherical and located in the centre of the cell. The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double-layered membrane called the nuclear membrane.

Chromosomes These carry genes and help in inheritance or transfer of characters from the parents to the offspring. The chromosomes can be seen only when the cell divides.

Gene Gene is the unit of inheritance in living organisms. It controls the transfer of hereditary characteristics from parents to offspring. This means that your parents pass some of their characteristics on to you.

6.94  Chapter 6

Nucleoplasm The nucleoplasm is the protoplasm present inside the nucleus of the cell. The nucleoplasm is basically made from protein, phosphorus, and nucleic acids which are abundantly found in it.

Nucleolus There is one or more spherical structures inside the nucleus of the cell called nucleolus. The main function of a nucleolus is the synthesis of r-RNA and also to collect ribosomes inside the nucleolus.

Nucleotide and Nucleoside When heterocyclic rings are attached to a sugar, they are called nucleosides. If a phosphate group is also found esterified to the sugar, they are called nucleotides.

DNA and RNA The particles in the nucleus of the cell responsible for heredity are called chromosomes, which are made up of proteins and another type of biomolecules called nucleic acids. Nucleic acids are responsible for the transfer of characters from parents to off springs. There are two types of nucleic acids—DNA and RNA. A nucleic acid that contains deoxyribose sugar is called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), while that which contains ribose sugar is called ribonucleic acid (RNA). Both DNA and RNA contain Adenine, Guanine, and Cytosine. The fourth base is Thymine in DNA and Uracil in RNA. The structure of DNA is a double strand (helix), whereas RNA is a single-strand molecule. Hydrogen bonds bind the nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands to make double-stranded DNA. Know More! DNA Fingerprinting ❖❖ It is known that every individual has unique fingerprints. These are at the tips of the fingers and have been used for identification for a long time, but these can be altered by surgery. ❖❖ A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a person, and information regarding this is called DNA fingerprinting. It is the same for every cell and cannot be altered by any known treatment. ❖❖ DNA fingerprinting is now used in forensic laboratories for identification of criminals, to determine paternity of an individual, to identify dead bodies in accidents by comparing the DNA of parents or children, and also in the identification of racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.

Everyday Science    6.95

Lysosomes ❖❖ Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell. Lysosomes help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn-out cell organelles. For example, during the disturbance in cellular metabolism, when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.

Mitochondria ❖❖ Mitochondria are known as ‘the powerhouse of the cell’. The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life, is released by mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) molecules. (If mitochondrion is the power plant, ATP is the electricity). ❖❖ ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical compounds and for mechanical work. Mitochondria have two membrane coverings. The outer membrane is very porous, while the inner membrane is deeply folded. These folds create a large surface area for ATP-generating chemical reactions. Historical Background 1. Hans and Zacharias Janssen (1590)

Produced the first compound microscope (with 2 lenses).

2. Robert Hooke (1665)

Observed tiny, hollow, room-like structures; called these structures ‘cells’, because they reminded him of the rooms that monks lived in. He only saw the outer walls (cell walls) because cork cells are not alive.

3. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674)

Looked at blood, rainwater, scrapings from teeth through a simple microscope (1 lens) and observed living cells; called some ‘animalcules’; some of the small ‘animalcules’ are now called bacteria.

4. Matthias Schleiden (1838)

Viewed plant parts under a microscope and discovered that plant parts are made of cells.

5. Theodor Schwann (1839)

Viewed animal parts under a microscope and discovered that animal parts are made of cells.

6. Rudolph Virchow (1855)

Stated that all living cells come only from other living cells.

6.96  Chapter 6

Difference between Animal Cell and Plant Cell Animal Cell

Plant Cell

Nucleus

Present

Present

Cilia

Present

It is very rare

Shape

Round (Irregular shape)

Rectangular (Fixed shape)

Chloroplast

Animal cells don’t have Plant cells have chlorochloroplasts plasts because they make their own food

Cytoplasm

Present

Present

Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth and Rough)

Present

Present

Ribosomes

Present

Present

Mitochondria

Present

Present

Vacuole

One or more small vacuoles One large central vacuole (much smaller than plant taking up 90% of the cell cells). volume.

Image*

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth Golgi endoplasmic apparatus reticulum Chloroplast

Nucleus Ribosomes Vacuole Microbody Cell wall

Fig. 6.11

Plasma membrane Mitochondria

Fig. 6.12

* Refer p. 182 for the enlarged images

Biomolecule ❖❖ A biomolecule (biological molecule) is any molecule that is present in living organisms––microorganisms, plants, and animals. It is mostly made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. ❖❖ Most biomolecules are organic compounds. ●● ●●

Metabolite—a substance formed in or necessary for metabolism. Primary Metabolites—Metabolite that is directly involved in normal growth, development, and reproduction. Example: ethanol, lactic acid, and certain amino acids.

Everyday Science    6.97 ●●

Secondary Metabolite—Metabolites that are not directly involved in the normal growth, development, or reproduction of an organism. Example: ergot alkaloids, antibiotics, etc.

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are one of the most important biomolecules that form a major part of living things. Carbohydrates are primarily produced by plants and form a very large group of naturally occurring organic compounds. Examples of carbohydrates are cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc. For example, the molecular formula of glucose (C6H12O6) fits into this general formula, Cm(H2O)n. But all the compounds which fit into this formula may not be classified as carbohydrates. Carbohydrates produce aldehydes and ketones on hydrolysis (the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water). Some of the carbohydrates that are sweet in taste are also called sugars. The most common sugar used in our homes is sucrose, whereas the sugar present in milk is lactose. Carbohydrates are also called saccharides (Greek: sakcharon means sugar). Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behaviour on hydrolysis. They have been broadly divided into the following three groups. Glucose—Glucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form. It is present in sweet fruits and honey. Ripe grapes also contain glucose in large amounts. Glucose is also known as simple sugar. Fructose—Fructose is an important ketohexose. It is obtained along with glucose by the hydrolysis of disaccharide, sucrose. The two monosaccharides are joined together by an oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule. Such a linkage between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called Glycosidic Linkage. Sucrose—One of the common disaccharides is sucrose, which on hydrolysis gives an equimolar mixture of glucose and fructose. Maltose—Another disaccharide, maltose is composed of two a-D-glucose units. Starch—Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkages. Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants. It is the most important dietary source for human beings. Amylose—It is a water soluble polysaccharide which constitutes about 15–20% of starch.

6.98  Chapter 6

Amylopectin is a water insoluble polysaccharide which constitutes about 80–85% of starch. Cellulose—Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants, and it is the most abundant organic substance in the plant kingdom. It is the predominant constituent of the cell wall of plant cells. Cellulose is a straight chain polysaccharide composed only of b-D-glucose units. Glycogen—The carbohydrates are stored in the animal body as glycogen. Glycogen is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to amylopectin and it is more highly branched. It is present in liver, muscles, and brain. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose with the help of the enzyme Glucagon.

Proteins ❖❖ The word protein is derived from Greek word, ‘proteios’, which means primary or of prime importance. ❖❖ Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system. They occur in every part of the body and form the fundamental basis of structure and functions of life. They are also required for the growth and maintenance of the body. ❖❖ Chief sources of are milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat, etc. ❖❖ Proteins are polypeptides. (Peptide = a compound consisting of two or more amino acids linked in a chain). And they are linear chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. ❖❖ Each protein is a polymer of amino acids. ❖❖ Dietary proteins are the source of essential amino acids. Therefore, amino acids can be essential or non-essential. Essential Amino Acids

Non-essential Amino Acids

We get them through our diet/ Amino Acids that our body can food make

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Histidine Isoleucine Lysine Leucine Phenylalanine Methionine Tryptophan

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Alanine Asparagine Aspartic acid Arginine Cysteine Glutamine Glycine (Contd.)

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Essential Amino Acids

Non-essential Amino Acids

❖❖ Threonine

❖❖ Glutamic acid

❖❖ Valine

❖❖ Serine ❖❖ Proline ❖❖ Tyrosine

❖❖ Collagen is the most abundant protein in the animal world. ❖❖ Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase–Oxygenase (RuBisCO) is the most abundant protein in the whole of the biosphere.

Enzymes ❖❖ Some biological processes like digestion, Catalyst—a substance respiration, etc. involve a sequence of that increases the rate reactions, and all these reactions occur of a chemical reaction in the body under very mild conditions. without undergoing any This occurs with the help of certain permanent chemical biocatalysts called enzymes. Almost all change itself. the enzymes are globular proteins. ❖❖ Enzymes are specific for a particular reaction and for a particular substrate. ❖❖ Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic catalysts in many ways. Inorganic catalysts work efficiently at high temperatures and high pressures, while enzymes get damaged at high temperatures (say above 40°C).

Vitamins ❖❖ Vitamins are organic compounds that are required in small amounts in our diet, but their deficiency causes specific diseases. Most of the vitamins cannot be synthesized in our body, but plants can synthesize almost all of them, so they are considered as essential food factors. ❖❖ However, the bacteria of the gut can produce some of the vitamins required by us. ❖❖ Vitamins are designated by alphabets A, B, C, D, etc. Some of them are further named as sub-groups, e.g., B1, B2, B6, B12, etc. ❖❖ The term ‘Vitamine’ was coined from the word vital + amine since the earlier identified compounds had amino groups. ❖❖ Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility in water or fat.

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Fat Soluble Vitamins ❖❖ Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water are kept in this group. These are vitamins A, D, E, and K. They are stored in the liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.

Water Soluble Vitamins ❖❖ B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble in water and so, they are grouped together. ❖❖ Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in the diet because they are readily excreted in urine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.

Vitamins and Diseases due to Deficiency Chemical Name

Vitamin

Diseases

Retinol

A

Night blindness

Thiamin

B1

Beriberi

Riboflavin

B2

Ariboflavinosis

Pantothenic acid

B3

Pellagra

Niacin

B5

Paresthesia

Cyanocobalamin

B12

Megaloblastic anemia

Ascorbic acid

C

Scurvy, Swelling of Gums

Cholecalciferol (D3), Ergocalciferol (D2)

D

Rickets and Osteomalacia

Tocopherol

E

Less Fertility

Phylloquinone

K

Non-clotting of Blood

Minerals Human beings extract from the food-stiffs, various types of minerals through which various metabolic activities are controlled or regulated in the human body. Minerals Chief Source

Function

Na

Common salt, fish, meat, egg, milk

Helps in nerve impulses through nerve fibres, to maintain an electrolyte level balance in the human body.

K

All citrus substance

Works as a catalyst in various biochemical reactions and also helps in transmission of the nerve impulses. (Contd.)

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Minerals Chief Source

Function

Ca

Milk, egg, green vegetables, millets, etc.

It provides rigidity along with vitamins to the bones and teeth, promotes, blood clotting, muscular contraction, etc.

P

Milk, green leafy vegetables

It provides a rigid mechanical support along with calcium to the bones and teeth, helps the human body to maintain the physiological balance of the fluid substance.

Fe

Yellowish part of egg, apple, banana, etc.

It is necessary to form haemoglobin, in RBC, it is also necessary for the oxidation in the tissues.

I

Marine, fishes, food, It is necessary for the synthesis of green leafy vegetables, thyroxin hormone, which is secreted iodised salt through the thyroid gland.

Mg

Green vegetables

Activate and regulate the muscular and nervous systems.

Zn

Liver and fish

Stimulates insulin

Co

Meat, fish, water

Helps in synthesis of RBCs and Vitamin B12.

Dietary Fibres ❖❖ Dietary fibres are also known as roughage. Roughage is mainly provided by plant products in our foods. Whole grains and pulses, potatoes, and fresh fruits and vegetables are main sources of roughage. Roughage does not provide any nutrient to our body, but is an essential component of our food and adds to its bulk. This helps our body to get rid of undigested food. ❖❖ Cellulose is the main constituent of roughage, and humans cannot digest cellulose due to absence of Cellulase Enzyme.

Fat ❖❖ Fat is one of the three main macronutrients (fats, carbohydrates, and nutrients). Fat is a major source of energy and helps our body absorb vitamins. Fat has the most calories compared to any other nutrient. Controlling fat intake is one of the most important steps in losing or maintaining weight and preventing or delaying type 2 diabetes. ❖❖ Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol.

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Saturated Fats ❖❖ A saturated fat is a fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds. A saturated fat has the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons, and therefore is ‘saturated’ with hydrogen atoms. Most animal fats are saturated, whereas the fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated. Many experts recommend a diet low in saturated fat.

Unsaturated Fats ❖❖ An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain. Where double bonds are formed, hydrogen atoms are eliminated. ❖❖ In cellular metabolism, unsaturated fat molecules contain somewhat less energy (i.e., fewer calories) than an equivalent amount of saturated fat.

Cell Cycle and Cell Division ❖❖ During the division of a cell, DNA replication and cell growth take place. Number of Divisions

Mitosis

Meiosis

One

Two—Meiosis I and Meiosis II

DNA Occurs during interphase Replication

Occurs during interphase

Role

Asexual cellular reproduction Asexual cellular reproduction and cell repair. Produces only that produces gametes. somatic cells.

Type of Cells that Divide

In animals, mitotic cell division Meiotic cell division is seen is only seen in the diploid only in diploid cells somatic cells. But plants can show mitotic divisions in both haploid and diploid cells.

Cell Cycle

Both cell division and cell It is only cell division and not cycle. cell cycle.

Daughter Cells Produced

Two diploid daughter cells Four haploid daughter (2n) that are genetically cells (n) containing half the identical to the parent cell. number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Human Genome Project ❖❖ Human Genome Project (HGP) is a publicly funded international collaborative scientific research project aimed at determining the

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sequence of chemical base pairs which make up the human DNA and identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome. ❖❖ Human Genome Project was formally launched in 1990, and finally declared complete in 2003. The ‘genome’ of any given individual is unique; mapping ‘the human genome’ involves sequencing multiple variations of each gene. All our genes together are known as our ‘genome’. The HGP has revealed that there are probably about 20,500 human genes.

Applications and Benefits of Human Genome Project ❖❖ To understand diseases including genotyping of specific viruses. ❖❖ To understand the design of medication. ❖❖ In advancement of forensic applied sciences, biofuels, and other energy applications, agriculture, animal husbandry, etc. ❖❖ To understand evolution much more accurately. ❖❖ Another proposed benefit is the commercial development of genomics research related to DNA based products, a multibillion-dollar industry.

Sex Determination in Humans ❖❖ The sex determining mechanism in case of humans is XY type. Out of 23 pairs of chromosomes present, 22 pairs are exactly the same in both males and females; these are the autosomes. A pair of X-chromosomes is present in the female, whereas the presence of an X and Y chromosome are determinant of the male characteristic. ❖❖ It is evident that it is the genetic makeup of the sperm that determines the sex of the child. It is also evident that, in each pregnancy, there is always 50% probability of either a male or a female child. It is unfortunate that in some societies, women are blamed for giving birth to females, and are ostracized and ill-treated because of this false notion. Amniocentesis This test is a prenatal test in which a small amount of amniotic fluid is removed from the sac surrounding the fetus, for testing. The sample of amniotic fluid (less than one ounce) is removed through a fine needle inserted into the uterus through the abdomen, under ultrasound guidance. The fluid is then sent to a laboratory for analysis. Different tests can be performed on a sample of amniotic fluid, depending on the genetic risk and indication for the test. Practice of Amniocentesis is illegal, because this method is a root cause of female foeticide.

6.104  Chapter 6

Genetic Diseases A genetic disorder is a genetic problem caused by one or more abnormalities in the genome, especially a condition that is present from birth (congenital). Most genetic disorders are quite rare and affect one person in every several thousands or millions. Some genetic disorders are listed here.

Haemophilia ❖❖ In this disease, a single protein that is a part of the cascade of proteins involved in the clotting of blood is affected. Due to this, in an affected individual, a simple cut will result in continuous bleeding. The heterozygous female (carrier) for haemophilia may transmit the disease to sons. ❖❖ The family pedigree of Queen Victoria shows a number of haemophilic descendents as she was a carrier of the disease.

Sickle-Cell Anaemia ❖❖ This is an autosome-linked recessive trait that can be transmitted from parents to the offspring when both the partners are carriers of the gene (or heterozygous). ❖❖ The mutant haemoglobin molecule undergoes polymerization under low oxygen tension causing the change in the shape of the RBC from biconcave disc to an elongated sickle-like structure.

Down’s Syndrome ❖❖ The cause of this genetic disorder is the presence of an additional copy of the chromosome number 21 (trisomy of 21). This disorder was first described by Langdon Down (1866). The affected individual is short statured with a small round head, furrowed tongue, and partially open mouth. The palm is broad with a characteristic palm crease. Physical, psychomotor, and mental development are retarded.

Klinefelter’s Syndrome ❖❖ This genetic disorder is also caused due to the presence of an additional copy of X-chromosome resulting in a karyotype of 47, XXY. Such an individual has overall masculine development; however, the feminine development (development of breast, i.e., Gynaecomastia) is also expressed. Such individuals are sterile.

Turner’s Syndrome ❖❖ Such a disorder is caused due to the absence of one of the X chromosomes, i.e., 45 with X0. Such females are sterile as ovaries are rudimentary, besides other features including lack of other secondary sexual characters.

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Classification The scientific classification of animals was first done by Aristotle on the basis of their common characters. He classified the entire animal kingdom into two large groups: 1. Anaemia: The animals that lack blood in their bodies are called anaemia. There are various examples of such animals group like Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropods, etc. 2. Enaima: Animals that have blood are called enaima. Enaima is further divider into two groups:

(a) Oviparous—Examples: egg-laying reproductive animals like fish, frog, reptile, etc. (b) Viviparous—Examples: offspring reproductive animals like Mammalia group (human, cow, elephant, etc.). All classifications involve systematic grouping of basic units:

❖❖ The basic unit of biological classification is species. ❖❖ A species refers to a group of organisms that closely resemble each other and can reproduce among themselves. ❖❖ Similar species are grouped into a genus. ❖❖ Similar genera (plural of genus) are grouped into a family. ❖❖ Similar families are grouped into an order. ❖❖ Similar orders are grouped into a class. ❖❖ Similar classes are grouped into a phylum (Botanists use the term division instead of phylum). ❖❖ Similar phylum constitute a kingdom, the highest unit.

Two Kingdom Classification In Linnaeus’ time, a ‘Two Kingdom’ system of classification with Plantae and Animalia kingdoms was developed that included all plants and animals, respectively. This system was used till very recently. R.H. Whittaker proposed a ‘Five Kingdom’ system of classification in 1969.

Five Kingdom Classification Whittaker arranged all organisms into five kingdoms. The main criteria for classification used by him include cell structure, thallus organization, mode of nutrition, reproduction, and phylogenetic relationships.

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The five kingdoms are:

1. Monera 2. Protista 3. Fungi 4. Plantae 5. Animalia

Viruses, Viroids, and Lichens ❖❖ Viruses did not find a place in classification since they are not truly ‘living’, if we understand living as those organisms that have a cell structure. ❖❖ Viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterized by having an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell. ❖❖ Viruses are obligate parasites. Once they infect a cell, they take over the machinery of the host cell to replicate themselves, killing the host. ❖❖ In general, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses that infect animals have either single- or double-stranded RNA or double-stranded DNA. ❖❖ Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are usually double-stranded DNA viruses. The protein coat called capsid made of small sub-units called capsomeres protects the nucleic acid. These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms. ❖❖ Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes, and influenza. AIDS in humans is also caused by a virus. ❖❖ In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing, and stunted growth.

Viroid ❖❖ Viroids are infectious agents that are smaller than viruses. A viroid is a free RNA; it lacks the protein coat that is found in viruses; hence the name viroid. The RNA of the viroid is of low molecular weight. Viroids cause potato spindle tuber disease. Lichens ❖❖ Lichens are symbiotic associations, i.e., mutually useful associations, between algae and fungi. Algae prepare food for fungi, and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and water for its partner. ❖❖ Lichens are very good pollution indicators—they do not grow in polluted areas.

Present in some

Noncellular (Polysaccharide + amino acid)

Absent

Cellular

Autotrophic (chemosynthetic and photosynthetic) and Heterotrophic (saprophyte/ parasite)

Cell wall

Nuclear membrane

Body organization

Mode of nutrition Autotrophic (Photosynthetic) and Heterotrophic

Cellular

Present

Eukaryotic

Protista

Prokaryotic

Monera

Five Kingdoms

Cell type

Characters

Characteristics of the Five Kingdoms

Present

Present (cellulose)

Eukaryotic

Plantae

Heterotrophic (Saprophytic/ Parasitic)

Autotrophic (Photosynthetic)

Multicellular/loose Tissue/organ tissue

Present

Present (without cellulose)

Eukaryotic

Fungi

Heterotrophic (Holozoic/ Saprophytic etc.)

Tissue/organ/ organ system

Present

Absent

Eukaryotic

Animalia

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6.108  Chapter 6

Microbes or Microorganisms ❖❖ Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, some algae, viruses, viroids, and also prions that are protein molecules and infectious agents. ❖❖ Microorganisms may be single-celled like bacteria, some algae and protozoa, or multicellular, such as algae and fungi. They can survive under all types of environments, ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs, and deserts to marshy lands.

Plant Kingdom ❖❖ They are autotrophs and use chlorophyll for photosynthesis. A few members are partially heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants or parasites. Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants, and Cuscuta is a parasite. ❖❖ Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.

Algae–Thallophytes ❖❖ Thallus—a plant body not differentiated into stem, leaves, and roots and without a vascular system, typical of algae, fungi, lichens, and some liverworts. ❖❖ Plants that do not have well differentiated body design fall into this group. They are commonly called algae. ❖❖ Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, and autotrophic and largely aquatic (both fresh water and marine) organisms. ❖❖ They occur in a variety of other habitats: moist stones, soils, and wood. Some of them also occur in association with fungi (lichen) and animals (e.g., on sloth bears). ❖❖ The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual, and sexual methods. Vegetative reproduction is done by fragmentation. Each fragment develops into a thallus.

Bryophytes ❖❖ Bryophytes are called amphibians of the plant kingdom because these plants can live in soil but are dependent on water for sexual reproduction. ❖❖ The plant body is commonly differentiated to form stem and leaf-like structures. However, there is no specialized tissue for the conduction of water and other substances from one part of the plant body to another.

Causative Agent

Bacillus anthracis

Vibrio cholerae

Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Streptococcus pneumoniae

Helicobacter pylori

Yersinia pestis

Disease

Anthrax

Cholera

Diphtheria

Pneumonia

Peptic ulcers

Plague

Humans

Most animals including humans

Air/direct contact. Unhygienic condition is the main cause

Air borne droplets of sneeze Humans

Humans

Humans

Air/direct contact Humans

Water/food

Contact with infected meat

(Contd.)

Bubonic plague in lymph nodes, septicemic plague in blood vessels, pneumonic plague in lungs.

Ulcers in the lining of the stomach.

Inflammatory condition of the lung affecting primarily the microscopic air sacs known as alveoli.

Sore throat and fever. Myocarditis may result in an abnormal heart rate, and inflammation of the nerves may result in paralysis.

Affects small intestine. The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhoea that lasts a few days.

Causes skin infections and gastrointestinal (GI) infections that are fatal.

Type of Organism Symptoms/Details Affected

Diseases Caused by Bacteria

Mode of Transmission

Diseases Caused by Microorganisms

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Salmonella typhi

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Varicella zoster virus (VZV)

Variola major and minor

Chikungunya virus Aedes mosquitoes

Typhoid

AIDS

Chicken Pox

Small Pox

Chikungunya

Humans

Humans

Humans

Humans and primates

–

Air/contact/water Humans

Air/contact

Blood exchange

(Contd.)

Causes severe joint pains. Animal reservoirs of the virus include monkeys, birds, cattle, and rodent. This is in contrast to dengue, for which primates are the only hosts.

One of the highly dreaded diseases that is highly contagious. Almost eradicated after the invention of vaccination.

Skin rash that forms small, itchy blisters. Less severe than small pox. Almost eradicated from the world after the invention of vaccination.

Severely weakens immunity and makes way for a number of other pathogens.

Weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, and headaches also commonly occur.

The classic symptoms of active TB are a chronic cough with blood-tinged sputum, fever, night sweats, and weight loss.

Type of Organism Symptoms/Details Affected

Diseases Caused by Viruses

Water

Air

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Tuberculosis

Mode of Transmission

Causative Agent

Disease

6.110  Chapter 6

Causative Agent

Flavivirus

Ebola virus

Picornavirus (Genus Aphthovirus)

Hepatitis B virus (HBV)

Measles virus

Disease

Dengue fever

Ebola

Foot and Mouth Disease

Hepatitis B

Measles Air

Blood exchange STD (Sexually transmitted disease)

Close-contact animal-to-animal spread

Animal to man

Female Aedes mosquito

Mode of Transmission

Humans

Humans

Animals

Human and other mammalian

Humans

(Contd.)

Complications occur in about 30% and may include diarrhoea, blindness, inflammation of the brain, and pneumonia, among others.

Affects the liver. Acute as well as chronic

Serious problem to animal farming in India.

Ebola infection shows a sudden onset of the disease resulting initially in flu-like symptoms: fever, chills, and malaise. As the disease progresses, it results in multisystem involvements indicated by the person, experiencing lethargy, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and headache.

High fever, headache, vomiting, muscle and joint pains, and a characteristic skin rash.

Type of Organism Symptoms/Details Affected

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Causative Agent

Poliovirus

Zika Virus

Entamoeba histolytica

Leishmanial

Leishmaniosis genus

Disease

Polio or Poliomyelitis

Zika

Amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery)

Dysentery

Kala-Azar or Visceral leishmaniosis

Humans

Humans

Sandflies

Contaminated Water/food

Humans

Humans

(Contd.)

This disease is the second largest parasitic killer in the world (after malaria). Signs and symptoms include fever, weight loss, fatigue, anaemia, and substantial swelling of the liver and spleen.

Symptoms may include abdominal pain, mild diarrhoea, blood diarrhoea or severe colitis with tissue death and perforation. This last complication may cause peritonitis. People affected may develop anaemia due to loss of blood.

A birth defect that is associated with a small head and incomplete brain development in newborns.

Weak muscles leading to deformations

Type of Organism Symptoms/Details Affected

Diseases Caused by Protozoans

Aedes mosquitoes, such as A. aegypti and A. albopictus

Water/Faecalmouth

Mode of Transmission

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Different species of Plasmodium

Malaria

Trypanosoma

Trichophyton and Epidermophyton

African Sleeping Sickness

Ringworms

4. P. oval

3. P. falciparum

2. P. malaria

1. P. vivax

Causative Agent

Disease

Humans

Humans

Skin-skin contact

Humans

The fungi that cause parasitic infection, collectively dermatophytes, feed on keratin, the material found in the outer layer of skin, hair, and nails.

Fevers, headaches, itchiness, and joint pains. This begins one to three weeks after the bite. Weeks to months later, the second stage begins with confusion, poor coordination, numbness, and trouble sleeping.

Malaria causes symptoms which typically include fever, fatigue, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause yellow skin, seizures, coma, or death.

Type of Organism Symptoms/Details Affected

Diseases Caused by Fungi

Tsetse fly

Female Anopheles mosquito

Mode of Transmission

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6.114  Chapter 6

❖❖ Bryophytes include the various mosses (funaria), marchantia, and liverworts that are found commonly growing in damp, humid, and shaded localities. They play an important role in plant succession on bare rocks/soil.

Pteridophytes ❖❖ In this group, the plant body is differentiated into roots, stem, and leaves and has specialized tissue for the conduction of water and other substances from one part of the plant body to another. Some examples are marsilea, ferns, and horse-tails. ❖❖ Pteridophytes are used for medicinal purposes and as soil binders. They are also frequently grown as ornamentals. ❖❖ Evolutionarily, they are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues such as xylem and phloem. ❖❖ The pteridophytes are found in cool, damp, shady places though some may flourish well in sandy soil conditions.

Gymnosperms ❖❖ This term is made from two Greek words: gymno—means naked and sperma—means seed. ❖❖ The plants of this group bear naked seeds (ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall) and are usually perennial, evergreen, and woody. The seeds that develop post-fertilization are naked too. Examples are pines. ❖❖ One of the gymnosperms, the giant redwood tree (Sequoia Sempervirens) is one of the tallest tree species. ❖❖ The roots are generally tap roots {Plant Parts and Their Functions}. Roots in some genera have fungal association in the form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some others (Cycas), small specialized roots called coralloid roots are associated with N2-fixing cyanobacteria. ❖❖ In conifers, the needle-like leaves reduce the surface area. Their thick cuticle and sunken stomata also help to reduce water loss.

Angiosperms ❖❖ This word is made from two Greek words: Angio—means covered and sperma—means seed. ❖❖ The seeds develop inside an organ which is modified to become a fruit. ❖❖ Plant embryos in seeds have structures called cotyledons. Cotyledons are called ‘seed leaves’, because, in many instances, they emerge and become green when the seed germinates. Thus, cotyledons represent a bit of pre-designed plant in the seed.

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Monocots and Dicots ❖❖ The angiosperms are divided into two groups on the basis of the number of cotyledons present in the seed. ❖❖ Plants with seeds having a single cotyledon are called monocotyledonous monocots. e.g., wheat, rice. ❖❖ Plants with seeds having two cotyledons are called dicots. e.g., mango, almond, gram, etc.

Plant Physiology Root This part of the plant lies below the ground. Roots are mainly of two types: 1. Tap Roots: Made up of one main branch and other sub-branches. 2. Adventitious Roots: When the growth of the tap root stops, and roots start to develop from other plant parts. Arise from an organ other than the root—usually a stem, sometimes a leaf. They are especially numerous on underground stems. The formation of adventitious roots makes it possible to vegetatively propagate many plants from stem or leaf cuttings.

Modification of Tap Roots

Fig. 6.13  Tap Root

1. Fusiform/Spindle Roots: These are thicker in the middle and tapered at the end. They mainly help in the storage of food. Example: Radish.

6.116  Chapter 6

2. Conical Roots: They are thicker at their upper side and are tapered at the base. Example: Carrot. 3. Napiform Roots: These roots become swollen and spherical at the upper end and are tapered like a thread at their lower end. Example: Turnip. 4. Tuberous Roots: They are irregular in shape. Example: Mirabilis. 5. Nodulated Roots: Nodules are formed on the branches of the roots with the help of the nitrogen fixation bacteria (Rhizobium). Example: Pea. 6. Pneumatophores: These are mainly found in the plants growing in marshy areas and are required for respiration. Example: Rhizophore, mangrove, etc.

Modifications of Adventitious Roots

Fig. 6.14  Adventitious Root

1. Tuberous Adventitious Roots: These roots are mainly used for storage. Example: Sweet potato. 2. Fasciculated Roots: Clustered and swollen roots forming a bunch-like shape. Example: Asparagus. 3. Fibrous Roots: They are very thin and filamentous. Example: Grass, Wheat. 4. Stilt/Brace Roots: These are rope like, and they enter into the ground. Example: Sugarcane, maize. 5. Prop/Pillar Roots: These roots grow from the branches of the plants in the downward direction of the soil. Example: Banyan. 6. Climbing Roots: They help the plant in climbing with the help of a support. Example: Money plant. 7. Foliar Roots: When the roots arise from the leaf. Example: Bryophyllum. 8. Sucking/Haustorial/Parasitic Roots: These roots enter the host plants and absorb the nutrition from there. Example: Cuscuta, Viscum.

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Stem This part of the plant lies above the ground and shows negative geotropism. Modification in stems are divided into three types: 1. Sub-aerial Modification 2. Underground Modification 3. Aerial Modification

Sub-aerial Modification 1. Stolon: Branches develop in the ground itself and eventually new roots start developing from these places. Example: Wild Strawberry, Jasmine. 2. Sucker: The main branch in this type grows inside the soil, but the node comes out of the soil. Example: Mint, Pineapple, etc. 3. Offset: They are fragile and usually occur on aquatic plants. Example: Pistia. 4. Runner: The stem here grows and develops on the surface of the soil. Example: Doob Grass.

Underground Modification 1. Tuber: They become swollen for storage and eyes are present eventually. Example: Potato. 2. Rhizome: Fleshy and horizontally found below the soil. Example: Ginger, Turmeric, etc. 3. Corm: These grow vertically under the soil. Example: Zaminkand (yam), Colocasia, etc. 4. Bulb: There is a presence of numerous fleshy scales. Example: Onion, Garlic, etc.

Aerial Modification 1. Stem Tendril: These help the plants to climb on surfaces. Example: Grapes, Cucumber, etc. 2. Phylloclade: The stem is modified into a flat, fleshy, and green leaf-like structure, which is responsible for carrying out photosynthesis. Example: Opuntia, Euphorbia, etc. 3. Prickle and Hooks: They help in climbing and develop from the top layer of the stem. Example: Rose.

6.118  Chapter 6

4. Stem Thorn: Thorns develop from the axillary or terminal bud of the plant. Example: Pomegranate, Bougainvillea, etc.

Leaf The leaf develops from the node part of the plant and its main function is to synthesize food through the process of photosynthesis. A leaf is divided mainly into three parts: 1. Leaf Base: The part of the leaf that is attached to the stem. 2. Petiole: The part of the leaf that connects the lamina with the branch or stem. 3. Lamina: The broad and flattened part of the leaf. Its main function is photosynthesis and transpiration.

Modifications of Leaf 1. Leaf Tendril: The whole leaf is modified into a wire like structure. Example: Wild Pea. 2. Leaf Spine: The leaves are modified into pointed spines. Example: Opuntia, Aloe, etc. 3. Leaf Scale: The leaf is dry, thin, and scaly and forms a membrane-like structure. Example: Tamarind. 4. Leaf Pitcher: The leaves are modified into a pitcher shaped structure. Example: Nepenthes. 5. Leaf Bladder: The leaf here is modified into a bladder-shaped structure. Example: Utricularia. 6. Leaf Hooks: The terminal leaflets are modified into curved hooks for helping the plant in climbing. Example: Cat’s Nail. 7. Phyllode: The petiole of the leaf becomes flat in structure and functions as a normal leaf. Example: Australian Acacia. 8. Leaflet Tendril: The leaflet is modified into a tendril-like structure called the leaflet tendril. Example: Garden Pea.

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Leaves are of two types, mainly: 1. Simple Leaf: This leaf is incised to any depth but not up to the mid rib or petiole. 2. Compound Leaf: This leaf is incised up to the mid rib or petiole.

Flower ❖❖ The flower is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms. It is meant for sexual reproduction. Androecium and gynoecium are the reproductive organs. ❖❖ When a flower has both androecium and gynoecium, it is bisexual. A flower having either only stamens or only carpels is unisexual.

Androecium ❖❖ Androecium is composed of stamens. Each stamen, which represents the male reproductive organ, consists of a stalk or a filament and an anther. Each anther is usually bilobed, and each lobe has two chambers, the pollen sacs. The pollen grains are produced in pollen sacs.

Gynoecium ❖❖ Gynoecium is the female reproductive part of the flower and is made up of one or more carpels. A carpel consists of three parts, namely stigma, style, and ovary. After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds, and the ovary matures into a fruit. ❖❖ Placentation: The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is known as placentation.

Fruit ❖❖ The fruit is a characteristic feature of flowering plants. It is a mature or ripened ovary, developed after fertilization. ❖❖ If a fruit is formed without fertilization of the ovary, it is called a parthenocarpic fruit. ❖❖ The Seed: The ovules after fertilization develop into seeds.

Transport of Water and Minerals In Plants ❖❖ Plants absorb water and minerals with the help of roots. The roots have root hair. The root hair increases the surface area of the root for the

6.120  Chapter 6

absorption of water and mineral nutrients dissolved in water. The root hair is in contact with the water present between the soil particles. ❖❖ Plants have pipe-like vessels to transport water and nutrients from the soil. The vessels are made of special cells forming the vascular tissue. ❖❖ The vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in the plant is called the xylem. The xylem forms a continuous network of channels that connects the roots to the leaves through the stem and branches, and thus transports water to the entire plant and the leaves synthesize food. ❖❖ The food has to be transported to all parts of the plant. This is done by the vascular tissue called the phloem. Thus, xylem and phloem transport substances in plants.

Nutrition in Plants ❖❖ Nutrition is the mode of taking food by an organism and its utilization by the body. ❖❖ The mode of nutrition in which organisms make food themselves from simple substances is called autotrophic (auto = self; trophos = nourishment) nutrition. Therefore, plants are called autotrophs. ❖❖ Animals and most other organisms take in readymade food prepared by the plants. They are called heterotrophs (heteros = other). ❖❖ Insectivorous plants have both autotrophic and heterotrophic mode of nutrition.

Photosynthesis Carbon dioxide from air is taken in through the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves. These pores are surrounded by ‘guard cells’. Such pores are called stomata. ❖❖ Water and minerals are transported to the leaves by the vessels which run like pipes throughout the root, the stem, the branches, and the leaves. They form a continuous path or passage for the nutrients to reach the leaves. ❖❖ The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll. It helps them to capture the energy of the sunlight. This energy is used to synthesize (prepare) food from carbon dioxide and water. Since the synthesis of food occurs in the presence of sunlight, it is called photosynthesis (Photo means light and synthesis means combine).   So we conclude that chlorophyll, sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water are necessary to carry out the process of photosynthesis. Thus, the Sun is the ultimate source of energy for all living organisms.

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❖❖ Desert plants have scales or spine-like leaves to reduce loss of water by transpiration. These plants have green stems which carry out photosynthesis. ❖❖ During photosynthesis, chlorophyll-containing cells of leaves, in the presence of sunlight, use carbon dioxide and water to synthesize carbohydrates. The carbohydrates ultimately get converted into starch.

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis ❖❖ Law of Limiting Factors: If a chemical process is affected by more than one factor, its rate will be determined by the factor which is nearest to its minimal value: it is the factor that directly affects the process if its quantity is changed.

Carbon Dioxide Concentration ❖❖ The concentration of CO2 is very low in the atmosphere (between 0.03 and 0.04%). Increase in concentration up to 0.05% can cause an increase in CO2 fixation rates; beyond this, the levels can become damaging over longer periods.

Temperature ❖❖ The dark reactions being enzymatic are temperature controlled. Though the light reactions are also temperature sensitive, they are affected to a much lesser extent. ❖❖ The optimum temperature for photosynthesis for different plants also depends on the habitat that they are adapted to. Tropical plants have a higher temperature optimum than the plants adapted to temperate climates.

Water ❖❖ Water stress causes the stomata to close hence reducing the CO2 availability. ❖❖ Besides, water stress also makes leaves wilt, thus reducing the surface area of the leaves and their metabolic activity as well.

Light ❖❖ There is a linear relationship between incident light and CO2 fixation rates at low light intensities.

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❖❖ At higher light intensities, the rate gradually stops to increase as other factors become limiting.

Important Minerals and Nutrition for Plants ❖❖ The basic needs of all living organisms are essentially the same. They require macromolecules, such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and water and minerals for their growth and development. ❖❖ Only a few elements have been found to be absolutely essential for plant growth and metabolism. These elements are further divided into two broad categories based on their quantitative requirements.

Macronutrients and Micronutrients in Plants ❖❖ Macronutrients are generally present in plant tissues in large amounts. The macronutrients include:

1. Carbon 2. Hydrogen 3. Oxygen 4. Nitrogen 5. Phosphorus 6. Sulphur 7. Potassium 8. Calcium 9. Magnesium

❖❖ Micronutrients or trace elements are needed in very small amounts. These include:

1. Iron 2. Manganese 3. Copper 4. Chlorine 5. Nickel 6. Molybdenum 7. Zinc 8. Boron

❖❖ In addition to the 17 essential elements named above, there are some beneficial elements which are required by higher plants, such as:

1. Sodium 2. Silicon 3. Cobalt 4. Selenium

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Nitrogen ❖❖ Nitrogen is required by all parts of a plant, particularly the meristematic tissues and the metabolically active cells. Nitrogen is one of the major constituents of proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins, and hormones.

Phosphorus ❖❖ Phosphorus is a constituent of cell membranes, certain proteins, all nucleic acids, and nucleotides and is required for all phosphorylation reactions.

Potassium ❖❖ In plants, this is required in large quantities in the meristematic tissues, buds, leaves, and root tips. ❖❖ Potassium helps to maintain an anion-cation balance in cells and is involved in protein synthesis, opening and closing of stomata, activation of enzymes, and in the maintenance of the turgidity of cells.

