Gist Of Science & Technology: Yuvraj Ias

YUVRAJ IAS GIST OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY A Quick Way To Cover And Revise The Syllabus

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Copyright © 2019 Yuvraj IAS All Rights Reserved. This Book Or Any Portion Thereof May Not Be Reproduced Or Used In Any Manner Whatsoever Without The Express Written Permission Of The Publisher Except For The Use Of Brief Quotations In A Book Review. Published By: Global Pro Publications Chandigarh, Punjab, India Email: [email protected] Sold By: Global Pro Sellers Chandigarh, Punjab www.yuvrajias.com

Contents Human Organ Systems .................................................................................................................................. 4 The Digestive System ...................................................................................................................................... 4 Respiratory System ......................................................................................................................................... 5 Circulatory System .......................................................................................................................................... 5 Nervous System ............................................................................................................................................. 6 Muscular System ............................................................................................................................................ 7 Skeletal System And Its Functions, Joints ....................................................................................................... 7 Human Organ Systems And Nutrition ................................................................................................................ 8 Reproductive System ...................................................................................................................................... 9 Food And Nutrition ....................................................................................................................................... 10 Biotechnology ............................................................................................................................................ 13 Transgenic And Cisgenic Organisms ......................................................................................................... 13 Tools To Achieve Biotechnology ................................................................................................................ 13 Types Of Biotechnology ............................................................................................................................. 13 Cyber Warfare............................................................................................................................................ 16 Stuxnet Virus.............................................................................................................................................. 16 Flame Virus ................................................................................................................................................ 16 Red October Victims .................................................................................................................................. 16 Nanotechnology ......................................................................................................................................... 17 Potential Hazards Due To Nanotechnology ................................................................................................ 18 Nanopollution ............................................................................................................................................. 18 Nanotechnology In India ............................................................................................................................ 18 Optics......................................................................................................................................................... 19 Reflection ................................................................................................................................................... 19 Laws Of Reflection ..................................................................................................................................... 19 Types Of Mirrors ........................................................................................................................................ 19 Applications:............................................................................................................................................... 19 Applications ............................................................................................................................................ 19 Refraction ............................................................................................................................................... 19 Laws Of Refraction..................................................................................................................................... 19 Satellite Systems ....................................................................................................................................... 21 Challenges In Building A Cryogenic Engine ............................................................................................... 22 What Do You Mean By Specific Impulse? .................................................................................................. 22 Future Launches ........................................................................................................................................ 22 Modulation ................................................................................................................................................. 23 Need For Modulation.................................................................................................................................. 23 Types Of Modulation .................................................................................................................................. 23 Electromagnetic Spectrum ......................................................................................................................... 23

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Em Spectrum ............................................................................................................................................. 23 Types Of Em Spectrum .............................................................................................................................. 24 Different Generations In Wireless Telephony ............................................................................................. 25 Difference Between 3g And 4g ................................................................................................................... 25 Salient Features Of National Telecom Policy -1994 ................................................................................... 25 Salient Features Of New Telecom Policy -1999 ......................................................................................... 25 Addendum To Ntp 1999 ............................................................................................................................. 26 Universal Service Obligation Fund ............................................................................................................. 26 Artificial Intelligence (Ai) ............................................................................................................................. 27 What Is Artificial Intelligence (Ai)? .......................................................................................................... 27 Is It Possible For A Computer To Become Completely Artificially Intelligent? ......................................... 27 What Is The Philosophy And Ethics Of Artificial Intelligence? ................................................................. 28 Three Main Philosophical Questions Related To Artificial Intelligence .................................................... 28 Examples Of Artificially Intelligent Technologies ..................................................................................... 28 What Are The Downsides And Risks Of Artificial Intelligence (Ai)? ......................................................... 30 Possible Areas For Ai Applications In Indian Conditions ......................................................................... 31 Which Is The Nodal Organization Of The Government For The Research Work On Artificial Intelligence (Ai)?........................................................................................................................................................ 32 What Are The Challenges India’s Artificial Intelligence Development Is Facing? .................................... 32 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 32 Malware Types: Virus, Worm, Trojan, Ransomware Etc ............................................................................ 32 What Is A Malware? ............................................................................................................................... 33 Evolution Of Malware ............................................................................................................................. 33 What Is The Purpose Of Creating A Malware? ....................................................................................... 33 List Of Common Malware Types: ............................................................................................................ 34 How Does A Malware Spread? ............................................................................................................... 35 Recent Case Of Malware Attack: Wannacry ........................................................................................... 36 What Is Wannacry? ................................................................................................................................ 36 What Is The Origin Of Wannacry Attack? ............................................................................................... 37 What Does It Do The Computer? ............................................................................................................ 37 How Does It Spread? ............................................................................................................................. 37 How To Remain Protected From Ransomware? ..................................................................................... 37 Some Initiatives By Government Of India: .............................................................................................. 38 India’s Nuclear Weapon Programme .......................................................................................................... 39 India’s No-First-Use Policy And Doctrine Of Credible Minimum Deterrence (Cmd) ............................. 39 Main Nuclear Authorities In India......................................................................................................... 39 Nuclear Command Authority (Nca)...................................................................................................... 40 How Does Nuclear Deterrence Work In India? .................................................................................... 40 Nuclear Triad ...................................................................................................................................... 41 India’s Ballistic Missile Defence System ..................................................................................................... 41

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What Are Ballistic Missiles? .................................................................................................................... 41 What Are The Advantages Of Ballistic Missile? ...................................................................................... 41 What’s Ballistic Missile Defence (Bmd) System? .................................................................................... 42 India’s Ballistic Missile Defence System ................................................................................................. 42 Two- Tiers Of India’s Bmd ...................................................................................................................... 42 Prithvi Air Defence (Pad) ..................................................................................................................... 43 Advanced Air Defence (Aad) ............................................................................................................... 43 Internet Of Things ...................................................................................................................................... 45 What Is The “Internet Of Things (Iot)”? ................................................................................................... 45 Internet Of Things – Example ................................................................................................................. 45 Who Coined The Term The Internet Of Things? ..................................................................................... 46 Which Devices Can Be Part Of Iot? ........................................................................................................ 46 Why Would We Want An Internet Of Things? ......................................................................................... 47 Iot – Opportunities And Benefits ............................................................................................................. 47 Iot – Threats And Challenges ................................................................................................................. 47 Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 48 The Four Fundamental Forces Of Nature................................................................................................... 48 The Four Fundamental Forces And Their Strengths ............................................................................... 48 Gravitational Force ................................................................................................................................. 49 Weak Nuclear Force ............................................................................................................................... 49 Electromagnetic Force ............................................................................................................................ 49 Strong Nuclear Force ............................................................................................................................. 49 Electroweak Theory And Grand Unification Theories (Gut) ..................................................................... 50 Science, Technology And Innovation Policy (Sti) 2013............................................................................... 51 The Key Features Of The Sti Policy 2013 ............................................................................................... 51 Aspirations Of The Policy ....................................................................................................................... 52 Mechanisms ........................................................................................................................................ 52 Policy Implementation ......................................................................................................................... 53 Backdrop............................................................................................................................................. 53

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HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM ➢The integumentary system is the organ system that protects the body from damage, comprising the skin and its appendages (including hair, scales, feathers, and nails). ➢Functions: Serve to waterproof, cushion, and protect the deeper tissues; Excrete wastes, and regulate temperature; is the attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure, and temperature; Vitamin D synthesis. ➢The human skin is composed of a minimum of 3 major layers of tissue: ➢Epidermis: Thin, tough, outer layer made up of epithelial cells & it does not contain blood vessels. ➢Stratum corneum is the outermost portion of the epidermis, prevents most bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances from entering the body ➢Melanocytes produce the pigment melanin, function is to filter out ultraviolet radiation from sunlight ➢Langerhans cells are part of the skin's immune system which helps detect foreign substances and defend the body against infection. ➢Dermis: Thick layer of fibrous and elastic that gives the skin its flexibility and strength. Contains nerve endings, sweat glands and oil (sebaceous) glands, hair follicles, and blood vessels ➢Sweat glands produce sweat in response to heat and stress. ➢The sebaceous glands secrete sebum into hair follicles. Sebum is oil that keeps the skin moist and soft and acts as a barrier against foreign substances. ➢The blood vessels of the dermis provide nutrients to the skin and help regulate body temperature. ➢Hypodermis: Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. ➢Fat Layer helps insulate the body from heat and cold, provides protective padding, and serves as an energy storage area. ➢Botox treatment: It targets Epidermis layer of skin. Botox is a toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. ➢Small, diluted amounts can be directly injected into specific muscles causing controlled weakening of the muscles. Botox blocks signals from the nerves to the muscles. The injected muscles can no longer contract, which causes the wrinkles to relax and soften.

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ➢Steps in Digestion: Ingestion, Digestion (Mechanical and Chemical), Absorption, Elimination. ➢Parts of Digestive system: The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal (Salivary glands, Pharynx, Esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine ending in the rectum and anus) and accessory digestive organs (liver, gallbladder, and pancreas). ➢Food moves from one organ to the next through muscle action called peristalsis ➢The Salivary glands in the mouth produces Saliva which contains an enzyme amylase that digest the starch from food into smaller molecules ➢The Stomach has three mechanical tasks. To store the swallowed food, to mix up the food, liquid, and digestive juice produced by the stomach and to empty its contents slowly into the small intestine. ➢The liver is the largest gland of the body. It secretes bile which helps the body absorb fat ➢The pancreas produces enzymes that help digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. It also makes a substance that neutralizes stomach acid. ➢Small intestine has 3 divisions such as duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The inner wall of the small intestine is covered with millions of microscopic, finger-like projections called villi. The villi are the vehicles through which nutrients can be absorbed into the body. ➢The large intestine secretes no enzyme and plays only a minor role in the absorption of nutrients. The three divisions of large intestine are Caecum, Colon and Rectum. The rectum is where feces are

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stored until they leave the digestive system through the anus as a bowel movement. ➢Disorders and Diseases of Digestive System: Gastrointestinal infections can be caused by viruses, by bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, or E. coli, Hepatitis, a condition with many different causes, is when the liver becomes inflamed and may lose its ability to function.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ➢The Respiratory system is the anatomical system of an organism used for respiration. ➢Parts of the Upper Respiratory Tract: Mouth, nose & nasal cavity: The nostrils (also called nares) act as the air intake; called cilia protect the nasal passageways and other parts of the respiratory tract. ➢Pharynx: Pharynx is part of the digestive system as well as the respiratory system because it carries both food and air. Larynx: This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is generated. It also helps protect the trachea by producing a strong cough reflex if any solid objects pass the epiglottis ➢Trachea (Wind Pipe): It carries air from the throat into the lungs. The inner membrane of the trachea is covered with cilia ➢Bronchi: The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi, one entering the left and one entering the right lung. ➢Bronchioles: Tertiary bronchi continue to divide and become bronchioles, very narrow tubes, less than 1 millimeter in diameter. ➢Alveoli: Individual hollow cavities contained within alveolar sacs. Alveoli have very thin walls which permit the exchange of gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide. Thorax or the chest cavity is the airtight box that houses the bronchial tree, lungs, heart, and other structures.

