Global Terrorism

Global Terrorism

A Course Produced By The United Nations Institute For Training and Research, Programme of Correspondence Instruction In Peacekeeping Operations Course Author: Paul Medhurst Ph.D.

Deputy Chief, Security and Safety Section UNOV

Series Editor: Harvey J. Langholtz UNITAR Training Programme of Correspondence Instruction in Peacekeeping Operations Dag Hammarskjöld Centre Box 20475 New York, NY 10017 USA

Programme UNITAR de Formation Par Correspondance Aux Operations de Maintien de la Paix Palais des Nations 1211 Genève 10 Suisse

Global Terrorism A Course Produced By The United Nations Institute for Training and Research, Programme of Correspondence Instruction in Peacekeeping Operations Course Author: Paul Medhurst. Ph.D. Deputy Chief, Security and Safety Section UNOV

Series Editor: Harvey J. Langholtz

COPYRIGHT 2002 UNITED NATIONS INSTITUTE FOR TRAINING AND RESEARCH PROGRAMME OF CORRESPONDENCE INSTRUCTION

ADDRESS ALL CORRESPONDENCE TO: UNITAR Programme of Correspondence Instruction Dag Hammarskjöld Centre Box 20475 New York, NY 10017 - 20475 U.S.A.

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Important Note: The material contained herein does not reflect the [apolitical and unexpressed] opinions of UNITAR or the Author in any sense. UNITAR and the Author disclaim any and all responsibility for facts and opinions contained in the text, which have been assimilated largely from open media and other independent sources. Notwithstanding, vigorous effort has been undertaken to verify the information contained herein. It is portrayed in as impartial a fashion as possible. Information with diametrically opposing views is sometimes provided on given topics, in order to stimulate scholarly interest, and is in keeping with the norms of pure and free academic pursuit.

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FORMAT OF STUDY

This course is designed for independent study, at a pace determined by the student

THE COURSE FORMAT AND MATERIALS FACILITATE: MODULAR STUDY EASE OF REVIEW INCREMENTAL LEARNING

MATERIALS NEEDED FOR COMPLETION OF THIS COURSE ARE ENCLOSED WITH THIS BOOKLET: COURSE BOOKLET: GLOBAL TERRORISM END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION (STARTS ON PAGE 551) ANSWER SHEET FOR END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION RETURN ENVELOPE FOR END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION

STUDENT S RESPONSIBILITIES: LEARNING COURSE MATERIAL COMPLETING THE END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION SUBMITTING THE END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION

PLEASE SEE THE END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION ANSWER SHEET FOR SUBMISSION INSTRUCTIONS

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METHOD OF STUDY Below are suggestions for how to proceed with a UNITAR POCI Course. Though the student may have alternate approaches that are effective, the following hints have worked for many.

Before you actually begin studying, first browse through the overall course material. Notice the lesson outlines which give you an idea of what will be involved as you proceed. The material should be logical and straightforward. Instead of memorizing individual details, strive to understand concepts and overall perspectives in regard to the course subject. Set up guidelines regarding how you want to schedule your time. Study the lesson content. At the beginning of each lesson, orient yourself to the main points. If you are able to, read the material twice to ensure maximum understanding and retention, and let time elapse between the readings. When you finish a lesson, take the End-of-Lesson Quiz. For any error, go back to the lesson section and re-read it. Before you go on, be aware of the discrepancy in your understanding that led to the error. After you complete all lessons, take time to review the main points of each lesson. Then, while the material is fresh in your mind, take the End-Of-Course Examination. It is generally best to complete the End-Of-Course Examination in one sitting. Return your End-Of-Course Examination answer sheet to UNITAR POCI. Your exam will be scored and if you achieve a passing grade of 75% or higher, you will be sent a Certificate of Course Completion. If you score below 75%, you will be given one opportunity to take a second version of the End-Of-Course Examination. One note of explanation of spelling. There are six official languages at the United Nations. One of these is English as used in the UK. UNITAR POCI courses are written using English spelling.

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GLOBAL TERRORISM TABLE OF CONTENTS Format of Study................................................................................................................................v Method of Study..............................................................................................................................vi Table of Contents...........................................................................................................................vii Introduction........................................................................................................................................1 Lesson 1: The Phenomenon of Terrorism.................................................................................19 Section 1.1: Perceptions and History of Terrorism a) Perceptions b) Terrorism in History c) Early Twentieth Century Terrorism d) Post World War II Terrorism Section 1.2: Geography, Types and Origins of Contemporary Terrorism a) Geography of Terrorism b) Domestic, International and Transnational Terrorism c) Guerrilla Warfare d) Emergence of Modern Terrorism from Guerilla Warfare Section 1.3: Terrorism and Society a) Terrorism, Guerilla Warfare and the Geneva Conventions b) Terrorism in War and Peace c) Terrorism and Democracy d) Keywords to Note e) Terrorist Attack Brief: Attacks on Rome (Italy) and Vienna (Austria) International Airports Lesson 2: Definitions, Elements, and Anomalies of Terrorism.................................................83 Section 2.1: Defining Terrorism a) The Necessity b) Linguistic Barriers c) Political Differences d) Existing Definitions e) Conclusions Section 2.2: Essential Elements of Terrorism a) The Four Pillars of Terrorism b) Cause or Motive c) Ends and Means d) Ability e) Calculation f) Terror g) Recognition h) Publicity i) Targets and Victims

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j) Demands and Coercion Section 2.3: Anomalies of Terrorism a) Demands Versus Actions b) Motives; Planner and Operative c) Co-operation between Terrorist Groups d) Terrorism, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity e) Financing Terrorism through Crime f) Terrorism and Human Rights Violations g) Keywords to Note h) Terrorist Attack Brief: Bombing of US Embassy, Beirut, Lebanon Lesson 3: Justifications Proclaimed by Terrorists..................................................................111 a) Confronting Oppression b) Independence Struggle c) Resistance to Military Occupation d) Religious Duty e) Political Conviction f) Social Conviction g) Pursuit of Mystical, Doomsday or Messianic Goals h) Restoration of Past Social or Religious System i) Keywords to Note j) Terrorist Attack Brief: Restaurant Bombing in Madrid, Spain Lesson 4: Other Motivations for Terrorism: Catalysts, and Negotiations...........................129 Section 4.1: Concealed and Other Motivations for Terrorism a) Opportunism b) Hatred and Intolerance c) Frustration and Rejection d) Conventional Criminality e) Class Resentment f) Incrimination of Opposition Groups g) Expediency and Overzealousness h) Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) i) Insanity Section 4.2: Catalysts for Terrorism a) Extreme Social or Economic Hardship b) Suspension of Democracy c) Favourable Political Environment Section 4.3: Terrorists and Negotiation a) Negotiating Groups b) Non-Negotiating Groups c) Insincere Negotiations d) Case Study: Suspension of Democracy; The Armenian Genocide e) Keywords to Note f) Terrorist Attack Brief: Bomb Attack in Omagh, Northern Ireland, UK viii

Lesson 5: A Profile of Terrorists and Their Organisations....................................................159 Section 5.1: A Profile of Terrorists a) Age b) Education c) Background d) Recruitment e) Summary Section 5.2: Structure and Practice of Terrorist Organizations a) Leadership, Operational, Political and Spiritual b) Intelligence and Reconnaissance c) Security and Counter-Intelligence d) Organising Terrorist Acts e) Logistics f) Recruitment, Training and Support g) The Terrorist Cell Format h) Keywords to Note i) Terrorist Attack Brief: Bombing of US Air Base, Frankfurt, West Germany Lesson 6: Terrorist Weapons, Resources, and Equipment....................................................175 Section 6.1: The Terrorist Armoury a) Small Arms, Light and Medium-Sized Infantry Weapons b) Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) and Assassination Devices c) Military and Improvised Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Weapons d) Volunteer Suicide-Terrorists e) Compelled Suicide-Terrorists f) Computer Viruses and Logic Bombs g) Other Weapons Section 6.2: Other Resources, Services and Equipment a) Illicit Arms Sources b) Support from Other Terrorist Groups and Sympathisers c) Diplomatic, Ideological, Political and Spiritual Support d) Commercially Available Equipment e) Commercially Available Communications Facilities f) Funding; Illegally-Generated and Sponsored g) Negotiating Options h) Diplomatic Immunity i) Individual Sponsorship j) Sponsorship by Governments k) Rogue Intelligence and Security Personnel l) Keywords to Note m) Terrorist Attack Brief: Attacks on Cafés, San Salvador, El Salvador

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Lesson 7: Types of Terrorist Acts.............................................................................................215 Section 7.1: Extreme Violence a) Terrorist Preferences b) Systematic Genocide and Spontaneous Massacre c) Random Murder, Wounding and Mutilation d) Selective Murder and Wounding e) Forced Suicide of Victims Compelled to Engage in Terrorist Acts f) De-population or Ethnic Cleansing g) Political Purges Section 7.2: Other Crimes a) Destruction or Damage of Structures, Resources, Craft and other Property b) Hijacking, Kidnapping, Siege-and-Hostage Situations c) Racketeering, Extortion, Drug Trafficking and other Crimes d) Destruction or Disruption of Information and Networks e) Poisoning of Consumer Food Products f) Brainwashing and Psychological Warfare g) Threats and Hoax Threats of Terrorist Action h) Case Study: The US Embassy Bombing, Nairobi, 7th August 1998 i) Keywords to Note j) Terrorist Attack Brief: Murder of UK Defence Attaché, Athens, Greece Lesson 8: Terrorist Tactics and the Targets of Terrorism.....................................................257 Section 8.1: Terrorist Tactics a) Pursuit of Political Status b) Blackmail and Corruption of Officials c) Covert Penetration of Security Forces and Target Circles d) Provision of Clandestine Interviews with Media e) Dissemination of Inflammatory Material, Disinformation and Propaganda f) Breaking of Agreements Section 8.2: Targets of Terrorism a) Evaluation and Selection of Targets b) Government Institutions c) International and Non-Governmental (NGO) Organisations d) Commercial Enterprises e) Ethnic, Political and Religious Groups f) Rival Criminal Groups g) Individuals h) Keywords to Note i) Terrorist Attack Brief: Attack on US Officer's Club, Rome, Italy Lesson 9: The Victims of Terrorism........................................................................................271 a) Innocent Individuals b) Military, Police, Security and Intelligence Services Personnel c) Governmental, International and NGO Civil Servants d) Leaders in Society e) Commercial Enterprises x

f) g) h) i) j) k) l)

Democracy Global, Regional and National Security Societies and Environment Rival Criminals Case Study; Jammu and Kashmir Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Attack on CIA Officers, Langley (McLean), Virginia, USA

Lesson 10: Terrorism and the Cold War; Terrorism and the Media....................................295 Section 10.1: Terrorism During the Cold War a) Sponsorship b) Organisation and Training c) Coalitions Section 10.2: Terrorism Since the Cold War a) Resumption and Re-alignment b) Loss of Control c) The Intelligence and Security Communities d) Nuclear Terrorism e) New Forms of Terrorism f) The New Wave of Religious Terrorism Section 10.3: The Media and Terrorism a) Media: A Two-Edged Sword b) Excessive Publicity c) Media Complicity d) Professional Ethics of the Media e) Condemnation of Terrorism f) Keywords to Note g) Terrorist Attack Brief: Attack on MI 6 Headquarters, London, UK Lesson 11: Anti-Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism................................................................315 Section 11.1: Institutions and Techniques a) Law and Terrorism b) Forces Opposing Terrorism c) Anti-Terrorism and Special Police Formations d) Notes on Anti-Terrorism Security e) Counter-Terrorism and Military Special Forces f) Assessing Terrorist Threats Section 11.2: Tactics a) Intelligence Security b) Security Intelligence c) Negotiation d) Concession e) Deterrent f) Case Study: Al Qa’ida attacks on the US: 9/11/01 g) Keywords to Note h) Terrorist Attack Brief: Achile Lauro Hijacking, near Port Said, Egypt xi

Lesson 12: Terrorism, The United Nations, and the Future..................................................363 Section 12.1: The United Nations and Terrorism a) UN Resolutions and Other Instruments against Terrorism b) The UN Organisation Against Terrorism c) Other UN Activities Indirectly Affecting Terrorism Section 12.2: Terrorism and the Future a) Technological Advantages of Security Forces b) Political Integrity and Will to Counter Terrorism c) The Horizon d) Possibilities to Effectively Defeat Terrorism e) Keywords to Note f) Terrorist Attack Brief: Seizure of US Embassy and Hostages, Teheran, Iran Annex A: Internet Information Sites Related to Terrorism..........................................................383 Annex B: Glossary of Terms........................................................................................................391 Annex C: List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media................................403 Annex D: International Instruments; Prevention and Suppression of Terrorism..........................465 Annex E: UN Resolutions on Terrorism.......................................................................................467 Annex F: International Terrorist Acts by Region, 2001................................................................471 Annex G: Characteristics and Effects of Chemical Weapons.......................................................472 Annex H: Characteristics and Effects of Biological Weapons.....................................................477 Annex I: Characteristics and Effects of Nuclear Weapons...........................................................487 Annex J: Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)...............................491 Annex K: List of Terrorist Organisations, Compiled by US, UK, and EU...................................508 Annex L: Locations where Al Qa’ida Network has Firm Presence..............................................511 Annex M: Militants’ Presence (fought or trained in Afghanistan/Kashmir)................................512 Annex N: Photographic Evidence: Armenian Genocide..............................................................513 Annex O: Photographic Evidence: Nazi Genocide.......................................................................515 Annex P: Photographic Evidence: Chinese (Nanjing) and Asian Genocide................................ 524 Annex Q: Photographic Evidence: Former Yugoslavia Genocide (Kosovo).............................. 527 Annex R: Balfour Declaration/White Papers/League of Nations Palestine................................. 529 Annex S: Further Reading.............................................................................................................545 Course Epilogue............................................................................................................................546 Space for Notes.............................................................................................................................548 Illustration Copyright Acknowledgments.....................................................................................549 End-of-Course Examination.........................................................................................................551

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Introduction to the Self-Paced Correspondence Course Global Terrorism One of the difficulties in compiling a study course on global terrorism has been the fact that there is no universally accepted definition of terrorism. On the other hand, this has permitted the inclusion of a wider range of material which might otherwise have been excluded by the terms of a rigid definition; few of the many definitions of terrorism include war crimes and crimes against humanity; unjustifiably so, given the murder and widespread, sustained terror that is generated for reasons that can plainly not be attributed to conventional criminality. Confining terrorism solely to mean the activities of groups such the Baader Meinhof gang, the IRA, PLO, Aum Shinri Kyo and Osama bin Laden’s Al Qa’ida, would be facile, providing a much narrowed view of the phenomena. There is some differentiation between types of terrorism. In this self-paced correspondence course all known types of terrorism, including international, transnational and The 20th Century. 150 million people killed domestic terrorism, are included under the overall title of Global Terrorism. This course includes considerable historical reference to terrorism. This is important, in order to appreciate the roots and growth of terrorism and to provide a control by which to measure its current intensity and diversity. Equally as important, it illustrates that the same patterns of intolerance, greed, unaccountability, lack of dialogue and inhumanity, have remained essentially unchanged for many centuries and continue to underpin terrorism. In the past 3000 years of recorded history, there have been less than 300 years free of armed conflict. We live in an age of disturbing violence, on a scale of which, the world has never before seen. The twentieth century witnessed more than 170 armed conflicts, from which only arms dealers WAR profited, in acquiring astonishing wealth. Anti-Aircraft fire (tracer ammunition), Tunisia, World War II

Courtesy: US Nat. Archives

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More than 120 of these armed conflicts occurred in the years between the end of World War II and the end of the 20th Century. Approximately 150 million people were killed in scores of countries, by war, purges, and other forms of persecution and oppression in the 20th century: That is 4109 people killed every day for 100 years, or in different terms, a person was killed every 21 seconds for 100 years. As a result of contemporary armed US M-60 Fire-Team of 101st Airborne division, cutting loose at conflict alone, occurring even as students Vietcong Guerrillas, seconds before being hit and wounded by take this course, 2700 people are killed return fire. Vietnam was a watershed between WWII and contemporary conflicts: Regular forces on both sides; guerrillas; every day; that is 112 per hour, or in other terrorists; limited resources; modern weapons; protracted; harsh terms: a person killed every 31 seconds terrain dictating the course of the war; domestic controversy, and day and night, non stop. the endless casualties. Courtesy: VWAM / US Army Overall, this tragedy is an appalling and dismal memorial to civilisation and the enlightenment which we might have expected to have followed from the Industrial Revolution to the Information Age. The majority of the 20th century armed conflicts involved guerrilla or irregular warfare to varying extent and many also involved use of terrorism. Terrorism is now a daily event and an increasingly significant source of violence, especially in relation to the maintenance of peace between States and by extension, world peace. Several conflicts have even begun as a direct result of terrorism. Almost without exception, the current bi-lateral, regional, civil-war and separatist conflicts in the world all involve elements of terrorism, variously including genocide, depopulation, massacre, assassination and indiscriminate bombing. These acts of terrorism continue to be carried out mostly with impunity, and occasionally by all parties to the conflict. From the 1960s to the 1980s most terrorist groups fell into two categories; nationalist and separatist (such as the Provisional Irish Republican Army and the Kashmir The Baader-Meinhof Gang Former West German Police Wanted Poster separatists) or anarchist-communist terrorists seeking the overthrow of capitalism and a world revolution (such as

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the Red Army Faction [BaaderMeinhof gang], the Italian Red Brigades and the Japanese Red Army). Since the 1980s however, terrorism also expanded to include a wider range of diverse conflicts of a political, religious, ethnic and social nature. In the 1990s, following removal of Cold War restraints, regional low intensity conflicts and Anthrax Letter A new era of bio-terrorism attendant genocide sprang forth on Courtesy: FBI several continents, fired by nationalism and religion and led by a new generation of petty warlords. More alarmingly, a new strain of ruthless terrorism emerged. It is characterised by fanatic and bloody religious intolerance, and driven by an almost fantasy-like ambition to create a single mediæval-style religious state across half or more of the world, needless to say, without consulting its inhabitants. The figurehead and current leader of this transnational terrorist foundation, or network, is Osama bin Laden. Cause for further serious concern is the quest by transnational terrorists, for almost a decade, to acquire nuclear weapons and their components. The possibility of terrorists procuring or manufacturing (less likely) a crude nuclear weapon (of which there are several categories) in the fairly near future, seems almost certain and merely a question of time. The period in which we live is also termed as the age of information. Books and Internet information certainly exist on various, specific aspects of terrorism (Annex A provides a list of internet information sites related to terrorism). However, public knowledge of terrorism is in general, mostly limited to either specific terrorist incidents or censored information which governments and their law Armenian boys in 1917 - victims of state organised terror enforcement bodies reveal to the Starving and genocide in the former Ottoman empire © Armenian National Institute. John Elder collection media, usually following a terrorist outrage.

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Information is censored and partially withheld due to well-founded security reasons and a legitimate inclination towards confidentiality. Consequently, the information finally presented by media is sometimes piecemeal. The subject of terrorism is not generally dealt with comprehensively. This course aims to fill this information gap with a wide-ranging exposure of terrorism: of definitions and law; of terrorists and victims; of weapons and acts; of motives and catalysts; of tactics and resources, and of its history and future. Every effort has been taken to confirm the information in this course and to present it as impartially as possible. It is not within the scope of this course to research and assemble the vast amounts of information concerning all single An IED (Improvised Explosive Device) Courtesy: Washington State Military Dept. EMD acts of contemporary terrorism, but four detailed and important case-studies are included in the course. The first three case studies are examined in the contexts of Lessons 4, 7 and 9, and concern the Armenian genocide, the US Embassy bombings in Nairobi on 7th August 1998, and the conflict in the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, now in its 55th year. Most importantly, the fourth case study at the end of Lesson 11 examines the unprecedented terrorist attacks in the US on 11th September 2001 and the subsequent scrambling for political alliances, seemingly in preparation for a historical landmark Josef Goebbels conflict, yet to come. Hitler’s Minister of Propaganda. A master at lies The domestic and deceit, despised by even US Anthrax attacks his peers. Like contemporary terrorists, the Nazis which followed those murdered innocent victims events are mentioned in and tried to justify their Lesson 6 under crimes under cover of a propaganda barrage biological weapons. Courtesy: US Army / USHMM Rogove Village, Kosovo, 1998 This course A terrorised region where massacres like this were separately dissects each commonplace and a deliberate tactic of ethnic aspect of terrorism; the acts, perpetrators, weapons, cleansing (depopulation and genocide - a war crime and a crime against humanity, respectively); for motives, causes, financing and many other elements. which the UN conducted trials at the international Mention of the more notorious terrorist criminal tribunal in the Hague Courtesy: E. B. Albania Net groups, individuals and their acts, is necessarily

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5 repeated in differing contexts, amongst the lessons, not only to illustrate the wide-ranging complexities of terrorism, but to separate and simplify them individually for learning purposes. To better prepare the student, before launching directly into the lessons and learning material, this introduction concludes in the form of a preface, briefly discussing some of the most frequently asked questions about terrorism. The meaning of terrorism.

The words terror and terrorism were adopted from the word terreur, a 14th century French word, which derives from the Latin: terrere (to frighten). The word was first used widely in France during the French Revolution in what was called the Reign of Terror (1793-1794). Since then, terrorism has evolved into something unrelated to its historical origin. Terrorism is now a specialised Major T. E. Lawrence, Cairo 1918 and sometimes sophisticated and large-scale, type of criminal Despite the legality of the albeit conduct. unconventional guerrilla warfare, which It mostly involves the ruthless, pre-meditated use of he organised and carried out in WW1 Arabia, the Ottoman government put a military weapons or force to generate: multiple casualty price on his head for terrorism incidents, in © LHCMA (King’s College London) which random, innocent, defenceless and unrelated civilians are the victims, or, the destruction of select physical assets of a State’s infrastructure, including cultural sites. The object of this murder and carnage is mostly to coerce political concession from third parties known as targets, usually governments. Terrorism is usually carried out under the political shelter of some sort of proclaimed agenda in which the terrorists portray themselves as acting for virtuous or popular interests. Ordinary crimes stem mostly from need, greed, or passion. In contrast, most terrorism is compelled neither by need (since there are no poor terrorists), nor passion (since most terrorist acts are clinically calculated in several distinct FAPLA soldier in wait for UNITA guerrillas in Angola phases). The 20th Century launched a new era of guerrilla warfare Terrorism in general, is motivated for from which contemporary terrorism sprang Courtesy: MPLA individual reasons of greed, egotism and a wide

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range of vices related to intolerance, especially religious and ethnic intolerance. Intolerance is often the primary motive behind genocide and depopulation, running in tandem with whole-sale looting and dispossession (theft). The political cover that terrorists adopt in trying to justify their actions behind a shield of virtue, is plainly absurd and hypocritical, since innocent and defenceless victims are maimed and murdered in the name of furthering social justice and fighting oppression. The ultimate weapon and terrorist threat: A nuclear bomb Nevertheless, terrorists are Courtesy: US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration able to win a certain number of hearts and minds, whatever the nature of their group or cause, uncomfortably giving credence to Hitler’s Minister for propaganda who said “tell a lie that is big enough and repeat it often enough and the whole world will believe it.” Terrorism was frequently used throughout history by tyrants against the oppressed, and by the oppressed against tyrants, but it now seems exclusively used by tyrants and oppressors against the innocent. What is common to all forms of terrorism is that they involve use of force or the threat of it; there are always victims and targets; terror (or extreme anxiety in the modern meaning of the word) is always deliberately invoked, and all forms of terrorism are illegal. There are many differing definitions of terrorism; some are discussed in Lesson 2 (a glossary with definitions for terrorism-related words may be found in Annex B). What terrorists are.

US FBI examining barrels of mail, for anthrax contamination

Courtesy: US FBI / Environmental Protection Agency

Many terrorists will not view themselves as terrorists. They prefer to posture themselves as idealists or altruists engaged in a partisan struggle for

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society’s oppressed or some other worthy sounding cause. Many are proud of their actions and indulge in self-admiration. Under this banner of altruism they conveniently satisfy a variety of personality and behaviour disorders, such as cruelty and powerseeking; whereby vices become virtues and cowardice becomes heroism. What many terrorists seek to pass off as altruism is in reality, a perversion of egotism. Terrorists share many of the symptoms from which psychopaths suffer, including the ability to convince to an extraordinary degree, great cunning and an overwhelming justification and rationalisation of their actions. Like psychopaths, terrorists are often (Grenzschutzgruppe 9 / Border Guard Group 9) Elite German Counter-Terrorist Police Officers obsessed with oppression and control of others. Courtesy: GSG-9 Altruists do not commit brutal murder. The worthy sounding political causes professed by terrorists are often part of delusions (and propaganda), in which they reconcile these lofty political ideals with their personality or behaviour disorders, as an attempt to legitimise brutal violence and misconduct. Delusions can be very potent; many terrorists eventually come to believe the deception that they continually live out. Terrorism could be considered as the ultimate expression of egotism or selfishness. Most terrorists, especially their organisers, take great pains to escape and avoid accountability for their actions. An example of this is Osama bin Ladin, who fled in late 2001, soon after the invasion of Afghanistan to remove his Al Qa’ida-dominated Taliban regime. SAS (Special Air Service) night shooting Most of society traditionally rejects terrorists Originally an elite British special forces commando type unit, formed in WWII by Captain David Stirling, it was and sees them for just what they are: re-instated some time after the war to respond to the From a medical viewpoint, terrorists are military requirements of campaigns in Malaya, Oman, irrational and mentally unhealthy, exhibiting the Aden and Borneo. It was the first armed force in the world to develop a proper counter-terrorist wing to symptoms of psychopathic disorder. respond to modern terrorist incidents like the Munich hostage-taking and embassy sieges. From a moral or social point of view, terrorists Olympics Considered the world’s best counter-terrorist force in appear cowardly, vicious and anti-social. most circles, it came to wide public notice, during Operation Nimrod - the 1980 siege of the Iranian From a legal point of view, terrorist acts are Embassy in London. In the wake of WWII, SAS plainly criminal. Regiment hunter-teams tracked down a number of particularly elusive and dangerous Nazi war criminals.

© Crown

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8 Terrorism and other crimes.

Terrorism is like no other crime, since it is takes so many radically different forms. What clearly separates most terrorism from common criminal conduct, is the fact that it is sometimes defended for political reasons. Moreover terrorism is sometimes organised or sponsored by governments (as it was during the Cold War). Furthermore, conventional criminals do not seek to terrorise masses in order to coerce governments. Terrorism has expanded to include social protection (anti-abortion), animal rights, information technology (computer) terrorism, contract (hired) terrorism and Armageddonist Anti-Police Poster: Revolutionaries shooting Police Committee to Support Revolution in Peru (CSRP) (doomsday or judgement day) terrorism. A further form of terrorism, used increasingly: as a tactic on military battlefields; to enact vengeance; to achieve ethnic or political change; or to acquire territory and property, is de-population, a war crime under the 1949 Genocide Convention Act and currently known in popular terms, as ethnic-cleansing. The threat of terrorism. Terrorism knows no geographical or political boundaries. It is often much more sophisticated than ordinary crime and therefore beyond the conventional resources of most police forces to effectively prevent or oppose. The gravity of this threat is reflected by the fact that today, police forces are no longer alone in combatting terrorism. Segments of many armed forces, national intelligence and security organisations are now also actively engaged against terrorism. Many governments have signed and ratified agreements called International Instruments, designed to suppress terrorism; a further indication that the threat is serious. Terrorism, drug-trafficking and other organised crime as individual phenomena in their own rights, were always of serious concern to

Polish Jewish boy starving in the Warsaw Ghetto in 1943, prior to deportation and murder under the Nazi regime - together with the Soviet holocaust, this was the most notorious state terrorism and genocide in history

© Dr. Charles Roland

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many governments, and generated a degree of international cooperation. However, other serious concerns have arisen in recent years owing to the increasing integration of terrorism with drug trafficking, and a range of other organised criminal activities, including illegal diamond acquisition and smuggling, and money laundering. Another concern is posed by the increase in contract terrorism (terrorism carried out by a third party only for financial gain). Yet further concerns have arisen from the use of terrorism to deter judicial and police activities against organised criminal gangs including drug traffickers. However, the scale and nature of the King David Hotel, Jerusalem, 22nd July 1946 terrorist events of 11th September 2001 have The Headquarters of the British Mandate (League of seriously alarmed governments all over the Nations, succeeded by the United Nations); bombed by world, and galvanised many into joining a Irgun terrorists, killing 91 and wounding 45 (Christians, nationalities). convincing international co-operative effort Jews and Muslims of ©several Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington DC against terrorism, known informally as the coalition against terrorism and led by the US. Terrorism has in some countries of the world become a practically standard response towards unfavourable government policy. As the events of 11th September 2001 have well shown, terrorism has become a mobile battlefield for sometimes remote or unheard of causes, whereby instant mass murder and large scale carnage can be imported without warning to any city in the world, with impunity. Terrorists have already used biological and chemical weapons, the obtaining or engineering of which has become progressively easier. However, the ultimate concern posed by terrorism is the potential, under certain circumstances, to seriously undermine the maintenance of peace between nations. In connection with this, there is clear evidence that several of the more fanatical terrorist groups have, in the last decade, attempted to obtain illicit nuclear weapons and their components. Terrorists cannot be expected to adhere to international protocols governing the illicit procurement, smuggling, assembly and detonation of atomic bomb components. Of these stages, the only major obstacles that terrorists face, are firstly, the undetected Abdul Rahman Yasin Indicted fugitive, wanted for the 1993 procurement of such a device or its individual components and World Trade Centre bombing Courtesy: FBI secondly, engaging the technical expertise necessary to assemble

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components, and to by-pass coded multiple arming and fail-safe systems. There has been at least one instance of nuclear scientists being in contact with Al Qa’ida terrorists who had sought them out. Following the conclusion of the Cold War, there are significant numbers of unemployed nuclear scientists who possess the necessary technical skills that Al Qa’ida and others seek. Strong Russo-US efforts are being undertaken to engage these Orphans whose parents were massacred in the former Yugoslavia in scientists on government projects 1998, during so called ‘ethnic cleansing’ (genocide and depopulation) © E. Bardhi. Albania Net and thus undermine the likelihood of Al Qa’ida employing some of them. Smuggling, assembly and detonation of an atomic device, once acquired, are not difficult tasks for determined and ruthless terrorists, especially as the components of an atomic device are not necessarily very large and it is not possible for security forces to examine all air, sea and road cargo entering countries or crossing borders. Should a nuclear device be detonated by terrorists, especially those sponsored by a government, it might in the worst scenario, escalate into an exchange of nuclear strikes between States which could trigger a regional war. In any event, such an atomic detonation would most likely cause large-scale loss of life, probably in a major populationcentre, generate mass long-term casualties, and would cause considerable damage to the ecosphere. What the world is doing about terrorism.

Osama bin Ladin: Leader of Al Qa’ida

Courtesy: US Navy

All countries have organisations, mechanisms and procedures, of different types and effectiveness, for preventing and reacting to terrorism. Legislation is a useful mechanism, for both outlawing types of Terrorism and legalising special preventative measures that may be taken by security forces. Anti-terrorism efforts have practically doubled in many countries since 11th September 2001.

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In those countries where there are special organisations to oppose terrorism, the forces are either termed as anti-terrorist (general and preventative measures) or counter-terrorist (active or responsive measures). They usually conduct well planned and coordinated operations according to law and disciplined methodology and training, within the confines of standard operational procedures known as SOPs (a set of guidelines and courses of action for different duties and situations), and specific operational plans for special situations that have arisen. Activities against terrorism are carried out by security, intelligence, police and military forces, accountable to their governments. In a few countries however, measures to combat Ramzi Youssef terrorism, such as stop and Masterminded the 1993 World Trade search procedures, are of such Centre bombing which killed six and 1000. He received a 240 year a nature that they are a wounded jail sentence Courtesy: US State Dept. significant hindrance to citizens going about their lawful business. Moreover, in a very few developing or under-developed count ri es , counterterrorist measures used by police (sometimes also co rru p t ), are perceived as more oppressive than the terrorism they are calculated to prevent, and Stalin, 1930s provoke serious violence At the height of his reign of terror. in response. With a criminal record in the Czar’s In the history of time, he was later responsible for the deaths of at least 20 million Soviet some countries, citizens. He died a natural death and government forces, was never indicted for his crimes Courtesy: Funet including police and security forces, have been used to implement terrorism and popular oppression, and in some cases, genocide. Hideki Tojo Examples of this are the death squads of some of the Prime Minister, Minister of Munitions, General South American governments, and on the genocide scale, in and War Minister for [former] Imperial Japan, receives his sentence at the UN International the former Yugoslavia, where Serbian armed forces and Military Tribunals conducted in Asia. For the police committed crimes against humanity and war crimes. terror, genocide and indescribable cruelties that his troops committed in Asia, he was hanged on It is noteworthy that in some of those few countries 23 December 1948 Courtesy: US Army / National Archives whose governments support terrorism, the very same rd

Introduction

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security and intelligence organisations who are charged with protecting their countries from terrorism, actively recruit, train, field and protect terrorists. In the worst scenario of state involvement in terrorism, the interaction of government and terrorism in Afghanistan, until the removal of the Taliban regime, blurred the lines between the Taliban and Al Qa’ida terrorists to the point whereby Al Qa’ida dominated the Taliban and in effect, took over the state. However, the majority of national, bi-lateral and regional government efforts Saigon, 1st April 1966 to combat terrorism, are generally sincere An improvised Vietcong bomb was planted in these US Officers’ billets, killing four Americans and three Vietnamese and united. Courtesy: US National Archives To optimise them into a single international effort, it is however necessary, in order to establish international credibility, to utilise a neutral international platform, such as the United Nations Organisation, since unilateral efforts tend not to foster very wide international support and legitimacy. Since the conclusion of the cold war, which confounded many efforts against terrorism, it has been possible for the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council to pursue this objective more effectively, especially and dramatically following the events of 11th September 2001. However, political difficulties still persist, because among the member-States which fund the Organisation, may be found a very few States who either sponsor terrorism or engage in it directly (while sometimes accusing other states of terrorism). Yet others give sanctuary to terrorists and guerrillas fleeing apprehension by occupying or hostile forces in their own countries, pending implementation of UN resolutions or other settlement. This hinders agreement upon a universal definition. Besides the Security Council, General Assembly and Office of Legal Affairs, United Nations efforts against terrorism are engaged in by the Terrorism Prevention Branch or TPB. The TPB is headquartered in the UN Vienna office, where several of the other anti-crime organisations are co-located. Since 11th September 2001, several new Resolutions against terrorism were passed by the United Nations in US State Department poster, 1993 Courtesy: US State Dept. response to the attacks.

Introduction

13 Stopping Governments who sponsor terrorism.

A political impasse on global efforts to eliminate terrorism is that it serves the interests of a small number of governments to sponsor terrorism and guerrilla warfare. Some governments passively resist an effective and unified response against terrorism, tending to articulate the terrorism that they sponsor, as purely legitimate support for guerrilla warfare or freedomfighting. Yet other governments provide sanctuary (not sponsorship) for terrorists and guerrillas sought in their own countries by foreign, occupying or hostile forces. To provide undeniable evidence against governments who sponsor terrorism is often difficult. The support they provide for Terrorists is covert and therefore subject to high security. While satellite, electronic intercept and human The Cold War th intelligence may provide clear evidence of guerrilla A devastating blight on 20 century life and development, generated by the now defunct training facilities and operations, this is not evidence of Soviet brand of communism, in the closing individual terrorist acts. months of WWII. The Cold War is one of Providing legal standard evidence of terrorist acts several underlying events that developed contemporary terrorism, especially after is more difficult, especially as it can often compromise 1961, when Soviet premier Khruschchev intelligence announced that the USSR would support [so called] liberation movements around the gathering world, thus escalating the Cold War. methods and Courtesy: Funet deep-cover a g e n t s deployed inside or close to terrorist groups. Forensic science can sometimes be a valuable aid in the detection of terrorists, but even if sufficient evidence is assembled, sponsoring governments sometimes avoid blame by accusing the terrorists of acting as individuals, on their own initiative. To further distance themselves from the terrorism that they sponsor and in order to frustrate assembly of evidence, governments who sponsor terrorism sometimes diffuse the operation by siting guerrilla and terrorist training and operations facilities in different countries, with terrorists and training staff of different nationalities. Some government sponsorship of terrorism Anti-terrorism poster Courtesy: US State Dept. amounts only to a transfer of funds from one bank

Introduction

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account to another. Sanctions are not an effective deterrent against terrorism, tend to drive it deeper underground and punish innocent populations. Diffusion of terrorists and their activities is a main characteristic of the Al Qa’ida terrorist umbrella coalition (it is not a single terrorist group), whose transnational terrorist members were responsible for the events of 11th September 2001: Members of this umbrella coalition consist of individuals, in a loose network, not entire terrorist groups. Some of the members have committed terrorism before and are past or present members of terrorist groups in different parts of the world. Other members have no history of terrorist activity. Al Qa’ida members have no fixed geographical base, no boundaries in their operations, no single government providing sanctuary, no single nationality, source of funding or regular meetings. They do not originate from any single terrorist Today’s terrorist group and overall, their profiles and activities are A case of every man for himself or extremely difficult to analyse and identify patterns what’s yours is mine? from. (Failure of political systems or a new genre of criminal?) This strengthens the security of the Al Qa’ida © Crown coalition and their ability to commit terrorist acts. Collectively, their resources are phenomenal in comparison to conventional terrorist groups, not only financially, but in terms of support, wherever they travel, incognito among their own ethnic and religious groups, societies, and associates Terrorists who are apprehended. Unlike conventional criminals who engage in serious crime, many terrorists are never apprehended for the crimes they commit, although in recent years a concerted effort has been made to apprehend and punish major or transnational terrorists, especially those responsible for the first World Trade Centre bombing, the Nairobi and Dar es Dismantling an Army anti-terrorism observation post in Northern Ireland

© Crown

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Salaam US Embassy bombings and the terrorist acts of 11th September 2001. When terrorists are detected and apprehended, some countries impose the death penalty. In other countries, terrorists are sentenced to detention and are also afforded the same privileges of conventional criminals. In most developed countries, such criminals are subject to punitive rehabilitation; a system calculated to reform those who are viewed as weak or having GSG-9 Counter-terrorist team practice entering hijacked airliner been subjected to negative Courtesy: GSG-9 conditioning or environment. There is however, little or no evidence to support this benign assumption (and frequently evidence to the contrary) that ruthlessly violent terrorists can also be successfully reformed or rehabilitated by appeals to their supposed sense of reason. Additionally, there is little evidence to establish whether or not that detention is an effective deterrent to other terrorists. It would be reasonable to assume however, that capital punishment, whether acceptable or not from a human rights point of view, certainly deters a number of potential terrorists with weaker resolve. Legislation does little to deter terrorists, but anti-terrorist legislation is often useful as a police detective tool for gathering evidence and facilitating preventative measures. Punishment in many countries is the same as that of the ordinary criminal who commits an equivalent crime, mainly owing to a political impasse, as follows: Governments are regularly pressed by sectors of their populace for a harsher punitive element in the legal sentence passed on terrorists, especially following terrorist outrages. Khobar Towers, Dharan, Saudi Arabia. A US Military facility bombed by Most governments however, terrorists linked with the Al Qa’ida network in 1996,and in which 19 US choose not to significantly personnel were killed Courtesy: US State Dept.