Calcium ❖❖ During cell division, it is used in the synthesis of the cell wall, particularly as calcium pectate in the middle lamella. It accumulates in older leaves. It is involved in the normal functioning of the cell membranes. It activates certain enzymes and plays an important role in regulating metabolic activities.

Magnesium ❖❖ It activates the enzymes for respiration, photosynthesis and is involved in the synthesis of DNA and RNA.

Phylum Chordata Characteristics Notochord: Notochord is an elastic solid, skeletal rod lying between the nerve cord and above the alimentary canal. In adults, the nerve remains while notochord is replaced by the vertebral column. Dorsal Tubular Nerve Cord: It lies above the notochord and outside the coelom. It is hollow and fluid filled. It persists throughout life in most chordates and few degenerates before maturity. It persists throughout life in most chordates, and it serves for the integration and coordination of body activities.

Ctenophora

Cnidaria

Consists of most primitive of multicellular animals called sponges.

Phylum Porifera

Example

Members of this phyla are generally marine, solitary, free swimming.

No special circulatory, respiratory and excretory organs present. Gaseous exchange takes place through external body surface.

Reproduction is asexual.

Body is diploblastic with external epidermis and inner gastrodermis.

Most of the coelenterates are colonial, but some are solitary.

Cellular Tissue grade of organization is present.

Mostly marine, but a few of them are fresh water, e.g., Hydra.

Asexual reproduction occurs by budding, fission, or gemmule formation.

Nervous and sensory cells are present.

Digestion is intracellular.

Peculiar canal system is present.

Body is cylindrical, tubular, or vase-like.

All sponges are marine; only few fresh water forms are seen.

(Contd.)

Ctenoplana, Pleurobrachia, and Cestus.

Hydra, Obelia, and Physalia.

Clathrina and Scypha, Exhibits only cellular level of body organization, thus simplest form of Oscarella, Cliona, etc. metazoans.

Characteristics

Phylum

Animal Kingdom 6.124  Chapter 6

Annelida

Aschelminthes

Platyhelminthes

Phylum

Example

Nervous system is well defined and seen for the first time in this phylum.

Setae or suckers are present for locomotion.

Coelom is well developed and is often used as storage for gametes.

Marine, terrestrial, and fresh water species.

Sexes are separate, and sexual dimorphism is seen. No asexual reproduction is seen.

Digestive tract is a tract and complete with anus.

No segmentation or cilia present over the body.

Pseudocoelomate.

(Contd.)

Polygordius, Protodrilus, and Dinophilus, Nereis, Polynoe, and Serpula.

Trichuris, Trichinella, Philodina, and Rotaria.

Microstomum, Convoluta, Amphilina, Sensory organs are well developed in free living forms but comparatively less Gyrocoty, etc. developed in parasitic forms.

Excretion takes place by protonephridia or flame cells.

They are free living, commensals, and parasitic forms.

Skeletal, circulatory, respiratory and excretory organs are absent.

All members of the phylum have 8 vertical rows of ciliary bands called comb plates.

Specialized adhesive and sensory cells are unique cells of the phylum. These are called colloblast cells.

Body symmetry is biradial type. They are acoelomates.

They are diploblastic animals with tissue grade of body organization.

Characteristics

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Mollusca

Arthropoda

Phylum

Example

Respiration is performed by ctenidia (feather like gills) in the mantle cavity or body surface.

Circulatory system is open type and typically includes a dorsal heart with one or two atria and one ventricle.

visceral hump and foot.

(Contd.)

Chiton and They are triploblastic, coelomate animals with organ system level of organization. Cryptochiton nerita and The body of a typical mollusc is unsegmented and distinguished into head, Theodoxus

They are mostly aquatic, both marine and fresh water forms.

Sexes are typically separate.

Gaseous exchange is through gills, trachea, diffusion, lungs, or body surface.

Circulatory system is open type with dorsal heart, distributing blood.

Digestive system complete from mouth to anus.

These are animals with bilateral symmetry, three germ layers in the body Eurypterus, Palamnaeus, (triploblastic). Triarthrus, Phacops, Found in all three habitats—air, water, and land. etc. Body covered with hard skeleton (cuticle) of chitin, secreted by epidermis.

Excretory system consists of coiled tubes called nephridia.

Digestive system is tubular extending up to the length of the body. Closed circulatory system is present.

Characteristics

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Echinodermata

Phylum

Example

Sexes are separate. Sexual dimorphism is absent.

Respiration is aerobic and gaseous exchange takes place by minute dermal branchae.

Digestive system is complete with mouth on the ventral (lower) and anus on the dorsal (upper) side.

Triploblastic organ system level of organization and symmetry, usually Ophiuroidea, e.g., pentamerous radial in adults and bilateral in larvae. Ophiothrix and Water vascular system is the characteristic feature of phylum Echinodermata. Astropecten

All animals are exclusively marine. They generally live at the sea bottom. Some Asterias and are free swimming and a few are attached forms (sessile). Pycnopodia.

Sexes are usually separate.

Excretion is done by kidneys (metanephridia) which are comparable to vertebrate kidneys.

Characteristics

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6.128  Chapter 6

Gill Clefts: These are paired openings leading from the pharynx to the exterior. Gill clefts appear during the development of all chordates. They are lined with vascular lamellae which form gills for respiration. In lower chordates, the visceral clefts (do not bear gills) are used for filtering food particles from water currents. Post-Anal Tail: The presence of the tail is due to an aquatic habitat of chordates. It acts as an organ for locomotion in water.

Sub-phylum Vertebrata Advanced chordates with a cranium around the brain are also called craniata. The digestive system is complete and ventral to the central nervous system. The circulatory system is closed, consisting of blood, vascular, and lymphatic system. Respiration is aerobic with respiratory organs like gills, skin, buccopharyngeal cavity, and lungs. Agnatha is a super class of jawless fish. It is the most primitive of all craniates. It includes Ostracodermi (extinct) and Cyclostomata, e.g., Entopherus, Lampetra. Sub-phylum vertebrata is further divided into super classes.

Pisces They are exclusively water living animals. Their skin is covered with scales/plates. They obtain oxygen dissolved in water by using gills. The body is streamlined, and a muscular tail is used for movement. They are cold-blooded, and their hearts have only two chambers, unlike the four that humans have. ❖❖ They lay eggs. ❖❖ We can think of many kinds of fish, some with skeletons made entirely of cartilage, such as sharks, and some with a skeleton made of both bone and cartilage, such as tuna or rohu. ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Amphibia ❖❖ These animals differ from fish in their lack of scales, in having mucus glands on the skin, and a three-chambered heart. ❖❖ Respiration is through either gills or lungs. ❖❖ They lay eggs. ❖❖ These animals are found both in water and on land. ❖❖ Frogs, toads, and salamanders are some examples.

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Reptilia ❖❖ These animals are cold-blooded, have scales, and breathe through lungs. ❖❖ While most of them have a three-chambered heart, crocodiles have four heart chambers. ❖❖ They lay eggs with tough coverings and do not need to lay their eggs in water, unlike amphibians. ❖❖ Snakes, turtles, lizards, and crocodiles fall in this category.

Aves ❖❖ These are warm-blooded animals and have a four-chambered heart. ❖❖ They lay eggs. ❖❖ There is an outside covering of feathers, and two forelimbs are modified for flight. They breathe through lungs. ❖❖ All birds fall in this category.

Mammalia ❖❖ Mammals are warm-blooded animals with four-chambered hearts. ❖❖ They have mammary glands for the production of milk to nourish their young. ❖❖ Their skin has hair as well as sweat and oil glands. ❖❖ Most mammals familiar to us produce live young ones. ❖❖ However, a few of them, like the platypus and the echidna lay eggs, and some, like kangaroos give birth to very poorly develop young ones.

Comparison of Chordates and Non-chordates S. No. Chordates

Non-chordates

1.

Notochord present

2.

Central nervous system is dorsal, Central nervous system is hollow and single ventral, solid and double.

3.

Pharynx perforated by gill slits.

Gill slits are absent

4.

Heart is ventral

Heart is dorsal (if present)

5.

A post-anal part (tail) is present

Post-anal tail is absent

Notochord absent

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Human Physiology Human Digestive System ❖❖ The process of conversion of complex food substances to simple absorbable forms is called digestion. ❖❖ Bio macromolecules in food cannot be utilized by our body in their original form. They have to be broken down and converted into simple substances. ❖❖ During the digestion process, bio macromolecules like:

1. Carbohydrates get broken into simple sugars such as glucose, 2. Fats into fatty acids and glycerol, and 3. Proteins into amino acids.

Alimentary Canal ❖❖ The food passes through a continuous canal called the alimentary canal. The canal can be divided into various compartments:

1. The buccal cavity, 2. Food-pipe/oesophagus, 3. Stomach, 4. Small intestine, 5. Large intestine ending in the rectum, and 6. The anus.

Oral Cavity ❖❖ The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion. Ingestion happens through the mouth. The mouth leads to the buccal cavity or the oral cavity. ❖❖ The oral cavity has a number of teeth and a muscular tongue. Each tooth is embedded in a socket of jaw bone.

Teeth ❖❖ An adult human has 32 permanent teeth which are of four different types, namely, incisors (I), canines (C), premolars (PM), and molars (M). The arrangement of teeth in each half of the upper and lower jaw in the order I, C, PM, M is represented by a dental formula 2123/2123 [2-I, 1-C, 2-PM, 3-M]. ❖❖ The hard chewing surface of the teeth, made up of enamel (Enamel is the hardest substance in the human body and contains the highest percentage of minerals), helps in the mastication (chewing) of food.

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Salivary Glands ❖❖ Our mouth has salivary glands which secrete saliva. The saliva breaks down the starch into sugars. The saliva secreted into the oral cavity contains electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl–, HCOs), enzymes, amylase and ptyalin. ❖❖ The chemical process of digestion is initiated in the oral cavity by the hydrolytic action of the carbohydrate splitting enzyme, the salivary amylase.

Tongue ❖❖ The tongue is a fleshy muscular organ attached at the back to the floor of the buccal cavity. It mixes the saliva with food during chewing and helps in swallowing food. ❖❖ The upper surface of the tongue has small projections called papillae, some of which bear taste buds. The tongue has four types of taste buds:

1. Sweet 2. Salt 3. Bitter 4. Sour

Food Pipe/Oesophagus ❖❖ The swallowed food passes into the food pipe or oesophagus. The oesophagus is a thin, long tube which extends posteriorly passing through the neck, thorax, and diaphragm and leading to a ‘J’-shaped bag-like structure called the stomach. ❖❖ Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and adhering the masticated food particles into a bolus. ❖❖ The bolus further passes down through the oesophagus by successive waves of muscular contractions called peristalsis. The gastroesophageal sphincter controls the passage of food into the stomach.

Stomach ❖❖ The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucus, hydrochloric acid, and digestive juices. ❖❖ The mucus protects the lining of the stomach. ❖❖ The acid kills most bacteria that enter along with the food and makes the medium in the stomach acidic. ❖❖ The digestive juices break down the proteins into simpler substances. ❖❖ The proenzyme (inactive precursor of an enzyme) pepsinogen, on exposure to hydrochloric acid gets converted into the active enzyme

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Pepsin, the proteolytic (breakdown of proteins or peptides into amino acids) enzyme of the stomach. ❖❖ Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses and peptones (peptides). ❖❖ The stomach, located in the upper left portion of the abdominal cavity, has three major parts:

1. Cardiac portion into which the oesophagus opens, 2. Fundic region, and 3. Pyloric portion which opens into the first part of the small intestine.

Esophagus

Liver

Stomach

Gallbladder Duodenum Pancreas Jejunum Flexura of transverse colon

Hepatic flexure

Descending colon

Ascending colon

Ileum

Cecum Appendix

Sigmoid colon Rectum Anus Fig. 6.15  Digestive System

Small Intestine ❖❖ The small intestine is divided into three regions. ❖❖ The opening of the stomach into the duodenum; ‘C’-shaped duodenum.

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❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖ ❖❖

Long coiled middle portion jejunum. Highly coiled ileum opens into the large intestine. Ileum, the small intestine is highly coiled and is about 7.5 metres long. The digested food passes into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine. This process is called absorption. The inner walls of the small intestine have thousands of finger-like outgrowths. These are called villi (singular villus). The villi increase the surface area for absorption of the digested food. Assimilation: The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by the body. Trypsinogen is activated by an enzyme, enterokinase, secreted by the intestinal mucosa into active TRYPSIN, which in turn activates the other enzymes in the pancreatic juice. The bile released into the duodenum contains bile pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin), bile salts, cholesterol, and phospholipids but no enzymes. Bile helps in emulsification of fats, that is, breaking down of the fats into very small micelles. Bile also activates LIPASES. Small amounts of lipases are secreted by gastric glands.

Large Intestine ❖❖ The large intestine is wider and shorter than the small intestine. It is about 1.5 metres in length. Its function is to absorb water and some salts from the undigested food material. ❖❖ The remaining waste passes into the rectum and remains there as semisolid faeces. The faecal matter is removed through the anus from timeto-time. This is called egestion. It consists of caecum, colon, and rectum. Caecum is a small blind sac, which hosts some symbiotic micro organisms. The appendix was helpful in digesting roughage (fibrous indigestible material in vegetable foodstuffs which aids the passage of food and waste products through the gut). Thousands of years ago, when man used to eat roots, leaves, etc., it was essential. But now it has lost its significance.

Liver ❖❖ The liver is a gland situated in the upper part of the abdomen on the right side. The liver is the largest gland in the body. It secretes bile juice that is stored in a sac called the gallbladder.

6.134  Chapter 6

❖❖ The duct of the gallbladder (cystic duct) along with the hepatic duct from the liver, form the common bile duct.

Pancreas ❖❖ The pancreas is a gland located just below the stomach. ❖❖ The partly digested food now reaches the lower part of the small intestine where the intestinal juice completes the digestion of all components of the food. ❖❖ The pancreas is a compound (both exocrine and endocrine) elongated organ situated between the limbs of the ‘U’-shaped duodenum. ❖❖ The exocrine portion secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice containing enzymes and the endocrine portion secretes hormones, insulin and glucagon.

Human Respiratory System ❖❖ Respiration involves the following steps: ●●

●● ●● ●● ●●

Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in and CO2 rich alveolar air is released out. Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across the alveolar membrane. Transport of gases by the blood. Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues. Utilization of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release of CO2.

❖❖ Nostrils—Humans have a pair of external nostrils opening out above the upper lips. They lead to a nasal chamber through the nasal passage. The nasal chamber opens into the pharynx, a portion of which is the common passage for food and air. ❖❖ The pharynx—opens through the larynx region into the trachea. The larynx is a cartilaginous box, which helps in sound production, and hence called the sound box. ❖❖ Trachea—is a straight tube which divides into a right and left primary bronchi. ❖❖ Each bronchi undergoes repeated divisions to form the secondary and tertiary bronchi and bronchioles ending up in very thin terminal bronchioles. ❖❖ Alveoli—The conducting part transports the atmospheric air to the alveoli, clears it of foreign particles, humidifies it, and also brings the air to body temperature. Exchange part is the site of actual diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and atmospheric air.

Everyday Science    6.135

❖❖ Diaphragm—The lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber which is anatomically an air-tight chamber. The thoracic chamber is formed dorsally by the vertebral column, ventrally by the sternum (breastbone), laterally by the ribs, and on the lower side by the dome-shaped diaphragm.

Frontal sinus Nasal cavity

Sphenoid sinus Pharynx Epiglottis

Oral cavity

Larynx Trachea Bronchus

Superior lobe Alveoli

Heart Middle lobe

Bronchioles Inferior lobe Diaphragm

Fig. 6.16  The Respiratory System

Exchange of Gases ❖❖ Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases. Exchange of gases also occur between blood and tissues. O2 and CO2 are exchanged in these sites by simple diffusion, mainly based on pressure/concentration gradient. ❖❖ Partial pressure of gasses, solubility of the gases, as well as the thickness of the membranes involved in diffusion are some important factors that can affect the rate of diffusion.

Transport of Gases ❖❖ Oxygen—Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2. About 97% of O2 is transported by RBCs in the blood. The remaining 3% of O2 is carried in a dissolved state through the plasma. Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in the RBCs. O2 can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin.

6.136  Chapter 6

❖❖ Carbon dioxide—Almost 20–25% of CO2 is transported by RBCs, whereas 70% of it is carried as bicarbonate. About 7% of CO2 is carried in a dissolved state through plasma. CO2 is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin. This binding is related to the partial pressure of CO2. Partial pressure of O2 is a major factor which could affect this binding. Nearly 70% of carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3) with the help of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.

Excretory System ❖❖ The process of removal of wastes produced in the cells of the living organisms is called excretion. The parts involved in excretion form the excretory system. ❖❖ An adult human being normally passes about 1–1.8 L of urine in 24 hours, and the urine consists of 95% water, 2.5% urea, and 2.5% other waste products. The excretory system has been explained in greater detail later in the chapter.

Kidneys ❖❖ Kidneys are reddish brown, bean-shaped structures situated between the levels of the last thoracic and the third lumbar vertebra close to the dorsal inner wall of the abdominal cavity. ❖❖ Each kidney of an adult human measures 10–12 cm in length, 5–7 cm in width, 2–3 cm in thickness with an average weight of 120–170 g. ❖❖ Each kidney has nearly one million complex tubular structures called nephrons, which are the functional units. ❖❖ Each nephron has two parts—the glomerulus and the renal tubule. ❖❖ A minute vessel of this network runs parallel to the Henle’s loop forming a ‘U’-shaped vasa recta. Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced in cortical nephrons.

Human Neural System ❖❖ The human neural system is divided into two parts: ●●

●●

The Peripheral Neural System (PNS): The PNS comprises all the nerves of the body associated with the CNS (brain and spinal cord). The Central Neural System (CNS): The CNS includes the brain and the spinal cord and is the site of information processing and control.

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Peripheral Neural System (PNS) ❖❖ The nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types: ●● ●●

The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the CNS. The efferent fibres transmit regulatory impulses from the CNS to the concerned peripheral tissues/organs.

❖❖ The PNS is divided into two divisions, called the somatic neural system and the autonomic neural system. ❖❖ The somatic neural system relays impulses from the CNS to the skeletal muscles, while the autonomic neural system transmits impulses from the CNS to the involuntary organs and smooth muscles of the body. ❖❖ The autonomic neural system is further classified into sympathetic neural system and parasympathetic neural system.

Central Neural System (CNS) ❖❖ The brain is the central information processing organ of our body, and acts as the ‘command and control system’. ❖❖ It controls the voluntary movements, balance of the body, functioning of vital involuntary organs (e.g., lungs, heart, kidneys, etc.), thermoregulation, hunger and thirst, circadian (24-hour) rhythms of our body, activities of several endocrine glands, and human behaviour. ❖❖ It is also the site for processing vision, hearing, speech, memory, intelligence, emotions, and thoughts. ❖❖ The human brain is well protected by the skull. Inside the skull, the brain is covered by cranial meninges consisting of an outer layer called dura mater, a very thin middle layer called arachnoid, and an inner layer (which is in contact with the brain tissue) called pia mater.

Endocrine Glands and Hormones ❖❖ Endocrine glands—they lack ducts and are hence called ductless glands. Their secretions are called hormones. ❖❖ Hormone—Hormone is a chemical produced by endocrine glands and released into the blood and transported to a distantly located target organ. Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals, which act as intercellular messengers and are produced in trace amounts.

Pituitary Gland Position: The pituitary gland is located in a bony cavity called sella turcica and is attached to the hypothalamus by a stalk.

6.138  Chapter 6

Hormones Growth Hormone (GH): Over secretion of GH stimulates abnormal growth of the body leading to gigantism, and low secretion of GH results in stunted growth resulting in pituitary dwarfism. Prolactin (PRL): Prolactin regulates the growth of the mammary glands and formation of milk in them. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): TSH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland. Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH): ACTH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): LH and FSH stimulate gonadal activity and hence are called gonadotrophins. In males, LH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of hormones called androgens from the testis. In males, FSH and androgens regulate spermatogenesis. In females, LH induces ovulation of fully mature follicles (Graafian follicles) and maintains the corpus luteum formed from the remnants of the Graafian follicles after ovulation. FSH stimulates the growth and development of the ovarian follicles in females. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH): MSH acts on the melanocytes (melanin containing cells) and regulates pigmentation of the skin. Oxytocin: Oxytocin acts on the smooth muscles of our body and stimulates their contraction. In females, it stimulates a vigorous contraction of the uterus at the times of child birth and milk ejection from the mammary glands. Vasopressin: Vasopressin acts mainly on the kidney and stimulates resorption of water and electrolytes by the distal tubules and thereby reduces loss of water through urine (diuresis). Hence, it is also called Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH).

Pineal Gland Location: The pineal gland is located on the dorsal side of the forebrain. Hormone: Melatonin—Melatonin plays a very important role in the regulation of a 24-hour (diurnal) rhythm of our body.

Thyroid Gland Location: The thyroid gland is composed of two lobes which are located on either side of the trachea. Both the lobes are interconnected with a thin flap of connective tissue called isthmus. Hormones: Tetrapod Thyronine or Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)—Iodine is essential for the normal rate of

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hormone synthesis in the thyroid. Deficiency of iodine in our diet results in hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid gland is commonly called goitre. Hypothyroidism during pregnancy causes defective development and maturation of the growing baby leading to stunted growth (cretinism), mental retardation, low intelligence quotient, abnormal skin, deaf-mutism, etc. Thyroid hormones play an important role in the regulation of the basal metabolic rate.

Parathyroid Gland Location: In humans, four parathyroid glands are present on the neck, behind the thyroid gland, one pair each in the two lobes of the thyroid gland. Hormone: Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)—The secretion of PTH is regulated by the circulating levels of calcium ions. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases the Ca2+ levels in the blood. PTH acts on bones and stimulates the process of bone resorption (dissolution/demineralization).

Thymus Location: The thymus gland is a lobular structure located between the lungs behind the sternum on the ventral side of the aorta. Hormone: Thymosins—Thymosins play a major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes, which provide cell-mediated immunity. In addition, thymosins also promote the production of antibodies to provide humoral immunity.

Adrenal Gland Location: Our body has one pair of adrenal glands, one at the anterior part of each kidney. The gland is composed of two types of tissues. The centrally located tissue is called the adrenal medulla, and outside this lies the adrenal cortex. Hormones: Adrenaline and noradrenaline are rapidly secreted in response to a stress of any kind and during emergency situations. Hence they are called emergency hormones or hormones of ‘Fight or Flight’. These hormones increase alertness, pupil dilation, piloerection (raising of hairs), sweating, etc. Both the hormones increase the heartbeat, the strength of heart contraction, and the rate of respiration.

6.140  Chapter 6

Pancreas Location: Pancreas is a composite gland, which performs the role of both exocrine and endocrine glands. The endocrine pancreas consists of ‘Islets of Langerhans’. The two main types of cells in the Islets of Langerhans are called a-cells and p-cells. The a-cells secrete a hormone called glucagon, while the p-cells secrete insulin. Hormone: Glucagon plays an important role in maintaining the normal blood glucose levels. Glucagon acts mainly on the liver cells (hepatocytes) and stimulates glycogenolysis resulting in an increased blood sugar (hyperglycemia). Insulin plays a major role in the regulation of glucose homeostasis. Insulin acts mainly on hepatocytes and adipocytes (cells of adipose tissue), and enhances cellular glucose uptake and utilisation. As a result, there is a rapid movement of glucose from blood to hepatocytes and adipocytes resulting in decreased blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia).

Testes Location: A pair of testes is present in the scrotal sac (outside the abdomen) of male individuals. Testes perform dual functions as primary sex organ as well as endocrine gland. Hormone: Testosterone—regulates the development, maturation, and functions of the male accessory sex organs like epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra, etc. These hormones stimulate muscular growth, growth of facial and axillary hair, aggressiveness, low pitch of voice, etc. Androgens play a major stimulatory role in the process of spermatogenesis (formation of spermatozoa).

Ovary Location: Females have a pair of ovaries located in the abdomen. Ovary is the primary female sex organ, which produces one ovum during each menstrual cycle. Hormone: Oestrogens—Perform a wide range of actions such as stimulation of growth and activities of female secondary sex organs, development of growing ovarian follicles, appearance of female secondary sex characters (e.g., high pitch of voice, etc.), and mammary gland development. Estrogens also regulate female sexual behaviour. Progesterone—supports pregnancy. Progesterone also acts on the mammary glands and stimulates the formation of alveoli (sac-like structures which store milk) and milk secretion.

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Human Diseases AIDS—Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome ❖❖ The word AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome. ❖❖ AIDS was first reported in 1981, and, in the last twenty five years or so, it has spread all over the world.

Causes of AIDS ❖❖ AIDS is caused by the Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV), a member of a group of viruses called Retrovirus which have an envelope enclosing the RNA genome. ❖❖ Transmission of HIV infection generally occurs by: ●● ●● ●● ●●

Sexual contact with an infected person, By transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products, By sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers and From an infected mother to her child through the placenta.

❖❖ It is important to note that HIV/AIDS is not spread by mere touch or physical contact; it spreads only through body fluids. It is hence imperative for physical and psychological well-being, that the HIV/ AIDS infected persons are not isolated from family and society. ❖❖ There is always a time lag between the infection and appearance of AIDS symptoms. This period may vary from a few months to many years (usually 5–10 years).

Cancer ❖❖ Cancer is one of the most dreaded diseases of human beings and is a major cause of death all over the globe. ❖❖ The mechanisms that underlie development of cancer or oncogenic transformation of cells, its treatment, and control have been some of the most intense areas of research in biology and medicine. ❖❖ In our body, cell growth and differentiation are highly controlled and regulated. In cancer cells, there is a breakdown of these regulatory mechanisms. ❖❖ Normal cells show a property called contact inhibition by virtue of which contact with other cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth. ❖❖ Cancer cells appear to have lost the property of contact inhibition. As a result of this, cancerous cells just continue to divide giving rise to masses of cells called tumours.

6.142  Chapter 6

Types of Tumours ❖❖ Tumours are of two types: benign and malignant.

1. Benign tumours normally remain confined to their original location and do not spread to other parts of the body and cause little damage. 2. A malignant tumour on the other hand, is a mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumour cells. These cells grow very rapidly, invading and damaging the surrounding normal tissues.

Causes of Cancer ❖❖ Carcinogens—Transformation of normal cells into cancerous neoplastic cells may be induced by physical, chemical, or biological agents.

1. Ionizing radiations like X-rays and gamma rays. 2. Non-ionizing radiations like UV cause DNA damage. 3. Cancer-causing viruses called oncogenic viruses have genes called viral oncogenes.

Human Circulatory System and the Heart ❖❖ Human circulatory system, also called the blood vascular system, consists of a muscular, chambered heart, a network of closed branching blood vessels, and blood, the fluid which is circulated.   Human Heart: The human heart is situated at the center of the thorax, just behind the breast, the breast-bone and is closed in a tough membrane called the pericardium. ❖❖ Its average weight is about 340 g in adult men and 225 g in adult women. ❖❖ Contraction and relaxation mechanisms of the ventricles result in a heartbeat of about 70–72/minute in males and 78–79/minute in female. ❖❖ Contraction of ventricles is called systole, and relaxation is called diastole. ❖❖ Blood circulation—the credit of discovering the circulatory system goes to William Harvey. The heart and blood vessels are concerned with blood circulation in the human body. Blood Vessels—there are two types of blood vessels, namely arteries and veins. ❖❖ Veins are the blood vessels that carry carbon dioxide-rich blood (impure blood) from all parts of the body back to the heart. The Pulmonary vein is an exception as it carries oxygen-rich blood (pure blood) from the lungs to the heart. The veins have thin walls. ❖❖ Arteries are the blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all parts of the body. The Pulmonary artery is an exception as it

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carries carbon dioxide-rich blood from the heart to the lungs. The arteries have thick walls as the pressure acting on them is high. Blood from Heart → Artery Blood to Heart → Vein

10 11

1 2 3

12

4

13 14

5 6 7

15

8 9

16

1. Aorta 2. To left lung 3. Left pulmonary artery 4. Pulmonary vein 5. Left auricle 6. Mitral valve 7. Aortic valve 8. Left ventricle 9. Right ventricle 10. Anterior vena cava 11. To right lung 12. From right lung 13. Right auricle 14. Pulmonary valve 15. Tricuspid valve 16. Posterior vena cava

Fig. 6.17  Blood Circulation in Human Heart

❖❖ Arteries divide into smaller vessels. On reaching the tissues, they divide further into extremely thin tubes called capillaries. The capillaries join up to form veins which empty into the heart.

Human Blood ❖❖ It transports substances like digested food from the small intestine to the other parts of the body. It carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body. It also transports waste for removal from the body. ❖❖ Blood is a liquid which has cells of various kinds suspended in it. The fluid part of the blood is called plasma.

Body Fluids and Circulation ❖❖ Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and formed elements.

Plasma ❖❖ Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting nearly 55% of blood. ❖❖ 90–92% of plasma is water, and proteins contribute 6–8% of it.

6.144  Chapter 6

❖❖ Factors for coagulation or clotting of blood, fibrinogen and thrombin are also present in plasma in an inactive form. Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum.

Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs) ❖❖ Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBCs) are the most abundant of all the cells in blood. ❖❖ A healthy adult man has, on an average, 5 million to 5.5 million RBCs mm–3 of blood. ❖❖ RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow, in adults. RBCs are devoid of nucleus in most of the mammals and are biconcave in shape. ❖❖ Iron-containing complex protein is called haemoglobin, hence the colour and name of these cells. ❖❖ RBCs have an average life span of 120 days after which they are destroyed in the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).

White Blood Cells (WBCs) ❖❖ Leucocytes are also known as white blood cells (WBCs) as they are colourless due to the lack of haemoglobin. They are nucleated and are relatively lesser in number, averaging 6,000–8,000 mm–3 of blood. Leucocytes are generally short lived. We have two main categories of WBCs—granulocytes and agranulocytes. ❖❖ These are round semi-transparent cells containing a nucleus and are a little larger in size then the RBCs. ❖❖ The WBCs are the ‘soldiers’ of the body’s defence system and their main function is to combat infection.

Platelets ❖❖ Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes (special cells in the bone marrow). ❖❖ Platelets can release a variety of substances, most of which are involved in the coagulation or clotting of blood.

Coagulation of Blood ❖❖ Blood exhibits coagulation or clotting in response to an injury or trauma. This mechanism prevents excessive loss of blood from the body. ❖❖ Dark reddish brown scum is formed at the site of a cut or an injury over a period of time. It is a clot or coagulum formed mainly of a network of

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threads called fibrins in which dead and damaged elements of blood are trapped. ❖❖ Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive fibrinogens in the plasma by the enzyme thrombin. ❖❖ Thrombins, in turn are formed from another inactive substance present in the plasma called prothrombin. An enzyme complex, thrombokinase, is required for the above reaction. This complex is formed by a series of linked enzymic reactions (cascade process) involving a number of factors present in the plasma in an inactive state.

Blood Groups ❖❖ K Landsteiner in 1900 classified human blood into four groups according to antigens and antibodies present on the plasma membrane of RBCs: Blood Group

A

B

AB

O

Antigen

A

B

AB

–

Antibody

B

A

–

AB

Rh Factor The Rh factor is an agglutinogen found in the RBC of most people and is called Rh+. It was initially found in the rhesus monkey and later found in men. People who don’t have this antigen in their blood are said to have Rh– type.

Blood Donation Chart Blood Group +

Can Donate Blood to +

Can Receive Blood from

A

A , AB

A+, A–, O+ and O–

A–

A–, A+, AB+, AB–

A– and O–

B+

B+, AB+

B+, B–, O+ and O–

B–

B+, B–, AB+, AB–

B– and O–

AB+ universal recipient

Only AB+

AB+, AB–, A+, A–, B+, B–, O+ and O–

AB–

AB+ and AB–

+

+

+

+

+

AB–, A, B– and O– +

O– and O+

O

AB , A , B and O

O– universal donor

AB+, AB–, A+, A–, B+, B–, Only O– O+ and O–

6.146  Chapter 6

Excretory System The biological process through which the toxic residual substance formed inside the human body is pumped out is called excretion. In the process of excretion, various organs of the human body, like kidney, skin, liver, intestine, etc., form the core components. 1. Kidney: In human beings and various mammals, the main excretory organ is a pair of kidneys which are used in removing excretory substances through the blood circulatory process, and these kidneys also maintain an adaptable balance in the blood in which micro nutrients of the blood are reserved.   The kidney is bean shaped. The kidney of an adult human being is 4–5 inches long, 2 inches wide. The average weight of every kidney is nearly 140 g.   The nephron is assumed to be the functional unit of kidney, and it is also called the excretory unit.

Renal vein

Vena cava

Aorta Renal artery

Renal cortex

Nephron

Renal medulla Renal column Kidney Renal pyramid in renal medulla

Ureter

Bladder Urethra

(a)

Renal artery Renal pelvis Renal vein Ureter

Renal papilla Renal capsule

(b)

Fig. 6.18  (a) Excretory Organs of Man and (b) Internal Structure of a Kidney

2. Lungs: Usually the lungs are the organs associated with the respiratory system, but along with it, excretory work is also done here. Actually, the lungs do the excretion of gaseous substance CO2 and water vapour. 3. Skin: The glands like oily glands and sweat gland secrete sebum and sweat, respectively. 4. Liver: The cells of the liver transform the excessive amino acids and the ammonia of the blood into urea which is the main excretory substance. Apart from it, the cells of the liver and spleen split damaged blood cells and separate these from the blood flow.

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5. Intestine: A complex net of blood cells coexists on the wall of the intestine. In the cells of the blood, some digestible substances are absorbed through the cells of the intestine by the process of diffusion. Ultimately, these substances (residuals) are brought to the cavity of the intestine and the excreta formed is pumped out.

Reproductive Organs Reproduction is a biological process which enables the continuity of species generation after generation. Human beings show sexual reproduction and they have separate sexes. The reproductive units in sexual reproduction are called gametes (sex cells), that is, sperms and ova.

Male Reproductive System The male reproductive system consists of various glands, ducts, and supporting structures. Scrotal Sac: The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity in a sac of skin called the scrotal sac. As a result, the sperms grow at a temperature 2–3°C lower than the normal internal body temperature. The scrotum is an out pocketed sac of the abdominal cavity and hangs from the groin. Testes: The two testes are the primary male gonads. In adults, each testis is oval in shape, with length 4–5 cm and width 2–3 cm. It produces spermatozoa (gametes) and testosterone (male sex hormone). Tunicae: The testis is surrounded by three protective coverings known as tunicae. These three layers are as follows: 1. Tunica Vaginalis: It is the outer covering of testes. 2. Tunica Albuginea: It is a white fibrous capsule which sends partitions through its interior surface to divide the testis into lobules. 3. Tunica Vasculosa: It contains a network of capillaries which are supported by delicate connective tissue. Seminiferous Tubules: Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules, and each lobule contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules. Each tubule is 30–70 cm long. Leydig cells between the tubules produce the male sex hormone testosterone. The stratified epithelium of seminiferous tubules is made up of two types of cells, that is, Sertoli cells and Spermatogenic cells. Sertoli cells are elongated and pyramidal, which partially envelope the spermatogenic cells which nourish spermatozoa. These secrete a glycol

6.148  Chapter 6

protein hormone called inhibin, which is involved in the negative feedback control of sperm production. Spermatogenic Cells: These are stacked in 4–8 layers that occupy the space between the basal lamina and the lumen of the tubule. These cells divide several times and differentiate to produce spermatozoa. Vasa Efferentia: About 10–20 vasa efferentia collect sperms from inside the testis and transfer them to the epididymis through rete testis. It has large columnar ciliated cells with endocytic activity that in turn help in conducting sperms. Epididymis: It is a coiled tube, 6 m long, present against the testis. The anterior end of the testis is called caput epididymis in which vasa efferentia open. The middle part is known as corpus epididymis and the posterior end of it is known as cauda epididymis. These tubes produce essential chemicals for nourishment and maturation of sperms. Vasa Deferentia: This is a straight tube about 40 cm long which carries sperms to the urethra. Most of the sperms are stored in vas deferens. Urethra: It carries urine from the bladder as well as sperms from the vasa deferentia through the penis. Thus, it provides a common pathway for the flow of urine and semen; also known as the urogenital duct.

Seminal vesicle Bladder Prostate gland

Pubic bone Ductus deferens Penis Spongy urethra

Epididymis Testis Scrotum

Fig. 6.19  Male Reproductive System

Penis: It is the male external genitalia. It is a vascular, spongy structure and contains erectile tissue. When the male is sexually excited, this tissue fills the blood, causing the penis to become erect to facilitate insemination. During sexual intercourse, the erect penis is inserted into the vagina of a

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female before ejaculation of the semen. It has glans penis at the tip, which is covered with loose skin called prepuce.

Male Accessory Glands Seminal Vesicles: These are narrow, long pouches with muscular tissue on their wall. About 70% of the semen in seminal fluid is produced by it. It contains fructose, citrate, inositol, prostaglandins, and several proteins. Prostate Gland: It is a single, large gland, spongy in texture. It secretes a thin, milky fluid that contains calcium, citrate ion, phosphate ion, and a proteolytic enzyme. Cowper’s Glands: These glands are also known as bulbourethral glands, situated beneath the bladder and behind the urethra. A duct from the glands opens into the urethra before entering into the penis. These glands are yellow in colour.

Female Reproductive System It consists of various glands, a single type of duct, and many supporting structures. Ovaries: These are almond shaped, measure about 3–4 cm in length. Ovaries are primary sex organs and produce one egg every month during the fertile years of a woman. The outermost layers of cells are composed of germinal epithelial cells from which gamete cells are produced. The outer region of the ovary is composed of developing follicles, and the middle region is composed of stroma that contains spindle shaped fibroblasts. Every ovary is a compact organ consisting of an outer cortex which is covered by tunica albuginea, and inner medulla that consists of many rounded or oval bodies called Graafian follicles. Fallopian Tubes: Also called oviducts, they are 12 cm long, two small tubes, lying on either side of uterus. The end of the tubes nearest to the ovaries is the funnel shaped infundibulum. The edges of the infundibulum are finger-like projections called fimbriae. The infundibulum leads to a wider part of oviduct called ampulla. Uterus: The uterus or womb is 7.5 cm long and 5 cm wide in the shape of an inverted pear. It lies behind the bladder. The wall of the uterus is composed of three layers: 1. Perimetrium: It is the thin outer covering. 2. Myometrium: It is thick, composed of smooth muscle layers that are thickest in fundus and thinnest in the cervix. 3. Endometrium: It is the inner mucosal lining of the uterus.

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If fertilization takes place, the embryo gets implanted in the wall of the uterus and grows until birth. The uterus grows much larger during pregnancy. The dome-shaped portion of the uterus is called fundus. The lower portion that protrudes into the vagina is the cervix. Interior of the cervix is the cervical canal. The junction of the uterine cavity with the cervical canal is called isthmus of the uterus, while the opening of the cervical canal into the cavity of the vagina is called the uterine ostium. Cervix: This is the narrow entrance to the uterus from the vagina. It is normally blocked by a plug of mucus. Vagina: This is a muscular tube 8–10 cm long whose wall contains elastic tissues. The wall of the vagina consists of mucosa, a muscular layer, and adventitia. The vagina opens to the exterior by an aperture called vaginal orifice. The pH of the vagina is quite acidic (about 4.0), which comes from the glands within the uterus. External Genitalia: It includes: ❖❖ Mons Pubis: It is the most anterior structure of the vulva, covered with skin and pubic hair. ❖❖ Labia Majora: Two longitudinal folds of skin form the boundary of the vulva. ❖❖ Labia Minora: It covers the opening of several tiny ducts that produce mucus-like secretions during intercourse. ❖❖ Hymen: The opening of the vagina is covered partially by a membrane called the hymen. ❖❖ Clitoris: Tiny finger-like structure that lies at the upper junction. Composed of erectile tissue.