➢Diaphragm: located below the lungs. It is a large, dome-shaped muscle that contracts rhythmically and continually, and most of the time, involuntarily. The tidal volume is the volume of air that is inhaled or exhaled in a single such breath. ➢Breathing is a constant process where you breathe in and out constantly throughout the day. Respiration is a process where the body breaks down the oxygen, so that the cells in the body can use it. ➢The process of Respiration: In a process called diffusion, oxygen moves from the alveoli to the blood through the capillaries (tiny blood vessels) lining the alveolar walls. Blood contains Hemoglobin – a specialized protein that binds to oxygen in the lungs so that the oxygen can be transported to the rest of the body. ➢Carbon dioxide, which is produced during the process of diffusion, moves out of these cells into the capillaries, where most of it is dissolved in the plasma of the blood. ➢Asthma: Asthma is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes airways to contract, tighten and narrow. Often triggered by irritants in the air such as cigarette smoke, asthma flares. ➢Smoking has two fold effects on respiration; it may irritate the cells lining the respiratory tract. Long term effects include diseases like emphysema [over inflation of air sacs/alveoli] or fibrosis [excess of fibrous connective tissue] of which the earlier is much common.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ➢The circulatory system is responsible for the transport of water and dissolved materials throughout the body, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste. ➢The structure of Circulatory System, The heart has four chambers: Right Atrium, Left Atrium, Right Ventricle, and Left Ventricle. ➢The bottom part of the heart is divided into two chambers called the right and left ventricles, which pump blood out of the heart. ➢The upper part of the heart is made up of the other two chambers of the heart, the right and left atria. ➢Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They are the thickest blood vessels, with muscular walls that contract to keep the blood moving away from the heart and through the body

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➢Two coronary arteries provide oxygen and nourishment to the muscles of the heart. ➢Veins carry blood back to the heart; waste products such as carbon dioxide are also removed by the capillaries. ➢The working of Circulatory system: One complete heartbeat makes up a cardiac cycle, which consists of two phases: In the first phase, the ventricles contract sending blood into the pulmonary and systemic circulation then the ventricles relax and fill with blood from the atria, which makes up the second phase of the cardiac cycle. ➢The normal heart beat is 70-72 per minute in males and 78-82 per minute in females. The heartbeat of a child is more than that of an adult. I.e. 140/min. ➢The sinoatrial or SA node, a small area of tissue in the wall of the right atrium, sends out an electrical signal to start the contracting of the heart muscle. ➢These electrical impulses cause the atria to contract first, and then travel down to the atrioventricular or AV node. In the systemic circulation, blood travels out of the left ventricle, to the aorta, to every organ and tissue in the body, and then back to the right atrium. ➢In the pulmonary circulation, blood low in oxygen but high in carbon dioxide is pumped out the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery, which branches off in two directions. ➢Coronary Circulation: The coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle. ➢Blood: The blood transports life-supporting food and oxygen to every cell of the body and removes their waste products ➢Blood has two main constituents. The cells, or corpuscles, comprise about 45 percent, and the liquid portion, or plasma, in which the cells are suspended, comprises 55 percent ➢The blood cells comprise three main types: Red blood cells, or Erythrocytes, White blood cells, or leukocytes, Platelets, or thrombocytes ➢Diseases of the Blood, Anemia: Anemia is a deficiency of hemoglobin in the blood. It can be caused by blood loss, abnormal destruction of the red cells, and inadequate red cell formation by the bone marrow. ➢Leukemia: A great increase in abnormal leukocytes may occur for unknown reasons, resulting in the diseases known as the leukemia’s ➢Heart Diseases: Atherosclerosis is a disorder of large and medium-sized arteries, such as the large coronary arteries that supply the heart muscle with oxygen. The disorder is characterized by a buildup of fatty deposits, called plaques, on the inner walls of arteries. ➢Vein Diseases: The most important peripheral vascular disease of the veins is thrombophlebitis or phlebitis. This disorder involves the formation of a blood clot (or clots) in large veins, usually in the leg or pelvis. ➢Hypertension: High blood pressure is often secondary to hardening of the arteries. As the arteries lose their elasticity, the heart has to beat harder to force the blood through. The result is high blood pressure.

NERVOUS SYSTEM ➢The nervous system is a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions and transmit signals between different parts of its body. ➢The central nervous system of vertebrates contains the brain, spinal cord, and retina. ➢The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory neurons, clusters of neurons called ganglia, and nerves connecting them to each other and to the central nervous system. ➢Neuron: The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system. ➢All neurons have three parts: Dendrites receive information from another cell and transmit the message to the cell body. The axon conducts messages away from the cell body ➢Three types of neurons occur: Sensory neurons carry messages from sensory receptors to the central nervous system. Motor neurons transmit messages from the central nervous system to the muscles (or to glands). Inter neurons are found only in the central nervous system where they connect neuron to neuron. Schwann cells serve as supportive, nutritive, and service facilities for neurons ➢Node of Ranvier: serves as points along the neuron for generating a signal. ➢The junction between a nerve cell and another cell is called a synapse.

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➢Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse ➢Brain: The Forebrain: The forebrain is the largest and most complex part of the brain. It consists of the cerebrum. The cerebrum contains the information that essentially makes us who we are: our intelligence, memory, speech, ability to feel etc. ➢The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cortex in the inner part of the forebrain sits the thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland. ➢The thalamus carries messages from the sensory organs like the eyes, ears, nose, and fingers to the cortex. The hypothalamus controls the pulse, thirst, appetite, sleep patterns, and other processes in our bodies that happen automatically. ➢The Midbrain: The midbrain, located underneath the middle of the forebrain, acts as a master coordinator for all the messages going in and out of the brain to the spinal cord ➢The Hindbrain: The hindbrain sits underneath the back end of the cerebrum, and it consists of the cerebellum, Pons, and medulla. ➢The brainstem takes in, sends out, and coordinates all of the brain's messages. It also controls many of the body's automatic functions, like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing, digestion, and blinking. ➢The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for sudden stress. ➢The parasympathetic nervous system helps the digestive tract move along so our bodies can efficiently take in nutrients from the food we eat. ➢disease and Huntington's disease, are due to imbalances of neurotransmitters Parkinson's is due to a dopamine deficiency ➢Alzheimer's disease is associated with protein plaques in the brain ➢Problems of Nervous System, Brain tumors: Benign tumors usually grow in one place and may be curable through surgery. ➢A malignant tumor is cancerous and more likely to grow rapidly and spread. ➢Meningitis and encephalitis: These are infections of the brain and spinal cord that are usually caused by bacteria or viruses. Meningitis is an inflammation of the coverings of the brain and spinal cord, and encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain tissue.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM ➢Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified: (i) Skeletal (ii) Visceral (iii) Cardiac ➢Muscle is a specialized tissue of mesodermal origin. About 40-50 per cent of the body weight of a human adult is contributed by muscles. ➢Each myofibril has alternate dark and light bands on it. A detailed study of the myofibril has established that the striated appearance is due to the distribution pattern of two important proteins – Actin and Myosin. ➢Utilizing the energy from ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head now binds to the exposed active sites on actin to form a cross bridge. ➢The myosin, releasing the ADP and Pi goes back to its relaxed state. A new ATP binds and the crossbridge is broken. The ATP is again hydrolyzed by the myosin head and the cycle of cross bridge formation and breakage is repeated causing further sliding.

Disorders of muscular system: Myasthenia gravis: • Auto immune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction leading to fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscle.

SKELETAL SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTIONS, JOINTS ➢Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages. This system has a significant role in movement shown by the body. Bone and cartilage are specialized connective tissues.

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Axial Skeleton: ➢Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones distributed along the main axis of the body. The skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs constitute axial skeleton. Skull: The skull is composed of two sets of bones – cranial and facial, that totals to 22 bones. Cranial bones are 8 in number. Vertebral Column: Our vertebral column is formed by 26 serially arranged units called vertebrae and is dorsally placed. It extends from the base of the skull and constitutes the main framework of the trunk. Rib Cage: There are 12 pairs of ribs. Each rib is a thin flat bone connected dorsally to the vertebral column and ventrally to the sternum. It has two articulation surfaces on its dorsal end and is hence called bicephalic. Appendicular Skeleton: The bones of the limbs along with their girdles constitute the appendicular skeleton. Each limb is made of 30 bones. The bones of the hand (fore limb) are humerus, radius and ulna, carpals (wrist bones – 8 in number), metacarpals (palm bones – 5 in number) and phalanges (digits – 14 in number). Joints: Joints are essential for all types of movements involving the bony parts of the body. Locomotory movements are no exception to this. Joints are points of contact between bones, or between bones and cartilages. Fibrous Joints: Fibrous joints do not allow any movement. This type of joint is shown by the flat skull bones which fuse end-to-end with the help of dense fibrous connective tissues in the form of sutures, to form the cranium. Synovial Joints: Synovial joints are characterized by the presence of a fluid filled synovial cavity between the articulating surfaces of the two bones. Such an arrangement allows considerable movement. Cartilaginous Joints: In cartilaginous joints, the bones involved are joined together with the help of cartilages. Arthritis: Inflammation of joints. Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder characterized by decreased bone mass and increased chances of fractures. Decreased levels of estrogen is a common cause. Gout: Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.

HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND NUTRITION ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ▪ Glands & Hormones: Our body produces its own chemicals and uses them to control certain functions, and the main system that coordinates these chemicals is called the endocrine system ▪ A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives off, chemicals. A gland selects and removes materials from the blood, processes them, and secretes the finished chemical product for use somewhere in the body ▪ Exocrine glands, such as the sweat and salivary glands, release secretions in the skin or inside of the mouth. Endocrine glands, on the other hand, release more than 20 major hormones directly into the bloodstream where they can be transported to cells in other parts of the body ▪ 2 Important Endocrine diseases Diabetes: Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases in which a person has high blood sugar, either because the body does not produce enough insulin, or because cells do

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not respond to the insulin that is produced. ▪ Type 1 diabetes: results from the body's failure to produce insulin, and requires the person to inject insulin ▪ Type 2 diabetes: results from insulin resistance, a condition in which cells fail to use insulin properly, sometimes combined with an absolute insulin deficiency ▪ Growth Disorders: If the body produces too much growth hormone (GH), gigantism or acromegaly (gigantism in adults) can occur; too little growth hormone results a condition called growth hormone deficiency, ▪ Osteoporosis: is a condition in which bones become fragile and more likely to break. ▪ Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): PCOS is a condition associated with symptoms of infrequent or irregular menstruation ▪ Thyroid Disorders: Thyroid hormones, hormones produced by the thyroid gland, influence nearly all of the body's symptoms. Thyroid problems include hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone), hypothyroidism ▪ Cushing's syndrome: Cortisol is a hormone that helps the body perform a number of important functions including converting fat into energy, maintaining immune system function, and responding to stress ▪ Addison's disease: Addison's disease occurs when the adrenal glands, which are located at the top of each kidney, produce an insufficient amount of steroid hormones despite the presence of an adequate amount of ACTH, the hormone that triggers the adrenal glands to release steroids.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ▪ Animals’ reproductive systems can be divided into the internal reproductive organs and the external genitalia ▪ Gametes are reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new cell called a zygote. When the haploid male and female gametes unite in a process called fertilization, they form what is called a zygote ▪ In the male, testes produce sperm, and in the female, ovaries make eggs ▪ Hermaphroditism is when one organism has both sexes. Earthworms and garden snails always have both male and female organs ▪ Parthenogenesis is the ability of an unfertilized egg to develop and hatch. ▪ There are two major mechanisms of fertilization. In external fertilization, used by many aquatic invertebrates, eggs and sperm are simultaneously shed into the water, and the sperm swim through the water to fertilize the egg. ▪ In internal fertilization, the eggs are fertilized within the reproductive tract of the female, and then are covered with eggshells and/or remain within the body of the female during their development. ▪ Oviparous organisms: like chickens and turtles, lay eggs that continue to develop after being laid, and hatch later. ▪ Viviparous organisms like humans and kangaroos, are live-bearing. The developing young spend proportionately more time within the female’s reproductive tract, ▪ Ovoviviparous organisms like guppies, garter snakes, and Madagascar hissing roaches, have eggs (with shells) that hatch as they are laid, making it look like live birth. ▪ Male Reproductive System: Sperm are produced in the testes located in the scrotum. From there, sperm are transferred to the epididymis, coiled tubules also found within the scrotum that store sperm and are the site of their final maturation ▪ The ends of the vasa deferentia, behind and slightly under the bladder, are called the ejaculatory ducts. The seminal vesicles are also located behind the bladder. ▪ Their secretions are about 60% of the total volume of the semen and contain mucus, amino acids, fructose as the main energy source for the sperm, and prostaglandins to stimulate female uterine contractions to move the semen up into the uterus ▪ The prostate is the largest of the accessory glands and puts its secretions directly into the urethra secretions are alkaline to buffer any residual urine, which tends to be acidic, and the acidity of the woman’s vagina. ▪ The bulbourethral glands or Cowper’s glands: this fluid may serve as a lubricant for inserting the

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penis into the vagina, ▪ Female Reproductive System: Eggs are produced in the ovaries. Within the ovary, a follicle consists of one precursor egg cell surrounded by special cells to nourish and protect it. Due to the stimulation of follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH) one egg per cycle matures and is released from its ovary. ▪ Ovulation is the release of a mature egg due to the stimulation of Luteinizing Hormone (LH), which then stimulates the remaining follicle cells to turn into a corpus luteum which then secretes progesterone to prepare the uterus for possible implantation ▪ Each egg is released into the abdominal cavity near the opening of one of the oviducts or Fallopian tubes. ▪ The vagina is a relatively-thin-walled chamber. It serves as a repository for sperm (it is where the penis is inserted), and also serves as the birth canal ▪ The cervix secretes mucus, the consistency of which varies with the stages in her menstrual cycle ▪ Cervical cancer: It is one of the most common cancers in women is caused due to Human Pappiloma Virus (HPV). Pap smear test is a common and quick method to check cervical cancer. ▪ Problems with Reproduction System: Testicular cancer: It occurs when cells in the testicle divide abnormally and form a tumor. ▪ Inguinal hernia: When a portion of the intestines pushes through an abnormal opening or weakening of the abdominal wall and into the groin or scrotum, it is known as an inguinal hernia. ▪ Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum. Antibiotics, usually penicillin, are used to treat Syphilis.