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differentiate terrorists from conventional criminals. The reasoning behind this is that, to completely segregate terrorists into a different category from other criminals would be to afford special status to terrorists. By extension, this would confer a degree of political recognition upon them. Since political recognition is a major step that most terrorists seek towards legitimising their actions and goals, many governments strive to avoid it. Several countries however, have already World War I Two shots fired from a pistol by a terrorist (student) in produced terrorism laws and others are Sarajevo, triggered the First World War, costing millions of evaluating possible recognition of terrorist lives offences, which means that crimes tried and Courtesy: Think Quest Library sentenced under conventional criminal laws might instead be classified as terrorist acts, if an element of terrorism is present or a connection to terrorism is proven. Many countries have their own national definitions of terrorism, used for legal purposes, and many are developing definitions, after 11th September 2001. The reasons for this course on terrorism. Terrorism in some developing countries and nations with weak infrastructures, was for a long time and remains, a daily aspect of life. In the 1960s, this began intermittently, to become the case in developed countries, especially western Europe. In the 21st century, terrorism of one type or another, is now clearly a daily aspect in many regions of the planet. This is due largely to the massive disruption caused by two world wars in the 20th century, exacerbated by the global instability resulting from the colonial and Cold War periods. The post World War II expansion and development of terrorism is owed to several reasons, but was schooled mainly by guerrilla warfare, and greatly facilitated by the following political and military trends and events: The staggering proliferation of weapons, especially small arms (which have also undergone significant advances - automatic weapons have replaced the bolt action rifle)

Post WWII revolutionary poster from South America. Oppression continues to underpin much guerrilla warfare and terrorism Courtesy: Think Quest Library

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Widespread access to media, sophisticated communications equipment, unrestricted borders, automobiles and international travel De-colonialisation in a climate pursuing instant freedom, with little or no heed to the adequate transition periods needed to ensure stability, integrity and democracy of independent successor governments The Cold War, in which some protagonists variously: divided most of the world into two blocs; fomented revolution and civil war; maintained guerilla warfare at WWII levels; supported and helped develop the roots of a number of emerging new-generation terrorist groups The fall of the former Soviet Union, Warsaw Pact and subsequent conclusion of the Cold War resulted in: accelerating the proliferation of small arms, the instability of nuclear facilities and the lifting of many border control and financial restrictions The mainstream terrorists of today have funding, practically unrestricted mobility and access to devastating weapons, all to a La Guillotine degree unimagined by their predecessors. This machine was used to publicly st Terrorism is an unwelcome intrusion upon 21 century life. execute (decapitate) political This is not entirely unexpected. There was eventually bound to be enemies (especially Royalty and aristocrats) during the French a reaction to the overall global record of injustice, intolerance and Revolution, causing the period to disparity of wealth and resources, that continues to kill and oppress be known as ‘La Terreur’ (a French word derived from the millions of human beings. Latin terrere, meaning to frighten). If terrorists themselves might not be oppressed, starving or From this point in history, the word poverty-stricken, they most certainly manipulate the suffering of terrorism came into frequent others to generate support and use as a political shield, preying usage. Courtesy: Think Quest Library upon popular anxieties. This course intends to provide a comprehensive study of the terrorist phenomenon, orchestrated by so few, but affecting so many. It is generously illustrated in order to enhance the learning process and make it generally a more enjoyable experience. Although the Lesson lengths are approximately the same, some of the more important ones are heavily illustrated; thus the overall physical size of such Lessons is increased accordingly, but without affecting the quantity of learning material evenly allocated to each Lesson. Each Lesson concludes with a self-marking quiz, a table of Keywords to Note, and a short Terrorist Attack Brief, outlining an important terrorist incident from the past. In conclusion, some of the main events and trends during the past century or so that have shaped and led up to contemporary terrorism, are summarised as follows:

Introduction

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TRENDS AND EVENTS SHAPING TERRORISM DURING THE PAST 110 YEARS 1890-1900 Slow formation of anti-monarchy revolutionary groups after communism was commissioned and written in the 1880s by Marx and Engels. Boer War in South Africa (1899-1902): the Dutch Afrikanas (Boers) adopted mobile hit-and-run irregular warfare tactics, and popularised the word Kommando. Assassinations of Royalty and Heads of State occurring.

1900 Revolvers, Pistols and military explosives are not widely available, but can be obtained. Anarchists not uncommon; assassinations of Royalty and Heads of State still occurring.

1914-1918 A student assassin in Sarajevo triggers WW1, resulting in approximately 10 million killed. Massive social disruption and unrest results. Limited guerrilla warfare used with success during the war. Several old political dynasties and social stabilities passed. Main Armenian genocide occurs in Ottoman Turkey.

1917-1991 Covert political backing of peasants and disaffected middle class revolutionaries in Russia resulted in revolution, demonstrating to the world: the overthrow of an unfavourable established monarchial government, and the effectiveness of modern weapons and communications for revolt. Czar and family murdered by Russian Bolsheviks in 1917, on signed order of Lenin.

1918 Hand grenades, sub machine guns and more sophisticated explosives available. In Russia, re-named several times to eventually become the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), terror, oppression and genocide is used routinely by the Bolsheviks (later renamed communists) to maintain control for over 70 years.

1936-1939 Mass guerrilla warfare demonstrated in the Spanish Civil War, in which Nazi Germany tested some of its arms and tactics in preparation for WWII. Domestic democide begins to take root in China. [Imperial] Japanese genocide occurred against Chinese.

1939-1945 WW2 caused further massive social disruption and unrest; generated a giant leap in the development of weapons, including small arms; saw a massive increase in guerrilla warfare to supplement conventional combat. Nazi, highly organised, genocide occurred. Terror used domestically by authoritarian right-wing states (Axis). Significant advances in the development of Chemical weapons (nerve gases). Biological weapons tested, then used in China. World War II killed approximately 55 million people.

1945-1960 Anti-colonial Independence movements, fomented after WW1, begin to adopt armed struggle, many supported by communist governments of USSR and China, especially in Middle East, Africa, East Asia and South East Asia. The atomic bomb is invented and used; a weapon that forty years later (together with chemical and biological agents), terrorists would begin to pursue the acquisition of.

1960-1970 Communist manipulated independence movements continue. Significant increase in both South American revolutionary and government death squad activity. Highly effective automatic small arms become easily available. Palestinians expand the hi-jacking phenomena. Left wing middle class revolutionary terrorists emerge in Germany, Japan, and Italy. Chinese and Soviet backed guerrilla warfare and terrorism is a significant part of the fighting in the Vietnam war, against conventional US forces.

1970-1980 Middle East terrorist and guerrilla groups proliferate, some with a ruthless fanaticism not seen before. Some Middle East groups begin to posture a religious (Islamic) identity. Wide variety of terrorist attacks occur in several European countries, related to separatism, Middle East dispute and anticapitalism. Genocide occurs in Cambodia and Uganda.

1980-1990 Post colonial era shows that independence did not bring satisfaction to all countries’ inhabitants: Many indigenous postColonial administrations degenerated into rule by indigenous tyrants and surrogates for Cold War protagonists. Revolutionary activity proliferates as a result. Terrorists in the Middle East exploit popular sentiment for a post colonial Islamic identity. Soviet Union ejected from Afghanistan by Mujahideen Army, rallied and backed by several western countries. This results in unrest within the Warsaw Pact and its final dissolution after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Bin Ladin forms Al Qa’ida in 1988. Cold War declared over in 1991.

1991-2001 Post Cold War power vacuum results in intense surge of nationalism, separatism and ethnic oppression [for pre-war grievances], orchestrated by a proliferation of petty warlords. Genocide-level massacres become more commonplace: Former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Sudan, Sierra Leone, Indonesia and other countries. Algeria and Egypt subjected to mass terrorist attacks by domestic groups of hitherto unseen ferocity, projecting militant Islam. Transnational terrorists emerge, after fighting in Afghan-Soviet war and wishing to apply same measures against own governments and the West. Al Qa’ida network (formed in 1988) being developed by bin Ladin. Transnational terrorist attacks on US Embassies and other installations around the world occur, culminating in attacks of 11th September 2001. There are now 50 million Russian AK-47 / 56 assault rifles (sub machine guns) in world circulation, with ammunition costing US$3 for a magazine-load of 30 rounds.

Lesson 1 The Phenomenon of Terrorism Section 1.1: Perceptions and History of Terrorism Perceptions Terrorism in History Early Twentieth Century Terrorism Post World War II Terrorism Section 1.2: Geography, Types and Origins of Contemporary Terrorism Geography of Terrorism Domestic, International and Transnational Terrorism Guerrilla Warfare Emergence of Modern Terrorism from Guerilla Warfare Section 1.3: Terrorism and Society Terrorism, Guerilla Warfare and the Geneva Conventions Terrorism in War and Peace Terrorism and Democracy Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Attacks on Rome & Vienna International Airports

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Lesson 1 Scope and Objectives Section 1.1: Perceptions and History of Terrorism This section introduces the subject of terrorism and explains the different perceptions. It goes on to examine the roots, history and development of terrorism. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to : Understand different perceptions of terrorism Outline the origins and history of terrorism Describe twentieth century terrorism Section 1.2: Geography, Types and Origins of Contemporary Terrorism This section explains the geography or terrorism, and the relationship and differences between terrorism and guerrilla warfare. The differences between domestic, international and transnational terrorism are explained and the section goes on to demonstrate how contemporary terrorism largely emerged out of guerrilla warfare. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to : Understand the geographical limitations of terrorism Appreciate the difference between, international, transnational and domestic terrorism Differentiate between guerrilla warfare and terrorism Section 1.3: Terrorism and Society This section examines guerrilla warfare and terrorism in relation to the Geneva Conventions. Finally, it views terrorism in the contexts of war, peace and democracy. The Terrorist Attack Brief for this lesson concerns the attacks on Rome and Vienna Airports. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to : Appreciate standing of guerrilla warfare and terrorism within the Geneva Conventions Understand the differences between peacetime terrorism and terrorism during war Comprehend the standing of terrorism in war, peace and democracy Recall the meaning of the words contained in the Lesson’s Keywords to Note table Recall the basics facts concerning the attacks on Rome and Vienna Airports

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Lesson 1. The Phenomenon of Terrorism Section 1.1: Perceptions and History of Terrorism “Nothing, is terrible except fear itself” Francis Bacon; De Augmentis Scientiarum: Fortitudo (1623) Perceptions In the first decades of the 20th century, the popular perception of a terrorist was a caricature of a bearded anarchist in a black hat and cloak, holding a small round bomb, who struck only occasionally. Contrastingly, despite technological, social and scientific advances, by the end of the 20th century, the world had witnessed several new and horrifying forms of terrorism, some by the State, such as genocides, collectivisation, purges, crimes against humanity and mass casualty incidents. By the 1960s, the word terrorist had firmly replaced the word anarchist and by 1970, the popular perception of the terrorist was an aircraft hijacker. Today, the terrorist is largely perceived as an unknown, obscure and shadowy murderer, sometimes a religious fanatic, who sets off bombs causing loss of life and great destruction in civilian population centres. If contemporary terrorism is to be accurately and thoroughly understood in a clinical and impartial fashion, it is necessary at the outset to dispel one current political myth: Islamic fundamentalism in the context of terrorism is actually a misnomer, since a true Muslim who adheres to the fundamental tenets of Islam views terrorism as a serious crime and a blasphemy. Islam not only forbids the killing of women, children and unarmed or surrendered combatants, but also forbids the destruction of buildings, even the felling of a tree, if it has a single green leaf on it. Over one hundred thousand victims of terrorism in Algeria were of Muslim religion, and several hundred thousand Muslim police officers and soldiers, from all over the world, are directly engaged in fighting terrorism, and have taken substantial casualties in so doing. Religion is much associated with terrorism in the world today. It is certainly a factor which causes increased resentment between political protagonists, even if it is not overt. Further clarification in connection with Islam and terrorism is required. The circumstances of the bombing of the US World Trade Centre, the US Embassy bombings in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam, the terrorist acts of 11th September 2001 and many other terrorist acts in the world, ranging back several decades, in which some Muslims have been indicted or convicted reflect two facts: Firstly, that some terrorist acts are committed by persons who incidentally happen to be Muslims but their religion is not relevant to the terrorist act. Secondly, some Muslims commit terrorist acts, misusing, distorting and projecting the name of Islam. This differentiation is not always appreciated by some sectors of the media who tend to equate all terrorism by Muslims as so called fundamentalist Islam and under the banner of Jehad (holy struggle or war). This is entirely inaccurate. Yet other media sources automatically attribute Islam to any terrorists who happen to be ethnic Arabs or of Middle East origin; a result of a widespread misconception that all Arabs are Muslims. This is however, incorrect as national and ethnic Arab populations include Muslims, Jews and Christians among their numbers (a likely situation, considering that these three great religions were born in the Middle East). A large number of Israeli Jews are ethnic Arabs. Other related widespread misconceptions are that Iranians or Persians are also Arabs, which

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is incorrect and that anti-Semitism is hatred of Jews, when in fact it is hatred for the many different Semitic races, including Jews and Arabs. One of the results of these misconceptions has been to wrongly simplify some conflicts and boil them down to facile slogans such as Islam versus the West, and Islam =Jihad. It is important to note a new turning point in religion and terrorism. In 1998, a terrorist organisation was formed, with a base in Afghanistan, which by its title and charter openly professes to discriminate on grounds of religion; Al Jabhah al Islamiya al Alamiyah li Quital al Yahud wal Salibiyyin (The International Islamic Front to Fight Jews and Crusaders). Osama bin Laden (leader of the related Al Qa’ida network, formed in 1988) is a founding member of this group, also formed in 1988, and is the chairman of its higher council. Osama bin Laden He is the main architect behind the terrorist events of th 11 September 2001 and several other major terrorist acts. Following a very small number of unlawful attacks in the US upon Muslims (in which an Indian Sikh was killed), in retaliation for the terrorist strikes of 11th September 2001, President Bush condemned such attacks and announced a new initiative in October 2001 called ‘Friendship Through Education,’ a consortium of groups expanding links between US students and students in countries with Muslim populations. In the Middle East conflict, there are several terrorist groups, who happen to be comprised of Muslims that oppose Israel. Doubtless, religious enmity exists to a degree, on a personal basis, amongst some members on all sides of the dispute, as an aggravating factor. However, the formal and stated standpoints of the Middle East governments are that: The Israeli government does not discriminate on religious grounds; this is a fact verified by the many Muslim and Christian Israelis living freely within their populations. In support of this fact, there were from 1985 until 1999, up to 10,000 Christians (mainly) and Muslims fighting in their surrogate militia, the South Lebanese Army or SLA. The Arabic countries surrounding Israel do not discriminate on religious grounds; this is a fact verified by the many Jewish and Christian citizens freely living within their populations. Furthermore, their openly stated standpoint is that they do not oppose Jews, only Zionists (most of whom they consider as political extremists who coincidentally happen to be Jewish, and Hand Grenade some few, Christian). A popular terrorist weapon The International Islamic Front to Fight Jews and following WWI. Within 2 yards (2 meters), the average grenade Crusaders, like the closely related Al Qa’ida network, is a has virtually a 100% kill rate, and landmark departure from other Middle East groups of Christian, at 5 yards (5 meters) distance, Jewish or Muslim terrorists. This group is a fanatical, virulent and 50% lethality Courtesy: US Army

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inflammatory new variant of terrorism, openly advocating religious hatred, rivalling the fanaticism of contemporary Algerian and Egyptian terrorist groups. The threat from this new group is considerable as its name implies. It is an integral part of the Al Qa’ida transnational terrorist network coalition. Some proportion however, should be placed on the issue of Muslims and non-Muslims committing terrorism. Besides the many terrorist acts committed by Muslims mis-using a distorted banner of Islam, in Algeria, Angola, Egypt, France, Kashmir, Kenya, India, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Pakistan, Phillippines, South Africa, Syria, Tanzania, Turkey, Tunisia, United States, Yugoslavia (former) and several other countries, terrorist acts committed by non-Muslims have been recorded in Angola, Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Colombia, Cyprus, Ecuador, El Salvador, France, Germany, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Greece, Lebanon, Mexico, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Northern Ireland, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Spain, Sudan, Sumatra, Turkey, Uganda, United Kingdom, United States, Yugoslavia (former), Venezuela, and several other countries. Specific terrorist incidents and groups are discussed in later chapters. It should further be noted that the word often incorrectly attached to Islamic terrorism is Jehad or Jihad (Arabic - from Juhd / Jehd - to make an effort or struggle). The word means, by translation and theological tradition, a holy struggle, especially spiritual, against evil, injustice or personal imperfection. It may be fulfilled in four ways; by using the heart, tongue, hand or sword. In contemporary use, except by terrorists, it denotes an effort against something either personally negative or detracting from the common social good, and is used mostly as a last resort. There are many such Jehads. For example: A Jehad on litter in order to clean up an area, or a Jihad on one’s self when encountering difficulties achieving a personal goal, such as studying. In simple terms, it can be considered as a self-motivating effort to do some good, underpinned with prayer. Misunderstanding or mis-use of the word Jehad by sections of the media is not confined to the media. Several umbrella Organisations, religious clerics and spiritual leaders, based in the Middle East, western Asia, Africa and in and around the Indian subcontinent constantly misuse the banners of Islam and Jehad in an effort to legitimise terrorist actions. This is especially so in relation to the Middle East dispute, continuing since the 1948 war, in the Jammu & Kashmir dispute, since 1947. In reality, there are terrorists who belong, by birth, to all of the major religions of the world. Many carry out terrorist acts without any overt or covert religious motive or consciousness. Some carry The 99 names for God in Islam. The out terrorist acts and justify them by twisting their respective Holy Quran forbids the killing of religious doctrines, while others conceal religious intolerance with innocent people: men, women, and unarmed combatants. other motives. A few of these terrorists and their religious clerics children Terrorists who distort Islam to use as have persuaded themselves that God has actually conferred upon a shield to kill innocent people are them, the right to punish and reward others, on a religious basis, as committing a blasphemy against its they see fit. This ‘punishment’ has been shown to include the ruthless

teachings and are rejected by devout Muslims.

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and savage slaughtering of innocent men, women and children. The conclusion we may draw from these points is that blame for the majority of terrorism today can be attributed neither to the adherents to any single religion, but that a significant number of the more outrageous terrorist acts may be attributed to a small number of terrorists, who are entirely divorced from their own religion, who distort it, and use it as a convenient cover to try to legitimise their actions in the popular mind. Terrorists bear comparison with organised groups that extract funds from businesses in order to provide the donor with protection from crime: In reality, they are gangsters who extort, and punish those who refuse to pay. The vast majority of adherents to the major faiths in the world are peaceful and law-abiding citizens who follow religious doctrines that condemn terrorism; their inability to suppress terrorism and belonging to the same religious group does not make them terrorists. To persistently expound terrorism as a confederation with one or more of the major world religions is an exercise in disinformation, perhaps for political reasons. Its results however, are that it helps foment religious hatred and is counter-productive to understanding and suppressing terrorism. In a long established multi-cultural Nation such as the United States, it has an especially unhealthy and divisive effect - which is surely one of the secondary [unstated] objectives of bin Ladin and Al Qa’ida. Historically, terrorists as well as their victims are represented in many nationalities and among all of the major religions of the world. VICTIMS OF STATE TERRORISM HAVE INCLUDED INNOCENT MEN, WOMEN AND CHILDREN OF ALL RELIGIONS

Christian (Armenian)

Jewish (German)

Muslim (Kosovan)

Buddhist (Sth. Vietnamese) © ANI (JE) / USHMM / E. Bardhi (AN) / US Army

To perceive terrorism accurately, which is a pre-condition to combatting it effectively, it is also very necessary to recognise that terrorism is not committed by any other single type of demographic or social group, but by many diverse groups, sometimes by individuals, sometimes by governments and sometimes by rogue officials while engaged on government service.

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It is carried out in many names besides religion including politics, freedom, environment, racial supremacy, animal rights, anti-abortion and even for mystical and doomsday aims. Terrorism is used by organised criminal groups and drug-traffickers and is sometimes carried out by Generals on the battlefield and occasionally by the criminally-insane. Terrorism and its motives are sometimes concealed and it is necessary to appreciate that the motive for a given terrorist act, whether declared by the terrorists, government or by media, may not always reflect the truth. Terrorism is sometimes manifest in war zones in a different guise, under the new name for de-population, ethnic-cleansing. Ethnic cleansing is often an operational characteristic of genocide and these particular types of terrorism are currently tried and punished under the category of crimes against humanity or war crimes and are not as yet, formally categorised as British Troops in the former Yugoslavia terrorism. Once ‘Ethnic Cleansing’ has begun, the only way to arrest it is by use of absolute military force If terrorism was in previous decades a © Crown serious irritation, but not on a scale to seriously disrupt society, it has now developed and assumed more serious proportions. The nations of the world are struggling hard to arrive at a common definition for terrorism after the events of 11th September 2001, which will help combat it, from a legislative angle, and bond the anti-terrorism coalition. Most terrorist acts are already indictable and punishable under existing national criminal law or anti-terrorist legislation, but a critical first step in an international effort to suppress terrorism is its unanimous definition. i.e. Before it can be eliminated, it must be agreed upon what it actually is. In one sense this could, if unintentional, be partly in line with a terrorist objective; special recognition for their cause and avoiding to be dealt with as common criminals. Today terrorism is a well established part of life. From one point of view, it is a political failure in the prevention of crime and maintenance of peace at national and international levels. There are many arguable reasons for this. One is the massive upheaval caused by two World Wars. Another reason is an inability (owed partly to the Cold War) and in some instances, an unwillingness, to globally enforce democracy, justice and respect for human rights. A further reason is the abuse and tyranny of dictators and leaders-for-life, who have seized power in the absence of colonial and Cold War constraints. Another often mentioned and instinctively convincing reason is the ever-continuing economic crises and extreme poverty afflicting the majority of the population of the world, which daily creates

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the gravest imaginable and most disgraceful human suffering. This is a breeding ground for the discontent from which terrorism springs, especially as terrorists often exploit these extreme forms of human suffering. Terrorism in History “Even the bravest are frightened by sudden terrors” Tacitus; Annals. Bk. xv, sec. 59 Examples of terrorism may be found throughout the past several thousand years, but the most notorious and savage terrorist acts were committed during the twentieth century, due in part to the advances of science and communications but mainly due to the massive social and economic upheavals caused by two World Wars. Much terrorism has occurred during wartime and terrorism is sometimes attributed to having started wars: The Narodna Odbrana (People's Defence), was a semi-secret Serbian nationalist group, formed in October 1908 by ministers, generals and other Serbs, after Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Black hand crest From this group, Ujedinjenye ili Smrt (Union or Death), also known as the Black Hand, evolved in May 1911 to continue anti-Austrian activities. On 5th June 1914, Jovan Jovanovic, the Serbian Minister to Vienna, warned the Austrian Minister of Finance, Dr. Leon von Belinski, that it would be better if [Crown Prince] Franz Ferdinand did not visit Sarajevo to accept the Governor's invitation for inspecting army manoeuvres later in the month, as ‘some young Serb might put a live rather than a blank cartridge in his gun and fire it.’ This warning was either misunderstood or not heeded. On 28th June 1914, a member of the Serbian Black Hand terrorist group threw a bomb at the Crown Prince's car in Sarajevo, but it glanced off the arm of the Crown Prince as he lunged sideways to protect his wife, and continued travelling before exploding. A fragment hit the Archduke's wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenburg, in the face and wounded Emperor Franz Joseph three persons in the car travelling behind (Count of Austria-Hungary Boos-Waldeck, Colonel von Merizzi, and Countess

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Lanjus, the attendant of the Archduke's wife). The Crown Prince was unharmed, but later in the day, when his car halted after the driver had taken a wrong turn, another member of the Black Hand terrorist group, an armed student by the name of Gavrilo Princip, saw the Crown Prince's car by chance. Princip stepped forward and fired two shots with his revolver, killing Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. Just over thirty days after the two shots were fired, reactions to the assassinations, unmet ultimatums, and implementation of binding political treaties and informal defence pacts had resulted in the outbreak of the First World War. Emperor Franz-Joseph of Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28th July 1914. In a domino-like effect, the nations of Europe reacted variously; honouring their defence treaties, The face that destroyed the old world: aiding their peacetime allies, acting in national Gavrilo Princip - the Serbian student whose two interests, but all entering the war. shots triggered World War I, resulting in 8.5 million Four years later 8.5 million men were dead dead and 37 million casualties. He shot Archduke and 16 million wounded, with a total of 37 million Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie von Chathovato und Wogin, Duchess of Hohenburg, in casualties of all categories. Sarajevo on 18th June 1914. The couple were being Terrorism and war are often linked. War driven in Sarajevo on an official visit and it was their th (more specifically its antithesis, the maintenance of 14 wedding anniversary. They were en route to a hospital to visit members of their entourage who Peace) is the primary concern of the United Nations were wounded earlier in the day with a bomb thrown (UN), especially since war claimed more than 100 by the same terrorist group, the Black Hand. Princip murdered them both by shooting the Archduke in the million lives in the 20th Century. neck and his wife Sophie, who was expecting a The United Nations is very concerned with child, in the stomach. Courtesy: Bundespolizei Wien the issue of peace between nations: the stated primary goal of the UN is to end, what it termed in 1945, as the scourge of war, and now in light of increasing and unprecedented terrorist outrages, like the events of 11th September 2001, that goal logically includes the suppression of terrorism. It is only as strong, united and effective however, as the member states that it consists of. Moreover, an organisation with over 170 members will naturally not be as resolute or prompt, initially, as a single nation, since there are that many more partners. A mandate to end wars and now, Sometimes, depending upon the issue, member states of the terrorism UN have entirely differing priorities, interpretations and agendas.

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There is therefore, no instant solution to terrorism, simply by referring it to the United Nations. It is however in principle, the most neutral platform from which to launch a united front against terrorism. It is important to note the historical development of terrorism. This is necessary in order to measure and compare its current intensity and forms, see the roots from which it sprang, and understand something of how and why it has endured down the centuries. Some of the more notable examples of terrorism throughout history have been recorded as follows:

Hashish (Cannabis Sativa) Used ritually by the Hashisheen (Assassins)

Terrorism was used by the ancient Greeks against the Persians as a military tactic to demoralise the enemy, prior to conventional battle.

The Roman emperors Tiberius (AD 14-37) and Caligula (AD 37-41) used many forms of violent terrorism against their own populations in order to maintain domestic oppression. A different type of terrorism also occurred in the first century against the Roman occupation of Judea, carried out by the Sicarii (dagger men), an element of the Zealot religious sect. They assassinated prominent Romans and Jews who co-operated with Roman rule. The Hashasheen (from whence the word assassin is derived), were a cult of terrorist assassins founded by Hassan Sabbah and located in the Alamut mountains in northern Iran. They ritually used hashish, carrying out terrorist-style assassinations of Christian and Muslim leaders during the crusader era between 1090 and 1256, to achieve politico-religious goals. The Guelphs and Ghibellines (political sects named after two princely Germanic houses and their estates) resorted to terrorism in ancient Italy during the 12th to 15th centuries, in a protracted politico-religious struggle for the throne of the holy Roman empire. Terrorism by ritual killing and cannibalism of their old and sick people, was engaged in by an early religious sect called Bindewurs who worshipped the god Kali in central India.

Vlad Tepes ‘Dracula’

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29 A Muntenian prince, Vlad Tepes (the impaler) Dracula, 1431-1476, used terrorism against invading Ottoman Turkish armies. Although impaling was not uncommon in that period, Vlad Tepes had 20,000 Turkish prisoners-of-war impaled on wooden posts, along the Danube river, leaving them to rot and deter Ottoman Turkish armies. He also used terror for domestic oppression; a third of the 100,000 deaths for which he was responsible, were of his own population of Wallachia, in present-day Romania. The Aztecs, an ancient empire in Mexico (conquered in 1519), terrorised large numbers of their population over the millennia, by annually killing thousands, in religious sacrifice which sometimes included ritual cannibalism.

A protracted episode of terrorism for reasons of religion and gender, known as the Vlad Tepes (Dracula) dines while his men dismember and impale. A mediæval French woodcut witch-craze, occurred in Europe from about the middle of the 11th century to the end of the 17th century. With religious sanction and sponsorship, approximately 100,000 European women (and some few men, male witches being termed warlocks) were accused of witchcraft, tortured and publicly murdered, mostly by burning but also by drowning and hanging. Witchcraft accusations could be brought by anyone, and subsequent witch trials were based upon so called witness’ evidence of supernatural phenomena such as: humans changing into animals, or flying; ‘signs of possession,’ such as wild convulsions in humans and animals; blights, such as sudden deaths of humans and livestock, and failing crops. Witch Killings One of 100,000. A 1555 Derneburg (Harz) woodcut

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30 Tests for witches sometimes included the ‘water test’: If guilty, the victim would float, if innocent, the victim would sink (and drown).

The Inquisition A woman hanged, accused of consorting with Demons. From: Rappresentione della passione. Florence 1520

It is a fact that the major sites of witchcraft phenomena, trials and executions in Europe, occurred in the major Rye producing areas of the period. Made possible by the suitable climatic conditions, which prevailed in those ages, there is strong evidence to suggest that Ergot mould (Claviceps Purpurea) contaminated the Rye which was used by bakers to bake bread. It was then consumed in one form or another by humans and livestock.

It now seems reasonable that the failing crops, dead humans and animals, and convulsions, that were viewed at the time as so called supernatural phenomena, can safely be attributed to the effects of consuming Ergot from the contaminated Rye (Ergot survives the baking process). Ergot has the effects of producing severe convulsions (possession), vivid hallucinations (supernatural phenomena), and dead humans and animals (gangrene is generated if a potent amount is ingested). Under warm and damp climatic conditions (present in mediaeval Europe), Rye (and other grains and some wild grasses, to a lesser extent) crops fail to varying extents when attacked by Ergot mould. The same climatic and crop-growing conditions were apparently present in the English Puritan colony at Salem, Massachusetts, New England, US, during the witch trials of 1692. In Salem, now synonymous with witchcraft, about 150 villagers were arrested, of which fourteen women and five men were subsequently hanged for witchcraft. One man was pressed to death in a field, for refusing to cooperate with the court. Outbreaks of Ergot poisoning last occurred at a village in Russia in the 1920s and in a village in France during the 1950s. LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethlamide), a synthetic drug, was derived from Ergot mould and thereby invented in 1938 by Albert Hoffman, a Swiss Scientist. Further notable forms of terrorism related to religion were mediaeval judicial institutions called Inquisitions, established by the Pope in Europe to detect, judge and sentence those guilty of heresy (infidelity towards official religious theory).

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The inquisitions were responsible for the killings of many thousands of victims. From 1478 to 1834 the Spanish Inquisition sought to cleanse Catholicism from those perceived as unfaithful or insincerely converted to Christianity by coercion or social pressure. The victims were initially Jews (subsequently termed as ‘Conversos’ or insultingly as ‘Marranos’, after approximately 50,000 were forcibly converted to Catholicism, rather than face expulsion or death); after 1502 included former Muslims, and during the 1520s, suspected Protestants. The Spanish Inquisition was run largely by The Consistere Dominican church officers. The notorious first Dominican Monks burnt at the stake, accused of signing a Grand Inquisitor, Tomas de Torquemada, pact with the Devil. From: Histoire veritable de quatre ordered the execution of many thousands of lacopins, Geneva 1549 suspected heretics and the torture and maiming during interrogation of many more thousands, some in Peru and Mexico. At one point in time, the Spanish Inquisition convened and condemned to death the entire population of the Netherlands (Holland). Protestant institutions engaged in Terrorism, an example being the Consistory (Latin: Consistere; to stand together) in Geneva at the time of the French Protestant reformer John Calvin.

KALI (Bhivani)

In the East, the Thuggee or Thagi (from whence the word Thug derives) cult in northern India, worshipped and offered human sacrifices to Kali (in the form of Bhivani), a destructive Indian Goddess of time or darkness. The cult is first mentioned in historical records in the 13th century, when 1000 cult members were brought before the Sultan of Delhi. The Thugs terrorised parts of several Indian Princely States, carrying out random ritual murder, especially of travellers, by strangulation and sometimes poisoning, with immunity under religious law, until suppressed by British colonial powers in 1829. British colonial authorities recorded an estimated 40,000 ritual Thuggee murders in the year 1812 alone. A notorious Thuggee member named Rumzam led gangs of 30 to 40 that carried out 80 to 90 ritual murders each year. Probably the most notorious member was Thuggee leader Buhram, who ritually killed 931 victims during

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a 40 year period in the Uttar Pradesh region (now State). Between 1830 and 1848, British Colonial authorities tried and convicted 4,500 Thugee cult members, of which 110 were executed for murder. Estimates of the total number of victims vary radically among historians, between several hundred thousand up to several million victims in the 500 years of the Thuggee cult’s recorded existence. La Terreur

La Terreur (Fr.) refers to a period during Aristocrats await execution in a dungeon. Inset: Victim the French Revolution, (between April being placed on guillotine. Inventor Dr. Joseph-Horace 1792 and January 1794). In August Guillotin (right) Courtesy: Federal. & Islamic Rep. Comoros 1792, 600 Swiss guards were hacked to death by the mob who between 2nd and 6th September 1792, murdered and mutilated 1000 inmates of Paris jails (including 100 Priests). During La Terreur, 250,000 people were arrested, 17,000 were tried and guillotined, 12,000 were executed without trial, thousands more died in jail, with a total of 40,000 deaths attributed to the Revolutionary government. 1200 ‘enemies of the people’ (political prisoners) were publicly guillotined. The modern usage of the word terrorism derives from the word La Terreur, a 14th century French word, widely used in revolutionary France and Europe to describe the events. Piracy goes back almost to the first use of vessels. In his youth, Julius Cæsar was abducted from a ship travelling to Rhodes; he was held for five weeks by the pirates, until the ransom was paid. Cæsar later tracked down the pirates and crucified them. Piracy occurred in ancient Greece as well as Ancient Rome. In 4th century Europe, Saxon pirates from the Baltic Sea terrorised coasts and shipping, eventually compelling England’s Roman rulers to strengthen their fleet and fortify the Eastern coast. During the same period, Chinese pirates combined sea robbery with local warfare. Japan and China often acted together to suppress them. In the 9th century, Viking (Scandinavian) raiders struck terror into the people of northern Europe, plundering, murdering and raping on ships they captured, and wherever they landed. Piracy continued down the centuries, two notable periods being those of the Barbary Corsairs and later, the Buccaneers. The Barbary Corsairs sailed at the time of the Crusades and were Muslim Arabs from the Barbary Coast (southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, so named after Barbarians, the term that Christians used for their Muslim opponents), having occupied Viking Helmet it since the 7th century. They terrorised the Mediterranean Sea, © British Museum raiding ships from Venice and Genoa for prisoners to sell as

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slaves, as well as attacking ships bound for the crusades. Responses to this were various: some countries made treaties with the Corsairs, while others responded in kind, an example being the Corsairs of Malta, a Christian version of the Barbary Corsairs. From the 11th century, privateers generally came into existence, although the French Corsairs had existed since the 9th century to counter-attack Viking raiders. Privateers were privately owned ships and crews, contracted by various monarchs in Europe, to harass their enemies of the time. Looting enemy ships was an acceptable part of HMS Aurora (centre) attacked in 1812 by armed pirates © National Maritime Museum operations. Privateers were authorised by Letters of Marque, and the booty was often divided between employers and Privateers. Frequently, Privateers attacked not just enemy ships, but any cargo ships, in search of booty. During the 16th and 17th centuries, British, French and other Privateers plundered Spanish ships, loaded with fabulous amounts of treasure (vast quantities of gold, silver and jewels) being brought back from North and South America (Spain’s empire in the ‘New World’, known as the Spanish Main), which itself had been looted from the Aztec and Inca nations of Mexico and Peru. In order to end the chaos of Privateering raids in the Carribean, King James 1st of England withdrew all Letters of Marque. This resulted in disaster and soon after, crews of lawless Buccaneers replaced the Privateers. Buccaneers were originally hunters from the island of Hispaniola (present day Dominican Republic and Haiti), who had banded together when the Spanish had tried to drive them out. The Buccaneers terrorised the Carribean, and some, when the pickings became leaner, moved on to terrorise the Indian Ocean, terrorising and looting the treasure fleets of the Indian Moghuls and the British, French and Dutch East India companies. They acquired fantastic wealth. Following American independence, war broke out again between the US and Great Britain in 1812, whereupon the US again used privateers, although not so effectively as when they had secured their nation’s freedom. One notable Privateer of this conflict was Jean Lafitte. Lafitte was a pirate, privateer, smuggler and slaver, born in Haiti (formerly known as Hispaniola). With his brother Pierre, he ran an organised criminal gang that provided about 10% of the jobs in New Orleans at the turn of the 19th Blackbeard century. Lafitte earned a pardon by defending New The notorious Edward Teach © National Maritime Museum

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Orleans from attack during the war of 1812. The Buccaneers are the most notable of the pirates who terrorised and looted shipping down the centuries, also the bloodiest and the richest. An example of the fabulous wealth occasionally offered by piracy, occurred in 1693, when Thomas Tew (born in present day North America), raided a ship in the Indian Ocean. Each member of the crew received a Port Royal Jamaica, 1841 share of £3000 (approximately A lawless pirate stronghold, where Buccaneers rested, re-supplied and US$4500), which by the standards and re-fitted their ships between terrorising the Caribbean © National Maritime Museum values of that time, made them the equivalent of instant millionaires (a Navy seaman’s pay was £1 per month at that time). Buccaneers tried to condition other users of the oceans into surrendering on sight, by brutally torturing and murdering crew and passengers who showed the slightest signs of evasion or resistence. An example of this terror was that when their victims tried to sail away from them, pursuing pirates took down their black flag (Jolly Roger*), and ran up a plain red flag: This struck certain terror into their victims, as it signified that all on board would die. Some pirates routinely tortured and murdered their prisoners, even if they surrendered immediately. [* A ‘Jolly Roger’ is from the French ‘Jolie Rouge’ meaning pretty red (flag.) Each Jolly Roger’s design was different, but usually had a theme of death, signified by a skull and bones, and time to surrender running out, signified by an hour glass, sometimes with wings]. Notable Buccaneers of these eras were: Edward Low; Bartholomew Roberts (Black Bart); Four Buccaneers’ Flags Charlotte de Berry; Christopher Moody; Henry Avery; Edward Teach (Blackbeard); Francis l’Ollonais; Anne Bonny; Edward England; Stede Bonnet; Howell Davis; Roche Braziliano; Bartholomew Portugues; Mary Read; Sir Henry Morgan; Charles Vane; Alvida; Ching Shih (a Chinese female pirate in the early 19th century, with 1800 ships and 80,000 pirates), and Jack Rackham (Calico Jack). Nearly 5000 years of traditional piracy was brought to an end in the 19th century. In 1856, most maritime nations signed a treaty (the Declaration of Paris), banning Letters of Marque and navy steam ships quickly finished off Rackham, Tew, Wynne, Avery pirates, especially on windless days. Few of those caught were imprisoned,

Lesson 1/ The Phenomenon of Terrorism most were hanged. In England, pirates were left hanging from a gibbet to deter others, and encased in a close-fitting iron frame to prevent relatives and friends from taking them down. This frequently occurred beside the sea, since Admiralty law required that they be ‘washed three times by the tide’. By 1850, only a few pirate ships were left. Modern pirates in the far east commit acts of piracy using powerful and modern boats, but the principle has changed - the objective is instant wealth, with little or no care for the bloody terror that the Buccaneers and pirates of the Spanish Main and Carribean are remembered for.