Female Accessory Glands Vestibule: These are of two types, lesser vestibular glands and greater vestibular glands. Mammary Glands: There are two mammary or milk-producing glands found in females. The lie over the chest muscles. Externally, each mammary gland has a median nipple, surrounded by a pigmented area called areola. Mammary glands consist of adipose tissue, glandular tissue, and fibrous tissue. The production of milk in mammary gland is stimulated by the hormone prolactin, which is secreted by the anterior part of the pituitary gland, while ejection of milk is stimulated by the hormone oxytocin, which is secreted by the posterior part of the pituitary gland. Milk secreted by mammary glands contains casein, lactose, fat droplets, water, minerals, and vitamins.

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Muscular System Muscle is the specialized tissue of mesodermal origin in humans. It constitutes about 40–50% of the body weight. They have various special properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility, and elasticity.

Types of Muscles On the basis of location, muscles are of three types: 1. Smooth Muscles: ●● ●●

●● ●●

●●

●●

Smooth muscles lack striations. These are long, tapering, and spindle-shaped, each containing a single centrally located nucleus. These muscles are under the control of the autonomic nervous system. Their cells are organized into sheets of muscles circling the walls of alimentary canal, blood vessels, respiratory passages, urinary, and genital ducts. Smooth muscles are slow-acting and can maintain prolonged contractions with little expenditure. The principle function of smooth muscles is to push the material in a tube such as the intestine, blood vessels, by sustained contractions.

2. Cardiac Muscles: ●● ●●

●●

●● ●● ●●

●●

These muscles are found in the heart wall. They structurally resemble striated muscles, but functionally they are like smooth muscles. Cardiac fibre is a short, cylindrical, and uninucleate structure. These are placed end to end in rows. Intercalated disc or zig zag junction occurs in between two fibres. The fibres are covered by the sarcolemma and are branched. These are fast-acting muscles, and they contract under the involuntary autonomic control. Contraction of cardiac muscle fibre is rhythmical; and occurs without outside nervous stimulation.

3. Skeletal Muscles: ●●

●●

Skeletal muscles are typically organized into strong compact bundle or bands. These are called skeletal muscles, because they are attached to the skeletal elements and are responsible for the movement of the trunk, appendages, respiratory organs, eyes mouth parts, etc.

6.152  Chapter 6 ●●

●●

●● ●●

●●

●● ●● ●●

●● ●●

Skeletal muscle fibres are extremely long, cylindrical, and multinucleated. These are packed into bundles called fascicles, which are connected by tough connective tissue called perimysium. The fascicles are grouped into discrete muscles, surrounded by a thin connective tissue layer called epimysium. Skeletal muscles support the body. A skeletal muscle may show a tonic contraction, an isomeric contraction, an isotonic contraction, a twitch contraction or a tetanic contraction. Skeletal muscles always work in groups. Most actions are produced by the coordinated action of several muscles. Skeletal muscles help to maintain a constant body temperature. Skeletal muscles help to protect internal organs and joints. Skeletal muscles are syncytial, that is, multinucleate. The plasma membrane is called sarcolemma and its cytoplasm is called sarcoplasm, which contains long protein bundles called myofibrils. The sarcoplasm contains an abundance of glycogen, which provides energy for contraction. The myofibrils are arranged in a number of sections called sarcomeres. Sarcomeres are delineated by a very thin and comparatively dense Z-line. A dark Anisotropic band (A-band) is present at the centre of the sarcomere. Adjacent to this lies a light Isotropic band (I-band). Alternate arrangement of dark and light bands gives a striated appearance to the skeletal muscles. At the centre of the A-band, a comparatively less dark zone called H-zone is present.

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction Hugh Huxley and Jean Hanson proposed the sliding filament theory. The essential features of the theory are as follows: ❖❖ During the process of muscle contraction, thin myofilaments slide inwards toward the H-zone without changing their length. ❖❖ The cross bridge of thick myofilaments connects actin of thin myofilaments resulting in sliding over each other. ❖❖ As soon as the nerve impulse reaches the end of the axon, small sacs called synaptic vesicles fuse with the axon membrane and release a chemical transmitter, acetylcholine. It diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptor sites of the motor end plate.

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❖❖ As soon as the motor end plate reaches a certain level, it creates an action potential; an enzyme cholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine into acetate and choline. ❖❖ The area of contact between a nerve and muscle fibre is called a motor end plate or neuromuscular junction. ❖❖ Calcium plays a key role in muscle contraction. These ions bind to troponin causing a change in its shape and position. This shift exposes the active sites on the molecule and myosin cross-bridges are then able to bind to active sites. ❖❖ The head of each myosin molecule contains an enzyme myosin ATPase. In the presence of the enzyme myosin ATPase, Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions, ATP breaks down into ADP and inorganic phosphate as: ATP

Myosin ATPase Ca 2+ , Mg 2+

ADP + Pi + Energy

❖❖ Energy from ATP causes energized myosin cross-bridges to bind to actin. The energized cross-bridges cause thin myofilaments to slide along the thick myofilaments. ❖❖ There is no shortening of thin and thick myofilaments. Only the sarcomere shortens, because of the sliding of the thin myofilaments produced by cross-bridge movements. The H-zone and I-band shorten, but A-band remains constant. Muscle Relaxation: The muscle relaxation occurs due to retardation of contractile activity. The steps of the process are as follows: ❖❖ After muscle contraction, the calcium ions are quickly returned to the sarcoplasmic reticulum by active transport, with the help of ATP. ❖❖ Troponin and tropomyosin molecules move to their previous position and block the active sites on thin myofilaments. ❖❖ The myosin cross bridges separate from actin. When myosin cannot attach to actin, the muscle relaxes.

Skeletal System There are mainly two types of skeleton: 1. Exo Skeleton: Hair, nails, hoofs, claws, etc. 2. Endo Skeleton: It is present inside the body and is formed of the bone and cartilage. It is living in nature.

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The human skeleton is divided into two parts: 1. Axial Skeleton: It consists of the skull, vertebral column and ribs, and sternum. 2. Appendicular Skeleton: It includes the long bones of the limbs.

The axial skeleton of a human being is made up of 80 bones, while that of a rabbit is made up of 132; the appendicular skeleton of a human being is made up of 126 bones, while that of a rabbit is made up of 128 bones. Also, at the time of birth, there are 270 bones in a human body which further fuse to form a total of 206 bones.

Different Types of Bones of the Human Body The Skull: The skeleton of the head is called the skull. It is located upon the upper end of the vertebral column. It consists of 29 bones separated by sutures, namely cranial bones, ear ossicles, hyoid bone, facial bones. Vertebral Column: It is about 71 cm long and is curved lying in the mid dorsal line of the neck and trunk. It is made up of 33 vertebrae (component of vertebral column). However, it is considered to have 26 bones, because 5 sacral vertebrae are fused to form one sacrum and four coccygeal vertebrae fuse to form one coccyx. The vertebrae are divided into the following five groups:

1. Cervical Vertebrae 2. Lumbar Vertebrae 3. Thoracic Vertebrae 4. Sacrum 5. Coccyx

Sternum: It is the breast bone. It is flat and present just under the skin in the middle of the front of the chest. It is about 15 cm long and shaped like a dagger. It consists of three parts—the manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid bone. Seven pairs of true ribs are attached to the sternum. Ribs: The ribs form the lateral aspect of the thoracic cage. In mammals, the number of thoracic ribs are equal to the number of the vertebrae. There are 12 pairs of ribs that form the bony lateral walls of the thoracic cage. The first seven pairs are called the true ribs, because their anterior ends are directly attached to the sternum by means of small cartilage, the coastal cartilages. The Humerus: It is a long bone in the arm or forelimb that runs from the shoulder to the elbow. It connects the scapula and the two bones of the lower

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arm; radius and ulna, and consists of three sections. The humeral upper extremity consists of a rounded head, a narrow neck, and two short processes (tubercles, sometimes called tuberosities). The body is cylindrical in its upper portion and more prismatic below. The lower extremity consists of 2 epicondyles, 2 processes (trochlea and capitulum), and 3 fossae (radial fossa, coronoid fossa, and olecranon fossa). The Radius and Ulna: The radius or radial bone is one of the two large bones of the forearm, the other being the ulna. It extends from the lateral side of the elbow to the thumb side of the wrist and runs parallel to the ulna, which exceeds it in length and size. It is a long bone, prism-shaped, and slightly curved longitudinally. The radius is part of two joints: the elbow and the wrist. At the elbow, it joins with the capitulum of the humerus, and in a separate region, with the ulna at the radial notch. At the wrist, the radius forms a joint with the ulna bone. In the wrist and fingers, there are 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpals, and 14 phalanges. The Femur: It is the thigh bone which is the longest, largest, and heaviest bone of the body. It consists of parts like head, neck, shaft, and trochanters. The Tibia: It is the second largest bone of the human body. It is the bone of the lower leg and is a component of the knee and ankle joints. The Fibula: It is also known as the calf bone and is located on the lateral side of the tibia, with which it is connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones, and in proportion to its length, the slenderest of all long bones. Tarsus: It is a cluster of seven bones in each foot situated between the lower end of the tibia and fibula of the lower leg and the metatarsus. The tarsus articulates with the bones of the metatarsus, which in turn articulate with the proximal phalanges of the toes. The joint between the tibia and fibula above and the tarsus below is referred to as the ankle joint. Scapula: It is the shoulder bone that connects the humerus with the collar bone, that is, clavicle. The left and right sides are roughly mirror images of each other. Clavicle: It is the collar bone which is long and serves as a strut between the shoulder and the sternum or breastbone. There are two clavicles, one on the left and one on the right. The Hip Bone: It is made up by the fusion of three bones—pubis, ilium, and ischium.

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Joints: These are the structural arrangement of tissues by which bones are joint together. On the basis of movement, the joints are divided into three types: 1. Non-movable/Immovable Joints (Fibrous): They are joined by collagen fibres and cannot move freely. Example: Bones of the skull; these joints are called sutures. 2. Slightly Movable Joints (Cartilaginous): There is a pad of fibrocartilage between the two adjoining bones, which allows certain movement. Example: Joints between vertebrae, pelvic girdle, etc. 3. Freely Movable Joints (Synovial): These are well-defined joints that are enclosed in a capsule. Example: Shoulder joint, ball and socket joints, etc.

Disorders of the Skeletal System Osteoarthritis: Secretion of the synovial fluid lubricating the joints stops completely causing a condition of stiffness. It affects mainly elderly people, causing the breakage of joints. Rheumatoid Arthritis: It is the inflammation of the synovial membranes simultaneously in many bones. Osteoporosis: It is the reduction in the bone tissue mass causing weakness of the skeletal strength. Myasthenia Gravis: It is an autoimmune neuromuscular disorder leading to fluctuating muscle weakness and fatigability. Tetanus: The state of sustained contraction due to many quickly repeated nervous stimuli is known as tetanus or tetanisation. Fracture: Simple cracks in the bones leading to breakage of the bones are termed as fractures. Gout: The body in such a case forms excess amount of uric acid crystals and sodium urate leading to severe arthritis. It is an inherited disorder.

Some Interesting Facts about the Human Body Length of Alimentary Canal

Approximately 8 metres

BMR (Basal metabolic rate)

1,600 K.Cal/day

Number of cells in body

75 trillion

Longest bone

Femur (thigh bone)

Smallest bone

Ear ossicle, stapes

Blood volume

6.8 litres (in 70 kg body) (Contd.)

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Normal B.P.

120/80 mm Hg

Number of RBC

(a) In male: 4.5–5.0 million/cubic mm (b) In female: 4.0–4.5 million/cubic mm

Life span of RBC

120 days

Normal WBC count

5,000–10,000/cubic mm

Life span of WBC

3–4 days

DLC (Differential count)

leucocyte (a) Basophils – 0.5–1% (b) Eosinophils – 1–3% (c) Monocytes – 3–8% (d) Neutrophils – 40–70% (e) Lymphocytes – 2–25%

Haemoglobin level

(a) In male: 14–15.6 gm/100 c.c. of blood (b) In female: 11–14 gm/100 c.c. of blood

Haemoglobin content in body

500–700 gm

Universal blood donor

O–

Universal blood recipient

AB+

Normal body temperature

98.4°F or 37°C

Breathing rate

16–20/minute

Dental formula

Adult: 2123/2123 = 32; Child: 2120/2120 = 20 milk teeth

Gestation period in humans

9 months (253–266 days)

Normal heart beat

72–75/minute

Largest gland

Liver

Largest muscle in the body

Gluteus maximus (Buttock muscle)

Smallest muscle in the body

Stapedius

Largest artery

Abdominal aorta

Largest vein

Inferior vena cava

Greatest regeneration power

In liver

Minimum regeneration power

In brain cells

pH of urine

6.0

pH of blood

7.35–7.45

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Ecosystem ❖❖ ‘A biological environment consisting of all organisms living in a particular area, as well as the non-living physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact based upon the interaction between the system and its environment’. ❖❖ Ecosystem can be classified into: ●● ●●

Closed System—No interaction of any nature. Open System—Interaction exists between the environment and the system.

Components of an Ecosystem and Their Relationship Both, non-living and living things constitute an ecosystem. Accordingly, they are termed as abiotic and biotic components. ❖❖ Abiotic: Abiotic components are the non-living physical and chemical factors in the environment of an ecosystem.   Example: Sunlight, Temperature, Precipitation, Water or moisture, Soil, Air, etc. ❖❖ Biotic: Biotic components are the organisms which include plants, animals, and micro organisms in an ecosystem.   Example: Primary producers, Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores, Detritivores, etc.

Biotic Community Biotic community refers to populations of various kinds of organisms living together and sharing the same habitat. An ecosystem houses several biotic communities which interact with each other. For example, one can observe populations of different kinds of birds, insects, and many other animals on a tree, living in the same environment, mutually sustaining, and interdependent. 1. Autotrophs—all plants (except for a few parasitic plants) can manufacture their own food by the process of photosynthesis, but there are certain organisms that do not utilize sunlight but can manufacture their food by the process of chemosynthesis. Certain bacteria belong to this category. Since the plants provide food to all the animals directly or indirectly, they are also called producers. 2. Heterotrophs—are called consumers, which feed on plants and animals. Consumers include herbivores (that eat plant material) and carnivores (which eat other animals).

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3. Saprotrophs—also called decomposers, feed on dead and decaying matter. They break down the complex organic compounds of dead plants and animals into simpler forms and return them into the environment. Decomposers form an important link between the living and non-living components of the ecosystem. Functional aspects of an ecosystem (what an ecosystem actually does): ●● ●● ●● ●●

Energy cycles Food chains Nutrient cycles—biogeochemical cycles, e.g., Water cycle, Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle, Oxygen cycle. Evolution

Food Chain: This refers to the succession of organisms in an ecological community that constitutes a passing on of food energy from one organism to another as each consumes a lower member and in turn is preyed upon by a higher member of the food chain. Different types of food chains can exist in an ecosystem: 1. Grazing food chain is found both in aquatic as well as grassland ecosystems. It is the most common food chain found in the terrestrial ecosystem.

(a) Food chain in a terrestrial ecosystem. (b) Food chain in an aquatic ecosystem.

2. Detritus Food Chain: This type of food chain starts from dead organic matter. The dead organic matter is broken down into simple nutrients by microorganisms like fungi and bacteria. These simple nutrients and decomposers are then consumed by smaller carnivores, which in turn become food for larger carnivores. Food Web: Most animals form a part of more than one food chain and eat more than one kind of food in order to meet their food and energy requirements. These interconnected food chains form a food web.

Energy Flow in an Ecosystem This energy flow is unidirectional, that is, the energy which is transferred from one trophic level to the next does not come back. When a herbivore eats, only a fraction of the energy (that it gets from the plant food) becomes new body mass; the rest of the energy is lost as 10% Energy Rule heat or is used up by the herbivore to carry out Only 10% of the energy its life processes (e.g., movement, digestion, from one level on the respiration, reproduction). Therefore, when food chain is available to a herbivore is eaten up by a carnivore, only a the next level. small amount of the total energy is received by

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the carnivore. Of the energy transferred from the herbivore to the carnivore, some energy will be lost as heat or ‘used up’ by the carnivore. The carnivore then has to eat many herbivores to get enough energy to grow.

Fig. 6.20  Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

Biogeochemical or Nutrient cycles Biogeochemical cycle is the cycle in which nitrogen, carbon, and other inorganic elements of the soil, atmosphere, etc., of a region are converted into the organic substances of animals or plants and released back into the environment.

Carbon Cycle The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged between the soil, water, and atmosphere (air) of the earth. It is the most important cycle of the earth and allows for carbon to be recycled.

Fig. 6.21  Carbon Cycle

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Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformation of nitrogen and nitrogen-containing compounds in nature. Atmospheric nitrogen is the biggest source of nitrogen. Green plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates and nitrites from the soil and water. Animals get nitrogen when they feed upon plants. Nitrogen is an essential component of proteins and nucleic acids in living organisms. The nitrogen cycle can be studied in five steps: 1. Nitrogen Fixation: Nitrogen can be fixed in two ways: (a) Lightening during cloud formation. (b) Free-living micro organisms present in the soil and by the symbiotic bacteria in the root nodules of certain leguminous plants. 2. Nitrogen Assimilation: Plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates to prepare amino acids. This nitrogen is then taken up by animals in the form of proteins through the food chain. 3. Ammonification: The proteins in the body of the animals are broken down into simpler forms like urea and ammonia. These are then removed from the body along with urine and excreta. Dead plants and animals also return nitrogen to the soil as ammonium compounds. These ammonium compounds are then converted to ammonia by ammonifying bacteria.



Fig. 6.22  Nitrogen Cycle

4. Nitrification: Conversion of ammonia into nitrates is called nitrification. Nitrifying bacteria like Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas found in the soil convert ammonia into nitrates. Some other bacteria present in the soil

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convert ammonia into nitrites. Some of these nitrates and nitrites are again taken up by the plants for their nutrition. Nitrifying bacteria → Convert ammonia to nitrates Examples of Nitrifying Bacteria: (a) Nitrobacter, and (b) Nitrosomonas. 5. Denitrification: Denitrifying bacteria like Pseudomonas and Clostridium living in the soil reduce the soil nitrites and nitrates into nitrogen which is returned back into the atmosphere.

Oxygen Cycle

Fig. 6.23  Oxygen Cycle

Adaptation in Organisms Adaptations are special features that allow plants and animals to live in a particular place or habitat. Living things adapt themselves so that they can: ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Successfully compete for food. Defend themselves against attacks from other organisms. Find favorable conditions to reproduce. Respond efficiently to the change in environment.

Aquatic Adaptations in Plants Aquatic plants are called hydrophytes (hydro: water; phyte: plant). For a life in water:

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Hydrophytes have a reduced root system as water is easily available. Floating leaves have stomata only on their upper surface, while the submerged ones have no stomata at all. The leaves are thin and narrow (for example, Hydrilla), or long, flat, ribbon shaped (for example, Vallisneria). These adaptations protect the plant body from any damage due to water currents.

Terrestrial Adaptations in Plants 1. Mesophytes are Terrestrial Plants: Mesophytes are adapted to neither a particularly dry nor particularly wet environment. Mesophytes include the majority of terrestrial plants which have the following adaptations:   Mesophytes generally require a continuous water supply and have large, thin, and broad leaves with a large number of stomata on the undersides of leaves.   The roots of mesophytes are well developed, branched, and provided with a root cap. 2. Xerophytic Adaptations: Xerophytes are desert plants, well-adapted to high temperatures and water shortages. They are adapted to store and conserve water. The adaptations that xerophytes may exhibit are:   Succulent leaves and stems to store water, e.g., cacti. (Succulent: soft, fleshy, water storing structures).   They have few or no leaves, which reduce transpiration.   Many desert trees and shrubs have thorns for protection from enemies.   Fewer stomata to reduce water loss.   Deep widespread root system caters to maximum water uptake.

Adaptations in Animals Desert Adaptation ❖❖ Most of the desert animals avoid staying out in the sun during the day. They come out during the night when the temperatures are low. ❖❖ Due to constant exposure to high temperatures, desert animals need to maintain their body temperatures at an optimum level. For this, some of them have developed long body parts that provide a greater body surface to dissipate heat. ❖❖ These animals have scaly skin, resistant to drying. ❖❖ Camels have a hump to store fat. ❖❖ A camel can drink very large amounts of water in one day or survive for a relatively long time without drinking any water. They can excrete

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concentrated urine during periods of water scarcity and thus reduce loss of water. ❖❖ Desert animals like reptiles have minimized loss of water by excreting urine in the form of insoluble uric acid.

Adaptations to Survive in Extreme Cold ❖❖ The animals which live in cold climates have very thick fur over the body to trap air and for insulation. ❖❖ They also have a layer of stored fat under the skin to give additional insulation. ❖❖ The body shape and size of many cold climate mammals is well-adapted. They are round and bulky with short legs, ears, and tail. These adaptations help to conserve heat. ❖❖ Penguins have a thick layer of densely packed feathers to reduce heat loss. Their flippers and legs are also adapted to reduce heat loss.

Aerial Adaptations in Animals ❖❖ Aerial animals include a small number of animals that are able to fly in air. ❖❖ These animals come to the trees or land or water for safety or shelter. ❖❖ These are called arboreal animals (which dwell on trees). They may walk or run on the land, glide in the air for a short while, or land on a tree or the ground. ❖❖ True aerial animals are birds and bats. These animals exhibit adaptations to balance themselves and stay in the air, soaring or flying. These adaptations include: ●● ●● ●●

●● ●●

Streamlined body to steer through the air. Wings—Forelimbs are modified into wings to help them fly. Birds have wings that are covered with feathers which trap air to keep the body warm and help them to fly. Bats have an extension of the skin between the fingers of forelimbs which helps them to fly. Bones—Bones are hollow to make them light. Flight Muscles—Very strong flight muscles are attached from the body to the wings.

Population Interaction Population: Population is a group of similar individuals living in a particular geographical area. Populations of different species of organisms live in the same ecosystem. There are different kinds of interactions in a population.

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Mutualism: Mutualism is an interaction between individuals belonging to two different species, that benefits both members. Lichen is a complete entity formed by the association of an alga and a fungus. The main body of the lichen is formed by fungus. The alga manufactures food for itself as well as for the fungus, while the fungus provides water, minerals, and shelter to the alga. Commensalism: Commensalism is an interspecific interaction where one species benefits while the other is unaffected (neither harmed nor benefitted). Commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation or for housing. For example, hermit crabs live in gastropod shells to protect their body. Sucker fish attaches itself to the under surface of a shark and gets a free ride. It is thus protected from its predators and is also widely dispersed in this way. Parasitism: It includes one organism living in or on the body of another living organism from which it derives nourishment and in the process harms the latter. For example: tapeworm living in the intestine of man. Symbiosis: It is a close interaction between two or more different organisms of different species living in close physical association. You are quite familiar with pollination of flowers where the flowering plants are cross pollinated by the bees which benefit by getting nectar from the plants. Plants pollinated in this manner produce less pollen than the plants that rely on the wind to transfer pollen. This is an example of a symbiotic association. Population Growth: The provision for life in a geographical area where a population lives is limited. Only certain number of organisms can live comfortably in the area. When this number gets exceeded, it is termed as ‘population growth’. Growth rate of a population is the difference between the birth rate and the death rate. When the birth rate is more than the death rate, then the population density increases. Birth Rate or Natality: It is defined as the number of live births per thousand per unit of time. Mortality Rate: The mortality rate of a population is the number of individuals dying per thousand per unit of time.

Population Dispersal It is the movement of individuals or groups of living organisms by which they expand the space or range in which they live. Dispersal occurs when organisms leave the space that they had previously occupied or in which they were born to settle in new areas. It affects the size of the population. Population dispersal can be of two types: 1. Emigration: It is the permanent outward movement of the organisms from a given population. It decreases the size of the local population.

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2. Immigration: It is the permanent inward movement of the organisms from outside into a given population. It increases the size of the local population.

Ecosystem Diversity There are a large variety of different ecosystems on earth, which have their own complement of distinctive inter-linked species based on the differences in the habitat. Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region, or a political entity such as a country, a state, or a taluka. Distinctive ecosystems include landscapes such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and mountains as well as aquatic ecosystems such as rivers, lakes, and the sea. Each region also has man-modified areas such as farmland or grazing pastures. An ecosystem is referred to as ‘natural’ when it is relatively undisturbed by human activities or ‘modified’ when it is changed to other types of uses, such as farmland or urban areas. Ecosystems are most natural in areas of wilderness.

Conservation of Biodiversity: In-Situ and Ex-Situ ❖❖ In-Situ Conservation: Conservation of a species is best done by protecting its habitat along with all the other species that live in it in nature. This is known as in-situ conservation, which is conserving a species in its own environment by creating national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, that is, conservation of wild life in their natural place itself. Example: Wildlife sanctuary, national park, biosphere reserve. ❖❖ Ex-Situ Conservation: When there are situations in which an endangered species is so close to extinction that unless alternate methods are instituted, the species may be rapidly driven to extinction. This strategy is known as ex-situ conservation, that is, outside its natural habitat in a carefully controlled situation such as a botanical garden for plants or a zoological park for animals, where there is expertise to multiply the species under artificially managed conditions. These breeding programmes for rare plants and animals are, however, more expensive than managing a protected area. ❖❖ There is also another form of preserving a plant by preserving its germ plasm in a gene bank so that it can be used if needed in the future.

Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Park ❖❖ The provision of having wildlife sanctuaries and national parks was brought by a regulation in the year 1972 under the Wildlife Conservation Act of 1972.

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❖❖ In India, there are around 500 wildlife sanctuaries and 89 national parks. Wildlife sanctuaries are designated by the State Legislature, and national parks are created by the Union government.

Biosphere Reserve ❖❖ This concept was propagated by UNESCO in the year 1971 when they started the Programme called ‘Man and the Biosphere Programme’ (MAB). ❖❖ Biosphere reserves came were introduced in India India through Environment Protection Act of 1986. Currently, there are 18 biosphere reserves in India.

Some Endemic Species and Their Regions ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

Hangul Deer: Kashmir Barasingha or Swamp Deer: Terai Region Nilgiri Tahr: Shola Grassland Indian Wild Ass: Little Rann of Kutch Snow Leopard: Himalayas (found in the Great Himalayan National Park) Asiatic Lion: Gir forest region of Gujarat Lion Tail Macaque: Western Ghats and Annamalai regions Golden Langur: Manas region in Assam Black Langur: Nilgiri region Great Indian Bustard: Semi-Arid region of Rajasthan

Animal Husbandry The rearing of animals for specific purposes is called domestication, and such animals are called domestic animals. Domestication of animals started during the hunting and gathering phase of human civilization.

Buffaloes Bubalus bubalis is its scientific name. Generally, it is assumed that India is the place of its origin. There are two types of breeds of buffaloes. Exotic or Marshy: These are generally found in Myanmar, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, and China. These are used for carts mainly; its breeds are Jerangi, Khuzestani, Ongole, Sinhala, Manofi, Suinue, and Walede.

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Indian: These are heavy or light weighted and generally prefer to stay in water. They have low heat tolerance capacity. These are again categorized into two types: 1. Heavy Weight Buffaloes: Jaffrabadi, Murrah, Nili Ravi. 2. Light Weight Buffaloes: Bhadawari, Mehsana, Surti, Nagpuri, Ellichpuri, Tarai, Manda, Toda. Cows: Scientific name of the cow is Bos indicus and Bos taurus. In India, 30 varieties of cows are present. Rearing of cows and bulls is preferred in India. 16% of the world’s cows and bulls are found in India. Varieties of Cows: Some varieties of cows are as follows: Humped Indian Breed: Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir, Deoni Dual Purpose Breeds: Haryana, Nimari, Tharparkar Load Carrying Breeds: Nageri, Malvi, Amritmahal, Gangatiri, Siri Exotic Breeds/Milk Yielding Breeds: Jersey, Brown Swiss

Sheep There are many breeds of sheep (Ovis aries) in our country. Today, sheep are raised in all parts of the world. Sheep provide us with wool, skin, and mutton. A sheep lives for about 13 years. Exotic Breeds of Sheep: Merino, South Devon, Lincoln, Corriedale, Romney Marshy.

Goats There are many breeds of goat (Capra capra) in our country. Goats provide us milk, meat, skin, and hair. The fine soft wool called Pashmina is the underfur of Kashmir and Tibet goats.

Important Breeds of Indian Goats Breeds

Distribution

Gaddi and Chamba

Himachal Pradesh

Kashmiri and Pashmina

Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir and Tibet

Jamunapari

Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh

Beetal

Punjab

Marwari

Rajasthan

Berari

Maharashtra

Malabari

Kerala

Bengal

Bihar and Odisha

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Biotechnology ❖❖ Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce products and processes useful to humans. ❖❖ Making curd, bread, or wine, which are all microbe-mediated processes, could also be thought of as a form of biotechnology. ❖❖ However, it is used in a restricted sense today to refer to processes such as those which use genetically modified organisms to achieve the same on a larger scale. ❖❖ Modern biotechnology using genetically modified organisms was made possible only when man learnt to alter the chemistry of DNA and construct recombinant DNA. This key process is called recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering. ❖❖ This process involves the use of restriction endonucleases, DNA ligase, appropriate plasmid or viral vectors to isolate and ferry the foreign DNA into host organisms, expression of the foreign gene, purification of the gene product, that is, the functional protein, and finally making a suitable formulation for marketing. Large scale production involves the use of bioreactors.

Mega Biodiversity ❖❖ The warm and humid tropical regions of the earth between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn are rich in diversity of plant and animal life. This is called the region of megadiversity. ❖❖ Of the biodiversity of the planet, more than half is concentrated in a few countries within the tropics. In alphabetical order, the 17 megadiverse countries are:

1. Australia 2. Brazil 3. China 4. Colombia 5. Democratic Republic of the Congo 6. Ecuador 7. India 8. Indonesia 9. Madagascar 10. Malaysia 11. Mexico 12. Papua New Guinea 13. Peru

6.170  Chapter 6



14. Philippines 15. South Africa 16. United States of America 17. Venezuela

Genetics It is the study of heredity and variations. The term ‘Genetics’ was coined by W Bateson in 1905. Gregor Johann Mondel (commonly called the Father of Genetics) proposed three laws: 1. Law of Dominance: It states that crossing of plants with red and white flower produced plants with only red flower, that is, dominant appeared and recessive disappeared. 2. Law of Segregation: It states that an allele of a gene separates during gamete formation. It is also called the law of purity of genetics or law of splitting of hybrids. It gives 3 : 1 ratio in F2 generation. 3. Law of Independent Assortment: It states that two or more genes assort independently during inheritance. It gives a 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio in F2 generation. Linkage is an exception to this law. Test Cross: The cross between heterozygous F1 and homozygous recessive is called a test cross. In a test cross, the monohybrid ratio is 1 : 1 and dihybrid ratio is 1 : 1 : 1 : 1. Back Cross: The cross between heterozygous F1 hybrid and homozygous dominant allele is called a back cross.

Genetic Terms Phenotype: It is the physical appearance of an individual. Genotype: It is the entire genetic complement of an individual organism. Alleles: The two individual genes in a particular gene pair that occupies the same locus (position) on a homologous pair of chromosome. Dominant and Recessive Traits (Inherited Character): The traits may be dominant or recessive depending upon the fact that on crossing the individuals which are homozygous for a particular trait of the same character, the trait which appears in the F1 generation is called dominant and the other one is recessive. Hybrid: An offspring that is obtained from a cross between two genetically different parents. Linkage: The phenomenon of genic inheritance in which genes of a particular chromosome show their tendency to inherit together, that is, the

Everyday Science    6.171

tendency to retain their parental combination even in the offsprings is known as linkage. Mutation: It is the sudden change of a gene (gene mutation) or chromosome (chromosomal mutation) from one form to another, which are passed on to the daughter cells. Heteroploidy: It is the variation in chromosome number. Pleiotropy: It occurs when one gene influences multiple phenotypic traits.

Human Genetic Disorders due to Abnormalities in Sex-Chromosome Number Name

Chromosomes Effect Complement

Turner’s syndrome

44 + XO (45)

Phenotypically female, sterile due to undifferentiated gonads, webbed neck low posterior hair line increased carrying angle of elbow, short stature.

Super males

44 + XYY (45)

Male, tall, excess testosterone secretions, subnormal intelligence.

Super females

44 + XXX (47)

Female, mental retardation, low fertility but 44 + XXXX (48) genitalia normal.

Klinefelter’s 44 + XXY (47) Male tall with long legs, some with gynecosyndrome 44 + XXYY (48) mastia, small testes, azoospermia, infertile, increased excretion of gonadotropin.

Human Genetic Disorders Disorder

Autosomal/ Sex-linked

Symptoms

Effect

Phenyl ketonuria

Autosomal Mental retardation (chromosome 12)

Sickle-cell anaemia

Autosomal Aggregation of Abnormal (chromosome 11) erythrocytes, more haemoglobin in rapid destruction RBCs. of erythrocytes leading to anaemia.

Defective form of enzyme phenyl alanine hydroxylase produced.

(Contd.)

6.172  Chapter 6

Disorder

Autosomal/ Sex-linked

Symptoms

Effect

Haemophilia Sex-linked A/B (X-chromosome)

Failure of blood to clot.

Defective from of blood clotting factor VIII/IX

Colour blindness

Sex-linked (X-chromosome)

Failure to discriminate between red and green colour.

Defect in either red or/and green cones.

Cystic fibrosis

Autosomal (chromosome 7)

Mucus clogging in lungs, liver, and pancreas anomalies.

Failure of chloride ion transport mechanism.

Genetic Engineering Genetic engineering deals with the technique of using living micro organisms, their parts or processes for the manufacture of useful or commercial substances. It has two core techniques, namely, genetic engineering and technique to facilitate the growth and multiplication of only desired microbes. In genetic engineering (also called recombinant DNA technology), restriction endonucleases are very useful. They cleave the DNA at specific locations called restriction sites. Vectors are organisms or their parts used to transfer the desired DNA from one organism to another. The common vectors are bacteriophage, cosmids, phagemids, plasmids, etc. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) developed by Kary Mullis (1983) can clone or amplify a small amount of DNA. It involves denaturation, primer annealing, and polymerization in the definite sequence. Applications of Biotechnology: A number of transgenic plants, medicines, and acids are produced through genetic engineering. Bt Cotton: It was developed to reduce the heavy reliance on pesticides. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) naturally produces a chemical harmful only to a small fraction of insects. Bt Brinjal: It is a transgenic brinjal (also known as egg plant or aubergine) created by inserting a crystal protein gene (Cry IAc) from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis into the genome of various brinjal varieties. Bacillus Thuringiensis (BT) It is Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, commonly used as a biological pesticide. The Cry toxin found in the bacterium is extracted and used as a pesticide. It also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflies, as well as on the dark surfaces of plants.

Everyday Science    6.173

Golden Rice: It is a variety of Oryza sativa (rice) produced through genetic engineering to biosynthesize beta-carotene, a precursor of provitamin-A in the edible parts of rice. Golden rice was developed as a fortified food to be used in areas where there is a shortage of diet having vitamin A. Flavr Savr: By the use of antisense RNA technology, the enzyme polygalacturonase, which causes damage to pectin, is deactivated, and the tomato is kept fresh for longer duration. Dairy Products: Cheese is prepared by the coagulation of casein and other minor milk proteins (curdling of milk) by an enzyme rennin extracted from calf gastric mucosa. ❖❖ Streptococcus and Lactobacillus species are involved in the manufacture of most cheese. ❖❖ Semisoft blue Roquefort cheese of France is produced using the mold Penicillium roqueforti. ❖❖ Yoghurt is a preserved milk product having a distinct taste and a thicker texture than milk. ❖❖ Yoghurt is made by fermenting whole milk with a mixture of Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Streptococcus lactis, and S. thermophilus at 40° to 46°C.

Biotechnology in Human Health ❖❖ Monoclonal antibodies are made outside the body by the hybrid cell cultures known as hybridomas. Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) are antibodies that are identical because they were produced by one type of immune cell, and are all clones of a single parent cell. ❖❖ A biochip is a discrete collection of gene fragments on a stamp-sized chip that can be used to screen the presence of particular gene variants. Biochips allow rapid screening of gene profiles, a tool that promises to have a revolutionary impact on medicine and society. Biochips can help in identifying precise forms of cancer. ❖❖ Gene therapy is the treatment of disease by replacing, altering, or supplementing a gene whose absence or abnormality is responsible for the disease. Gene therapy is unique as it employs the genetic material, that is, DNA itself as the means of treatment. ❖❖ Human insulin or humulin is the first genetically engineered pharmaceutical product developed by Eli Lilly and company in 1982. ❖❖ Urokinase is involved in dissolution of blood clots. It has been synthesized in huge quantity by using genetically engineered bacteria with urokinase genes.

6.174  Chapter 6

Organic Acids Synthesized by Various Microbes Micro-organism

Organic Acid

Lactic acid

Lactobacillus delbreukii, L. bulgaricus, Streptococcus lactis and Rhizopus species

Acetic acid (vinegar)

Acetobacter aceti

Citric acid

Aspergillus niger, Penicillium sp, and Mucor sp.

Gluconic acid

Aceobacter aceti, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium and Chrysogenum

Butyric acid

Clostridium acetobutylicum

Oxalic acid

Aspergillus sp.

Types of Antibiotics with their Source and Action Antibiotics

Source

Action

Penicillin

Penicillium chrysogenum + P. notatum + Phenyl Acetic Acid

Tonsillitis, sore throat, gonorrhoea, rheumatic fever, some pneumonia types

Streptomycin

Streptomyces griseus

Meningitis, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and local infection. Toxic in some, through eighth cranial nerve.

Chloramphenicol Streptomyces Chloramycetin venezuelae, S. lavendulae

Typhoid, typhus, whooping cough, atypical pneumonia, bacterial urinary infection.

Tetracyclines/ Aureomycin

Streptomyces aureofaciens

Viral pneumonia, osteomyelitis, whooping cough, eye infections.

Oxytetracycline/ Terramycine

ChlorotetracyclineHydrogenation Streptomyces rimosus

Intestinal and urinary infections (Spirochaetes, Rickettsia, Viruses)

Erythromycin

Streptomyces erythraeus (= S. erythraeus)

Typhoid, common pneumonia, diptheria, whooping cough, etc.

Everyday Science    6.175

Invention and Discoveries Invention

Year

Inventor

Aeroplane

1903

Orville and W. Wright

Ball-point pen

1888

John J. Loud

Barometre

1644

E. Torricelli

Bicycle

1839

K. Macmillan

Calculating Machine

1642

Blaise Pascal

Centigrade Scale

1742

A. Celsius

Chloroform

1831

E. Soubeiran

Cine camera

1889

Wm. Friese-Greene

Clock (Mechanical)

1725

Hsing and Ling-Tsan

Clock (Pendulum)

1957

Christian Huygens

Diesel Engine

1892

Rudolf Diesel

Dynamite

1866

Alfred Nobel

Dynamo (Principle)

1831

Michael Faraday

Electronic Iron

1882

H.W. Seeley

Electric lamp

1879

Thomas Alva Edison

Electric Motor

183

Moritz Jacobi

Fountain pen

1884

L.E. Waterman

Glider

1853

Sir George Cayley

Gramophone

1878

Thomas Alva Edison

Insulin Hormone

1923

Sir Frederick Banting

Jet engine

1937

Sir Frank Whittle

Lift (elevator)

1852

E.G. Otis

Lighting Conductor

1752

Benjamin Franklin

Locomotive, steam

1804

Richard Trevithic

Machine Gun

1861

Richard Gatling

Microphone

1878

David Hughes

Microscope

1590

Z. Janssen

Motor Car, Petrol

1885

Karl Benz

Motorcycle

1884

Edward Butler (Contd.)