FOOD AND NUTRITION ▪ Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are the organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which constitute sugars (Starch, cellulose, glucose etc). ▪ Simple Carbohydrates are made up of a single basic sugar & provide the sweet taste in our food ▪ Complex carbohydrates are a combination of different types of sugars. Based on the number of sugars they are classified as disaccharide, Oligosaccharides, Polysaccharides ▪ Proteins: Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds ▪ Protein is found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body. Hormones and enzymes are also formed from amino acids ▪ Protein deficiency causes Kwashiorkor – a severe under-nourishment condition. ▪ Fats: Fat molecules are a rich source of energy for the body. Proteins and carbohydrates contain 4 kCal per gram as opposed to fats which contain 9 kcal per gram. ▪ Saturated fats: Solid at room temperature. Saturated fats directly raise total and LDL (bad) cholesterol levels hence are advised to avoid ▪ Unsaturated fat: Liquid at room temperature. They are 2 types. Monounsaturated fats which are found in olives, olive oil, nuts, peanut oil, canola oil and avocados. ▪ Trans Fats or Hydrogenated Fats: actually unsaturated fats, but they can raise total and LDL (bad) cholesterol levels while also lowering HDL (good) cholesterol levels ▪ Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is one of the five major groups of lipoproteins, which enable transport of cholesterol within the water- based bloodstream. ▪ Vitamins: A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. ▪ The two types of vitamins are: water-soluble vitamins (all the B vitamins and vitamin C) and fatsoluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K). Fatsoluble vitamins are stored in the liver and fatty tissue of the body, whereas water-soluble vitamins are not easily stored and excess amounts are flushed out in the urine. ▪ Essential Minerals: Calcium: Healthy bones and teeth, muscle contraction, assists in blood clotting, oxygen transport, cellular secretion of fluids and enzyme activity. ▪ Copper: Acts as a catalyst to store and release iron to help form hemoglobin. ▪ Iodine: Needed by the thyroid hormone and influences nutrient metabolism, nerve and muscle function, nail, hair, skin and tooth condition, and physical and mental development ▪ Iron: Necessary for red blood cell formation and required for transport of oxygen throughout the

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body ▪ Phosphorous: Works with calcium to develop and maintain strong bones and teeth. ▪ Balanced Diet: Food is anything solid or liquid that has a chemical composition which enables it, when swallowed to do one or more of the following: ▪ Provide the body with the material from which it can produce heat, or any form of energy. ▪ Provide material to allow growth, maintenance, repair or reproduction to proceed. ▪ Supply substances, which normally regulate the production of energy or the process of growth, repair or reproduction. ▪ The body mass index (BMI), or Quetelet index, is a tool that helps one to measure the amount of body fat one has based on height and weight. BMI does not actually measure the percentage of body fat. ▪ Malnutrition: Malnutrition essentially means “bad nourishment”. malnutrition is characterized by inadequate or excess intake of protein, energy, and micronutrients such as vitamins, and the frequent infections and disorders that result Severe forms of malnutrition include marasmus, cretinism and irreversible brain damage due to iodine deficiency; and blindness and increased risk of infection and death from vitamin A deficiency Malnutrition: 20% of world population Asia : Africa: 26% Latin America and Caribbean : 4% 70% ▪ Anaemia occurs primarily due to iron deficiency and is caused by undernutrition and poor dietary intake of iron Weekly Iron and Folic Supplementation Implementation: rural and urban program (WIFS): areas The scheme will cover: 12 crore adolescents (3.2 crore anemic girls, 2 crore anemic boys). Funding: National Rural Health Mission. ▪ The cause Individual nutritional status depends on the interaction between food that is eaten, the overall state of health and the physical environment HUNGAMA (hunger and malnutrition) report: 2011 I. 112 rural districts of India, covering nearly 20% of Indian children. II.Of the 112 districts surveyed, 100 were selected from the bottom of a child development district index developed for UNICEF India in 2009, referred to as the 100 Focus Districts in this report. III. 40%: underweight, 60%: stunted (their height is much lower than the median height-forage of the reference population). IV. The 100 Focus Districts are located across Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. V. Children from Muslim or SC/ST households generally had worse nutrition indicators. VI. The prevalence of underweight in children born with a weight below 2.5 kg is 50 per cent, while that among children born with a weight above 2.5 kg is 34 per cent. ▪ Food Additives: Food additives are non-nutritive substances added deliberately to any food product in small amounts to improve its color, texture, taste, flavor, consistency and shelf life ▪ Bulking agents: Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its nutritional value ▪ Emulsifiers: Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenized milk. ▪ Preservatives: Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms ▪ Benzoates (such as sodium benzoate, benzoic acid): beverages, jams, pickled products, salads, cheeses,

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meats and margarines. ▪ Nitrites (such as sodium nitrite): Packaged meats. They also impart a pink, fresh hue to cured meat ▪ Sulphites (such as sulphur dioxide): dried fruits, wines (particularly red wines) and fruit juices and in many other food products. ▪ Sorbates (such as sodium sorbate, potassium sorbate): breads, cheeses, bakery products etc. ▪ Sweeteners: Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus and tooth decay and diarrhea. ▪ The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006: The Indian Parliament has passed the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 that overrides all other food related laws. It will specifically repeal eight laws: ▪ The Act establishes a new national regulatory body, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, to develop science based standards for food and to regulate and monitor the manufacture, processing, storage, distribution, sale and import of food so as to ensure the availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption ▪ Food Security: The concept of food security is defined as including both physical and economic access to food that meets people's dietary needs as well as their food preferences. PROGRAMME National development council’s National food security mission: 11th plan

OBJECTIVES Rice: 10 m tons Wheat: 8 m tons Pulses: 2 m tons Implemented by department of agriculture and cooperation in 17 states

Food safety and standards act: 2006

I. To develop science based standards for food II.To regulate and monitor the manufacture, processing, storage, distribution, sale and import of food III. To ensure the availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption

▪ Food access: having sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet. ▪ Food use: appropriate use based on knowledge of basic nutrition and care, as well as adequate water and sanitation. ▪ Food security is a complex sustainable development issue, linked to health through malnutrition, but also to sustainable economic development, environment, and trade. ▪ Scope of the Problem: Chronic food deficits affect about 792 million people in the world (FAO 2000), including 20% of the population in developing countries. ▪ More than 70% of children with protein-energy malnutrition live in Asia, 26% live in Africa, and 4% in Latin America and the Caribbean ▪ Interventions: Interventions that contribute to preventing malnutrition include : ▪ Improved water supply, sanitation and hygiene, Health education for a healthy diet. ▪ Improved access, by the poor, to adequate amounts of healthy food, Ensuring that industrial and agricultural development do not result in increased malnutrition ▪ Nutritional Security: WHO considers household food and nutrition security as a basic human right. ▪ Ensuring food and nutrition security is a challenge for India, given its huge population and high levels of poverty and malnutrition. ▪ Economic access to food by about a fourth of the population living below the poverty line is problematic, despite impressive economic growth in the recent years. Occupational lifestyle diseases: Survey by ASSOCHAM (associated chamber of commerce and industry)

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I. 68% of working women afflicted with lifestyle disorders like obesity, depression, chronic backache, diabetes and hypertension. II.10% of adults suffer with hypertension. III. 3/100 suffers with stroke. IV. In corporate employees 36% of sample population suffer with obesity, 21% with depression, 12% with blood pressure and 8% with diabetes

Biotechnology Biotechnology is defined as any technique that uses living organisms or their products to make or modify a product to improve plants and animals or to develop microorganisms for specific uses. Earlier decades, when there was absence of technological superiority, still the desired features and desired characteristics were got with the use of techniques like Selective Breeding. This give rise to different types of BT. Based on how BT is achieved, we have a. Non-gene BT b. Gene BT Selective breeding is an example of Non-gene BT.

Transgenic and Cisgenic Organisms If genetic material is taken from different species, then the resultant product is called Transgenic organisms. On the other hand, if the genetic material is taken from the same species but from a different organism, then the resultant product is a Cisgenic organism.

Tools to achieve Biotechnology 1. Genetic Engineering It is an area of molecular biology that involves manipulating the structure of genetic material known as DNA. 2. Recombinant

DNA

It is a strand of DNA that has been manipulated by scientists. In this the DNA strand is got by recombining fragments of DNA that has been obtained from others.

Types of Biotechnology 1. Green Biotechnology 2. Red Biotechnology 3. White Biotechnology 4. Blue Biotechnology

Green Biotechnology

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It is the field of where Biotech principles are used in agricultural purposes.

BT Cotton Gene CRY1ac has been taken from soil bacterium Bacillus Thuringiensis, which has been inserted into cotton. This gene has been identified to produce a toxin that is potent to many pests. Once this gene is inserted into cotton plants, then we get a cotton plant that fights pests on its own. This reduces the use of Pesticides. In India, BT Cotton was used on a wide scale from 2002. Over a decade now, the positives and negatives are properly documented.

Negatives • Bollworm pests that the BT toxin is designed to fight, is becoming BT resistant. This is a major issue, since this scenario was not anticipated and there is virtually no solution as of now to this issue. • BT toxin is destroying microflora. • BT plants are not able to produce BT toxin throughout their lifespan.

BT Brinjal Brinjal or Eggplant is a plant species native to India. It was started to be cultivated in India 4000 years ago. In India, it is majorly grown in West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. Any altering of this species at the genetic level might result in losing the native species once and for all. Is organic food coming under threat from GM crops? Recently, there was a curious case in Australia, where GM crop grown in a farm “Contaminated” (Genetic Pollution) its neighbouring farm and this resulted in this farm losing the “Organic Farm” status. This is not the only way GM food is threatening organic food. GM food companies like Monsato, Dupont are aggressively undervaluing their bids in order to sell GM seeds to a vast population, which is seen as a major threat to organic foods.

Genetic Pollution It is a term used by scientists where there is an uncontrolled gene flow into the Native species, which results either in altering the native species at the genetic level or in the worst case that native species is lost forever.

Uses of Green BT 1. Agricultural yield is more in less time. 2. Reducing vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses including drought and excessive salinity. For ex: Cotton had vulnerability with bollworm pests. 3. Reduces fertilizer use.

Concerns about GM Food ➢Going against Nature: GM foods research is considered by many to go against Nature. And the fear of unknown combined has become a major aversive force for people to go for GM Foods. ➢Food Contamination: There is always a fear of native seeds being contaminated by GM seeds and that the threat of losing the native seed species completely, is real. ➢Pesticide resistant crops could be toxic to non-target organisms and also the threat of promotion of development of BT resistant insect populations

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Red Biotechnology It is the field of where Biotech principles are used in medical purposes. Eg: Gene Therapy, DNA Finger printing, Biogenerics

Biogenerics Therapeutic products based on genetically engineered or RDNA technology. For ex: Recombinant Insulin

Gene Therapy It is one of the revolutionary form of treatment of genetic disorder which is caused by some of the key gene becoming defective or misplaced. Therefore, gene therapy aims at either modifying or replacing the defective genes by right sequence of genes.

White Biotechnology It is the field of where Biotech principles are used in industrial purposes. Industrial biotech is also used for the preparation of vitamins, antibiotics and alcohols by the manipulation of microorganism. For ex: Vaccines are nothing but, disease causing organisms in its weak state.

Blue Biotechnology It is the field of where Biotech principles are used in marine or fresh water areas. This field concerns with use of marine or fresh water organisms and their derivatives to increase sea food supply or to harness medicinal products.

Information Technology The use of computers for the processing and distribution of information in digital, audio/video and other forms. Information science is primarily concerned with acquisition, storage, processing and organisation of data.

Basic terms used in IT 1. Network Group of computers interconnected in order to share resources or exchange information. 2. Node Different terminals which are attached to the network can share files and other resources. In a computer network, the node is a computer. 3. Server A system or a program that provides a specific kind of service to client’s software running on other computers. This is a dedicated system which helps clients (other computers). 4. Internet

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It is a network of networks where in a large number of computers are interconnected and this interconnection today exists at a global level. 5. Internet Protocol It is a set of rules to send and receive messages at the internet address level. It is a protocol by which data is sent from one computer to other on the internet. 6. Transmission Control Protocol It is a connection oriented protocol used along with IP to send data in the form of message units after reassembling them into the right order as a complete message at the other end. 7. WWW It is a World-wide system of interconnected computer files linked to one another on the internet. It was developed by Tim Berners Lee (present director of WWW consortium). 8. HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is a set of rules for computers to retrieve textual data from remote server. 9. HTTPS It is a software program designed to scan and analyse the HTML. It is based on secure socket layer (SSL) which is a cryptographic security measure that protects sensitive data on the internet. 10. URL (Uniform Resource Locator) It is a universal naming convention used for locating and accessing resources via the internet. 11. Malware These are malicious software in the form of viruses, worms and Trojanhorse. These softwares have the capability to alter, effect or in extreme cases shutdown the programs that are running on a computer or on a specific network. The reason that they are known as virus is that they spread to computers with which they communicate. 12. Trojan or Trojan horses These are malicious software that comes disguised as a useful application program and when opened the Trojan starts executing and destroys the files on the computer.