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HMS Frolic driving a pirate slave ship onto the shore, 1800s © National Maritime Museum

King Leopold II of Belgium terrorised the Congo for a twenty year period from 1888, draining the Congo of ivory and wild rubber. He enslaved the local population as a workforce by coercion through the hostage-taking of their family-members. He is accused of being responsible for the deaths of 10 million Congolese people and for draining resources from the Congo of 1.76 billion US Dollars (at today’s value) In the former Ottoman empire between 1890 and 1921, approximately one million Turkish Armenians were massacred by different ethnic inhabitants and soldiers, sanctioned by government authorities, in retaliation for: Firstly, politico-religious interference by several foreign powers; Secondly, due to a very small number of Turkish Armenians aligning with enemy forces during the First World War (when Armenia was a battlefield between Czarist and Ottoman armies); Thirdly, due to a very small number of Turkish Armenians aligning with Greece during the GrecoTurkish War; Fourthly, Armenian resistance to Kurdish aggression and attempts to depopulate them A starving Armenian mother and child flee the genocide in Ottoman Turkey

© ANI / A. Wegner / S. Stevens

One of the most politically strong and affluent terrorist groups existed in the late 19th century in Czarist Russia. It was called the Narodnaya Volya (free nation); a group of upper-class revolutionaries, who assassinated Czar Alexander II in 1881

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Early Twentieth Century Terrorism “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself” F. D. Roosevelt, former US President; First inaugural address, 4th March 1933 The 20th Century witnessed the most intense and savage terrorism in the history of mankind. During the Russian Revolution (begun in 1905, but fully established in 1917), the Bolshevik Political Party regularly engaged in acts of terrorism in the form of bombing, assassinations and atrocities against the Czar’s Army, selected political targets and other civilians, in the name of freedom from oppression, and in order to implement a new, untried political system called communism. Communism was commissioned in the 1840s and authored by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels in 1848. It was ostensibly a system to ensure even and communal distribution of work and wealth. A landmark beginning in Bolshevik (communist) LENIN terrorism, on the signed orders of Lenin, was the murder of The Communist figurehead and Father Czar Nicolas II and his immediate family, including his wife the of the Revolution. Czarina, his son, four daughters and some faithful retainers. Expelled from University as a trouble This was done in a cellar at Ekaterinburg, in the eastern maker and exiled, he later qualified as a lawyer and turned to bank robbery to foothills of the central Urals in 1918. fund his revolutionary activities. His Subsequently, the longest-sustained and greatest brother was convicted and executed for bomb offences and planning to terrorism in the history of the world (in terms of numerical assassinate the Czar murders and widespread suffering), began under the regimes of a political dissident and bank robber named Vladimir Ilich Lenin (real name Vladimir Ilich Uljanov) and later, a convicted Georgian criminal named Josef Stalin (man of steel) whose real name was Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, for reasons variously attributed to insanity (psychopathy), paranoia and sadism. The civil war lasted from 1918 to 1921 and the period was known as the Red Terror, referring to the arbitrary political arrests, imprisonments and executions (murders) that took place. The Red Terror was orchestrated mainly by Lenin, in what was called the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic [RSFSR], in later years to be re-named again to the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Lenin was the communist states’s figurehead and Bolshevik-Soviet propaganda cultivated this image. In reality, Lenin was renowned among his peers for having a vile temperament, legendary intolerance (whereby he would vocally condemn any disagreement as treachery and treason), and a taste for violence: He personally authored such documents as ‘How to Kill a Police Officer.’ Lenin’s brother was convicted and hanged in 1887, for terrorism offences involving bombs, and planning to assassinate the Czar.

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During the prelude to the revolution, Lenin was expelled from Kazan University as a radical troublemaker and exiled to his grandfather’s estate, but eventually qualified as a lawyer in 1891. Lenin turned to criminal activity, including bank robbery, in order to raise funds for his political movement. Stalin was at that time a messenger for Lenin, smuggling political leaflets into Russia for him, after he had fled the country. Possessing the funds to do so, Lenin exiled himself in a variety of countries, including Switzerland, where he was located during the famous storming of the Czar’s winter palace, despite Soviet propaganda, which portrayed a more heroic and dramatic role for him at the head of the revolution, on the ground. Czar Nicolas II and his family Stalin, during the Czar’s reign, had been © Pallasweb medically rejected for the army (ironically, he was told by one of the three Army examining medical officers, that he ‘had the marks of the devil’) and had also gained a criminal record for political offences. Lenin’s Red Terror (1918-1921) set the stage for the later reign of terror carried out by Stalin until his death in 1953. Stalin was initially helped on the path to power by a variety of Bolsheviks, including Lenin (who died in 1924) and once his position was secured, a multitude of others in government positions of great power (and of several different nationalities), helped him to maintain his position and develop party control over the populace. Notably, a significant number of these immediate postrevolution officials and politicians (that formally governed the country) were foreigners, had never before been to Russia, and were unable to speak the Russian language. Stalin’s reign of terror included Bolshevik postrevolutionary purges, followed by forced re-locations of populations who were unequipped and ill-suited to survive their new environments. Stalin’s oppression also included collectivisation, in addition to a notorious political purge (in which one million were killed), known popularly as the Great Terror or the Great Purge, which lasted from 1936 to 1938. Collectivisation was a purge of the agricultural communities, carried out by arresting and imprisoning independent farmers (Kulaks), confiscating and communalising their farms and crop-harvests. STALIN As a consequence, the Soviets’ agricultural capability

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predictably fell apart causing a great number of deaths. Concerning the Russian Bolshevik revolution and subsequent events, the former UK Prime Minister, Winston Churchill once said: “Of all tyrannies in history, the Bolshevik tyranny is the worst, the most destructive and the most degrading.” Historical estimates attribute between 20 and 30 million Russian citizens as having died as a result of this terror. Millions of people were arrested for so called political crimes or counter revolutionary attitudes, and deported to a chain of concentration camps (forced labour camps/political prisons) built in the 1930s. These chains of concentration camps were located mainly in Siberia and the far north, and were known as the Gulag (a Russian acronym for the Main Directorate for Corrective Labour Camps) Archipelago. Stalin’s victims included: Potential dissidents Kulaks Class-enemies Purge victims Polish & Baltic populations in Nazi-annexed territories Potentially disloyal ethnic foreigners such as Volga Germans Prisoners of war and Russians who fought on the Axis side Loyal Soviet soldiers returning from Axis captivity

Imperial Japanese soldier about to behead a young Chinese boy at Nanking, China 1937

© CND

Possibly the most brutally cruel episode of genocidal terror in world history occurred in China during late 1937. On 13th December, the Imperial Japanese Army (which ceased to exist in 1945, upon the emergence of a new and democratic Japan) stormed the city of Nanking, during a ruthless war of conquest through south east Asia. During a six week period, the Imperial Japanese Army killed an estimated 300,000 Chinese people and raped approximately 20,000 of the women, many of them infants and the very old, including nuns. This all took place against a background of large scale theft, looting and arson. The figure of 300,000 was confirmed in writing by Japanese Foreign Minister Hirota Koki to the Imperial Japanese Embassy in Washington in 1938. Simultaneously, an effective large scale propaganda and psychological warfare campaign was launched, that included careful distribution of select photos, portraying the

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Imperial Japanese Army as humane and caring benefactors towards their Chinese ‘wards.’ Nanking was among the worst, but not the only area where the Imperial Japanese army carried out massacres and atrocities during this period. As the Imperial army murdered, raped and sacked upon whim, working its way down through Asia in a mediæval-style conquest, similar events to Nanking also occurred at: Bangkok Changchun Harbin Peking Singapore

Canton Hailar Mukden Rangoon Shanghai

See Annex P for photographic evidence of Chinese and Asian Genocide Many photographs of torture and savagery were taken at the time by Imperial Japanese soldiers and others, surviving to become evidence in later war crimes trials. Some of the victims were beheaded. Others were murdered by freezing them to death while others were shot in groups and thrown in the Yangtze river. Yet others were variously: buried alive; burned alive; used for live target practice and bayonet practice (an atrocity also committed later agai n s t B r i t i s h Indian Army Sikh troops in WWII); some had their eyes and living hearts Imperial Japanese Soldiers bayoneting torn out. civilians to death at Nanking, China, 1937 © CND Many others were murdered by compelled suicide and in so called killing games, involving the use of gasoline and acid. There were cases of pregnant women being cut open and indescribable events following. A foreign (US) Missionary who was at Nanking and witnessed many events, James McCallum, wrote on 9th POST-SURRENDER WAR CRIME January 1938: Imperial Japanese officer about to “Some newspaper men came to the entrance of a murder US Air Force Prisoner-of-War, concentration camp and distributed cakes and apples, and after Imperial Japan’s surrender on 2nd September 1945, even as the war handed out a few coins to the refugees. crimes trials were being prepared Courtesy: CND And a moving picture [movie] was taken of this kind of

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act. At the same time, a bunch of [Japanese] soldiers climbed over the back wall of the compound and raped a dozen or so of the [Chinese] women. There were no pictures taken out back.” The Imperial Japanese Army continued to commit savage cruelties in the Asian countries that it invaded and occupied, until the total surrender of the Axis forces (Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, Italy, and minor allies) at different periods in 1945. After surrender, 28 soldiers (Category B and C war criminals) were tried specifically for the Nanking crimes. UN International War Crimes trials for Asia, Manilla 1946 Of these, 25 were convicted as two died Courtesy: US Army and another went insane while the trials were in session. Of the remainder, seven were hanged, sixteen were imprisoned for life and two received lesser sentences. All those imprisoned however, were released on parole after eight years. At the overall WWII Asian war crimes trials, seven Class A and 1068 Class B and C Imperial Japanese war criminals were executed after being tried, convicted and sentenced for war crimes. Members of the top secret Unit 731, carried out a biological and chemical warfare campaign in China during the late 1930s and early 1940s, dropping plague from aeroplanes and experimenting upon Chinese, Korean and White Russian Prisoners. Unit 731 members were not prosecuted for war crimes. According to media, they were recruited for their knowledge, as part of the Cold War fight against the Soviets. Nearly 60 years ago now, just after the war crimes trials ended and before Imperialism was largely laid to rest in the new post-war Japan, a monument was erected for the war criminals that were convicted and punished. The Japanese prime minister of that time officiated at the opening ceremony for the placing of the Monument which is inscribed: ‘The Memorial Tablet for 1068 Heroes who died for their Nation in the great East Asia War.’ The next greatest act of genocidal terrorism (in numerical terms) in history, after the Soviet episodes, is sometimes referred to as the Holocaust. It was a calculated, partly confused programme of conquest, racial hatred, genocidal terror, oppression and occultism, carried out by members of the NSDAP (Nazi regime, (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter-Partei or National Socialist German Workers’ Party), led by Adolf Hitler since July The Nazi leader 1921.The objectives of the NSDAP or Nazi Reich (empire)

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were to: completely destroy Judaism and Jews; conquer the world; harness its natural resources and enslave populations to service this new world order, based upon so called Aryan biological and ethnic supremacy; in short, a new world religion, in which the Christian cross was to be replaced by the Nazi swastika (fylfot or hakenkreutz), and controlled by a race of so called supermen. Originally rooted in a different, far larger political party of first world war veterans, the relatively small NSDAP evolved and ascended to power in 1933 by an almost miraculous combination of guile, force, fate, manipulation and a political manifesto that pledged relief of widespread suffering and resentment attributed to the crippling terms of the Versailles Treaty (the surrender terms imposed upon the Germans at the conclusion of the First World War). Its manifesto also sought to provide a SA man (brownshirt) coerces boycott of degree of psychological relief and reckoning, amidst the Jewish store. After the SA wrested control of post war plight, economic ruin and loss of national pride, the streets from the communists in the early in the form of invented scapegoats: Political leaders and 1930s, the Nazis intensified their ruthless persecution of the Jewish race the Jewish race. The steering committee of the NSDAP included a secret ‘party within a party,’ consisting of members of Courtesy: US National Archives several occult groups such as the Germanen Orden, Thulle Gesellschaft and Vril Society, who influenced, groomed and moulded Hitler, sharing his long term and unswerving dedication, firstly to occultism in the form of so-called ‘demonic worship’ and secondly, a quest for linking the ancient [as yet unsubstantiated, perhaps mythical] civilisation of Atlantis [as recorded by Plato] and the Aryan race, to Germanic culture. One member of this circle was Professor Dr. (and Army General) Karl Haushofer, inventor of the science of Geopolitics. Some members of these groups were later to help form the Nazi occult research organisations, the [SS] Ahnenerbe (Research & Teaching Society) and the [SS] Stiftung (Ancestral Research Unit). Following service in the WWI trenches, The Nazi Reichstag or seat of government Hitler formulated his politico-racial doctrines All the trappings of a sovereign state could not conceal based upon his ‘occult’ pursuits. He also the savage dictatorship and complete absence of democracy. Homage and loyalty was paid to Hitler not the experimented with mind expanding State, then the two became politically inseparable amphetamines along the Donau (Danube) river Courtesy: US Army at Wachau, Austria (using Peyote or Mescaline,

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Hitler in Paris France was overrun and occupied in a new type of warfare: Blitzkrieg (meaning lightning war) Courtesy: US Army

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obtained from the tip of the Mexican cactus). None of these activities were revealed or propagated amongst the Nazi rank and file; any suspicions were allayed under a cloak of historical Germanic mysticism. The NSDAP fielded a semi-legal, paramilitary force in uniform consisting largely of thugs, misfits and former criminals. It was called the Sturmabteilung (SA, Storm troops or brown-shirts) and it battled communists to take control of the streets, then began imposing Nazi dogma, terrorising Jews and indirectly forcing emigration of German Jews. Democracy and popular dissent was systematically and violently suppressed by the NSDAP, first in Germany and later in the countries on several continents that the regime subsequently invaded with an unprovoked, highly aggressive and predatory form of warfare known as Blitzkrieg or Lightning War. Estimates vary in that between four and a half to six million innocent men, women and children, mainly Jews, were

terrorised and murdered by the Nazis. An elite bodyguard section of the SA, the SS or Schutzstaffel (Guard or protection detachment) grew into a large and independent organisation, with twelve central branches, and eventually enveloped the complicated national security police system and had its own armed military formations, the Waffen (armed) SS. The Waffen SS (100,000 men in 1940, and by 1945, 40 divisions, totalling 580,000 men) conducted ruthless and unprovoked warfare alongside the other regular German armed forces (Wehrmacht), and committed a number of terrorist-style atrocities in occupied countries and combat zones, including the massacre of allied prisoners of war, and brutal war crimes against civilians. The SS Totenkopf Verbände (Death’s head echelon) and RSHA’s (Reich central security office) economic administration main office [WVHA] were responsible to run the concentration and death camps. Foreign divisions of the Waffen SS carried out further atrocities in different European theatres of the war, including inside their own Nazi-occupied countries, an example being in the former Yugoslavia.

London and other major cities were heavily bombed by Nazi aircraft, V-1 and V-2 rockets (‘V’ meaning vergeltungswaffen or vengeance weapons), but the island endured. Great Britain became a fortress from which British Empire, US and other allied forces prosecuted an all out war of untold cost, to rid the free world of Hitler’s shadow Courtesy: US Army

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Over a million Yugoslavs were killed in the war, a not insignificant number of those by Croatian (Muslim) volunteers, serving in the Waffen SS divisions: Croatische and Handschar. [note: This is one of several historical reasons behind the extreme hatred shown one another by the protagonists in the former Yugoslavia conflicts, during the 1990s]. Besides the approximate 55 million people who were killed during the war in general hostilities, the Nazis selected special victims. Many of these victims were systematically dispossessed of their property, de-populated and conveyed to concentration camps. Starvation was not uncommon and medical facilities poor or non-existent for inmates. Sadistic cruelty was commonplace and murder of inmates was frequently carried out casually, upon whim by the Nazis, sometimes in perverse amusement. The vast majority of these victims were Jewish people, but also included the following: Polish nationals

Trade Unionists

Freemasons

Gypsies

Handicapped people

Soviet Prisoners of War

The incurably ill

Homosexuals

Political dissidents (serious disloyalty or treason)

Certain types of ethnic Slavs

Religious dissidents, including Nuns and Priests

Habitual and dangerous criminals

Large numbers of inmates were deployed as forced labour, not uncommonly resulting in death from exhaustion, starvation and illness. Once the formal decision for dedicated genocide had been taken (largely decided at a meeting at Grossen Wannsee, Berlin on 20th January 1942), death camps were fully established, and a systematic production-line genocide formally began. Especially victimised were Jews, Polish nationals and gypsies, who were murdered in a variety of barbaric fashions, including by poisongas, then cremated or thrown into mass burial pits. Some inmates died as the result of socalled scientific experiments, often carried out without anaesthetic. Some of these experiments concerned research into dangers and effects of combat, and were carried out by Doctors from several organisations, including the Nazi Air Force (Luftwaffe). A wider and larger range of experiments concerning pseudo-genetics were carried out Planning genocide Himmler (left), a former chicken farmer and head of the SS, dining at Krakow castle with Hans Frank, Nazi Governor General of occupied Poland

Courtesy: USHMM

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mainly by SS Doctors who were later in the war to come under a new institute (the Institute for Military Scientific Research) but which was attached to the [SS] Ahnenerbe. Despite a smaller number of deaths compared to the Stalinist reign of terror, the NSDAP episode is popularly perceived as the greatest terrorist act in history. It qualifies for this notoriety largely for its calculated descent into savage barbarism, carried out in later stages on a commercial basis in order to yield a profit from each death. In some death camps, individual Carpathian Jews arriving in Auschwitz 1944, many of whom cadavers were processed by production-line were shortly to be herded to their murder in gas chambers or shot mechanisms. © USHMM(YV) During these later stages of the war, an entire economy was generated from genocide through the confiscation and sale of assets and personal property such as clothes, jewellery, gold and silver tooth fillings removed from cadavers and sometimes by producing agricultural fertiliser and soap from human remains. In the Buchenwald camp, two shrunken heads were found and held as exhibits for the war crimes trials at Nuremberg. Although Hitler legally rose to power, there was significant resistance to his Nazi Party. Hitler survived several attempts on his life by a number of small resistance movements in Germany, spanning from the early 1930s up to his death, which included two notable Wehrmacht (Army) Officers with some degree of conscience: Field Marshall Erwin Rommel Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg Rommel, a Field Marshall respected by both sides as a master tactician, fell victim to a more secular terrorism on Hitler’s part, by being forced to commit suicide in exchange for his family’s well-being. Between 1933 and 1945, nearly three thousand members of the German resistance movement were murdered at the Nazi execution site in Plötzensee, where they were hanged or ritually beheaded.

The Desert Fox Rommel with his Afrika Korps in the western desert Courtesy: US Army

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British Prime Minister Churchill test fires a sub machine gun in 1940

© Lion

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Germany became free from the Nazi regime in 1945 upon the military defeat of its NSDAP-controlled government and armed forces, which followed Hitler’s suicide. This was followed by allied occupation, a de-Nazification campaign and the hunting down of war criminals. War crimes trials were conducted at Nuremberg in Germany, by the Allied forces, in the form of International Military Tribunals. These were established following on from discussions held in London in October 1943, that established the United Nations War Crimes Commission, which then first met formally in January 1944. This led to an international agreement for the trials, reached in London in 1945, and agreed to by 23 nations. In these trials, officials from the various organisations of the NSDAP regime were found guilty and imprisoned or sentenced to death and hanged, for a variety of crimes, all part of a predatory war that the Nazis initiated and which resulted in a total of 55 million people being killed. The Moscow Declaration of 1943 and the Potsdam declaration of 1945, had dealt with the punishment that was to be meted out to German and Japanese War Criminals at the trials.

Also in 1945, the London Agreement had determined that being a head of state or acting under orders would not provide immunity, and decided that entire organisations (such as the SS) could be declared criminal, and thus, mere membership would constitute an indictable crime. This charter also included provisions for fair trials. Twenty-four Nazi leaders were tried between October 1945 and October 1946. Of those, one committed suicide, one was physically unable to be tried, three were acquitted, twelve were hanged, three were sentenced to life imprisonment, and four were sentenced to terms of imprisonment ranging from ten to twenty years. Those convicted war criminals who were sentenced to death, were executed on 16th October 1946 in the old gymnasium of the Nuremberg prison (torn down in 1987), cremated, and their ashes strewn anonymously and unceremoniously into an estuary of the river Isar. Subsequently, no further International Military Tribunals were held, but various US, British, Soviet and French military court trials occurred in the zones of

The Nazis initiated a highly aggressive, predatory, and unprovoked war of conquest, in addition to launching a genocide programme © IWM

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Free World in the balance Aircraft like this RAF Spitfire won the four-month air battle over England in 1940, known as the Battle of Britain. It prevented invasion, and thus the total Nazi defeat of Europe, which would have eventually resulted in Nazi world domination following from: Nazi seizure of the immense resources of Europe, secure from further attack; release of massive Nazi forces tied down on the European front, deployable to overwhelm the USSR, and no base or infrastructure left in Europe for the US to prosecute a war against the Nazis. Maintaining this air superiority permitted the island to serve as the [only possible] Allied platform in Europe, from which was launched the relentless air assault on Nazi Germany and the Allied land invasion of mainland Europe, resulting, with the massive Soviet effort from the East, in the Nazi defeat in 1945.

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occupation, to try lesser politicians, military personnel, doctors, lawyers, scientists, diplomats and others. Many war criminals never faced trial, and some few were covertly recruited by the victorious nations in the fight against the Soviet Union, since the Cold War had already begun. As described earlier in this lesson, the war crimes trials for Asia had been conducted more or less in parallel to those in Europe. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East began its work in May 1946 and lasted just over two years. Of twenty-five Imperial Japanese defendants (Class A war criminals) convicted, seven were hanged, sixteen were imprisoned for life and two were imprisoned for shorter terms. Of the B and C category war criminals, 1068 were executed after conviction. The Geneva Conventions of 1949 make punishable, certain acts committed against victims of war, but leave trials for these crimes to be arranged by the concerned countries. The United Nations elaborated upon this by setting up two International Criminal Tribunals in the Hague and Rwanda, to try war crimes and crimes against humanity relating to the genocides in the former Yugoslavia (Security Council Resolution 827 of 25th May 1993) and Rwanda (Security Council Resolution 955 of 8th November 1994), respectively. The trial of Nazi war criminal, Adolf Eichmann (taken from Argentina to Israel in a dramatic [but technically illegal] abduction and smuggling operation) raised questions of jurisdiction, since Israel did not exist at the time of Eichmann’s war crimes and crimes against humanity.

© IWM

War Crimes trials at Mauthausen. The Gauleiter (Nazi District Leader) of Linz, August Eingruber, is sentenced to death for his part in genocide and crimes against humanity Courtesy: US National Archives

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Israel agreed upon representing the victims of Nazi atrocities against Jews, and that given the gravity and geographical area of the genocide, it was held reasonable to permit any state to try him. Several states subsequently abolished their statutory limitations on trying crimes against humanity. This resulted in a French court trying Nazi SS officer Klaus Barbie or ‘the butcher of Lyons,’ in 1987, who had worked for the Polish children at Auschwitz, murdered in 1944 Allied forces after the war, in the Cold War Courtesy: USHMM effort against the Soviets, despite protests from the French government. The nature of the Nazi war crimes trials is of interest, in that the victorious allies discretely instructed their trial judges to try the Nazi leaders on the premise that they were an aberration of human conduct, at the bottom of the scale of the accepted Humanist and Cartesian system of the western world, and not as members of a deceptive, brutally violent occult movement, trying to implement a new world religion. The Nazi terror, although only spanning 12 years, was the second largest genocide in world history, subordinate only to that of Stalin and the Bolshevik, Soviet phenomena. The motives behind the Nazi terror are unique and therefore bear some scrutiny. This is important when comparing modern The reputed Spear of Longinus neo-Nazism with the Nazi terror of the 1930s and 1940s. When Hitler invaded Austria, he The Jewish victims of the Nazi terror were selected went promptly to Vienna’s ostensibly (for the consumption of the masses) as scapegoats for Hofburg palace and seized this religious artefact, as a so-called financial hardship, social ills, the loss of WWI, national pride, and talisman for the Nazi party. He so called racial impurity. emerged after hours alone, and to The other victims were selected for the so called cleansing mark the occasion, commenced a night of terror, ordering the or purifying of Nazi society, of the unwanted. immediate round up of 100,000 These slogan-like platitudes prayed upon popular anxieties Jews for deportation (and implicitly their murder). The lance and appealed to the deepest, baser, popular yearnings of the head was returned to the Hofburg German populace of that era. after the war. This, intensified by Hitler’s remarkable [painstakingly acquired] oratory skills, accounts for the almost hysterical mass euphoria which often accompanied his speeches at Nazi party rallies. However, research of Nazi activity at the higher levels, reveals not a crude political programme calculated merely to appease the masses, but a consistent so called occult activity with a hidden agenda.

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[It is of interest that the contemporary word often used to describe the Nazi mass murder is not genocide as often as Holocaust (Greek: kaustos = burnt), meaning: A religious ritual in which the offering or sacrifice is totally consumed by fire. This coincidence unintentionally reflects the driving force and true nature behind the NSDAP - Hitler’s (and his backers) bizarre obsession with so called Hitler at a Nazi Rally occultism and quest for a new world Hitler’s, as yet unrivalled, oratory skills and ability to appeal religion, reminiscent of a pre-history dark directly to the heart of the baser human instincts, suspended reason and left crowds mesmerised age, in which human sacrifice played a significant role]. Courtesy: Think Quest Library A strange but notable example of this occult leaning occurred when Hitler invaded Austria (with the aid of local Nazis) and declared the Anchluss (union) of Germany and Austria. Upon arriving in Vienna, instead of tending to strategic and military issues as would be expected of an invader, planning war with most of the civilised world, he went promptly to the Weltliche Schatzkammer (State Treasure House) at the Hofburg palace. After ordering his entourage out, he then spent some hours alone there in some form of strange meditation, after seizing what is known as the Heilige Lanze (holy lance). The lance is a spearhead reputed in Christian theological legend to be the actual lance that the Roman soldier Longinus used to pierce the side of Christ and which, according to occult mythology, brings world domination to the holder. Upon emerging alone from the Hofburg, Hitler ordered the immediate round up and deportation (and implicitly, impending death) of 100,000 Jews, as a bizarre and brutal form of human sacrifice. Hitler subsequently ordered the spear conveyed to Nuremberg (the spiritual home of Nazism) by armoured train with other select crown jewels, and had them buried beneath the city in a specially constructed vault. Rudolph Steiner (1861-1925) It survived bombings and fell into US hands at the time of When the Nazi party began Hitler’s suicide in Berlin on the afternoon of 30th April 1945 (an laying its roots, he was first on the list of those to be occult date that Hitler revered; Walpurgisnacht). assassinated, owing to his The personal advisor on Hitler to wartime British Prime extraordinary predictions Minister, Winston Churchill, was Dr. Walter Johannes Stein, a concerning the future rise of Viennese Scientist who knew more about Hitler than any man alive Hitler and the Nazis Courtesy: Fotolab Wien at that time.

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When Stein was considering the publication of his memoirs in 1945, Churchill instructed him that the occultism of the Nazi party should not be revealed to the general public, under any circumstances. Stein had studied under another Viennese academic, Dr. Rudolph Steiner. Steiner was the Austrian founder of anthroposophy (a type of spiritual philosophy), who lived in the relative safety of Switzerland. He was nevertheless on the top of the NSDAP assassination list until his death in 1925, on account of his extraordinarily accurate predictions concerning the rise of Hitler, The A-Bomb the Nazi movement, and the catastrophic results. Following the The Atomic bombs dropped on Japan, compelled the last Axis Nazi surrender in 1945, a lesser known episode of terror occurred power still fighting to surrender in in Germany during the same year, involving the female September 1945, thus ending the population. terror of WWII that had cost over 50 million lives Media reports that up to 20,000 cases of rape were Courtesy: Think Quest Library reported against troops in the Soviet occupied sector, involving females who ranged in age from 11 to 70 years old. This is a remarkable and likely very conservative figure, given that many cases of rape are invariably not reported. Casualties (Military and Civilian killed) in World War II (61 million total is approximate, compiled from several reliable but differing sources) AUSTRALIA 29,000

AUSTRIA 525,000

BELGIUM 85,000

BULGARIA 21,000

CANADA 42,000

CHINA 11,324,000

CZECHOSLOVAKIA 400,000

DENMARK 4,000

FRANCE 810,000

FINLAND 79,000

GERMANY 7,060,000

GREAT BRITAIN 388,000

GREECE 520,000

HUNGARY 750,000

HOLLAND 250,000

INDIA 36,000

ITALY 410,000

JAPAN 1,806,000

NEW ZEALAND 12,000

NORWAY 5,000

POLAND 6,850,000

RUMANIA 985,000

SOUTH AFRICA 9,000

SOVIET UNION 25,568,000

SPAIN 22,000

USA 295,000

YUGOSLAVIA 1,700,000

TOTAL 61 MILLION

DIVIDED

CHANGED SIDES

KEY ALLIED

AXIS

This key does not reflect collaboration in Axis occupied countries, Nazi foreign legions, or the 3 million Indians who died in the 1943 famine (relief of which was frustrated by war)

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Refer to Annex O for photographic evidence of Nazi genocide. Of interest to both students and victims of terrorism is the fact that the NSDAP holocaust is the only case of mass terrorism in history, whereby following the defeat of the perpetrator (NSDAP) regime, successor governments have made financial and other restitution to those victims left alive and to the descendants of those murdered. Further formal compensation for terrorist acts was not to occur until fairly recent times and only for single acts of terrorism. A notable case occurred under a 1996 US anti-terrorism law, in which a Federal District Judge ordered the Government of Iran to pay US$ 247.5 million in compensation. The compensation was ordered to the family of a US exchange student travelling in a bus with seven Israeli soldiers in 1995. They were all murdered by a suicide-bomb terrorist from the Palestinian Islamic Jihad group, which according to media reports had alleged connections with Iran. During the Lebanese civil war, Associated Press (AP) Correspondent Terry Anderson was held for six years shackled and blindfolded by his captors who were allegedly controlled and supported by the Iranian government. In 1999, Anderson began a court case to sue the Iranian government for US$100 million in compensation for his terrible ordeal. Post World War II Terrorism Following the Second World War, terrorism was occasionally used on a small scale by some members of guerrilla groups. Some of these groups were supported and manipulated by Warsaw Pact countries and China variously, in those cases where the guerrilla bands were communist. Several of these post war guerrilla groups (with terrorists among their membership) were engaged in struggles on several continents for independence or separatism, towards the close of the colonial period, during the Cold War. Well known examples were: The Mau-Mau movement in Kenya The Eoka B guerrillas in Cyprus The Stern gang in Palestine British Army anti-terrorist patrol, Aden 1967 © Crown

The FLN in Algeria

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In these campaigns, besides terrorist murders of unarmed officials, women and children family members of British and other colonial personnel were kidnaped and murdered in some instances. Guerrilla warfare with terrorism occurred in China as a characteristic of the communist struggles which began in the 1930s but were revitalised between 1966 and 1969 in the form of the Cultural Revolution. Some international conflict historians assert that there were an estimated 35 million deaths attributable to democide (which can be practically defined as the intentional killing of people by a government through negligence or passive oppression) in China during the period 1949 to 1987. During the late 1960s until the late 1980s, terrorism in Europe reached its zenith, under a variety of banners, many related to class and political perceptions (as in the case of the Japanese Red Army, Italian Red Brigades and the Baader-Meinhof Gang or Red Army Faction). This terrorism emerged from those Axis countries that had very rapidly experienced the upheaval of exchanging totalitarianism for democracy following the conclusion of WW II:

Germany Italy Rote Armee Fraktion

Japan

Japanese Red Army

This type of terrorism was characterised by the objective of anarchy and disintegration of the state. This was sought by violent terrorist action, carried out by fashionable young upper-middle class revolutionaries (some of whose fathers had been Nazis, fascists and Imperialists) with a mixture of left-wing ideologies. These young revolutionary movements were viewed by many of the generation that had fought through WWII, as privileged and spoilt idlers; the children of an era of prosperity, disturbed by their nations’ past, but for which they were not responsible. Such movements might have stood some chances of growth and acceptance, had they sprung from a purely humanitarian platform, but instead, they aligned with the communist bloc, who shared a hatred of capitalism, in its form at that time. This also brought them into the sphere of national security risks, owing to contacts with officials from the Warsaw Pact countries, whose intelligence officers were only too ready to exploit and develop the phenomena. This completely undermined the credibility of the revolutionary movements, since they chose to ignore the far greater vices of the organised communist bloc, such as authoritarianism and wide scale human rights abuses. These abuses included the democide in China under Chairman Mau Tse Tung, and the greatest [and most protracted] genocide in history, which was still taking place at that time inside the Soviet Union. The Baader Meinhof gang (Rote Armee Fraktion or Red Army Faction), the Italian Red Brigades and the Japanese Red Army were prominent among the terrorist groups of that era, but there were other groups, an example being the 2nd June Movement.

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MURDER

2nd June Movement

BOMBING

________________________

Formed in West Berlin 1971

ABDUCTION ANGELA LUTHER 2nd June Movement terrorist

BANK ROBBERY

A left wing anarchist group of the late 1960s / early 1970s style. This was a 'revolutionary' period for numbers of young, fashionable, left-wing western university students, inspired by the likes of Che Guevara, Mao Tse Tung and Carlos Marighella, and sometimes covertly stimulated with considerable success, by Warsaw Pact intelligence officers. Students like these rebelled, condemning: the so called liberal democracies they sprang from; their forefathers and the world wars they were responsible for; capitalism, and many other aspects of traditional western society. All this took place against a background of a general social revolution conducted by the younger generation, hallmarked by: permissiveness; extreme socialism; independence; radical pop music and fashion; mind-expanding narcotics; the Hippy flower-power phenomena; oriental philosophy and the esoteric; rejection of the establishment; peace and ban-the-bomb movements, and Vietnam war protests. The 2nd June Movement (2JM) was an extreme of that era and like the Baader Meinhof gang (Red Army Faction), with whom they consorted (and whom several members later joined), they turned to murder and terrorism. The group is named after Benno Ohnejorg, killed (shot accidentally in the back of the head by police) in a violent demonstration against the Iranian Shah's visit to West Berlin on 2nd June 1967. In 1972, 2JM bombed the British Yacht club in West Berlin, killing a German national. When a 2JM member committed suicide in jail, they killed West Berlin's Chief Justice, Gunter von Drenkmann, in reprisal. Three years later, they abducted Peter Lorenz, leader of the Berlin Christian Democrat Party, and released him in exchange for the flight to Yemen of five left wing terrorists in jail. After protracted police operations, many 2JM members were eventually apprehended, convicted and jailed, with those still at liberty joining the Baader Meinhof gang (Red Army Faction).

Terrorism also characterised some of the activities of politically left and right wing guerilla groups, fighting various political causes in South and Central America during the 1960s up to the 1990s.

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Since the late 1960s, however, terrorism has been most synonymous with the Middle East conflict and a significant amount of contemporary terrorism is directly related to it. It is therefore necessary to understand the basic but essential historical facts which led to a series of wars, the ongoing conflicts and much of this contemporary terrorism. Great Britain had conquered the Ottoman forces in Palestine in 1917, during WW1, but ceased to be a colonial power there in 1922, when it was appointed by the League of Nations (an organisation based upon US British Army & Trans Jordanian Frontier Force (TJFF) patrol Jerusalem in 1947 on League of Nations (UN) President Woodrow Wilson’s 14 point plan) to Mandate duty effect the Palestine Mandate, one of several in © Crown the region. These mandates, leading to independence, were designed for the League of Nations by the South African Statesman, General Jan Christiaan Smuts. In 1922, British authorities, as Trustees in Palestine, began to enact the objectives of the League of Nations mandate, which were quite different from national or colonial interests. This included a mandate requirement to establish a Palestine Nationality Act (law), prior to independence, and also to assist new Jewish immigrants (of numerical quotas agreed to by all parties) to acquire Palestinian citizenship. League of Nations mandated territories (category A mandates, like Palestine) were subjected to provisional independence with the final objective of full independence from the trustee power, which in all cases had occurred by 1949. The United Nations, which formally came into being in 1945, succeeded the League of Nations in 1946, and assumed responsibility to implement its mandates when the League dissolved (A reproduction of the League of Nations Palestine Palestine Police officer (Arabic) carries away a mandate may be viewed in Annex R and also at: child wounded with a bomb on 29th December http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/palmand 1947. It was thrown out of a moving taxi by Irgun terrorists, in the Palestinian residential quarter a.htm) of Jerusalem, outside Herod’s gate, and killed The Middle East conflict mainly began with 17 Palestinian Arabs Palestinian unrest and revolts in 1921 and between 1933 © IPS Washington and 1939, against continued Jewish immigration, some illegal, beyond the agreed numbers. The immigration

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had begun in strength with new settlements in 1882, after the birth of political Zionism; a movement to satisfy Jewish desires to return to the Holy Land, in order to escape religious and ethnic persecution. This possible solution to Jewish persecution down the centuries, which occurred on and off in many different countries, was supported by several European powers and the United States, where strong sentiment existed to solve this issue. In the 19th century, Great Britain had facilitated the immigration (into the UK) of more than one hundred thousand Jews from some parts of Russia and Eastern Europe, British armoured car patrolling Jerusalem in 1947 on in order to save them from the cruel massacres League of Nations (succeeded by UN) Mandate duty and anti-Jewish pogroms that numbers of them © Crown were being subjected to in those parts of the world. Prior to the League of Nations Mandate, efforts to assist a solution to the recurring persecution faced by Jews, in the absence of a Jewish homeland or state, were formalised in 1917, in a British political paper (a letter from Lord Balfour to Lord Rothschild, representative of the Zionist Federation), known as the Balfour declaration. It agreed with Zionist proposals for Palestine as a national home (not a state or nation) for the Jewish people, the underlying principle being provision of homeland in the world where Jews who wished, could emigrate and settle in safety from the persecution that significant amounts of them had experienced in so many countries, following their mass emigration (diaspora) from Palestine in the 8th to 6th centuries BC. Palestine as a choice was finally determined on the basis that there had been a Jewish presence there for thousands of years, before and after the diaspora, and the fact that many Jewish holy sites are located in Jerusalem, as they are for the other great monotheistic religions. The Balfour declaration was formulated in good faith and made public. Some influential and wealthy Jews such as Edwin Montagu however, objected to some of its text. It was therefore subsequently changed from ‘the national home of the Jewish people’ to ‘the establishment in Palestine of a home for the Jewish people’, and the proviso added: ‘nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine’. At the time of the declaration there had already Palestine Police Force poster of wanted terrorists, been considerable Jewish immigration into Palestine, during the British League of Nations Mandate and by 1915, approximately 11% of the population was period

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Jewish (approximately 90,000 out of 780,000). A reproduced copy of the Balfour declaration may be found in Annex R and also viewed at: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/balfour.htm After British Government consultations with the High Commissioner for Palestine [Sir Herbert Samuel] and discussions between the Secretary of State and a delegation from the Moslem Christian Society of Palestine [present in the UK] in 1922, a domestic British political paper (white paper) confirmed the Balfour declaration and stated that ‘Further, it is contemplated that the status of all citizens of Palestine in the eyes of the law shall be Palestinian, and it has never been intended that they, or any section of them, should possess any other juridical status’. (A copy of the 1922 white paper is in Annex R and also at: http://www.yale.edu/l 1936. Abd al Husseini. Palestinian awweb/avalon/mideas (Arab) guerrilla commander for Jerusalem. A graduate of the American t/brwh1922.htm) University (Cairo), he was killed in In 1939, action during the war in 1948. another British © IPS Washington political paper (white paper) re-iterated the 1922 white paper, stating that ‘Unauthorized statements have been made to the effect that the purpose in view is to create a wholly Jewish Palestine. Phrases have been used such as that “Palestine is to become as Jewish as England is English.” His Majesty' s Government regard any such expectation as impracticable and have no such aim in view. Nor have they at any time contemplated .... the disappearance or the subordination of the Arabic population, language or culture in Palestine. They would draw attention to the fact that the terms of the (Balfour) Declaration referred to do not contemplate that Palestine as a whole should be converted into a Jewish National Home, but that such a Home should be founded IN Menachem Begin at a Zionist meeting in PALESTINE. But this statement has not removed doubts, 1948. He arrived in Palestine in 1942 from the Soviet Union, as a member of Polish and His Majesty' s Government therefore now declare forces en route to fight the Germans in the unequivocally that it is not part of their policy that west. Begin deserted and stayed in Palestine should become a Jewish State. They would indeed Palestine to form the Irgun and fight the British League of Nations forces, and later regard it as contrary to their obligations to the Arabs under the Palestinian Arabs © IPS Washington the Mandate, as well as to the assurances which have been

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given to the Arab people in the past, that the Arab population of Palestine should be made the subjects of a Jewish State against their will’. From the 1920s onwards, acts of terrorism were carried out by Jewish Palestinians and non-Jewish Arabic Palestinians (Muslim and Christian) against each other and also against the British League of Nations mandated forces. A landmark terrorist act was carried out by the terrorist group Irgun Zwei Leumi. The British Mandate Headquarters in 1946, located Wreckage at the offices of the Jerusalem Post newspaper at the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, was in February 1948, caused by a car bomb that killed 20 blown up. Over 88 people were killed, Jewish Palestinians. It was planted by terrorists among the including Jewish and Arabic Palestinians and Palestinian Arab resistance forces. British League of Nations Mandate personnel. © IPS Washington In the wake of continued violence, the British Mandate authorities referred the Palestine issue back to the United Nations (the successor of the League of Nations) in 1947. Subsequently, the UN Special Commission on Palestine (U.N.S.C.O.P.) was formed. Great Britain announced that it would not be renewing its League of Nations mandate in Palestine (this was largely due to massive commitments owing to WWII; the fact that in carrying out its League of Nations mandate, it was continually and increasingly subjected to armed attack by both the indigenous and immigrant sectors of the population in Palestine, in addition to persistent political pressures from various other nations, with different agendas). During this period, member nations of the UN General Assembly presented several plans for the partition of Palestine into two states, of which none were agreed to unanimously by all parties involved. In 1947, the UN General Assembly passed a Resolution calling for establishment of an independent Jewish state in Palestine, due to the seeming insolubility of the problem, but also in view of the terrible suffering of the Jewish people under the Nazis, many survivors of which were living in displaced persons (DP) camps in Europe, a fate soon to be visited, in turn, upon several millions of Palestinians of Winter 1948. Some of the 700,000 Palestinian refugees, at the Nahr Al Barid refugee camp in North Lebanon successive generations. The conflict escalated into war © IPS Washington

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when the modern state of Israel was suddenly and unilaterally declared on 14th May 1948, upon the departure of British troops from Palestine. Several Arab neighbouring countries entered the conflict on the Palestinian Arab side, in order to regain rapidly-occupied Palestinian Arab territories. In spite of several armies converging to aid the Palestinians, the Israeli armed forces were numerically (and logistically) stronger than the Arab coalition ranged against them, and fought with more skill. In 1948, over 700,000 Palestinian Arabs were displaced from 14 districts throughout Palestine; 20 cities/towns and 418 villages were depopulated, of which 290 villages were entirely obliterated (383 according to some Israeli historians), many with their names struck from subsequent maps. On some few subsequent Israeli topographical maps of the 1950s, the Hebrew word ‘harus’ [demolished] is over-stamped on many of these former villages. During these tragic events, over 10,000 Palestinians were killed, more than 30,000 wounded, and 60% of their entire population (which was almost 714,000) turned into refugees, exiled to refugee camps and dispossessed, or across borders into refugee camps in Lebanon, Syria and Jordan. The United Nations has an organisation devoted to refugees in the world (UN High Commission for Refugees or UNHCR), but so great was the number of Palestinian refugees, and in such catastrophic circumstances, a specific UN Agency was set up solely for Palestinians, called UNWRA (UN Works and Relief Agency for Palestinian Refugees). The declaration of the State of Israel had instantly nullified the resolutions of the Zionist Congress (the supreme governing body of the Zionist Organization), held at Carlsbad in September, 1921, where one resolution was passed expressing as the official statement of Zionist aims as,

The heart of the Middle East conflict - ownership of land UN staff member (UNWRA) searched at gunpoint for arms by Israeli Army (IDF) outside a Palestinian refugee camp

Courtesy: UNWRA

A family of Palestinian refugees in a tent erected over the rubble of their deliberately demolished home (a war crime under the 1949 genocide act), Khan Younis refugee camp, April 2001. Such cruelties and the resulting inhuman living conditions result in despair, and predictably generate terrorist suicide bombers © UNWRA

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“.....the determination of the Jewish people to live with the Arab people on terms of unity and mutual respect, and together with them to make the common home into a flourishing community, the upbuilding of which may assure to each of its peoples an undisturbed national development. It is also necessary to point out that the Zionist Commission in Palestine, now termed the Palestine Zionist Executive, has not desired to possess, and does not possess, any share in the general administration of the country.” Through the decades since, charges of terrorism have been levelled and counter-levelled at each other, by the two major protagonists of the dispute; Israelis and Palestinians. One side charged that the other hijacked aircraft, bombed and randomly murdered its citizens, assassinated its civil servants, deliberately and indiscriminately, both in the Middle East and at other locations around the world. The other side charged that the creation of a state against the will of the majority was illegal, was followed by forced dePalestinian refugee woman, searching through the rubble of her demolished population and confiscation of land, refusal of refugees’ return, home at an UNWRA refugee camp, oppression of those left behind and 2001 Courtesy: UNWRA defiance of UN Resolutions. Following on from the revolts in 1936 to 1939 and war in 1948, further wars and invasions occurred in 1956, 1967, 1973, 1975 and 1982, related to the Israel-Palestine conflict. These conflicts variously involved Palestinian guerillas and Egyptian, Israeli, Jordanian, Lebanese, and Syrian armed forces. The United Nations has based Military Observers, and later, lightly armed forces, in the Middle East since 1948, and established several mixed-armistice commissions and peacekeeping missions (UNTSO, UNOGIL, UNDOF and UNIFIL). The first United Nations Mediator, Count Folke Bernadotte of Sweden, was assassinated in Jerusalem in 1948, by Israeli terrorists from the Lehi (Lochamei Herut Israel, or fighters for the freedom of Israel) organisation, also known as the Stern Gang. The Stern gang was named after its leader, Avraham Stern. Count Folke Bernadotte of Several terrorists of this gang were later arrested by the newly Sweden established Israeli authorities of that time, for the murder of Count Bernadotte. Count Bernadotte had submitted his recommendations for a The UN Mediator on Palestine was assassinated with a UN Military partition plan which was viewed as unfavourable by the Lehi. They Observer in Jerusalem, 1948, by subsequently decided to assassinate him as a means of frustrating the plan. terrorists from the Stern gang From the 1920s but especially since 1948 until today, terrorist acts © IPS Washington related to the Israel-Palestine conflict periodically continue.