6.176  Chapter 6

Invention

Year

Inventor

Penicillin

1928

Alexander Fleming

Photography (film)

1888

Hohn Carbutt

Piano

1711

Cristofori

Radar

1922

Taylor and Young

Radium

1898

Marie & Pierre Curie

Radio

1901

Guglielmo Marconi

Rayon

1883

Sir Joseph Swann

Refrigerator

1851

James Harrision

Revolver

1835

Samuel Colt

Safety lamp

1816

Sir Humphry Davy

Safety pin

1849

William Hurst

Ship, Steam

1775

J.C. Perier

Ship, turbine

1894

Sir Charles Parsons

Steam engine

1712

Thomas Savery

Submarine

1776

David Bushnell

Telegraph code

1837

Samuel F.B. Morse

Thermometre

1608

Galileo Galilei

Television

1926

John Logie Baird

Telescope

1593

Galileo

Typewriter

1864

Mitterhofer

Theory of Evolution

1858

Charles Darwin

Valve, radio

1904

Sir J.A. Fleming

X-ray

1895

Wilhelm Roentgen

Various Sciences and Studies Science

Study of

Acoustics

Sound (or science of science)

Aerodynamics

The motion of air and other gases

Aeronautics

Science or art of flight

Agronomy

Science of soil management and production of field corps (Contd.)

Everyday Science    6.177

Science

Study of

Agrostology

Grasses

Anatomy

Structure of animals, plants, or human body

Anthropology

The origin, physical and cultural developments of mankind

Archaeology

Antiquities

Astrology

Ancient art of predicting the course of human destinies with the help of indications deduced from the position and movement of the heavenly bodies

Astronautics

Science of space travel

Astronomy

Heavenly bodies

Astrophysics

Branch of astronomy concerned with the physical nature of heavenly bodies

Bacteriology

Bacteria

Biochemistry

Chemical processes of living things

Biology

Living things

Biometry

Application of mathematics to the study of living things

Bionomics

The relation of an organism to its environment

Botany

Plants

Chemotherapy

Treatment of diseases using chemical substances

Conchology

Branch of zoology dealing with the shells of molluscs

Cosmology

Universe as a whole and of its form, nature, etc.

Cryogenics

Science dealing with the production, control, and application of very low temperatures

Cytology

Cells, especially their formation, structure, and functions

Dactylography

Finger prints for the purpose of identification

Embryology

Development of embryos

Entomology

Insects

Epidemiology

Branch of medicine dealing with epidemic diseases

Epigraphy

Inscriptions

Ethology

Animal behaviour

Genealogy

Family origins and history (Contd.)

6.178  Chapter 6

Science

Study of

Geology

Science that deals with the physical history of earth

Geomorphology

The characteristics, origin, and development of landforms

Gerontology

Old age, its phenomena, diseases, etc.

Histology

Tissues

Horticulture

Cultivation of flowers, fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants

Metallurgy

Process of extracting metals from their ores

Meteorology

Science of the atmosphere and its phenomena

Metrology

Scientific study of weights and measures

Neurology

The nervous system, its functions, and its disorders

Mycology

Fungi and fungal diseases

Numerology

Numbers

Optics

Nature and properties of light

Ornithology

Birds

Osteology

Bones

Paleobotany

Fossil plants

Paleontology

Fossils

Pathology

Diseases

Phonetics

Speech sounds

Phycology

Algae

Physics

The properties of matter

Physiology

Functioning of organs of living beings

Pomology

Science that deals with fruits and fruit growing

Psychology

Human and animal behaviour

Radiology

X-rays and radioactivity

Scientology

Earthquakes

Sociology

Human society

Topography

A special description of a part or region

Virology

Viruses

Zoology

Animal life

Everyday Science    6.179

Scientific Instruments and Appliances Instrument

Use

Altimetre

It is a special type of aneroid barometre used in measuring altitudes.

Ammetre

It is an instrument used to measure the strength of an electric current.

Anemometre

It is an instrument used to measure velocity and find directions of the wind.

Audiometre

It is an instrument used to measure difference in hearing.

Barometre

It is used for measuring atmospheric pressure.

Calorimetre

It is an instrument used for measuring quantities of heat.

Clinical Thermometre

It is a thermometre for measuring the temperature of the human body.

Colorimetre

It is an instrument used for comparing intensities of colour

Cyclotron

It is an apparatus used for electromagnetic acceleration of charged atoms. It has made it possible to make ordinary elements radioactive, leading to production of radioactive isotopes.

Dynamo

It is an instrument used for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Dynamometre

It is an instrument used for measuring electrical power.

Electrocardiograph (ECG)

It is an instrument used for detection of electric impulses of the heart. It gives a graphic picture of heartbeats.

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

It is an instrument used for recording the change in electric potential in various areas of the brain by means of electrodes on the scalp or in the brain itself.

Electrometre

It is an instrument used for measuring electricity.

Electroscope

It is an instrument used for detecting the presence of electric charge.

Galvanometre

It is an instrument used for measuring electric current.

Hydrometre

It is an instrument used for measuring the relative density of liquids.

Hygrometre

It is an instrument used for measuring the relative humidity of the atmosphere. (Contd.)

6.180  Chapter 6

Instrument

Use

Hygroscope

It is an instrument used to show the changes in atmospheric humidity.

Lactometre

It is an instrument for measuring the relative density of milk.

Manometre

It is an instrument to measure the pressure of gases.

Magnetometre

It is an instrument used to compare magnetic moments and fields.

Microphone

It is an instrument used for converting sound wave into electrical energy, which is transmitted through wires and then recovered into sound with a magnified intensity.

Microscope

It is an instrument used for a magnified view of very small objects.

Photometre

It is an instrument used for comparing luminous intensity of the source of light.

Pyrheliometre

It is an instrument used for measuring solar radiations.

Pyrometres

These are the thermometres used to measure high temperatures.

Radar

It is used for detecting and finding a range of moving objects by transmitting beams of radio waves.

Radio micrometre

It is an instrument used for measuring heat radiations.

Rain gauge

It is an instrument used for measuring rainfall.

Refractometre

It is an instrument used to measure the refractive index of a substance.

Resistance thermometre

It is used for determining the electrical resistance of a conductor.

Seismograph

It is an instrument used for recording the intensity and origin of earthquake shocks.

Stereoscope

It is an optical device used to see two dimensional pictures as having depth and solidity.

Stethoscope

It is a medical instrument used for hearing and analyzing the sound of the heart and lungs.

Telephone

It is an apparatus used for transmission of sound.

Telescope

It is an instrument used for viewing distant objects as magnified. (Contd.)

Everyday Science    6.181

Instrument

Use

Television

It is an instrument used for transmitting visible moving images by wireless means.

Thermometre

It is an instrument used to measure the temperature.

Thermostat

It is an automatic device used for regulating constant temperatures.

Transistor

It is a small device which may be used to amplify current and perform other functions usually performed by a thermionic value.

Voltmetre

It is an instrument used to measure the potential difference between two points.

Ribosome

Pilus

Cell wall

Capsule

Flagellum Nucleoid (DNA) Cell membrane Fig. 6.9  Prokaryotic Cells Cell membrane

Nucleus Nucleolus Vacuole Iysosome

Cytoplasm Endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondrion Golgi complex Fig. 6.10  Eukaryotic Cells

6.182  Chapter 6

Fig. 6.11  Animal Cells

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Golgi apparatus Chloroplast

Nucleus Ribosomes

Vacuole Microbody

Plasma membrane

Cell wall

Mitochondria

Fig. 6.12  Plant Cells

  Chapter 7

Science and Technology Space Research ❖❖ Scientific studies carried out by using scientific equipment in outer space. ❖❖ The term ‘outer space’ was first recorded by H.G. Wells in 1901.

Facts on Space Research in India ❖❖ ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization) is the premier organization involved with space research in India. It was established in 1969 by Vikram Sarabhai and is currently under the Department of Space. ❖❖ ISRO has successfully operationalized 2 major satellite systems, namely: 1. Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for communication services, and 2. Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources. Also, it has launched vehicles like: (a) Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching IRS type of satellites, and (b) Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for launching INSAT type of satellites.

INSAT Master Control Facility (MCF) MCF located at Hassan in Karnataka is responsible for all the post-launch operations of INSAT satellites, including orbit manoeuvres, station keeping, and on-orbit operation of the spacecraft. A second ISRO master control facility was inaugurated in Bhopal in 2005.

7.2

Chapter 7

Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) IRNSS is expected to provide position accuracies in a region centered over India and extending to adjoining areas.

Chandrayaan-1 Chandrayaan-1 was India’s first unmanned lunar probe. It was launched by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) in October 2008, and operated until August 2009.

Chandrayaan-2 Chandrayaan-2 is the second unmanned lunar exploration mission proposed by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). The mission was initially proposed to be launched in 2013, but later deferred to 2016–17 and then to 2018, by a GSLV Launch Vehicle. It includes a lunar orbiter as well as 2 rovers: One Lander/rover built by Russia and a second smaller-rover built by India.

The outer Space Treaty ❖❖ Forms the basis of international space law. ❖❖ Initially opened for signature by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union in 1967 and entered into force in the same year. ❖❖ The Outer Space Treaty bars signatories from placing nuclear weapons or any other weapons of mass destruction in the orbit of the Earth or any other celestial body, or to station them in outer space. ❖❖ Currently, 102 countries, including India, are parties to the Outer Space Treaty.

Space age Timeline ❖❖ 1942: German V2 becomes the first rocket to reach 100 km from Earth’s surface. ❖❖ 1947: First animals (Fruit flies!) were launched into space. ❖❖ 1957: Russia launched the first do you Know? satellite into space, called Sputnik-I. Gherman Titov was a Soviet ❖❖ 1957: Russian space dog Laika becosmonaut, who, on 6 August comes the first animal to orbit the 1961, became the second Earth. human to orbit the earth. Aged ❖❖ 1959: Luna 2 becomes the first a month less than 26 when he spacecraft to reach the surface of took his flight, he is the youngest the Moon. person to have flown in space!

Science and Technology  7.3

❖❖ 1960: Tiros 1, the first successful weather satellite, launched by the USA. ❖❖ 1961: Yuri Gagarin becomes the first man to go into space.   President John F. Kennedy promised the world that the USA would land men on the Moon before 1970. ❖❖ 1963: Soviet cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first woman to go into space. ❖❖ 1965: Alexei Leonov becomes the first man to walk in space. ❖❖ 1967: Soviet Soyuz 1 was launched, carrying Vladimir M. Komarov. The equipment crashed, and Vladimir becomes the first space-flight fatality. ❖❖ 20 July 1969. Neil Armstrong, commander of Apollo 11, becomes the first human being to walk on the Moon. ❖❖ 1971: Salyut 1 was launched. It became the first space station of the world.   Alan Shepard becomes the first person to play golf on the Moon. ❖❖ 1972: Department of Space and Space Commission constituted. ❖❖ 1975: Sputnik 1, the world’s first artificial satellite was launched by the Soviet Union. ❖❖ 1975: The first Indian satellite Aryabhata, launched from the USSR. ❖❖ 1975–76: Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) conducted. ❖❖ 1976: Viking 1 landed on Mars and transmitted pictures from the surface. Facts to Know! ❖❖ Armalcolite is a titanium-rich mineral which was first found on the Moon in 1969 (along with 2 other minerals). It has since been found in various locations on Earth and synthesized in the laboratory. Do you know how it was named? It was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins, the 3 Apollo 11 astronauts who discovered it on the Moon. ❖❖ Only 12 astronauts have walked on the Moon till date and all of them are Americans!

❖❖ 1979: The second Indian satellite Bhaskara-I launched from USSR. Pioneer 11 becomes the first spacecraft to fly past Saturn. ❖❖ 1980: The indigenous satellite launch vehicle (SLV-3) puts the 35 kg Rohini satellite into orbit from Sriharikota range. ❖❖ 1981: The first reusable space ship, the US Space Shuttle, launched for the first time. ❖❖ 1983: Sally K. Ride becomes the first US woman to travel in space. ❖❖ 1984: Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma becomes India’s first man in space. Thus, on 3 April 1984, India becomes the 13th nation in the world

7.4

❖❖ ❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

❖❖

Chapter 7

to have sent a man into space. Svetlana Savitskaya (Russia) becomes the first woman to walk in space. 1994: India launched its 4-stage Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle for the first time. 1997: IRS-1D was successfully launched from Sriharikota Range (SHAR) by the PSLV-C1, the country’s first indigenous Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle. On 19 November 1997, Kalpana Chawla becomes the first ethnic Indian woman to participate in a space launch as a mission specialist. She was a part of the 6-member crew on the fourth US microgravity pay load flight (on board Columbia) to study the outer atmosphere of the Sun. 2001: GSAT-1 was successfully launched by India’s first development flight of GSLV-1 from Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh. The satellite was meant for conducting communication experiments. Dennis Tito becomes the first space tourist. 2003: The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred on 1 February 2003, when Columbia disintegrated, trying to reenter Earth’s atmosphere. The disaster killed all crew members, including Kalpana Chawla, the first Indian woman in space. On 10 April 2003, the indigenously built INSAT-3A, the country’s biggest spacecraft with a 12-year mission life, was hurled into space by the European Rocket Ariane-5 Know More! from the French Gyanese Spacecraft of Kourou in During investigations into the Space South America. It is meant for Shuttle Columbia disaster, many broadcasting communication experts had their own theories on what and weather monitoring caused the disaster. However, Edward Tufte, an American statistician and services. pioneer in the field of data visualization, 2004: EDUSAT was had the most bizarre theory! He successfully launched by the blamed the way Microsoft PowerPoint GSLV–FO 1 from Sriharikota was used by NASA engineers as one in Andhra Pradesh. of the reasons for the disaster. He Space-Ship-One makes believed that a vital engineering detail, the first ever privately funded which was presented in small type manned space flight. NASA’s on a crowded slide, if presented in a Mars Exploration Rover regular engineering white paper, might ‘Spirit’ successfully lands on have been noticed and would have the planet. prevented the disaster! His analysis 2007: On 2 September 2007, was also included in the Columbia India’s largest rocket GSLV– Accident Investigation Board’s report.

Science and Technology  7.5

FO4, carrying communication satellite INSAT–4CR, was launched successfully from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh. The INSAT–4CR, at 2,130 kg is the heaviest satellite launched by the ISRO. This is the first INSAT 4 series satellite launched from India. ❖❖ 2008: Chandrayan-1, India’s first mission to Moon was successfully launched from Sriharikota. ❖❖ 2009: LCROSS (The Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite) designed to search for water ice on moon’s surface was launched. Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), the first mission of NASA’s Robotic Lunar Exploration Programme, designed to map the surface of the Moon, was launched. ❖❖ 2010: Akatsuki (‘Dawn’), originally designated Planet-C, also known as the Venus Climate Orbiter, is a Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) mission designed to measure atmospheric temperatures and look for evidence of volcanic activity and lightning. Chang’e 2, China’s second Lunar mission was launched. ❖❖ 2011: The Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) mission was launched; it was designed to determine the structure of the lunar interior and to advance understanding of the thermal evolution of the Moon.   The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), a robotic space probe mission to Mars, is launched by NASA on 26 November 2011. It successfully landed ‘Curiosity’, a Mars rover, in Gale Crater in 2012. ❖❖ 2013: The Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) was launched.   The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or Mangalyaan (Hindi for ‘Mars Craft’), was designed and launched by India to study Mars from orbit.   The Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) mission, designed to explore Mars’ upper atmosphere and ionosphere, and interactions with the solar wind, was launched. ❖❖ 2014: Mangalyaan was successfully inserted into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. ❖❖ 2016: ISRO launched 20 satellites in one mission, a record for a space agency.

Indian Atomic Energy Commission ❖❖ The Indian Atomic Energy Commission was first set up in 1948. ❖❖ The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was set up under the direct charge of the Prime Minister through a Presidential Order in 1954.

7.6

Chapter 7

centres for Research and development in India 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai The Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam The Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT), Indore Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre, Calcutta, West Bengal Atomic Minerals Directorate, New Delhi

Indian Nuclear explosions ❖❖ ‘Smiling Buddha’ on 18 May 1974 was India’s first nuclear explosion, conducted at Pokhran, Rajasthan. ❖❖ ‘Operation Shakti’ on 11 May 1998 was India’s second nuclear explosion, conducted at Pokhran, Rajasthan.

deFeNce aNd SecURITy

Know More! Following the huge hue and cry that followed Operation Shakti, Pakistan conducted its own set of nuclear tests, immediately after Operation Shakti. It carried out its first nuclear test (codenamed Chagai-I) on 28 May 1998 and the second test Chagai-II on 30 May 1998. Following the news of both the tests (of India and Pakistan), the United Nations unanimously adopted United Nations Security Council Resolution 1172, strongly condemning the test and demanded that both the countries refrain from engaging in further tests.

❖❖ The Supreme Command of the Armed Forces vests in the President. The responsibility for national defence rests with the Cabinet. This is discharged through the Ministry of Defence. ❖❖ The Defence Minister is the head of the Ministry of Defence. ❖❖ India’s defence policy aims at promoting and sustaining durable peace in the sub-continent and equipping the defence forces adequately to safeguard aggression. ❖❖ India is not a signatory to the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

Missile programme of India Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme or IGMDP was launched in 1983. The components of IGMDP: ●❖ ●❖ ●❖

Two surface-to-surface missiles (viz., AGNI and PRITHVI) Two surface-to-air missiles (viz., TRISHUL and AKASH) One anti-tank missile (viz., NAG)

Science and Technology  7.7

Astra ❖❖ Astra is the first air-to-air missile developed by India; an advanced missile that enables fighter pilots to shoot down enemy aircraft 80 km away. ❖❖ This missile was first successfully tested without control and guidance systems, in 2003. ❖❖ In 2008, India successfully test-fired Astra in the Chandipur-on-sea area, off the Odisha coast.

Tejas (LCA) ❖❖ It is a multi-role, light-weight Combat Aircraft and has capabilities for fighting, intercepting, and bombing. ❖❖ The project was originally known as the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA)—a designation which continues in popular usage—but was officially christened ‘Tejas’ by the then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee at a ceremony held in 2003.

Saras SARAS is India’s first indigenous civilian aircraft designed and developed by the National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL) of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). It is named after the Indian crane known for its grace and beauty in flight.

Nuclear Energy Timeline ❖❖ 1896: French physicist Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity. ❖❖ 1905: In Switzerland, Albert Einstein introduced his special theory of relativity. ❖❖ 1911: New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of the atom. ❖❖ 1932: James Chadwick discovered the neutron. ❖❖ 1937: 5 million volt Van de Graff generator built by The Westinghouse Corporation. ❖❖ 1939: Physicist Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann of Germany split uranium atoms in a process known as fission. ❖❖ 1942: Enrico Fermi built the first nuclear reactor, in a squash court at the University of Chicago, USA. ❖❖ 1945: To force the Japanese to surrender and end World War II, United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

7.8  Chapter 7

❖❖ 1946: The first fast reactor, called Clementine, was built at Los Alamos, New Mexico. ❖❖ 1953: BORAX-I, the first of a series of Boiling Reactor Experiment reactors was built at INEEL. ❖❖ 1955: The USS Nautilus, SSN 571 becomes the first nuclear powered submarine. ❖❖ 1957: International Atomic Energy Agency was established. ❖❖ 1958: Nautilus became the first submarine to voyage under the North Pole. ❖❖ 1962: The world’s first commercial nuclear power station, Calder Hall, came into operation in the UK; The Indian government enacted the Atomic Energy Act of 1962, which allows for enhanced secrecy and mandates Central governmental control over atomic energy. ❖❖ 1968: India refused to sign the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty. ❖❖ 1974: The Energy Reorganization Act, 1974 splits the Atomic Energy Commission into the Energy Research and Development Administration and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission; India conducted a nuclear weapon test at Pokhran, calling it a ‘peaceful nuclear explosion’ and stated that India has ‘no intention of producing nuclear weapons’. It was code named ‘Smiling Buddha’. ❖❖ 1983: India started an Integrated Guided Missile Programme (IGMP) to develop five missile systems. ❖❖ 1986: The Chernobyl nuclear disaster occurred in Ukraine during unauthorized experiments with four pressurized water reactors. ❖❖ 1996: Tokyo Electric Power Co. Inc. (TEPCO), Japan’s biggest utility provider started commercial operation of the world’s first advanced boiling water reactor. ❖❖ 2005: Finland approved construction of one of the world’s largest nuclear power plants. ❖❖ 2007: Russia and India signed a nuclear deal to allow Russia to build four nuclear power reactors in India. The Nuclear Suppliers Group lifted its restrictions on India’s access to nuclear technology. ❖❖ 2008: The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) removes the ban on India’s participation in international nuclear trade; India signed an agreement with the United States of America, which lifted a three-decade US moratorium on nuclear trade with India by providing assistance to India’s civilian nuclear energy programme and expanding US-Indian cooperation in energy and satellite technology. ❖❖ 2009: India launched its first nuclear-powered submarine.

Science and Technology  7.9

❖❖ 2011: A 9.0 magnitude earthquake, and tsunami wrecks the Fukushima nuclear plant, triggering nuclear meltdowns that contaminate food and water and force mass evacuations. ❖❖ 2012: Japan shuts its last working nuclear power reactors following the disaster, leaving it without nuclear power for the first time since the 1970s. ❖❖ 2013: Nuclear Reactor at the Kundankulam plant in Tamil Nadu started after years of delay due to technical problems and protests by people of the state.

International Decades by UNO Decade

Name

1960–70

United Nations Development Decade

1970s

Disarmament Decade

1971–80

Second United Nations Development Decade

1973–83

Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination

1976–85

United Nation Decade for Women; Equality, Development, and Peace

1978–88

Transport and Communication Decade for Africa

1980s

Industrial Development Decade for Africa

1980–90

Second Disarmament Decade

1981–90

International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade Third United Nations Development Decade

1983–92

United Nations Decade for Disabled Persons

1983–93

Second Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination

1988–97

World Decade for Cultural Development

1990s

Third Disarmament Decade

1990–99

United Nations Decade of International Law International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction

1990–2000

International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism

1991–2000

Second Industrial Development Decade for Africa Second Transport and Communications Decade in Africa United Nations Decade Against Drug Abuse Fourth United Nations Development Decade

1993–2003

Third Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination

1994–2004

Decade of the World’s Indigenous People (Contd.)

7.10  Chapter 7

Decade

Name

1995–2004

Decade for Human Rights Education

1997–2006

Decade for the Eradication for Poverty

2001–10

International Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-violence for the Children of the World Decade to Roll Back Malaria in Developing Countries, particularly in Africa Second International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism

2003–12

United Nations Literacy Decade: Education for All

2005–14

United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development Second International Decade of the World’s Indigenous People

2005–15

International Decade for Action, ‘Water for Life’

2006–16

Decade of Recovery and Sustainable Development of the Affected Regions (Third decade after the Chernobyl disaster)

2008–17

Second United Nations Decade for the Eradication of Poverty

2010–20

United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification

2011–20

Third International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism United Nations Decade on Biodiversity Decade of Action for Road Safety

2014–24

United Nations Decade of Sustainable Energy for All

2015–24

International Decade for People of Africa Descent

2016–25

United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition

Computers and Technology A computer is a programmable machine which responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner, and can execute a pre-recorded list of instructions (known as a program).

5 Generations of Computers 1. 1940–56: Vacuum Tubes ●●

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, which was the US Census Bureau, in 1951.

Science and Technology  7.11

2. 1956–63: Transistors ●●

Transistors replaced valves and were usually known as second generation computers.

3. 1964–71: Integrated Circuits ●●

The Integrated Chip (IC) became the basis of the third generation.

4. 1971-present: Microprocessors ●●

Fourth generation computers used microprocessors. IBM introduced the first computer for home use in 1981, and Apple introduced the Macintosh in 1984. Graphical User Interface (GUI), the mouse, and handheld devices were also developed during this stage.

5. Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence ●●

The future belongs to artificial intelligence, which can be seen from various speech recognition systems and robots being developed.

Computer Terminology 1. 32-bit/16-bit: This denotes the number of ‘pieces’ (or bits) of information required by an operating system to run a certain application. It also deals with the construction of the computer’s CPU (Central Processing Unit) or brain. 2. Analog: Not digital. This is data in the form of a continuous flow. A record or a tape is analog. Digital, on the other hand, is in pieces or samples. 3. Bandwidth: The carrying capacity of a wire attached from one computer to another. It is usually measured in the amount of bits carried. 4. BASIC: BASIC is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages whose design philosophy emphasizes ease of use—the name is an acronym from Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. 5. Binary: This is a basic system of numbering using ones and zeros. 6. BIOS: Stands for Basic Input/Output System. This is the little set of programs that lets all the different parts of the computer talk to each other. 7. Bit/s: ‘Bit’ is a grouping of the words ‘binary’ and ‘digits’. 8. Blu-ray Disc: An optical disc storage medium designed to supersede the DVD format. 9. Browser: User’s software program for viewing and browsing information on the Internet. 10. Byte: A unit of space. It is also used to represent a series of seven or eight ASCII code digits representing a character.

7.12  Chapter 7

11. C: A programming language developed at Bell Labs (AT&T). 12. Cache: A high speed memory that transparently improves the performance of a larger, but slower memory or storage device. 13. CD-ROM: Compact Disc–Read Only Memory. It’s a storage place that disallows recording or manipulating of its data. 14. Channel I/O: In computer science, channel I/O is a generic term that refers to a high-performance input/output (I/O) architecture that is implemented in various forms on a number of computer architectures, especially on mainframe computers. 15. COBOL: Stands for Common Business Oriented Language. 16. CPU: Stands for Central Processing Unit. This is the brain of a computer. It is made up of two parts: The Arithmetic Logic Unit and the Control Unit. 17. DNS: This stands for Domain Name System. 18. DOS: Stands for Disc Operating System. It is a generic term for the many programs that accept commands to get applications to run. The most popular is MS-DOS (MS stands for Microsoft). 19. DVD (Digital Video Disc or Digital Versatile Disc): An optical disc storage media format that was invented and developed by Philips, Sony, TOSHIBA, and Time Warner in 1995. Its main uses are video and data storage. DVDs are of the same dimensions as compact discs (CDs) but store up to six times more data. 20. EBCDIC: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. It is also called the Extended ASCII Code, as it adds an eighth digit to the normal seven-digit code. 21. Encryption: This is any one of many methods to transfer a file into a hard-to-crack code. It is often done by scrambling or by letter-to-letter replacement. 22. Ethernet: This is a method of file transfer that uses dedicated cables rather than dial-up phone lines. 23. File Sharing: This is the most important feature of the Internet. This is a method of allowing one server to give the same file to many different end users. 24. Firewall: A hardware device or software to protect a computer from viruses, malware, Trojans, etc. 25. Floppy Disk: A data storage medium that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible (‘floppy’) magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic shell. 26. FORTRAN: Stands for FORmula TRANslation.

Science and Technology    7.13

26. Freeware: This is a shortened version of Free Software. Programmers offer their work without payment in return. 28. FTP: Stands for File Transfer Protocol. 29. Gigabyte: (GB) It is about a billion bytes. 30. GIGO: An acronym that stands for Garbage In, Garbage Out. 31. GUI: Pronounced ‘gooey’. It stands for Graphical User Interface. It is the graphical representations you see on the screen. 32. Hard Drive (HDD): A non-volatile storage device that digitally encodes data on rapidly rotating rigid (i.e., hard) platters with magnetic surfaces. 33. HTML: Stands for Hyper Text Markup Language, the common language used to write documents on the World Wide Web. 34. HTTP: Stands for Hyper Text Transport Protocol. Common protocol used to communicate between World Wide Web Servers. 35. IBM: Stands for International Business Machines. 36. ISDN: Stands for Integrated Services Digital Network. 37. Java: Java is an Object Oriented Programme developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems. Java is delivered over the Internet in the form of little applications or ‘applets’ that do tricks when they are downloaded and read by the browser. 38. Kilobyte: (KB) This is a unit of memory of about a thousand bytes (of space). 39. Megabyte: (MB) About a million bytes (A unit of memory). 40. Modem: This is a word created out of the beginning letters of two other words, MOdulation and DEModulation. The words mean the changing of data from digital (computer language) to analog (phone line language) and then back again. It represents the purpose of your computer’s modem. 41. Mouse: A pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. 42. MPEG: Stands for Motion Picture Experts Group. A format to make, view, and transfer both digital audio and digital video files. 43. Operating System: Often written as OS. This is the software that manages the computer system. It controls all functions and direction. Examples include Windows, Unix. 44. RAM: Stands for Random Access Memory. It’s the memory of the computer. 45. ROM: Stands for Read Only Memory. This is memory and information that cannot be changed. 46. Software: This is a program, the actual code the computer reads. All other stuff is hardware. A floppy disc is hardware.

7.14

Chapter 7

47. Spam: This is to transmit unwanted messages, usually over e-mail, to a great many people. 48. TCP/IP: Stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. This is large grouping of programs and standards that govern how information moves around the Internet. The protocols were established around 1970–80 to allow computers to connect to one another. 49. Terabyte: (TB) It is a unit of memory, about a trillion bytes. 50. UNIX: This is an operating system developed by AT&T. It allows one server to service many different end users at one time. 51. URL: Stands for Universal Resource Locator. It’s a fancy way of saying Internet Address. 52. VIRUS: Stands for Very Important Resource Under Siege (or ... Vicious Internal Rabbit/Rodent Uprooting Stuff). It is a small program written specifically to cause problems in your computer. 53. Webcam: A webcam is a video camera that feeds its images in real time to a computer or computer network, often via USB, Ethernet, or Wi-Fi. 54. WPG: Stands for World Perfect Graphics. 55. WWW: Short for World Wide Web.

Timeline of computing and Internet ❖❖ 1936: First programmable binary computer known as ‘Z1’ is invented by Konrad Zuse, a construction engineer in Berlin, Germany. ❖❖ 1939: Hewlett Packard, popularly known as HP, is founded by Bill Hewlett and David Packard in California. The first product is HP 200A audio oscillator. This is used Know More! by Walt Disney Pictures in the Alan Turing’s work on the Enigma movie ‘Fantasia’. code is often said to have shortened ❖❖ 1940: George Stibitz completed the Second World War. However, he the Complex Number Calculator was prosecuted for homosexuality (CNC). This is considered to in 1952 and allegedly committed be the first demonstration of suicide in 1954. In 2009, following remote access computing. an Internet campaign, British Prime ❖❖ 1941: The first electronic Minister Gordon Brown made an computer named ‘Colossus’ official public apology on behalf is created by Alan Turing to of the British Government for decipher German codes during the way in which he was treated. In December 2013, Turing was World War II. officially pardoned by the Queen, ❖❖ 1942: The first electronic digital nearly sixty years after his death! computer—Atanasoff Berry

Science and Technology

❖❖ ❖❖

❖❖

❖❖ ❖❖

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

7.15

Computer (ABC) is completed. It is built by Professor John Vincent Atanasoff and his student Cliff Berry. 1944: Harvard Mark 1 is developed by IBM and Howard Aiken. This is primarily designed to perform arithmetic operations. 1946: John Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly build ENIAC— Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. This computer is 1,000 times speedier than its contemporaries. 1947: John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley invented a transfer resistance tool known as ‘Transistor’. Transistors transformed the electronic world. By replacing the bulky tubes with transistors, it became possible to perform functions with less space and power. 1951: The first computer to be commercially distributed is UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer). It is manufactured by Remington Rand. 1957: FORTRAN or Formula Translation is a programming language developed by John Backus. It is invented for IBM in 1954 and released in 1957. 1958: The second generation of computers is ushered in through the invention of ‘Integrated Circuit’ or the ‘chip’. It was invented by Jack Kilby. 1960: COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language), a very successful programming language is developed by Dr Grace Hopper. 1962: The first computer game ‘SpaceWar’ is invented. 1964: Douglas Engelbart invented the ‘mouse’. Also, third generation computers were introduced. 1965: BASIC (Beginner’s Al-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), a computer programming language is created by Thomas Kurtz and John Kemeny. 1968: Intel is founded by Gordon Moore, Robert Noyce, Arther Rocks and Max Palevsky. 1969: The ARPANET is do you Know? established. Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce 1970: Fourth generation had initially wanted to name Intel as ‘Moore-Noyce’. However, they computers established using later decided to go against this LSI (Large Scale Integration) name when they realized that chips. Also, Intel released 1103, ‘Moore-Noyce’ is a homophone the world’s first dynamic RAM (similar sounding) of ‘More Noise’, chip. HP 9,800 series was which is the last name that anyone the first computer which was would want associated with their commercially available and used electronics company! the 1103 chip.

7.16  Chapter 7

❖❖ 1971: The first micro-processor built by Intel is 4,004. It was developed by Intel engineers—Dr Ted Hoff, Stanley Mazor and Federico Faggin. ❖❖ 1972: Electronic mail is introduced by Ray Tomilson. He uses @ for the first time to distinguish between the sender’s name and network name in the e-mail address. ❖❖ 1975: Microsoft Corporation is founded by William Henry Bill Gates and Paul G. Allen. ❖❖ 1976: Steve Wozniak designed Apple-1 and started a new company with Steve Jobs. It was named Apple Computer Inc. ❖❖ 1981: Narayan Murthy founded Infosys technologies with 6 engineers in Pune; Adam Orborne completed the first portable computer named ‘Osborne I’; IBM released its first Personal Computer. MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) was introduced by Microsoft. It was a non-graphical command line operating system; It was written by Tim Paterson. ❖❖ 1982: The word ‘internet’ is used for the first time, when the concept of a world-wide network of fully interconnected TCP/IP networks called the ‘internet’ is introduced. ❖❖ 1983: Apple introduced the first personal computer with Graphic User Interface (GUI). It is named ‘Lisa’. ❖❖ 1984: The first Laser Jet Printer is made by HP; Macintosh computer is introduced by Apple. It is the first mouse-driven computer with GUI. ❖❖ 1987: IBM introduced its first PS/2 machines. ❖❖ 1988: Steve Jobs created NeXT. ❖❖ 1989: Tim Berners Lee invented the World Wide Web. He developed the specifications such as URL (Uniform Resource Locator) and HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol). ❖❖ 1991: Linux is released by Linus Torvalds. ❖❖ 1993: The first graphical web browser called Mosaic created by Marc Andreessen is released. Pentium Microprocessor is released. ❖❖ 1994: Netscape Navigator launched by Jim Clark and Marc Anderssen. Yahoo is founded by Jerry Yang and David Filo. ❖❖ 1996: World’s first web-based e-mail service ‘Hotmail’ started by Sabeer Bhatia and Jack Smith. ❖❖ 1997: DVD (Digital Versatile/Video Disk) is introduced. Pentium II processor is released by Intel. The term ‘Weblog’ is coined, which is later shortened to ‘blog’. ❖❖ 1998: Windows 98 is launched. iMac is introduced by Apple. Google is founded by Larry Page and Sergey Brin. ❖❖ 1999: Shawn Fanning, a college student invents Napster, which allows users to swap music over the internet.

Science and Technology    7.17

❖❖ 2000: Pentium 4 is released by Intel. ❖❖ 2001: Wikipedia is formally launched by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger. ❖❖ 2004: Social networking website named ‘TheFacebook’ is started by Mark Zuckerberg. It is later renamed ‘Facebook’. ❖❖ 2005: The video-sharing website ‘YouTube’ is launched. It is later purchased by Google. ❖❖ 2006: Social Networking site ‘Twitter’ is created by Jack Dorsey, Evan Williams Biz Stone and Noah Glass. Picasa is introduced by Google. ❖❖ 2008: The first version for Google Chrome is released. It subsequently becomes the most popular internet browser in the world, overtaking Internet Explorer. ❖❖ 2012: Intel demonstrates its Next Unit of Computing, a motherboard measuring only 4 × 4 inches. ❖❖ 2014: The first 8TB Hard Drive released by Seagate. ❖❖ 2015: Microsoft releases the Operating System, Windows 10.

List of Important Personalities in Technology 1. Tim Berners-Lee ●● Inventor of World Wide Web (WWW) and Director of World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). ●● The first person to have implemented successful communication between a Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and a server via the internet. ●● One of only six members of the World Wide Web Hall of Fame. 2. Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn ●● Recognized as ‘fathers of the internet’. ●● They invented the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP). ●● Both have been awarded with National Medal of Technology, the Turing Award, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. 3. Linus Torvalds ●● Principal force behind the development of the Linux kernel ●● Awarded with Millennium Technology Prize (2012) and was one of the inaugural inductees into the Internet Hall of Fame. 4. Steve Jobs ●● Co-founder (along with Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne), exChairman, and ex-CEO of Apple Inc. Oversaw the development of iMac, iTunes, iPod, iPhone, and iPad. ●● Also the co-founder of Pixar Animation Studios and founder of NeXT, a computer platform development company.

7.18  Chapter 7 ●●

His authorized biography ‘Steve Jobs’ was penned down by Walter Isaacson.

5. Larry Page and Sergey Brin ●● Founders of Google Inc. in 1998. Larry Page is now the CEO of Google Inc. ●● Both have been named to the MIT Technology Review TR100, as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35. 6. Bill Gates ●● Co-founder (along with Paul Allen) of Microsoft, the world’s largest personal computer software company. ●● Also the Chairman of Corbis and Co-Chair of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. ●● Author of books like ‘Business @ the Speed of Thought’, ‘The Road Ahead’, and ‘The Impatient Optimist’. 7. Mark Zuckerberg ●● One of the 5 co-founders and the current Chairman and Chief Executive of Facebook, Inc. ●● Time Magazine’s Person of the Year for the year 2010 and, currently, the world’s second youngest self-made billionaire. ●● ‘The Social Network’, a Hollywood movie was released on the early years of Facebook, which itself was based on the book ‘The Accidental Billionaires’ by Ben Mezrich. 8. James Gosling ●● Father of Java programming language. ●● Has been awarded with The Economist Innovation Award and has been made an Officer of the Order of Canada (Canada’s second highest civilian honour). 9. Harold Abelson ●● Founding Director of Creative Commons and Free Software Foundation. ●● Visiting faculty member at Google and a professor at MIT. 10. Donald Knuth ●● Considered as the ‘Father of the Analysis of Algorithms’. ●● Author of the multi-volume work ‘The Art of Computer Programming’. ●● Has been awarded the Turing Award, National Medal of Science, and Kyoto Prize. 11. Charles Babbage ●● An English polymath, who is considered as the ‘Father of Computers’.

Science and Technology    7.19 ●●

●●

First came up with the idea of a mechanical computer after seeing how numerical tables calculated by humans had a high degree of errors. Also credited with inventing the first mechanical computer. Founding member and a gold medal winner of the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS).

12. Alan Turing ●● Widely considered as the ‘Father of Theoretical Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence’. ●● Invented the ‘Turing’ machine in 1936, which formalized the concepts of computing and algorithms, which form the basis of modern computers. ●● Turing Award was instituted in 1966 in his honour for technical excellence in computing. 13. George Stibitz ●● Recognized as one of the ‘Fathers of Modern Computers’. ●● First to design a computing machine that could be remotely used by a phone line. 14. Dennis Ritchie ●● Created the C Programming language and co-created (with Ken Thompson) the Unix Operating System. ●● Co-authored the book ‘The C Programming Language’. 15. Gary Kildall ●● Created the CP/M operating system and founded Digital Research, Inc. (DRI). ●● Co-hosted the PBS TV show The Computer Chronicles. 16. Leonard Bosack ●● Co-founded (along with his wife Sandy Lerner) Cisco Systems, a company that designs and sells consumer electronics, networking, and communications technology and services. ●● Largely responsible for pioneering the widespread commercialization of local area network (LAN) technology to connect various computers over a multiprotocol router system. 17. Larry Ellison ●● Founded Oracle in 1977 and has been the CEO of the company since then. ●● Consistently ranked among the wealthiest people in the world. 18. N.R. Narayana Murthy ●● Co-founded Infosys, one of the biggest companies to have come out of India.

7.20  Chapter 7 ●●

●●

Listed among the 12 greatest entrepreneurs of our time by Fortune magazine, and described as the ‘Father of Indian IT sector’ by TIME magazine. Has been honoured with the Padma Vibhushan and Padma Shri awards.

19. Azim Premji ●● Diversified Wipro (which was earlier called Western Indian Vegetable Products) by manufacturing minicomputers under technological collaboration with the American company Sentinel Computer Corporation. ●● Also known for his philanthropic activities. Founded Azim Premji Foundation, an NGO operating in the field of education. ●● The first Indian to sign up for ‘Giving Pledge’, a campaign led by Warren Buffett and Bill Gates to encourage the wealthiest people in the world to give a majority of their wealth to philanthropic causes. 20. Ada Lovelace ●● Known as the world’s first computer programmer. ●● Best known for her work on Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine, which included an algorithm to be processed by the machine.