Cyber Warfare Cyber espionage has been believed to have started widely from 2007, when a campaign known as ROCRA began.

STUXNET Virus It is believed to have been developed by Israel and US and was aimed at crippling Iran’s infrastructure, especially Iran’s Nuclear Development Infrastructure. The result is that, Iran’s nuclear development program has been delayed by more than 2 years.

Flame Virus It is also known as Flamer or Skywiper. It attacks computers that run windows. It was discovered in 2012, by MAHER centre of Iranian national CERT and Kaspersky lab.

Red October Victims A recent report by Kaspersky lab which initiated a new threat research revealed a large scale cyber espionage network which it called the “Red October” victims. The lab mentions that there were a series of attacks against diplomatic, governmental and scientific research organisations. The report places India on the 5th position on the most affected list. Russia was the most affected by these attacks.

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It is being seen that the Command and Control infrastructure is being used by various hackers all over the world. Command and Control infrastructure is a chain of servers working as proxies and hiding the location of “Mothership” control server. Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS): is a situation where in multiple systems submit as many requests as possible to a single computer or service there by overloading it and preventing it from servicing legitimate requests.

Nanotechnology The term “Nano” comes from Latin word meaning Dwarf. And in scientific community it refers to 1nanometer. 1nm = one millionth of a mm 1nm = one billionth of a mm The term “Nanotechnology” was used for the first time by Richard Feynman in 1959 in his article “There is plenty of room left at the bottom”. The term “Nano science” was first defined by Japan scientist Norio Taniguchi.

Nano Science is a field of science which is concerned with study of atoms, molecules and objects whose size is on Nano meter scale. Note: Materials behave differently at nano meter scale than when compared to when they behave at the normal scale. For ex: Gold at macro scale is chemically inert but at nanoscale, it behaves as a catalyst. The reason for this is the change in the fundamental property of matter due to the increased ratio of surface area to volume which leads to altering the physical, thermal and catalytic properties of matter.

Approaches to Nano Technology • Bottom-up Materials and devices are built from the molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition. Eg: Carbon nanotubes built using Graphene. GRAPHENE: it is a substance composed of pure carbon where the length of carbon bonds is 0.142nm. The atoms in Graphene are arranged in a hexagonal pattern similar to honey comb structure. The term Graphene was coined as a combination of graphite and the suffix “ene” by hans-peter Boehm. Note: The Nobel prize in Physics for 2010 was given to Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov for groundbreaking experiments regarding 2D material Graphene. Graphene conducts electricity faster than silicon. It can also resist temperature Upto 150 degc. Hence it has become favoritly used in IC’s and PC boards.

Fig: Atomic Structure of Graphene • Top-down As the name suggests, nano objects are constructed from larger entities. Ex: Gold at macro scale is chemically inert. But at nano scale it acts as a catalyst.

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Applications of Nanotechnology 1. Nanoparticles These are tiny particles that have special properties that are used in some areas which has very high significance. For eg: Nanoparticles of Titanium dioxide is used in some suntan lotions and cosmetics. These tiny particles are transparent on skin and can absorb and reflect UV rays. 2. Nano medicine It is the field of technology where Nano materials and devices are designed for medical purposes of • Diagnosis • Prevention of disease • Treatment of injury • Drug delivery

Nano Pharmacology It is the science which involves linking up of fabricated nanomaterials to biologically active compounds or molecules to be used as probes and drugs to identify and target abnormal cells.

Nanorobots Medical nanorobots would circulate freely throughout the body when injected into the blood stream. These would carry drugs which will be selectively released on coming in contact with the abnormal cell. 3. Military applications Bio-medical engineers are trying to develop nano-mechanical olfactory sensors (NOSE) to detect characteristic substances. Smart dust may be deployed for stealthy monitoring of a hostile environment.

Potential hazards due to Nanotechnology Critics of Nanotechnology point the potential toxicity to new class of nano substances that might alter balance both ecologically and for a person individually. Scientists term this as Nano Pollution.

NanoPollution It is the generic term given for all waste generated by nanodevices or during the nano- material manufacturing process. Ex: Nanoparticles of Titanium dioxide that is used in sunscreen lotions and cosmetics can get into food chain and cause ageing of colon cells. Cadmium selenide nanoparticles can cause cadmium poisoning.

Nanotechnology in India Department of IT has started the Nanotech development program. A vision group under the leadership of CNR Rao was setup and entrusted with the task of formulating a National Nanotechnology Policy. Government of India also has launched the Nanoscience and Technology initiative. A program that focuses on overall R&D in Nanotech field so that India can be a major Player in nanotech in years to come.

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Optics Optics is the stream that deals with the behaviour and properties of light.

Reflection It is a phenomenon of change in the path of light without any change in medium.

Laws of Reflection 1. The angle the incident ray makes with normal is equal to the angle that the reflected ray makes with normal. 2. Incident ray, reflected ray and normal all lie in the same plane.

Types of mirrors 1. Concave mirror The reflecting surface is towards centre of sphere while outer surface is polished.

Applications: a. These mirrors are used in opthalmoscope, which reflects light from retina of the eye of the patient. b. These are used in search lights c. These are used in mirrors that are used in saloons. 2. Convex mirror The reflecting surface is away from the centre of the sphere.

Applications a. Driver’s mirror uses this type of mirror. But the exact distance of the vehicles are not known. b. Used in safety viewers at dangerous corners.

Refraction It is the phenomenon of bending of light when it moves from one medium to another. There are two scenarios possible here. a. When the light passes from optically rarer medium to optically denser medium, the light bends towards the normal. b. When the light passes from optically denser medium to optically rarer medium, it bends away from the normal.

Laws of Refraction 1. Incident ray, Refracted ray and the normal all are in the same plane. 2. Sin(i)/Sin(r) is constant for 2 given media and this constant is called Refractive Index of second medium w.r.t the first medium. S&T- Optics

Effect of Refraction

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1. Ponds appear shallower 2. Bending of stick in water 3. Apparent shortening of height of person standing in water. 4. Twinkling of stars in sky.

Critical Angle It is the angle of incidence in denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium is 90deg.

Total Internal Reflection This is a special case of refraction, where light from denser medium travelling to rarer medium is incident at an angle greater than critical angle such that the angle of refraction in rarer medium is 90deg.

Conditions for TIR to occur 1. Denser to Rarer medium. 2. Angle of incidence greater than critical angle.

Space Research Space research is scientific studies carried out using scientific equipment in outer space. It includes the use of space technology for a broad spectrum of research disciplines, including Earth science, materials science, biology, medicine, and physics. The term includes scientific payloads everywhere from deep space to low earth orbit. Space science and space exploration involve the study of outer space itself, which is only part of the broader field of space research. Orbits can be classified on •

Altitude

• • • • •

Inclination Based on Altitude Low Earth Orbit (till 2000kms) Medium Earth Orbit (2000-36000kms) Geo-Synchronous Orbit (36000) High Earth Orbit (>36000kms)

Note: All manned missions have taken place in the Low Earth Orbit except the Apollo Program of the NASA. Karman Line: It is an imaginary line that separates Earth’s atmosphere from outer space. This line is at an altitude of 100kms from the Earth’s surface.

Based on Inclination • Inclined orbit • Not Inclined orbit

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• Polar Orbit An orbit, where the satellites either pass close to or pass over the poles. It is at an inclination of 90 ° to the equator. •

Polar SunSynchronous Orbit (SSO)

This orbit is at an inclination of 98 ° to the equator. This orbit is at an altitude of 800kms from Earth’s surface. Remote sensing satellites, Weather satellites, Spy satellites will use this orbit.

Not inclined orbits • Ecliptical Orbit Ecliptic plane is the apparent path of sun on the celestial sphere as viewed from centre of the Earth. • Equatorial Orbit This orbit is parallel to the equator. S&T- Space Technology What do you mean by Synchronous orbits? These are orbits where the satellites have the same orbital period as that of the object being orbited. For example, Geo-synchronous orbits are orbits where the satellites orbital period is the same as the Earth’s Rotational period.

Geostationary •It is in Geosynchronous orbit •Altitude is at 36,000km •It is a circular orbit •It is an Equatorial orbit

SunSynchronous •It is in Sun Synchronous orbit •Altitude is at 800km •It is an Elliptical orbit •It is a polar orbit

Satellite systems The satellite systems can be divided into • Remote Sensing • Communication satellites - Remote sensing satellites are those satellites that are used as weather satellites. These are placed at an altitude of 800km. They measure EM radiation that is reflected, scattered from the Earth’s surface. India’s remote sensing satellites are world’s largest constellation of satellites now consisting of 12 satellites. Applications of Remote Sensing satellites include, In Agriculture, it is used for Crop forecasting, movement of locusts, flood warning. In Resources management, it is used to map forest cover, identify forest fires, mineral mapping, National wastelands maps are prepared using this data. In disaster management, it is used to warn about cyclones, floods and tsunami. In defence, it is used to identify troop movements. - Communication satellites in India are termed INSAT (Indian National Satellites) series of satellites.

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Latest launch of a communication satellite was the GSAT-10. It carried 12 normal C- band transponders, 12 extended C-band transponders and 12 Ku-band transponders. Applications of INSAT Telecommunication, Television and also Metereology applications. Transponders: These are devices that receive signals from the ground station, amplify them and send it back to ground stations. There are three types of transponders - S band (2.5Ghz – 2.7Ghz) - C band (3.9Ghz – 6.24Ghz) S&T- Space Technology - Ku band (11Ghz – 14Ghz) Why equatorial site is preferred for satellite launches? - For a communication satellite, the satellite is required to be placed in Equatorial belt. - At the equator, there is considerably less amount of gravity experienced than at any other places

Challenges in building a Cryogenic engine • Since very low temperatures are involved, the metals at that temperature becomes brittle and new welding techniques and new alloys have to be used. • Liquid Hydrogen and Liquid Oxygen are to be pumped at the right proportion. • Storing Liquid Oxygen and Liquid Hydrogen, is difficult. • The fuels as are factory loaded for PSLV launch can’t be done in the case of GSLV launch and the fuel has to loaded only a couple of hours before the launch.

What do you mean by Specific impulse? It is defined as the amount of thrust provided (1kg) in 1sec. Liquid Propellants has a higher specific impulse than most of the solid propellants.

Future launches SARAL – Satellite for ARgos and ALtikameter This is a cooperative altimetry technology mission of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and CNES (Space Agency of France). The ISRO built satellite with payloads modules (AltiKa altimeter, DORIS, Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA) and ARGOS-3 (Advanced Research and Global Observation Satellite) data collection system provided CNES will be launched by Indian Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle rocket into the Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO). PSLV-CA version will be used for this launch. This satellite was scheduled to be launched in Dec-2012, but now postponed to Feb-2013. There are 5 other satellites that are scheduled to be launched along with SARAL. These include Sapphire and Neossat from Canada Brite and Unibrite from Austria Aausat from Denmark.

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Modulation It is defined as the process by which some characteristic of a signal carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of the modulation (information) signal. For example, if Amplitude of the carrier signal is varied w.r.t to information signal it is termed as Amplitude Modulation. And if Frequency is altered it is known as Frequency Modulation.

Need for Modulation • Practicality of length of antenna. L=λ/4. Since a carrier of high frequency is being used, it eliminates the requirement to have very high antenna. Where λ is the wavelength of the wave used. • Remove interference (noise). The modulation process is carried out by using a very high frequency carrier wave. This ensures the noise is removed to a very large extent. • Transmitting process will become easy, since the information signal is converted to a format that is easy to transmit.

Types of Modulation Modulation

Continuou Pulse Modulation s Modulatio n * Amplitude Modulation (AM) * Frequency Modulation (FM)

* Pulse Amplitude Modulation * Pulse Position Modulation

Electromagnetic Spectrum It is defined as the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. Electro-Magnetic waves are waves in which both electric and magnetic fields vary simultaneously. EM waves usually is used in applications like Spectroscopy. But it also finds application in communication technologies. EM waves are Transverse waves. Waves can be classified as Transverse or Longitudinal waves. Transverse waves are those where in the particles in the medium vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of waves. On the other hand, Longitudinal waves are those where particles in the medium vibrate in the same direction as that of the direction of propagation of waves. EM waves are Non-mechanical waves. Waves which does not require medium for propagation of are known as Non-mechanical waves.