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A very few of the more notable acts are as follows:

Late 1990s. Suicide bombing, Jerusalem, carried out by a Hammas terrorist Courtesy: US State Dept

.

Massacre at Atteel, 1938 Massacre/destruction at Jerusalem King David Hotel,1946 Massacres at Safad, Der Yassin and Jewish Agency, 1948 Massacre and destruction at Qebya, 1952 Massacre and destruction at Al Samou’, 1966 Massacre at the Munich Olympics, 1972 Massacre at Lod airport, 1972 Massacre at Tel al Za’ater, 1976 Massacre at Damour, 1976 Murder/kidnapping of westerners in Lebanon, 1980s Massacres at Sabra and Shatilla refugee camps, 1982 Massacres at Rome and Vienna airports, 1985 Hijacking/murder on ocean liner Achile Lauro, 1985 Massacre at the Al Aqsa Mosque, 1990 The 400 deportations to neighbouring Lebanon, 1992 Massacre at the Hebron Mosque, 1994 10 suicide-bomb massacres in Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Ramat Gan and Ashkelon, 1994-7 Murder of Israeli Prime Minister, Yitzhak Rabin, 1995

A multitude of terrorist acts by individuals on both sides since the September 2001 resurgence of Palestinian revolt against Israeli occupation, from which time until April 2002, more than 1,132 Palestinians and 399 Israelis have been killed. Innocent victims have died throughout the past sixty years of the Middle East conflict, at the hands of terrorists from the many sides, acting either upon orders or independently as individuals. Despite the initial measure of détente resulting from several agreements beginning with the Oslo accords (reached in theory but not practice by Israeli and Palestinian leaders in 1991, 1993), and the peace agreement between Israel and Jordan in 1994, the Peace initiatives collapsed in September 2001. From 1948 until 2002, there were more than 60 UN Resolutions concerning the Middle East conflict. Incidents of open warfare are now commonplace between Israeli forces and Palestinian fighters, using a range of conventional miliary weapons. Terrorism occurs frequently, carried out by nationals of both sides in various scenarios; sometimes by fanatical individuals and groups, acting 1990s. A Palestinian views the rubble of his home after IDF bulldozers demolished it. © G. Azar

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independently and illegally, beyond the abilities of the respective governments and authorities in Israel and of the Palestinian National Authority, to entirely prevent. In the late 1990s, the Israeli government classified a handful of Israeli political groups as terrorist. The government’s domestic security service evaluated them as potentially more dangerous than Palestinian terrorist groups. DFLP crest The reason given for this is that they possess Democratic Front for the FATAH crest the ability, by a single terrorist act, to destroy a Liberation of Palestine religious shrine or target of such importance, it might feasibly inflame the entire Muslim world and possibly trigger a nuclear war. The Middle East conflict is extraordinarily protracted, complicated and not without ironies: A number of Arabic and Jewish Palestinian combatants were wanted for terrorism by the British Mandate (League of Nations / UN) government, amongst which were two who were later to become Prime Ministers of Israel; Menachem Begin (Menahem Beigin) and Yitzhak Shamir (Itzhak Jazernicki or Zernitsky), both originally Polish nationals. Moreover, in 1993 a peace accord was signed in Washington by Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Chairman Yassir Arafat of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO). Interestingly, the latter was wanted for decades for terrorism before renouncing it, and was, in the PFLP-GC crest greater interests of peace in the Middle East, formally Popular Front for the received with the dignities afforded a head of state. Liberation of PFLP crest Palestine - General In the light of the political irony (naturally Popular Front for the Command tolerable when the gun is renounced in favour of the Liberation of Palestine olive branch), it could be held not so much that ‘one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter’, but that ‘today’s terrorists may be tomorrow’s statesmen’. There are ruthless extremists on both sides of the conflict, but in contrast, a significant number of Israeli and Palestinian politicians (as well as many ordinary men and women) devoted to peace, justice and security. Despite the actions of the latter, the extremists often prevail, and people are murdered on both sides of the dispute. Palestinians are noted for suicide bombings and killing Israelis, while Israelis are noted for killing Palestinians in response and deliberate demolition of houses. Prime Minister Rabin was murdered for trying to move peace negotiations forward. An example of an episode in this conflict is as follows: According to the UNWRA internet website (http://www.un.org/unrwa/), ‘On 10th April 2001, the Israeli defence forces (IDF) launched a wide scale military operation at the edge of the western side of Khan Younis refugee Iqhwan ul Muslimeen camp along the border fence of Neve Dekalim crest Hizbollah crest settlement and demolished 32 refugee shelters Muslim Brotherhood

Party of God

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leaving 56 families homeless. Four days later, the IDF launched a military operation near the Salah Eddin Gate in Rafah and demolished 16 houses, including three refugee shelters as well as 20 stores opposite to the IDF military post. This is the type of response that is common after suicide bomb attacks by Palestinian terrorists.’ Of the approximately 714,000 Palestinian refugees that were dispossessed in 1948, tens of thousands of them, over the decades, have since assimilated locally in surrounding countries, and emigrated to the several countries that offered relief. Gaza, February 2002. A Palestinian school hit by an IDF However, most importantly, the number of missile Courtesy: UNWRA successive generations born in refugee camps has swelled the numbers of registered Palestinian refugees to 3.7 million in the Middle East, of which 1.2 million live in 59 UNWRA refugee camps. Most of the remainder live nearby, in refugee settlements, altogether many in indescribable conditions, located in Gaza, the West Bank, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria. They remain dispossessed, since they are refused their legal rights (under International Law) of return and entry to their country of birth, to access their personal land and property, in defiance of UN Resolutions. The most striking contemporary feature of the middle east conflict is the manipulation of the media, wherever possible, in an intensive information and dis-information war, in order to win hearts and minds (and by extension acquiescence or support) of US, European and other major political powers. Consequently, surveys of US and European populations repeatedly find that the average citizen’s knowledge of the dispute is greatly lacking and often distorted. The Middle East conflict continues, the root being the Palestinian quest for the reestablishment of their State. The conflict was escalated in 2002 by Palestinian terrorist suicide bombings in Israel; Israeli military incursions into Palestinian Autonomous Areas; the siege-isolation of Yasser Arafat in his Ramallah compound, and a siege (involving sniper shootings) at the Church of the Nativity (the birth place of Jesus Christ, and Christendom’s holiest site) in Bethlehem. In the first week of May 2002, approximately 50,000 Israelis took to the streets in Tel Aviv, demanding that the government withdraw from Palestinian territories. The following comments of academic interest illustrate the type of trends that are the backdrop to the conflict, and only serve to raise tensions on all sides. These comments are extracts from critiques of both main protagonists in the Middle East conflict. They are from the late Prof. Dr. Israel Shahak (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), a former Chairman of the Israeli Human & Civil Rights League, and a Holocaust survivor of the Nazi concentration camp at Bergen-Belsen: “I want to add something about the Palestinian Authority economy as it is now. I know you are aware how Israel puts the whole economy in fetters, and how it dominates and continues indirectly to exploit it. There are many areas in Gaza where apartments cost as much as in Tel Aviv. The whole economy is pervaded by two things that Arafat instituted immediately when he came here—monopolies and corruption. First are the official monopolies, abetted by the fact that imports to the Palestinian economy

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come from or through Israel—a list, which Sara Roy gave, of fifteen or sixteen products including flour, frozen meat, gasoline. Basically every important product cannot be sold on the free market. You can ask the World Bank and IMF, who tolerate all this. I can only mention that in recent weeks Arafat is being called mini-Suharto. All these products can be sold only to Arafat-controlled monopolies, who then sell them to shops. The distributor-agents are in many cases Fateh activists at the same time, and on top of what the monopoly takes, they take their percentage, as happens in every such system, and in addition to this there is bribery on every level which pervades the whole economy. And by the way, those who most fully exploit this situation are Israeli companies, headed by former employees of the Civil Administration during the time of the military occupation.” Now moving on to a different topic; in terms of numerical death-toll, the greatest post World War II terrorism occurred in Cambodia as a result of the Pol Pot regime. Pol Pot waged a war from 1970 to 1975 to topple the Lon Nol government. Pol Pot (real name Saloth Sar) subsequently undertook a ruthless campaign of terror, called collectivisation between 1975 and 1978. This collectivisation was a complex socio-political programme. It practically emptied the cities, persecuted the intelligentsia, those with foreign connections, linguistic skills or other foreign associations, severed conventional parental links with children and forced the populations to work on the land. Historians estimate that between two and four million Cambodians were murdered by execution, disease, starvation and overwork. This genocide was organised and executed by Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge, a Cambodian communist guerrilla-terrorist force aided by Vietnamese communists. A considerable force, the Khmer Rouge fielded an army, signed pledges in a joint peace-process and at one time retained UN recognition as the official Cambodian government. In 1998, Indonesia’s President, General Suharto, stepped down from his brutal dictatorship. He was responsible for approximately 1 million political murders between 1965 (when he seized power) and 1998, including many on East Timor. Since 1991, in the former Yugoslavia, the world has witnessed instances of terrorism in the form of massacres, depopulation or ethnic cleansing, the establishment of Nazi-style concentration camps with denial of medical and sanitation supplies, wide-spread murder, rape, starvation and torture. Former President Slobodan Miloševi was indicted for crimes against humanity and war crimes, and finally appeared on trial in 2002, at the UN International Criminal Court at the Hague, Netherlands. See Annex Q for photographic evidence of genocide in Kosovo (former Yugoslavia). In Rwanda during 1994 and onwards, the world witnessed terrorism in the form of largescale brutal massacres of Watutsi and moderate Hutu natives, by an organised group of about 8000 Hutu extremists. Estimates range between half a million and one million murdered in Rwanda (often with machetes), which was accompanied by widespread rape and depopulation or ethnic cleansing. This mostly occurred during a 100-day Refugees return in safety period in which the frenzy of savage barbarism British Army Sergeant escorts refugee back on East Timor actually turned some rivers’ colour to red. © Crown

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According to major media reports, over two million people were murdered in a genocide that took place in the east of the Democratic Republic of Congo, from 1994 to 2001. The DR Congo government attributes responsibility to interference by six regional, mostly surrounding African states. In March 2001, US Majority House Leader Richard Armey held a press conference about slavery in Sudan . He stated: “Sudan today is a horror without parallel. It is the only place in the world in which religious genocide takes place. People are being tortured, Restoring order by force mutilated and killed solely because of their Christian British Air Assault Brigade patrol near Skopje in the faith. It is a place where two million people have former Yugoslavia © Crown been slaughtered - more than in Bosnia, Rwanda and Somalia combined.” Four million people in the Sudan have also been displaced during the past 17 years of civil war and many made into refugees. A more aggressive wave of terrorism evolved in the 1990s after the Cold War in the form of several new terrorist groups and umbrella coalitions, sponsoring and committing terrorist acts towards the same ends, and who share a common bond. These groups distort Islam, which they posture as a shield to justify their actions, with the overall objective of destroying the present status quo of eastern and western governments, in order to establish a single, mediæval-style, Islamic state in the world. These terrorist groups are recognised as the most dangerous in the world today. They are: Al Qa’ida (the Base), Afghanistan, partly in Lebanon, the Gulf and many other countries Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat (Salafist Preaching & Combat Group), Algeria Groupe Islamique Armé (Armed Islamic Group), Algeria Armé Islamique du Salut (Islamic Salvation Front), Algeria Gama’a Al Islamiya (The Islamic Group), Egypt Jihad al Islamiya (Islamic Holy War), Egypt Al Jabhah al Islamiyah al Alamiyah li Quital al Yahud wa’l Salibiyyin (International Islamic Front to Fight Jews and Crusaders), inter-linked with Al Qa’ida Their various but closely-related aims are to: Kill Americans (civilians and military) and their allies Create a single pure Islamic revival state (Caliphate) Destroy what they describe as the corrupted aspects of the western system of life Punish corrupt Muslim governments and individuals who support that system Remove US presence from Saudi Arabia (Mecca and Medina; 1st & 2nd holiest Islamic sites) Restore Jerusalem’s Al Aqsa Mosque (3rd holiest Islamic site) to Muslim control Restore Palestine Destroy Israel Apart from vast increases in genocide and depopulation, the overall number of single international terrorist incidents declined in the 1990s in comparison to the 1980s and 1970s. However, in the last 2 to 3 years, the frequency has begun to rise again. The following statistics indicate this pattern:

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YEAR

ATTACKS

CASUALTIES

1979

434

1980

499

1981

489

1982

487

1983

497

1984

565

1985

635

1986

612

1987

666

1988

605

1989

375

1990

437

1991

565

1992

363

729

1993

431

1510

1994

322

988

1995

440

6526

1996

296

3224

1997

304

905

1998

273

6693

1999

392

939

2000

423

1196

2001

348

4649

(Includes dead but not wounded from 9/11)

Despite this decline in the number of international terrorist incidents during the 1990s in comparison to the 1980s, owed mainly to the improved effectiveness of anti-terrorist / counter terrorist forces and technology, many of the attacks that did occur were more deadly and destructive. This is owed to terrorists intelligently selecting victim-scenarios which generate a higher casualty rate (with proportionate publicity) and also due to terrorists utilising explosive devices and weapons with a higher destructive capability. Such explosives are more freely available following the conclusion of the cold war, together with small and medium arms from arsenals disposed of by former Warsaw Pact countries. See Annex F for a map of International Terrorist Attacks by Region for the year 2001.

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Section 1.2 Geography, Types and Origins of Contemporary Terrorism Geography of Terrorism Terrorism now occurs on every continent in the world, sometimes as an extension of localised insurgency or guerrilla warfare. Terrain and climate have little influence upon terrorist activity. It is not uncommon for a terrorist organisation to exist in one country, with or without government consent or the ability to intervene, and besides committing acts in-country, it may commit terrorist acts in a neighbouring country or an entirely different geographic location from the main conflict. An examples of this was the PIRA (Provisional Irish Republican Army) terrorist group, that attacked the mainland UK. Terrorists are sometimes located at a great distance from the area where they commit terrorist acts. This is frequently the case with terrorists from the highly mobile Al Qa’ida network. Other examples of this are: The Japanese Red Army (JRA) who carried out the 1972 massacre at Lod airport in Israel on behalf of Palestinian terrorists The Palestinian Abu Nidal group who carried out the massacres at Rome and Vienna airports in 1985 Inderjit Singh Reyat, an Indian Sikh separatist with dual nationality (British and Canadian), was convicted of Tokyo’s Narita airport bombing, and indicted with Ripudman Singh Malik and Ajaib Singh Bagri for the Air India flight 182 bombing over the north Atlantic The political considerations and the response of the security forces is complicated in those cases where terrorists cross borders and cease-fire lines and also in those cases where hi-jacked aircraft cross into several countries’ airspace. An example of such a complicated case was the Achile Lauro hijacking in October 1985: It was an intended suicide raid into Israel, in response an air attacks on PLO HQ in Tunis The group was led by a terrorist called Abu Abbas (Muhammad Zaidan) The plan went wrong and ending up in the hi-jacking of the Achile Lauro cruiser 500 hostages were taken on board The terrorist demand was for release of 50 Palestinian prisoners in Israeli jails A terrorist murdered an American Jewish passenger in a wheel chair, after an argument

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A Tunis bound airliner with escaping terrorists was forced down in Italy by a US fighter The US issued an arrest warrant and requests for detention of the terrorists Italian authorities let two terrorists, including Abu Abbas, leave Italy on legal grounds Some of the terrorists were later convicted and received long prison sentences This caused political friction between the US and Italian governments Domestic, International and Transnational Terrorism Domestic Terrorism: Domestic terrorism is generally viewed as part of the internal sovereign affairs of a state and refers to nationals or permanent residents of a given country committing or planning terrorist acts within the borders of that country, without external involvement. Domestic terrorism directly accounted for more lives than any other form of terrorism in the th 20 Century; up to an estimated 42 million victims; if genocide, collectivisation, ethnic cleansing (de-population) and purges are duly accepted as forms of terrorism. International Terrorism: International terrorism is generally considered to mean terrorist acts committed, planned or otherwise involving terrorists (who either act independently or are sponsored by their governments), in a foreign country. International terrorism continues to be a source of sometimes grave tension between states and has the clear potential for undermining international peace and stability. An example of this is the conflict in Jammu and Kashmir, which has caused two wars and regularly escalates tension between India and Pakistan. This region is widely considered as potentially the world’s most volatile nuclear flashpoint. In that conflict, both domestic and international terrorism occurs as well as separatist and accessionist guerilla warfare. Transnational terrorism: Transnational terrorism is a relatively recent term, notably mentioned by US FBI Director Louis Freeh, before the Senate Committee on Appropriations in February 1999. Transnational terrorism depends upon the particular circumstances of three elements: Location, motivation and sponsorship. 1.

Location: Location is not a relevant factor for transnational terrorists and may be committed by citizens of the State in which the terrorist act takes place, foreign residents, foreign nationals, visitors, or a combination of these categories. Transnational terrorists have no fixed geographical or national base. They are highly mobile.

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2. Motivation: Transnational terrorists are motivated mostly by a strong personal or religious idea, rather then a broad purely political motive. 3. Sponsorship: States and nations do not mostly sponsor Transnational terrorists. Transnational terrorists obtain their funding from private sources or diversion of legitimate charity funds. In brief, most transnational terrorists are mobile, having no fixed base or boundaries governing where they commit acts of terrorism; are motivated by strong personal beliefs; are ruthless, and independent, being free of government sponsorship. Examples of transnational terrorists are: Osama bin Ladin: Responsible for terrorists acts in the US on 11th September 2001, the 1998 US Embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania, and other acts Ramzi Ahmed Yousef: One of several responsible for the bombing of the World Trade Centre in 1993 and various plots to bomb US and Philippine airlines in 1994 and 1996 Imad Mughniyeh: Known as the ‘Lebanese Carlos,’ who according to media reports was involved, during the 1980s and 1990s, in multiple attacks on US, French and Israeli facilities and nationals in Beirut, Kuwait and Argentina. According to a Jane’s media report (19th September 2001), Israeli Military Intelligence (Aman) believe that Mugniyeh was one of those responsible for planning and directing the attacks of 11th September 2001 in the US. It is reported that Muhniyeh may have undergone plastic surgery in recent times, and is now unrecognisable from his photograph (See Lesson 11. Case Study: Al Qa’ida Terrorism in New York, Washington and Pennsylvania: 11th September 2001) Why some International Resolutions do not focus equally Imad Mugniyeh Courtesy: FBI upon measures to eliminate domestic as well as international and transnational terrorism may only be speculated upon. Avoiding the subject of domestic terrorism may be intended to allay fears by national governments of interference in their domestic affairs.

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This in turn may make it easier to arrive at a definition of international terrorism. Certainly, international, transnational and domestic terrorism are equally as lethal, but domestic terrorism is unlikely to result in war between nations. A partial segregation between domestic and international terrorism has been made by many intelligence and security forces. They tended in the past to divide terrorists into categories according to the ideology of the group. Current security and intelligence trends among some western nations however, are to categorise terrorists as follows: Domestic terrorism: Egotistic terrorists (pursuing goals for their own beliefs) Messianic terrorism (pursuing perceived goals of a messiah or saviour-figure) Domestic and international terrorism: Negotiable terrorists (who may be entered into negotiations with) Non-negotiable terrorists (who refuse to negotiate) Surrogate terrorists (who commit terrorism on behalf of others) Guerrilla Warfare “Guerrilla war is far more intellectual than a bayonet charge” T.E. Lawrence. British Army guerrilla leader in WW1 Arabia The word guerrilla was first used to describe Spanish and Portuguese resistance to French occupation in the Peninsula War from 1808 to 1814. The following were notable examples of guerrilla warfare in the 20th Century: Boer War in South Africa (1899 to 1902), from which the word Kommando became common During World War 1 Arabia (1916 to 1918) In the Spanish Civil War (1936 to 1939) In China (periodically between 1934 to 1969) involving Mao Zedung, a leading guerrilla

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theorist of the 20th century In several theatres of conflict during the Second World War (1939 to 1945) In Cuba (1959) and in Bolivia (1967) when Che Ernesto Guevara, (1928-1967) became a guerilla role model for other aspiring revolutionaries In the Middle East largely (since 1948) In Kashmir (since 1947) In parts of Central American (1962 to 1992) In Cambodia (since 1970 until recently) In Sri Lanka (since 1972) In South West Africa (1979 to 1990) In Peru (since 1990)

Captain T. E. Lawrence in Arabia, 1917. He was wanted by the Ottoman government for blowing up trains and bridges with a [mainly] Bedouin Arab Guerrilla army. When in disguise and reconnoitering Dera’a (in present day Syria), he was arrested by Ottoman troops and tortured during interrogation. Speaking Arabic, he passed himself off as a Circassian, and was subsequently released, whereupon he continued guerrilla warfare until the liberation of Damascus from Ottoman rule.

Of these, the period of the two World Wars is the main era responsible for the evolution of modern terrorism out of guerrilla warfare. Although the First World War was a conventional conflict, beginning with some armies still utilising © IWM cavalry in brightly coloured uniforms, it did witness the first guerilla campaign conducted by a modern government. This occurred in Arabia between 1916 and 1918. In order to facilitate conquering the southern sector of the Ottoman empire, several major Bedouin tribes in Arabia and Syria (and present-day Jordan) were rallied under the name of Grand Sherif al Hussein of Mecca, and united at field-level under a British soldier (T.E. Lawrence). They successfully engaged in a guerrilla warfare campaign, against a conventional Ottoman (Turkish) army, playing a decisive role in the Middle East theatre of World War I. The advantages of this type of warfare were not lost and during the Second World War, irregular guerrilla forces such as the French Resistance (Maquis), Greek partisans, Yugoslav partisans and many other forces of indigenous natives under Axis occupation sprang up, aided and sponsored by Allied forces. At the same time, the Allied armies began to directly field irregular forces led by their own professional soldiers who utilised guerrilla tactics, such as:

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The Chindits, a British unit fighting behind Japanese lines in Burma, composed of Chinese bandits and allied troops, led by Lt. Col. Orde Wingate; Popski’s Private Army (formerly Number 1 Long Range Demolition Squad), a British unit of Libyan exiles, fighting in the western desert and led by Lt. Colonel Vladimir Peniakoff, a Belgium-born white Russian; Merrill’s Marauders, a US special force (Galahad; the 5037th composite force) named after its leader Brigadier Frank Merrill which spearheaded the Chinese Army and carried out operations behind Japanese lines;

‘Lucky’ Laycock (later General Sir Robert Laycock), notable Commando chief and a pioneer of irregular warfare

© IWM

Fuzzy-Wuzzies, consisting of 20,000 Ethiopians led by British Lt. Colonel Basil Ringrose, opposing Italian forces in the southern flank of the western desert; Force Laycock, a British Commando unit led by Major Robert “lucky” Laycock, who in parallel to the Long Range Desert Group (LRDG) and the Special Air Service (SAS), raided and fought commando, guerrilla style actions behind enemy lines; The key allied organisations in irregular and guerrilla warfare during this era were:

The British S.O.E. (Special Operations Executive)

SOE crest

The American O.S.S. (Office of Strategic Services)

OSS crest

Following World War II, several guerrilla warfare campaigns have been carried out involving professional armies. The following three cases are diverse and noteworthy: The first campaign was the Malaya emergency from 1948 to 1960, in which the British Special Air Service (SAS) Regiment and Special Boat Squadron (SBS) conducted a guerrilla warfare campaign against communist insurgents in the jungles of Malaya.

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The SAS eventually decided the campaign through skilful guerrilla fighting but also through pioneering the tactic known as a hearts and minds campaign. A hearts and minds campaign entails befriending indigenous natives and supplying them with services such as medical assistance, technical engineering assistance and supplies such as food and medicines. The objective is that eventually the indigenous natives will no longer hide or support guerrillas and terrorists. Ironically, some of the guerrillas fighting against the British in the Malaya emergency, were trained by the British in World War II, to Malaya 1956 fight a guerrilla war against the Japanese. British soldier waiting for communist insurgents in The same situation has occurred more recently; jungle © Crown some of the Muslim guerrillas associated with the US during the Cold War, that successfully fought and ejected Soviet forces from Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989, now make terrorist attacks on US targets; Osama bin Ladin is one such example. The second campaign involved US special forces in the Vietnam War. They successfully trained the Vietnamese Montagnard tribes to defend themselves against the Vietcong guerrillas, under the programme known as CIDG (Civilian Irregular Defence Group). The third campaign is in Jammu and Kashmir, where Indian security forces field at various times between two and five thousand former militants (who have changed sides) US Special Forces and Montagnard tribesmen move out on a in guerrilla warfare against Kashmiri mission at Ba To, Vietnam, 1969 Courtesy: VWAM / US Army and foreign separatists. They are called Counter-Militants. The 400,000 members of the Indian security forces are thin on the ground due to the large size of the state of Jammu & Kashmir (in total 222, 236 sq. kilometres (85,000 sq. miles). Consequently, in 1996, Indian security forces also created several hundred Village Defence Committees (VDCs) to whom they issued 11,000 weapons with which to defend themselves, guerrilla-style, against Kashmiri or foreign guerrilla-terrorist attacks.

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Emergence of Modern Terrorism from Guerrilla Warfare Post World War II Europe, Arabia, Africa and the Far East had all became witness to modern guerilla warfare and its effectiveness. Subsequently, the lessons learned were put to use by some of the inhabitants of the many countries under colonial rule or foreign mandate, including:

Algeria

Malaya

Cyprus

Mozambique

Kenya

Palestine

In these countries, in addition to guerrilla-type struggles for independence, occasional deviations were made into terrorism. Many of the characteristics and tactics of the guerrilla are now also those of the modern terrorist, such as surprise attack, choice of weapons (the bomb is often favoured by both), concealing identity and illicit arms procurement. Modern terrorism emerged from guerrilla warfare, remains closely related and is sometimes inseparable. Several current insurgency campaigns involve both guerrilla warfare and terrorism, co-existing side by side, such as found in the dispute over the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. Some terrorists are members of guerilla groups whose majority of members do not engage in terrorism, but confine themselves to attacking so-called legitimate military targets or installations. Such attacks are generally termed as guerrilla attacks or irregular warfare. A major stimulus for the growth of terrorism from guerrilla warfare appears to have stemmed not only from the victors of the Second World War, but from a vanquished cadre of former German (Nazi) soldiers. Otto Skorzeni These soldiers took up residence in Egypt after the Austrian guerrilla warfare expert; head of Nazi special forces; post-war Fedayeen war, recruited in the struggle against the then infant state trainer, and suspected key figure in post war of modern Israel. Nazi-aid organisations © M. Wendel [Skalman]

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Besides technical aid, rendered by former Third Reich rocket-scientists not co-opted by the west or Soviet Union, guerrilla and terrorist warfare was taught to Palestinian Fedayeen (Self-Sacrificers - not the same as the word for Martyr which is Shaheed) by former Wehrmacht (Armed Forces) and Waffen (Combat or Armed) SS officers, in order that they could carry out raids inside the newly established State of Israel. This cadre of instructors was at one time led by a former professional commando and head of Nazi special forces, SS Colonel Otto Skorzeni, of wartime acclaim for his mountaintop glider-borne rescue of Benito Mussolini from prison (Gran Sasso), without fatalities to either side. Many conventional guerrilla tactics were taught to the Fedayeen; some were based upon experience gained in Yugoslavia, Greece and other counter-partisan campaigns while other lessons were taught from the ‘SS Werwolf-Kampf-Anwiesung’ (SS CHE GUEVARA Werewolf Combat Instruction Manual*); a resistance, 1960s archetypal South American guerrilla, and hero figure for the left-inclined younger guerrilla warfare and partly terrorism instruction generation, especially in Europe manual, designed for popular German resistance following the victory of the Allies in 1945, before the concept was overtaken by events and rendered inoperable by allied strategy. The Fedayeen later evolved to became Mujahideen (Religious Fighters), who belonged to a variety of groups within or competing with, the Palestinian Liberation Organisation or PLO. The PLO began a campaign of terrorism in addition to carrying out conventional guerrilla warfare. The PLO and other Palestinian Groups were supported to an extent by the Soviet Union as a matter of Cold War policy, together with other regional opponents to Israel, since the Soviet Union viewed Israel as an ally of its opponent, the U.S. During the 1960s, more Middle Eastern groups sprang up, while third countries provided training and resources, and other foreign groups unrelated to the Middle Carlos Marighella East conflict (both guerrilla and terrorist) introduced the Brazilian Politician, Guerrilla-terrorist and author of the mini-manual of the urban new concept of exchange programmes for training and guerrilla

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sometimes terrorist actions. By September 1968, the emergence of a new form of terrorism from guerrilla warfare became clear when the world witnessed a highly publicised terrorist hi-jacking by Palestinian terrorists. It was followed by many more in the decades that followed. The former São Paulo (Brazil) head of the communist party, Carlos Marighella, became a guerrilla and terrorist, forming the organisation Action for National Liberation in 1967. Marighella describes the urban guerrilla profile (as follows below); largely a glamorous myth, since many were in reality, largely unemployable outlaws, who were little better than members of the authoritarian regimes that they opposed. Nevertheless, it enjoyed quite an aura and credence amongst the idealistic social-revolutionary left-wing younger generations of the 1960s in Europe and the US: “The urban guerrilla is a person who fights the military dictatorship with weapons, using unconventional methods. A revolutionary and an ardent patriot, he is a fighter for his country’s liberation, a friend of the people and of freedom.” * Well known books and manuals on guerilla warfare / terrorism warfare are: On War by Karl von Clausewitz. ISBN: 0140444270 The Art of War by Sun Tzu. ISBN: 0195014766 Guerrilla Warfare by Che Guevara. ISBN: 0803270755 The Anarchist Cookbook by William Powell. ISBN: 0-9623032-0-8 On Guerrilla Warfare by Chairman Mao Tse Tung. ISBN: 1-877853100 Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla by Carlos Marighella. ISBN: 0-89712-204-9 Manual of Afghan Jihad by Maktaba al Khidmat (bin Ladin’s ‘Services Office’) SS Werewolf Combat Instruction Manual (SS Werwolf-Kampfanwiesung) ISBN:0873642481 Fighting in the Streets: A Manual of Urban Guerrilla Warfare by Urbano. ISBN: 0918751144

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Section 1.3: Terrorism and Society Terrorism, Guerilla Warfare and the Geneva Conventions The Geneva Conventions are a series of international treaties concerning the laws and customs of war, which began to be ratified and enter into force from 1864 to 1949. Their purpose was to ameliorate the effects of war on soldiers and civilians. A useful guerrilla warfare campaign in which to examine the context of guerrillas and terrorists, is that of Jammu and Kashmir, waged on and off since before the middle of the last century (1947), between conventional Indo-Pakistani wars. In such campaigns it is often difficult to determine whether certain acts are terrorism or are legitimate guerrilla warfare. In any given case, it must first be determined if guerrilla warfare can be considered a legitimate part of the conflict under the Geneva conventions (i.e. resistance to foreign invasion is a clear cut and legitimate cause for guerrilla warfare, with certain provisos regarding leadership, insignia, arms and conduct). In the Kashmir question, both protagonists have opposing views over this. It is necessary to examine the UN Resolutions which refer to the conflict, the Geneva Conventions and the UN Resolution concerning the use of force, in order to draw a conclusion, but this case is in principle, difficult, as Kashmir is in political limbo: The long-pledged plebiscite to determine its future has not been held; the claim by India of Kashmir’s legal accession to India cannot be supported with documentary evidence (the alleged signed instrument of accession and original copies are reported missing), and the signing could not have taken place in the circumstances projected (according to British military transport records which only came to light in recent years), since the air transport to the alleged venue for signing, never took off. The following points summarise guerilla warfare and terrorism in the context of the Geneva Conventions: If not categorised as regular belligerents recognised by the Conventions, combatants engaged in warfare enjoy no protection under the Geneva Conventions unless: Their dress is marked by an identifying symbol They are clearly under the control of a leader They carry arms openly They carry out their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war Many guerrillas do not fit into this category, and thus enjoy no such protection. If guerrillas engage in guerrilla warfare and terrorism, but are recognised as legitimate combatants under the Geneva Convention when captured, they are subject to legislation which applies to the military formations of their captors in that locality. If persons captured have committed terrorist acts and are not combatants according to the Geneva Convention, they are only subject to protections (if any) of the national criminal legislation (and special terrorist legislation if it exists), and military legislation of the locality in which they are captured. There is no mention, protection or privilege under the Hague Regulation of 1907 or Geneva

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Conventions of 1949, for terrorists or terrorism or those who do not conduct themselves according to the laws and customs of war. Terrorism in War and Peace “There never was a good war or a bad peace” US Statesman Benjamin Franklin In general, peacetime terrorism receives much more attention by the media who enjoy wider freedom of access in peacetime conditions. Terrorism in wartime often passes unnoticed in the heat of battle or unmonitored by the media who do not always have free access to war-zones. There is an inherent complication in a conflict where one nation or protagonist does not declare war or one party will not admit the status of a conflict to be a war (especially common in these times, for political reasons). This can make the difference of whether certain acts are categorised as terrorist acts or legitimate acts by belligerents. For example, a terrorist act in peace-time, such as the blowing up of a bridge, may not be considered a terrorist act in wartime. It is illustrated from this that much depends upon the circumstances and each case must be judged upon its individual characteristics, in the absence of precise definitions of terrorism and legitimate struggle. It is a fact that during military operations and the subsequent confusion, terrorism is committed during war-time, on varying scales, for a variety of reasons. In the absence of a set of rules of war (although Aggression has been very generally defined by the UN General Assembly), some acts of war that lie on the borderline with terrorism may by one side be perceived as terrorism, but not by the opposing side. In peace-time, such acts tend to be isolated and subjected to painstaking efforts by criminal justice systems and accompanied by media attention with leisurely analysis.

A clear act of peace-time terrorism Pan Am Flight 103 (the Boeing 747 ‘Maid of the Sea’). Blown up in the air on 21st December 1988 over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing 259 people on board and 11 on the ground. Two Libyan Intelligence officials faced trial (by special arrangement at The Hague under Scottish Law) for this terrorist crime and one was convicted

Photo courtesy of US Dept. of State

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Terrorism and Democracy Terrorism is the antithesis of democracy because it utilises undemocratic means. It uses illegal force and methods to steal or punish or to bring about political or social change, against the will of the majority, outside of democratic process by state legislative organs. As will be discussed further in Lesson 4, democracy offers a favourable environment for terrorists for the following reasons: Anti and counter-terrorist controls in democratic countries are of a much higher quality, but often weaker in effect, in order to protect democratic rights, such as freedom of movement. The chances of detection are less and penalties for terrorism are more favourable in democracies than in dictatorships and other political systems. Media coverage in democracies tends to be of a higher quality, more rapid and widespread; these are attractive considerations for terrorists. The hypocrisies of terrorism (which is mostly oppression committed in the name of freedom) in a democracy are several: Terrorists unilaterally suspend democracy for their own acts Terrorists expect democratic principles to be fully applied to them if captured Terrorists seek special recognition from governments they do not recognise Terrorists avoid mentioning violation of their victims’ human rights The fact that terrorist expectations in a democracy are essentially illogical, in that they demand that a democracy accedes to and implements their demands in an undemocratic fashion, suggests that terrorists not only do not adhere to democracy, but either fundamentally misunderstand it, or are naively optimistic in imagining that this striking anomaly will pass unnoticed.