CHAPTER 8

Miscellaneous InDIA AT A GlAnCE India–General Facts ❖❖ Land Size: India is the 7th largest country in the world, covering a total area of 32,87,263 km2. ❖❖ Government: India is the largest democracy in the world. It is a Federal Republic. It comprises 29 states and 7 union territories. ❖❖ Language: Hindi and English are the official languages declared by the Indian Constitution (Article 343). In addition, 22 other regional languages have also been officially recognized (under Schedule VIII of the Indian Constitution). ❖❖ Population: India is the second most Do You Know? populous country in the world, after If Uttar Pradesh was a country, China. Uttar Pradesh is the most it would have been the fifth populous state in India, the least most populous country in the being Sikkim. Among the union world, next only to China, USA, territories, NCT of Delhi is the most Indonesia, and naturally—India! populous. According to Census 2011, growth rate of population was 17.64% and density per square kilometer was 382. ❖❖ Capital: The capital of India is New Delhi. It is home to two UNESCO heritage sites: Humayun’s Tomb (first garden tomb in the world) and the Qutub Minar. ❖❖ Flag: The flag was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 22 July 1947. It is based on the flag of the Indian National Congress which was designed by Pingali Venkayya of Andhra Pradesh and adopted in 1931. It is popularly known as the ‘Tri color’. Madam Bhikaji Rustom Cama was the first person to hoist the Indian flag on foreign soil on 22 August 1907 in Stuttgart, Germany. The top panel of the flag is saffron coloured (representing courage and sacrifice), middle panel is white (representing truth, peace, and purity), and the bottom panel is green (representing prosperity).

8.2

Chapter 8

❖❖ Emblem: The Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka is the national emblem of India. It was adopted on 26 January 1950. The words ‘Satyameva Jayate’ are inscribed on the emblem. These were taken from the Mundaka Upanishad, meaning, ‘Truth alone Triumphs’. ❖❖ Anthem: Jana Gana Mana, originally composed in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore. It was first sung on 27 December 1911 at the Calcutta Session of the Indian National Congress. The song was translated into English by Tagore in 1919, under the title ‘Morning Song of India’. Its Hindi version was adopted on 24 January 1950. ❖❖ Song: The national song is Vande Mataram. It was composed by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in Sanskrit. It was first sung in 1896, at the Calcutta session of the INC. It was translated into English by Sri Aurobindo. The time to be taken to sing it is 1 minute and 5 seconds. It is in Tal Kaherva. ❖❖ Calendar: India follows the Gregorian calendar, also known as the Western Calendar and the Christian Calendar. However, the National Calendar of India is the Saka Calendar, which was introduced by the Calendar Reform Committee in 1957, and its usage officially started at Chaitra 1, 1879 Saka Era or 22 March 1957. ❖❖ Currency: The currency of our nation is Rupees. The Reserve Bank of India has the sole authority to issue currency notes. The coins are minted by the four government mints at Mumbai (Maharashtra), Alipore (Kolkata), Cherlapally (Hyderabad), and Noida (UP). ❖❖ Animal: The national animal is the Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris). The lion was the national animal till 1972. ❖❖ Bird: The national bird is peacock (Pavo cristatus). ❖❖ Fruit: The national fruit is mango (Mangifera indica). ❖❖ Tree: The national tree is the banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis). ❖❖ River: The national river is Ganga. It is the longest river Do You Know? of India. It originates from Hockey has been considered as the Gangotri Glacier of the the National Game of India since Himalayas. time immemorial. However, in 2012, ❖❖ Flower: The national flower is in response to an RTI reply, the lotus. Sports Ministry stated that it has not declared any sport as national game ❖❖ Aquatic Animal: Ganges of India! Thus, India doesn’t have an River dolphin is the national official national game as of now! aquatic animal. It is locally known as ‘susu’ in the Ganges and ‘Hihu’ in the Brahmaputra. ❖❖ Game: The national game is hockey (unofficial).

Miscellaneous  8.3

India-Geographical Facts ❖❖ Pin Regions: There are nine PIN regions in the country. The first 8 are geographical regions, and the digit 9 is reserved for Army Postal Services. ❖❖ Borders: India is a part of the continent Asia. It shares its borders with Pakistan to the west, Afghanistan to the north-west, Nepal, Bhutan, and China to the north, Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. India’s longest border is with Bangladesh and the shortest is with Afghanistan. ❖❖ Water Frontiers: To the south lies the Indian Ocean, in the east the Bay of Bengal, and in the west the Arabian Sea. ❖❖ States through which the Tropic of Cancer passes: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, and Mizoram.

Divisions ❖❖ The Peninsula Region (including the Shillong Plateau and the Kutch Peninsula): This covers about 70% of India’s total land area. ❖❖ The mountainous region of the Himalayas: This covers about 16% of the country’s land area. ❖❖ The Indus–Ganga–Brahmaputra Plain: Covering a major portion of India and Pakistan, this region separates the above 2 regions. ❖❖ The Coastal Plains and the Island groups are the two minor divisions. ❖❖ Rivers: The Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra as well as tributaries are the rivers of the Northern Plains. These are perennial and do not depend on the monsoons, and the rivers of Peninsular India are the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri which flow towards the east, and the only two west flowing major rivers are Narmada and Tapi. ❖❖ Railways: Indian railways were introduced in 1853. It has now become the world’s fourth largest network and the world’s 8th largest employment provider. It uses mainly the following gauges: ●● ●●

●●

Broad Gauge: This gauge has 1.676 m distance between two rails. More than 71.04% of the length of Indian railway is broad gauge. Metre Gauge: The distance between two rails is one metre. This is used in regions with less traffic although the Unigauge project is in progress to convert all track to broad gauge. Narrow Gauge: This of 2 types—one is 0.762 metre and the other is 0.610 metre broad. It is confined to hilly areas only. The Nilgiri Mountain Railway and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway are 2 famous lines that use narrow gauge.

8.4  Chapter 8

Know More! Indian Railways—Some Interesting Facts ❖❖ The first train on Indian soil ran between Mumbai and Thane on 16 April 1853.

❖❖ The fastest train in India is the semi-high speed train ‘Gatiman Express’ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

❖❖

that runs between Delhi and Agra, whereas the slowest train in India is the Mettupalayam Ooty Nilgiri Passenger. Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh) platform, at a length of 1,366.33 mtrs, is the longest platform in the world. The first underground railway network in India was that of the Calcutta Metro. The Delhi station has entered the Guinness Book of World Records for having the world’s largest relay interlocking system. Vivek Express has India’s longest train route, and the 9th longest in the World (running from Kanyakumari to Dibrugarh, Assm). Lifeline Express, or Jeevan Rekha Express, a train run by Impact India Foundation, in collaboration with Indian Railways and the Health Ministry, is the world’s first hospital on train and has benefitted close to 4,00,000 Indians till date! Road Transport: The road transport in India is a network of virtually 46.90 lakh kms, making it the second largest road network in the world.

Do You Know? This letter, written by Okhil Chandra Sen in 1909, led to the introduction of toilets in Indian Railways for all classes! The letter is still in display at the Railway Museum in New Delhi.

Dear Sir, I am arrive by passenger train ahmedpur station and my belly is too much swelling with jackfruit. I am therefor went to privy. Just I doing the nuisance that guard making whistle blow for train to go off and I am running with ‘DHOTI’ in the next when I am fall over and expose all my shocking to man and female women on platform. I am got leaved Ahmedpur station. This too much bad, if passenger go to make dung that dam guard not wait train minutes for him. I am therefor pray your honour to make big fine on that guard for public sake. Otherwise I am making big report to papers. Your’s Faithfully Servent, Okhil Ch. Sen

Miscellaneous  8.5

Indian States on International Boundaries Bordering Countries

States

Pakistan

Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Jammu–Kashmir

Afghanistan

Jammu–Kashmir (Shortest boundary)

China

Jammu–Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh

Nepal

Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim

Bhutan

Sikkim, West Pradesh

Bangladesh

West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram (Longest frontier boundary)

Myanmar

Arunachal Mizoram

Bengal,

Pradesh,

Assam,

Nagaland,

Arunachal

Manipur,

India-Census 2011 ❖❖ Sex Ratio: India currently has the highest sex ratio recorded since 1971. It has risen by 7 points since the 2001 census and is 940 per 1,000 males. The sex ratio has not, however, increased in Bihar and in Jammu & Kashmir. Kerala has the highest sex ratio while Daman & Diu the lowest. ❖❖ Child Sex Ratio (between 0 and 6 years) is 914 which is the lowest since independence. Haryana is the state having the lowest Child Sex Ratio (830). Mizoram has the highest (971). ❖❖ Literacy Rate: The overall literacy rate of the country has increased by 9% and is 74.04% where male literacy is 82.14% and female literacy is 65.46%. Kerala is the Indian state having the highest literacy rate. Bihar has the lowest rate. ❖❖ Union territory with the highest density of population: Delhi ❖❖ Union territory with the lowest density of population: Andaman and Nicobar Islands ❖❖ State with the highest density of population: Bihar ❖❖ State with the lowest density of population: Arunachal Pradesh

8.6  Chapter 8

Awards and Honours International Awards Nobel Prizes Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, laid the foundations of the Nobel Prize in 1895 in his will. He left much of his wealth for the establishment of the award. Since 1901, the prize has been awarded for outstanding contributions in the field of physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, and for working towards peace. The Nobel Prize for Economics was instituted in 1968 by Sveriges Riksbank (Sweden’s Central Bank) in memory of Alfred Nobel and was given for the first time in 1969. Indian Winners Category Literature

Recipient Rabindranath Tagore (1913)

Physics

C.V. Raman (1930) Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1983)

Medicine Chemistry Peace

Nobel Prize for: His profoundly sensitive, fresh, and beautiful verse, by which, with consummate skill, he has made his poetic thought, expressed in his own English words, a part of the literature of the West ‘Raman Effect’—the study of the scattering of light. ‘Chandrasekhar’s Limit’—which determines the minimum mass of a dying star that enables it to live. Laboratory synthesis of an yeast gene, for the first time For studies on function of Ribosome

Har Gobind Khorana (1968) Venkatraman Ramakrishna (2009) Mother Teresa (1979) Work undertaken in the struggle to overcome poverty and distress in the world. Kailash Satyarthi (2014)

Economics Amartya Sen (1998)

For the struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education Analysis in Welfare Economics, using the Bengal Famine as the basis.

Nobel Prize—Some Interesting Facts ❖❖ The most common field for Physics Laureates is particle physics, for Chemistry Laureates, it is biochemistry, or for Medicine Laureates, it is genetics, and, for Laureates in Economic Sciences, it is Macroeconomics.

Miscellaneous

8.7

❖❖ The youngest Nobel Laureate till date is Malala Yousafzai, who won it for her struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education in 2014, at the age of just 17 years! ❖❖ The oldest Nobel Laureate till date is Leonid Hurwicz, who won it for Economic Sciences in 2007, at the age of 90 years! ❖❖ So far, 2 Nobel Laureates have declined the Nobel Prize. Jean-Paul Sartre, who was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature, declined it because he had constantly declined all official honors. Le Duc Tho, who was awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize along with US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger for negotiating the Vietnam Peace Accord, rejected it citing the situation in Vietnam as the reason. ❖❖ In all, 4 Nobel Laureates have Do You Know? been forced to decline the Adolf Hitler has once been nominated Nobel Prize by the authorities. for ‘nobel Peace Prize’! He was Adolf Hitler forbade three nominated by E.G.C. Brandt, a German Laureates, Richard member of Swedish Parliament, in an Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt, obvious taunting way. The nomination and Gerhard Domagk from was formally withdrawn later. A year accepting the Nobel Prize. before Rabindranath Tagore got the The Soviet Union coerced Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913, Boris Pasternak, the 1958 he had lost the original manuscript of Nobel Laureate in Literature Gitanjali on a trip to England. Luckily, to decline the Nobel Prize. he found the manuscript, but not ❖❖ The Curie family has won the before a frantic search was carried maximum amount of Nobel out all over the place. Prizes till date—5!

oscar Awards The Academy Awards, commonly known as the Oscars, were instituted in the year 1929 for outstanding Know More! contributions in various fields Though it is believed that Nobel Prize of film making. The Oscars are in Literature is awarded for a particular the oldest entertainment awards work, it is almost always awarded for ceremony.

India at the Oscars No Indian movie has won the Academy Award for Best Foreign

the writer’s life’s work and not for a particular work. However, there have been 9 instances when the Nobel Prize in Literature has been awarded for a specific work, the last such instance being in 1965!

8.8

Chapter 8

Language Film. However, a total of three films have been nominated by the Academy: Do You Know? ❖❖ Mother India in 1957 The Oscar statuette, which is the ❖❖ Salaam Bombay in 1988 most recognized trophy in the world, ❖❖ Lagaan in 2001 was officially named Academy Award of Merit. A popular story is that

Though ‘Mother India’ lost upon seeing the trophy for the first by just one vote to ‘Nights in time, Academy librarian Margaret Cabiria’ in 1957, India received Herrick commented that the trophy its first Oscars in 1983 when resembled her Uncle Oscar. This Bhanu Athaiya won the award nickname was later adopted in 1939. for the Best Costume Design for Richard Attenborough’s movie ‘Gandhi’. Satyajit Ray then won an Academy Honorary Award in 1991. In 2008, Slumdog Millionaire, an adaptation of the novel ‘Q&A’ by Indian author Vikas Swarup won 8 Oscars in different categories. Resul Pookutty won the Oscar for Best Sound Mixing, A.R. Rehman for Best Original Score and A.R. Rehman and Gulzar for Best Original Song for the movie ‘Slumdog Millionaire’.

Ramon Magsaysay Award ❖❖ Ramon Del Fierro Magsaysay (1907–57) was the third President of the Republic of Philippines. An outstanding leader, he worked throughout his life to build a nation—a world where people would be free and would have a peaceful co-existence. ❖❖ Also known as Asia’s Nobel Prize, the Ramon Magsaysay Award was established in April 1957. The awards are presented in the following 6 categories: Government Service Public Service ●❖ Community Leadership ●❖ Journalism, Literature, and Creative Communication Arts ●❖ Peace and International Understanding ●❖ Emergent Leadership ❖❖ Till date, over 60 Indians have won the Ramon Magsaysay Award. ●❖ ●❖

Pulitzer Prize Joseph Pulitzer was a Hungarian–American journalist and newspaper publisher. In his will in 1904, he made a provision for the establishment of the Pulitzer Prizes as an incentive to excellence in journalism, literature, and drama.

Miscellaneous  8.9

Indian Winners of Pulitzer Five Indians have been awarded Pulitzer Prize till date: Gobind Behari Lal (for journalism in 1937), Jhumpa Lahiri (for her book Interpreter of Maladies in 2000), Geeta Anand (for journalism in 2003), Siddhartha Mukherjee (for The Emperor of all Maladies: A Biography of Cancer in 2011), and Vijay Seshadri (for 3 Sections).

Man Booker Prize The Man Booker Prize for Fiction, popularly known as the Booker Prize, is a literary award given every year for the best original novel, written in the English language. Instituted in 1968, it is the highest literary award of the world, set up by the Booker Company and the British Publishers Association. It was originally known as the Booker–McConnell Prize. In 2002, the title sponsor became the investment company Man Group, and thus, the name was changed to Man Booker Prize.

Indian Winners of Man Booker Prize Year 2008 2006 1997 1981

Author Aravind Adiga Kiran Desai Arundhati Roy Salman Rushdie

Name of the Work The White Tiger The Inheritance of Loss The God of Small Things Midnight’s Children

❖❖ Man Booker International Prize: This award was instituted in the year 2004. It recognizes the writer for his or her work in fiction, and unlike Man Booker Prize, it is not given for a specific work. This award is given every two years.

Man Booker Prize—Some Interesting Facts ❖❖ P.H. Newby was the first winner of the Booker Prize in 1969 for Something to Answer For. ❖❖ Yann Martel was the first winner of the Man Booker Prize for Life of Pi in 2002, as the Booker Prize was renamed Man Booker Prize in the same year. ❖❖ Hilary Mantel is the first woman and the first Briton to win the Man Booker Prize twice. J.M. Coetzee was the first person to win the Man Booker Prize twice. ❖❖ Eleanor Catton, who won the Man Booker Prize in 2013 is the youngest ever winner of the prize (28 years) and with the longest ever winning novel (832 pages).

8.10  Chapter 8

Mahatma Gandhi International Award for Peace and Reconciliation ❖❖ This award is instituted in South Africa. It was created in memory of Mahatma Gandhi, who started his socio-political life in South Africa and fought for peace and reconciliation. This award was created in 2003 to mark the centenary of the newspaper ‘Indian Opinion’, published in South Africa by Gandhi. ❖❖ It is administered by a foundation headed by Ela Gandhi, granddaughter of Mahatma Gandhi.

National Awards Bharat Ratna ❖❖ The Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award, was established by the first President of India Dr Rajendra Prasad, in 1954. It is awarded for the highest degrees of national service. ❖❖ Last recipients of the award (2015): Mahamana Madan Mohan Malviya, and Mr Atal Bihari Bajpayee.

Bharat Ratna—Some Interesting Facts ❖❖ The first persons to be conferred the award were C. Rajagopalachari, C.V. Raman, and S. Radhakrishnan. ❖❖ The first non-citizen to be conferred the Bharat Ratna was Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, an independent activist. The second was Nelson Mandela, leader of the Anti-Apartheid movement. ❖❖ When the award was conferred on India’s first Minister of Education, Abul Kalam Azad, he declined it saying that it should not be given to those who have been on the selection committee. He was later awarded posthumously in 1992. ❖❖ While Sachin Tendulkar is the youngest person alive at the time of receiving the award (40 years), Dhondo Keshav Karve was the eldest person alive at the time of receiving the award (100 years).

Padma Awards Padma Vibhushan The Padma Vibhushan is India’s second highest civilian award and was instituted in 1954. It is awarded every year by the President of India to recognize exceptional and distinguished service to the nation in any field, including government service.

Miscellaneous

8.11

Padma Bhushan The Padma Bhushan is a civilian award instituted in 1954. It is awarded to recognize distinguished service of a high order to the nation in any field and is the third in the hierarchy of civilian awards.

Padma Shri This civilian award was instituted in 1954 and is awarded to Indian citizens to recognize their distinguished contribution in various spheres of activities including the Arts, Education, Industry, Literature, Science, Sports, Social Service, and Public life. It is the fourth award in the hierarchy of civilian awards.

Padma Awards—Some Interesting Facts ❖❖ Padma Awards were instituted Do You Know? in 1954 and have been awarded The Supreme Court had, in 2014, every year on Republic Day asked the Ministry of Home Affairs barring 1977, 1980 and 1993 to to send a recommendation to 1997. the President for cancellation of ❖❖ Padma Shri is awarded for the Padma Shri award given to ‘distinguished service’, Padma the actor M. Mohan Babu, as the Bhushan for ‘distinguished actor had used the words ‘Padma service of a high order’, Shri’ as a prefix to his name in the and Padma Vibhushan for credits of the film Denikaina Reddy. ‘exceptional and distinguished service’. ❖❖ The award does not amount to a title and cannot be used as a suffix or prefix to the award winner’s name on letterheads or visiting cards. In case of any such misuse, the award may be forfeited.

Gallantry Awards Wartime Awards ❖❖ Param Vir Chakra: It is the highest award for bravery or some act of valor or self-sacrifice in the presence of the enemy, whether on land, at sea, or in the air. The medal is made of bronze. ❖❖ Maha Vir Chakra: It is the second highest award for gallantry in the presence of the enemy. The medal is made of silver. ❖❖ Vir Chakra: This award is given for acts of bravery in the presence of the enemy. A silver medal is given as the award.

8.12  Chapter 8

Peacetime Awards ❖❖ Ashoka Chakra: It is awarded for the most conspicuous bravery or some act of valor other than in the face of the enemy. The medal is made of gold gilt. ❖❖ Kirti Chakra and Shaurya Chakra are also awarded for conspicuous bravery or some act of valour other than in the face of the enemy. Kirti Chakra is made of silver while Shaurya Chakra of bronze.

Other Prominent Awards ❖❖ Dhyan Chand Award for Lifetime Achievement in Sports was instituted in the year 2002 and is given to sportspersons who have made a valuable contribution to sports and continue to do so even after retirement. ❖❖ Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament, and Development was instituted in 1986 and is given to persons for outstanding achievements in international peace, disarmament, and development.

Jnanpith Award ❖❖ The Jnanpith Award is a literary honour in India presented by the Bharatiya Jnanpith, a trust founded by the Sahu Jain family, the publishers of the newspaper The Times of India. The award was instituted in 1961, and its first recipient was the Malayalam writer G. Sankara Kurup, in 1965. ❖❖ Sahitya Akademi Award: Instituted in 1954, it is annually conferred on writers of the most outstanding books of literary merit published in any of the major Indian languages recognized by Sahitya Akademi. ❖❖ National Film Awards: Established in 1954, it is awarded for excellence in cinematic achievements for Indian cinema and is presented by the Directorate of Film Festivals. ❖❖ Dada Saheb Phalke Award: Instituted in 1969, the Dada Saheb Phalke award is conferred by the Government of India for an outstanding contribution to the cause of cinema. The award is named after Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, the father of Indian cinema, who also made India’s first feature film, Raja Harishchandra, in 1913. ❖❖ Arjuna Award: This award is given to a sportsman who has displayed an outstanding performance for 3 years (prior to the year of award) both at national and international levels. ❖❖ Dronacharya Award: The award was named after Dronacharya, the legendary guru of the epic age of the Mahabharata who taught archery and sports to the Kauravas and Pandavas.

Miscellaneous    8.13

❖❖ Borlaug Award: Instituted to honour outstanding agricultural scientists. It was sponsored by ‘Coromandel Fertilizer Limited’ in honour of the world-renowned wheat scientist Norman Borlaug. ❖❖ Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award: This award is given by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in memory of the late Dr Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar (the first Director of CSIR) for important contributions in any field of science. ❖❖ Dr B.C. Roy Award: Instituted in 1976 in the memory of Dr B.C. Roy, the second Chief Minister of West Bengal and highly respected physician, by Medical Council of India (MCI). It is awarded annually in each of the following categories: Statesmanship of the Highest Order in India, Medical man-cum-Statesman, Eminent Medical Person, Eminent Person in Philosophy, and Eminent Person in Arts. It is awarded each year on Doctor’s Day (1 July). ❖❖ Nehru Literary Award: This award has been instituted by Indian Adult Education Association for an outstanding contribution to the promotion of adult literacy in India. ❖❖ International Gandhi Peace Prize: Instituted in 1995, on the 125th birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi, the International Gandhi Peace Prize is awarded annually by the Government of India for contributions towards social, economic, and political transformation through non-violence and other Gandhian methods.

Books and Authors ❖❖ The word book comes from Old English ‘boc’ meaning ‘writing or written document’. Though books can largely be classified in various genres, they’re broadly classified as fiction or non-fiction. Also, they can be classified according to the physical format, into hardcover and paperback. The most recently phenomena in the world of books are e-books.

E-Books ❖❖ Electronic Books are an electronic equivalent of printed books. ❖❖ The first e-Book readers—Rocket ebook and Softbook were introduced in 1998. ❖❖ E-Books have various advantages over printed books, like instant download of books, environmentally safer, take up lesser space, and portability.

8.14

Chapter 8

Do You Know? Who is the creator of the first e-book in the world is a disputed and often controversial question! Index Thomisticus, an electronic index published in 1940s is usually considered as the first e-book. However, some dispute this fact as it was merely an index and not a complete published edition. In 1949, a teacher in Spain patented the first electronic book, as she wanted to decrease the number of books that pupils carried to school. However, Michael S. Hart is usually considered the inventor of the e-book. Back in 1971, he created his first electronic document by typing the United States Declaration of Independence into a computer. Later, he launched the famous Project Gutenberg, which was the first project to make e-Books freely available via the internet.

Prominent Book Records Record

name of the book

notes

Best Selling Book of Non-Fiction

The Bible

Though the number is disputed, over 5 billion copies of The Bible have been printed till date.

Best Selling Book of Fiction

Don Quixote

Over 500 million copies have been sold till date!

Best Selling Copyright Book

Guinness World Records

Sold over 100 million copies in 37 languages, since it was first published on 27 August 1955.

Largest Book (Non-Published)

This is Prophet Muhammad

It measures 5 m × 8.06 m, weighs approximately 1,500 kg and consists of 429 pages.

Largest Published Book

The Little Prince

It measured 2.01 m high and 3.0 m wide when open, and contained 128 pages.

Longest Novel

A la recherché du temps perdu Author Marcel Proust

It contains an estimated 96,09,000 characters!

Most Expensive Book Sold At Auction

Birds of America Author – John James Audubon

It was sold for £7.3 million in December 2010! (Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.15

Record

Name of the book

Notes

Most Translated Author for the Same Book

The Way To Happiness. Author— L. Ron Hubbard

Translated in 70 languages

Oldest Mechanically Printed Book

Gutenberg Bible

Printed in Germany around 1,455

Smallest Printed Book

Flowers of the Four Seasons

Contains only 22 pages and only 250 copies of this book were printed.

Thickest Book Published

The Complete Miss Marple Publisher— Harper Collins

It is a collection of all Agatha Christie’s Miss Marple stories—12 novels and 20 short stories. It measures 322 mm (12.67 inches) and contains 4,032 pages.

Youngest Person to Write a Published Book

Adauto Kovalski da Silva (Brazil). Name of the book—Aprender e Facil

His age when the book was published—5 years and 302 days!

Books/Works

Dhirubaism

The Collected Essays of A.K. Ramanujan

Akbarnama

Ain-i-Akbari

The Wealth of Nations

Mein Kampf

And Then There Were None

The Assault on Reason

An Inconvenient Truth

Author(s)

A.G. Krishnamurthy

A.K. Ramanujan

Abul Fazl

Abul Fazl

Adam Smith

Adolf Hitler

Agatha Christie

Al Gore

Al Gore

Prominent Authors and their Works

(Contd.)

Published concurrently with the documentary by the same name in 2006. Sequel to this book is ‘Our Choice: A Plan to Solve the Climate Crisis’.

–

Widely considered to be the fifth largest selling book of all time

Autobiographical manifesto of Adolf Hitler. Published in two volumes (in 1925 and 1926)

Magnum Opus (Greatest work) of Adam Smith. One of world’s first collected descriptions of what builds nations’ wealth.

–

Official chronicle of the reign of Akbar. It was commissioned by Akbar himself.

This book, which was being taught in Delhi University, contains an essay which allegedly describes a version of Ramayana in which Rama and Sita were siblings. Following a court case, an expert panel was formed to look into the matter. Though the panel voted for the retention of the essay, the University dropped it from the course in 2011.

–

Notes

8.16  Chapter 8

–

The Colour Purple

The Argumentative Indian

Experience

Death of a City; 49 days; Pinjar

Amar Chitra Katha (comic book series); Tinkle

Black Beauty

The Gathering

The Diary of Anne Frank

Heritage

Ignited Minds; Wings of Fire

Alice Walker

Amartya Sen

Amis Martin

Amrita Pritam

Anant Pai

Anna Sewell

Anne Enright

Anne Frank

Anthony West

A.P.J. Abdul Kalam

–

–

(Contd.)

Written by Anne Frank while she was in hiding for two years with her family during the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands.

–

–

Anant Pai was also known as ‘Uncle Pai’.

Popular writer Khushwant Singh translated Pinjar into English. It was also adapted into a movie by the same name in 2003.

–

–

–

–

–

The Accidental

Blessing in Disguise

Alec Guinness

The Outsider tops the Le Monde’s (a Paris newspaper) 100 Books of the Century list. Camus was also awarded the 1957 Nobel Prize for Literature.

Ali Smith

The Outsider; The Plague; The Rebel; Ideas and Opinions

Albert Camus

Notes

Alexander Dumas The Three Musketeers

Books/Works

Author(s)

Miscellaneous    8.17

Books/Works

The White Tiger; Between the Assassinations

Poetics

A Study of History; Mankind and Mother Earth

Rendezvous with Rama; Astounding Days

Sherlock Holmes Series

The Parliamentary System

The Algebra of Infinite Justice; The God of Small Things

Baburnama

Harshacharita; Kadambari

Durgeshnandini; Anandmath; Rajsingha; Kapalkundala

Dreams from My Father

Author(s)

Aravind Adiga

Aristotle

Arnold Toynbee

Arthur C Clarke

Arthur Conan Doyle

Arun Shourie

Arundhati Roy

Babur

Banabhatta

Bankim Chandra

Barack Obama

–

–

(Contd.)

Harshacharita is the biography of King Harsha Vardhana. Kadambari is one of the earliest published novels in the world.

–

The God of Small Things won the Booker Prize in 1997.

–

Dr Joseph Bell, a Scottish lecturer at the medical school of the University of Edinburgh, was the inspiration for the fictional character Sherlock Holmes.

–

–

–

The White Tiger is the winner of the 40th Man Booker Prize.

Notes

8.18  Chapter 8

Books/Works

Reconciliation – Islam, Democracy and the West; Pakistan: The Gathering Storm; Daughter of the East

Analysis of Mind; Principia Mathematica

My Life

Time Flies

Business @ the Speed of Thought; The Road Ahead

The Future of India

Boris Becker

Beating the Field

Naked In the Wind

The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid; The New Age of Innovation

The Chronicles of Narnia

Arthashastra

Author(s)

Benazir Bhutto

Bertrand Russell

Bill Clinton

Bill Cosby

Bill Gates

Bimal Jalan

Boris Becker

Brian Lara

Brinda Charry

C.K. Prahalad

C.S. Lewis

Chanakya

(Contd.)

Written under the pseudonym ‘Kautilya’ and ‘Vishnugupta’, both names traditionally identified with Chanakya.

Series of 7 high fantasy novels.

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For this book, Clinton had received what was at that time world’s highest book advance fees.

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Notes

Miscellaneous    8.19

Often considered to be the bestselling book of all time.

My Autobiography

Arrow of God; Things Fall Apart

Vernon God Little

Lady Chatterley’s Lover; Sons and Lovers; Woman in Love

The Da Vinci Code; Angels and Demons

Divine Comedy

The House of Blue Mangoes; The Solitude of Emperors

Nil Darpan

How To Get Rich; Think Like a Billionaire

Charlie Chaplin

Chinua Achebe

D.B.C. Pierre

D.H. Lawrence

Dan Brown

Dante Alighieri

David Davidar

Dinabandhu Mitra

Donald Trump

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(Contd.)

Both the books have been converted into high grossing movies. The Da Vinci Code was banned in Nagaland for allegedly containing blasphemous remarks about Jesus.

An Indian bookseller (Ranjit Udeshi) was prosecuted for selling Lady Chatterley’s Lover. The Supreme Court in this case declared the law on the subject of when a book can be regarded as obscene.

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Things Fall Apart is the most widely read book in modern African literature.

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A Tale of Two Cities

On the Origin of Species is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology.

Charles Dickens

On the Origin of Species; Descent of Man

Charles Darwin

Notes

Charles de Gaulle Memories of Hope

Books/Works

Author(s)

8.20  Chapter 8

Love Story

For Whom the Bell Tolls; Garden of Eden; The Old Man and the Sea; A Farewell to Arms

Eric Segal

Ernest Hemingway

My Brilliant Career

Narrative of the Life of an American Slave

One Hundred Years of Solitude

The Canterbury Tales

Mill on the Floss

Franklin Miles

Frederick Douglass

Gabriel Garcia Marquez

Geoffrey Chaucer

George Eliot

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Reflections on the French Revolution

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Books/Works

Edmund Burke

Author(s)

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(Contd.)

Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize in Literature in the year 1954

Interestingly, former Vice-President of United States Al Gore has always stated that this book is based on his life at Harvard, though Eric Segal clarified in 1997 that it is actually based on Gore’s roommate’s life!

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Notes

Miscellaneous    8.21

Animal Farm; Nineteen Eighty Four

Creation

Shantaram

India Unbound

Madam Bovary; A Simple Soul

A Woman’s Life; The Necklace

George Orwell

Gore Vidal

Gregory David Roberts

Gurchanran Das

Gustav Flaubert

Guy de Maupassant

Invisible Man

A Sense of Time

Time Machine

Something To Tell You; Intimacy

Good Times; Bad Times

H.S. Wells

H.S. Vatsyayan

H.G. Wells

Hanif Kureishi

Harold Evans

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Books/Works

Author(s)

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(Contd.)

Generally credited with popularization of the concept of time travel by using a vehicle that allows an operator to travel purposefully and selectively.

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A largely accurate account of India’s economic journey after its Independence.

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Nineteen Eighty Four is one of the most critically acclaimed novels of all time and words such as Big Brother, doublethink, Newspeak, 2 + 2 = 5 entered everyday use after its publication in 1949.

Notes

8.22  Chapter 8

To Kill a Mocking Bird

The Story of My Life

Tom Jones

Diplomacy; Years of Upheaval

Siddhartha

The Illiad; The Odyssey

Harper Lee

Helen Keller

Henry Fielding

Henry Kissinger

Hermann Hesse

Homer

Along the Ganga

A Critique of Pure Reason

My Truth

The Good Apprentice

Passions of the Mind; The Agony and the Ecstasy

The Catcher in the Rye

Ilija Trojanow

Immanuel Kant

Indira Gandhi

Iris Murdoch

Irving Stone

J.D. Salinger

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Books/Works

Author(s)

Most censored book in high schools and libraries in the United States between 1961 and 1972. Ironically, in 1981, it was the ‘most censored book’ and ‘second most taught book’ in public schools at the same time! Novel’s protagonist Holden Caulfield has become an icon for teenage rebellion. (Contd.)

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One of the most influential works in the history of philosophy. Followed by ‘Critique of Practical Reason’ and ‘Critique of Judgment’.

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Won Pulitzer Prize (1961). Topped the ‘Books to read before you die’ list released by British librarians, even ahead of The Bible.

Notes

Miscellaneous    8.23

Books/Works

Peter Pan

The Hobbit; The Lord of the Rings; The Silmarillion

All Things Bright and Beautiful

A Call to Honour

The Story of My Life

Prison Diary

Gita Govinda

Confessions; Emile

Before I Die

Three Men in a Boat

The Namesake; Interpreter of Maladies; Unaccustomed Earth

Man-Eaters of Kumaon; Jungle Lore

Author(s)

J.M. Barrie

J.R.R. Tolkien

James Herriot

Jaswant Singh

Jay Mcinerney

Jay Prakash Narayan

Jaydeva

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Jenny Downham

Jerome K Jerome

Jhumpa Lahiri

Jim Corbett

(Contd.)

The book Man-Eaters of Kumoun details the experiences that Corbett had in the Kumaon region of (now) Uttarakhand, where he was often called by the government to kill man-eating tigers.

Interpreter of Maladies won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction (1999) and the Hemingway Foundation/PEN Award (2000). Also chosen as The New Yorker’s Best Debut of the Year award and is also on Oprah Winfrey’s Top Ten Book List.

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With over 150 million copies sold, The Lord of the Rings is the second best-selling novel ever written

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Notes

8.24  Chapter 8

Books/Works

The Hornet’s Nest

The Sea

If Better is Possible

The Pilgrim’s Progress

Profiles in Courage

Man of Property; The Forsyte Saga

The Testament

The Affluent Society

Lycidas

Paradise Lost; Paradise Regained

Look Back in Anger

Gulliver’s Travels

Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle with India

Author(s)

Jimmy Carter

John Banville

John Buchanan

John Bunyan

John F Kennedy

John Galsworthy

John Grisham

John Kenneth Galbraith

John Milton

John Milton

John Osborne

Jonathan Swift

Joseph Lelyveld

The book is banned in the state of Gujarat.

(Contd.)

The word ‘Yahoo’, from which popular website yahoo.com’s name is derived was actually derived from the name of a character from Gulliver’s Travels.

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Notes

Miscellaneous    8.25

The Sense of an Ending

Wild Swans

Julian Barnes

Jung Chang

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Many Worlds

The Communist Manifesto

Indira: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi

Me

Mother India

A Thousand Splendid Suns; The Kite Runner; And the Mountains Echoed

Hullabaloo in a Guava Orchard; The Inheritance of Loss

The Judgment

K.P.S. Menon

Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels

Katherine Frank

Katharine Hepburn

Katherine Mayo

Khaled Hosseini

Kiran Desai

Kuldip Nayar

(Contd.)

The book chronicles the state of India during the Emergency phase of the 1970s.

The Inheritance of Loss won Man Booker Prize 2006.

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One of world’s most influential political manuscripts. It also briefly featured the ideas of Marx and Engels on how the capitalist society of the time would eventually be replaced by socialism and eventually communism.

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Winner of Man Booker Prize 2011

Notes

K. Govindan Kutty Seshan

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Books/Works

Author(s)

8.26  Chapter 8

Every Second Counts; It’s Not About the Bike

The Struggle and the Triumph; A Path of Hope

An Autobiography

War and Peace; Anna Karenina

Through the Looking Glass

Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage

In Memoriam

Man, Beast, and Virtue

Lance Armstrong

Lech Walesa

Lee Iacocca

Leo Tolstoy

Lewis Carroll

Lord Byron

Lord Tennyson

Luigi Priandello

India of Our Dreams

The Men Who Killed Gandhi

M.V. Kamath

Manohar Malgonkar

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A Prisoner’s Scrapbook; My Country, My Life

L.K. Advani

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(Contd.)

Newsweek in 2009 ranked ‘War and Peace’ first in its list of the Top 100 Books of all time.

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My Country, My Life is the autobiographical account of L.K. Advani, a former Deputy Prime Minister of India

The Miniaturist; Racists; The – Opium Clerk

Kunal Basu

Notes

Books/Works

Author(s)

Miscellaneous    8.27

Books/Works

Remembrance of Things Past

The Travels of Marco Polo

The Memoirs of Cleopatra

Gone with the Wind

The Path to Power; The Downing Street Years

A Mighty Heart

The Godfather

Adventures of Tom Sawyer; Huckleberry Finn

Being Myself

Frankenstein

Indica

Experiments with Untruth

Jurassic Park

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

Author(s)

Marcel Proust

Marco Polo

Margaret George

Margaret Mitchell

Margaret Thatcher

Mariane Pearl

Mario Puzo

Mark Twain

Martina Navratilova

Mary Shelley

Megasthenes

Michael Henderson

Michael Crichton

Mohsin Hamid

The film adaptation of this novel was released in 2012 and directed by noted film director Mira Nair (Contd.)

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Won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1937 and was adapted into an Academy Award winning movie in 1939.

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Notes

8.28  Chapter 8

India – China War

The Autobiography of an – Unknown Indian, A Passage to England

The Picture of Dorian Gray

Neville Maxwell

Nirad C. Chaudhuri

Oscar Wilde

The Kalam Effect

Golden Girl

P.M. Nair

P.T. Usha

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Long Walk to Freedom; The Struggle is My Life

Nelson Mandela

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The only published novel of Oscar Wilde.

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(Contd.)

Long Walk to Freedom is the autobiographical work of Nelson Mandela, former President of South Africa and noted anti-apartheid revolutionary.

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Past Continuous

Neel Mukherjee

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The Scarlet Letter

Nathaniel Hawthorne –

Think and Grow Rich

Napoleon Hill

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Conversations with God

Imagining India; Ideas for the New Century

Nandan Nilekani

Neale Donald Walsch

None to Accompany Me

Nadine Gordimer

Notes

Nayantara Sahgal A Voice for Freedom

Books/Works

Author(s)

Miscellaneous    8.29

Books/Works

Residence on Earth; The Grapes and the Wind

The Eye of the Strom

The Alchemist (O Alquimista); Brida; The Witch of Portbello

The Patriot; Good Earth

My Life and the Beautiful Game

Adonais; Prometheus Unbound

The Life of Thomas More

Ethics; Republic

Gypsy Masala

Laugh with Laxman

Malgudi Days

India Divided

Mohandas

We Are Like That Only

Author(s)

Pablo Neruda

Patrick White

Paulo Coelho

Pearl S Buck

Pele

Percy Bysshe Shelley

Peter Ackroyd

Plato

Preethi Nair

R.K. Laxman

R.K. Narayan

Rajendra Prasad

Rajmohan Gandhi

Rama Bijapurkar

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(Contd.)