EM Spectrum

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The waves can be arranged in terms of highest frequency or highest wavelength. From highest frequency to lowest frequency, the EM waves are • Gamma rays – also known as Gamma Radiation. It is the EM radiation with the highest frequency. Gamma radiation is ionizing radiation. They are produced by the decay from high energy states of atomic nuclei (gamma decay). Gamma radiation can be produced artificially similar to the process of Xray generation. Gamma rays have frequencies higher than 10 exahertz (>1019). Gamma rays are known to kill cells. They are increasingly used to kill cancerous cells. o Ionizing Radiation: It is radiation composed of particles that individually carry enough energy to liberate an electron from an atom or molecule without raising the bulk material to ionization temperature. • X Rays – X-rays were discovered by William Roentgen. He produced these rays by bombarding electron to an element having high atomic number say Tungsten or Copper. X-rays can carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds. Radiography is the use of X-rays to view a non-uniformly composed material such as the human body. By using the physical properties of the ray an image can be developed which displays areas of different density and composition. • Ultraviolet Rays – It is part of EM spectrum where the wavelength is greater than X-rays. This portion of the spectrum is so named to represent that portion of the spectrum that has frequencies higher than those the Humans identify as the colour violet. The ozone layer in the stratosphere is known to block the UV rays from reaching the earth. There are three types of UV rays o UV A- Recent evidences link this radiation exposure to changes in structure of DNA. This is unaffected by ozone and most of it reaches earth surface. o UV B- Is blocked by ozone. o UV C- Almost all of it is blocked by either ordinary air or ozone. • Visible Light – This is the portion of the EM spectrum that is visible to the human eye. Electro Magnetic radiation in this range of wavelengths is called visible light. The wavelength range is 400nm700nm. Newton divided the spectrum into seven colours VIBGYOR (from highest frequency to lowest frequency). Nobel Physics Prize 2011 was awarded to Saul Perlmutter, Adam Riess and Brian Schmidt. This team had proved that the universe is simply not expanding but expanding at a much faster rate. They had taken the help of the Redshift phenomena to prove this theory. Redshift happens when light seen coming from an object that is moving away proportionally increased in wavelength, or shifted to the red end of the spectrum. • Infrared – This includes most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature. These are known as heat waves. Much of the energy from the sun arrives on Earth in the form of Infrared radiation. Infrared waves help in maintaining earth’s warmth or average temperature through the greenhouse effect. • Microwave Radiation – These are EM waves that are produced by Oscillating circuit or a magnetron. This is used in RADAR applications. • Radiowaves – This is the region having longest wavelength. The frequency extends from 3kHz to 300 GHz. These waves are used in communication.

Types of EM Spectrum • Paid Spectrum – This portion of the EM Spectrum corresponds to spectrum that needs to be purchased or rented/leased. Like the frequency band of 800MHz, 900MHz (used for CDMA and 2G) in India has to be leased. • Unpaid Spectrum – This portion of the EM Spectrum corresponds to spectrum that need not be purchased or rented/leased. This corresponds to frequencies like 2.4GHz in which Wifi works (in India). Other frequency ranges includes 902-928MHz, 1880-1900MHz, 2483- 2500MHz, 51505350MHz and 5725-5775MHz.

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Different generations in wireless telephony • 1G-Refers to the first generation of wireless telephone technology. These are analog telecommunication standards. This differentiates it from 2G which uses digital radio signals. • 2G – This was wireless telephony using digital radio waves. It was this generation that introduced data services starting with SMS text messages. • 2.5G – It is used to describe 2G systems that have implemented the packet switched domain in addition to the circuit switched domain. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is usually termed as 2.5G which usually provides data rates of 114Kbps (max). • 2.75G – With the introduction of EGPRS, the data rates got increased to 384Kbps (max). This technology was also known as EDGE (enhanced data rates for GSM evolution). • 3G – This is a set of standards used for mobile devices and networks that comply with the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 specifications provided by the International Telecommunication Union. To meet the IMT-2000 specifications, a system is required to provide peak data rates of atleast 2Mbps. The access technology used is Wideband CDMA whereas the switching used is either circuit/packet. In India the frequency being used is 2.1GHz. • 4G - This is a set of standards used for mobile devices and networks that comply with the International Mobile Telecommunications-advanced specifications provided by the International Telecommunication Union. To meet the IMT-Advanced specifications, a system is required to provide peak data rates of 100Mbps. Two systems are commercially available that implements 4G. These are the WiMax and the Long Term Evolution (LTE).

Difference between 3G and 4G Frequency Band Data Rates Access Technology Switching

3G 2.1GHz Upto 2Mbps Wideband CDMA Circuit Switching

4G 2.3GHz 20Mbps and more Multicarrier CDMA Packet Switching

Policies in India When India opened its market in 1991, investments started flowing in to various sectors. The Government of India in 1994 released its first policy on National Telecom.

Salient features of National Telecom Policy -1994 • Private sector was identified as one of the actors in this policy. And accordingly, FDI was invited to help private companies. • It was envisaged to make available Phone on demand. • It was envisaged that all the villages will be connected (by landline) by 1997. • In urban areas it was planned for 1 PCO for every 500 persons.

Salient features of New Telecom Policy -1999 • Since, now enough connectivity was reached through NTP 1994, it was again emphasized to provide telephones on demand by 2002. • Rural teledensity was planned to be increased from 0.4% to 4%. Teledensity – it is the number of mobile/landline connections for every 100 individuals living in an area.

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• Provide internet to District HQ by 2000. • Most notably, the revenue generation from Telephony was changed. A new concept of One time Entry fee was charged and a license fee based on Revenue was initiated. • Resources for meeting Universal Service Obligation would be through Universal Access Levy. This was mentioned in the policy itself. Universal Service Obligation - As per the Indian Telegraph Act 1885 (as amended in 2003 and 2006) Universal Service Obligation is defined as access to telegraph service to people in rural and remote areas at affordable and reasonable prices. Apart from the higher capital cost of providing telecom services in rural and remote areas, these areas also generate lower revenue due to lower population density, low income and lack of commercial activity. Thus normal market forces alone would not direct the telecom sector to adequately serve backward and rural areas. Keeping in mind the inadequacy of the market mechanism to serve rural and inaccessible areas on one hand and the importance of providing vital telecom connectivity on the other, most countries of the world have put in place policies to provide Universal Access and Universal Service to ICT.

Addendum to NTP 1999 Government, in the public interest in general and consumer interest in particular and for the proper conduct of telegraphs and telecommunications services, and also based on recommendations of TRAI in this regard has decided there shall also be the following categories of licences for telecommunication services: i. Unified Licence for Telecommunication Services permitting Licensee to provide all telecommunication/ telegraph services covering various geographical areas using any technology; ii. Licence for Unified Access (Basic and Cellular) Services permitting Licensee to provide Basic and /or Cellular Services using any technology in a defined service area.

Universal Service Obligation Fund NTP’99 envisaged that the implementation of USO Obligation for rural/remote areas would be undertaken by all fixed service providers who shall be reimbursed from the USO Fund. Other service providers would also be encouraged to participate in USO provision subject to technical feasibility and would be reimbursed from the funds. The Universal Service Support Policy came into effect from 01.04.2002. The guidelines for universal service support policy were issued by DoT and were placed on the DoT website www.dot.gov.in on 27th March 2002. Subsequently, the Indian Telegraph (Amendment) Act, 2003 giving statutory status to the Universal Service Obligation Fund (USOF) was passed by both Houses of Parliament in December 2003. Hence the USOF received the statutory status in 2003. The Rules for administration of the Fund known as Indian Telegraph (Amendment) Rules, 2004 were notified on 26.03.2004. National Telecom Policy 2012 After the devastating effect brought to Indian Telecom industry in the form of 2G scam and the subsequent quashing of licenses by the SC, the government felt that there has to be an organised effort to close all open ends. Also the number of telephone connections, at the end of February 2012, was 943 million, as compared to 41 million at the end of December 2001. This growth

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has been fuelled by the cellular segment (mobile phones) which alone accounted for 911 million connections at the end of February 2012. The National Telecom Policy 2012 (NTP 2012) is conceived against this backdrop. Salient features of the policy • License Reform – The policy envisages a One Nation / One License across service / service area. As per the addendum to NTP’99 there are two types of licenses 1. Unified Licence for Telecommunication Services 2. Licence for Unified Access (Basic and Cellular) Services NTP ’12 plans to remove this distinction. • NTP ’12 plans to unbundle Spectrum and License. Spectrum license (where the telecom company is expected to bid for the required spectrum). On the other hand, the license for the telecom company regards to the operating license for the company. • Spectrum Liberalisation: it is planned to use any frequency to provide any technology. Currently, 2G works in the 900 and 1800 MHz. Whereas 2.1GHZ is used for 3G. • Broadband on Demand: It is envisaged to achieve BoD by 2015. • Rural Teledensity is planned to be increased to 70% from current 39% by 2017 and increase to 100% by 2020.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)? • • • •

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To make it simple – Artificial Intelligence is intelligence exhibited by machines. It is a branch of computer science which deals with creating computers or machines as intelligent as human beings. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Dartmouth conference, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It is a simulation of human intelligence processes such as learning (the acquisition of information and rules for using the information), reasoning (using the rules to reach approximate or definite conclusions), and selfcorrection by machines, especially computer systems. Nowadays it has become an umbrella term which encompasses everything from robotic process automation to actual robotics. Recently it has become widely popular and gained prominence due to its multifaceted application ranging from healthcare to military devices.

Is it possible for a computer to become completely Artificially Intelligent? •

Work is being done in this arena however except some instances of computers playing games faster than the best human players no success has been achieved.

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For Example: In May 1997, an IBM super-computer called Deep Blue defeated world chess champion Gary Kasparov in a chess match. Another recent example of 2016 is, AlphaGo, a program driven by Google’s DeepMind AI, has won Korean Lee Sedol, one of Go’s most dominant players.

What is the philosophy and ethics of Artificial Intelligence? •

The research and development of AI started with the intention of creating intelligence in machines that we find and regard high in humans. Thus answering the big question which is can machines think and behave like humans do?

Three main philosophical questions related to Artificial Intelligence • •

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Are they dangerous to humanity? How can we ensure that machines behave ethically and that they are used ethically? Is artificial general intelligence probable? Can a machine decipher any problem that a human being can solve using intelligence? Or are there hard boundaries to what a machine can accomplish? Is it possible for machines to have a mind, consciousness, and mental states in exactly the same sense that human beings do? Can a machine be sentient, and thus deserve certain rights? Can a machine intentionally cause harm?

Examples of Artificially Intelligent Technologies •

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Robotic process automation: Automation is the process of making a system or processes function automatically. Robots can be programmed to perform high-volume, repeatable tasks normally performed by humans and further it is different from IT automation because of its agility and adaptability to the changing circumstances. Natural language processing (NLP) is the processing of human language and not computer language by a computer program. For Example, spam detection, which looks at the subject line and the text of an email and decides if it’s junk. Pattern recognition is a branch of machine learning that focuses on identifying patterns in data. Machine vision is the science of making computers visualize by capturing and analyzing visual information using a camera, analog-to-digital conversion, and digital signal processing. It is often compared to human eyesight, but machine vision isn’t bound by biology and can be programmed to see through walls. It is used in a range of applications from signature identification to medical image analysis.

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Machine learning: Field of study that gives computers the ability to learn without being explicitly programmed. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning and can be thought of as the automation of predictive analytics. Robotics is a field of engineering focused on the design and manufacturing of robots. Robots are often used to perform tasks that are difficult for humans to perform or perform consistently.

Applications of Artificial Intelligence (AI)

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Healthcare Sector: Machine learning is being used for faster, cheaper and more accurate diagnosis and thus improving patient outcomes and reducing costs. For Example, IBM Watson and chatbots are some of such tools. Business Sector: To take care of highly repetitive tasks Robotic process automation is applied which perform faster and effortlessly than humans. Further, Machine learning algorithms are being integrated into analytics and CRM platforms to provide better customer service. Chatbots being used into the websites to provide immediate service to customers. Automation of job

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positions has also become a talking point among academics and IT consultancies such as Gartner and Forrester. Education Sector: AI can make some of the educational processes automated such as grading, rewarding marks etc. therefore giving educators more time. Further, it can assess students and adapt to their needs, helping them work at their own pace. AI may change where and how students learn, perhaps even replacing some teachers. Financial Sector: It can be applied to the personal finance applications and could collect personal data and provide financial advice. In fact, today software trades more than humans on the Wall Street. Legal Sector: Automation can lead to faster resolution of already pending cases by reducing the time taken while analyzing cases thus better use of time and more efficient processes. Manufacturing sector: Robots are being used for manufacturing since a long time now, however, more advanced exponential technologies have emerged such as additive manufacturing (3D Printing) which with the help of AI can revolutionize the entire manufacturing supply chain ecosystem. Intelligent Robots − Robots can perform the tasks given by a human because of sensors to detect physical data from the real world such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure. Moreover, they have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence. Further, they are capable of learning from their errors and therefore can adapt to the new environment. Gaming – AI has a crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tictac-toe, etc., where the machine can think of a large number of possible positions based on heuristic knowledge. Speech Recognition – There are intelligent systems that are capable of hearing and grasping the language in terms of sentences and their meanings while human talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang words, noise in the background, change in human’s noise due to cold, etc. Cyber Security: In the 20th conference on e-governance in India it was discussed that AI can provide more teeth to cyber security and must be explored.