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KEYWORDS TO NOTE Anarchist

One desiring society without government, or trying to bring it about through terrorism

Ethnic Cleansing

Depopulation or Deportation (a War Crime), often during wartime and associated with genocide (a Crime Against Humanity)

Fedayeen

Arabic. Those who self sacrifice (not the same word as Martyrs, which is Shuhada’a)

Guerrilla

Member of irregular force (often political) engaged in warfare or harassing an army

Islam

The Muslim religion. Monotheistic. Belief in Mohammed as God’s last prophet

Jihad

Arabic. Holy struggle or holy war. Most frequently, Jihad is against own vices

Mujahideen

Arabic. Religious (or holy) fighters. Islamic equivalent of Crusaders

Semite

Descendent of tribe of Shem (Bible Genesis 10), or one speaking a Semitic language

Zionist

Political Movement which acquired territory in Palestine for Jews as State of Israel

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TERRORIST ATTACK BRIEF Attacks at Rome and Vienna International Airports Facts of the Case: On 27th December 1985, seven terrorists simultaneously attacked Israeli El Al airline check-in counters at the International airports in Rome, Italy, and Vienna, Austria. Three terrorists in Vienna and four in Rome used machine guns (AK47 assault rifles) and hand grenades to carry out these attacks. Twenty people in total were killed in the attacks. Four of the killed were terrorists, shot by Austrian and Italian police. The Palestinian terrorist group Abu Nidal (Father of the Struggle) claimed responsibility.

Investigation: The US imposed sanctions upon Libya in 1986, for supporting the Abu Nidal terrorist group. Italy issued arrest warrants for 14 terrorists including Abu Nidal (Sabri al Banna). Austria convicted two terrorists and imprisoned them for life, while Italy convicted one terrorist who also received a life sentence. Al Banna and another terrorist were convicted in absentia, receiving sentences of life imprisonment. This was the case where in defence of Abu Nidal, Libyan Head of state Muammar Qaddafi made the controversial response to US President Ronald Reagan "If Abu Nidal is a terrorist, then so is George Washington."

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END-OF-LESSON QUIZ 1. All acts of terrorism by Muslims are committed in the name of Islam or Jihad. a) True b) False 2. Terrorists come from different religious, social and political groups. a) True b) False 3. Terrorism occurred a) After World War I b) From the 1960s c) Throughout history 4. The most deaths from terrorism were caused by a) Adolf Hitler b) Joseph Stalin c) Pol Pot 5. Terrorism in the Middle East began a) Before 1948 b) After 1948 c) In the 1960s 6. Individual international terrorist attacks reached their height in the a) 1970s b) 1980s c) 1990s 7. Domestic terrorism has accounted for approximately how many lives in the 20th century? a) 4.5 to 6 million b) 20 million c) 42 million 8. Contemporary Guerrilla warfare began a) In the 19th century b) Before World War II c) After World War II 9. Guerrillas are protected by the Geneva convention if their dress is marked by an identifying symbol, arms are openly carried, rules and customs of war are adhered to and they are clearly under the control of a leader. a) True b) False 10. Democracy offers an environment more favourable for terrorists, than authoritarian regimes. a) True b) False

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11. The Achile Lauro hijacking was planned as an intended a) Hijacking b) Suicide raid c) Bombing 12. Who organised and ran several guerrilla resistance campaigns in WWII? a) SOE and OSS b) CIA and MI5 c) SS and Wehrmacht 13. Fedayeen means a) Those who self-sacrifice b) Martyrs c) Religious Fighters 14. Transnational terrorism is delineated by a) Weapons, Resources and mobility b) Motivation, mobility and ferocity c) Location, motivation and sponsorship 15. The Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla was authored by a) Che Guevara b) Carlos Marighella c) Chairman Mao 16. How many Russians are estimated to have died in the ‘Great Terror’? a) 1 to 5 million b) 20 to 30 million c) 40 to 50 million 17. Al Qa’ida means a) Taliban b) Students c) The Base or the Foundation 18. Between 1994 and 2001, how many people did media report as killed in the DR Congo? a) Over 10,000 b) Over 100,000 c) Over 2 million 19. How many Geneva Conventions are there? a) One b) Two c) Several 20. From 1922 to 1948, British Forces in Palestine were a) Acting in British colonial interests b) Effecting League of Nations (then UN) mandated responsibilities for Palestinian independence c) Neither ANSWERS: 1-b, 2-a, 3-c, 4-b, 5-a, 6-b, 7-c, 8-a, 9-a, 10-a, 11-b, 12-a, 13-a, 14-c, 15-b, 16-b, 17-c, 18-c, 19-c, 20-b.

Lesson 2 Definitions, Elements, and Anomalies of Terrorism Section 2.1: Defining Terrorism The Necessity Linguistic Barriers Political Differences Existing Definitions Conclusions Section 2.2: Essential Elements of Terrorism The Four Pillars of Terrorism Cause or Motive Ends and Means Ability Calculation Terror Recognition Publicity Targets and Victims Demands and Coercion Section 2.3: Anomalies of Terrorism Demands Versus Actions Motives; Planner and Operative Co-operation between Terrorist Groups Terrorism, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity Financing Terrorism through Crime Terrorism and Human Rights Violations Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Bombing of US Embassy, Beirut, Lebanon

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Lesson 2 Scope and Objectives Section 2.1: Defining Terrorism This section explains the importance for UN member states to universally define terrorism, and the barriers to such a common definition. The lesson goes on to explain how varying perceptions of domestic and international terrorism result in the pursuit of different definitions. Several differently perceived definitions of terrorism are illustrated. The section concludes with defining terrorism without a strict, clearer definition of modern warfare. After studying this section, the student should be able to: State the necessity for arriving at a common definition of terrorism Discuss political and cultural differences which hinder the common definition of terrorism Understand the linguistic difficulties in commonly defining terrorism Differentiate an international definition of terrorism vs. a definition of international terrorism Discuss how universally defining terrorism could call into question the conduct of war Section 2.2: Essential Elements of Terrorism This section explores the characteristics of terrorism which demarcate it from conventional crime, explains the Four Pillars of Terrorism, and individually explains the essential elements of terrorism. After studying this section, the student should be able to: Discuss the four pillars of terrorism: Motive, Objective, Target and Asset Harm Appreciate that all terrorism has a motive or cause and that terrorists justify means by ends Explain the need for terrorists to convince that they have the ability to commit the act Understand that all terrorist acts are calculated to varying degrees Describe the essential element of terror and how terrorists use recognition and publicity Understand that terrorist motivations, objectives, targets and victims are often separate Section 2.3: Anomalies of Terrorism This lesson describes the anomalies of terrorism and illustrates the differences between terrorist demands and actions; motives of terrorist planners and operatives, and victims and targets. It discusses co-operation between terrorist groups; classing of certain terrorist acts as war crimes, crimes against humanity and human rights violations, and financing terrorism through conventional crime. The Terrorist Attack Brief for this Lesson is the 1984 Bombing of the US Embassy in Beirut. After studying this section, the student should be able to: Compare reasonable terrorist demands with ruthless terrorist actions Appreciate that the architects and perpetrators of terrorism have different motives Understand that the victim of a terrorist act can be different from the target of a terrorist act Describe co-operation between terrorist groups, past and present Recognise the forms of terrorism that are war crimes and crimes against humanity Discuss how some terrorist groups finance terrorism by committing conventional crimes Recall the meaning of the words contained in the Lesson’s Keywords to Note table Recall the basic facts concerning the US Embassy bombing in Beirut

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Lesson 2 Definitions, Elements, and Anomalies of Terrorism Section 2.1: Defining Terrorism The Necessity For Defining Terrorism The necessity to define international terrorism is at the forefront of United Nations criminal anti-terrorism efforts, owing to a steady increase in quantity and diversity of terrorist acts, their links with organised crime, including narcotics-trafficking and the increased dangers posed to global security, specifically peace between states. India and Pakistan are an example of terrorist-inspired tension, bringing nuclear nations to the brink of war. UN efforts are partly facilitated by the end of the Cold War, a period during which guerrilla warfare and to an extent, terrorism, was sometimes sponsored by the protagonists. A definition of terror itself is a critical factor in any legal definition of terrorism. Many definitions exist of terrorism and all use the words terror or fear, but none define them. The terrorist acts of 11th September 2001 have further galvanised UN efforts to reach a common definition, but as yet, unsuccessfully. As a generalisation, domestic terrorism is an issue for the sovereign state or de-facto government and has been fully or partially defined by many but not all states. Many Nations have merely left terrorist acts to be dealt with under ordinary criminal legislation, while others view international definition of terrorism as a prelude to laws being compelled upon their constitutions. The most important reasons that Terrorism should be defined are: To facilitate the formation of a more unified international front against terrorism (which cannot meaningfully decide upon a firm mandate or formulate operational tasks until terrorism is clearly and universally defined); To prevent the practice of terrorists and sponsoring governments using the umbrella defence of freedom-fighting and thereby pursue an end to state-sponsored terrorism To facilitate future legislation for extradition of defined terrorists from safe-haven countries To halt further integration of organised crime with terrorism, including narcotics-trafficking By these measures to seriously suppress terrorism and thereby improve international security by reducing tension between nations Linguistic Difficulties Strangely enough, it is not simply a matter of translation into different languages. Difficulties exist not only in arranging words and phrases in priority, but finding the appropriate words or phrases, which in some languages simply do not exist, or can only be imprecisely translated. Verbatim translation into different languages, of deliberations to arrive at a common definition can be as complex and sensitive as written draft proposals for resolutions. While in theory, the emphasis should be on criminal, legal and linguistic issues, terrorism is often a sensitive political issue and definition debates can be expected to digress periodically into conflict-specific debate platforms.

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Political Differences In some countries, unrestrained TERRORISTS OR FREEDOM FIGHTERS ? use of force against opposition is considered m o re or less as legitimate and is used and supported by several governments. In other countries, governmental human rights abuses are so wide-spread, that terrorism is not viewed as a gross violation of human rights, but as something inconvenient and impertinent to authoritarianism. Another type of political impasse is that Irregular troops on opposing sides: one government might condemn a terrorist who is defended by another go v ern m e n t a s a freedom-fighter. During the Cold War, the Soviet bloc and its satellite countries adopted the position that people who regard themselves as oppressed or exploited have the right to resort to guerrilla warfare (and implicitly terrorism), and the USSR openly declared support for all such causes. In 1977, the Tanzanian Delegate to the United Nations insisted that the UN should recognise the “inalienable right of freedom fighters to take up arms to fight their oppressors” and who could not be prevented from taking their oppressors hostage if it became inevitable. It is furthermore difficult to arrive at a common definition on international terrorism, when different national legislations for even ordinary and conventional criminal offences are so irreconcilable, highlighting various concepts of human rights and cultures. Examples of this are: The death penalty for murder, balanced against life imprisonment Stoning to death for adultery, balanced against no crime and punishment The severing of a hand for theft, balanced against probation or imprisonment

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Some governments fail to agree upon whether the definition of terrorism should be according to: The underlying causes The motivations of the terrorist The nature of terrorist acts carried out Existing Definitions The diverse [random] definitions of terrorism that follow illustrate differing perceptions: INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION: i) Any act causing death or grievous bodily harm or loss of liberty to a head of state, persons exercising the prerogatives of the head of state, their hereditary or designated successors, the spouse of such persons, or persons charged with public functions or holding public positions when the act is directed against them in their public capacity; ii) Acts calculated to destroy or damage public property or property devoted to a public purpose; iii) Any act likely to imperil human lives through the creation of a public danger, in particular the seizure of aircraft, the taking of hostages and any form of violence directed against persons who enjoy international protection or diplomatic immunity; iv) The manufacture, obtaining, possession or supplying of arms, ammunition, explosives or harmful substances with a view to the commission of a terrorist act. RUSSIAN FEDERATION Section IX: Crimes against Public Safety and Public Order, Chapter 24; Crimes against Public Safety; Article 205. Terrorism: 1. Terrorism, i.e. setting off explosions, fires or performing other acts endangering human life, causing substantial damage to property or bringing about other consequences dangerous to the public, in so far as those acts are committed for the purpose of disrupting public safety, intimidating the population or influencing decision-making by the authorities, as well as threatening to commit such acts for these purposes shall be punishable by 5-10 years imprisonment. 2. The same acts committed, a) by a group of persons acting in complicity; b) repeatedly; c) with use of firearms, shall be punishable by 8-15 years’ imprisonment.

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3. The acts referred to in Sections 1 or 2 of this Article, if they were committed by an organised group or through negligence led to a person’s death or to other serious consequences, shall be punishable by 10-20 years imprisonment. Note: A person involved in the preparation of an act of terrorism shall be exempt from criminal prosecution if he or she, by timely notification of the authorities or otherwise, contributed to preventing execution of this act of terrorism and he or she committed no other criminal acts. UK TERRORISM ACT, 2000 (Extracts and Basics): The use or threat of action involving serious violence against a person / where the use or threat is designed to influence the government or to intimidate the public or a section of the public / the use or threat is made for the purpose of advancing a political, religious or ideological cause. It should then involve serious damage to property /endangering a person’s life / creating a serious risk to the health or safety of the public or a section of the public / be designed seriously to interfere with or seriously to disrupt an electronic system. Use or threat of action falling within these sections involving the use of firearms or explosives is terrorism. Notes: Action, person, public, property and government includes those outside of the United Kingdom. US DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE: The calculated use of violence or the threat of violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological. US FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation): Terrorism is the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives. US STATE DEPARTMENT: International terrorism is terrorism conducted with the support of a foreign government or organisation and / or directed against foreign nationals, institutions or governments. DEMOCRATIC AND POPULAR REPUBLIC OF ALGERIA (PENAL CODE; ARTICLE 87): Terrorist or subversive acts are all those intended : a) To spread fear throughout the population and to create a climate of insecurity by causing individuals mental anguish or physical injury, or by endangering their lives, freedom, safety or property b) To impede traffic or freedom of movement on roads or to occupy public places by mob action

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c) To attack symbols of the nation and of the Republic or to desecrate cemeteries d) To interfere with the communications media, the transport system or public and private property, to take possession of them or to occupy them unlawfully e) To harm the environment or to introduce in the atmosphere, on land, underground or in the water, including the territorial waters of the ocean, any substance that might endanger the health of persons or animals or the natural environment f) To interfere with the actions of public authorities, freedom of religion or civil liberties, or with the operation of establishments that serve the public g) To interfere with the operations of public institutions or to attack the lives or property of their agents, or to hinder the enforcement of laws and regulations A WIDELY AGREED DEFINITION OF TERRORISM Terrorism is the use or threat of use of violence, a method of combat, or a strategy to achieve certain targets, that it aims to induce a state of fear in the victim, that it is ruthless and does not conform with humanitarian rules, and that publicity is an essential factor in the terrorist strategy. A. P. SCHMID. OFFICER-IN-CHARGE UNITED NATIONS TERRORISM PREVENTION BRANCH. Long definition: “Terrorism is an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group, or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal, or political reasons, whereby - in contrast to assassination - the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. The immediate human victims of violence are generally chosen randomly (targets of opportunity) or selectively (representative or symbolic targets) from a target population, and serve as message generators. Threat-and-violence-based communication processes between terrorist (organization), (imperiled) victims, and main targets are used to manipulate the main target [audience(s], turning it into a target of terror, a target of demands, or a target of attention, depending on whether intimidation, coercion, or propaganda is primarily sought.” Short definition: “Act of Terrorism = Peace-time equivalent of war crime.”

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Brief Definition

The abstract (but increasingly legislative) term ‘Terrorism’ refers to criminal offences which produce widespread popular unease (namely: murder, wounding, destruction and damage) through overt and ruthless violence. These offences are mostly committed by groups, against random innocent victims or specific structures or resources, using military weaponry, usually in order to coerce or punish governmental authorities or commercial enterprises, for political or social reasons. Detailed Definition Terrorism is : Voluntary act(s) (or the threat), at any location, of Murder Depopulation

Wounding Theft

Abduction Destruction or damage

by person (s), generating public anxiety, during peace, wartime or insurrection; as a tactic to influence or coerce: Governments Groups

Organisations Individuals

with the objective of: Manipulating political, ethnic or social change Deterring law enforcement

Commissioning war crimes or crimes against humanity Enacting vengeance Pursuing esoteric goals

Extortion of money, valuables or services Propaganda benefit

Provisos: - Acting under orders, recklessness or negligence are not defences to a charge of terrorism. - War crimes and crimes against humanity are indictable in their own right (double jeopardy). Notes: 1) Terrorist offences may already be partly or wholly defined and indictable under respective national or international criminal legislation (double jeopardy permissible) . 2) This wide definition: Excludes ordinary criminals engaged in conventional crime; encompasses both terrorists and organised criminal gangs that resort to ruthlessly violent terrorism; includes terrorists who are committing conventional criminal activities to fund terrorism; covers ‘borderline’ terrorists who sometimes commit lesser crimes for socio-political purposes (such as animal rights

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groups). i.e. In short, terrorists and criminals using terrorism, activists committing milder terrorist acts, and also terrorists committing conventional criminal acts to support terrorism, are all catered for under this definition. This avoids the inconsistency and dilemma in which for example, criminals bombing to extort money or murder rivals are not classified as terrorists, but whereby animal rights activists are classified as terrorists (perhaps for breaking a window of a medical clinic), purely upon the strength of having a political agenda (which the criminals do not). Conventional criminals who employ terrorism are also netted under this definition. Application of this definition hinges upon the generation of public anxiety (the modern usage of the word ‘terror’); a phenomenon difficult to precisely measure, but a just, effective and decisive criterion. Moreover, since the offence is terrorism, the necessity for emphasis upon terror, fear or anxiety is self evident. 3) To apply this definition, it is pre-requisite that the following terms are precisely defined in law: Public Anxiety (public knowledge of the act, and common expression or experience of fear, worry or uneasiness) Rules and Conduct of war (Legitimate struggle is generally cited in Article 7 of the United Nations General Assembly Resolution No 3314 on Definition of Aggression). Conclusions Some nations view terrorism as a single phenomena to be suppressed, whether it is domestic, international or transnational, regardless of the source or where it takes place and who is involved. Yet others pursue the elimination of terrorism that is purely international. The phrase international terrorism is perceived by some nations to mean terrorism that originates from outside of the state. Yet others perceive international terrorism as a phrase indicating that terrorism is global and therefore means all terrorism. The consequence of differing views of terrorism become apparent when examining international instruments, resolutions and other documents concerning measures to eliminate or suppress international terrorism. Because of this impasse in perception and objectivity by different member states, the measures must necessarily be very general, in order to gain wide-spread acceptance. These measures may sometimes pose an irritation to terrorists, but they are not measures on the cutting edge of anti-terrorism, and are unrelated to counter-terrorist measures. Despite much imposed involvement from legal and academic quarters in the world, terrorists are restrained and suppressed neither by law bills nor research, but by death or capture by security forces - an issue decided by the latter’s skills, intelligence, imagination, hard work and willingness to take risks. Some of the measures against terrorism pertain to proposals for enhancing national police training and logistics, amending national legislations, seizing terrorist assets, and providing technical and legal assistance on mechanisms to facilitate these measures. Endeavours in this field are mostly termed Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism.

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This could be misleading as some of the measures concern international and domestic terrorism. It must also be clarified that the definition that should be pursued is an international definition of terrorism, not a definition of international terrorism. What is being sought after is a definition on terrorism agreed upon by all, not a definition only of terrorism committed by foreign entities. A recurring problem related to defining terrorism is the segregation of legitimate freedom fighters from terrorists, which nations who sponsor terrorism are reluctant to do. Prima facie, it seems feasible that a universally accepted definition of terrorism could be arrived at by first defining terrorist acts and then incorporating as terrorists, all categories of people (including common criminals if need be) regardless of motive, who knowingly and freely commit those acts. Political problems however, would rapidly emerge. For example, let us consider the case of a bomber who detonates a bomb in a civilian population centre, killing and maiming innocent people. He is clearly a terrorist. The problem arises however, in that if bombing of civilians in population centres is universally accepted as terrorism and those who carried it out are by default, terrorists, then the whole conduct of war (as yet not precisely defined) would be called into question. This is because many innocent persons are regularly bombed and killed in civilian population centres by air attack, the only difference being (in practical not moral terms) the weapon delivery method. Perhaps a solution to this dilemma could be approached by a legal requirement, as in the case of murder, for proof of intent and malice aforethought. This might go some distance in exculpating military duty, if not political responsibility. Existing legislation, treaties and conventions concerning international terrorism have not yet all been signed or ratified in all parts by all states. Concerning the immediate or near future chances of arriving at a common definition of terrorism, there are few indications for optimism, despite the renewed political will, following the terrorist acts of 11th September 2001. Section 2.2: Essential Elements of Terrorism The Four Pillars of Terrorism There are elements essential to, or found in, all cases of terrorism. They are: Cause or motive Ends and means Ability Calculation Terror Victim(s) Target(s) There are also elements which frequently occur, but not necessarily in all cases of terrorism: Recognition

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Publicity Demand(s) Coercion To put all of these elements in context and sequence, in a more logical or scientific structure, most terrorism can be viewed as having ‘four pillars,’ which are linked, in sequence, and dependent upon each other. The FOUR PILLARS of Terrorism are:

MOTIVATION OBJECTIVE TARGET ASSET HARM Motivation precedes objective and although it drives it, can be considered as a ‘sleeping partner.’ The objective of terrorists is the most important factor to them. The other two factors (or ‘pillars’) of target and asset harm, are secondary and are overall, governed by the objective. The target is the entity (body or individual) to be coerced into indirectly achieving the objective for the terrorist. Asset Harm is a phrase meaning wounding (physically, mentally or morally) or killing victims (usually non military) and damage / destruction of buildings, resources or other non-human assets. How the ‘Four Pillars of Terrorism’ are linked and interact is explained in the following way: Terrorists are all motivated. Motivation generates an objective The objective determines what (or who) is to be the target The type of target decides the asset harm that is selected Is what coerces the target so as to achieve the objective

Examples of the ‘Four Pillars’ are as follows Motivation:

Greed / Weakness Intolerance or hatred Frustration

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Unbalanced convictions (e.g. religious or political) Confused altruism (e.g. terrorism for animal rights) Objective:

Targets:

Asset Harm:

Political or religious change Demographic or social change Extortion / Illicit wealth Deterrent Vengeance Government policy making organs Commercial enterprises Law enforcement and criminal justice systems Private individuals Social or rival groups Killing or injuring: • Government employees • Private sector employees • Other random or select victims Destruction or damage of / to: • State owned buildings, resources, other assets • Private buildings, resources, other assets

An example of how the four pillars interact in sequence is as follows, in this hypothetical scenario: A narcotics trafficker is motivated by greed to increase his illicit income (MOTIVATION) The narcotics trafficker forms the objective to deter law enforcement activities, in order to expand trafficking operations and generate this income (OBJECTIVE) To accomplish this, the narcotics trafficker decides to target (coerce) the Mayor’s office that controls police strategies. He issues a threat to the Mayor that innocent civilians will be randomly murdered unless he restricts police anti-narcotics efforts (TARGET) To re-enforce his threat (or if it is ignored), the narcotics trafficker causes asset harm by murdering random civilian victims in a bombing (ASSET HARM) This cycle of violence continues until the demand disappears (terrorist apprehended or killed, situation changes etc) or is met. If the demand is met, the cycle reverses:

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i.e. Asset Harm overwhelms the target (who concedes to demands), achieving the objective, which satisfies the motive. Cause or Motive There is no accidental terrorism. All terrorists have a cause, motive or reason, (discussed in detail in Lessons 3 and 4) for committing their acts. Even individual terrorists who are clinically insane, have reasons for committing their acts, despite the fact that they may be invalid, absurd, illogical or unintelligible. Often, an important part of terrorism is communicating the terrorist cause to media, forces of law and order, the target and the victim, variously, depending upon the circumstances of the case. Ends and Means Terrorists always justify the means by the end, regardless of law, ethics, morality, logic, religion or cost. This is to say that no matter what the terrorist act may be, it is always justifiable to the terrorists, because it is a means of achieving their goals. Ability Terrorists must have the ability to carry out their act, or in the case of hoaxes, they must convince the target and / or victim that they have the ability. Achieving the ability to carry out a terrorist act is usually the most IRA bombing of British Army Barracks, Northern Ireland, UK difficult and vulnerable stage of © Crown terrorism; obtaining the materials and equipment for a terrorist act, is a likely stage for being detected by security forces that monitor legal and illegal sources of small arms and explosives. Calculation Political, religious or social terrorist acts are not as random as they sometimes appear (although the victims often are) and are usually subject to careful advance planning. With careful planning, all aspects are calculated, including financial, political, logistical and security issues, almost along the lines of a military or commercial operation. Despite this, the effects of a given terrorist act are not always evaluated well and are sometimes too excessive. Public terror can turn partly or wholly to anger or alienation of the terrorist cause. This is counter-productive to gaining public sympathy from those on the fringe of belief in the terrorist cause.

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It is also counter-productive to instilling the fine state of fear that the terrorists wish to achieve in targets and populations. This has sometimes been the case with terrorist acts committed by factions involved in the Northern Ireland conflict. Such ill-judgement is sometimes termed as an overkill or an intelligenceblunder. An example was the Omagh (Northern Ireland) bombing in 1998, in which 23 people were killed and 200 wounded. It was carried out by members Death leaving the mouth of Hell to hunt a new victim From: The Boke Names the Royal, London, 1507 of the so called Real IRA and drew worldwide condemnation. Many terrorists calculate that once they induce a fine state of fear, the public pressure may force the government in question to accede to the terrorist demand, just in order to obtain peace and security again. From a government view point, acceding to terrorist demands and even engaging in dialogue with terrorists is viewed as politically dangerous. Terrorist calculation and planning demands above-average intelligence, but above all, cunning; this often accounts for the low rate of detection; overall, few terrorists ever face trial. Terror “He who terrorises is himself the more terrified” Claudian; Panegyricus de Quarto Consulatu Honorii Augusti. Terror, fear or anxiety induced by terrorists is variable. It may be pre-determined (and evaluated) if the threat is clearly communicated by the terrorists prior to their committing a terrorist act. Although some acts of terrorism are committed with no prior warning, they still induce terror, but post facto, or after the act. This is so in the cases of contract and punitive terrorism; it is not coercive and is sometimes called sub-conflict terrorism. This means that the terrorists have no objective or desire to negotiate. Terrorism in general, requires a fine state of fear, not too little, but also not too much so that the act causes excessive alienation or public anger. Recognition Political, religious or social terrorists seek recognition and by extension, acceptance for their cause. They view themselves not as terrorists, but as rebels to oppression. Those terrorists that are prepared to negotiate, first pursue recognition. These types of terrorists

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present their cause to the media, forces of law and order, victim or target and pursue acceptance of it, partly through threat, fear and coercion and wherever possible, by persuasion of their cause. Their preferred primary objective [usually] is concession through negotiation, before resorting to ruthless violence. However, to establish themselves as a terrorist group, they often have to commit a terrorist act beforehand, in order to gain credibility. Terrorists who are non-negotiable or sub-conflict, care little for recognition and only resort to further terrorism until radical change or concession is forthcoming; the quest for vengeance is satisfied; they are detected or killed by security forces, or they become dormant. Publicity It has been said that the oxygen of terrorists is publicity, and accordingly, some terrorist acts are as spectacular and high profile as possible. There are exceptions to this however, as the discovery of mass-graves years after an act of genocidal terrorism would indicate. Yet other terrorists seek no publicity and conceal their identity as far as possible; an example being the terrorist who placed a pipe bomb at the Atlanta Olympic games in 1996, Eric Rudolph, later identified and indicted. Most military or paramilitary terrorists who have engaged in de-population tend to avoid publicity in the same way organised criminal gangs who commit contract terrorist bombings or assassinations avoid publicity. There is a direct correlation between desired amounts of terror, publicity and the terrorist act. i.e. Terrorists who seek to achieve wide-spread terror, need to generate wide-spread publicity; consequently, they tend to commit suitably outrageous terrorist acts in media-favourable circumstances, in order to generate the desired degree of publicity. Publicity is essential for terrorists seeking to coerce a government or a regime. Achieving publicity and media coverage in democracies is easy and practically guaranteed, but publicity is mostly denied or minimised in totalitarian and undemocratic societies where media is strictly controlled by the state. The media have a major, if formally unaccepted, responsibility in the amount of terror generated. Occasionally, a few media organisations experience a clash of interests: Sensationalism should be limited, but it conflicts with the commercial interest of media enterprise Vietcong terrorist bombing in the middle of Saigon, 1969 Courtesy: US Army to sell news. Sensationalism is also often incompatible with the notion that all information must be freely disseminated in order to safeguard democracy; a responsibility that some sectors of the media have assumed for themselves. Moreover, the fashion in which political issues are sometimes presented in the media, can incite violence and thereby undermine democracy.

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It is widely held that the terrorist events of 11th September 2001 were not only portrayed with a high degree of professionalism and suitable moderation by the media (in general), but directly contributed to unifying the national and international response during the aftermath. The customary sensationalism which characterised media coverage of terrorism for several decades, was notably absent. Victims and Targets

A Bomb in a public place where there are likely to be many victims, as portrayed in this contemporary antiterrorism warning poster. The most common terrorist pattern does not change: attacking innocent victims in order to coerce governments.

“If you are terrible to many, beware of many” Periander (Ausonius); Septem Sapientum Sententim. IV/1.5

There are always victims and targets in cases of terrorism (see the ‘Four Pillars of Terrorism’ earlier in this Lesson). Sometimes the victim and target are one and the same. Victims and targets are discussed in depth in Lesson 2.3 Anomalies of Terrorism; (Segregation of Victim from Target) and partly in Lessons 8 and 9. In the media, the word ‘target’ is used interchangeably with the word ‘victim,’ as if they are one and the same, which in fact, they are usually not. Courtesy: New Scotland Yard

Demands and Coercion Demands are what terrorists ask from the target in order to achieve their objectives. In most cases, if the demands are not met, terrorists commit acts of terrorism in order to coerce the target into meeting the demands. Some examples of terrorist demands are: The release prisoners

of

A ch an ge legislation

in

Ransom money Independence

VICTIM A young Kashmiri girl raped and beaten in the Jammu Kashmir Conflict

© KLC

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Reasons that Governments can be coerced are because they: Are accountable for public safety Have the power to meet demands or make concessions Try to avoid anti-Government unrest (generated by loss of life if demands are not met) Section 2.3: Anomalies of Terrorism Demands Versus Actions Except for certain types of Armageddonist (doomsday and final judgment) and contract terrorism, the most striking anomaly about terrorism is that in most cases, terrorists project themselves as social freedom fighters, engaged in a legitimate democratic struggle against some form of oppression. The anomaly here lies in the truth that terrorists themselves oppress people and are undemocratic. Terrorist actions are usually the antithesis of terrorist demands. The demands appear sometimes reasonable (in reality, they are glib), but their actions are often outrageous. Simply put, terrorist demands are irreconcilable with their actions - they make democratic demands and commit undemocratic actions. Terrorist acts are in some cases coercive actions carried out for non-compliance with preceding demands. The cycle of demand and action often continues until the demands are met, the terrorists are apprehended or a compromise is achieved. Compromise however, is not possible with those terrorists who are classified as non-negotiable or sub-conflict. Motives; Planner and Operative “Who here really believes that we can win the war through the ballot box? But will anyone here object if, with a ballot paper in one hand and the Armalite in the other, we take power in Ireland ?” Danny Morrison, Sinn Fein Conference, October 1981 The motives of the terrorist who plans or organises a terrorist act may not always be shared by the terrorists who carry out the acts. As in the case of common criminal activity, the organisers are frequently too prudent to risk being caught in the act or to expose themselves to almost certain danger from security forces. Bin Ladin and Sheikh Omar (Al Qa’ida and Taliban) are examples of this type of terrorist planner. Instead, they motivate then manipulate other, less intelligent persons to carry out terrorist acts for them. The terrorist planner may lie openly, and support and encourage the personal motives of the

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terrorist operative, just in order to inspire him. In the cases of religiously manipulated [mostly Islamic] terrorists, the planners promise and frequently re-enforce belief in suicide bombers’ unlimited martyr’s rewards in paradise. There is often more than one motive for a terrorist; sometimes, it is a mixture of political and religious considerations, and frequently egotistical and financial considerations. Co-operation between Terrorist Groups Co-operation between left-wing and anarchist terrorist groups was not uncommon during the 1970s and 1980s, when notable exchange-terrorist acts were undertaken, especially related to the middle-east conflict. A notorious example of this was the Tel Aviv Lod airport massacre in 1972, in which 24 persons were killed and 74 wounded, undertaken by terrorists of the Tokyo-based Japanese Red Army (JRA), on behalf of Palestinian terrorists. Co-operation between terrorist groups became less common at the beginning of the 1990s, because most terrorists had realised by then, the security risks involved of sharing information with outside groups that may have been penetrated by security forces. Hizbollah in Lebanon were (and still are) an example, with a deep mistrust of Palestinian and other Lebanese guerrillas and terrorists, as they believe them to have been penetrated by agents working for Israeli intelligence. By 1993, some terrorist groups were beginning to cooperate again and [in 1993], the first World Trade Centre bombing showed that different terrorists (but not necessarily from specific groups) were once more forming alliances, but this time for specific transnational terrorist acts. This was the case in the 1998 US Embassy bombings in Nairobi and Dar as Salaam, Africa. During the 1970s and 1980s, many of the groups who undertook missions for other groups shared common or similar political sentiments. Such groups included those who were antiwestern, anti-capitalist, anti-totalitarian, antiimperialist and sometimes anti-Zionist. The Baader-Meinhof gang or Red Army Faction is an example of such a group. Following the conclusion of the Cold War, the number of such politically extreme-left terrorist groups Andreas Baader and Ulrika Meinhof decreased with the decline of Communism. Few The Red Army Faction announced a cessation of activities, but members of it are still sought for remain active, but these groups are not all extinct terrorism. One of these was Horst Ludwig Meyer. however; some remain only dormant. After being stopped for a routine check in September 1999 by Vienna police, he opened fire, and In late September 2001, six Algerian absconded. He was shot dead a short while later terrorists of the bin Ladin-linked Salafist Group when cornered and firing again. The Red Brigades for Preaching and Combat were arrested in (Brigate Rosse), a peer group of the same era, were thought to be dormant, but re-activated in the 1990s. Spain, while supplying Chechen terrorists with false travel documents. This illustrates the resurgence of international cooperation and mobility that is again taking place between terrorist groups. As the events of 11th September 2001 show, transnational terrorists have firmly emerged to

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perfect the concept of coalition and exchange terrorism. The characteristics of these terrorists are as follows: Almost invariably, Islam is thoroughly distorted and projected as a legitimate shield * No self-constraints are placed upon mobility or location These terrorists are of above average intelligence, ability and cunning These terrorists are ruthless, risking a strong likelihood of death or life imprisonment This category of terrorist is non-negotiable as their general demands are unimplementable These terrorists may commit a terrorist act together, but disperse and never meet again * Exceptions exist to this generality, as some transnational terrorists are non-Muslims and have no involvement in projecting Islam as a justification for terrorism. An example is the 2001 interaction (exchange of training, arms and intelligence) in Colombia between the some members of the Real IRA, other groups, and FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia). Terrorism, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity “There is no denying that Hitler and Stalin are alive today.............they are waiting for us to forget, because that is what makes possible the resurrection of these two monsters” Nazi-hunter Simon Wiesenthal, at a meeting with US President Carter in 1980 War crimes and crimes against humanity generally mean massacre, genocide or other forms of brutal persecution or savage barbarism, against civilian populations or prisoners of war. There are three main interpretations concerning these breaches of humanitarian law and conduct: Crimes Against Peace: Planning or commencing a war of aggression War Crimes: Murder, ill treatment or deportation of civilians in

War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity - Depopulation and Genocide. Warsaw ghetto, 1943

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occupied territory Crimes Against Humanity: Persecution of civilians of a specific racial, religious or political group, in peacetime or in war, at the level of genocide These crimes generate a great deal of terror and often result in the rapid displacement of populations, who become refugees. Ejecting populations is one of the objectives of so-called ethnic cleansing. Ethnic cleansing is a war crime, specifically termed as Depopulation (or deportation) and is often accompanied by Genocide (a Crime against Humanity). War crimes and Crimes against Humanity are all forms of terrorism and are human rights violations. Financing Terrorism through Crime Terrorists sometimes engage in conventional criminal activity in order to obtain funding. For example, they commit ordinary crimes like bank robberies in order to be able to finance their terrorist acts. A terrorist group heavily engaged in conventional criminality in order to fund terrorism, is the PKK (Kurdish Workers Party). The PKK smuggle illegal narcotics into Europe. Their trafficking amounts to an estimated 56 million Deutschmarks (street value) per annum Between 1985 and 1994, 315 PKK members were convicted of narcotics trafficking in Europe, of which 154 were arrested in Germany The PKK extort money from Kurdish communities all over Europe. Some of the profits fund the PKK and its activities

Making the West fund terrorism against itself. Considerable amounts of Illegal drugs profits generated in Europe and the US are used to fund terrorism. Examples of groups using drug profits for terrorism on the large scale are: The PKK (Kurdistan Workers’ Party, aka the Congress for Freedom and Democracy in Kurdistan) and the former Taliban / Al Qa’ida regime in Afghanistan

Another example of such a group is the Photo: Courtesy: Interpol Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA). They were engaged in many forms of crime, ranging from narcotics trafficking to extortion, although this has diminished since they declared a cease-fire in 1994. The PIRA are so deeply involved in racketeering and conventional criminality, that some

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politicians evaluate their criminal activities as likely to endanger any lasting settlement to the Northern Ireland conflict. Some Loyalist terrorist groups opposing the PIRA also engage in the same types of criminal activity. Conventional crimes engaged in (directly or indirectly) by terrorists include: Armed bank robberies Trafficking in human beings Anti-terrorist Observation Post: British Internal Security Forces, Northern Ireland © Crown

Narcotics trafficking Money laundering

Diamond smuggling Organised prostitution Other lucrative vice offences Blackmail Extorting money from members of local communities Kidnapping for ransom money Copyright infringements (pirating) The illicit revenues generated all over the world from these types of crime are enormous and should not be underestimated. Here are some statistics: Global money laundering profits exceed US$ 1 trillion per annum Narcotics trafficking profits range from US$ 300 billion to US$ 500 billion per annum In 1997, some 700,000 women and children were forced into sexual slavery and ‘exported’ US Copyright infringements (pirating) costs US businesses approx. US$ 24 billion per year

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Terrorism and Human Rights Violations Whatever the terrorist act may be, all terrorist acts are violations of human rights, the general foundation of which is the right to life free from fear and oppression. No terrorist respects or recognises human rights, except his own, or unless it serves his purpose. Terrorists and those governments who sponsor terrorism, are in breach of the provisions of: The [UN] Universal Declaration of Human Rights International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights UN Convention against torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment European Convention on Human Rights The resolutions on human rights and terrorism adopted by the UN General Assembly on 22nd December 1995, (50 / 186) re-iterated ‘grave concern over the gross violations of human rights, perpetrated by terrorist groups and the increasing number of innocent maimed by terrorists in indiscriminate and random acts of violence and terror.’