Originally written in Portuguese, The Alchemist has also set the Guinness World Record for the most translated book by a living author.

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Notes

8.30  Chapter 8

The Last Lecture

My Music, My Life

Jonathan Livingston Seagull –

The Secret

In Search of Gandhi

The South Pole

Charlie and the Chocolate Factory

The Savage Detectives

Family Wisdom; Leadership Wisdom; The Monk Who Sold His Ferrari

Randy Pausch

Ravi Shankar

Richard Bach

Rhonda Byrne

Richard Attenborough

Roald Amundsen

Roald Dahl

Roberto Bolano

Robin Sharma

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(Contd.)

Roald Amundsen was also the first person to reach the South Pole, in December 1911.

Richard Attenborough is also the Academy-award winning Director of the movie ‘Gandhi’.

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The book was born out of a lecture Pausch gave in 2007, named Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams

Chosen as Book of the Year by The Economist, The Wall Street Journal and Outlook, and as Book of the Decade by The Times of India, The Times of London and The Hindu. Also won 2011 Sahitya Akademi Award for English.

India After Gandhi

Ramachandra Guha

Notes

Books/Works

Author(s)

Miscellaneous    8.31

India – Another Millennium

The Jungle Book; Kim.

The Room on the Roof, Susanna’s Seven Husbands, The Blue Umbrella, The Flight of Pigeons

Heat and Dust

That Was Then, This is Now

An Idealist View of Life; Indian Philosophy

Midnight’s Children; The Satanic Verses; Joseph Anton: A Memoir

Kubla Khan; Rime of the Ancient Mariner

Devdas

Romila Thapar

Rudyard Kipling

Ruskin Bond

Ruth Prawer Jhabwala

S.E. Hinton

S Radhakrishnan

Salman Rushdie

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay

Adapted into over a dozen movies till date.

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(Contd.)

Midnight’s Children won the Booker Prize in 1981 and Booker of Bookers prize in 1993. The Satanic Verses is banned in India.

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A Fine Balance; Such A Rohinton Mistry is an Indian born Canadian author who is also the winner Long Journey; Tales from of the prestigious Neustadt International Prize for Literature. Firozshabaag; Family Matters

Rohinton Mistry

Notes

Books/Works

Author(s)

8.32  Chapter 8

Books/Works

Broken Wing; Golden Threshold

Friends and Foes

You Can Win

Benazir Bhutto

The Interpretation of Dreams

Life Divine

Nine Hours to Rama

George’s Secret Key to the Universe

Steve Waugh

Mahashweta; The Old Man and His God

Dark Horse; Dust to Dust

Lajja

The Forbidden Sea

Author(s)

Sarojini Naidu

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

Shiv Khera

Shyam Bhatia

Sigmund Freud

Sir Aurobindo

Stanley Wolpert

Stephen and Lucy Hawking

Steve Waugh

Sudha Murty

Tami Hoag

Taslima Nasrin

Tata Ali Baig

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Following the publication of Lajja, Nasrin suffered a number of attacks, including physical attacks. The book is currently banned in Bangladesh.

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The book and the movie based on it, were both banned in India, as it apparently justified the actions of Nathuram Godse, who killed Gandhi.

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Notes

Miscellaneous    8.33

Ramayana

Kamasutra

Mahabharata

Candid; Zadig

Valmiki

Vatsayan

Ved Vyas

Voltaire

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– Winner of Man Booker Prize 2002

Yann Martel

Life of Pi

William Thackeray Vanity Fair

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Darkness Visible

Gandhi and Bhagat Singh

V.N. Dutta

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William Styron

The Name of the Rose

Umberto Eco

Ramcharitmanas literally means ‘the lake of the deeds of Rama’ and was written in the 17th century.

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Ramcharitmanas

Tulsidas

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Othello, Julius Caesar, Macbeth, Romeo & Juliet, Hamlet

Olympiad

Tom Holt

William Shakespeare

Utopia

Thomas More

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French Revolution

Thomas Carlyle

Notes

William Dalrymple City of Djinns; In Xanadu; The Last Mughal; White Mughals

Books/Works

Author(s)

8.34  Chapter 8

Miscellaneous    8.35

International Organizations ❖❖ An international organization is an organization with membership open to various countries and with a presence in various countries. They can be of two types: Inter-governmental Organizations (like the United Nations, European Union, etc.) or International Non-governmental Organization (like Red Cross, World Organization of the Scout Movement, etc.). ❖❖ Before moving on to other international organizations, it would be pertinent to know the basics of the most popular and widely spread international organization—The United Nations Organization (UNO).

United Nations Organization (UNO) ❖❖ The UNO is an association of sovereign states who have bound themselves by a charter (Constitution) to maintain international peace and security. ❖❖ It is the world’s largest international organization; a successor to the League of Nations, which was founded after World War I.

Evolution of the Idea of the UNO ❖❖ During World War II, in 1941, a meeting was held between Franklin D Roosevelt (the then President of the United States) and Winston Churchill (the then Prime Minister of Britain), when the thought of the UNO was first evolved. ❖❖ It resulted in the phrasing of the Atlantic Charter, which contained a set of principles for world peace and co-operation among nations. ❖❖ In October 1943, these leaders met again in Teheran (Iran), this time along with Joseph Stalin (the Premier of Russia) and agreed in principle on the need for an effective medium to maintain international peace. ❖❖ The name United Nations (UN) was adopted at the suggestion of President Roosevelt.

Charter of the UNO ❖❖ The Charter of the UNO was formed in October 1944 at the Dumbarton Oaks (Washington DC) Conference by the former Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States of America and China. ❖❖ The Preamble of the Charter was the work of Field Marshal Smuts.

Signing of the UN Charter On 26 June 1945, the United Nations Charter was signed by the delegates of 50 countries at San Francisco (USA) with the aim of saving the succeeding generations from the scourge of war.

8.36  Chapter 8

Foundation Day of UNO ❖❖ The UNO formally came into existence on 24 October 1945. ❖❖ October 24 is celebrated as United Nations Day throughout the world.

First Regular Session of UNO The first regular session of the UNO was held in London in January 1946, and Trygve Lie (Norway) was elected the first Secretary-General of the UNO.

Headquarters of UNO They are located in New York.

The UN Flag The UN General Assembly adopted the UN Flag on 20 October 1947.

Aims and Objectives The main objectives of the UN are: ❖❖ To maintain peace and security in the world. ❖❖ To work together to remove poverty, disease, and illiteracy and encourage respect for each other’s rights of basic freedom. ❖❖ To develop friendly relations among nations. ❖❖ To be a centre to help nations achieve these common ends.

Membership of the UNO Membership is open to all peace-loving states that accept the obligations of the UN Charter and are able and willing to carry them out.

Admission of Members ❖❖ New members are admitted to the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council, and two-thirds of the members of the General Assembly should vote in favour. ❖❖ Members are expelled or suspended in the same manner.

Permanent Members There are five permanent members of the Security Council, namely China, France, Russia, UK, and USA.

Miscellaneous

Powers of the Permanent Members Each permanent member enjoys the power of veto. If any of the permanent members rejects a proposal by exercising its vote, the proposal is rejected by the Council, even though the other 14 members may favour the same.

8.37

Do You Know? Dag Hammarskjold, the second SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations is the only UN Secretary-General to die in office. He was killed in a plane crash when he was en route to negotiate a cease fire between UN troops and Katangese troops. He is also one of just two people to be awarded the Nobel Prize posthumously. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1961.

list of Prominent International organizations 1. organization: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Year of Establishment: 1946 Headquarters: Paris Members: 195 Purpose: To promote co-operation among nations through education, science and culture to establish justice, rule of law, and human rights and freedom without distinction of race, sex, language, or religion. 2. organization: Universal Postal Union (UPU). It was initially named as General Postal Union. Year of Establishment: 1874 under the Berne Treaty Headquarters: Berne Members: 192 Purpose: To organize various postal services and to unite the members in a single postal territory for exchange of international mails. 3. organization: World Health Organization (WHO) Year of Establishment: 1948 Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland Members: 194 Purpose: To work towards the attainment of the highest possible level of health of all the people by strengthening health services, eradicating diseases, preventing epidemics, improving nutrition, housing, sanitation, etc. 4. organization: World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Year of Establishment: 1967

8.38  Chapter 8

Headquarters: Geneva Members: 186 Purpose: To promote protection of intellectual property worldwide. 5. Organization: World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Year of Establishment: 1950 Headquarters: Geneva Purpose: To promote exchange of weather data among nations; to establish a network of meteorological stations all over the world and to encourage research and training in meteorology. 6. Organization: United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) Year of Establishment: 1966 Headquarters: Vienna Members: 172 Purpose: To promote industrialization of developing countries by providing assistance for development, expansion, and modernization. It also provides a forum for consultation and negotiations of developing nations with industrialized countries. 7. Organization: Food & Agricultural Organization (FAO) Year of Establishment: 1945 Headquarters: Rome, Italy Purpose: To raise levels of nutrition and standards of all food and agricultural products from farms, forests, and fisheries. 8. Organization: World Trade Organization (WTO) Year of Establishment: 1995 Headquarters: Geneva Members: 163 Purpose: To minimize trade barriers by reduction of tariffs and other restrictions on trade among members. It replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) formed in 1948. 9. Organization: International Maritime Organization (IMO) Year of Establishment: 1948 Headquarters: London Members: 170 Purpose: To facilitate co-operation among governments on matters which affect merchant shipping and to prevent marine pollution caused by ships.

Miscellaneous    8.39

10. Organization: International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Year of Establishment: 1957 Headquarter: Vienna Purpose: To accelerate the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health, and prosperity throughout the world and to verify states’ obligation to prevent diversion of nuclear fissionable material from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons. 11. World Bank Group consists of the following five organizations. President of the WBG is Jim Yong Kim. Headquarters: Washington A. International Bank for Reconstruction & Development (IBRD) Year of Establishment: 1944 Purpose: To help in development of economies by providing funds and technical assistance; to promote foreign investment by providing loans for productive purpose and to promote growth of international trade. B. International Development Association (IDA) Year of Establishment: 1960 Purpose: To extend easy credits to the under-developed countries to raise their living standards. C. International Finance Corporation (IFC) Year of Establishment: 1956 Purpose: To encourage the growth of productive private enterprise in developing member countries. D. The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) Year of Establishment: 1988 Purpose: To promote Foreign Direct Investment by providing risk insurance to investors and lenders against losses caused by noncommercial risks. E. The International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) Year of Establishment: 1966 Purpose: To provide facilities for conciliation and arbitration of international investment disputes. 12. Organization: International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) year of Establishment: 1977 Headquarters: Rome

8.40  Chapter 8

Purpose: To assemble additional Funds for agricultural development in developing countries through projects which directly benefit rural population. 13. Organization: International Labour Organization (ILO) Year of Establishment: 1919 Headquarters: Geneva Purpose: To improve labour condition and raise their living standards. It formulates international standards in the form of International Labour conventions and extends cooperation in the fields of employment promotion, human resource development, etc. 14. Organization: International Monetary Fund (IMF) Year of Establishment: 1945 Headquarters: Washington DC Members: 189 Purpose: To promote international monetary cooperation and international trade. It assists in the establishment of a multilateral system of payments. 15. Organization: International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Year of Establishment: 1947 Headquarters: Geneva Members: 193 Purpose: To improve the use of telecommunications all over the world and to offer technical assistance to developing countries in the field of telecommunications.

Programmes and Funds of the United Nations 1. Organization: United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) Year of Establishment: 1946 Headquarters: New York Purpose: To provide assistance on activities aimed at improving the quality of life for children and mothers in the developing countries. It focuses on four primary health care techniques, namely oral rehydration therapy, expanded immunization, child growth monitoring, and promotion of breast feeding. 2. Organization: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

Miscellaneous    8.41

Year of Establishment: 1950 Headquarters: Geneva Purpose: To promote and safeguard the rights and interests of refugees. Its primary function is international protection. 3. Organization: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Year of Establishment: 1964 Headquarters: Geneva Purpose: To promote international trade to accelerate economic growth of underdeveloped countries and bring them in line with developed countries. 4. Organization: United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA) Year of Establishment: 1969 Headquarters: New York Purpose: To assist developing nations in dealing with population problems and promote awareness and strategies to deal with them. 5. Organization: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Year of Establishment: 1965 Headquarters: New York Purpose: To promote multilateral, technical, and pre-investment cooperation to nations all over the world. 6. Organization: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Year of Establishment: 1972 Headquarters: Nairobi (Kenya) Purpose: To protect and conserve the natural environment and to prevent air pollution, soil degradation, desertification, etc.

Other International Organizations 1. Organization: Amnesty International Year of Establishment: 1961 Headquarters: London Members: Has more than 11,00,000 members in more than 150 countries. Purpose: To fight for human rights. It won the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1977. 2. Organization: Asian Development Bank (ADB)

8.42  Chapter 8

Year of Establishment: 1966 Headquarters: Manila (Philippines) Members: It has 67 member countries of which 48 are from Asia and the Pacific and 19 from outside. Purpose: To provide concessional credit to needy members. 3. Organization: Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) Year of Establishment: 1967 Headquarters: Jakarta (Indonesia) Member: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Laos, Burma, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Purpose: To accelerate economic progress and maintain the economic stability of South East Asia. 4. Organization: International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) Year of Establishment: 1863 Headquarters: Geneva (Switzerland) President: Peter Maurer Purpose: To organize relief for the victims of war or disaster. Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1917, 1944, 1963). 5. Organization: International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL) Year of Establishment: 1923 Headquarters: Lyons (France) Members: 176 Independent Nations 190 Purpose: To coordinate police activities of member-states. 6. Organization: League of Arab States or Arab League Year of Establishment: 1945 Headquarters: Cairo (Egypt) Members: Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, L.O. Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, UAE, and Republic of Yemen. Purpose: To promote unity among Arabian countries. It is the outcome of a national awakening of the Arabs, following the fall of the Ottoman Empire in the First World War. 7. Organization: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Year of Establishment: 1949 Headquarters: Brussels (Belgium)

Miscellaneous    8.43

Members: Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands, UK, Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Portugal, and USA. Greece and Turkey joined in 1952, West Germany in 1955, and Spain in 1982. Poland, Czech Republic, and Hungary joined in 1999. Seven nations (Bulgaria, Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, and Slovakia) were admitted in 2002. Albania and Croatia joined in 2009, thereby raising the total membership to 28. Purpose: The members settle disputes by peaceful means and develop their individual and collective capacity to resist armed attack. They regard an attack on one as an attack on all. 8. Organization: Organization Development (OECD)

for

Economic

Co-operation

and

Year of Establishment: 1961 Headquarters: Paris (France) Members: 35 countries Purpose: To achieve the highest possible economic development in member countries and to raise the standard of living. 9. Organization: African Union (AU) Year of Establishment: 2002 Headquarters: Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) Members: 54 countries. It replaced the Organization of African Unity (OAU) formed in 1963. Purpose: To work for the promotion of democratic principles and institutions, popular participation, and good governance. 10. Organization: Organization of American States (OAS) Year of Establishment: 1948 Headquarters: Washington DC (USA) Members: 35 American countries with equal rights. Purpose: To promote mutual understanding and help among American countries. 11. Organization: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Year of Establishment: 1960 Headquarters: Vienna (Austria) Members: 14 members Purpose: To control production and pricing of crude oil and to achieve the possible economic development in member countries.

8.44  Chapter 8

12. Organization: Group of Eight (G-8) Year of Establishment: 1975 Members: Consists of the eight most industrialized nations of the world: the United States, Britain, France, Italy, Canada, Japan, Germany, and Russia (joined in 1998; now suspended). Purpose: The heads of these countries meet annually to discuss economic matters and world’s political problems. 13. Organization: G-15 Year of Establishment: 1989 Members: India, Algeria, Argentina, Brazil, Egypt, Indonesia, Jamaica, Malaysia, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Senegal, Venezuela, Yugoslavia, and Zimbabwe. Purpose: To enhance co-operation and consultations among developing nations on economic issues and to initiate dialogue with developed countries on global development problems. 14. Organization: Group of 77 Year of Establishment: 1964 Members: The group currently comprises of 133 developing countries from Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Purpose: To protect and defend the economic and trade interests of the developing countries. 15. Organization: Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Year of Establishment: 1989 Headquarters: Singapore Members: Has 21 members. Chile, China, Hong Kong, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Russia, Taiwan, Vietnam, United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Purpose: To promote multilateral trade and economic cooperation between member-states. 16. Organization: Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Years of Establishment: 1991 Headquarters: Minsk (Belarus) Members: It is made up of 9 out of the 15 former Soviet constituent republics. Members in 1995 were Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. In 2005, Turkmenistan discontinued permanent membership and is now an associate member. In 2008, Georgia withdrew from CIS.

Miscellaneous    8.45

Summits Held: It was created upon the disbanding of the Soviet Union. The Commonwealth is not in itself a state but an alliance of fully independent states. 17. Organization: Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Co-operation (IOR–ARC) Years of Establishment: 1995 but launched in 1997 Headquarters: Port Louis (Mauritius) Members: Total 21 members Purpose: To promote regional economic co-operation. 18. Organization: International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) Year of Establishment: 1964 Headquarters: Luxembourg Members: It has more than 149 member states Purpose: To provide international telephone and TV services and domestic telecommunications services. 19. Organization: World Economic Forum (WEF) Year of Establishment: 1971 Headquarters: Cologny, Switzerland Purpose: To improve the state of the world by shaping global, regional, and industrial agendas. Its motto is ‘entrepreneurship in the global public interest’. It was founded by Klaus M. Schwab, a business professor of Switzerland. 20. Organization: South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC) Year of Establishment: 1985 Headquarters: Kathmandu, Nepal Purpose: To accelerate the process of economic and social development in member states.

List of Important Personalities Gladwyn Jebb ❖❖ He was a counselor with the Foreign office of Great Britain in 1943 and attended the Dumbarton Oaks Conference which led to the birth of UNO. ❖❖ He was appointed as acting United Nations Secretary-General from 1945–46.

8.46  Chapter 8

Trygve Halvdan Lie ❖❖ He was a Norwegian politician and diplomat who became the first Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1946. ❖❖ In 1950, he undertook a ‘peace mission’, promoting a ‘20-Year Programme for Achieving Peace through the United Nations’.

Kofi Annan ❖❖ He was the first person to be elected as Secretary General from the ranks of the UN staff. He earlier served with the office of World Health Organization (WHO) and UN Human Commissioner for Refugees. ❖❖ Till August 2012, he was also the UN-Arab League Joint Special Representative for Syria, to help find a resolution to an ongoing conflict in Syria. ❖❖ He and the United Nations were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001 for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world.

Ban Ki-moon ❖❖ He was the eighth Secretary General of the United Nations. ❖❖ He has taken initiatives towards promoting sustainable development, empowering women, and providing support to countries facing crisis and instability.

Dag Hammarskjold ❖❖ Swedish diplomat, economist, and author, he was the second SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations (UN). ❖❖ One of just 3 people to be posthumously awarded the Nobel Prize. ❖❖ Died en route cease-fire negotiations, near Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia).

Superlatives–WORLD Superlatives—World Airport

Largest – King Fadh International Airport, Dammam, Saudi Arabia Highest – Daocheng Yading, Tibet, China

(Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.47

Superlatives—World Animal

Tallest Animal – Giraffe Largest Land Animal – African Bush Elephant Fastest Land Animal – Cheetah Largest Animal Mammal – Blue Whale Loudest Land Animal – Howler Monkey

Bay

Largest – Hudson Bay, Canada

Bird

Smallest – Humming bird Biggest – Ostrich Heaviest (flying) – Kori Bustard Biggest Wingspan- Wandering Albatross Fastest Flying – Peregrine Falcon Fastest Swimming – Gentoo Penguin Largest Sea Bird – Albatross

Building

Tallest – Burj Khalifa, Dubai

Canal

Longest in world – Grand Canal of China Longest Big-ship Canal – Suez Canal linking Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea Busiest Ship Canal – Kiel Canal linking the North Sea with the Baltic Sea in Germany Longest Irrigation Canal – Karakumsky Canal Turkmenistan

Castle

Largest – Windsor Castle, UK

Cathedral

Largest – Seville Cathedral, Seville, Spain

Church

Largest – St. Peter’s Basilica, Vatican City

Continent

Largest – Asia Smallest – Australia

Country

Largest in Area – Russia Smallest in Area – Vatican City

Dam

Largest (overall) – Itaipu Dam on the Parana River, on the border of Brazil and Paraguay Largest (concrete) – Grand Coulee Dam on Columbia River, Washington State, USA Highest – Rogunskaya Dam across River Vakhsh, Tajikistan (Contd.)

8.48  Chapter 8

Superlatives—World Delta

Largest – Sunderbans (created by Ganga and Brahmaputra in West Bengal, India, and Bangladesh)

Desert

Largest – Sahara, Africa

Epic

Longest – Mahabharata

Estuary

Largest – St. Lawrence river

Gorge

Largest – Grand Canyon (on the Colorado river in north central Arizona, USA)

Gulf

Largest – Gulf of Mexico

Hotel

Largest – The Excalibur Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA Most Capacious – The Hotel Rossiya in Moscow, Russia

Hydroelectric Plant

Three Gorges Dam on River Yangtze, China.

Island

Largest – Greenland (renamed Kalaatdlit Nunaat) Largest Sand Island – Fraser Island, Queensland, Australia.

Lagoon

Largest – Lagoa dos Patos, Brazil

Lake

Largest – Caspian Sea (in Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Iran) Largest Fresh Water – Lake Superior, North America

Library

Largest – United States Library of Congress, Washington DC, USA. Largest (Non-statutory) – New York Public Library, New York, USA.

Minaret

Tallest – Great Hassan II Mosque, Casablanca, Morocco (656 ft) Tallest – (Free standing) – Qutab Minar, New Delhi, India

Mountain

Highest Mountain Ranges – The Himalayas, Asia Largest Mountain Range – The Andes, South America Highest Mountain Peak – Mount Everest, in the Himalayas, Nepal Tallest – Mauna Kea (White Mountain on the island of Hawaii, USA)

Museum

Oldest – Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, UK Largest- Smithsonian Museum, Washington DC

Ocean

Largest – Pacific Ocean Deepest – Pacific Ocean (deepest part Mariana Trench)

Palace

Largest – Imperial Palace in Beijing, China (Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.49

Superlatives—World Park Peninsula Place Planet

Population

Largest – National Park of North-Eastern Greenland Largest – Arabian Peninsula Hottest – Death Valley, California Largest – Jupiter Hottest – Venus Nearest to Earth – Venus Outermost – Neptune Most Populous Country – China Least Populous Country – Vatican City

Religion

Most Populous City – Tokyo, Japan Largest – Port of New York and New Jersey, USA Busiest – Port of Shanghai Largest Railway Station – Grand Central Terminal, New York City, USA Highest Railway Station– Qinghai-Tibet Railway Longest Railway Platform – Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh (1,300 m) Oldest – Hinduism

River

Most believers – Christianity Longest – Nile, Egypt

Port Railway

Sea Stadium Star Statue Strait Temple Tower Trees

Shortest – Roe River, Montana, United States Longest Motorable - Pan American Highest – Khardungla Pass on the Leh-Manali road, India at an altitude of 5,602 m Largest – South China Sea Largest – Strahov Stadium, Prague, the Czech Republic Brightest – Sirius A (Dog Star) Tallest – Spring Temple, China Largest – Tartar Strait Largest – Angkor Wat in Cambodia Tallest – C.N. Tower, Toronto, Canada Largest – General Sharman Tree, California, USA

Tunnel

Tallest (living) – Coast Redwood, California, USA Longest (Railway) – Seikan Rail Tunnel Japan

Road Highway

Longest (Road) – Laerdal, Norway (24.51 km) Valley

Deepest – Kali Gandaki valley between Dhaulagiri and Annapurna ranges of Himalayas, Nepal (Contd.)

8.50  Chapter 8

Superlatives—World Wall

Longest – Great Wall of China

Waterfalls

Highest – Salto Angel Falls, Venezuela Largest – Khone Falls, Laos

Superlatives – India Structures Highest Tower (Minaret) – Qutab Minar, New Delhi Highest Gateway – Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri, UP Highest Dam – Tehri Dam, Uttarakhand Largest Residential Building – Rashtrapati Bhawan, New Delhi Largest Museum – Indian Museum, Kolkata, West Bengal Longest Dam – Hirakud Dam, on River Mahanadi, Orissa Largest Cave Temple – Ellora Largest Gurudwara – Golden Temple, Amritsar Biggest Church – The St. John’s Cathedral, Goa Largest Mosque – Jama Masjid, Delhi Largest Dome – Gol Gumbaz, Karnataka Largest Cantilever Bridge – Howrah Bridge, West Bengal Longest River Bridge – Mahatma Gandhi Setu, Bihar Longest Corridor – Rameshwaram Temple Corridor Longest Road Bridge – Sone Bridge, Bihar Longest Road – G.T. Road (Sher Shah Suri Road) Biggest Fort – Red Fort, Delhi Tallest Light House – Prongs Reef, Mumbai Tallest Statue – Gomateshwar Statue, Mysore Natural

Largest Man–made Lake – Govind Sagar (Bhakra) Highest Mountain Peak – Kangchenjunga Longest River – Ganges Largest Desert – Thar, Rajasthan Largest Delta – Sunderbans, West Bengal

States

Largest Lake – Wular, Rajasthan Largest (in area) – Rajasthan (used to be Madhya Pradesh, before bifurcation into MP and Chhattisgarh) Smallest (in area) – Goa Highest Population – Uttar Pradesh (about 166 million) Largest Union Territory – Andaman and Nicobar Islands Smallest Union Territory – Lakshadweep

Miscellaneous    8.51

Sobriquets–World Sobriquets

Primary Names

Notes

City of Dreaming Spires

Oxford, England

‘City of Dreaming Spires’ was a term coined by poet Mathew Arnold in his poem ‘Thyrsis’, written in 1865, describing the architecture of Oxford

City of Eternal Springs

Quito, Ecuador

The city has its sobriquet due to its location. Situated at an altitude of 2,850 meters, it has subtropical climate with 20°C all round the year.

City of Golden San Francisco, Gate USA

The Golden Gate bridge was built to connect San Francisco with Marin county across the 1,600 m wide strait known as the Golden Gate which links San Francisco with the Pacific Ocean.

City of Seven Hills

Rome

The group of hills on which the city was built.

Cockpit of Europe

Belgium

The original meaning of cockpit is that it is an enclosed space or pit where cock fighting takes place. Belgium is known as the cockpit of Europe as it has seen more battles than any other country in Europe.

Dark Continent

Africa

Africa remained unexplored, unexploited to Europeans when most of the world was under Europeans and thus the name ‘Dark Continent’.

Emerald Island

Ireland

The country has rolling, green hills and lush landscapes

Empire City

New York

Empire is usually associated with great wealth and progress. New York is called empire city due to the rapid economic growth it saw in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Eternal City

Rome

Rome was a very powerful nation and Romans believed that Rome as an empire would go on forever (Contd.)

8.52  Chapter 8

Sobriquets

Primary Names

Notes

Forbidden City

Lhasa, Tibet

Lhasa is home to religious leaders and is not accessible to everyone. It is considered to be remote and thus the name forbidden has been given to it.

Garden of England

Kent, England

Kent is known as the garden of England due to the abundance of orchids and hop gardens there.

Gate of Tears

Bad–el–Mandab, Jerusalem

The sobriquet is given to warn travellers of the difficulty in navigation. Another reason was the earthquake which wrecked thousands of lives and separated Africa from Asia.

Gift of Nile

Egypt

River Nile brought rich fertile soil with it. The Egyptian civilization which would otherwise be a desert was able to grow and flourish. Egyptians believe that Egypt truly is the gift of the Nile.

Granite City/ Silver City

Aberdeen, Scotland

Granite is locally available in abundance from which all the buildings are constructed

Great White Way

Broadway, New York

Broadway is nicknamed the Great White Way due to its series of white lights which lit up at night.

Hermit Kingdom

Korea

Hermit Kingdom is a term applied to any country or society which willfully walls itself from the rest of the world. Korea was isolated from the rest of the world during the 19th century

Herring Pond

Atlantic Ocean

Perhaps the Atlantic Ocean is called Herring Pond because it has more herring fish in it than any other fish.

Holy Land

Palestine

Members of all the three religionsChristianity, Judaism, and Islam lived harmoniously in this region for generations. (Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.53

Sobriquets

Primary Names

Notes

Island Continent

Australia

Australia is the planet’s sixth largest country. It is also only one of the largest 6 nations completely surrounded by water.

Island of Cloves

Zanzibar

Zanzibar is an archipelago in the Indian Ocean and is a major manufacturer and exporter of cloves.

Island of Fire

Iceland

Iceland is covered with snowy highlands and glaciers. However, it is also home to many active volcanoes, and thus, it got this name.

Island of Pearls

Bahrain

Pearls are the principal growth driver of the Bahrain economy. Also, Bahrain pearls are believed to be the best in the world.

Key of the Gibraltar Mediterranean

Gibraltar is located near the entrance of the Mediterranean Sea.

Land of Cakes Scotland

Scotland is famous for its oatmeal cakes.

Land of Golden Fleece

Australia

Fleece is the woolly covering of a sheep or goat. In Australia, sheep are raised for wool. It is the largest producer of wool in the world.

Land of Kangaroo

Australia

Kangaroos are native to the continent of Australia and are found almost exclusively here.

Land of Lilies

Canada

Lilies are found in large numbers in Canada and thus its name.

Land of Maple Canada Leaf

The national flag of Canada has the Maple leaf on it. It is also Canada’s national flower.

Land of Marble

Italy

Italy is one of the leading marble producing states of the world.

Land of the Midnight Sun

Norway

The sun does not set for 6 months in the areas north of the Arctic Circle, making the sun visible even during night hours. (Contd.)

8.54  Chapter 8

Sobriquets

Primary Names

Notes

Land of Morning Calm

Korea

In 1934 ce, an emperor of the Ming Dynasty of China gave Korea the title of ‘Chaohsien’ meaning morning freshness because of its splendid beauty and picturesque mountains, particularly during the mornings.

Land of Rising Japan Sun

Japan is located at the easternmost part of Asia and is closest to the International Date Line.

Land of Thousand Lakes

Finland

There are more than one lakh lakes in Finland. Inland lakes and rivers make up 10% of the country, and, therefore, it is called the Land of Thousand lakes.

Land of White Elephants

Thailand

The white elephant has been a symbol of divine royal power in Thailand.

Manchester of Osaka, Japan the Orient

Osaka experienced temporary stagnation in the 19th century. However, the spinning industry revitalized it and it became the most flourishing spinning area.

Never Never Land

Prairies of North Australia

In the late 19th century, the name ‘never never land’ was given to the uninhabited regions of Australia

Pearl of the Antilles

Cuba

Cuba has thousands of islands and islets spread across the Caribbean sea. It is richly endowed with natural advantages and thus entitled ‘Pearl of the Antilles’.

Pearl of the Orient

Hong Kong

It was named so because of shiny city lights from both sides of Victoria Harbor and the high-rise buildings.

Pillars of Hercules

Straits of Gibraltar

‘Pillars of Hercules’ was the phrase applied in antiquity to the promontories that flank the entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar.

Playground of Europe

Switzerland

Leslie Stephen, a popular author, wrote a book in 1870 about his visit to Switzerland and named it ‘Playground of Europe’. (Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.55

Sobriquets

Primary Names

Notes

Powder Keg of Balkans Europe

A powder keg has to be handled carefully as a spark can cause its contents to deflagrate. The term is metaphorically used for the Balkan peninsula as only a spark was required to trigger conflict in the area before World War I.

Quaker City

Philadelphia, USA

King Charles the Second, of England, gave William Penn who was a Quaker a lot of money to establish a colony. Penn established a city and named it Philadelphia, meaning brotherly love.

Queen of the Adriatic

Venice, Italy

Venice is called the ‘Queen of the Adriatic’ because of its unique beauty and abundant art and architectural treasures

Roof of the World

The Pamir Mountains

The Pamirs are the main orographic crux in Asia from which the highest ranges in the world radiate: the Hindu Kush to the northwest, the Tien Shan system to the northeast, and the Karokoram and Himalaya ranges to the southeast.

Sick Man of Europe

Turkey

The Ottoman Empire in 1914 was commonly known as ‘The Sick Man of Europe’, a sign that the once great power was crumbling. Ottoman Empire was created by Turkish tribes.

Sorrow of China

River Hwang Ho

In its lower reaches, River Hwang Ho is a shifting, turbulent, silt-laden stream that often overflows its banks and sends floodwaters across the North China Plain. For this reason, it has been given such names as ‘China’s Sorrow’ and ‘The Ungovernable’.

Venice of the North

Stockholm, Sweden

Called the ‘Venice of the North’ as it has a lot of waterways and bridges.

White City

Belgrade

Belgrade derives its name from the Slavic words ‘bel’ meaning ‘white’ and ‘grad’ meaning ‘town’ or ‘city’. (Contd.)

8.56  Chapter 8

Sobriquets

Primary Names

Notes

White Man’s Grave

Guinea, Coast

Called so because of very high mortality rate among the white missionaries and colonists living there.

World’s Bread Basket

Prairies of North America

US Prairies are grasslands which when converted to agricultural use are very productive. Prairies of North America are popular for agriculture and farming.

World’s Loneliest Island

Tristan da Cunha

Called so because this group of islands has the population of just around 250 people.

Sobriquets—India Sobriquets

Primary Names

Notes

Blue Mountains Nilgiri Hills

Known so because of the kurunji flower, which blooms every 12 years, giving the mountains a bluish tinge.

City of Golden Temple

Amritsar

–

City of Palaces

Kolkata

–

Garden of India

Bangalore

–

Land of Five Rivers

Punjab

‘Punj’ means 5 and ‘Ab’ means water, thus the land of 5 rivers. The five rivers are Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, and Sutlej.

Pink City

Jaipur

In 1876, Jaipur was coloured in terracotta pink to welcome the Prince of Wales during the regime of Sawai Ram Singh and thus the name ‘Pink City’ got attached to Jaipur

Spice Garden of India

Kerala

–

Venice of the East

Alappuzha (Kerala)

The pristine backwaters flanked by palm trees has earned this town the nickname ‘Venice of the East’ (Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.57

Sobriquets

Primary Names

Notes

Gateway of India

Mumbai

–

Queen of the Arabian Sea

Kochi

Called so because it was an important spice trading centre of India, since the 14th century

Bengal’s Sorrow

River Damodar, West Bengal

River Damodar used to flood many areas of Bardhaman, Hooghly, Howrah, and Medinipur districts.

Sobriquets—Persons Sobriquets

Primary Names

Notes

Badshah Khan; Frontier Gandhi

Abdul Gaffar Khan

–

Fuhrer (also Fuehrer)

Adolf Hitler

Fuhrer means ‘leader’ or ‘guide’ in German

Lokmanya

Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Lokmanya means ‘Beloved of the people’

II Duce

Benito Mussolini

–

Deenabandhu

C.F. Andrews

Mahatma Gandhi gave him the sobriquet ‘Deenabandhu’ meaning ‘Friend of the Poor’

Anna

C.N. Annadurai

–

Deshbandhhu

C.R. Das

–

Rajaji

C. Rajagopalachari

–

Grand Old Man of India

Dadabhai Naoroji

–

Iron Duke

Duke of Wellington

The nickname ‘Iron Duke’ became widespread in 1832 when the Duke of Wellington installed metal shutters to prevent rioters from breaking windows.

Ike

Dwight David

– (Contd.)

8.58  Chapter 8

Sobriquets

Primary Names

Notes

Lady with the Lamp

Florence Nightingale

She was given this nickname after her habit of making rounds at night while serving as a nurse during the Crimean War

El Cauclillo

Francisco France

–

Father of English Poetry

Geoffrey Chaucer

–

Chacha; Panditji

Jawaharlal Nehru

Called Panditji as he belonged to the Kashmiri Pandit community. Called Chacha Nehru due to his love towards children.

Lok Nayak

Jayaprakash Narayan

Lok Nayak is Hindi for ‘people’s leader’

Maid of Orleans

Joan of Arc

–

Man of Peace

Lal Bahadur Shastri

–

Punjab Kesari; Lion of Punjab (Sher-I-Punjab)

Lala Lajpat Rai

–

Bapu; Mahatma; M.K. Gandhi Father of Nation

Subhash Chandra Bose used the title ‘Father of the Nation’ for the first time in a radio address from Singapore in 1944. Tagore bestowed the title of ‘Mahatma’ on Gandhi in 1915 while writing his autobiography.

Guruji

M.S. Gohlwalkar

–

Mahamana

Madan Mohan Malaviya

–

Man of Destiny

Napoleon Bonaparte

–

Man of Blood and Iron

Otto Von Bismark

–

Maiden Queen

Queen Elizabeth-I

–

Gurudev

Rabindranath Tagore

Gandhi gave him the title ‘Gurudev’ when Tagore gave Gandhi the title ‘Mahatma’ (Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.59

Sobriquets

Primary Names

Notes

Sparrow Nightingale of India

Rajinder Singh Sarojini Naidu

– She was called Nightangle of India due to her poetry which was filled with rich imagery. –

Lion of Kashmir Sheikh Moham(Sher-e-Kashmir) mad Abdullah Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Andhra Kesari T. Prakasam

Iron Man of India Wizard of the North Grand Old Man of Britain Bard of Avon

Bangabandhu literally means ‘Friend of Bengal’ –

Vallabhai Patel

‘Andhra Kesari’ literally means ‘the Lion of Andhra’. T. Prakasam was the first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh –

Walter Scott

–

William Ewart Gladstone William Shakespeare

– Bard (Poet) of Avon (Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon)

Pioneers Firsts in the world Male Personalities S. Role No.

Name(s) of the Personalities

1. The first person to reach Mount Sherpa Tenzing Norgay Everest (Nepal) and Edmund Hillary 2. The first person to reach the North Pole Robert Peary (USA) 3. The first person to reach the South Pole Roald Amundsen (Norway) 4. The first President of the USA

George Washington

5. The first Prime Minister of a country

Robert Walpole (Britain)

6. The first Secretary-General of the Trygve Lie (Norway) United Nations (Contd.)

8.60  Chapter 8

S. Role No. 7. The first Pakistan

Name(s) of the Personalities Governor-General

of Mohd. Ali Jinnah

8. The first European to attack India

Alexander The Great (Greece)

9. The first European to reach China

Marco Polo

10. The first person(s) to fly an airplane

Wright Brothers

11. The first person to sail round the world Ferdinand Magellan (Portugal) 12. The first person to land on the moon

Neil Armstrong (USA)

13. The first man to go into space

Yuri Gagarin (Russia)

14. The first Chinese traveller to India

Fa-Hien

15. The first man to have climbed Mount Nawang Gombu Everest twice 16. The first U.S. President to resign from Richard Nixon Presidency 17. First Prime Minister of Pakistan

Liaquat Ali Khan

18. First person to cross the Atlantic Leif Ericson Ocean 19. First person to arrive in South America Christopher Columbus 20. First person to discover a sea route Vasco da Gama from Europe to India 21. First person to cross the Pacific Ocean Ferdinand Magellan 22. First person to sail around the world

Ferdinand Magellan

23. The first handicapped man to cross Taranath Shenoy (India) the Strait of Gibraltar (deaf and dumb) 24. First person to locate the magnetic Sir James Clark and Rear pole Admiral Sir John Ross 25. First person to scale K2, the world’s Lino Lacedelli and Achille second – highest peak Compagnoni 26. First person to reach both the Poles Erling Kagge (Norway) and to climb Mount Everest 27. First person to cross the Antarctica

Sir Vivian Fuchs and Sir Edmund Hillary

(Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.61

S. Role No.

Name(s) of the Personalities

28. First people to reach the deepest Jacques Piccard and point on the surface of the earth, Lieutenant Don Walsh on the the Challenger deep in the Mariana Bathyscaphe Trieste Trench, Pacific Ocean 29. First person to walk in space

Aleksei Leonov (Russia)

30. First tourist in space

Dennis Tito

31. First Asian to head the International Jagmohan Dalmiya Cricket Council

Female Personalities S. No. Role

Name(s) of the Personalities

1.

The first woman to reach the Mrs Anne Bancroft North Pole

2.