What are the downsides and risks of Artificial Intelligence (AI)? •

The decrease in demand for human labour due to machines and intelligent robots taking over the jobs in the manufacturing and the services sectors. For Example: In china some customs officers are now robots, In japan robots as housemaid is emerging trend.

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Existential risks: Stephen Hawkins has once said “The development of full artificial intelligence could spell the end of the human race. Once humans develop artificial intelligence, it will take off on its own and redesign itself at

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an ever-increasing rate. Humans, who are limited by slow biological evolution, couldn’t compete and would be superseded”. AI technologies falling into terrorist hands may unleash modern terror network including machine and therefore vulnerability of humans may magnify. It may lead to moral degradation in society due to decreased human to human interactions. In such an era of rapid and disruptive changes, many questions arise: will these technological changes be accompanied by equally profound economic, social and cultural changes? Will technology destroy jobs at a faster rate than the rate of creation of jobs? Will future governments be forced to fork out Universal Basic Income? How could education be redefined with artificial intelligence, big data, augmented reality and personalized learning pathways? Are conventional manufacturing plants under threat with the advent of additive manufacturing? What will be the impact on skills required? After all these changes, people-to-people communication and socioeconomic activities remain the same?

Possible areas for AI applications in Indian conditions • • • •

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It can complement Digital India Mission by helping in the big data analysis which is not possible without using AI. Targeted delivery of services, schemes, and subsidy can be further finetuned. Smart border surveillance and monitoring to enhance security infrastructure. Weather forecasting models may become proactive and therefore preplanning for any future mishaps such as floods, droughts and therefore addressing the farming crisis, farmer’s suicide, crop losses etc. By analyzing big data of road safety data and NCRB (National Crime Record Bureau) data for crimes, new policies can be formulated. Disaster management can be faster and more accessible with the help of robots and intelligent machines. In the counterinsurgency and patrolling operations, we often hear the loss of CRPF jawans which can be minimized by using the robotic army and lesser human personnel. AI can be used to automate government processes, therefore, minimizing human interactions and maximizing transparency and accountability. It can be applied to study ancient literature upon medicines and therefore help in modernizing the health care with the juxtaposition of modern machines and ancient techniques. In the remotest areas where the last leg of governance is almost broken, AI can do the job. For Example: in the tribal areas and the hilly areas of the northeast.

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Which is the nodal organization of the government for the research work on Artificial Intelligence (AI)? •

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Centre for artificial intelligence and robotics (CAIR), is the primary laboratory of DRDO for research and development in different areas of defense, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and is located in Bangalore. It is involved in the Research & Development of high-quality Secure Communication, Command, and Control, and Intelligent Systems. CAIR came into existence in 1986. Projects: NETRA- software to intercept online communication, SECOSSecure operating system.

What are the challenges India’s Artificial Intelligence Development is facing? • •

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AI-based applications are mostly driven largely by the private sector and have been focused largely on consumer goods. Public-private funding model which is a success in the United States, China, South Korea, and elsewhere may be considered good for India. Presently it is not present in India. Our educational system is not updated to the modern technologies and is outdated in today’s economic environment as the nature of jobs shifts rapidly and skills become valuable and obsolete in a matter of years. The debate of poverty vs. technology and where to spend the most is more likely to persist until the political class takes a higher interest in real issues than trivial ones.

Conclusion

Despite these threats and challenges, it would be stupid to argue that Artificial Intelligence (AI) is not the future and it’s only a matter of time that machines will replace most of the jobs. It does not mean the end of the road for humanity and we have a history of technological revolutions causing social and political changes in society. In the Early years there are bound to have some fears and challenges but so was the case with the French revolution, steam engines, industrial revolutions and most recently the computers. Nevertheless, there will be more opportunities in the fields not yet known and there will be more jobs to cater to human needs. In the case of India, Innefu is one such Artificial Intelligence (AI) based company which is still in its nascent phase but soon may challenge global companies and therefore can create AI-ecosystem in India.

Malware Types: Virus, Worm, Trojan, Ransomware etc

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What is a Malware? • •

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Malware is the shortened form of malicious software. Malware is an umbrella term used to refer to a variety of forms of hostile or intrusive software including Ransom wares, Computer Viruses, Worms, Trojan Horses, Spyware, Adware, Scareware etc. This is any program or file that is harmful to a computer user. The term refers to software that is deployed with malicious intent. Malware can be deployed even remotely, and tracking the source of malware is hard. It can take the form of executable code, scripts, active content, and other software. These malicious programs can perform a variety of functions, including stealing, encrypting or deleting sensitive data, altering or hijacking core computing functions and monitoring users’ computer activity without their permission. This combination has enabled commercial malware providers to supply sophisticated black markets for both malware and the information that it collects.

Evolution of Malware • • • •

Computer-enabled fraud and service theft evolved in parallel with the information technology that enabled it. The term malware was first used by computer scientist and security research YisraelRadai in 1990. Before the term malware, malicious software was referred to as computer viruses. One of the first known examples of malware was the Creeper virus in 1971, which was created as an experiment by BBN Technologies engineer Robert Thomas.

What is the purpose of creating a Malware? • • •

Initially, it started as a prank among software developers. However, later on, malware converted into a full-fledged industry of black and white market. It may be used by black hat hackers or even some governments for monitoring their targets. Demand for sophisticated malware is created primarily by organised crime syndicates and state-sponsored espionage agents.

Malware is typically used:

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1. To steal information that can be readily monetized, such as login credentials, credit card and bank account numbers, 2. And intellectual property such as computer software, financial algorithms, and trade secrets. 3. To ransom money in Bitcoin, for example, Wannacry Ransomware. 4. Spy on computer users for an extended period without their knowledge, for example, Reign Malware. 5. It may be designed to cause harm, often as sabotage for example Stuxnet. 6. Extort payment for example Cryptolocker. List of Common Malware types: • • •

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Adware: The least dangerous and most lucrative Malware. Adware displays ads on your computer. Spyware: Spyware is software that spies on you, tracking your internet activities in order to send advertising (Adware) back to your system. Virus: A virus is a contagious program or code that attaches itself to another piece of software, and then reproduces itself when that software is run. Most often this is spread by sharing software or files between computers. Spam: Spamming is a method of flooding the Internet with copies of the same message. Most spams are commercial advertisements which are sent as an unwanted email to users. Spams are also known as Electronic junk emails or junk newsgroup postings. These spam emails are very annoying as it keeps coming every day and keeps your mailbox full. Worm: A program that replicates itself and destroys data and files on the computer. Worms work to “eat” the system operating files and data files until the drive is empty. Trojan: A Trojan horse or Trojan is a type of malware that is often disguised as legitimate software. Trojans are written with the purpose of discovering your financial information, taking over your computer’s system resources, and in larger systems creating a “denial-of-service attack” which is making a machine or network resource unavailable to those attempting to reach it. Example: Google, AOL, Yahoo or your business network becoming unavailable. Backdoors: Backdoors are much the same as Trojans or worms, except that they open a “backdoor” on a computer, providing a network connection for hackers or other Malware to enter or for viruses or SPAM to be sent. Rootkit: This one is likened to the burglar hiding in the attic, waiting to take from you while you are not home. It is the hardest of all Malware to detect and therefore to remove; many experts recommend completely wiping your hard drive and reinstalling everything from scratch. It is designed to permit the other information gathering Malware in to get the identity information from your computer without you realising anything is going on.

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Keyloggers: Records everything you type on your PC in order to glean your log-in names, passwords, and other sensitive information, and send it on to the source of the keylogging program. Many times keyloggers are used by corporations and parents to acquire computer usage information. Rogue security software: This one deceives or misleads users. It pretends to be a good program to remove Malware infections, but all the while it is the Malware. Often it will turn off the real Anti-Virus software. Ransomware: If you see this screen that warns you that you have been locked out of your computer until you pay for your cybercrimes. Your system is severely infected with a form of Malware called Ransomware. Even if you pay to unlock the system, the system is unlocked, but you are not free of it locking you out again. Browser Hijacker: When your homepage changes to one that looks like those in the images inserted next, you may have been infected with one form or another of a Browser Hijacker. This dangerous Malware will redirect your normal search activity and give you the results the developers want you to see. Its intention is to make money off your web surfing. Using this homepage and not removing the Malware lets the source developers capture your surfing interests.

How does a Malware spread?

Cybercriminals continuously devise innovative resources to get malware into the computer. Here are some of the most common ways of spreading: •

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Email: Cybercriminals are notorious for including malicious attachments and links in emails that appear to come from friends, reputable organisations, or other trusted sources. Some malicious emails can even infect your computer from the email client’s preview pane, without your opening or be downloading an attachment or a link. The Internet: Surfing the Web may feel like a private activity, but in fact, you’re exposing your computer to unwanted contact with anyone else who has a computer and Internet access. Outdated software: Malwares can crawl the Internet, looking for vulnerabilities of outmoded software to spread its influence over computer systems. Local Area Networks (LANs): A LAN is a group of locally connected computers that can share information over a private network. If one computer becomes infected with malware, all other computers in the LAN may quickly become infected as well. Instant messaging (IM) and peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing systems: If one is using a client for these online activities, malware may spread to your computer. Social networks: Malware authors take advantage of many popular social networks, infecting the massive user-data networks with worms. If a social 35

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website account is infected with a worm, just about anyone who visits a poster’s profile page could “catch” the worm on her system. Pop-ups: Some of the most sophisticated malware spreads through welldisguised screen pop-ups that look like genuine alerts or messages. One particularly devious and widespread “hoax pop-up” claims to have scanned your computer and detected malware. If you attempt to remove the malware as urged, you’ll actually install the malware. Computer storage media: Malware can be easily spread if you share computer storage media with others, such as USB drives, DVDs, and CDs. While it may seem safe to open a CD of photos from a colleague, it’s always best to scan unfamiliar files first for possible corruptions or security risks before you copy or open them. Mobile devices: Mobile malware threats have become increasingly prevalent, as more people use their smartphones and tablets as minicomputers, helping malware problems proliferate across additional platforms.

Recent case of Malware attack: WannaCry

In 2017 May, there was a massive global ransomware attack. The attack infected more than 230,000 computers in 150 countries including India, demanding ransom payments in bitcoin in 28 languages. What is WannaCry? • •

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WannaCry is Encrypting Ransomware or Crypto Locker type of ransomware that is programmed to attack Microsoft Windows software. According to some statistics, hackers extorted business and institutions for more than $209 million in Ransomware payments in the first three months of 2016. The business of Ransomware is on pace to be a $1 billion a year crime. Shadow Brokers: People (Hackers) behind these attacks call themselves by this term.

Severely affected: • • • • • • •

Britain’s National Health Service (NHS), Spain’s Telefónica, FedEx (USA) Deutsche Bahn Several plants of carmakers Renault and Nissan had stopped production in France and England due to the malware, The Russian Interior Ministry had reported about 1,000 computers. Affected Areas in India: Andra Pradesh, Kerala, some Pharma companies and over 48,000 attempts of ransomware attacks were detected in India.

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60% of the attempts targeted enterprises, while 40% targeted individual customers said a cyber-security firm, Quick Heal Technologies. What is the Origin of Wannacry attack? • • • •

It is said by Wikileaks that National Security Agency (NSA) of USA had these methods to have monitored over subjects. This loophole was recently leaked by WikiLeaks. The same vulnerability of Windows Operating system was used by ransomware. However, Microsoft had released the security patches for the same earlier.

What does it do the computer? •

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Some variants of ransomware encrypt data in such a way that it is impossible to decrypt unless the user has an encryption key. These are called ‘EncryptingRansomware’ that incorporate advanced encryption methods. Another type of ransomware that is frequently circulated is ‘Locker ransomware, which locks the victim out of the operating system, making it impossible to access the desktop and any apps or files. CryptoLocker, like WannaCry, is a malware when injected into a host system, scans the hard drive of the victim and targets specific file extensions and encrypts them.

How does it spread? • •

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Wannacry encrypts the files on an infected computer. It spreads by using a vulnerability in implementations of Server Message Block (SMB) of Windows systems. This exploit is known as ETERNALBLUE. It encrypts hard disk/drive and then spread laterally between computers on the same LAN. It also spreads through the malicious Email-attachment.