The right to freedom of religion - one of the articles in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UN) and several national legislations. British Army Anti-terrorism patrol outside the Serb Cathedral at Pristina, Kosovo - a prime terrorist target following Serbian armed forces’ war crimes © Crown

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KEYWORDS TO NOTE Ability

The fact of being able to accomplish something. Skill or strength

Calculation

To estimate, think out or reckon

Coercion

To compel, or restrain by force

Collateral Damage Definition of International Terrorism Demands Ends & Means Freedom Fighter International Definition of Terrorism

Human victims and non-human damage or destruction of assets A definition of Terrorism committed or involving (other than as victims) a person or government that is classified as foreign in the country of attack Claims, requirements, things insisted upon Results and methods / consequences & Instruments Fighter in armed movement for liberation from tyranny or occupation A definition of Terrorism, that is agreed to among all nations (internationally)

Motivation

Incentive, inducement, driving force

Objective

Goal or aim. Desired result

Publicity

Information or act being made known to the public through media

Recognition Target

Acknowledgement or praise An objective or an entity or person aimed at or focussed upon

Terror

Extreme fear, anxiety or dread. Adopted from the 14th century French word Terreur, which was derived in turn from a Latin root: Terrere = to frighten. Terror is also the source of the English word ‘deter’. The word terror came into common usage during the French Revolution, owing to the new Revolutionary government’s vengeful conduct during a period known as La Terreur

War Crimes & Crimes Against Humanity

Indictable crimes during war and violation of international laws governing accepted norms of human conduct. e.g. Depopulation & Genocide

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TERRORIST ATTACK BRIEF Bombing of US Embassy, Beirut, Lebanon Facts of the Case: On 20th September 1984, a pick-up truck filled with explosives skidded around several barriers and obstacles guarded by US soldiers. The pickup truck entered the compound of the newly relocated US Embassy in the East (mostly Christian) sector of Beirut, Lebanon and exploded 10 yards away from the embassy annex. Twelve people were killed in addition to the suicide driver. The terrorist group 'Islamic Jihad' called in and claimed responsibility. Investigation: After a month, US Investigators found evidence implicating the Shiite group 'Hezbollah', with Iranian government sponsoring in the form of explosives and related materials. Hezbollah and Iran denied all responsibility. The US Government (Reagan administration) did not retaliate directly in this case, apparently due to political and logistical constraints. Earlier in the year, on 16th March 1984, William Buckley, Political Officer and CIA Station Chief for Beirut, had been abducted when going to work, in the basement garage of his apartment block (beaten unconscious with a rock-filled attache case, put on the floor of a car and driven away, out of the garage) and later killed, allegedly by terrorists belonging to Hizballah. During the previous year, the US Embassy in Beirut was also blown up by a suicide bomber. The bomb killed 63 people including seven CIA officers and five DIA Officers attending a regional conference on terrorism.

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END-OF-LESSON QUIZ

1. The most important reason for a universal definition of terrorism is to a) Separate terrorism from guerrilla warfare b) Identify terrorists c) Unify efforts for the suppression of terrorism and thereby improve international security 2. One of the political problems which frustrates efforts to define terrorism is a) Opposed left and right wing political ideologies b) Some governments defend terrorists as freedom fighters c) Legal difficulties 3. A government might have several different definitions of terrorism within its various law enforcement agencies. a) True b) False 4. All nations seek a universal definition of both international and domestic terrorism. a) True b) False 5. It is easier to first define acts of terrorism and then to define terrorists as those who commit the terrorist acts. a) True b) False 6. What are the ‘four pillars’ of terrorism? a) Motivation, Alienation, Attack and Response b) Motivation, Objective, Target and Asset Harm c) Reconnaissance, Logistics, Planning and Execution 7. Terrorists do not always justify the means (terrorist act) by the end (objective or result). a) True b) False 8. Terrorists are vulnerable when a) Planning the terrorist act b) Delivering their threat c) Obtaining the materials and equipment for the terrorist act

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9. Terrorists sometimes commit acts of terrorism so outrageous, that instead of inspiring public terror, it results in widespread public anger and alienation of the terrorists and their cause. a) True b) False 10. Terror is created a) After a terrorist act b) Before the terrorist act c) Before or after the terrorist act 11. All terrorists seek recognition and publicity. a) True b) False 12. The amount of publicity for a terrorist act is proportionate to the a) Size of the terrorist group b) Scale of the terrorist act c) Terrorist weapons used 13. Terrorists usually decide the scale of the terrorist act that they will commit, according to the amount of terror that they wish to create. a) True b) False 14. Terrorists project their demands as a) Always reasonable b) Part of a legitimate struggle against oppression c) Legal rights 15. The planner of a terrorist act and the terrorist who carries out the act share the same motives. a) Sometimes b) Always c) Never 16. The victims and targets of terrorism are a) Always the same b) Sometimes the same c) Never the same 17. Terrorist groups co-operate a) Never b) Frequently c) Sometimes

Lesson 2/ Definitions, Elements, and Anomalies of Terrorism 18. De-population (ethnic cleansing), war crimes and crimes against humanity are a) Sometimes forms of terrorism b) Not forms of terrorism c) Always forms of terrorism 19. Terrorists sometimes commit conventional crimes in order to a) Finance their terrorism b) Increase terror c) Coerce governments 20. Terrorism is a violation of human rights a) Sometimes b) Usually c) Always

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ANSWERS: 1-c, 2-b, 3-a, 4-b, 5-a, 6-b, 7-b, 8-c, 9-a, 10-c, 11-b, 12-b, 13-a, 14-b, 15-a, 16-b, 17-c, 18-c, 19-a, 20-c

Lesson 3 Justifications Proclaimed by Terrorists Confronting Oppression Independence Struggle Resistance to Military Occupation Religious Duty Political Conviction Social Conviction Pursuit of Mystical, Doomsday or Messianic Goals Restoration of Past Social or Religious System Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Restaurant Bombing in Madrid, Spain

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Lesson 3 Scope and Objectives This lesson discusses the different types of reasons or motives that terrorists publicly project as justifications for carrying out acts of terrorism. Those reasons include confronting oppression, struggle for independence, resistance to military occupation, political, social or religious convictions, esoteric and historical objectives. The Terrorist Attack Brief for this Lesson is the 1985 Restaurant bombing in Madrid, Spain. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Comprehend that some terrorists view their actions as legitimate and cite their justifications Realise that there is sometimes more than one motive for terrorism Understand the different meanings of accession, secession, independence and separatism Explain the motive of religious duty Describe the differences between social, mystical, doomsday and messianic justifications Quote an example of terrorism in order to restore a past social or religious system Recall the meaning of the words contained in the Lesson’s Keywords to Note table Recall the basic facts concerning the 1985 restaurant bombing in Madrid, Spain

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Lesson 3. Justifications Proclaimed by Terrorists There is sometimes a single reason or motive for terrorism. In many other instances, there is clearly a combination of motives. For the purposes of clarity, each motive, reason and proclaimed justification for terrorism is separately discussed in the next two lessons of this course. Confronting Oppression “When liberty comes with hands dabbled in blood it is hard to shake hands with her” Oscar Wilde (1854–1900), Anglo-Irish author and playwright Confronting oppression refers to oppression by governments. This can take many forms, but essentially, oppression by governments in authoritarian regimes takes the following forms: Political Religious Ethnic Practical oppressive measures can be imposed in authoritarian regimes by: Government Officials Police Armed Forces Civilian groups with Government support Both guerrillas and terrorists use the justification of confronting oppression. In some cases it is true, while in other cases, it is not true and is simply used as a cover for other, hidden motives (discussed in Lesson 4). There are governments who oppress their populations and resistance is widely accepted as justified, but terrorism can never be justified. An example of a conflict which results from claims of oppression is in Kosovo from 1998 to 1999. The Serbian police and army and also their opponents, the Kosovo [Albanian] Liberation Army (UCK), have all resorted to terrorism in the conflict. When terrorists claim they are opposing political tyranny, it is sometimes, in reality, an inability by the terrorists to achieve political objectives through ordinary political mechanisms. An example of this is the Mutahidda (formerly Mohajir) Quami Movement (MQM) or United (National) Refugee Movement, which in 1996 began an ongoing campaign of terrorism in Karachi

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against Pakistan Government Forces. One justification given by the MQM was that the government failed to redress inequalities concerning refugee migrant issues such as freedom of travel, health care, education and identity documents (citizens who were Muslim immigrants from 1947partitioned India do not have equal legal rights). An example of a US terrorist group that claimed political oppression were the Weathermen or Weather Underground, an offshoot of the Students for a Democratic Society or SDS. They later changed their name to the Non-sexist Weather Underground. Their proclaimed causes were to: Stop racism Put an end to the Vietnam War They stated that the US exploited people around the world and therefore deserved to be defeated by the communists. They detonated twenty bombs in all, during the 1970s. The oppression they claimed was in fact a shield for a different motive; political frustration (since most Americans strongly opposed communism). This rejection by society widened after they resorted to terrorism and alienated further sectors of US society. Confronting religious oppression is sometimes claimed as a defence to terrorism, especially by minority groups whose members commit terrorist acts. Sometimes, it may be an authentic case of oppression, or it may just be a cover-story for another motive such as religious fanaticism. An example of terrorism involving religious oppression is in Pakistan, where some very small terrorist groups (Sunni and Shiite Muslim) quite regularly commit terrorist attacks against each other for reasons of intolerance and in response to intolerance. Some of these groups also attack Christians and the few Hindus left (who are in too weak a position to defend or respond). Confronting ethnic oppression is a reason sometimes used by terrorists to defend their actions. Several current conflicts in the world stem from ethnic oppression. An example of a group involved in this type of conflict was: The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (FRETILIN) Prior to agreements for full independence in May 2002, FRETILIN conducted a low-intensity insurgency and terrorism campaign for separatism, and although the group did not attack foreign visitors, it brutally slaughtered political prisoners that it held in detention. Besides the military response and oppression by the Indonesian government at that time, prior to the independence process, this conflict was aggravated as outside Javans were encouraged by the government to settle on the island of East Timor, in order to change the demographics. Sometimes oppression of one ethnic minority is carried out by another ethnic minority within a society. An example of such a cyclic conflict involves Assyrians in Turkey. Besides illegally pursuing separatism from Turkey, some parts of the Assyrian ethnic community have formed political groups amongst whom there are terrorists, who respond to what they allege as ethnic and religious oppression (such as attacks on their religion, destruction of their churches and culture) by

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PKK (Kurdish Workers Party) terrorists. Kurds similarly attacked Armenians in early 20th century Turkey. Some members of Assyrian (Ashuryeen) groups are domiciled in Europe, and in 1997, they violently demonstrated, breaking into the United Nations Offices at Geneva. Notable Assyrian groups are: Hezb ul Tahrir Al Ashur (Assyria Liberation Party) Asur Kurtulus Partisi (Assyrian Salvation Party) Independence Struggle Terrorism was (and occasionally still is) a part of many guerrilla struggles for independence. Independence means either being liberated from a foreign occupying power, or the quest of separating from an existing state and the forming of a new state. An example of a conflict like this borders Afghanistan, in neighbouring Jammu and Kashmir, where some indigenous guerrillas and terrorists (termed there by local SAS jungle patrol, Borneo 1963 security forces as Militants) seek an Chinese backed communist insurgents unsuccessfully tried to wrest the government from the Sultans in this British protectorate, under the independent new country called guise of supposed independence struggle © Crown Jammu and Kashmir. Yet other indigenous groups involved in the Jammu and Kashmir conflict wish to become part of Pakistan, a desire known as accession. In other parts of the world, some terrorist groups seek secession. Secession means to separate from the country which they are part of without necessarily specifying independence or union with another country afterwards; they merely seek separation from their existing country. Any type of demand to detach from an existing country can be called separatism. Sometimes, the quest for independence is legitimate and provided for in UN Resolutions. In other conflicts, the demand for independence is clearly not legitimate. In most cases, demands for independence are controversial and involve terrorism. Resistance to Military Occupation Resistance to military occupation is an often cited justification by terrorists and guerrillas. It refers to resisting military occupation by invading foreign forces. Terrorism however, is neither justified nor legal in any type of military occupation.

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Whether or not resistance to military occupation may seem justified, it must be viewed under international law and any UN Resolutions that may exist concerning the specific conflict in question. Guerilla warfare may be justified in certain circumstances under the UN Charter and UN Resolution which defines aggression, but terrorism is not. Invasion and military occupation are conflicts involving sovereignty and are frequently characterised by much emotion and violence, often in the form of terrorism. An example of a conflict involving resistance to military occupation was that in south Lebanon. Hizbollah (Party of God) is a group which has engaged both in guerrilla warfare and terrorism variously, although in recent times there has been a cessation of indiscriminate rocket attacks over the Political poster: PFLP (Palestinian Front for border into Israel. the Liberation of Palestine) In 1982 Israel invaded and occupied a strip of Lebanese territory inside Lebanon, in order to create a buffer zone, for stated reasons of security, against terrorist attacks (especially Palestinian) into Israel. Israel consolidated its presence and remained in Lebanon until 2000. Hizbollah attacked Israeli military targets inside Lebanon, considered widely to be legitimate resistance to foreign invasion under international law. However, Hizbollah also periodically dispatched surface-to-surface missiles across the Lebanese border into Israeli civilian population centres, which is clearly terrorism. According to media, in March 1992, four men with silenced pistols, allegedly from Hizbollah, murdered Michael Nassar and his wife in Brazil. Nassar was a cousin of General Lahad, who ran the former SLA (South Lebanese Army) that assisted Israel’s occupation of Lebanon until 2000 (whereupon the SLA formally ceased to exist). Media reported that Nassar was murdered for having supplied arms to the SLA, but this is very unlikely to be the sole reason. The media further alleged that Hizbollah has connections with drug cartels in Paraguay, Argentina and Brazil. Religious Duty Some types of terrorist and their sponsors believe or posture that they have a religious duty to resort to armed struggle. Sometimes they commit terrorist acts. Terrorists who are partly motivated by what they perceive or project as religious duty are found among: Al Qa’ida (the Base or Foundation), an international terrorist network

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Al Jabhah al Islamiyah al Alamiyah li Quital al Yahud wa’l Salibiyyin (International Islamic Front to Fight Jews and Crusaders) a transnational coalition integrated with its executive arm, Al Qa’ida Gama’a Al Islamiya (GAI or Islamic group) in Egypt Jihad Al Islamiya (Egyptian Islamic Jihad) in Egypt Groupe Islamique Armé (GIA or Armed Islamic Group), based in Algeria Armé Islamique du Salut (Islamic Salvations Front) in Algeria Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat (Salafist Group for Preaching & Combat) in Algeria, set up by bin Laden Also amongst these groups number many who are simply intolerant of moderate and balanced Muslims, other religions and cultural differences.

US FIM 92 A STINGER Missile The so called fire-and-forget ‘Jihad weapon’, which changed world history. The Mujahideen turned the course of the SovietAfghan war with this weapon, forcing an eventual Soviet withdrawal. This in turn, set in motion a chain of events that led to: the collapse of the Warsaw Pact and Soviet Union; an end to the Cold War; a rash of petty warlords emerging globally to initiate nationalist and independence civil wars, and the forging of today’s transnational terrorists who have hi-jacked Islam and distorted it for their banner.

Some sponsors of terrorism consider that they have a religious duty; but they inspire others to commit the acts, avoiding participation themselves. An incentive for terrorism or motivating others to terrorism, is the acquisition of divine credit. In the Islamic religion, it is a belief that divine credit (known as Sawab) is conferred upon not only the one who fights or crusades against evil, but to an extent, upon the sponsor (known as Kafil).

These beliefs apply to legitimate armed struggle, such as self defence, but are twisted by religious distortionists like bin Laden, to include terrorism. This terrorism is often postured as Jihad or Holy War (which it is clearly not, since Islam forbids killing of innocents, women and children and unarmed combatants who have surrendered). Courtesy: USAF Air War College

Another example of religious duty as a motive for terrorism is the Fatwa. A Fatwa is a religious injunction or legal opinion. A Fatwa was issued by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomenei (deceased) against writer Salman Rushdie, a Bombay-born Indian Muslim with British citizenship.

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Rushdie still stands accused of publishing a book which is considered as an attack on the Islamic religion. The Fatwa against Salman Rushdie requires that he and everyone involved in publishing the book be put to death. To obey the Fatwa is considered a religious duty by many Muslims and overrides any considerations of transgressing national or international laws. According to media reports, in recent years, although the Rushdie Fatwa cannot be voided, the Government of Iran has indicated that it is less vigorously pursuing its execution.

Political Revolutionary poster from Peru

An example of a group that engages in terrorism for what they claim is religious duty is the Turkish Hizballah (Party of God). The Turkish Hizballah believes that the PKK (the outlawed Kurdish Workers Party) is the enemy of Islam, accusing it of trying to create an atheist community, supporting communism, dividing populations and oppressing Muslims.

The Turkish Hizballah killed many pro-PKK activists, journalists, academics, politicians, terrorists and narcotics traffickers between 1991 and 1993. This anti-PKK activity was viewed by some sectors of Turkish society as coincidentally being on a parallel track to the security forces, to the extent whereby Hizballah ironically became known as the ‘Hizbul Contras.’

Political Conviction “There are many who lust for the simple answers of doctrine or decree. They are on the left and right. They are not confined to a single part of the society. They are terrorists of the mind” Angelo Bartlett Giamatti, Educator, President, Yale

American

Political conviction is a motive frequently proclaimed by terrorists.

British Army Sgts. Martin and Paice, abducted and hung by Irgun terrorists trying to de-rail the objectives of the League of Nations mandate for Palestine, and force a British withdrawal. The bodies were booby-trapped with bombs for rescuers © Crown / IPS Washington

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Political convictions held by terrorists are usually extreme, unacceptable, or absurd to an ordinary, balanced mind. Examples of extremist political convictions held by terrorists are those of the NSDAP regime, the former Baader-Meinhof gang (Red Army Faction) and contemporary neo-Nazis, who practice racial hatred and terrorise people for blameless, innocent and inherited attributes, entirely beyond their control. Some groups commit terrorism for held beliefs of so-called racial Alabama Knights of the Ku Klux Klan supremacy. Examples of such groups are the neo-Nazi and some skinhead groups in the US and Europe, and also the Ku Klux Klan of the mainly southern states in the US [This organisation can be said to have gone through three phases of activity, from 1865-1876, 1920-1925 and 1956-1965]. As with the other proclaimed justifications by terrorists cited in this Lesson, they are mostly calculated by terrorists to convince their target audience that they are justified and reasonable. Neo-Nazis make strong efforts to portray their terrorist acts and doctrines as justified, as a self-righteous response to alleged tyranny, mis-government and other purported grievances.

Social Conviction “No just cause can be advanced by terror” UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan Social (specifically, humanitarian) conviction is the motive given by those terrorists who are anti-abortion activists. These groups usually engage in lower and medium range violence. They include some dangerous terrorists who have on occasion, resorted to murder of Doctors who legally carry out abortions, harassment and serious assault on Doctors, medical staff, their family members and also arson of their practices and clinics. Other types of terrorists in the social conviction category are vigilante-type groups who are normally law-abiding citizens, but who sometimes engage in terrorist activities. Their targets are usually local individuals or groups who they consider to be socially unacceptable in the locality, such as prostitutes or narcotics dealers that police forces may be unable to entirely suppress. This type of terrorism sometimes occurs amongst immigrant communities who are unable or unwilling to fully assimilate into their newly chosen countries or cultures. They tend to retain belief and value systems from their former cultures which clash with the realities of their new environments. Animal Liberation Front

Further social conviction terrorists are those who commit terrorist acts in order to establish or protect animal rights. They exist inside groups of genuinely and rightfully concerned law abiding people who are

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disturbed at the commercial and callous use of cruelty towards animals in so called scientific experiments, which are often driven by purely economic considerations. Since the late 1960s, this has occurred mostly in western Europe but has begun to spread globally.

Animal experiments are not entirely open to public scrutiny. It is not satisfactorily established that the cruelties inflicted are all for scientific medical reasons, resulting in the saving of human lives. Animal liberation movements suggest that many of these cruelties are carried out purely for financial profit, especially in the cosmetics market

The small number of dedicated terrorists inside these activist groups go beyond the aims and activities of the worthy, conventional and politically healthy protest that characterises the majority of the movement. They have resorted to arson and kidnapping and other terrorist violence calculated to close pharmaceutical and other companies that use animals in these often cruel and sometimes horrifying experiments. Another form of this terrorism which involves animals is practiced by some few members of the groups which oppose legal forms of hunting and transportation of live animals under inhuman conditions. Among genuinely concerned activists are found a minority who carry out terrorist acts, sometimes only for concealed motives of class resentment and financial jealousy.

© Liberation Magazine

The most notable of these groups in which a small number of terrorists conceal themselves, is the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) based in the UK and US, who use letter-bombs, car-bombs and high explosive devices in terrorist attacks. One fifth (20%) of the activities of this minority involves terrorism. Examples of their activity in recent years were the high explosive bomb attack on Bristol University’s Senate House (U.K.) and the targeting of a veterinary surgeon and a psychologist with car bombs. In 1999, animal rights groups carried out 1200 attacks in the UK, causing £2.6 million (approximately US$ 4.1 million) in damage. In 1998, the ALF protested genetic manipulation of food by forcing a Swiss chocolate company to halt production; the ALF sent food laced with rat poison to a news agency, alleging that the products were contaminated. The subsequent halt in production cost the company US$ 30 million. Protecting the environment is another form of social belief terrorism. There are many environmental protection groups in the world, of which most members are also ordinary people with sincere and worthy concerns. However, amongst them exist a few violent members who sometimes resort to forms of terrorism.

Dumb animals like this are experimented upon, and are the name in which some members of animal rights groups commit terrorist acts © Liberation Magazine

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The most publicised group is Green Peace. These groups consider the environment as the earth, seas, oceans, atmosphere, troposphere, stratosphere and space, whether used peacefully or otherwise. Some members of the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), committed an act of terrorist arson at Vail Ski resort in Colorado in 1998, which caused US$ 12 million in damage. The Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF) collectively committed approximately 600 criminal acts, some of a terrorist nature, in the US between 1996 and 2002, resulting in damage to the value of US$ 42 million. Millions of Dollars worth of damage is caused annually in many parts of the world by Animal Rights terrorists, who focus their attacks on the following types of victim and target:

Abattoirs

Furriers

Breeders

Hunts

Butchers

Laboratories

Chemists

Restaurants

Doctors

Supermarkets

Factories

Veterinary clinics

Pursuit of Mystical, Doomsday or Messianic Goals “Those who dream by night in the dusty recesses of their minds wake in the day to find out that it was vanity: but the dreamers of the day are dangerous men, for they may act out their dream with open eyes, to make it possible” T.E. Lawrence. Seven Pillars of Wisdom The Japanese terrorist group Aum Shinri Kyo (Supreme Truth) discharged Botulism and Anthrax (biological weapons) from a vehicle against targets in Japan, between 1990 and 1993. The group also discharged deadly nerve-gas in central Japan in 1994, killing seven people. Again in 1995, the cult discharged deadly Sarin nerve gas (a chemical weapon) against random victims on Japan’s Tokyo underground railway system, killing 12 people. The attack was planned by the cult’s guru, Shoko Asahara (whose real name is Chizuo Matsumoto).

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Aum Shinri Kyo is an Armageddonist terrorist group with ten thousand members and 1 billion US Dollars in assets, including a property in Australia, suitable for Uranium mining. The Group professes to be Buddhist and specifically worships the Hindu God Siva (or Shiva), who presides over creation and destruction. 100 members were convicted and the cult was ordered to disband after its 1995 attack. However, it is merely dormant. Armageddon is a word used to describe doomsday: the final battle between good and evil or the end of the world and judgement day, which according to some religious theology, will eventually occur, beginning around a town in ancient Palestine, called Meggido (the site of one of ancient King Solomon’s military stables), in the plain of Jezreel (Esdrælon). The Last Judgement, from The Dance of Death by Hans Holbein, Lyons, 1538

It was populated from about 7000 BC to 450 BC and is the root of the word Armageddon. The Aum Shinri Kyo group projected that it was furthering goals associated with Armageddon by killing people, and accelerating preparations for destruction and divine judgement.

There are other groups in this category that commit occasional acts of terrorism with similar religiously esoteric beliefs, that urged the killing and terrorising of people at the time when the millennium changed in the year 2000. No acts occurred however. They were convinced that the beginning of the new Millennium would herald Armageddon or the end of the earth and that it was a time in which divine judgement would be pronounced. Some Messianic groups (groups who believe a Messiah or saviour of the world would appear or re-appear, especially in the year 2000, at the change of the millennium) and other terrorist groups and cults with mystical or esoteric beliefs, pose concerns to security forces. Several threats from these groups were pre-empted at the Millennium change. An example of a Messianic group was the Branch Davidians led by David Koresh (Vernon Wayne Howell). The Grand Reaper on Judgement Day From an engraving by Gustave Doré

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Restoration of Past Social or Religious System These types of terrorist groups pursue a return to a past religious system, such as a Caliphate (a past system of rule for a single unified Muslim state, by a Muslim leader who is considered as a successor to Mohammed the prophet), or an austere or totalitarian social system from past times. Some groups have committed terrorism to pursue this objective. An example of this type of terrorism was the occasional post World War II Nazi terrorist activity, including assassination and bombings, from the 1960s to the mid-1970s, to protect hidden Nazi loot (of which a great amount is still unaccounted for), put aside to finance a supposed future Nazi resurgence. An example of a group sponsoring this type of terrorism is the Hizb ut Tahrir (The party of the spiritually pure). They held a conference in London in 1994 as part of the agenda of the International Muslim Khalifa (Caliphate) Conference. At the London conference, the group’s spokesman, Farid Kassim, publicly made a determined call “to rid this earth of the non-Islamic and return to the Islamic way of life.” The Hezb al Tahrir was founded in Jordan in 1953 and began activity in Turkey in 1962. Now it is banned throughout the Middle East due to its attempts to incite an Islamic revolution, in order to create a Caliphate. It is the type of organisation that would almost certainly have some persons among its membership (whether known to its leadership or not) who are in contact and association with members or active supporters of the Al Qa’ida network.

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KEYWORDS TO NOTE Accession Armageddonist Caliphate Democracy Fatwa Independence Kafil

To join or become part of One believing in final battle between good and evil, preceding divine judgement Rule of unified Muslim state, by successor to Mohammed the prophet Type of society which recognises equal rights and privileges for all members Arabic. A religious injunction or legal opinion in the Islamic religion Freedom from occupation. Self governing nationhood Arabic. Sponsor

Messianic

Belief in an expected religious saviour figure

Neo-Nazi

One who holds same or similar convictions of former NSDAP (Nazi Party)

Oppression

Tyranny. Unjust cruelty or pressure

Politics

Craft of governing. Study of individuals in a group context. Intrigue. Manipulation

Sawab

Arabic. Divine Credit

Secession

To withdraw or separate

Separatism

Desire to separation from a state for independence or accession to another state

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TERRORIST ATTACK BRIEF Restaurant Bombing in Madrid, Spain Facts of the Case: On 12th April 1985, a bomb exploded at a restaurant in Madrid, Spain, frequented by US service personnel. The bomb killed 18 Spanish citizens and wounded 82 persons, including 15 Americans. Investigation: Several groups claimed responsibility, including ETA (Spain) and Islamic Jihad in Beirut. Despite an international investigation involving many services, no conclusive evidence came to light concerning the perpetrating group or individuals responsible. Uncharacteristically, this was the first unsolved major terrorism case in Spain.

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END-OF-LESSON QUIZ 1. Terrorists always have a) A single motive b) More than one motive c) One or more motives 2. Terrorists who demand independence seek a) A new country or liberation from an occupying power b) Accession to a second country c) Only separatism 3. Disputes over sovereignty are usually a) Highly controversial and violent b) Mostly peaceful c) Mediated by the UN 4. Sawab and Kafil mean a) Holy war and divine credit b) Divine credit and sponsor c) Religious fighter and holy war 5. Ku Klux Klan and neo-Nazis terrorise for reasons of a) Religious and political beliefs b) Political and racial beliefs c) Racial and religious beliefs 6. Aum Shinri Kyo (supreme truth) terrorists are motivated by which beliefs? a) Religious b) Messianic c) Armageddonist 7. Some terrorists commit murders for anti-abortion and animal rights causes. a) True b) False

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8. Aum Shinri Kyo used what types of weapon? a) Chemical b) Biological c) Both Chemical and Biological 9. Which groups caused damage of $US 42 million with 600 terrorist acts from 1996 to 2002? a) Animal Liberation Front and Earth Liberation Front b) Ikhwan ul Muslimeen and Gama’a al Islamiya c) Provisional IRA and Ulster Defence Force 10. Oppression can be divided into three main categories: a) Political, Religious and Ethnic b) Political, Military and Governmental c) Military, Ethnic and Religious 11. In Kosovo from 1998 to 1999, who resorted to terrorism? a) Serbian government forces b) Kosovo Liberation Army c) Both a and b 12. The South Lebanese Army ceased to exist in which year? a) 1998 b) 1999 c) 2000 13. The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (FRETILIN) a) Was a peaceful political party only b) Committed some acts of terrorism c) Committed no acts of terrorism 14. Which group is banned throughout the Middle East? a) Hizb ut Tahrir b) Hizbollah c) Kach

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15. Neo Nazis portray their doctrine a) Infrequently b) As dishonest c) As a righteous response 16. Terrorism is committed by immigrants who cannot or will not adjust to their new environment. a) Never b) Continually c) Sometimes 17. The Mutahidda (formerly Mohajir) Quami Movement was formed in 1996 in a) Saudi Arabia b) Iran c) Pakistan 18. The group ‘Weather Underground’ a) Was a peaceful political party b) Detonated 20 bombs in the 1970s c) Did not commit terrorist acts 19. What percentage of the Animal Liberation Front’s activities involves terrorism? a) 2% b) 5% c) 20% 20.Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat is located in a) Burundi b) Algeria c) Afghanistan

ANSWERS: 1-c, 2-a, 3-a, 4-b, 5-b, 6-c, 7-a, 8-c, 9-a, 10-a, 11-c, 12-c, 13-b, 14-a, 15-c, 16-c, 17-c, 18-b, 19-c, 20-b.

Lesson 4 Other Motivations for Terrorism: Catalysts, and Negotiations Section 4.1: Concealed and Other Motivations for Terrorism Opportunism Hatred and Intolerance Frustration and Rejection Conventional Criminality Class Resentment Incrimination of Opposition Groups Expediency and Recklessness Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Insanity Section 4.2: Catalysts for Terrorism Extreme Social or Economic Hardship Suspension of Democracy Favourable Political Environment Section 4.3: Terrorists and Negotiation Negotiating Groups Non-Negotiating Groups Insincere Negotiations Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Bomb Attack in Omagh, Northern Ireland, UK

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Lesson 4 Scope and Objectives Section 4.1: Concealed and Other Motivations for Terrorism This section explains motives for terrorism which terrorists usually conceal behind the noblesounding justifications described in the last lesson. This Lesson explains how terrorists are often motivated by opportunism, intolerance and frustration, sometimes by conventional criminality, as an effort to incriminate others, class resentment or by insanity. Lastly, this lesson explains with examples of military terrorist acts (lesser than genocide and depopulation) that occur in wartime as a result of overzealousness, stress disorder or expediency. The Terrorist Attack Brief for this Lesson is the 1998 bomb attack in Omagh, Northern Ireland, UK. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Understand that projected motives may be false; there are frequently hidden motives Explain the motives of religious and ethnic hatred Differentiate between racial hatred and xenophobia Cite the circumstances under which military personnel sometimes commit terrorism Explain the difference between terrorists who commit conventional criminal acts and conventional criminals who commit terrorist acts Section 4.2: Catalysts for Terrorism This section explains those circumstances which catalyse or act as a stimulus for terrorism, including harsh economic and social privation. Other catalysts explained in the lesson are the many different suspensions of democracy, such as coup d’état and fraudulent elections. Finally, political environments favourable to terrorists, such as democracies, are discussed. After studying this section, the student should be able to: Recognise extreme economic or social privation as catalysts for terrorism Discuss how economic and social oppression are main catalysts for 21st century terrorism Understand the different types of suspension of democracy which can catalyse terrorism State why democracies provide favourable circumstances for, and can catalyse, terrorism Section 4.3: Terrorists and Negotiations This section explains the differences between terrorists who are prepared to negotiate and terrorists who will not negotiate, the various types of terrorist offers to negotiate and terrorist ultimatums. The lesson also mentions the different types of insincere negotiations that sometimes occur between terrorists and governments or targets. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Understand the categorising terrorists according to whether or not they will negotiate Appreciate that when terrorists release an agenda, it may be an indirect offer for negotiations Clearly identify non-negotiating terrorists or sub-conflict groups Understand why terrorists sometimes first commit a terrorist act, before making demands Differentiate between an indirect offer for negotiations and a coercive ultimatum Explain different types of insincere terrorist negotiations Recall the meaning of the words contained in the Lesson’s Keywords to Note table Recall the basic facts concerning the bomb attack in Omagh, Northern Ireland, UK

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Lesson 4: Other Motivations for Terrorism Section 4.1: Concealed and Other Motivations for Terrorism Opportunism “The cause serves terrorists, not terrorists the cause” The Author Opportunism is a recognised and common human phenomenon (vice) throughout the world. In the context of terrorism, opportunists either enter an ongoing conflict to seek a position which will provide power or financial gain, or attempt to create a conflict and seize a position from which to seize power or financial benefit. The type of conflict most favourable for this is guerrilla warfare or campaigns of terrorism, in which there is little enforceable accountability concerning funding. Opportunists conceal their true motives with another motive, usually political, religious, social or ethnic. Many groups that engage in guerilla warfare and terrorism receive considerable clandestine funding from sponsors which sometimes include governments. It is fairly The Temptation, from The Dance of Death common for guerrilla or terrorist leaders to divert some of by Hans Holbein, Lyons, 1538 these funds for their own private purposes. Diverting funds is however, increasingly hard to conceal as illicit wealth accumulates and lifestyles become noticeably more lavish. Corruption like this sometimes causes guerrilla and terrorist groups to divide into splinter groups. A good example of this is the Kashmir conflict which has by far the greatest number of guerrilla and terrorist groups of any single conflict in the world. As an example, one Kashmir group, the JKLF (Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front), has seven different splinter groups, in several countries. UN Military Observers from U.N. Field Station ‘Domel’ observing for violations of the cease-fire line by soldiers / guerrillas / terrorists at the Lipa Valley, in west Kashmir (Azad), on Pakistan’s side of the cease-fire line (Line of Control)

Hatred and Intolerance “Fear is the parent of cruelty” J.A. Froude; Short Studies: Party Politics

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Religious hatred is a common motive for terrorism, but one which few terrorists will admit to. It is noteworthy that the Middle East guerrilla and terrorist groups ranged against Israel and its supporters, traditionally profess hatred for a political system, not a religion. They claim to oppose Zionism and its supporters, not Judaism. Osama bin Ladin, the leader of Al Qa’ida (the Base or Foundation) terrorist group, has changed this pattern. He took a key role in 1998 in forming a new group opposing a religion in name. This is an unexpected landmark of religious prejudice. This terrorist organisation is called the International Islamic Front for Fighting the Jews and Crusaders or Al Jabbah al Islamiyah al Alamiyyah li Qital al Yahud wal Salibiyyin [by Crusaders, bin Ladin means Christians (from Crux. Latin meaning Cross) associated with the Crusade period when Christians and Muslims fought on the basis of religion. This is one more small initiative on bin Ladin’s part to encourage division between Christians and Muslims, part of an overall strategy aimed at eventually creating a separate Muslim world. The name of this group is a contradiction in terms, because injunctions in the Holy Koran instruct Muslims to practice tolerance towards Christians and Jews. It is the first terrorist group which in name opposes an entire religion (Jewish) rather than a political system. Although mainly opposed to a US presence near the holy sites of Mecca and Medina and Jerusalem’s Al Aqsa Mosque being under Israeli control, the group’s name is inflammatory; an open expression of religious hatred. Examples of terrorist attacks motivated by religious hatred are: The 1985 attack on a Mosque in Houston US The 1987 attack on a Synagogue in Istanbul, Turkey The 1996 murder of Christians, burning of several churches, dwellings and hundreds of bibles, by mobs of fanatics during an overnight orgy of religious intolerance in Pakistan According to media, an example of a campaign based upon religious intolerance has been going on in East Africa since the mid 1990s, and is part of a large, loose strategy as follows: Guerrillas and terrorists of many different groups, allegedly trained in Sudan, are part of a joint objective to de-stabilise east Africa The long term objective is to establish a strict Islamic regime of 200+ million people, under the centralised control of Sudan. This plan is supported by Osama bin Ladin Target countries in this campaign include the Central African Republic, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Zaire Were this plan to succeed, the strategy is apparently then to push north and north-west, which would prove decisive in the Algerian conflict and envelop the remainder of the North African coastal countries (Morocco, Tunisia and Libya) In recent years, and especially since the terrorist events of 11th September 2001, this large scale plan has suffered some setbacks and a general loss of impetus. An outburst of religious intolerance occurred in India in March 2002, in the State of Gujarrat and

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its environs. Over 700 people were murdered in Hindu-Muslim violence, after Hindu extremists of the Hindu Vashwa Parishad (HVP or Hindu Saints Organisation) unilaterally moved to build a Hindu temple on an ancient site at Ayodha in Uttar Pradesh State, a site sacred to both Hindus and Muslims. In 1992, the 16th century Muslim Moghul Mosque on the site had been destroyed by violent fanatics of the HVP, on the basis that the Hindu God, Lord Ramachandra (or Lord Rama) was born 20 million years ago on the same site. It caused nationwide rioting in which 3000 people were killed. The UNABOMBER’s Pipe (tyre) bomb Courtesy FBI In March 2002, the Indian Government imposed a Court order on the HVP and others, forbidding them to pray at the site and moved in 8000 troops to enforce the order. Ethnic hatred is another form of intolerance which results in terrorism in several conflict theatres in the world. It sometimes accompanies religious intolerance. The genocide and depopulation in the former Yugoslavia was an example of ethno-religious hatred and the genocide in Rwanda an example of ethnic hatred, triggered by suspension of democracy. Racial hatred is a motive closely related to ethnic hatred (racial hatred for a specific race may include hatred for a variety of ethnicities within that single race). Terrorists sometimes conceal this motive under other causes, but not always; racial terrorism was openly committed by irregular forces on both sides to the conflict in South Africa and the former South West Africa (Namibia) before the end of apartheid (segregation). An example of racial hatred terrorism occurred in March 1999 in Uganda where Rwandan Hutu Interahamwe (meaning ‘those who kill without mercy’) terrorists kidnapped 21 foreigners (from Australia, France, New Zealand, UK and US). The terrorists selected 14 victims for killing on the basis of looks (Anglo-Saxon, blond) and nationality. They were herded barefoot into the jungle, where the eight who did not manage to escape were hacked to death with knives and machetes. Post cards were left by the terrorists explaining their racial motives. Another example of terrorism motivated by racial hatred occurred in Boston, US in 1995, when a bomb exploded outside a branch of the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, wounding two uniformed Police Officers. Xenophobia is the fear or dislike of foreigners or foreign customs. It is closely related to racial hatred, but racial hatred tends to be more specific: Xenophobia is a general fear of all foreigners or their customs and is the motive behind much hatred and terrorism against new immigrant communities. Racial hatred tends to be more race specific and could be hate only for a single specific race. Frustration and Rejection Some terrorists are motivated by political, intellectual or other forms of frustration. Yet others perceive that society rejects them or denies them due recognition.