The first woman to reach the Mrs Fran Phipps (Canada) South Pole

3.

The first woman to win a Nobel Selma Lagerlof prize in Literature

4.

The first woman Prime Minister of Margaret Thatcher England

5.

The first Muslim Prime Minister of Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan) a country

6.

The first woman President in the Mrs Sirimavo world (Sri Lanka)

7.

The first woman to climb Mount Mrs Junko Tabei (Japan) Everest

8.

The first woman cosmonaut of Valentina Tereshkova (Russia) the world

9.

The first woman President of the Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit U.N. General Assembly

Bandaranaike

10.

The first woman bishop

11.

The first woman to reach Mount Lydia Bradey Everest without oxygen

12.

The first women to reach both the Ann Daniels and Poles Hamilton of Britain

Rev. Barbara C. Harris (USA)

Caroline (Contd.)

8.62  Chapter 8

S. No. Role 13.

The first Antarctica

Name(s) of the Personalities women

to

reach Caroline Michealson

Miscellaneous S. No.

Role

Miscellaneous

1.

The oldest religion of the world

Hinduism

2.

The first country to print books

China

3.

The first country to issue paper currency

China

4.

The first country to win the FIFA World Cup Uruguay

5.

The first country to prepare a Constitution USA

6.

The first country to host a NAM summit

7.

The first country to send a man to the USA Moon

8.

The first country to launch artificial Russia satellite in the space

9.

The first country to host the modern Greece Olympics

Belgrade (Yugoslavia)

10.

The first city on which an atom bomb was Hiroshima (Japan) dropped

11.

The first shuttle to go to space

Columbia

12.

The first spacecraft to reach Mars

Viking-I

13.

The first artificial satellite launched into Sputnik 1 orbit

14.

The first mammal in space

Laika, a dog

15.

The first manned private spaceflight

Spaceship One piloted by Mike Melvill

16.

The first spacecraft to orbit Saturn

Cassini- Huygens

17.

The first country to launch a radio Japan telescope satellite

18.

The first country to make education Prussia compulsory

19.

The first lamb created using DNA from an Dolly adult sheep (Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.63

S. No.

Role

Miscellaneous

20.

The first socket to be launched into space Zenith from a sea platform

21.

World’s first cloned human baby

Eve

Firsts in India Male Personalities S. No.

Role

Name(s) of the Personalities

1.

The first President of the Indian Dr Rajendra Prasad Republic

2.

The first Prime Minister of free Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru India

3.

The first Indian to win a Nobel Rabindranath Tagore Prize

4.

The first President of Indian W.C. Banerjee National Congress

5.

The first Muslim President of Badruddin Tyabji Indian National Congress

6.

The first Muslim President of Dr Zakir Hussain India

7.

The first British General of India

8.

The first British Viceroy of India

9.

The first Governor-General of Lord Mountbatten free India

10.

The first and the last Indian to C. Rajagopalachari be the Governor-General of free India.

11.

India’s first man in space

Rakesh Sharma

12.

The first Chief of the Army Staff

Gen. Maharaj Rajendra Singhji

13.

The first Prime Minister of India Charan Singh who did not face Parliament

14.

The first Field Marshal of India

Governor- Lord William Bentinck Lord Canning

S.H.F. Manekshaw (Contd.)

8.64  Chapter 8

S. No.

Role

Name(s) of the Personalities

15.

The first Indian to get a Nobel C.V. Raman Prize in Physics

16.

The first to receive Bharat Ratna Dr Radhakrishnan, Award C. Rajgopalachari and Sir C.V. Raman in 1954

17.

The first Indian to cross the Mihir Sen English Channel

18.

The first Vice President of India

19.

The first Indian Air Chief Marshal Subroto Mukherjee

20.

The first Indian Naval Chief

21.

The first Indian Judge of the Dr Nagendra Singh International Court of Justice

22.

The first person to receive Major Somnath Sharma Paramveer Chakra

23.

The first person to reach Mt. Sherpa Anga Dorjee Everest without oxygen

24.

The first Chief Commissioner

25.

The first Indian to receive the Acharya Vinoba Bhave Magsaysay Award

26.

The first person of Indian origin Hargobind Khurana to receive a Nobel Prize in Medicine

27.

The first foreigner to receive Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan Bharat Ratna

28.

The first person to receive a Amartya Sen Nobel Prize in Economics

29.

The first Chief Justice of the Justice Hiralal J. Kania Supreme Court

30.

The first Indian to win the Miss Reita Faria World title

31.

First British Governor General

Warren Hastings

32.

First Indian Commander-inChief of free India

General K.M. Cariappa

33.

First Chief of Air Staff

Air Marshal Sir Thomas Elmhirst

Dr Radhakrishnan Vice Admiral R.D. Katari

Election Sukumar Sen

(Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.65

S. No.

Role

Name(s) of the Personalities

34.

First Indian to win an Oscar

Bhanu Athaiya

35.

First Indian who passed the ICS Exam

Satyendranath Tagore

36.

First Indian Member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council

Sir S.P. Sinha

37.

First President to die in Office

Dr Zakir Hussain

38.

First Prime Minister to resign Morarji Desai from Office

39.

First Deputy Prime Minister

40.

First Indian Parliament

41.

First Indian pilot

42.

First Indian author to get the Ruskin Bond Anderson Award

43.

First Indian to climb Mount Nawang Gombu Everest twice

44.

First Sikh President of India

Giani Zail Singh

45.

First Speaker of the Lok Sabha

G.V. Mavalankar

46.

First Emperor of the Mughal Babur Dynasty

47.

First Air Marshal

48.

First Indian to circumnavigate Lt Col K.S. Rao the world

49.

First Indian High Court judge

50.

First Indian England

51.

First Bar-at-Law

52.

First Chairman of the Rajya Sabha Dr S. Radhakrishnan

53.

First Indian Test cricketer

54.

First Indian to reach the South Col J.K. Bajaj Pole

55.

First Indian recipient of the Khudadad Khan Victoria Cross (the highest award before Independence)

in

the

leader

Vallabhbhai Patel

British Dadabhai Naoroji J.R.D. Tata

Arjan Singh

to

Justice Syed Mahmood

visit Raja Ram Mohan Roy J.M. Tagore K.S. Ranjit Singhji

(Contd.)

8.66  Chapter 8

S. No.

Role

Name(s) of the Personalities

56.

First judge to face impeachment Justice V. Ramaswami in the Lok Sabha

57.

First judge to face impeachment Justice Soumitra Sen in the Rajya Sabha

58.

First Indian tennis player to win a Mahesh Bhupathi grand slam event

59.

First Sikh Prime Minister of India Dr Manmohan Singh

60.

The first Indian to win an Olympic Abhinav Bindra gold medal

61.

First Indian to reach Antarctica

62.

First President of National Justice Raghunath Mishra Human Rights Commission

63.

First Indian to win the World Wilson Jones Billiards Award

64.

First person to deliver a lecture Atal Bihari Bajpai in Hindi in UNO

65.

First bowler who made a hat- Harbhajan Singh trick in Test Cricket

66.

Batsman who made 300 runs in Virender Sehwag Test Cricket

67.

First Indian who won a bronze Vijender Kumar medal in Boxing in Olympic games

68.

First Indian batsman who scored Sachin Tendulkar a double century in One Day International Cricket

Lt Ram Charan

Female Personalities S. Role No. 1. The first woman judge in the Supreme Court

Name(s) of the Personalities Meera Sahib Fatima Bibi

2. The first woman Governor of a State in free Sarojini Naidu India (Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.67

S. Role No.

Name(s) of the Personalities

3. The first woman Prime Minister

Indira Gandhi

4. The first woman to climb Mount Everest

Bachendri Pal

5. The first woman to climb Mount Everest twice Santosh Yadav 6. The first woman President of the Indian Annie Besant National Congress 7. The first woman Chief Justice of a High Court Leela Seth 8. The first woman Speaker of an Indian State

Shano Devi

9. The first woman to circumnavigate (sail Ujwala Rai round) the world 10. The first woman pilot in the Indian Air Force

Harita Kaur Dayal

11. The first woman President of the United Vijaya Laxmi Pandit Nations General Assembly (UNGA) 12. The first woman Chief Minister of an Indian Sucheta Kriplani State 13. The first woman Chairman of the Union Roze Millian Bethew Public Service Commission (UPSC) 14. The first woman Director General of Police Kanchan Chaudhary (DGP) Bhattacharya 15. The first woman IPS officer

Kiran Bedi

16. The first and the last Muslim woman ruler of Razia Sultan Delhi 17. The first woman to receive Ashoka Chakra

Neerja Bhanot

18. The first woman to cross the English Channel Aarti Saha 19. The first woman to receive a Nobel Prize

Mother Teresa

20. The first woman to receive Bharat Ratna

Indira Gandhi

21. The first woman to receive the Jnanpith Ashapurna Devi Award 22. The first woman IAS officer

Anna George Malhotra

23. The first woman barrister

Cornelia Sorabji (Allahabad High Court-1923)

24. The first woman judge

Anna Chandi (Contd.)

8.68  Chapter 8

S. Role No.

Name(s) of the Personalities

25. The first woman judge of a High Court

Anna Chandi

26. The first woman doctor

Kadambini Ganguly

27. The first woman to receive an Army Medal

Bimla Devi (CRPF)

28. The first woman Magistrate

Omana Kunjamma

29. The first woman President of India

Pratibha Patil

30. The first woman Ambassador of India

C.B. Muthamma

31. India’s first woman Merchant Navy officer

Sonali Banerjee

32. The first woman Joint Director in the CBI

Archana Ramasundaram

33. The first woman cricketer to score a double Mithali Raj century (in Tests) 34. The first Indian woman to be appointed as Kiran Bedi Civil Police Advisor in the UNO 35. The first woman Deputy Governor of the K.J. Udeshi Reserve Bank of India 36. The youngest Mayor of a city

Neeta Sodhi (Mayor of Jamshedpur)

37. The first Indian woman to register a win in Sania Mizra Wimbledon 38. The first Indian sports woman to win a medal Anju B. George in the World Champioships 39. The first Indian woman to become the Kanchan Chaudhury Director-General of Police of a state (DGP of Bhattacharya Uttarakhand) 40. The first Indian woman to reach the rank of Lt General Puneeta Lt General in the armed forces Arora 41. The first Indian woman in the world to swim Bula Chaudhury across seven seas and five continents of the world 42. The first woman Air Marshal of Indian Air Air Marshal Padma Force (IAF) Bandopadhyay 43. The first lady President of P.H.D.C.C.I. (P.H.D. Sushma Barlia Chamber of Commerce and Industry) (Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.69

S. Role No.

Name(s) of the Personalities

44. The first Indian woman saint to be canonized Sister Alphonsa by Pope Benedict XVI of the Immaculate Conception, October 2008 45. The first woman in the world to fly the MiG-35 Suman Sharma 46. The first Indian woman to become Speaker of Meira Kumar the Lok Sabha 47. First woman Central Minister

Rajkumari Amrit Kaur

48. First Indian woman to go into space

Kalpana Chawla

49. First woman to win an Asian Gold

Kamaljeet Sandhu

50. First woman member of the Council of States Radhabai Subbarayan (1938) 51. First woman awardee of the Norman Borlaug Dr Amrita Patil Prize 52. First woman awardee of the Lenin Peace Aruna Asaf Ali award 53. First woman who reached Antarctica

Mahel Musa (1977)

54. First woman who reached the North Pole

Pritisu Gupta (1993)

55. First woman pilot

Flying Officer Sushma Mukhopaddhyaya

56. First woman to participate in the Olympic Meri Lila Row (1952) Games 57. First woman Lieutenant-General

Punita Arora

58. First woman advocate

Ragina Guha

59. Youngest woman to scale Mt. Everest twice

Decky Dolma

60. First woman Foreign Secretary

Chokila Ayyar

61. First woman Chief-Secretary of the country

Nirmla Chawla

62. First Indian to win the Miss Universe title

Sushmita Sen

63. First actress of Indian cinema

Kamalbai Gokhale, along with her mother Durgabai Kamat

8.70  Chapter 8

Miscellaneous S. No. Role

Miscellaneous

1.

First hydroelectric station

2.

First indigenously designed and built Prithvi missile

3.

First Oceanarium

4.

First Infrastructure project completed on Konkan Railways a Build-Operate Transfer basis without any foreign borrowing

5.

First Extra Fast Attack Craft (XFAC) of T-80 the Navy

6.

First CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) Delhi run bus started in

7.

First Beyond Visual Range Air-to-air Astra Missile (BVRAAM)

8.

First free Internet-based Indian language GIST Mail electronic mail

9.

First network-based fully computerized New Delhi Head Post Office set up in

10.

First Central Jail for woman was set up at New Delhi

11.

First Army Institute of Technology established in

12.

First Virtual Card launched by

Citibank

13.

First luxury taxi service launched in

Delhi

14.

First all-composite twin-seater trainer Hansa aircraft

15.

First 100% computer-literate village

Darjeeling

Goa

Information Hyderabad

Chamravattom (Kerala)

Important Days and Dates Day

Importance

Organized/ Proclaimed by

9 Jan

NRI day, Pravasi Bhartiya Divas

Government of India

12 Jan

National Youth Day (birthday of Swami Vivekananda)

– (Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.71

Day

Importance

Organized/ Proclaimed by

15 Jan

Army Day

Government of India

24 Jan

National Girl Child Day

Women and Child Development Ministry

25 Jan

India Tourism Day

–

25 Jan

Indian Voters Day

Election Commission of India

26 Jan

Republic Day

–

26 Jan

International Customs Day

World Customs Organization

30 Jan

World Leprosy Eradication Day

World Health Organization (WHO)

30 Jan

Martyr’s Day

–

2 Feb

World Wetlands Day

–

4 Feb

World Cancer Day

Union for International Cancer Control (UICC)

14 Feb

St. Valentine’s Day

–

20 Feb

World Day of Social Justice

General Assembly of United Nations

24 Feb

Central Excise Day

Government of India

28 Feb

National Science Day (C.V. Raman Government of India discovered the Raman Effect on this day)

3 Mar

National Defence Day

Government of India

4 Mar

National Security Day

Government of India

8 Mar

International Women’s Day

United Nations (UN)

15 Mar

World Consumer Rights Day

Consumers International (CI)

16 Mar

National Vaccination Day

22 Mar

World Day for Water

United Nations (UN)

23 Mar

World Meteorological Day

World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

24 Mar

World TB Day

Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (Contd.)

8.72  Chapter 8

Day

Importance

Organized/ Proclaimed by

26 Mar

Purple Day/International Day of Epilepsy

–

27 Mar

World Theatre Day

International Theatre Institute

2 Apr

World Autism Awareness Day

United Nations (UN)

5 Apr

National Maritime Day

Indian Navy

7 Apr

World Health Day

World Health Organization (WHO)

13 Apr

Jallianwallah Bagh Massacre Day (1919)

–

14 Apr

B.R. Ambedkar Remembrance Day

–

17 Apr

World Haemophilia Day

World Federation of Haemophilia

18 Apr

World Heritage Day

UNESCO

22 Apr

World Earth Day

–

23 Apr

World Book and Copyright Day

UNESCO

25 Apr

World Malaria Day

World Health Organization (WHO)

26 Apr

World Intellectual Property Day

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

1 May

International Labour Day

International Labour Organization (ILO)

3 May

World Press Freedom Day

UNESCO

8 May

World Thalassaemia Day

Thalassaemia International Federation

8 May

International Red Cross Day (It is celebrated to commemorate the birth anniversary of the founder of the Red Cross Organization—Jean Henry Dunant)

–

11 May

National Technology Day

Government of India

13 May

National Solidarity Day (birthday of former President of India, Dr Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed)

Government of India

(Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.73

Day

Importance

Organized/ Proclaimed by

15 May

International Family Day

United Nations (UN)

17 May

World Telecom Day

International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

21 May

National Anti-Terrorism Day

Government of India

22 May

International Day for Biological Diversity

United Nations (UN)

31 May

World No Tobacco Day

World Health Organization (WHO)

5 Jun

World Environment Day

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

12 Jun

World Day against Child Labour

International Labour Organization (ILO)

14 Jun

World Blood Donor Day

World Health Organization (WHO)

17 Jun

World Day to Combat Desertification

United Nations (UN)

26 Jun

International Day against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking

United Nations (UN)

11 Jul

World Population Day

United Nations (UN)

12 Jul

Malala Day

United Nations (UN)

18 Jul

International Mandela Day

Catholic Church (South Africa)

26 Jul

Kargil Victory Day

Government of India

28 Jul

World Nature Conservation Day

–

29 Jul

International Tiger Day

–

6 Aug

Hiroshima Day

–

9 Aug

Quit India Movement Day/Nagasaki Day

–

12 Aug

International Youth Day

United Nations (UN)

14 Aug

Pakistan’s Independence Day

–

15 Aug

India’s Independence Day

– (Contd.)

8.74  Chapter 8

Day

Importance

Organized/ Proclaimed by

19 Aug

World Photography Day; World Humanitarian Day (Established by the UN in 2008 and was first observed in 2009)

–

29 Aug

National Sports Day of India (Major Dhyanchand’s birthday)

Government of India

5 Sep

Teacher’s Day (birthday of Dr S. Radhakrishnan)

–

8 Sep

International Literacy Day

UNESCO

14 Sep

Hindi Diwas

–

15 Sep

International Day of Democracy

United Nations (UN)

15 Sep

National Engineer’s Day – (Celebrated in the honour of Sir Visvesvaraya-Chief Designer of flood protection system designed for Hyderabad)

16 Sep

International Day for Preservation of United Nations (UN) Ozone Layer

21 Sep

International Day of Peace

United Nations (UN)

21 Sep

World Alzheimer’s Day

–

27 Sep

World Tourism Day

UN World Tourism Organization

1 Oct

International Day of Older Persons

United Nations (UN)

2 Oct

Gandhi Jayanti, International Day of Non-violence

United Nations (UN)

4 Oct

World Animal Day

–

5 Oct

World Teacher’s Day

–

8 Oct

Indian Air Force Day

Government of India

9 Oct

World Postal Day

Universal Postal Union (UPU)

10 Oct

World Mental Health Day

World Health Organization (WHO)

11 Oct

International Day of the Girl Child

United Nations (UN) (Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.75

Day

Importance

Organized/ Proclaimed by

13 Oct

World Calamity Control Day (International Day for Disaster Reduction)

United Nations (UN)

14 Oct

World Standards Day

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

17 Oct

International Day for Eradication of Poverty

United Nations (UN)

24 Oct

United Nations Day

United Nations (UN)

9 Nov

National Legal Service Day

National Legal Services Authority (NALSA)

12 Nov

World Pneumonia day

World Health Organization (WHO)

14 Nov

Children’s Day (birth anniversary of Jawaharlal Nehru)

–

14 Nov

World Diabetes Day

International Diabetes Federation (IDF)

17 Nov

International Students’ Day

–

19 Nov

World Toilet Day

–

20 Nov

Universal Children’s Day

United Nations (UN)

25 Nov

International Day for Elimination of Violence against Women

United Nations (UN)

26 Nov

Constitution Day

–

1 Dec

World AIDS Day

United Nations (UN)

2 Dec

International Day for the Abolition of Slavery

United Nations (UN)

3 Dec

World Disability Day

United Nations (UN)

4 Dec

Indian Navy Day

Government of India

5 Dec

International Volunteers day

United Nations (UN)

7 Dec

International Civil Aviation Day

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

7 Dec

Indian Armed Force Flag Day

Government of India

9 Dec

International Anti-corruption Day

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (Contd.)

8.76  Chapter 8

Day

Importance

Organized/ Proclaimed by

10 Dec

International Human Rights Day

United Nations (UN)

11 Dec

UNICEF Day (World Children’s Fund Day)

UNICEF

14 Dec

National Energy Conservation Day

–

23 Dec

Kisan Divas

–

Abbreviations S. No. Acronym

Enlargement A

1.

ADB

Asian Development Bank

2.

AIADMK

All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

3.

AICC

All India Congress Committee

4.

AICTE

All India Council for Technical Education

5.

AIDS

Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome

6.

AIIMS

All India Institute of Medical Sciences

7.

AITA

All India Tennis Association

8.

AITUC

All India Trade Union Congress

9.

Am

Ante meridiem (before noon)

10.

AMU

Aligarh Muslim University; Asian Monetary Union

11.

APEC

Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation

12.

ARC

Administrative Reforms Commission; Agricultural Refinance Corporation

13.

ASEAN

Association of South East Asian Nations

14.

ASLV

Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle

15.

ASSOCHAM

Associated Chamber of Commerce and Industry

16.

ATM

Automated Teller Machine

17.

BBC

British Broadcasting Corporation

18.

BCCI

Board of Control for Cricket in India; Bank of Credit and Commerce International

19.

BCG

Bacillus Calmette Guerin (preventive vaccine for tuberculosis)

B

(Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.77

S. No. Acronym

Enlargement

20.

BENELUX

Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg

21.

BIFR

Bureau of Industrial and Financial Reconstruction

22.

BIPPA

Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection

23.

BIS

Bureau of Indian Standards

24.

BOLT

Build-Own-Lease-Transfer C

25.

CBFC

Central Board of Film Certification

26.

CBSE

Central Board of Secondary Education

27.

CDRI

Central Drug Research Institute

28.

CEC

Chief Election Commissioner; Chief Executive Councillor

29.

CENTO

Central Treaty Organization

30.

CFSL

Central Forensic Science Laboratory

31.

CGF

Commonwealth Games Federation

32.

CID

Criminal Investigation Department

33.

Cif

Cost, insurance, and freight

34.

Cifc

Cost, insurance, freight, and commission

35.

CIS

Commonwealth of Independent States

36.

CISF

Central Industrial Security Force

37.

CMO

Chief Medical Officer

38.

CNN

Cable News Network

39.

c/o

Care of

40.

COD

Cash on Delivery; Central Ordnance Depot

41.

COFEPOSA

Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Act

42.

CPC

Civil Procedure Code

43.

CPCB

Central Pollution Control Board

44.

CPF

Contributory Provident Fund

45.

CPI

Communist Party of India

46.

CPI (M)

Communist Party of India (Marxist)

47.

CPMT

Combined Pre-medical Tests

48.

CRPF

Central Reserve Police Force

49.

CRR

Cash Reserve Ratio (Contd.)

8.78  Chapter 8

S. No. Acronym

Enlargement

50.

CSIR

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

51.

CSO

Central Statistical Organization

52.

CTBT

Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty

53.

CVC

Central Vigilance Commission D

54.

DCL

Doctor of Civil Law

55.

DDT

Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane (insecticide)

56.

DMK

Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (different from AIDMK)

57.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (biological elements)

58.

DRDO

Defence Research and Development Organization

59.

ECG

Electrocardiogram

60.

ECOSOC

Economic and Social Council (UN)

61.

EDBI

Educational Development Bank of India

62.

EFTA

European Free Trade Association

63.

Eg

Exempli gratia (for example)

64.

E & OE

Errors and Omissions Excepted

65.

EPZ

Export Processing Zone

66.

EST

Eastern Standard Time

67.

Etc.

Etcetera (and other)

68.

Ex-Officio

By virtue of the office

E

F 69.

FBI

Federal Bureau of Investigation (of USA)

70.

FCI

Food Corporation of India

71.

FDI

Foreign Direct Investment

72.

FERA

Foreign Exchange Regulation Act

73.

FICCI

Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry

74.

FIFA

International Football Federation

75.

FIPB

Foreign Investment Promotion Board

76.

Fob

Free on board

77.

For

Free on rail

78.

FPS

Foot Pound Second (units of measurement) (Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.79

S. No. Acronym 79.

FTII

Enlargement Films and Television Institute of India G

80.

GAIL

Gas Authority of India Limited

81.

GAP

Ganga Action Plan

82.

GATT

General Agreement of Tariff and Trade

83.

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

84.

GMT

Greenwich Mean Time

85.

GNP

Gross National Product

86.

GRE

Graduate Record Examination

87.

GSI

Geological Survey of India

88.

GSLV

Geo Satellite Launch Vehicle H

89.

HAL

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

90.

HIV

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

91.

HLC

Humanitarian Law Commission (Red Cross)

92.

HMT

Hindustan Machine Tools

93.

HMV

His Master’s Voice

94.

HSL

Hindustan Steel Limited

95.

HUDCO

Housing and Urban Development Corporation

96.

IAAF

International Amateur Athletics Federation

97.

IARI

Indian Agricultural Research Institute

98.

IATA

International Air Transport Association

99.

Ib, ibid

Ibidem (in the same place)

100.

IBM

International Business Machines; Indian Bureau of Mines

101.

IBRD

International Bank for Reconstruction Development (World Bank)

102.

ICAA

International Civil Airports Association

103.

ICAR

Indian Council of Agricultural Research

104.

ICC

International Chamber of Commerce; International Control Commission; International Cricket Conference

105.

ICCR

Indian Council for Cultural Relations

I

and

(Contd.)

8.80  Chapter 8

S. No. Acronym

Enlargement

106.

ICDS

Integrated Child Development Scheme

107.

ICHR

Indian Council of Historical Research

108.

ICICI

Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India

109.

ICJ

International Court of Justice

110.

ICMR

Indian Council of Medical Research

111.

ICRC

International Committee of Red Cross

112.

ICSI

Institute of Company Secretaries of India

113.

IDBI

Industrial Development Bank of India

114.

IDPL

Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Limited

115.

i.e.

Id est (that is)

116.

IFA

Indian Football Association

117.

IFC

Industrial Finance Finance Corporation

118.

IFCI

Industrial Finance Corporation of India

119.

IFFCO

Indian Farmers Fertilizers Corporation of India

120.

IFFI

International Film Festival of India

121.

IGNOU

Indira Gandhi National Open University

122.

IHF

Indian Hockey Federation

123.

IIFT

Indian Institute of Foreign Trade

124.

IIT

Indian Institute of Technology

125.

ILO

International Labour Organization

126.

IMC

Indian Medical Council

127.

IMF

International Monetary Fund

128.

INS

Indian Newspaper Society; Indian Navy Ship

129.

INSAT

Indian National Satellite

130.

INTELSAT

International Telecommunication Satellite

131.

INTERPOL

International Police Organization

132.

INTUC

Indian National Union Congress

133.

IOA

Indian Olympic Association

134.

IOC

International Corporation

135.

IPC

Indian Penal Code

Corporation;

Olympic

Committee;

International

Indian

Oil

(Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.81

S. No. Acronym

Enlargement

136.

IPR

Intellectual Property Rights

137.

IRC

International Red Cross

138.

IRCS

International Red Cross Society

139.

IRDP

Integrated Rural Development Programme

140.

IRS

Indian Remote Sensing (satellite)

141.

ISCON

Indian Steel Construction Company

142.

ISD

International Subscriber Dialing

143.

ISI

Indian Standards Institute; Intelligence (of Pakistan)

144.

ISO

International Standardization Organization

145.

ISRO

Indian Space Research Organization

146.

ITDC

Indian Tourism Development Corporation

147.

IUCD

Intrauterine Contraceptive Device

148.

JCO

Junior Commissioned Officer

149.

JIPMER

Jawaharlal Institute of Post-graduate Medical Education and Research (Pondicherry)

150.

JKLF

Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front

151.

JMM

Jharkhand Mukti Morcha

Inter

Services

J

K 152.

KG

Kindergarten

153.

KKK

Ku-Klux-Klan

154.

Kw

Kilowatt

155.

L

50 (in Roman numbers)

156.

LASER

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

157.

LLB

Legum Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Laws)

158.

LLD

Legum Doctor (Doctor of Laws)

159.

LLM

Master of Laws

160.

LNG

Liquefied Natural Gas

161.

LPG

Liquefied Petroleum Gas

162.

LTTE

Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

L

(Contd.)

8.82  Chapter 8

S. No. Acronym

Enlargement M

163.

M

1,000 (in Roman numerals)

164.

MAT

Management Aptitude Test; Minimum Alternate Tax

165.

MBBS

Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery

166.

MCC

Marylebone Cricket Club; Missile Control Centre

167.

MD

Managing Director; Director of Medicine

168.

MDS

Master of Dental Surgery

169.

MIC

Methyl Isocyanate

170.

MISA

Maintenance of Internal Security Act

171.

MNC

Multinational Corporation

172.

MODVAT

Modified Value Added Tax

173.

Mpg

Miles per gallon

174.

Mph

Miles per hour

175.

Mps

Meters per second

176.

MRTPC

Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Commission

177.

MS

Master of Surgery

178.

NABARD

National Bank Development

179.

NAM

Non-aligned Movement

180.

NASA

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (of USA)

181.

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

182.

NB

Note bene (mark well)

183.

NBT

National Book Trust

184.

NCB

Narcotics Control Board

185.

NCC

National Cadet Corps

186.

NCDC

National Coal Development Corporation

187.

NCERT

National Council of Educational Research and Training

188.

NDA

National Development Academy

189.

NDC

National Development Council

190.

NDDB

National Dairy Development Board

191.

NFAI

National Film Archives of India

N for

Agriculture

and

Rural

(Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.83

S. No. Acronym

Enlargement

192.

NHPC

National Hydro-electric Power Corporation

193.

NHRC

National Human Rights Commission

194.

NIESBUD

National Institute of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development

195.

NIFT

National Institute of Fashion Technology

196.

NIIT

National Institute of Information Technology

197.

NIO

National Institute of Oceanography

198.

NISTADS

National Institute of Science, Technology, and Development Studies

199.

NLTA

National Lawn Tennis Association

200.

NMDC

National Mineral Development Corporation

201.

NMEP

National Malaria Eradication Programme

202.

Non seq

Non sequiture (it does not follow)

203.

NREGP

National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme

204.

NSS

National Service Scheme

205.

NTPC

National Thermal Power Corporation

206.

NTS

National Testing Service O

207.

OAPEC

Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries

208.

OGL

Open General Licence

209.

OIDB

Oil India Development Board

210.

OIL

Oil India Limited

211.

OK

Oll korrect (all correct, all right)

212.

O&M

Organization and Methods

213.

ONGC

Oil and Natural Gas Commission

214.

Op cit

Opero citato (in the work cited)

215.

OPEC

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

216.

Oz

Ounce; ounces P

217.

PBX

Private Branch Exchange (telephone)

218.

Perks

Perquisites

219.

PIB

Press Information Bureau

220.

PIN Code

Postal Index Number Code (Contd.)

8.84  Chapter 8

S. No. Acronym

Enlargement

221.

PLO

Palestine Liberation Organization

222.

Pm

Post meridiem (after-noon): post mortem

223.

Pro tem

Pro tempore (for the time being)

224.

Prox

Proximo (in the next month)

225.

PSLV

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

226.

PTBT

Partial Test Ban Treaty

227.

PTI

Press Trust of India

228.

PVC

Param Vir Chakra Q

229.

QED

Quod erat demonstrandum (which was to be proved)

230.

QEF

Quod erat faciendum (which was to be done)

231.

QEL

Quod erat inveniendum (which was to be found)

232.

RADAR

Radio Detecting and Ranging

233.

RAW

Research and Analysis Wing

234.

RCC

Reinforced Cement Concrete

235.

RIMC

Rashtriya Indian Military College

236.

RLEGS

Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Scheme

237.

RNA

Ribonucleic Acid

238.

RPM

Revolutions Per Minute

239.

RSVP

Respondez sil vous plait (reply, if you please)

240.

SAARC

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

241.

SAI

Sports Authority of India

242.

SAIL

Steel Authority of India Limited

243.

SALT

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty

244.

SDO

Sub-Divisional Officer

245.

SDR

Special Drawing Rights

246.

SEBI

Securities & Exchange Board of India

247.

SFI

Students Federation of India

248.

SIDBI

Small Industries Development Bank of India

249.

SLR

Statutory Liquidity Ratio

250.

SLV

Satellite Launch Vehicle

R

S

(Contd.)

Miscellaneous    8.85

S. No. Acronym

Enlargement

251.

SOS

Save Our Souls (Distress signal)

252.

SPCA

Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

253.

SRAM

Short Range Attack Missile

254.

SSC

Service Selection Board

255.

STC

State Trading Corporation

256.

STD

Subscriber Trunk Dialing (telephone)

257.

STEP

Satellite Telecommunication Experiment Project T

258.

TAB

Tetanus anti-bacilli (for inoculation against tetanus)

259.

TB

Tubercle bacillus (Tuberculosis); Torpedo Boat

260.

TELCO

Tata Engineering and Locomotive Company

261.

TELEX

Teleprinter Exchange

262.

TFAI

Trade Fair Authority of India

263.

TISCO

Tata Iron and Steel Company

264.

TNT

Tri nitro toluene (explosive)

265.

TOEFL

Test of English as a Foreign Language

266.

TRYSEM

(National Scheme of) Training for Rural Youth for Self-employment

267.

TTE

Travelling Ticket Examiner

268.

UAE

United Arab Emirates

269.

UFO

Unidentified Flying Object

270.

UHF

Ultra High Frequency

271.

UK

United Kingdom

272.

ULFA

United Liberation Front of Assam

273.

Ult

Ultimo (in last month)

274.

UNAEC

United Nations Atomic Energy Commission

275.

UNCITRAL

United Nations Conference on International Trade Law

276.

UNCLOS

United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea

277.

UNCSTD

United Nations Conference on Science and Technology for Development

278.

UNCTAD

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

279.

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

U

(Contd.)

8.86  Chapter 8

S. No. Acronym

Enlargement

280.

UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

281.

UNHCR

United Nations High Commission for Refugees

282.

UNIC

United Nations Information Centre

283.

UNICEF

United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

284.

UNIDO

United Nations Industrial Development Organization

285.

USAID

United States Agency for International Development

286.

UTI

Unit Trust of India V

287.

VAT

Value Added Tax

288.

VHF

Very High Frequency

289.

VSNL

Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited W

290.

WHO

World Health Organization

291.

WMO

World Meteorological Organization

292.

WPI

Wholesale Price Index

293.

WTO

World Tourism Organization; World Trade Organization

294.

WWF

World Wide Fund for Nature X

295.

X-tian

Christian Y

296.

YMCA

Young Men’s Christian Association

297.

YWCA

Young Women’s Christian Association Z

298.

Z

Third unknown quantity

299.

ZSI

Zoological Survey of India

Capital(s)

Kabul

Tirane

Algiers

Andorra la Vella

Luanda

Saint John’s

Buenos Aires

Yerevan

Canberra

Vienna

Baku

Nassau

Manama

Dhaka

Bridgetown

Minsk

Brussels

Country

Afghanistan

Albania

Algeria

Andorra

Angola

Antigua & Barbuda

Argentina

Armenia

Australia

Austria

Azerbaijan

The Bahamas

Bahrain

Bangladesh

Barbados

Belarus

Belgium

Countries of the World

Euro

Belarusian Ruble

Barbadian Dollar

Taka

Bahraini Dinar

Bahamian Dollar

Manat

Euro

Australian Dollar

Dram

Argentine Peso

East Caribbean Dollar

Kwanza

Euro

Algerian Dinar

Lek

Afghani

Currency

Dutch; French; German

Belarusian; Russian

English

Bangla

Arabic

English

Azerbaijani

German

English

Armenian

Spanish

English

Portuguese

Catalan

Arabic; Tamazight; French

Albanian

Dari Persian; Pashto

Primary Language(s)

.be

.by

.bb

.bd

.bh

.bs

.az

.at

.au

(Contd.)

.am

.ar

.ag

.ao

.ad

.dz

.al

.af

Internet Code

Miscellaneous    8.87

Porto-Novo

Thimphu

La Paz; Sucre

Sarajevo

Gaborone

Brasilia

Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei Dollar

Sofia

Ouagadougou

Bujumbura

Phnom Penh

Yaounde

Ottawa

Praia

Bangui

N’Djamena

Santiago

Benin

Bhutan

Bolivia

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Botswana

Brazil

Brunei

Bulgaria

Burkina Faso

Burundi

Cambodia

Cameroon

Canada

Cape Verde

Central African Republic

Chad

Chile

Chilean Peso

Central African CFA Franc

Central African CFA Franc

Cape Verdean Escudo

Canadian Dollar

Central African CFA Franc

Riel

Burundi Franc

West African CFA Franc

Lev

Real

Pula

Convertible Mark

Boliviano

Ngultrum

West African CFA Franc

Belize Dollar

Belmopan

Belize

Currency

Capital(s)

Country

Spanish

French; Arabic

Sango; French

Portuguese

English; French

French; English

Khmer

Kirundi; French

French

Bulgarian

Malay

Portuguese

English; Tswana

Bosnian; Croatian; Serbian

Spanish; Quechua; Aymara

Dzongkha

French

English

Primary Language(s)

.cl

.td

.cf

.cv

.ca

(Contd.)

.cm

.kh

.bi

.bf

.bg

.bn

.br

.bw

.ba

.bo

.bt

.bj

.bz

Internet Code

8.88  Chapter 8

Capital(s)

Beijing

Bogota

Moron

Kinshasa

Brazzaville

San Jose

Yamoussoukro; Abidjan

Zagreb

Havana

Nicosia

Prague

Copenhagen

Djibouti

Rosesau

Santo Domingo

Country

China

Colombia

Comoros

Democratic Republic of the Congo

Republic of the Congo

Costa Rica

Cote d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast)

Croatia

Cuba

Cyprus

Czech Republic

Denmark

Djibouti

Dominica

Dominican Republic

Dominican Peso

East Caribbean Dollar

Djiboutian Franc

Danish Krone

Czech Koruna

Euro

Cuban Peso

Croatian

West African CFA Franc

Colon

Central African CFA Franc

Congolese Franc

Comorian Franc

Colombian Peso

Chinese Yuan

Currency

Spanish

English; French; Antillean Creole

Arabic; French

Danish

Czech; Slovak

Greek; Turkish

Spanish

Kuna

French

Spanish

French

French

Comorian; Arabic; French

Spanish

Mandarin

Primary Language(s)

.do (Contd.)

.dm

.dj

.dk

.cz

.cy

.cu

.hr

.ci

.cr

.cg

.cd

.km

.co

.cn

Internet Code

Miscellaneous    8.89

Capital(s)

Dili

Quito

Cairo

San Salvador

Malabo

Asmara

Tallinn

Addis Ababa

Suva

Helsinki

Paris

Libreville

Banjul

Tbilisi

Berlin

Accra

Athens

Country

East Timor (Timor-Leste)

Ecuador

Egypt

El Salvador

Equatorial Guinea

Eritrea

Estonia

Ethiopia

Fiji

Finland

France

Gabon

The Gambia

Georgia

Germany

Ghana

Greece

Euro

Ghanaian Cedi

Euro

Lari

Dalasi

Central African CFA Franc

Euro; CFP Franc

Euro

Fijian Dollar

Birr

Estonian Kroon; Euro

Nakfa

Central African CFA Franc

United States Dollar

Egyptian Pound

United States Dollar

United States Dollar

Currency

Greek

English

German

Georgian

English

French

French

Finnish; Swedish

English; Bau Fijian; Hindi

Amharic

Estonian

Arabic; Tigrinya; English

Spanish; French; Portuguese

Spanish

Arabic

Spanish

Tetum; Portuguese; Indonesian

Primary Language(s)

.gr

.gh

.de

.ge

(Contd.)

.gm

.ga

.fr

.fi

.fj

.et

.ee

.er

.gp

.sv

.eg

.ec

.tl

Internet Code

8.90  Chapter 8

Capital(s)

St. George’s

Guatemala City

Conakry

Bissau

Georgetown

Port-au-Prince

Tegucigalpa

Budapest

Reykjavik

New Delhi

Jakarta

Tehran

Baghdad

Dublin

Jerusalem

Rome

Kingston

Tokyo

Country

Grenada

Guatemala

Guinea

Guinea-Bissau

Guyana

Haiti

Honduras

Hungary

Iceland

India

Indonesia

Iran

Iraq

Republic of Ireland

Israel

Italy

Jamaica

Japan

Yen

Jamaican Dollar

Euro

Shekel

Euro

Iraqi Dinar

Rial

Rupiah

Indian Rupee

Icelandic Krona

Forint

Lempira

Gourde

Guyanese Dollar

West African CFA Franc

Guinean Franc

Quetzal

East Caribbean Dollar

Currency

Japanese

English

Italian

Hebrew; Arabic

English; Irish

Arabic; Kurdish

Persian

Indonesian

Hindi; English

Icelandic

Hungarian

Spanish

Haitian Creole; French

English

Portuguese

French

Spanish

English; Patois

Primary Language(s)

.jp

.jm

.it

.il

.ie

.iq

.ir

.id

.in

.is

.hu

.hn

.ht

.gy

(Contd.)