How to remain protected from ransomware? •

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Regular Data Backup: This helps restore the last saved data and minimise data loss. Ransomware also attacks servers; hence it is important to have a backup on a disconnected hard drive or external device on the pre-defined regular basis. Prevention: To prevent infiltration of malware, having password protected tools to identify and filter certain file extensions like “.exe” or “. Zip”, are essential. Emails that appear suspicious should also be filtered at the exchange level. There are also some tools that detect the entry of such 37

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malware with features of zero days’ protection which work on threat emulation and threat extraction techniques. Users and businesses also need to ensure that hidden file extension is displayed since it becomes easier to filter them. User awareness: Awareness among users needs to be created to avoid opening the unsolicited attachment. Malware is typically designed to mimic identities of people that users interact with on a regular basis either on a personal or professional level. Rules in IPS: It’s necessary to create rules in the Intrusion Prevention Software (IPS) to discard or disallow the opening of files with extension “.exe” from local App data folders or AppData. Regular patch and upgrades: To prevent leaks or vulnerabilities in software, ensure to regularly update the software versions and apply patches released by the vendor. These patches and version are often released to wrestle with known or newly discovered exploits and can prevent known signatures of these malware, Trojans or ransomware to enter the system. Install and run anti-malware and firewall software. When selecting software, choose a program that offers tools for detecting, quarantining, and removing multiple types of malware. The combination of anti-malware software and a firewall will ensure that all incoming and existing data gets scanned for malware and that malware can be safely removed once detected. Keep software and operating systems up to date with current vulnerability patches. These patches are often released to patch bugs or other security flaws that could be exploited by attackers. Be vigilant when downloading files, programs, attachments, etc. Downloads that seem strange or are from an unfamiliar source often contain malware.

Some Initiatives by Government of India: •

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National Cyber Security Policy 2013: Indian Government already have a National Cyber Security Policy in place. The National Cyber Security Policy document outlines a roadmap to create a framework for comprehensive, collaborative and collective response to deal with the issue of cyber security at all levels within the country. Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) has been designated to act as a nodal agency for coordination of crisis management efforts. CERTIn will also act as an umbrella organisation for coordination actions and operationalization of sectoral CERTs. CERT-in will also issue early warnings. Cyber Swachhta Kendra: The “Cyber Swachhta Kendra” is a Botnet Cleaning and Malware Analysis Centre (BCMAC), operated by the Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) as part of the Government of India’s Digital India initiative under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY). Its goal is to create a secure cyberspace by

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detecting botnet infections in India and to notify, enable cleaning and securing systems of end users so as to prevent further infections.

India’s Nuclear Weapon Programme History of India’s Nuclear Weapon Programme •

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India’s nuclear program started on March 1944 and its three-stage indigenous efforts in technology were established by Dr. Homi Bhabha when he founded the nuclear research center, the Institute of Fundamental Research. India’s loss of territory to China in war of 1962, provided the New Delhi government impetus for developing nuclear weapons as a means of deterring potential Chinese aggression. India first tested a nuclear device in 1974 (code-named “Smiling Buddha”), which it called a “peaceful nuclear explosion.” India performed further nuclear tests in 1998 (code-named “Operation Shakti”).

India’s No-First-Use Policy and Doctrine of Credible Minimum Deterrence (CMD)

In August 1999, the Indian government released a draft of the doctrine which asserts that nuclear weapons are solely for deterrence and that India will pursue a policy of “retaliation only”. The document also maintains that India “will not be the first to initiate a nuclear first strike, but will respond with punitive retaliation should deterrence fail” and that decisions to authorise the use of nuclear weapons would be made by the Prime Minister or his ‘designated successor(s).’ The doctrine of “No first use” means “no first use against non-nuclear weapon states”, as clarified by our NSA. The doctrine “no first use against non-nuclear weapon states” reflected India’s strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence. Main Nuclear Authorities in India

Names to remember : Nuclear Command Authority (NCA), Strategic Nuclear Command, Cabinet Committee on Security, National Security Advisory Board etc. CABINET COMMITTEE ON SECURITY (CCS)

The civil leadership, in the form of the CCS (Cabinet Committee on Security) is the only body authorised to order a nuclear strike against another offending strike: In effect, it is the Prime Minister who has his finger “on the button.”

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Nuclear Command Authority (NCA)

On January 4, 2003, the Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) constituted the Nuclear Command Authority (NCA). NCA has two councils : Executive Council and Political Council. The Executive Council is chaired by the National Security Advisor (NSA) while Political Council is chaired by the Prime Minister. National Security Advisor gives the inputs to the Political Council, which authorities a nuclear attack when deemed necessary. This mechanism of Political Council being advised by Executive Council and letting the “nuclear button remain with PM” was implemented to ensure that Indian nukes remain firmly in civilian control and that there exists a sophisticated Command and Control (C2) mechanism to prevent their accidental or unauthorised use. STRATEGIC NUCLEAR COMMAND OR STRATEGIC FORCES COMMAND

Strategic Nuclear Command, forms part of India’s Nuclear Command Authority (NCA). India’s Strategic Nuclear Command was formally established in 2003. The joint services SNC is the custodian of all of India’s nuclear weapons, missiles and assets. It is also responsible for executing all aspects of India’s nuclear policy. The directives of the NCA are to be operationalised by the Strategic Forces Command under the control of a Commander-in-Chief of the rank of Air Marshal (or its equivalent) in charge of the management and administration of the tactical and strategic nuclear forces. (So as it is clear, Strategic Nuclear Command is the implementing agency of the nuclear decision.) NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL (NSC) OF INDIA

The National Security Council (NSC) of India is the apex agency looking into the country’s political, economic, energy and strategic security concerns. (Please note that NSC has roles beyond nuclear deterrance. The chief exective is the National Security Adviser. Prior to the formation of the NSC, these activities were overseen by the Principal Secretary to the Prime Minister.) The three-tiered structure of the NSC comprises the Strategic Policy Group, the National Security Advisory Board and a Secretariat represented by the Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC). How does Nuclear Deterrence Work in India?

The executive council of NSA advise the political council of NSA in case of any security treat or nuclear action needed. The political council give orders to Strategic Nuclear Command. Strategic Nuclear Command posses all major nuclear arsenals, and it is the agency responsible for executing a nuclear retaliation. SNC requires approval from NCA for any nuclear action. Recent estimates suggest that India has between 90 and 110 nuclear weapons. 40

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Nuclear Triad

Nuclear Triad is a term used to denote a nation which has capabilities of nuclear strike from land, air and water. India has tested its abilities in land, air and sea, but operational missiles are not there with regard to sea. • • •

From Land : Ballistic missiles with nuclear war-head in the Prithvi and Agni Series. From Air : Nuclear bombs from Dassault Mirage 2000s and SEPECAT Jaguars. (Free-falling and un-guided method). From Sea : Submarines : Sagarika K-15 missile in Arihant Submarine; Ship : Dhanush missile from ships like INS Subhadra or INS Rajput.

India’s Ballistic Missile Defence System The Indian Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) Programme is an attempt to develop and to use a multi-layered ballistic missile defence system to protect from ballistic missile attacks. The India’s decision to develop Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD) was introduced in the light of the ballistic missile threat mainly from Pakistan, especially can be attributed to the Kargil War in 1999. What are Ballistic missiles? • •

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A ballistic missile/projectile is one which follows “ballistic trajectory”. The ballistic trajectory is the path followed by the projectile (missile) after thrust forces (propulsion) stop and the projectile are only acted upon by gravity and friction (drag forces). A ballistic missile thus is one which is guided in the initial phase, i.e. lift off, while the rest of the trajectory is dependent on gravity and require minimal guidance.

What are the advantages of Ballistic Missile? • • • •

The have very long range, as they travel above the atmosphere, experience less drag and use gravity and earth’s rotation. They are highly fuel efficient. Only fuel requirements are during lift-off phase and during course correction measures. Multiple independent targetable re-entry vehicles (MIRV) capability can be achieved in ballistic missiles. Due to fuel efficiency, their pay load carrying capacity is significantly more than cruise missiles.

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What’s Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) System? • •

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A Ballistic Missile Defence system (BMD) is missile defence system that acts as a shield against ballistic missile attacks. You may not that the purpose is defense (by intercepting a ballistic missile) and not attack/offense. A ballistic missile can be intercepted in three phases:

1. Terminal phase: During the atmospheric descent phase. 2. Mid-course interception (in flight interception) – Most preferred interception. 3. Lift off phase– i.e. targeting at launch point- require advance radars. •

Generally, a BMD is a two-tier automates system which has:

1. The advance radar system, Early warning system ( Also called sensors system). 2. Integrated command and control center. 3. Interceptor missile batteries- need to be agile, mobile and strategically located on land and sea. India’s Ballistic Missile Defence System • •

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India’s BMD development began in 1999, after the Kargil war. The primary aim was to bolster India’s defence against possible nuclear attack from Pakistan. It holds a place of prime importance especially when India follows ‘No first use’ policy. India seeks to deploy a functional ‘iron dome’ ballistic missile defence (BMD), incorporating both low-altitude and high-altitude interceptor missiles. India’s BMD is primarily developed by DRDO with help of many public and private firms like BEL, Astra Microwave, L&T, etc. India’s BMD is being developed in 2 phase:

1. The first phase aims to develop a shield to intercept missile with a range up to 2000 km. 1st phase radar range is up to 600 km. 2. The second phase will have intercept missile with 5000 km range. Radar range of this phase would be 1500 km. Two- tiers of India’s BMD

They are Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) and Advanced Air Defence (AAD) respectively.

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Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) • • • •

Also referred as Pradyumna Ballistic Missile Interceptor. It’s designed for High altitude interception ( exo-atmospheric interception). Intercept missiles at altitudes between 50 – 80 km. The interceptor is Prithvi Defence Vehicle ( PDV) which has two-stage, both with solid propellants.

Advanced Air Defence (AAD) • • • •

Also called Ashwin Ballistic Missile Interceptor. It’s endo-atmospheric interception system ( for low altitude interception). Altitude of interception is range up to 30 km. It has single-stage solid fuelled missile.

Configurations of BMD •

According to Lieutenant General Balraj Nagal (retired), director of the Centre for Land Warfare Studies. There are five possible configurations of BMD. These are:

1. A land and sea-based defence system against all kind of threats. This system is too expensive and requires too much technological and infrastructural development. Though it is the safest configuration, it still isn’t 100% secure. 2. In Second configuration BMD is deployed to protect critical population centres, control and command centres, critical infrastructure centres (including nuclear facility) and major economic zones. It’s strategically and economically more pragmatic than the first configuration. Yet, it is too costly for a nation like India. 3. In the third configuration, protection is provided to command and control centre, nuclear forces and important citizen population centres. 4. BMD will provide protection to command and control centres and nuclear forces and the capital in the fourth configuration. This is the most suitable candidate considering the nascent stage of India’s BMD and also a weak financial condition of the nation. It protects critical nodes of governance as well as of counter- attack. 5. The final configuration would involve BMD deployment only around command and control centre and the capital. Its purpose is only for total defence and not able to provide ability counter attack as nuclear forces are left out of it.

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Why should India need BMD? • •

• •

• • • •

India follows ‘No First Use policy‘. A robust BMD provides an opportunity to the nation to strike back if a nuclear projectile is launched by an enemy state. In the past efforts have been made by radicalised non- state fractions in Pakistan to obtain Missile technology. BMD would shield from non-state actors initiated missile warfare and thus could avoid Mutual Destruction trap. India has hostile, nuclear states in its north. It’s only practical for the nation to prepare in advance. China is developing new technologies to implement its Anti-Access/AreaDenial (A2/AD) strategy in the Western Pacific. It can impact mainland in Indian water. A robust BMD is a proactive measure to tackle China’s A2/AD strategy. BMD reduces the incentive for the enemy state to launch a nuclear attack, Thus enhancing strategic stability. An indigenous system would reduce the import bill of defence systems from other nations. There are side benefits of BMD too, like better reconnaissance, detection, tracking and situation awareness. Technology developed for BMD can be used in other sectors, especially in space technology.

Apprehensions regarding BMD • • • • •

• • •

It may start the arms race with Pakistan investing in more powerful missiles to thwart BMD disturbing strategic balance. BMD is ineffective against Cruise missiles. Both China and Pakistan have cruise missile capable of delivering the nuclear payload. No BMD can have 100% success rate in the interception of the projectile (ballistic missile). BMD is a very costly affair. For example, U.S. Continental System is estimated to have cost around $100 bn from 2002 onwards. India has a wide and segregated geography. It creates a problem in protection of all critical centre and creation on land infrastructure for BMD in many areas. Even after interception there remain chances of damage, especially if the interception is done in the terminal phase of the ballistic missile. BMD testing is done in controlled atmosphere raising the question on its efficacy in war time. DRDO has been criticised for not releasing whole data related to BMD system. It evokes a sense of suspicion regarding BMD’s capability.

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Conclusion:

In the fast changing geo-political scenario, strategic preparedness and selfreliance are the new currency of defence. BMD fulfills all such criteria and creates a protective shield which has not only physical but also the psychological effect on hostile nations. It bolsters India’s NO FIRST USE policy by providing with the second strike capability. Though there are issues related to its cost, effectiveness, and extent; nevertheless with development in technology and support from Make in India, it has the capability to augment over a period of time. As for now, BMD is an idea whose time has come and will remain so for a long.

Internet of Things What is the “Internet of Things (IoT)”?