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To further avoid the feeling of being outcast and embarrassed, they usually cloak their personal grievance under another justification. Theodore Kaczynski (known as the Unabomber) had an unusual agenda of being antitechnology. However, some historians speculate that he was originally motivated by frustration and rejection, before he was captured 18 years later and legally found to be insane. Another example of frustration leading to terrorism is the case of Franz Fuchs of the Bavarian Liberation Army. The facts of the case are as follows: Fuchs terrorised sectors of Austria from 1993 to 1995 He dispatched 28 letter bombs through the postal system and used a road side bomb As a result, four people were killed and several were maimed and wounded Victim Helmut Zilk, Mayor of Vienna, lost some of a hand and suffered cardiac arrests It was concluded, but not proven, that Fuchs was alone and there was no terrorist group Fuchs developed frustration and hatred over the years He was an intellectual loner who withdrew from university studies for lack of funds He lived in Germany for 5 years with a Yugoslav woman he claimed stole his life-savings Fuchs’ agenda included German nationalism, intolerance of foreign immigrants and perceptions that they negatively affected racial demographics and living space (lebensraum) Conventional Criminality “A criminal terrorist or a terrorist criminal?” The Author Conventional criminality as a motive for terrorism, means ordinary criminals who commit terrorist acts. The reasons for committing these acts include vengeance, punitive action, rivalry with other criminal groups, deterring law enforcement activity, and mercenary or contract terrorism. The most notorious mercenary terrorist in recent history was Illich Ramirez Sanchez, known as Carlos the Jackal, who was captured in 1994. Some conventional criminals resort to terrorist acts in order to support or enhance their criminal activity. For example, criminals assassinate a judge in order to stop his efforts against organised criminal gang activity. An example of this was the series of terrorist attacks carried out in the late 1980s and early 1990s by the Sicilian mafia in response to the Italian government’s prosecution of leading mafia figures. In reverse of this, there are terrorists who commit criminal acts in order to support their terrorist activity. For example, a terrorist group carries out a bank robbery in order to obtain funds for purchasing illegal weapons. This type of terrorism is discussed in Lesson 2: Anomalies of Terrorism; Financing Terrorism through Crime. In many situations where conventional crime is associated with terrorism, it is normally subconflict, which means there is no possibility for the victim or target to negotiate. For example, a criminal group carries out an assassination for a sum of money from a third party. In other situations,

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it is possible to negotiate, i.e. a criminal group may release a hostage if a ransom is paid. Class Resentment Class resentment is a motive for terrorism, held by some members of animal rights groups such the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and especially inside those groups opposing hunting. This is because hunting is associated with the higher or more affluent classes of society. They are resented by some less wealthy members of society who experience jealousy. Among genuine activists, are a few who commit terrorist acts, concealing their motive of class-resentment behind concern for animals. This type of motive for terrorism is especially prevalent in the United Kingdom and France. Incrimination of Opposition Groups Incriminating opposition groups means carrying out a terrorist act using another group’s name or projecting their identity, in order to discredit them. This motive is a cunning strategy whereby an act is carried out with evidence deliberately left which results in blame upon an opposition group. One fashion in which this operation is achieved is by recruiting a Animal Liberation Front terrorist and making him believe that he and the recruiter are both on the same side. In reality, the recruiter is working for an opposition group. The recruiter sets the terrorist (recruit) to commit a terrorist act and later leaks incriminating evidence to implicate the recruit and the group. This is sometimes called a false flag operation. Media reports occasionally describe this strategy as used by governments, in order to discredit terrorists and dissidents so as to alienate them from the public. Expediency and Recklessness Military expediency and recklessness in this context describes a terrorist act during war or conflict, whereby military forces callously or negligently commit terrorism to achieve a military objective with least inconvenience, or negligently act upon impulse without due care. When discovered, common defences cited are accident and military necessity, but in reality such acts are indefensible and usually constitute war crimes. An example is massacre and destruction in a refugee camp, in order to kill terrorists concealed inside. Political expediency characterises a terrorist act ordered by a head of state or a government, in order to achieve a political objective. An example of terrorism carried out for political expediency would be re-enforcing control of the population by destruction of a civilian population centre, harbouring terrorists. Alternatively, another example of terrorism for reasons of political expediency could be the acquisition of land by depopulation or ethnic cleansing. By this, civilians are killed or terrorised and driven out prior to, during, or after a military assault; one objective of depopulation is to acquire land, with or without genocide. Commonly cited defences to depopulation or ethnic cleansing are: Military necessity, refugees fleeing through fear, or that civilians were killed accidentally.

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Military recklessness does not usually amount to terrorism as we normally understand it. However, regular military forces occasionally act in a reckless, callous and sometimes criminally irresponsible fashion, ignoring the possible consequences and are sometimes, rightly or wrongly, accused of terrorism. Some examples of cases of Expediency and Recklessness are as follows: Amritsar, British India, in 1919: Public assemblies were banned at the time, a decree which could be legally enforced by use of arms. Demonstrators gathered to protest the arrest of local Indian National Congress leaders; a riot ensued in which banks were burned, four Europeans were murdered and two women attacked by mobs. General Dyer subsequently approached and confronted 20,000 unarmed protestors in an enclosed public square called Jallian Wallah Barg. General Dyer ordered his troops to fire upon the crowd; 1650 rifle rounds were fired, resulting in 379 men women and children massacred and over 1200 wounded. General Dyer was repatriated, facing wide criticism after the British Government enquiry. Military recklessness in the Boer War in South Africa from 1899 to 1902: British Commander Lord Kitchener carried out a campaign of devastating Boer (Afrikana) farms and detaining families, including women and children, in concentration camps. The object of this was to deny Boer Kommandos a refuge for rest, recovery and support, between mobile guerrilla warfare sorties. Due to insanitary conditions, poor medical facilities and neglect, over 20,000 Boer women and children died from disease, together with 14,000 native South Africans. A more recent example occurred in 1973: A Libyan civil airliner on its scheduled Tripoli to Cairo flight was piloted by a contractual French aircrew. A sandstorm caused a human navigational error and they drifted into Sinai desert airspace, controlled by Israeli forces. Two Israeli jet fighters intercepted the airliner. They were subsequently given permission to shoot it down. 106 men women and children were killed. Another more recent example in 1983: A Korean airliner wandered unintentionally through Soviet airspace near Sakhalin Island. It was shot down by a Soviet fighter aircraft. All 269 men, women and children were killed. An example of recklessness (due to over-zealousness under combat conditions) occurred in 1988 in the Persian Gulf: An Iranian airliner strayed too close to a US warship that was already engaged in a battle with Iranian gunboats. Impetuous in the heat of combat, the warship mistook the Iranian airliner for an F14 fighter aircraft and shot it down, killing 290 men women and children. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a condition that can only be ascertained by qualified doctors, but it is certain that persons suffering from PTSD are capable of spontaneous terrorist crimes. PTSD, amongst other symptoms, can cause explosive, aggressive and irrational behaviour, practically beyond the control of the sufferer.

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This can occur when soldiers suffer stress-related mental disorders, resulting from incident shock or accumulated negative stress from prolonged exposure to lethal force in violent theatres of conflict. It is not new and has been reported and diagnosed in soldiers for the past several thousand years. PTSD also occurs in civilian police forces, amongst those officers who are regularly exposed to lethal danger and have witnessed the full measure of human tragedy. PTSD has been given dozens of names, but the following four should be noted: In WWI, this medical disorder was termed as shell-shock During WWII, it was called battle fatigue Now it is known as PTSD Contemporary slang for PTSD is burn-out A highly likely but unestablished example of terrorism attributed to PTSD, was an isolated massacre which took place during the Vietnam War in 1968. A company of US troops on a search and destroy mission massacred 504 unarmed civilians, mostly old men, women and children in My Lai 4, Binh Tay, Tu Cung and Co Luy hamlets. There was no enemy presence, firing, or any resistance from the hamlets. Multiple rapes of young girls also took place with families forced to watch before they were shot, and babies were killed and mutilated, according to the final report by the Army’s investigating officer, Lt. General William Peers. The unit’s commander, Lt. William Caley (who apparently shot over 100 civilians himself with automatic fire in a frenzy) told his men that the chance of revenge for snipers and booby traps had arrived, and gave the order to ‘kill everything that moves,’ under pressure from some few of his men. Many members of the company refused to carry out the orders. Several massacres simultaneously took place in different locations around My Lai. Calley reloaded his M16 automatic rifle ten times with fresh magazines, as he fired into a small ravine that he had pushed many of his victims down into. At his trial, he claimed to be acting under orders, stating he was taught that they [north Vietnamese] were all the communist enemy. He later portrayed My Lai as a military action, telling Time magazine in 1971 that he was sorry that anyone had to die there, that he ever had to kill a soldier in Vietnam, but was very proud to have been in the army and fought at My Lai. Calley was sentenced to life imprisonment at hard labour in 1971, and remained under house arrest while an Vietnam,1968. Converse to the unique appeal case was launched. His sentence was commuted exception of the My Lai massacre: a US GI to ten years in 1973. Due to intense political pressure risks his life bringing two children to safety, (from media, veterans and soldiers) upon President while under fire Courtesy: VMAM / US Army Nixon’s government, and presumably because of the

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negative impact upon the military draft (compulsory military service), he was eventually paroled in 1974, after serving a total of three and a half years under house arrest. During the massacres, a US helicopter H-23 gun-ship landed between some soldiers and civilians. The pilot got out, ordering his crew to train their guns on the troops and fire if they intervened, and confronted Lt. Calley, threatening to open fire upon him and his troops unless the massacre stopped. The helicopter crew radioed down another gunship and together they herded as many survivors as would fit, into the helicopters and evacuated them to a US air base and an orphanage in Quang Ngai city. When the helicopters had departed, the massacre resumed. The pilot (Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson) and his crew (Lawrence Colburn and Glenn Andreotta) were decorated with the Soldiers Medal, 28 years later (Andreotta posthumously; he died in action, three weeks after My Lai). Points to note are: Later cited reasons for the massacre were: Acting under orders and failures of leadership, discipline and morale The unit (normal, ordinary well-balanced men, from all walks of life) however, had suffered numerous casualties, killed (2) and maimed (11) by booby traps, prior to the massacre, with no enemy subsequently captured or killed, and was highly agitated, angry and frustrated This clearly illustrates the highly abnormal situation. It is reasonable to mostly attribute this massacre to wide-spread post traumatic stress disorder, in the case of the non-command ranks Terrorist acts as a result of PTSD should not be compared with pre-planned terrorist massacres carried out by mentally healthy soldiers, such as occurred in Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia Insanity “By the pricking of my thumbs, Something wicked this way comes.....” William Shakespeare, Macbeth IV i Insanity can most certainly be a reason for terrorism. In fact, it has often been argued that no terrorist is fully sane. Four clear examples of cases involving insane terrorists are as follows: Theodore Kaczynski, also known as the Unabomber, who bombed universities and airlines in the US for 18 years before apprehension in 1996. Acting primarily out of frustration, he was subsequently found to be legally insane. Mohammed Sabri al Banna also known as Abu Nidal (meaning Father of the struggle), of the

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Middle East conflict. His associates described him as a psychopath, and according to one of his peers, in a case where he murdered a girl, he began whistling, eating, singing and drinking coffee. Zeljko Raznjatovic, known as Arkan. Already wanted for robbery in Western Europe, he was accused of a terror campaign involving war crimes and genocide. An arrest order was issued from the Hague’s International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Raznjatovic and his Serbian irregular armed force (also known variously as Arkanovci, Tigers, Serb Volunteer Guard, White Eagles, and as a special unit in the Srem Baraja Corps), were accused of brutal massacres, murders, rapes, torture and other acts characterising the criminally insane. Before arrest and trial, Raznjatovic was shot dead in January 2000 at the Belgrade Intercontinental Hotel by unknown assailants (political or criminal).

Carlos the Jackal Illich Ramirez Sanchez in his youth. Sane enough to stand trial and be convicted, he was a dangerous psychopath

A less known example of an insane terrorist is that of a Courtesy: Caracas Police Yemeni national who stated that he had trained in Bosnia and considered himself a Muslim fundamentalist. In 1998, he shot and killed three Catholic nuns (a Filipino and two Indians) in the port of Al Hudaydah. Authorities captured him and he was found to be insane. Other types of insane terrorists are what were once termed as mass murderers, but have come to be called serial killers. They are not generally or widely recognised as terrorists. However, many do fit into the category of terrorists, since they commit multiple murder, often at random, in cold blood, for personal motives, and often cause protracted terror among communities. Once police or media announce the activities of serial killers (to protect communities), this often has the effect of terrorising localities, communities, and occasionally entire regions. These murderers kill multiple victims, sometimes sadistically, mutilating, dismembering, in some cases committing necrophilia, cannibalism and worse, in protracted campaigns that can last many years. When their presence is known to the public, the degree of terror (or extreme anxiety, in the modern sense and usage of the word) that they inspire in localities, is sometimes greater than that generated by political terrorist groups. It is not a new phenomenon. Historical examples are as follows: Gilles de Rais terrorised part of France from 1431 to 1440, torturing, sexually abusing and murdering over 200 young children in Satanic ritual Peter Stubbe, accused of lycanthropy (supposedly changing into a wolf), terrorised Cologne. He was convicted in 1589 of sodomising his daughter and his sister; violating his son, murdering

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him and devouring his brain; murdering thirteen women and children. After trial and conviction, he was tied to a wheel, dismembered with red-hot pincers, decapitated, then burnt at the stake Countess Erzsébet Báthory, who terrorised early 17th century Cséjthe, Hungary, sadistically torturing and murdering over 300 children ‘Jack the Ripper’ (identity never formally proven / ascertained / revealed) who terrorised London from 1888 to 1891, mutilating and killing between five and eleven women (mostly prostitutes), of which five were in the streets

Jack the Ripper’s first victim is found, Whitechapel 1888

Courtesy: New Scotland Yard

Peter Kurten (the ‘Vampire of Duesseldorf’) who killed eight women and children, wounded and tortured many other people and animals, from the turn of the century until 1930 Albert de Salvo (the ‘Boston Strangler’), who terrorised Boston by strangling thirteen women to death and sexually assaulting hundreds of others between 1962 and 1964 David Berkowitz (the ‘Son of Sam’), who killed six people and several animals, terrorising New York City in 1977 Pedro Lopez, who killed 300 girls, between the ages of 8 and 12 years old, in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru up until his arrest in 1980 Jeffrey Dahmer, who committed 17 murders between the late 1980s and early 1990s in Milwaukee, committing necrophilia and cannibalism, and experimenting with a power drill and acid filled hyperdermics, attempted to make Zombies from some of his drugged victims. Andrei Romanovich Chikatilo, who in the Soviet Union / Russia, committed 52 sex murders during the 1970s and 1980s, including cannibalism and necrophilia in some of the cases Dr. Harold Shipman in the UK, a drug addict who subtly murdered almost 400 of his patients over 24 years until his arrest in 1999 The thought processes of some of these fringe-terrorists is provided by trial transcripts: “It was an urge... a strong urge and the longer I let it go the stronger it got, to where I was taking risks to go out and kill people - risks that normally, according to my little rules of operation, I wouldn’t take. Therefore they could lead to arrest.” Edmund Kemper, matricidal serial [sex] killer “I wanted only to try to live in accord with the prompting that came from my true self. Why was that so very difficult?” The Maquis de Sade

Lesson 4/ Other Motivations for Terrorism, Catalysts, and Negotiations Mass murderers / serial killers - terrorism and insanity

Peter Kurten ‘Vampire of Dusseldorf’

Donald Gaskins

Charles Manson

Ted Bundy

Jeffrey Dahmer

Andrei Chikatilo

Albert de Salvo ‘Boston Strangler’

Pedro Lopez

Courtesy of Police: Dusseldorf, Germany; Bogotà, Columbia; Rostov-on-Don, Russia; New Scotland Yard, UK. USA: Florence, SC ; Salt Lake City, UT; Boston, MA; Milwaukee, WI; Los Angeles, CA;

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Extreme Social or Economic Hardship “Kill one and terrorise a thousand” Former Chinese Statesman, Chairman Mao Zedong When populations suffer from continuing social or economic hardship, especially as a result of incompetence or corruption, it tends to provoke widespread popular unrest. In non-democratic countries where there is no possibility to elect an alternative government, it can result in the formation of political opposition groups who sometimes engage in guerrilla warfare and terrorism against their governments. This is especially so in wartime which tends to further worsen severe economic hardship. It is thought amongst experts on terrorism that economic hardship will be the greatest underlying cause of terrorism well into this century. This is because the world’s wealth is in so few hands; developing nations have little chance to make significant advances, being so deeply in debt that they are unable to make repayments at the same time as developing to any significant degree. This causes wide-spread hopelessness and resentment which often, when coupled with government corruption, results in revolt, insurrection and terrorism.

Mau Zedong Guerrilla Warfare expert

Suspension of Democracy Democracy is generally given to mean that formal state in a society which recognises equal rights and privileges for all members. Suspension of democracy can take many forms. It may include the imposition of martial law, undemocratic succession, falsifying political elections, seizing of power or inciting and turning loose one section of the population on another. When democracy is suspended, it causes immediate dissent, even in cases where it is genuinely necessary to impose martial law. In most cases any unjustified suspension of democracy catalyses the emergence of opposition groups, some of which engage in guerrilla warfare or terrorism as the only possible forms of resistance. As a response to this, governments tend to respond with oppressive measures which in turn escalate the conflict. Suspension of democracy fuelled the ethnic hatred which led to the 1994 terrorist genocide in Rwanda. The former prime minister, several ministers and army commanders (indicted for crimes

Lesson 4/ Other Motivations for Terrorism, Catalysts, and Negotiations 143 against humanity at the UN International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda) organised the massacre of the Watutsi minority, moderate Hutus and opponents of the dictatorial president, Juvenal Habyarimana. Democracy was formally suspended during several public speeches, one given by a Hutu government official named Mugesera, who later fled to Canada. Mugesera publicly called for (by public radio station broadcasts) executions and the expulsion of Watutsis from Rwanda by ‘dumping them in the Nyabarongo river.’ UN Int. Criminal Following the suspension of democracy in Rwanda, between half a million and one million men, women and children were murdered in a savagely brutal genocide (largely with machetes and edged weapons), which carried on unabated for at least 100 days, despite the knowledge of the International Community. Refer to the end of this Lesson for a case study concerning suspension of democracy (The Armenian Genocide). Favourable Political Environment Democracies do not exercise totalitarian control over their populations, while dictatorships or totalitarian regimes that are weak are unable to impose full totalitarian control of their populations. There is a common factor to both of these political systems: These systems can provide a more favourable operational climate to terrorists, which is not the case in powerful and repressive dictatorships. For example, following a terrorist outrage in a western democracy, it is not a tolerable practice to seal off entire cities, bring large traffic systems to a halt, ground all aircraft and round up large numbers of suspects for detention, pending leisurely interrogation. In weak authoritarian regimes, it is impractical to do so. The chances of escape and evading detection are therefore greater in a democracy and in weak totalitarian regimes, except in siege and hostage situations. This is attractive to the terrorist and sometimes a determining factor during the process of target selection by terrorists. Consequently, Europe was selected as a favourable venue for terrorist activity in the 1980s and early 1990s by foreign terrorist groups related to the Middle East and north African conflicts. A further advantage for terrorists in committing terrorism in democracies is the almost unrestricted publicity; a major goal for many terrorists. In a powerful totalitarian regime, media is tightly controlled by the state and publicity for terrorists is little or none. Section 4.3: Terrorists and Negotiation Negotiating Groups Negotiating groups refer to those who are prepared to negotiate, even if they do not make their demands known. They sometimes express their demands indirectly, by publishing an agenda of their perceived grievances. They are no less dangerous for that fact. Many intelligence and security forces segregate terrorist groups according to whether or not

Lesson 4/ Other Motivations for Terrorism, Catalysts, and Negotiations 144 they negotiate or are assessed as willing to do so. Some terrorist groups wish to negotiate, but first commit a terrorist act, in order to either exert pressure upon their target, or establish credibility. Other terrorists do not engage in dialogue, but they casually publicise their agenda, which in their view, is an indirect offer to the target to comply or negotiate and thereby avoid further terrorist acts. An example of this is the agenda of Osama bin Ladin’s coalition who demand by their written agenda, in addition to other things, a US troop withdrawal from Saudi Arabia and an Israeli withdrawal from East Jerusalem. Yet other groups publish a coercive ultimatum, such as the Algerian Islamic Armed Group (Group Islamique Armé or GIA), who threatened to “turn Belgium into a bloodbath” in August 1999, unless the Belgian government released GIA members held pending extradition. Non-Negotiating Groups “Those who seek revenge must remember to dig two graves” Old Chinese proverb Non-negotiating groups are sometimes called sub-conflict groups. These groups have no wish to enter into negotiations, because of hardened attitude and convictions. They terrorise as a punishment or in vengeance without opportunity for victim or target to discuss perceived grievances with them. Occasionally, they reveal demands which are clearly beyond the ability of the target or victim to implement, are unrealistic, or absurd. If they do make their demands known and they are not acceded to, terrorism continues to occur until the terrorists are apprehended, killed or become extinct or dormant with time or circumstance. Insincere Negotiations Sincerity is not a virtue attributed to any terrorist, but insincere negotiations describe the dealings of some terrorist groups who exploit what they view as weaknesses in democracies or specific situations. They extract concessions following which they do not adhere to their side of the negotiated agreement. An example of this would be a publicised political agreement, such as recognition of a cause or organisation, in exchange for a cease-fire or a de-commissioning of weapons, which is later reneged upon, similar to the actions of the PIRA in Northern Ireland. An example of insincere terrorist negotiations on a more secular scale, took place in Algeria in 1992. Terrorists were trapped in a building by security forces in a siege and hostage situation. The terrorists negotiated an agreement for the exchange of a civilian female hostage with an unarmed member of the security forces. As soon as the member of the Algerian special forces (former UN Military Observer: Major Haj Cherif) took off his equipment, laid down his weapons and exposed himself, the terrorists opened fire and murdered him. The civilian hostage was retained by the terrorists and transpired to be a female terrorist only posing as a hostage, held at gunpoint, in order to manipulate the murder of one of the security forces.

Lesson 4/ Other Motivations for Terrorism, Catalysts, and Negotiations 145 Case Study: Suspension of Democracy: The Armenian Genocide A notable example of the suspension of democracy occurred in Ottoman Turkey and resulted in the Armenian genocide, in which over one million Armenians were murdered, and which took place during three periods. It began in 1894, upon sanction of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, with the main genocide occurring in 1915, but with massacres still continuing periodically until 1923, largely as a result of land exchanging hands in the wake of WW I and a revolution in Turkey, ending the Ottoman dynasty. [Refer to Annex N for Photographic Evidence of the Armenian Genocide]. The events which resulted in the genocide began in 1828, when Persia ceded Yerevan and Nakhichevan to Russia, re-awakening Armenian desires for restoration of their ancient homeland. In Ottoman Turkey, reform measures known as the Tanzimat, had benefited the entire population, including the Armenian minority, and in 1863, a special Armenian constitution was recognised by the Ottoman government. Armenians in the eastern provinces of Ottoman Turkey began, with encouragement from Russia, to promote the idea of Armenian autonomy for those areas. This culminated in the formation of two revolutionary parties, Hënchak (the Bell) in 1887, and Dashnaktsutyun (Union) in 1890. In 1894, massacres of Armenians occurred in Sasun, where the Ottoman government responded to Armenian resistance to Kurdish encroachment upon the last mountain recesses of Armenians. This resulted in strong Armenian protests against the Ottoman Sultan’s actions, which in turn resulted in a further massacre in Constantinople in September 1895. Thereafter, beginning in Trebizond on the Black Sea, organised massacres occurred in nearly every major town in the Ottoman Empire where Armenians lived, culminating in the burning of Urfa Cathedral (ancient Edessa), where 3000 Armenians had taken refuge inside. In response to these massacres, Armenian protests occurred in 1896, and 26 members of Dashnak occupied the European-owned Ottoman Bank. Reprisals occurred shortly afterwards when between 5000 and 6000 Armenians were massacred during a period of three days within sight of European Embassies. Hënchak and Dashnaktsutyun, which did not even amount to a tiny fraction of the Armenian population, were later cited by some Ottoman authorities as causing significant friction between the Armenian Christian minority and the Turkish Muslim majority in the Ottoman Empire. Some European envoys of the era reported in diplomatic dispatches that some members of these two groups had terrorised some few Armenians, besides Ottomans, and it appeared that a number of them had the aim to provoke a violent Ottoman reaction which they calculated would bring European intervention in favour of Armenian independence. In alarm, the Russian Czar Alexander III and his son, Nicolas II closed several hundred Armenian schools, libraries and newspaper offices. In 1903, Czar Nicolas II confiscated the property of the Armenian Church in Russia. The second and main phase of the genocide occurred

Sultan Abdul Hamid II © A. Joundurian

Lesson 4/ Other Motivations for Terrorism, Catalysts, and Negotiations 146 under a subsequent Ottoman government, which succeeded in a coup d’etat: The Committee for Union and Progress (Ittihad ve Terakki Cemiyet) known as the Young Turks, comprising: Ahmed Riza, the chief spokesman, Mehmet Djavid [Bey], and the three most notable, who effectively, were to rule Ottoman Turkey: Minister of War Ismail Enver [Pasha], Prime Minister (1917-18) Memhed Talât [Pasha] and General Ahmed Djemal [Pasha]; the first two being most responsible for the genocide. The Young Turks followed a specific political doctine, which included elements of racism, of three political intellectuals of the day, Zia Gökalp, Dr. Mehmed Nazim, and Dr. Behaeddin Shakir. The manifesto of the Young Turks’ was orderly reform under a strong central government, with the exclusion of all foreign influence. The Young Turks was originally formed by a group of revolutionary students at the Imperial Medical Academy, who became temporary émigrés after being discovered. They subsequently allied with several Ottoman army commanders, managed to return, and organised an army revolt which forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to restore a constitutional government in 1908. The Young Turks were a diverse group that included students, liberals, nationalists, modernists, both devout and liberal Muslims, and also members of the Dönmeh (the Turkish word for convert), a Jewish sect originally from Salonika (found mainly in Istanbul, Izmir and Edirne), who had converted to Islam after their leader was forced, but who also secretly practised and preserved the Judaic rites and heritage. During WWI, Enver Pasha and Talât Bey organised a systematic genocide of the Armenian minority of the Ottoman Turkish population, which began on 14th April 1915. The Central Committee of the Young Turk Party formed an organisation called the Teshkilati Mahsusa (Special Unit) to carry out the genocide. They created special so-called ‘butcher battalions’ formed out of criminals released from prison. Some Ottoman officials of integrity, refused to take part in the genocide, but were removed from office, notably Governor Celal of Halab (Aleppo), Governor Mazhar of Ankara and Governor Reshid of Kastamonu. Non-prominent Ottoman Turks found protecting Armenians were killed. The genocide began with the disarming of Armenian soldiers in the Ottoman army, who were transferred to labour battalions, then massacred. On 24th April 1915, approximately 300 Armenian political and intellectual leaders, writers and professionals were summoned to Constantinople (renamed Istanbul in 1930), gathered together, then massacred. On the same day, approximately 5000 of the poorest Armenians were massacred in Constantinople on the streets and in their homes. The remaining Armenian population were then summoned from their homes to localised centres, where they were told that they were being re-located to Syria and Mesopotamia [Iraq], outposts of the Ottoman Empire. They were then marched off by force under guard of gendarmes, in very hot summer conditions, to concentration camps in the dessert between Dier el Zour and Jerablus (in present-day Syria). They were denied food and water on the march and also upon arrival at the camps. En route to the camps, many of those men, women and children who did not die of thirst and hunger, were robbed and massacred by their guards and marauding bandits, with many cases of rape and murder. The Ottoman authorities in Trebizond (on the black sea coast) varied the genocide by

Lesson 4/ Other Motivations for Terrorism, Catalysts, and Negotiations 147 loading tied groups of Armenian captives onto barges, taking them out to sea, then sinking the barges. The genocide occurred at (in and around) Ismid (Izmit); Broussa (Bursa); Angora (Ankara); Konia (Konya); Adana; Anatolia; Diyarbekir (Diyarbakir); Harpout (Harput); Marash; Sivas (Sepastia); Shabin Kara-Hissar (Sebin Karahisar); Ourfa (Urfa), and Trebizond (Trabzon). Reasons cited to defend the genocide are: Foreign interference in Ottoman domestic affairs. Russian Armenians had taken part in the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78), following which Russia insisted in the Treaty of San Stefano that Ottoman reforms protect the Sultan' s Armenian subjects from the Kurds, failing which, Russia would continue to occupy the Turkish held part of Armenia Some Armenians (a very small number) sided with the Greeks in the Greco-Turkish war of 1897 (which lasted 30 days) Russian Armenians (some battalions of approximately 500 men each) from the Caucusus took part in WW1 and from 1915, organised the [very limited] recruiting of Turkish Armenians from behind the Turkish lines Armenians wanted independence and wanted to separate from the Ottoman Empire Evidence suggests that religious and racial intolerance was an underlying factor enshrined in the contemporary political doctrine of the Young Turk Party and that also, some envy or resentment was present on account of Armenian intellectual and commercial prowess. Armenians also supported the Young Turk Party after they came to power in a coup d’etat, as they promised certain reforms which benefited Armenians (which were never to materialise). Although several subsequent governments have denied the genocide, the Ottoman Empire government of Grand Vizier (Prime Minister) Damad Adil Ferid Pasha, after WW1, held war crimes trials and convicted the Young Turks leaders, and several others, of murder, noting that: The genocide was carried out with as much secrecy as possible A public facade was maintained of “relocating” the Armenians The Young Turks organised the killing using a secret network The decision to eradicate the Armenians was a result of extensive, profound deliberations Ismail Enver [Pasha], Ahmed Djemal [Pasha] and Memhed Talât [Bey] were convicted and sentenced to death for the ‘Extermination and destruction of the Armenians’ (in absentia, since they had fled after the First World War). Intermittent massacres continued even after WW1 (which ended formally in 1918), until 1923, largely as a result of the re-defining of borders and land exchanging hands during further armed conflict.

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The Turkish Republic led by Mustapha Kemal Atatürk (who overthrew the Ottoman Sultan’s dynasty to form the new Republic of Turkey) seized Kars and Alexandropol by November 1920. Atatürk repudiated the treaties made with Armenia earlier in the year by the Otoman Sultan (Armenia had become a free and independent State on 10th August 1920, under the Treaty of Sèvres). In the Treaty of Alexandropol on 2nd December 1920, Armenia renounced all pre-1914 Turkish territories, Kars and Ardahan, recognised that there were no Armenian minorities in Turkey and accepted that the region of Nakhichevan should form an autonomous Turkish State. Atatürk (Turkish, meaning Father of Turks) was Turkey’s first President and he thoroughly broke with the past to modernise the state by: Sending the last Ottoman Sultan into exile Taking several Turkish territories back from foreign occupation Securing Turkey’s sovereignty in a peace treaty signed at Lausanne in July 1923 Dismantling the Ummah (strict Islamic identity) and establishing a secular nation by: Abolishing the caliphate (rule by the Sultans) Exiling all males of the royal family Secularising education Banning institutions run by religious sects (including the whirling dervishes) Changing the Arabic alphabet for the Roman alphabet Banning the turban and the fez (the head dress signifying officialdom) Permitting and encouraging women to enter the professions Making the adoption of surnames obligatory There are a variety of contemporary Armenian terrorist groups, which very occasionally attack Turkish and NATO targets, including diplomats.

Lesson 4/ Other Motivations for Terrorism, Catalysts, and Negotiations Many are dedicated communist -nationalists who seek Turkish acknowledgement and compensation for the Armenian genocide and are anti-Turkish, anti-imperialist (and variously antiNATO and anti-Zionist). They also sought an Armenian homeland prior to post Cold War independence and are now largely dormant, but not entirely. These splinters are from the same overall group. They are located in the Middle East, several European countries and the US. The names are variously: Orly Group 3rd October

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ASALA, a contemporary Armenian terrorist group seeking vengeance and justice for the terror and genocide of nearly 90 years ago

Asalarm ASALA (Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia) Asal Militant and Revolutionary Movement The political background to the terror of the Armenian genocide is well illustrated by the following quotations and communications, both modern and contemporary to the genocide: “You are greatly mistaken. We have this country absolutely under our control. I have no desire to shift the blame onto our underlings and I am entirely willing to accept the responsibility myself for everything that has taken place” Enver Pasha in a reply to US Ambassador Morgenthau who attributed the massacres to irresponsible Ottoman subalterns and underlings in distant provinces “Turkey is taking advantage of the war in order to thoroughly liquidate (grundlich aufzaumen) its internal foes, i.e., the indigenous Christians, without being thereby disturbed by foreign intervention” Talât Pasha, in a conversation with a Dr. Mordtmann of the German Embassy in June 1915 “The massacres are the result of a policy which, as far as can be ascertained, has been entertained for some considerable time by the gang of unscrupulous adventurers who are now in possession of the Government of the Turkish Empire. They hesitated to put it in practice until they thought the favorable moment had come, and that moment seems to have arrived about the month of April” British Viscount James Bryce in a speech on 6th October 1915 “I am ashamed of my nation” (Ich schame mich fur meine Nation) Djemal Pasha, to a German officer upon seeing the deportations in Mamure

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“Deportation of and excesses against peaceful Armenians is increasing and from harrowing reports of eye witnesses, it appears that a campaign of race extermination is in progress under a pretext of reprisal against rebellion” Henry Morgenthau, American Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire in 1915, in a cable to the US State Department “The Ottoman Empire should be cleaned up of the Armenians and the Lebanese. We have destroyed the former by the sword, we shall destroy the latter through starvation” Enver Pasha, triumvirate ruler of the Ottoman Empire in a public declaration on 19th May 1916 “I refer to those awful massacres. They are the greatest stain that has ever disgraced our nation and race. They were entirely the work of Talât and Enver. I asked him [Enver] if it was true that they intended to recommence the massacres which had been our shame and disgrace under Abdul Hamid. The only reply I could get from him was ‘It is decided. It is the program’” Prince Abdul Mecid, heir-apparent to the Ottoman throne in an interview following the massacres “In its attempt to carry out its purpose to resolve the Armenian question by the destruction of the Armenian race, the Turkish government has refused to be deterred neither by our representations, nor by those of the American Embassy, nor by the delegate of the Pope, nor by the threats of the Allied Powers, nor in deference to the public opinion of the West representing one-half of the world” Count Wolff-Metternich, German Ambassador, cabling the German Chancellor on 10th July 1916 “The Young Turks are continuing an unchecked policy of extermination through starvation, exhaustion, and brutality of treatment hardly surpassed even in Turkish history” Abram Elkus, US Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire in 1916, in a cable to the U.S. State Dept. “What on earth do you want? The question is settled. There are no more Armenians” Talât Pasha to the German Ambassador, persistently bringing up the Armenian question in 1918 “800,000* Armenian deportees were actually killed........by holding the guilty accountable, the government is intent on cleansing the bloody past” Turkish Minister of the Interior Cemal Pasha, in a public declaration on 15th March 1918 [*computations by Turkish Ministry experts] “Surely a few Armenians aided and abetted our enemy, and a few Armenian Deputies committed crimes against the Turkish nation... it is incumbent upon a government to pursue the guilty ones. Unfortunately, our wartime leaders, imbued with a spirit of brigandage, carried out the law of deportation in a manner that could surpass the proclivities of the most bloodthirsty bandits. They decided to exterminate the Armenians, and they did exterminate them” Turkish Minister of the Interior, Mustafa Arif on 13th December 1918

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“. . . the Armenian massacre was the greatest crime of the war, and the failure to act against Turkey is to condone it . . . the failure to deal radically with the Turkish horror means that all talk of guaranteeing the future peace of the world is mischievous nonsense” Theodore Roosevelt in a letter to Cleveland H. Dodge on 11th May 1918 “A crime that drew the revulsion of the entire humankind” Turkish Grand Vezir (Chef de Cabinet) Damad Ferid Pasha “Whereas the people of the United States are deeply impressed by the deplorable conditions of insecurity, starvation, and misery now prevalent in Armenia” US President Woodrow Wilson, 14th May 1920, addressing the US Congress “These left-overs from the former Young Turk Party, who should have been made to account for the millions of our Christian subjects who were ruthlessly driven en masse, from their homes and massacred, have been restive under the Republican rule” Turkish President Atatürk, during an interview on 1st August 1923, with the Los Angeles Examiner “Who, after all, speaks today of the annihilation of the Armenians?” Adolf Hitler, during WWII, persuading the Nazi hierarchy that a Jewish genocide would be tolerated by the west “The association of Mount Ararat and Noah, the staunch Christians who were massacred periodically by the Mohammedan Turks, and the Sunday School collections over fifty years for alleviating their miseries-all cumulate to impress the name Armenia on the front of the American mind” Herbert Hoover Memoirs, 1952 “It is generally not known in the world that, in the years preceding 1916, there was a concerted effort made to eliminate all the Armenian people, probably one of the greatest tragedies that ever befell any group. And there weren’t any Nuremberg trials” Jimmy Carter, in a White House ceremony on 16th May 1978 “Like the genocide of the Armenians before it, and the genocide of the Cambodians which followed it, . . . the lessons of the Holocaust must never be forgotten” Ronald Reagan, in a proclamation on 22nd April 1981 “It was not war. It was most certainly massacre and genocide, something the world must remember....We will always reject any attempt to erase its record, even for some political advantage” Israeli Deputy Foreign Minister Yossi Beilin in the Knesset on 27th April 1994, in response to claims that ‘it was war,’ by the Turkish Ambassador to Israel during a TV interview

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Extracts from the Treaty of Sèvres, of 10th August 1920 THE TREATY OF PEACE BETWEEN THE ALLIED AND ASSOCIATED POWERS AND TURKEY SIGNED AT SEVRES AUGUST 10, 1920

THE BRITISH EMPIRE, FRANCE, ITALY AND JAPAN,

These Powers being described in the present Treaty as the Principal Allied Powers;

ARMENIA, BELGIUM, GREECE, THE HEDJAZ, POLAND, PORTUGAL, ROUMANIA, THE SERB-CROAT-SLOVENE STATE AND CZECHO-SLOVAKIA,

These Powers constituting, with the Principal Powers mentioned above, the Allied Powers, of the one part;

AND TURKEY, of the other part;

_____________________________________________________________ EXTRACTS: “...in view of the terrorist regime which has existed in Turkey since November 1, 1914... In order to repair so far as possible the wrongs inflicted on individuals in the course of the massacres perpetrated in Turkey during the war, the Turkish Government undertakes to afford all the assistance in its power or in that of the Turkish authorities in the search for and deliverance of all persons, of whatever race or religion, who have disappeared, been carried off, interned or placed in captivity since November 1, 1914. The Turkish Government undertakes to hand over to the Allied Powers the persons whose surrender may be required by the latter as being responsible for the massacres committed during the continuance of the state of war on territory which formed part of the Turkish Empire on August 1, 1914.” _____________________________________________________________ Courtesy: UK Foreign Office

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MAP OF THE 1915 ARMENIAN GENOCIDE

© Armenian National Institute, US

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The 1920 Treaty of Sèvres appointed US President Wilson to determine boundaries of Armenia:

Courtesy: US Department of State

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KEYWORDS TO NOTE Christianity

Monotheistic religion of those following Jesus Christ

Insanity

Mental instability to the point of not being legally responsible for actions

Judaism

Monotheistic Jewish religion and way of life. Succeeded Hebraism

Opportunism Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

Acting for selfish personal gain over moral or legal principles Mental disorder resulting from significant trauma or accumulated negative stress. Also known as Shell Shock, Battle Fatigue and Burn Out

Racism

Rivalry or discrimination between races. Belief in racial superiority

Religion

Belief in an unseen creative higher power, controlling destiny

Xenophobia

Fear or hatred of foreigners or foreign cultures

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TERRORIST ATTACK BRIEF Bomb Attack in Omagh, Northern Ireland, UK Facts of the Case: On 15th August 1998, a car bomb was detonated in busy street of Omagh in Northern Ireland, UK, killing 29 people, including 13 women (one pregnant with twins) and 11 children, and wounding over 300 other people. Investigation: During the investigation, 385 forensic evidence exhibits, 40 tons of rubble and 237 video film clips were collected, in addition to 6,500 interviews and 3500 homes and businesses visited. Over 80 arrests were made since the crime (most were subsequently released without charge), with 15,200 other investigative actions. The UK's Northern Ireland Police (Royal Ulster Constabulary), the Republic of Ireland Police (Garda Síochána) and the UK's New Scotland Yard established responsibility for the attacks upon the Real IRA (Irish Republican Army). In January 2002, one of the suspects arrested was convicted for the crime and received 14 years in prison. Further suspects are sought.