.gw

.gn

.gt

.gd

Internet Code

Miscellaneous    8.91

Capital(s)

Amman

Astana

Nairobi

Tarawa Atoll

Pyongyang

Seoul

Pristina

Kuwait City

Bishkek

Vientiane

Riga

Beirut

Maseru

Monrovia

Tripoli

Vaduz

Vilnius

Country

Jordan

Kazakhstan

Kenya

Kiribati

North Korea

South Korea

Kosovo

Kuwait

Kyrgyzstan

Laos

Latvia

Lebanon

Lesotho

Liberia

Libya

Liechtenstein

Lithuania

Lithuanian Litas

Swiss Franc

Libyan Dinar

Liberian Dollar

Loti

Lebanese Pound

Lats

Kip

Som

Kuwaiti Dollar

Euro

South Korean Won

North Korean Won

Kiribati Dollar

Kenyan Shilling

Tenge

Jordanian Dinar

Currency

Lithuanian

German

Arabic

English

Sesotho; English

Arabic; French

Latvian

Lao (Laotian)

Kyrgyz; Russian

Arabic; English

Albanian; Serbian

Korean

Korean

English; Gilbertese

Swahili; English

Kazakh; Russian

Arabic

Primary Language(s)

.lt

.li

.ly

.lr

.ls

.lb

.lv

.la

.kg

.kw

(Contd.)

Not assigned yet

.kr

.kp

.ki

.ke

.kz

.jo

Internet Code

8.92  Chapter 8

Capital(s)

Luxembourg

Skopje

Antananarivo

Lilongwe

Kuala Lumpur

Male

Bamako

Valletta

Majuro

Nouakchott

Port Louis

Mexico City

Palikir

Chisinau

Monaco

Ulaanbaatar

Podgorica

Country

Luxembourg

Macedonia

Madagascar

Malawi

Malaysia

Maldives

Mali

Malta

Marshall Islands

Mauritania

Mauritius

Mexico

Federal States of Micronesia

Moldova

Monaco

Mongolia

Montenegro

Euro

Togrog

Euro

Moldovan Leu

United States Dollar

Mexican Peso

Mauritian Rupee

Ouguiya

United States Dollar

Euro

West African CFA Franc

Maldivian Rufiyaa

Ringgit

Malawi Kwacha

Malagasy Ariary

Macedonian Denar

Euro

Currency

Montenegrin

Mongolian

French; Italian; English

Moldovan (Romanian)

English

Spanish

English

Arabic

Marshallese; English

Maltese; English

French

Dhivehi

Malay

English

Malagasy; French; English

Macedonian

German; French; Luxembourgish

Primary Language(s)

(Contd.)

.me

.mn

.mc

.md

.fm

.mx

.mu

.mr

.mh

.mt

.ml

.mv

.my

.mw

.mg

.mk

.lu

Internet Code

Miscellaneous    8.93

Capital(s)

Rabat

Maputo

Nypyidaw

Windhoek

Yaren

Kathmandu

Amsterdam; The Hague

Wellington

Managua

Niamey

Abuja

Oslo

Muscat

Islamabad

Melekeok

Panama City

Port Moresby

Country

Morocco

Mozambique

Myanmar (Burma)

Namibia

Nauru

Nepal

Netherlands

New Zealand

Nicaragua

Niger

Nigeria

Norway

Oman

Pakistan

Palau

Panama

Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinean Kina

Balboa

United States Dollar

Pakistani Rupee

Omani Rial

Norwegian Krone

Naira

West African CFA Franc

Cordoba

New Zealand Dollar

Euro

Nepalese Rupee

Australian Dollar

Namibian Dollar

Kyat

Mozambican Metical

Moroccan Dirham

Currency

English; Tok Pisin; Hiri Motu

Spanish

English; Palauan

Urdu; English

Arabic

Norwegian

English

French

Spanish

English

Dutch

Nepali

English; Nauran

English; Afrikaans; German

Burmese

Portuguese

Arabic

Primary Language(s)

.pg

.pa

(Contd.)

.pw

.pk

.om

.no

.ng

.ne

.ni

.nz

.nl

.np

.nr

.na

.mm

.mz

.ma

Internet Code

8.94  Chapter 8

Capital(s)

Asuncion

Lima

Manila

Warsaw

Lisbon

Doha

Bucharest

Moscow

Kigali

Basseterre

Castries

Kingstown East

Apia

San Marino

Sao Tome

Riyadh

Dakar

Country

Paraguay

Peru

Phillipines

Poland

Portugal

Qatar

Romania

Russia

Rwanda

Saint Kitts and Nevis

Saint Lucia

Saint Vincent and The Grenadines

Samoa

San Marino

Sao Tome and Principe

Saudi Arabia

Senegal

West African CFA Franc

Saudi Riyal

Dobra

Euro

Tala

Caribbean Dollar

East Caribbean Dollar

East Caribbean Dollar

Rwandan Franc

Ruble

Romanian Rupee

Qatari Riyal

Euro

Zloty

Phillipine Peso

Nuevo Sol

Guarani

Currency

French

Arabic

Portuguese

Italian

Samoan; English

English

English; French

English

Kinyarwanda; French; English

Russian

Romanian

Arabic

Portuguese

Polish

Filipino; English

Spanish

Spanish; Guarani

Primary Language(s)

.sn

.sa

.st

(Contd.)

.sm

.ws

.vc

.lc

.kn

.rw

.ru

.ro

.qa

.pt

.pl

.ph

.pe

.py

Internet Code

Miscellaneous    8.95

Capital(s)

Belgrade

Victoria

Freetown

Singapore

Bratislava

Ljubljana

Honiara

Mogadishu

Pretoria; Cape Town; Bloemfontein

Madrid

Colombo

Khartoum

Paramaribo

Mbabane

Stockholm

Berne

Country

Serbia

Seychelles

Sierra Leone

Singapore

Slovakia

Slovenia

Solomon Islands

Somalia

South Africa

Spain

Sri Lanka

Sudan

Suriname

Swaziland

Sweden

Switzerland

Swiss Franc

Swedish Krona

Lilangeni

Surinamese Dollar

Sudanese Pound

Sri Lankan Rupee

Euro

Rand

Somali Shilling

Solomon Islands Dollar

Euro

Euro

Singapore Dollar

Leone

Seychellois Rupee

Serbian Dinar

Currency

German; French; Italian

Swedish

English; SiSwati

Dutch

Arabic; English

Sinhala; Tamil

Spanish

Zulu; Xhosa; Afrikaans

Somali; Arabic

Solomons Pijin

Slovene

Slovak

English; Malay; Mandarin Chinese

Krio; English

Seychellois Creole; French; English

Serbian

Primary Language(s)

.ch

.se

.sz

.sr

.sd

.lk

.es

.za

.so

.sb

.si

.sk

.sg

.sl

.sc

.rs

(Contd.)

Internet Code

8.96  Chapter 8

Capital(s)

Damascus

Taipei

Dushanbe

Dar es Salaam; Dodoma

Bangkok

Lome

Nuku’alofa

Port-of-Spain

Tunis

Ankara

Ashgabat

Vaiaku

Kampala

Kiev

Abu Dhabi

London

Washington D.C.

Country

Syria

Taiwan

Tajikistan

Tanzania

Thailand

Togo

Tonga

Trinidad and Tobago

Tunisia

Turkey

Turkmenistan

Tuvalu

Uganda

Ukraine

United Arab Emirates

United Kingdom

United States of America

United States Dollar

Pound Sterling

Dirham

Hryvnia

Ugandan Shilling

Tuvaluan Dollar

Turkmen New Manat

Turkish Lira

Tunisian Dinar

Trinidad and Tobago Dollar

Pa’anga

West African CFA Franc

Thai Baht

Tanzanian Schilling

Somoni

New Taiwan Dollar

Syrian Pound

Currency

English; Spanish

English

Arabic

Ukranian; Russian

Swahili; English

Tuvaluan; English

Turkmen; Russian

Turkish

Tunisian; French

English

Tongan; English

French

Thai

Swahili

Tajik; Russian

Mandarin

Arabic

Primary Language(s)

.us

.uk

.ua

.ug

.tv

.tm

.tr

.tn

.tt

.to

.tg

.th

.tz

.tj

.tw

.sy

(Contd.)

Internet Code

Miscellaneous    8.97

Capital(s)

Montevideo

Tashkent

Port-Vila

Vatican City

Caracas

Hanoi

Sanaa

Lusaka

Harare

Country

Uruguay

Uzbekistan

Vanuatu

Vatican City

Venezuela

Vietnam

Yemen

Zambia

Zimbabwe

United States Dollar

Zambian Kwacha

Yemeni Rial

Dong

Bolivar Fuerte

Euro

Vanuatu Vatu

Uzbekistan Som

Uruguayan Peso

Currency

English

English

Arabic

Vietnamese

Spanish

Latin; Italian

Bislama; English; French

Uzbek; Russian

Spanish

Primary Language(s)

.zw

.zm

.ye

.vn

.ve

.va

.vu

.uz

.uy

Internet Code

8.98  Chapter 8

Thomas Cup (Men) & Uber Cup (Women), All England Championships, Sudirman Cup, World Championships, European Championships, BWF World Junior Championships

Test Cricket: The Ashes (Eng– Aus), Border–Gavaskar Trophy (Aus–Ind), Frank Worrell Trophy (WI–Aus), Warne–Muralidharan Trophy (Aus–SL)

Badminton

Cricket

One Day Internationals (ODIs): Cricket World Cup, DLF Cup, ICC Champions Trophy, VB Series, Asia Cup, Chappell–Hadlee Trophy, U-19 World Cup

Trophies/Tournament

Sport Alley, Back alley, Back court, Balk, Baseline, Carry, Centre or Base position, Centre line, Clear, Court, Drive, Drop, Fault, Flick, Forecourt, Half-court shot, Kill, Match, Racquet, Rally, Service, Short service line, Shuttlecock, Smash, Wood shot

Terms

(Contd.)

Arm ball, Asking rate, Ball, Ball Brabourne Stadium (Mumbai), tampering, Bat-Pad, Batter, Beamer, Bend your back, Belter, Blob, Bodyline, Chepauk Ground (Chennai), Bosie, Bouncer, Boundary, Box, Eden Gardens (Kolkata), Bump ball, Bunsen, Bye, Carry your Feroz Shah Kotla (New Delhi), bat, Chest-on, Chinaman, Chucker, Green Park (Kanpur), Closing the face, Cow corner, Cross bat, Dead ball, Dibbly-dobbly bowlers, The WACA (Perth, Australia), Dolly, Doosra, Duck, Duckworth–Lewis, The Wanderers (Johannesburg, South Africa), Economy rate, Flipper, Full toss, Good length, Googly, Half Volley, Handled the Leeds (London), ball, Hawk Eye, Hoick, Jaffa, King pair, Lord’s (London), Leg bye, Leg cutter, Length, Lollypop, Eden Park (Auckland),

–

Associated Places

General Information about Important Sports

Sports & Games

Miscellaneous    8.99

Golf

Sport

Augusta National GC, US Open Championship, Buick Open, US Open.

Championship, (GOLF) Masters Tournament

Championships-Accenture Match Play Championship, World Golf Championships-CA

British Open (The Championship), Ryder Cup, Walker Cup, Mercedes-Benz Championship, The Honda Classic, World Golf

India: Ranji Trophy, Irani Trophy, NKP Salve Challenger Trophy, Deodhar Trophy, Rohinton Baria Trophy, Sheeshmahal Trophy, Duleep Trophy, Vijay Hazare Trophy, Vijay Merchant Trophy

Nehru Stadium (Chennai),

Twenty-20: Pepsi IPL, Champions Twenty20 League, ICC World Twenty20, ICC World Cricket League, KFC T20 Big Bash league

Sanday Lodge (Scotland), Jade Dragon Snow Mountain Golf Club (China), Legend (South Africa), RTJ at Ross Bridge (USA)

University Grounds (Lucknow), Kennington Oval (London)

Old Trafford (England),

Melbourne (Australia),

Nehru Stadium (New Delhi),

Associated Places

Trophies/Tournament

(Contd.)

Albatross, Approach shot, Apron, Back nine, Backspin, Backswing, Birdie, Bogey, Bunker, Caddie, Carry, Chip Club, Course, Double bogey, Drive, Eagle, Fairway, Fore, Green or putting green, Hole, Hole in one, Ostrich, Par, PGA, Pro, Pull, Putt, Putter, Scratch golfer, Slice, Stroke, Vardon grip, Wedge, Whiff, Wood’

Maiden, Manhattan, Mankad, Nelson, Nervous nineties, Nick, Nightwatchman, No ball, Obstruction, Off cutter, Outside edge, Pinch hitters, Plumb, Power play, Pull, Reverse sweep, Reverse swing, Roll, Run Chase, Shoulder arms, Sledging, Slogger, Stonewall, Swing, Tail ender, Tonk, Wagon-wheel, Wrist spin, Yips, Yorker, Zooter

Terms

8.100  Chapter 8

Football

International: World Cup, Champions Cup, Azlan Shah Cup, Asia Cup, Intercontinental Cup, Rene Frank Trophy

Hockey

Domestic: European leagues— Serie A (Italy), La Liga (Spain), Premier League (England),

International: FIFA World Cup, FIFA Women’s World Cup, European Nations Cup, UEFA Champions League, UEFA Cup, Copa America, African Cup of Nations, Asian Cup, Nehru Cup International Football tournament, Merdeka Cup, ASEAN Cup

Domestic: Lady Rattan Tata Cup (National Women’s), Beighton Cup, Premier Hockey League (PHL), Dhyan Chand Trophy, Agha Khan Cup, Rangaswami Cup (National Men’s), Indira Gandhi Gold Cup, Nehru Trophy, Scindia Gold Cup

Trophies/Tournament

Sport

Salt Lake Stadium (Kolkata), Bulkit Jalil National Stadium (Kuala Lampur), Camp Nou (Barcelona), Old Trafford (England), Wembley Stadium (England), Estadio Santiago Bernabeu (Madrid), Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (New Delhi & Chennai)

Dhyan Chand Stadium (Lucknow), Nehru Stadium (Delhi), National Stadium (Delhi), Aishbagh Stadium (Bhopal), Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium (Hyderabad), Shivaji Stadium (New Delhi)

Associated Places

(Contd.)

Astroturf, Backfield, Beat, Bird cage, Block, Bomb, Bootleg, Buttonhook, Carry, Cheat sheet, Clipping, Controlling the Clock, Cornerback, Curl, Deadball, Defense, Dineback, Double coverage, Drop kick, End line, False start, Field goal, Free kick, Fullback, Fumble, Game ball, Goal line, Goalpost, Halfback, Head coach, Hot dog, Hurryup offense, I-formation, Interception, Kick, Kickoff, Lineman, Loose ball,

Backline, Block tackle, Carry, Corner, Dangerous play, Dee (shooting circle), Drag, Drive, Dribble, Flick, Foul, Green card, Hit in, Off-side, Open side tackle, Penalty corner, Penalty stroke, Push back, Reverse flick, Reverse side tackle, Scoop, Through pass, Yellow card

Terms

Miscellaneous  8.101

Tennis

Sport

India: Sunfeast Open, Bengaluru Open, Chennai Open, Royal Indian Open

International: Davis Cup, Federation Cup, Hopman Cup, Wimbledon, Australian Open, French Open, US Open, Tennis Masters Cup

India: I-League, Sikkim Gold Cup, Durand Cup (Third oldest football tournament in the world), Santosh Trophy, Nehru Cup, Subroto Cup, Rovers Cup, Bordoloi Trophy, Nizam Gold Cup, Dr B.C. Roy Trophy

Bundesliga (Germany), Ligue 1 (France)

Trophies/Tournament

Arthur Ashe Stadium (US), Flinder’s Park (US), The All-England Club Courts (England), Rod Laver Arena (Australia).

Associated Places

(Contd.)

Ace, Advantage, Approach shot, ATP, Backhand, Backspin, Baseline, Big serve, Break, Break back, Break point, Bye, Call, Chip, Court, Cross-over, Cyclops, Deep, Deuce, Double Fault, Doubles, Double-handed backhand, Down the line, Drop shot, Fault, First service, Foot fault, Forced error, Forehand, Golden slam, Half volley, Hawk-Eye, Let (let service), Line judge, Love, Love game, Lucky loser, Match point, Mixed doubles, Net, Out, Overhead, Overrule, Rally, Reflex

Man-to-man coverage, Midfield, Mousetrap, Neutral zone, Nickel back, Odds, Offense, Off-season, Offside, Overtime, Pass, Penalty, Playoffs, Punter, Pylon, Quarterback, Quick kick, Receiver, Return, Roll out, Run back, Sack, Shotgun, Spike, Stunt, Super bowl, T-formation, Umpire, Wide out, Wing back

Terms

8.102  Chapter 8

Sport

Trophies/Tournament

Associated Places Volley, Round of 16, Round Robin, Second service, Seed, Service game, Serve and Volley, Set point, Singles, Smash, Straight sets, Tandem, Tennis Elbow, Tiebreak, Top spin, Tramlines, Unforced error, Unseeded player, Wild card

Terms

Miscellaneous  8.103

8.104

Chapter 8

MAJoR MulTI-SPoRT EvEnTS In THE woRlD olympic Games History ❖❖ Ancient Olympic Games were held in Olympia, Greece around the 4th and 8th centuries. ❖❖ The most widely accepted date of the inception of Olympics is 776 BC. ❖❖ The Games were a part of religious proceedings of the Greeks. ❖❖ After the succession of Roman King Theodosis, the games lost their lustre and were subsequently banned.

Summer Olympic Games ❖❖ The term Olympic Games is derived from the word Jeux olympiques. ❖❖ Modern Olympic Games were started in Athens in 1896 after the formation of the International Olympic Committee in 1894. Baron Pierre de Coubertin was its founder, who is also known to be the Father of Modern Olympics. ❖❖ 1900 Paris Olympics was the first time that women participated in different disciplines. ❖❖ In 1921, Pierre de Coubertin borrowed a Latin phrase for the Olympic motto: Citius, Altius, Fortius (Swifter, Higher, Stronger) and used it for the first time in the 1924 Paris Olympics. ❖❖ James B. Connolly (United States), winner of hop, step, and jump (the first final event of 1896 Olympics), was the first Olympic champion of the modern Olympic games. ❖❖ The first woman to win an Do You Know? Olympic event was Charlotte The game of Cricket was played in Cooper (England) for tennis the 1900 Paris Olympics. The only (singles) in 1900. match in the tournament was played ❖❖ Pentathlete Hans-Grunner between Great Britain and France, Liljenwall of Sweden was the which the former won. At that time, first athlete to be disqualified neither of the teams realized that for drug use. they had played in Olympic Games, ❖❖ First Olympic mascot with a as the match was advertised as a name was Waldi, the dachshund part of a world fair. It was only in (1972 Munich Olympics) 1912 that the match was recognized ❖❖ Because of World War I and as a part of the Olympics contest. World War II, there were no The sport has not been included in Olympic Games in 1916, 1940, Olympics since 1900. and 1944.

Miscellaneous  8.105

India in Olympics Discipline

Year Performance

Athletics

1960 Milkha Singh—Fourth in 400 m Finals Zora Singh—Eighth in 50 km Walk 1964 Gurbachan Singh Randhawa—Fifth in 100 m Hurdles (Final) 1976 Sriram Singh—Seventh in 800 m Final Shivnath Singh—Eleventh in the Marathon 1980 Sriram Singh—Semi-finalist in 800 m 1984 P.T. Usha—Fourth in 400 m Hurdles

Boxing

2008 Vijender Kumar won the Bronze Medal in Men’s 75 kg Middleweight 2012 M.C. Mary Kom won the Bronze Medal in Women’s Flyweight

Badminton

2012 Saina Nehwal won the Bronze Medal in Women’s Singles 2016 P.V. Sindhu won the Silver Medal in Women’s Singles

Football (Soccer) 1956 Semi-Finals

Hockey

1928 1932 1936 1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1980

Won Gold Medal Won Gold Medal Won Gold Medal Won Gold Medal Won Gold Medal Won Gold Medal Won Silver Medal Won Gold Medal Won Bronze Medal Won Bronze Medal Won Gold Medal

Shooting

2004 Rajya Vardhan Singh Rathore won the Silver Medal in Double Trap 2008 Abhinav Bindra won the Gold Medal in Men’s 10 m Air Rifle 2012 Vijay Kumar won the Silver Medal in Men’s 25 m Rapid Fire Pistol (Contd.)

8.106  Chapter 8

Discipline

Year Performance 2012 Gagan Narang won the Bronze medal in Men’s 10 m Air Rifle

Tennis

1996 Leander Paes won the Bronze Medal in Men’s Singles event

Weightlifting

2000 Karnam Malleshwari won the Bronze Medal in Women’s 69 kg category 1952 Khashaba Dadasaheb Jadhav won the Bronze Medal in Men’s 52–57 kg Freestyle 2008 Sushil Kumar won the Bronze Medal in Men’s 66 kg Freestyle

Wrestling

2012 Sushil Kumar won the Silver Medal in Men’s 66 kg Freestyle 2012 Yogeshwar Dutt won the Bronze Medal in Men’s 60 kg Freestyle 2016 Sakshi Malik won the Bronze medal in Women’s 58 kg Freestyle

Winter Olympics ❖❖ First Winter Olympics were held in 1924 at Chamonix, France. ❖❖ Winter Olympics initially used to be held in the same year as the Summer Olympics, but this practice was discontinued after Albertville Games, France 1992. Thereafter, the Games are held after a gap of 2 years from Summer Olympics and 4 years from the previous Winter Olympics. ❖❖ Norway has won the most medals in the Winter Olympic games. ❖❖ Cross-country skier Bjorn Erlend Daehlie of Norway is the Winter Olympian with most number of medals (8 Gold medals and 4 Silver medals). ❖❖ American athlete Eddie Eagan is the only person in Olympic history to win Gold at both Summer and Winter Olympic Games. ❖❖ India competed for the first time in Winter Olympics in 1964. Till date, India has never won a medal in Winter Olympic Games.

The Asian Games ❖❖ Second largest multi-sport event after the Olympics. ❖❖ Held once in every 4 years and also referred to as ‘The Asiad’. Regulated by the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA), under the supervision of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).

Miscellaneous  8.107

❖❖ The first Asiad was held in New Delhi and is said to have been conceptualized by the then Indian Prime Minister Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru. ❖❖ Motto of the games ‘Ever Onward’ was given by Pt. Nehru. ❖❖ Japan (first 8 Asiads) and China (next 8 Asiads) have topped the medals tally in the 16 Asian Games held so far. ❖❖ The 17th Asian Games were conducted in Incheon, South Korea in 2014. ❖❖ Cricket was included for the first time in the Games’ history as a sport in the 2010 Asian Games.

India in Asian Games ❖❖ India has hosted the Asian Games on two occasions, in 1951 (inaugural) and 1982. ❖❖ India’s best performance was recorded in the first (15 Gold medals) and 16th (14 Gold medals) edition of the Games. ❖❖ India has always been ranked in the top 10 nations in the medals table, except in the 1990 Asian Games, when it finished 11th.

Commonwealth Games ❖❖ A sporting event in which all the Commonwealth countries (countries previously under British Rule) participate. ❖❖ First held in 1930 at Hamilton, Canada, and since then, held every 4 years. ❖❖ Before 1974, the games were called British Empire Games, but the name was changed to Commonwealth Games in the same year. ❖❖ Third largest sporting event in world after Olympics and Asian Games. ❖❖ David Dixon Award is given to the ‘Best Athlete’ of the Games. ❖❖ 2014 Commonwealth Games were held in Glasgow, Scotland.

India in Commonwealth Games ❖❖ New Delhi, India hosted the games for the first time in 2010. ❖❖ India has competed in 14 out of 18 Commonwealth Games till date. ❖❖ Samresh Jung was awarded the ‘David Dixon Award’ in the Melbourne Commonwealth Games, 2006. ❖❖ India’s best performance was recorded in the 18th edition of the Games (hosted by India in 2010) with 38 Gold medals, 27 Silver medals, and 36 Bronze medals. India finished second overall. ❖❖ India is 5th in the all time medals tally of the Commonwealth Games.

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Chapter 8

PRoMInEnT SPoRTS Cricket ❖❖ Cricket as a game originated in England around the 17th century and later became a national sport in England in the 18th century. ❖❖ Hambledon Club [later Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC)] was the first institution formed for the governing laws of cricket. MCC still remains the framer and copyright holder of this laws of cricket, though this position has largely been taken over by the International Cricket Council (ICC) now. ❖❖ In 1844, the first international match was played between United States of America and Canada. ❖❖ The first One Day International (ODI) was played in the year 1971 between Australia and England. ❖❖ The first Cricket World Cup was played in 1975 and was won by the West Indies. ❖❖ The first recorded match of women’s cricket is dated 26 July 1745. Do You Know? Back in 1882, when England lost a test match to Australia, a mock obituary (see image) appeared in The Sporting Times, under the pseudonym ‘Bloobs’. Notice the last sentence. Ivo Bligh, the then captain of the England team, promised that he would regain the ashes. In the next tour, after England won two out of three Test matches, he was presented with an urn containing the ashes of a cricket bail. The urn is now kept in the Lord’s Cricket Ground Museum. This story dictates how ‘Ashes’ came into being.

Miscellaneous  8.109

India in Cricket ❖❖ Cricket is the most popular sport in India. The Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) was established in 1928 and is the governing body of Indian Cricket. ❖❖ India played its first ever Test match on 25 June 1932 at Lord’s against England and became the sixth team to play Test cricket. ❖❖ India’s first Test victory came against England at Madras in 1952, and first series win against Pakistan in the same year. ❖❖ First permanent stadium in India—Brabourne Stadium, Mumbai ❖❖ India has won the coveted ICC World Cup two times. First, in 1983, under the captainship of Kapil Dev and then in 2011, under the captainship of M.S. Dhoni. Besides, India has also won the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, 2013 ICC Champions Trophy, and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka.

Hockey ❖❖ Origin of the sport dates back to the 13th century and various adaptations had been devised since then, such as ice hockey and field hockey. ❖❖ The governing body of Field Hockey is the International Hockey Federation (FIH) founded in 1924, and its first President was Paul Leautey from France. Its headquarters are at Lausanne, Switzerland. ❖❖ Field Hockey is a part of the Olympics since 1908. ❖❖ The Hockey World Cup started in 1971 and is played once in 4 years. Pakistan has been the most successful team so far with 4 title wins.

India in Hockey ❖❖ There has been no other team in the world that dominated the world of Hockey for more time than India. India won the men’s Gold medal in seven out of eight Olympics from 1928 to 1964. India won its last Field Hockey Gold medal in the 1980 Moscow Olympics. ❖❖ India won the Hockey World Cup at Kuala Lumpur in 1975, beating Pakistan in the finals. ❖❖ India is a two times Asia Cup winner, compared to Pakistan’s 7. ❖❖ India also won the 1982 New Delhi Asiad women’s cup. ❖❖ Sansarpur, Punjab, a tiny village on the outskirts of Jalandhar, is regarded as the ‘Mecca of Indian Hockey’ as it has produced the maximum number of Olympians from India.

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Tennis ❖❖ Earlier known as ‘Jeu de Paume’ or ‘Real Tennis’. ❖❖ The modern game originated in Birmingham, England around the 19th century. ❖❖ King Louis X of France is said to be the first player of this sport. ❖❖ International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF) was founded in 1913. It was later renamed as International Tennis Federation (ITF) ❖❖ Tennis was withdrawn from the Olympics from 1924, but was later reinstated in 1984 as an under-21 sport. ❖❖ The Davis Cup competition began in 1900.

List of Tennis Grand Slams Name

Place

Year Started Surface

Wimbledon The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, Wimbledon, London (UK)

1877

Grass/ Outdoor

US Open

USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center, New York (USA)

1881

Deco Turf

French Open

Stade Roland Garros, Paris (France)

1891

Clay

Australian Open

Melbourne Park, Melbourne (Australia)

1905

Plexicushion

India in Tennis ❖❖ The All India Tennis Association (AITA) was formed in 1920. Current President – Anil Khanna. ❖❖ India has been the most successful team in Asia in the Davis Cup, winning the runner up trophies. ❖❖ In 1997, India won their first Grand Slam title at the French Open, in the Mixed Doubles category (Mahesh Bhupati and Rika Hiraki). ❖❖ Leander Paes is the first Indian and the first and the only tennis player to compete in 6 Olympic Games. He also won a Bronze medal in the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, thus becoming the first Indian to win an individual medal since K.D. Jadhav won a Bronze medal at the 1952 Helsinki Olympics.

Miscellaneous 8.111

Football ❖❖ FIFA World Cup was founded in 1930, when it was created by a Frenchman by the name Jules Rimet. The cup he got designed depicted Nike of Samothrace (Winged Victory). The cup was later renamed the Jules Rimet Cup in 1950, after its founder. ❖❖ The Cup in its present form was created in 1970, known as FIFA World Cup Trophy. The design of the trophy made by Silvio Gazzaniga was chosen from among 53 presented models. ❖❖ Brazil has won the FIFA World Cup the maximum number of times (5), and is the only team to have played in all the tournaments. ❖❖ The FIFA World Cup is also the world’s most widely viewed sporting event. ❖❖ 2014 World Cup–Brazil. 2018 World Cup–Russia. 2022 World Cup– Qatar.

India in Football ❖❖ Governing body is the All India Football Federation (AIFF), which was formed in 1937 and joined FIFA in 1948. ❖❖ To professionalize domestic football, India’s top domestic league, I-League, was formed in 2007. ❖❖ The 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup took place in India. ❖❖ Indian footballer Sailen Manna is the only Asian footballer ever to be named among the 10 best Captains in the world by the English FA in 1953.

Do You Know? India has qualified once for the FIFA World Cup Finals! India qualified by default for the FIFA World Cup in 1950, as all their scheduled opponents withdrew from the tournament. However, (and quite astonishingly!) the AIFF decided against sending the team for the World Cup! Insistence of the Indian team on playing barefoot, and the FIFA deciding against allowing the same, was cited as one of the reasons.

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lIST oF PRoMInEnT SPoRTInG PERSonAlITIES 1. Pele (Football) ●❖ Real name—Edson Arantes do Nascimento. ●❖ Arguably the greatest footballer of the century, Pele scored 1,281 goals in 1,363 games. ●❖ Winner of three World Cups with Brazil. 2. Jesse Owens (Athletics) ●❖

●❖

An ethnic African athlete, he won four Gold medals at the 1936 Berlin Olympics, and broke Hitler’s pride, as Hitler had by then promoted the concepts of ‘Aryan racial superiority’, and had depicted ethnic Africans as inferior. The Jesse Owens award, which is USA Track and Field’s highest accolade for the year’s best track and field athlete, is named after him.

3. Sir Donald Bradman (Cricket) ●❖ ●❖

●❖

Often referred to as ‘The Don’. His career Test batting average of 99.94 is statistically considered to be the greatest achievement by any sportsperson in any major sport. Bodyline, a controversial set of tactics, was specifically devised by the English team to curb his scoring.

Do You Know? Hugh Buggy, a correspondent with the newspaper Melbourne Age, is said to have invented the term ‘Bodyline’ on the first day of the first Test between England and Australia in the 1932 series, also now known as the ‘Bodyline Series’.

4. Usain Bolt (Athletics) ●❖ ●❖ ●❖

Jamaican athlete and the fastest man on earth. Bolt holds the world record of 100 m (9.58 seconds) and 200 m (19.19 seconds) races. IAAF World Athlete of the Year 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, and 2013.

5. Muhammad Ali (Boxing) ●❖ ●❖

Considered among the greatest heavyweights in the history of boxing. He was also crowned ‘Sportsman of the Century’ by Sports Illustrated and ‘Sports Personality of the Century’ by the BBC.

6. Sachin Tendulkar (Cricket) ●❖ ●❖

Nicknamed ‘God of Cricket’, ‘Little Master’, and ‘Master Blaster’. He holds dozens of national and international records and is arguably the greatest batsman of the modern generation.

Miscellaneous  8.113 ●●

Youngest recipient of the Bharat Ratna and the first ever sportsperson to receive this award. Also a member of the Rajya Sabha.

7. Roger Federer (Tennis) ●● ●●

Swiss professional tennis player. Federer is one of the seven men to capture the career Grand Slam (winning all 4 Grand Slam titles). With over 20 Grand Slam titles (as of April, 2018), he is often regarded as the greatest tennis player of all time.

8. Eddy Merckx (Cycling) ●● ●●

Former Belgium professional road and track bicycle racer. Velo, a French magazine described him as ‘the most accomplished rider that cycling has ever known’.

9. Michael Jordon (Basketball) ●● ●●

Nicknamed ‘Air Jordon’ and ‘His Airness’. Jordon holds the world record for ‘highest career scoring average’ (30.1 points per game).

10. Michael Phelps (Swimming) ●● ●●

The most decorated Olympian of all time, with a total of 22 medals (with 18 Gold medals, a record in itself). Phelps won 8 Gold medals at the 2008 Beijing Games, thus taking over the record for the most first place finishes at any single Olympic Games.

11. Lionel Messi (Football) ●●

●● ●●

Youngest Argentine footballer to play in the FIFA World Cup. Also, the youngest player to score 200 La Liga (one of the most popular professional sports leagues in the world) goals. First football player in history to win 4 FIFA/Ballons d’Or awards. Also holds the Guinness World Record title for most goals in a year (91 goals).

12. Diego Maradona (Football) ●● ●●

●●

Former Argentine football player, manager, and coach. Joint FIFA Player of the 20th Century with Pele. His second goal in the quarterfinals of the 1986 FIFA World Cup was voted as ‘The Goal of the Century’ by FIFA.com voters in 2002. His first goal in the same match was through an unpenalized handball known as the ‘Hand of God’. Only player to win the Golden Ball at both the FIFA U-20 World Cup (1979) and FIFA World Cup (1986).

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13. Michael Schumacher (Car racing) ●● ●●

Retired German racing driver. According to the official Formula One website, he is ‘statistically the greatest driver the sport has ever seen’. Some of his Formula One records—Maximum Championship titles (7), Championship won with most races left (6), Maximum race wins (91), Maximum wins in a season (13), Maximum wins with one team (72, Ferrari).

14. Lance Armstrong (Cycling) ●● ●●

●●

Former professional road racing cyclist and the founder of Livestrong Foundation which provides support for cancer patients. Had earlier won 7 consecutive Tour de France titles between 1999 and 2005. However, he was later disqualified from those races and stripped of his titles for doping offences. Authored the books ‘It’s Not About the Bike: My Journey Back to Life’ and ‘Every Second Counts’.

15. Oscar Pistorius (Athletics) ●● ●●

●●

South African sprint runner. Also the first amputee to win an ablebodied world track medal. First double leg amputee to participate in the Olympics, when he entered the men’s 400 meters and 4 × 400 meters relay races at the 2012 London Olympics. Was charged with the murder of his girlfriend Reeva Steenkamp, in February 2013.

16. Kapil Dev (Cricket) ●● ●● ●●

Captained the Indian cricket team which won the 1983 World Cup. Named by Wisden as the Indian Cricketer of the Century in the year 2002. Nicknamed ‘The Haryana Hurricane’, he is the only player in the history of cricket to have taken more than 400 wickets and scored more than 5,000 runs in Tests.

17. Cristiano Ronaldo (Football) ●● ●● ●●

Portuguese footballer, who is also the captain of the Portugal football team. Currently, the highest paid footballer in the world. Won Ballon d’Or in 2008 and FIFA Ballon d’Or in 2013, thus becoming the first ever Portuguese to win this award twice. (Note: ‘Ballon d’Or’ was merged with ‘FIFA World Player of the Year’ award in 2010 to make FIFA Ballon d’Or)

Miscellaneous  8.115

18. Babe Ruth (Baseball) ●● ●● ●●

Former American professional baseball player. Nicknamed ‘the Bambino’ and ‘the Sultan of Swat’. One of first 5 players to be elected into the ‘National Baseball Hall of Fame’ The ‘Babe Ruth award’ is an award given to the Major League Baseball (MLB) player with the best performance in the World Series.

19. Billie Jean King (Tennis) ●● ●● ●●

Former World No. 1 professional tennis player. One of the TIME Persons of the Year in 1975 and the joint winner of Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year award in 1972. An advocate for sexual equality, she also won the Battle of the Sexes tennis match against Bobby Riggs in 1973.

20. Bjorn Borg (Tennis) ●● ●●

●●

Former Swedish tennis player. His world records: Won 41% of Grand Slam singles tournaments he entered and 89.81% of Grand Slam single matches he played. Winning rate across all surfaces of 82.72% and in Wimbledon of 92.73%. First player to earn more than one million dollars in prize money in a single season, in 1979.

21. Mike Tyson (Boxing) ●● ●●

●●

Former American professional boxer. Nicknamed ‘Kid Dynamite’, ‘Iron Mike’ and ‘The Baddest Man on the Planet’. First heavyweight boxer to simultaneously hold the World Boxing Association (WBA), World Boxing Council (WBC) and International Boxing Federation (IBF) titles. Ranked No. 1 in ESPN.com’s list of ‘The Hardest Hitters in Heavyweight History’ and has been inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame and World Boxing Hall of Fame.

22. Viswanathan Anand (Chess) ●●

●● ●●

Indian chess player. India’s first grandmaster (1988). Also the first recipient of the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award (India’s highest sporting honour) in 1991–92. Also the winner of Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri. Held FIDE World Chess Championship Title from 2000 to 2002 and later from 2007 to 2013. One of 6 players in history to break the 2,800 mark on the FIDE rating list.

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23. Tiger Woods (Golf) ●● ●● ●●

American professional golfer. Has been at the top of ‘Forbes’ list of world’s highest paid athletes’ for many years. Has been World No. 1 for most consecutive weeks and for the greatest total number of weeks than any other golfer. Awarded PGA Player of the Year for a record 11 times.

24. Tony McCoy (Horse racing) ●● ●● ●●

Irish horse racing jockey based in England. Named BBC Sports Personality of the Year 2010, thus becoming the first jockey to win this award. RTE Sportsperson of the Year 2013. Holds 3 Guinness World Records: Maximum jump wins (289), maximum Champion Jump Jockey titles (18), and most Career Jump Winners (4022).

25. Carl Lewis (Atheletics) ●● ●●

Former American track and field athlete. Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Only man to defend an Olympic long jump title successfully. Voted ‘Sportsman of the Century’ by International Olympic Committee (IOC) and ‘Olympian of the Century’ by sports magazine Sports Illustrated.

Credits Figure No.

Page No. Credit Line

Figure 1.1

1.4

Arvind Singh Negi/Red Reef Design Studio. Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Figure 3.1

3.4

Lev Savitskiy. Shutterstock

Figure 3.2

3.5

Vectomart. Shutterstock

Figure 3.6

3.22

Arvind Singh Negi/Red Reef Design Studio. Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Figure 3.7

3.26

Arvind Singh Negi/Red Reef Design Studio. Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Figure 3.9

3.66

Arvind Singh Negi/Red Reef Design Studio. Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Figure 6.6

6.14

Amit John. Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Figure 6.8

6.35

Alila Medical Media. Shutterstock

Figure (Left)

6.92

blueringmedia. 123rf.com

Figure (Right)

6.92

blueringmedia. 123rf.com

Figure (Left)

6.96

Alila Medical Media. Shutterstock

Figure (Right)

6.96

snapgalleria. Shutterstock

Figure 6.13

6.115

Mohd Suhail. Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Figure 6.14

6.116

sciencepics. Shutterstock

Figure 6.15

6.132

ducu59us. Shutterstock

Figure 6.16

6.135

stockshoppe. Shutterstock

Figure 6.17

6.143

Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 6.18 (a)

6.146

snapgalleria. Shutterstock

Figure 6.18 (b)

6.146

Alexander_P. Shutterstock

Figure 6.19

6.148

BlueRingMedia. Shutterstock

Figure (ISRO)

7.1

Department of Space, Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Govt. of India

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