The internet of things (IoT) is a concept that describes the idea of everyday physical objects being connected to the internet. In the Internet of Things, the connected devices should be able to identify themselves to other devices. Simply put, this is the concept of basically connecting any device with an ON and OFF switch to the Internet or to each other. This includes everything from cell phones, coffee makers, washing machines, headphones, lamps, wearable devices and almost anything else you can think of. Or, if you want us to make it more simple – Internet of Things (IoT) is a concept where Things can talk to other Things! Internet of Things – Example Let’s go back to my morning and there I am lying blissfully asleep or so it seems. The sensors in my arm sent something is very wrong my heart rate – it is going up, my breathing has become erratic, and instead of this time gently waking me, it vibrates aggressively to get my attention, and as I roll over, I I’m grabbing my chest, and I’m I’m like what’s going on, so I reach over to my phone. I pull it up and sure enough there’s a message it says I’m having high blood pressure in my breathing as a radicand and it suggests that I take a two aspirin right away and then goes on to say it says all my vital signs have been recorded in electronically transmitted to my medical provider. So back at the hospital the doctors already evaluating my data and in his professional opinion I need to get in the hospital right away so we electronically 45

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dispatch Emergency Medical Team directly to my home including pertinent data about my current medical situations so they know how to take care of me and I even get a notice or a message from the EMT that they’re about to arrive I’m whisking to the hospital and I’m put under keen observation. The good news is later that morning that doctor comes and says you’re going to be fine. You were suffering a heart attack and we avoided any major damage because you got the treatment you needed in just the nick of time so now is the internet of things worth it maybe all because things can talk to other things or what we call the Internet of Things.

Who coined the term the Internet of Things?

In 1999 Kevin Ashton, then at P&G (later MIT’s Auto-ID Center), coined the term ‘Internet of Things’. It was a new term, but not a new operation. It was known as pervasive computing, ubicomp, and ambient intelligence. Which devices can be part of IoT?

Anything that can be connected, will be connected. Any device, if it has an on and off switch then chances are it can be a part of the IoT. Very often the connected devices will have an I.P address. With Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6), assigning an IP address to billions of devices has become very much feasible. Examples of ‘things’ which can be connected to internet include: • • • •

Connected Wearables – Smartwatches, Smart glasses, fitness bands etc. Connected Homes – connecting household appliances to the network. Connected Cars – vehicles that are connected to the internet. Connected Cities – smart meters which analyse usage of water, gas, electricity etc connect cities to IoT

Operationally this means that we can define the Internet of Things as the seamless flow between the – • • • •

BAN (body area network): wearables, LAN (local area network): smart home, WAN (wide area network): connected car, and VWAN (very wide area network): the smart city.

Key to this flow is having control of the data.

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That is why Google is offering a Glass and a Lens so you can synchronize your health data into the NEST and the Google Car throughout the smart city applications of google.org. The idea is that in consumer applications and services you never have to leave the Google Cloud. The products are gateways linking up the networks. Why would we want an Internet of Things?

We want it because it can offer us – • • • •

the best possible feedback on physical and mental health. the best possible resource allocation based on real-time monitoring. best possible decision making on mobility patterns. the best possible alignments of local providers with global potential.

IoT – Opportunities and Benefits

IoT offers us the opportunity to be more efficient in how we do things, saving us time, money and often emissions in the process. Internet of Things can be used to tackle simpler day-to-day issues – like finding a car parking space in busy areas, linking up your home entertainment system and using your fridge webcam to check if you need more milk on the way home. IoT offers many other benefits industrially, such as: •

•

•

•

Unprecedented connectivity: IoT data and insights from connected applications and devices empower organizations with the ability to deliver innovative new products and services faster than their competitors. Increased efficiency: IoT networks of smart and intelligent devices provide real-time data to arm employees with the information they need to optimize their day-to-day efficiency and productivity. Cost savings: IoT devices provide accurate data collection and automated workflows to help organizations reduce their operating costs and minimize errors. Time savings: Connected smart devices can help organizations enhance the performance of systems and processes to save time.

IoT – Threats and Challenges

There is a very clear danger that technology is running ahead of the game.

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More than 7 billion devices will need to be made secure by their manufacturers before 2020. The need to secure every connected device by 2020 is “critical”. IoT botnets, created using a network of out-of-date devices took large websites and services offline in 2016. Everything that’s connected to the internet can be hacked, IoT products are no exception to this unwritten rule. (Remember the car hacking scene in the ‘Fate of the Furious’ movie). If every product becomes connected then there’s the potential for unbridled observation of users. This will create a lot of privacy issues. In the future, intelligence services might use the internet of things for identification, surveillance, monitoring, location tracking, and targeting for recruitment, or to gain access to networks or user credentials. Summary

Simply, the Internet of Things is made up of devices – from simple sensors to smartphones and wearables – connected together. IoT is increasingly being used to define objects that “talk” to each other. IoT is a giant network of connected “things” (which also includes people). The relationship will be between people-people, people-things, and things-things. Companies are using IoT, AI and machine learning to rapidly evolve in a way we’ve never seen before

The Four Fundamental Forces of Nature The Four Fundamental Forces and their strengths

1. Gravitational Force – Weakest force; but infinite range. (Not part of standard model) 2. Weak Nuclear Force – Next weakest; but short range. 3. Electromagnetic Force – Stronger, with infinite range. 4. Strong Nuclear Force – Strongest; but short range.

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Gravitational Force

The gravitational force is weak, but very long ranged. Furthermore, it is always attractive. It acts between any two pieces of matter in the Universe since mass is its source. Weak Nuclear Force

The weak force is responsible for radioactive decay and neutrino interactions. It has a very short range and. As its name indicates, it is very weak. The weak force causes Beta decay ie. the conversion of a neutron into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino. Electromagnetic Force

The electromagnetic force causes electric and magnetic effects such as the repulsion between like electrical charges or the interaction of bar magnets. It is long-ranged, but much weaker than the strong force. It can be attractive or repulsive, and acts only between pieces of matter carrying electrical charge. Electricity, magnetism, and light are all produced by this force. Strong Nuclear Force

The strong interaction is very strong, but very short-ranged. It is responsible for holding the nuclei of atoms together. It is basically attractive, but can be effectively repulsive in some circumstances. The strong force is ‘carried’ by particles called gluons; that is, when two particles interact through the strong force, they do so by exchanging gluons. Thus, the quarks inside of the protons and neutrons are bound together by the exchange of the strong nuclear force. Note : While they are close together the quarks experience little force, but as they separate the force between them grows rapidly, pulling them back together. To separate two quarks completely would require far more energy than any possible particle accelerator could provide.

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Electroweak Theory and Grand Unification Theories (GUT)

There is a speculation, that In the very early Universe when temperatures were very high (the Planck Scale) all four forces were unified into a single force. Then, as the temperature dropped, gravitation separated first and then the other 3 forces separated. Even then, the weak, electromagnetic, and strong forces were unified into a single force. When the temperature dropped these forces got separated from each other, with the strong force separating first and then at a still lower temperature the electromagnetic and weak forces separating to leave us with the 4 distinct forces that we see in our present Universe. The process of the forces separating from each other is called spontaneous symmetry breaking. •

•

• •

The weak and electromagnetic interactions have been unified under Standard Electroweak Theory, or sometimes just the Standard Model. (Glashow, Weinberg, and Salaam were awarded the Nobel Prize for this in 1979). [Unification of Weak forces except gravity] Grand unification theories attempt to treat both strong and electroweak interactions under the same mathematical structure. [Unification of Weak forces and strong forces] PS: Attempts to include gravitation in this picture have not yet been successful. Theories that add gravity to the mix and try to unify all four fundamental forces into a single force are called Superunified Theories. PS: Grand Unified and Superunified Theories remain theoretical speculations that are as yet unproven, but there is strong experimental evidence for the unification of the electromagnetic and weak interactions in the Standard Electroweak Theory. Furthermore, although GUTs are not proven experimentally, there is strong circumstantial evidence to suggest 50

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that a theory at least like a Grand Unified Theory is required to make sense of the Universe.

Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (STI) 2013 Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (STI) 2013 seeks to send a signal to the Indian scientific community, both in the private and public domain, that science, technology and innovation should focus on faster, sustainable and inclusive development of the people. The policy seeks to focus on both STI for people and people for STI. It aims to bring all the benefits of Science, Technology & Innovation to the national development and sustainable and more inclusive growth. It seeks the right sizing of the gross expenditure on research and development by encouraging and incentivizing private sector participation in R & D, technology and innovation activities. The policy also seeks to trigger an ecosystem for innovative abilities to flourish by leveraging partnerships among diverse stakeholders and by encouraging and facilitating enterprises to invest in innovations. It also seeks to bring in mechanisms for achieving gender parity in STI activities and gaining global competitiveness in select technological areas through international cooperation and alliances. The policy goal is to accelerate the pace of discovery, diffusion and delivery of science led solutions for serving the aspirational goals of India for faster, sustainable and inclusive growth. A Strong and viable Science, Research and Innovation system for High Technology led path for India (SRISHTI) are the goal for the STI policy. The Key features of the STI policy 2013 • • • • •

•

•

Promoting the spread of scientific temper amongst all sections of society. Enhancing skills for applications of science among the young from all social sectors. Making careers in science, research and innovation attractive enough for talented and bright minds. Establishing world class infrastructure for R&D for gaining global leadership in some select frontier areas of science. Positioning India among the top five global scientific powers by 2020 (by increasing the share of global scientific publications from 3.5% to over 7% and quadrupling the number of papers in top 1% journals from the current levels). Linking contributions of Science Research and innovation system with the inclusive economic growth agenda and combining priorities of excellence and relevance. Creating an environment for enhanced private sector participation in R &D.

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•

• • • •

Enabling conversion of R & D output with societal and commercial applications by replicating hitherto successful models, as well as establishing of new PPP structures. Seeking S&T based high risk innovation through new mechanisms. Fostering resource optimized cost-effective innovation across size and technology domains. Triggering in the mindset & value systems to recognize respect and reward performances which create wealth from S&T derived knowledge. Creating a robust national innovation system.

Aspirations of the Policy

The main aspirational elements of the STI policy are: •

• •

Raising Gross Expenditure in Research and Development (GERD) to 2% from the present 1% of the GDP in this decade by encouraging enhanced private sector contribution. Increasing the number of Full Time Equivalent (FTE) of R&D personnel in India by at least 66% of the present strength in 5 years. Increasing accessibility, availability and affordability of innovations, especially for women, differently-abled and disadvantaged sections of society.

Mechanisms

Wide ranging mechanisms are envisaged to be deployed to realize the policy aspirations, a few of these are: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Promoting the spread of scientific temper amongst all sections of society. Enhancing skill for applications of science among the young from all social strata. Making careers in science, research and innovation attractive enough for talented and bright minds. Empowering women through appropriate STI inputs and investments. Facilitating private sector investment in R&D centres in India and overseas. Promoting establishment of large R&D facilities in PPP mode with provisions for benefits sharing. Permitting multi stakeholders participation in the Indian R&D system. Treating R&D in the private sector at par with public institutions for availing public funds. Bench marking of R&D funding mechanisms and patterns globally. Aligning Venture Capital and Inclusion Innovation Fund systems. Sharing of IPRs between inventors and investors. Modifying IPR policy to provide for marching rights for social good when supported by public funds and for co-sharing IPRs generated under PPP. 52

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• • • •

Providing incentives for commercialization of innovations with focus on green manufacturing. Closing gaps in the translation of new findings at the grassroots and the commercial space. Forging strategic partnerships and alliances with other nations through both bilateral and multilateral cooperation in science, technology and innovation. Triggering ecosystem changes in attitudes, mindset, values and governance systems of publicly funded institutions engaged in STI activities to recognize, respect and reward performances which create wealth from S&T derived knowledge.

Policy Implementation

Implementation of the proposals contained in the Policy will necessitate consultations with different government departments/ministries and agencies besides consultations with overarching, science and engineering academies industry and business associations etc. Accordingly DST will establish a Policy Implementation Group to expeditiously operationalise the proposals within the next two years. Backdrop

Prime Minister, Shrimati Indira Gandhi had announced the Technology Policy Statement (TPS) at the Science Congress in January 1983. It focused on the need to attain technological competence and self-reliance. Several of the statements of TPS were implemented. Subsequently, a Science and Technology Policy (STP) was announced in 2003, seeking to bring science and technology (S&T) together. It basically called for integrating programmes of socio-economic sectors with the national R&D system and the creation of a national innovation system. The world has changed vastly since then in all spheres of human activity. New paradigms of innovation have emerged, arising, among others, out of the pervasive intrusion of internet and globalization. Even then systems that foster innovation have become country and context specific. India has declared 2010-20 as the “Decade of Innovation.” India’s demographics have changed significantly too. The youthful populations have high expectations and aspirations of the nation. The Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (STI) 2013 approved by the Union Cabinet is in furtherance of this declaration and aims to bring perspectives to bear on Science & Technology led innovations in the changing context.

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