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END-OF-LESSON QUIZ 1. Some terrorists are opportunists who commit terrorism for a) Publicity b) Political or religious reasons c) Wealth or power 2. Terrorism for motives of religious hatred only occurs in the Middle East. a) True b) False 3. Xenophobia is fear or hatred of foreigners or foreign customs while racial hatred may be hatred towards a single race. a) True b) False 4. Class resentment is a hidden motive for terrorism found amongst which terrorist groups? a) Religious groups b) Animal rights groups c) Independence groups 5. PTSD has also been known as a) Shell shock b) Battle fatigue c) both a and b 6. Non-negotiating terrorists generally carry out terrorist acts a) For money b) To punish or enact vengeance c) For political reasons 7. Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a) A justification for terrorism b) A medical condition explaining some acts of terrorism c) Fear created by terrorism 8. Insincere negotiations means that terrorists a) Achieve concessions b) Break agreements c) Will only negotiate officially 9. Terrorism is often rooted in the hopelessness and resentment caused by extreme economic hardship or poverty. a) True b) False 10. The 1994 Rwandan genocide and subsequent massacres were caused by a) Suspension of democracy and ethnic hatred b) Religious intolerance c) Economic hardship

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11. Terrorists often prefer committing acts in liberal democracies, because a) Terrorist weapons are more easily available b) There is more publicity, easier penalties and less chance of apprehension c) Liberal democracies oppose all terrorists 12. Europe was a popular venue in the 1980s and 1990s for terrorist attacks related to the Middle East and north African conflicts. a) True b) False 13. Terrorist groups who are prepared to negotiate either make their demands directly known or indirectly by issuing an agenda of their grievances. a) True b) False 14. Terrorists who will not negotiate are called a) Pro-conflict b) Sub-conflict c) Insincere negotiators 15. Serial killers or mass murderers are often terrorists who are insane. a) True b) False 16. A false-flag operation is an act calculated to falsely incriminate an opponent. a) True b) False 17. Following the suspension of democracy in Rwanda, in 1994, the genocide was carried out by a) Hutus b) Watutsis c) Neither 18. Terrorism experts think what will be the greatest underlying cause of terrorism in this century? a) Religion b) Economic Hardship c) Politics 19. One motive for de-population or ethnic cleansing is the acquisition of land. a) True b) False 20. Interahamwe means a) Religious fighters b) Revolutionaries c) Those who kill without mercy ANSWERS: 1-c, 2-b, 3-a, 4-b, 5-c, 6-b, 7-b, 8-b, 9-a, 10-a, 11-b, 12-a, 13-a, 14-b, 15-a, 16-a, 17-a,18-b,19-a, 20-c.

Lesson 5 A Profile of Terrorists and Their Organisations Section 5.1: A Profile of Terrorists Age Education Background Recruitment Summary Section 5.2: Structure and Practice of Terrorist Organizations Leadership, Operational, Political and Spiritual Intelligence and Reconnaissance Security and Counter-Intelligence Organising Terrorist Acts Logistics Recruitment, Training and Support The Terrorist Cell Format Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Bombing; US Air Base, Frankfurt, W. Germany

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Lesson 5 Scope and Objectives Section 5.1: A Profile of Terrorists

This section reproduces data which profiles guerrilla-terrorists engaged in the ongoing conflict within the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. It includes their personal circumstances, recruitment motivations, guerrilla-terrorist level of training, as well as personal details such as age, education and normal employment or trade. This lesson refers the student to Annex C (a list of groups accused of terrorism by governments and media) and Annex K (lists of terrorist organisations according to the US, UK and EU). The Terrorist Attack Brief for this Lesson is the bombing of the US Air Base at Frankfurt in 1985. After this lesson, the student should be able to: Describe the profile of a typical guerrilla-terrorist in the Jammu and Kashmir conflict Recite the various motivations for becoming a guerrilla-terrorist Broadly describe characteristics of contemporary terrorist groups

Section 5.2: Structure and Practice of Terrorist Organisations

This section illustrates the structure of terrorist organisations, explaining the different types of leadership positions and describes several functions such as counter-intelligence, security and logistics. It also describes how a terrorist act is organised and explains recruitment, training, support and finally, the terrorist cell-format. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Differentiate between operational, political and spiritual leaders of terrorist groups Describe the basic intelligence gathering and reconnaissance methods of terrorist groups Explain some terrorist security and counter-intelligence practices Segregate organisation and execution of terrorist acts into planning and control functions Understand the importance of terrorist logistics and their vulnerability Explain different purposes of terrorist camps and why remote locations are often selected State the principle advantage of the guerrilla-warfare cell-format adopted by terrorists Recall the meaning of the words contained in the Lesson’s Keywords to Note table Recall the basic facts concerning the bombing of the US Air Base, Frankfurt, W. Germany

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Lesson 5. A Profile of Terrorists and their Organisations Section 5.1: A Profile of Terrorists A profile of terrorists and guerrillas is a difficult undertaking, not only because much of the required information is unavailable or unknown, but owing to the fact that definition of what a terrorist is has not yet been universally agreed upon. Moreover, people, including terrorists, differ so much from country to country and between continents. The value of a profile of a single terrorist group for the purposes of this course is important but should not be considered as the universal norm for either terrorists or guerrillas. Some terrorists act alone as individuals (sometimes the case with transnational terrorists, and invariably so with insane terrorists), or in loose temporary collaborations, while others belong to groups that are engaged in terrorism. Yet others belong to guerrilla groups whose majority of members do not engage in terrorism. The following information charts portray authentic profiles of actual guerrilla-terrorists (known as Militants) engaged in the war in the former princely State of Jammu and Kashmir. AGE Age:

Below 20 yrs

21-25 yrs

26-35 yrs

Over 35 yrs

Fully -Trained

40%

47%

12%

1%

Partly-Trained

28%

31%

27%

14%

EDUCATION Education:

Illiterate

High School

Und.Graduate

Graduate

Fully - Trained

21%

44%

29%

6%

Partly - Trained

22%

40%

25%

13%

BACKGROUND Background:

Labourers

Traders

Students

Peasants

Civil Servants

Fully-Trained

42%

14%

19%

22%

3%

Partly-Trained

25%

18%

17%

21%

19%

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RECRUITMENT Force or Threat

Peer / Family Pressure

Gentle Persuasion

15%

10%

12%

Attraction Religious / Political Conviction 10%

20%

Enemy OpportAgent unist 0.25%

8.75%

Jobless

24%

Summary It can be concluded from the statistics shown that the most common profile of a fully-trained guerrilla / terrorist in the Jammu and Kashmir conflict is that of a 21 to 25 year old; of high school education; a labourer by occupation; and who became a guerrilla-terrorist as a result of being unemployed. This type of information is useful to security forces as a guide to what type of suspects to look for. It is also useful to the government, who can analyse that unemployment causes significant recruitment; they can take steps to reduce unemployment, as an anti-terrorism measure. Profiles of terrorists and groups will vary greatly according to region, circumstance and campaign. [A list of groups, including those in Kashmir, that stand accused of terrorism by governments and media, may be found in Annex C. Lists of terrorist groups according to the US, UK and EU may be found in Annex K]. There are several other aspects concerning the profiling of terrorists: In the case of terrorists, especially insane terrorists, such as serial killers or socalled ‘mad bombers,’ it is sometimes possible to profile them, if they send demands or other types of written communication to the authorities or media. Two such examples are shown on the next page. One is from a bomber and one from a serial killer. Both terrorised parts of New York City during different periods in the last Three Jammu & Kashmir Militant Leaders century, and in both cases the police used Left to right: Shahid ul Islam (Hizbullah [captured]), Syed psychiatrists to try to provide a profile of the Salahuddin (Hizb ul Mujahideen), Nayem ul Haq (Al Umar Mujahideen) suspects they were hunting. These men know very well how to prey upon the anxieties of inexperienced and unemployed young men, and recruit them to fight vastly superior government troops. The life span of an active young Militant is not very long

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PROFILING TERRORISTS FROM THEIR LETTERS Extremely useful profiles can be built from letters received from terrorists, like these shown above. The first letter (left) was sent to police by bomber George Metesky, who was active in New York City in the 1940s, with a grudge against Con Edison (the electricity, gas and steam utility company). It indicates: a degree of patriotism (stopping his bombing campaign for the war’s duration); intelligence, as pasted letters provide no sample of handwriting to compare or to analyse; reasonably well educated (good quality English grammar and vocabulary). The second letter (right) was sent by David Berkowitz (the ‘Son of Sam’) who terrorised New York from 1976 to 1977 by randomly killing women with a Colt .44" bulldog revolver, including couples in parked cars. The letter indicates that Berkowitz is: of poor education, probably with a mental age far less than his physical years; careless enough to provide police with a sample of his handwriting, and very seriously disturbed. Handwriting analysts and psychiatrists would have analysed these letters to a far greater, professional degree. Courtesy (letters): FBI

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Section 5.2: Structure and Practice of Terrorist Organizations Leadership; Operational, Political and Spiritual “An ape’s an ape and a varlet’s a varlet, though they be clad in silk or scarlet” Old English proverb There is always a clearly recognised operational leader of a terrorist group. This operational leader sometimes takes part in operations, or has a past record of participating, which is an important motivating influence for the other terrorists. The following explain the roles of different types of terrorist group leaders, with examples: Operational Leadership. Operational leaders are rarely independent. Frequently there are organisers, sponsors and financiers behind the operational leader that he alone is aware of, with the exception of a trusted lieutenant who will know how to clandestinely make contact with them in the event of the operational leader being killed or captured. Political Leadership. In terrorist groups there is often one terrorist, not necessarily the operational leader, who is responsible for political indoctrination and re-enforcement of the group’s cause. The political doctrine of the group may be that of a sponsoring government. Spiritual Leadership. A spiritual leader is found in those groups whose cause involves religion. They have a specific religious cleric who indoctrinates and instills religious legitimacy into the terrorists as a motivating factor. The spiritual dogma may be that of a religion, a sect, an individual cleric or that of a specific government that sponsors the terrorists. An example of a spiritual leader is that of Hizbollah in Lebanon; Sheikh Muhammad Hussein Fadlallah (who also functions as the Head Arbiter or Mujtahid of Shiite Islamic law in Lebanon) serves as Spiritual leader or guide for the Hizbollah group. Co-Leadership. The Taliban and Al Qa’ida can be viewed as a coalition between a regular military force (although hardly approaching developed standards) and a transnational terrorist group, sharing common aims. To all appearances, Sheikh Omar led the Taliban and Osama bin Ladin led Al Qa’ida. In reality, Osama bin Ladin was de facto commander of both. Although Sheikh Omar was nominally in charge of the Taliban, issuing orders and taking decisions, he was in effect a figurehead, practically subservient to bin Ladin’s approval. This was not widely known amongst the Taliban, as the rank and file rallied more readily under a religious leader, besides which, the Taliban Government had publicly to be led by an Afghan. In effect, bin Ladin was the operational leader and Sheikh Omar was the spiritual leader. Spiritual Inspiration. Another example of a terrorist spiritual leader is religious cleric Omar Abdel Rahman. In the early 1990s, inspired terrorists that it was a religious duty to blow up the World Trade Centre, the United Nations building in New York, the FBI headquarters, two New York traffic tunnels and a bridge, besides trying to assassinate the Egyptian President.

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Spiritual Influence. An example of the influence that spiritual leaders can sometimes exert within a terrorist group, is the case of Shoko Asahara, the guru (spiritual leader) of the Aum Shinri Kyo (Supreme Truth) Armageddonist cult, based in Japan. Aum Shinri Kyo terrorists killed 12 people in 1995 after discharging lethal Sarin nerve gas on Tokyo’s underground railway station. In this case, Asahara organised the group’s attack by undermining and by-passing some of its key leaders. Splits in Leadership. When elements Sheep skeletons on land owned by Aum Shinri Kyo in within a terrorist group split to form a Australia, where they tested Sarin nerve gas on animals Courtesy: Australian Federal Police new group, it can be for opportunistic reasons as mentioned in Lesson 4 (Concealed and Other Motivations for Terrorism; Opportunism), but many splits are caused through differences with the leadership of the group. Especially common are disputes over how hard-line the group may or may not be. An example of this occurred in Palestine with the Palestinian (Jewish) Haganah; from Haganah, a splinter group called Haganah B emerged in 1931. From Haganah B, a splinter group called Irgun Zwei Leumi emerged in 1936. From Irgun Zwei Leumi, a splinter group called Lochamei Herut Israel (Lehi or the Stern gang) emerged in 1940. Each splinter group was more hard-line and fanatic than its predecessor. In this example, part of an illegal guerrilla style group evolved into a notorious terrorist group. Intelligence and Reconnaissance Terrorist groups gather intelligence, usually by human means (known as HumInt) since they usually lack the resources for the more sophisticated intelligence gathering methods such as electronic intercept and satellite intelligence (SatInt). Terrorist groups sponsored by governments however, are sometimes beneficiaries of superior-grade intelligence from the security and intelligence gathering organs of those governments. The human intelligence that terrorists gather may be from media, observation, bribery or soliciting from those in strategic positions (such as low-grade government employees in sensitive positions of trust) who covertly sympathise with the terrorist cause or can be profiled, then persuaded, bribed or entrapped and blackmailed. Reconnaissance is important and precedes many terrorist acts, especially where escape may prove difficult or observation is likely. The site of the terrorist act is usually subject to careful

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reconnaissance, to ensure a smoothly run operation with good chances of avoiding detection and apprehension. During the reconnaissance, the terrorists observe many aspects, including security forces, obstacles, observation points, entry and exit points, road and pedestrian routes, secondary escape routes and the precise location where they may intend to site any explosive devices. Of the terrorist team that bombed the US embassy in Nairobi in 1998, two bomb makers devoted themselves to constructing the bomb mechanisms for four days, while three other members spent four days before the attack, making a reconnaissance of the Embassy and routes. The reconnaissance element left Kenya before the attacks, in case they had been identified, in which case they might have jeopardised the success of the attack, if they were suddenly recognised or followed. Security and Counter-Intelligence Security is a major consideration of terrorists in all stages. Terrorists are well aware that security forces regularly try to apprehend them with a variety of ingenious methods. When terrorist organisations or cells have been penetrated by security forces and they are aware of this, they sometimes deliberately spread dis-information inside the group, in order to confuse or misdirect the efforts of security forces, to whom the information is reported. This is one form of counter-intelligence or opposing the intelligence gathering resources ranged against them. Another form of counter-intelligence engaged in by terrorists is covertly testing each individual member of the group or cell, by a variety of methods until the deep cover agent or leak is revealed. An example is Al Qa’ida some of whose members regularly compete with one another in feats of extreme loyalty, often involving murder and violent action, in order to preclude traitors or agents. A counter-intelligence tactic sometimes adopted in guerrilla warfare and terrorist campaigns is to adopt a variety of different group names. This misleads security forces as to how many groups there are and how large the groups are. This can hamper the security forces intelligence machinery and result in over-deployment and mis-direction of forces. Successful examples where this strategy was used are in the war against Wonsan, Korea Soviet occupation of Afghanistan (1979 UN Forces (B-26 Invador) bombing of a Church where intelligence to 1989) and to a smaller extent, in the revealed that a large cache of terrorist explosives were hidden © US Army / Air Force Jammu and Kashmir conflict.

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Anthrax Not an easy weapon to obtain

Courtesy: US Army, Medical Research & Development Unit

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Organising Terrorist Acts. Sophisticated terrorist acts do not occur spontaneously. They are carefully planned and executed. These stages are subject to clear division of responsibilities, such as reconnaissance, logistics, intelligence and weapons. From a military point of view, they are identifiable as two-fold; planning functions and control functions. Some design the operation on the planning side and some carry it out as operatives on the control side. There are sub-divisions to planning and control which include security, logistics (weapons and supply), propaganda and other functions.

Logistics No terrorist operation can take place without logistics. Obtaining illegal logistics is complicated and dangerous as it generally includes the procurement or retrieval of illegal weapons or other prohibited materials such as explosives, chemical or biological agents. It is a dangerous stage of terrorist planning as security forces often monitor illicit arms dealers and arms caches, which might lead to entrapment, ambush or capture of the terrorist group, or sabotage of the weapons. Recruitment, Training and Support “Ill company brings many a man to the gallows” Old English proverb Recruitment is often artificially manipulated by exploiting social, political and economic tensions in the locale. Once recruited however, the terrorist may be trained and deployed in an entirely different area from where he was recruited. Many guerrilla and terrorist training camps are rural and in remote regions, which the national authorities either sponsor, choose to ignore or cannot control. Newly recruited guerillas and terrorists are sometimes taken directly to such camps for formal induction and training. Some of these camps also carry out refresher and specialist training. Yet others serve as a terrorist base while some serve also as staging points (pre-mission assembly areas) for terrorist operations.

The Idiot Fool. From The Dance of Death

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The Kashmir conflict is a case which illustrates the complexity and thoroughness of guerrilla and terrorist training in that region: Training for terrorists and guerrillas destined for the Kashmir conflict (with or without the respective governments’ knowledge) takes place and has taken place, variously, in: Afghanistan (suspended in 2002) Pakistan The Pakistan side of the cease-fire line, in Azad (liberated) Kashmir India The Indian side of the cease-fire line, in the Jammu and Kashmir State Bangladesh Tibet Sudan Libya Lebanon, west Beirut and in the Tyre pocket of the south [In early 2002, media reported that in order to assist the anti-terrorism coalition, the Pakistan Government ordered its Joint Intelligence North branch of the ISI (Inter Services Intelligence) to cease operations and further training and support of guerrilla or terrorist warfare in the Kashmir dispute]. Training courses vary in duration from between 2 and 12 weeks. There are exceptions to this, such as the complex communications course of 20 weeks, needed before operating the highlysensitive ‘Bismullah’ radio-sets located in the Kashmir Valley. Training courses varied in subject and included: Sniping Demolition Subversive activities The salary during this training period was approx imately 1000 Rupees (approximately 25 US Dollars) per month, while under training. After training and some operations, a successful guerrilla-terrorist received up to 15,000 Rupees (approximately 375 US Dollars) per month. An ISI guerrilla-terrorist training team in Azad Kashmir or its environs, typically comprised:

Guerrilla / Terrorist training camp in Azad (liberated) Kashmir

© Author

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One officer A JCO (junior commissioned officer) An NCO (non-commissioned officer) Visiting Army lecturers Visiting Police lecturers Visiting Special Forces lecturers Former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto closed down approximately 50% Militant killed during firefight in Kashmir of the training camps in Pakistan and Azad (liberated) Kashmir due to international pressure, but some continued to exist afterwards in Pakistan and Azad Kashmir, with some very few on the Indian side of the cease-fire line (termed the Line of Control, Line of Actual Control, or simply, the LoC). Some were/are located in remote areas, some in jungle terrain and a few inside innocent looking buildings such as town match factories. Training varies considerably according to the continent, type of sponsoring, terrain and the nature of the dispute. In the northern Ireland dispute, it was practically impossible for Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) terrorists to regularly and easily practice-fire sub machine guns, rocket propelled grenades and assault rifles, or to train in detonating explosives, while located in the Republic of Ireland, and especially in the UK provinces of Northern Ireland, without rapid detection by security forces. Consequently, a number of PIRA terrorists underwent weapon training at remote rural areas in foreign countries including Libya and Lebanon (during the civil war). The following casualty figures of the internal security situation in Northern Ireland span from 1969 to 1999. They do not include related casualties outside of the provinces: Catholic civilians: 1233 Protestant civilians: 698 Republican terrorists: 392 Unionist terrorists: 144 British Armed Forces: 709 Police and Reservists: 303 Others: 158 Total killed: 3637 Total wounded: 29,198 PIRA improvised mortar battery

Courtesy: WSMD/EMD

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The Terrorist Cell Format Terrorists are well aware that security forces regularly try to apprehend them with a variety of methods. Sometimes, security and intelligence forces try to penetrate terrorist organisations by inserting deep-cover agents. This tends to be a short term strategy due to the inherent suspicion attached to most new members of the group and the dangers posed by terrorist counter-intelligence (painstaking background vetting of new members). Consequently, some terrorist groups adopt a range of counter-measures including the cell-format. This means that the organisation is divided into cells whose members do not know the other cells’ members and commanders. A captured agent or terrorist is therefore unable to list the Member of an ETA (Basque entire group, under interrogation, and the same applies for the separatist) terrorist cell Courtesy: Guardia Civile Madrid,Spain de-briefing of a security force’s deep cover agent that has managed to penetrate the group. This is not a new method of irregular warfare security, but was used to an extent, during World War II by the Allied-sponsored resistance groups in Axisoccupied Europe. The cell format is especially useful for terrorists of large groups (such as the Group Islamique Armé or Armed Islamic Group in Algeria, or ETA in Spain), whose members are sometimes caught and interrogated.

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KEYWORDS TO NOTE Al Qa’ida Counter-Intelligence

Arabic. The Base (military connotation). The Foundation Frustration of efforts to gather intelligence or penetrate

HumInt

Human Intelligence. Intelligence gathered in person

Intelligence

Strategic information or the Organisation gathering it

Logistics Reconnaissance Taliban Terrorist Cell

Practicalities of moving and supplying soldiers or an enterprise A preliminary survey to discover enemy position and strength Pushtoun. Students [of Islamic knowledge] Group that for security, doesn’t know other groups'members

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TERRORIST ATTACK BRIEF Bombing of US Air Base, Frankfurt, West Germany Facts of the Case: On 8th August 1985, a car bomb was exploded at a US Air Base at Rhein Main, Frankfurt, West Germany. Two US nationals were killed and twenty-one others wounded. Investigation: Two left wing terrorist groups claimed responsibility as part of a war on imperialism: Red Army Faction (West Germany) and Direct Action (France). The groups also claimed responsibility for the murder of a US soldier earlier in the year at Wiesbaden Germany. The groups stole the soldiers’ identity papers, which facilitated their entry into Rhein Main airbase. Eva Haule-Frimpong and Birgit Hogefeld (Red Army Faction) were subsequently convicted of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment for the Rhein Main airbase bombing, a NATO training school bombing and the murder of the US soldier.

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END-OF-LESSON QUIZ 1. No terrorists or guerrillas have post-secondary education. a) True b) False 2. In the Jammu and Kashmir conflict, the most common single reason for becoming a guerrilla or a terrorist is a) Religious convictions b) Peer pressure c) Unemployment 3. Terrorists are always members of guerrilla groups. a) True b) False 4. Some guerrillas are not terrorists. a) True b) False 5. The most common age group of guerrillas and terrorists in the Jammu and Kashmir conflict is a) 21 to 25 yrs b) 26 to 35 yrs c) Over 35 yrs 6. Some terrorist groups not only have operational leaders, but also political and sometimes spiritual leaders. a) True b) False 7. Terrorists who are not sponsored by governments, mostly gather intelligence by a) Signals intelligence b) Electronic interception c) Human intelligence methods (HumInt) 8. An important objective of reconnaissance before a terrorist attack is a) To identify any other terrorists in the locality b) To select additional targets c) To ensure a smooth operation and minimise chances of apprehension 9. Terrorist groups sometimes use many names in order to a) Recruit more terrorists b) Over-burden security forces’ intelligence machinery c) Avoid responsibility 10. Terrorist and guerrilla training camps may serve for recruit and refresher training and as a base for operations and support. a) True b) False

Lesson 5/ A Profile of Terrorists and their Organisations 11. Terrorist groups sometimes form cells because a) It is more economical b) It minimises internal conflicts within the group c) A captured terrorist or deep-cover agent can only reveal the members of his cell 12. Spiritual leaders belong to terrorist groups in which capacity? a) Ethnic b) Political c) Religious 13. Which of the following is not a consideration in reconnaissance by terrorists? a) Security forces b) Political agenda c) Secondary escape routes 14. There is always a clearly recognised operational leader of a terrorist group. a) True b) False 15. Omar Abdel Rahman inspired terrorists that it was a religious duty to blow up a) United Nations Headquarters b) The Eiffel Tower c) The Sydney Opera House 16. Training for fighting in the Kashmir conflict has taken place in how many countries? a) 2-5 b) 6-8 c) 8 or more 17. Nayem ul Haq is associated with a) Hizullah b) Al Umar Mujahideen c) Hizb ul Mujahideen 18. A number of PIRA terrorists underwent weapon training in London. a) True b) False 19. From a military point of view, terrorist acts are a) Planning functions b) Control functions c) Planning functions and control functions 20. Many guerrilla and terrorist training camps are rural and in remote regions. a) True b) False ANSWERS: 1-b, 2-c, 3-b, 4-a, 5-a, 6-a, 7-c, 8-c, 9-b, 10-a, 11-c, 12-c, 13-b, 14-a, 15-a,16-c, 17-b,18-b,19-c,20-a.

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Lesson 6 Terrorist Weapons, Resources, and Equipment Section 6.1: The Terrorist Armoury Small Arms, Light and Medium-Sized Infantry Weapons Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) and Assassination Devices Military and Improvised Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Weapons Volunteer Suicide-Terrorists Compelled Suicide-Terrorists Computer Viruses and Logic Bombs Other Weapons Section 6.2: Other Resources, Services and Equipment Illicit Arms Sources Support from Other Terrorist Groups and Sympathisers Diplomatic, Ideological, Political and Spiritual Support Commercially Available Equipment Commercially Available Communications Facilities Funding; Illegally-Generated and Sponsored Negotiating Options Diplomatic Immunity Individual Sponsorship Sponsorship by Governments Rogue Intelligence and Security Personnel Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Attacks on Cafés, San Salvador, El Salvador

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Lesson 6 Scope and Objectives Section 6.1: The Terrorist Armoury

This section describes the terrorist armoury; the full range of weapons that terrorists use; military, purpose-made, improvised and human (suicide bombers). It explains types of bomb including improvised explosive devices (IED), their content and tactical use. Also mentioned are nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) weapons, known as weapons of mass destruction (WMD) together with Radiological Dispersal Devices (RDD). Computer-viruses and other weapons are discussed. The Terrorist Attack Brief for this Lesson concerns the Attacks on Cafés, San Salvador, El Salvador. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Describe an improvised explosive device (IED) and the most common explosives used Explain the different types of detonating triggers used in IEDs State the purpose of an incendiary device Understand the different purposes of primary and secondary bombs Describe the two types of suicide terrorist; compelled and volunteer Understand nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) weapons in the context of terrorism Explain radiological dispersal devices (RDD) and weapons of mass destruction (WMD)

Section 6.2: Other Resources, Services, and Equipment

This section explains the general resources, services, equipment and other support utilised by terrorist groups. Illicit arms sources are discussed with a chart of several authentic illicit arms bazaars which exist on the Indian sub-continent. Support from other terrorist groups, diplomatic, ideological, political and spiritual support is also mentioned. Equipment and services which are available through ordinary commercial channels is explained, and also the types of illegal funding for terrorism. Negotiating options and diplomatic immunity are described, as resources by those terrorists that have access to them. Finally, sponsorship of terrorism by governments and individuals is discussed and also support rendered by rogue intelligence and security personnel. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Understand different illegal weapon sources, price variations and preferred weapons Describe the nature of contemporary support between terrorist groups List the type of commercially available equipment and services used by terrorists State terrorist methods for obtaining illegal funding and describe sponsored funding Understand the option of negotiation, including secret negotiations Appreciate terrorist use of diplomatic immunity and understand government sponsorship Understand the meaning of support by rogue intelligence and security personnel Recall the meaning of the words contained in the Lesson’s Keywords to Note table Recall basic details concerning the attacks on cafés in San Salvador, El Salvador

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Lesson 6. Terrorist Weapons, Resources, and Equipment Section 6.1: The Terrorist Armoury Small Arms, Light and Medium-Sized Infantry Weapons “Political power grows from the barrel of a gun” Mao Tse-Tung. Chinese premier and guerrilla warfare strategist

Assault Rifle A sub machine gun, capable of either fully or semi automatic fire, which uses rifle-size ammunition (about same calibres as pistols, but longer cartridges)

Terrorists use a wide range of military weapons, limited to what they can steal, illegally purchase, smuggle or otherwise obtain. Amongst the most common military weapons are pistols, revolvers, rifles and submachine guns. Terrorists also use light machine guns, hand-grenades, time-bombs, mortars, rocket artillery, rocket propelled grenades and mines (land mines [anti-personnel, group or anti-tank] and water mines [sea and river]). Devices known as silencers are sometimes used. Silencers suppress sound when a pistol and certain types of rifle or sub-machine gun are fired. Masking the sound with a silencer assists the terrorist to escape, because there is no loud report to alert persons in the vicinity. Using silencers can also prolong the element of surprise during a terrorist attack. There are a massive amount of small arms in the world, many of them illegally owned. Terrorists use a wide variety of weapons, often depending on the state of development of the society and the availability of illegal arms. It is not unusual in some parts of the world to find terrorists using weapons which date from the Second and even the First World Wars, especially rifles, as some are well made, particularly durable, accurate and still effective if the right ammunition is available. Following are some random illustrations of terrorist weapons which are used in various parts of the world. Two of the most popular terrorist weapons are included: Hand grenade Rocket Launcher

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VARIOUS TERRORIST WEAPONS

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Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) and Assassination Devices Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) Most Terrorists bombs are improvised. They are termed as Improvised Explosive Devices or IEDs. That is to say they are not standardly produced for military purposes. IEDs vary in quality and effect according to the expertise of the assembler. Many are complicated and utilise sophisticated integrated circuitry. Between 1993 and 1997, there were 13,710 bomb incident attacks in the USA, in which 478 people were killed and 3,485 wounded. This cost US$ 681 million in damage. Terrorists utilise a variety of High Explosives (HE) and sometimes Low Explosives (LE). The main characteristics of explosives are as follows: HE decomposes very rapidly (known as detonation) An IED (Improvised Explosive Device) © Washington State Military Dept EMD HE burns at between 1000 to 10,000 yards per second (914 and 9140 metres per second) LE does not technically cause explosions, but decomposes rapidly (known as deflagration) LE burns at the rate of only inches (or centimetres) per second There are Explosive Compounds and Explosive Elements, each with a different constitution Some HE is unstable and is mixed with an inert desensitiser for safe handling and practical use There are different types of Explosives (known as charges) with different functions as follows:

DISRUPTING OR BURSTING EXPLOSIVES

AUXILIARY EXPLOSIVES

INITIATING EXPLOSIVES

PROPELLANTS AND IMPULSE EXPLOSIVES

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The majority of terrorist IEDs utilise disrupting or bursting explosives. These are normally used in the following military ordnance:

MINES

MISSILE WARHEADS

TORPEDOS

SHAPED OR DIRECTIONAL CHARGES

BOMBS

BURST PROJECTILES

DEPTH CHARGES

SHELLS

Besides the main charge, some common components, additives and ingredients of IEDs are as follows:

PLASTICISERS

Practical compounds to bind explosive charges and make them malleable

DETONATORS

Small, highly volatile charges, triggered to detonate main explosive charges

BOOSTERS

Small, high brisance charges, in between detonators and main explosive charges

OXIDISERS

Compounds containing oxygenised propellant, which enhances combustion

Well-known IED main charge explosives and ingredients are:

NAME

INGREDIENTS

Semtex

Trade name for a Czech manufactured plastic explosive

RDX

Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine; aka cyclonite or hexogen

PETN C4 (See Composition C)

Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate Mixture: RDX, other explosives and plasticisers.

TNT

Trinitrotoluene

DNT

Dinitrotoluene

Hexamine EGDN NG Home-made explosive

Hexamethylenetetramine or HMT Ethylene Glycol Dinitrate Nitroglycerine Fertilizer based. e.g. ammonium nitrate + fuel oil [ANFO]

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Other explosives, of a common military nature are as follows:

NAME

INGREDIENTS

COMPOSITION A

RDX AND PLASTICISING WAX

COMPOSITION B

RDX AND TNT, USUALLY WITH A DESENSITISING AGENT ADDED

COMPOSITION C

‘PLASTIC’ - RDX WITH A MIX OF OTHER EXPLOSIVES AND PLASTICISERS

CYCLOTOL

RDX AND TNT USING SPECIFIC PURPOSE RATIOS

HBX 1/3

RDX, TNT, [POWDERED ALUMINIUM], CACL2 [CALCIUM CHLORIDE], WAX

MINOL 2

TNT, NH4NO3 [AMMONIUM NITRATE], AL [POWDERED ALUMINIUM]

EXPLOSIVE D

NH4OC6H2(NO3)3 [AMMONIUM PICRATE]

A more comprehensive list of explosive materials may be viewed on an Internet page of the US Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (BATF): http://www.atf.treas.gov/pub/fire-explo_pub/listofexp.htm It is sometimes difficult for forensic scientists to determine the source of the explosive, but Semtex is now marked in order to assist security forces in forensic investigations. The company producing Semtex was taken over by the Czech Government, following the terrorism of 11th September 2001. However, considerable quantities of unmarked Semtex are still at large, especially from the time of the Cold War. Older consignments of Semtex are unmarked. It is therefore almost impossible to determine the batch origin of the Semtex, and by extension, the country to which the Semtex was sold or passed to. The plasticising agent in Semtex begins to degenerate after 20 years, but it is still highly dangerous. Tagging of explosives (unique chemical marking characteristics carried out in the manufacturing process in order to trace the origin of an explosive) is already a practice adopted Site of US Marine Barracks bombing, Beirut, Lebanon 1983 © US Dept. of State by a number of explosives manufacturers.

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Detonating IEDs is not as hazardous a practice as constructing and then transporting them to another location. Assembling IEDs is a dangerous activity and accidents occur in which the IED assembler is accidentally blown up and killed while constructing it. IEDs have also accidentally exploded while being transported by terrorists. Several methods of detonating bombs use the following triggers:

TYPE PHOTO- ELECTRIC CELL REMOTE CONTROL

NOTES Activated at dawn, with daylight, or by electric light Used for some roadside bombs and car bombs

RADIO SIGNAL

e.g. Triggered by use of security forces’ comms.

MOTION DETECTOR

Detects physical movement and generates signal

RADIATION AND THERMAL SENSORS

Activated by temperature change

BAROMETRIC SENSOR

Activated by pressure change

MECHANICAL TRIGGER

e.g. Activated when a victim opens a mail bomb

TIMER TO CLOSE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

e.g. Alarm clock: hands close circuit at certain time

Other characteristics of IEDs are as follows: Some IEDs have anti-handling devices of which there are many types; they cause detonation if the bomb is moved or attempts are made to de-fuse it If the IED is an incendiary device, it is constructed from a volatile, highly inflammable charge, its primary purpose being to cause destruction by fire The primary purpose of conventional IEDs is to kill and maim by the blast and shock waves, or to kill and maim by hurling projectiles such as nails, ball bearings, scrap iron, or debris The bomb is a weapon attractive to both guerrilla and terrorist, owing to: Controlled delay in detonation, which permits the terrorists to escape Element of surprise. With no warning or evacuation, more casualties are generated Terrorists using large IEDs variously adopt the following tactics:

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Detonation of a single large IED, usually to destroy a cultural site or structure of political, governmental or financial/commercial significance Announcement of a bomb-warning by telephone, permitting an evacuation, in order to reduce casualties and concentrate on non-human site and structural damage Warning in order to cause an evacuation so that victims will assemble in a concentrated fashion outside a building, then detonate an IED concealed close by; the effect is more deadly as the victims are assembled, with no blast protection Detonation of a small IED, then after a short while, detonation of a secondary IED, in order to kill and injure as many evacuees, curious bystanders and emergency response personnel as British Army Bomb Disposal expert possible. In cities among high rise buildings, the disassembling an IED © Crown victims deliberately include up to hundreds of people who are looking at the bomb site from their office / apartment windows. They suffer eye and face injuries from glass, when the second larger IED detonates, blowing window glass inwards An example of a terrorist tactical bombing occurred in 1995 at the Egyptian Embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan. It was carried out by members of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad and Al Gamaa’t al Islamiya terrorist groups, supported by terrorists from the region. The first IED detonation was intended to demolish the Embassy gate in order that a suicide car-bomber could drive inside with a second, larger IED. The first detonation caused many occupants of the Embassy to immediately evacuate the building and assemble outside in the car park. Explosion: Just under 1 lb (half kilogram) of Semtex / PE4 plastic explosive The suicide car bomber tried to © Crown

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The Alfred P. Murrah Federal building, Oklahoma City, US. A uck bomb killed 168 people and wounded hundreds more.

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Tr Courtesy: FBI / US State Dept

drive in, past the wreckage caused by the gate IED. After getting halfway through the gate, he detonated the secondary, larger IED to deadly and devastating effect. According to the US CIA, the IED detonated at the US Marine barracks in Beirut, Lebanon in 1983 was, at that time, the largest non-nuclear blast ever detonated on the face of the earth. The charge consisted of 12,000 lbs (5454 kg) of high explosive integrated with canisters of flammable gasses. The deadliest terrorist IED (a truck bomb) in United States domestic history was detonated at the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City in 1995. It killed 168 people and wounded over 500. It was detonated by domestic terrorists citing a political cause, but which was rooted in religious doctrine. IED / Explosive charge delivery modes can be categorised as follows:

TYPE

METHOD

COURIER DELIVERED

Physically delivered to asset (human or structural) zone or vicinity

MAIL DELIVERED

Dispatched by post: via unattended mailbox, or ‘over-the-counter’

ANTI-VEHICLE PROJECTILE

Deployed inside, under or beside the vehicle, or on the vehicle route Rocket propelled grenade or mortar, aimed and manually fired

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Assassination Devices One type of uncommon terrorist weapon is an assassination device. This is any unconventional device which can quickly and very effectively kill a victim, but does not generally refer to ordinarily manufactured weapons. It is often a hand-held close range device using a single projectile which guarantees the victim’s instant death. An example is an improvised single-shot silenced pistol, which fires a soft, very large calibre projectile (specially designed to cause devastating internal damage) at very low velocity, used for close range assassination. Another example of an assassination device is an umbrella Hollow point ammunition which injects a lethal poison pellet (expands causing much from its pointed tip. One such damage) of the type used during the failed attempt umbrella was used during the Cold to as s assinate the War assassination of a Bulgarian Commissioner of the dissident, Georgi Markov, in Japanese National Police Agency on 30th March London. 1995, Arakawa-ku, Tokyo The umbrella injected a tiny pellet filled with Ricin. It was m a n u f a c t u red w i t h S o v i e t technology and utilised by the Bulgarian DS (Drazven Sigurnost; Bulgarian Intelligence Service). Another example of assassination devices are the ‘gas-guns’ developed by the former Soviet Union’s KGB. Resembling something along the proportions of a bicycle pump, they would fit inside a rolled-up newspaper or up a sleeve, running along an arm. The weapons release a dose of cyanide gas [usually], lethal if delivered at close range.

Lesson 6/ Terrorist Weapons, Resources, and Equipment IED Photo Gallery

Atlanta Pipe Bomb components

Animal Liberation Front IED

Letter Bomb (suspicious address and origin details) IED Incendiary (gasoline)

Letter Bomb (suspicious address and origin details)

Indicators of possible mail IED

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Military and Improvised Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Weapons “It is hard to imagine how the tragedy of 11th September could have been worse. Yet, the truth is that a single attack involving a nuclear or biological weapon could have killed millions” UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Speech to UN General Assembly on 1 October 2001 The purposes of terrorists specifically using nuclear, biological, radiological and chemical weapons are (for reasons of coercion or vengeance), to generate: Extreme public terror (to disrupt society; political and social infrastructure) Mass casualties - killed (large numbers, calculated to shock) and wounded (large numbers, calculated to overwhelm emergency response services, hospital emergency & in-patient facilities). An MCI is a:

M

MASS

C

CASUALTY

I

INCIDENT

Nuclear, biological and chemical weapons are known in some military and emergency services simply as NBC, meaning:

N

NUCLEAR

B BIOLOGICAL C

CHEMICAL

Nuclear, biological and chemical weapons are sometimes called WMD, meaning:

W

WEAPONS (of)

M

MASS

D

DESTRUCTION

Some military and emergency services in the world subdivide Weapons of Mass Destruction into further categories than just NBC, and are known as B NICE:

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B

BIOLOGICAL

N

NUCLEAR

I

INCENDIARY

C

CHEMICAL

E

EXPLOSIVE

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In some emergency and military services, the categories of harm caused by WMD and terrorist weapons are known as TRACEM:

T

Thermal (extreme heat/cold, from radiation [light], conduction, convection, and flame contact)

R

Radiation (absorption or ingestion of Alpha and Beta particles and Gamma rays)

A

Asphyxiation (by simple [inert] gases or chemical asphyxiants [blood poisons])

C

Chemical (toxic or corrosive)

E

Etiological (living organisms or their toxins, such as bio-toxins or bacteria)

M

Mechanical (explosive projectiles, blast, falling debris and incident site accidents)

Chemical Weapons Military chemical weapons are produced and stockpiled. Sometimes they are used, as in the case of the mustard gas used by both sides during the 1980 1988 Iran-Iraq war. Mustard gas was also used widely in the first world war. It was also reported as used in Morocco in 1925, Ethiopia in 1935 and in China between 1934 and 1944. Iraq was widely reported as again

Destruction of Sarin Rockets, Iraq

© UN

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using poison gas against Kurdish guerrillas, terrorists and civilians in 1988. In 1990 however, a report published by the US Army War College entitled ‘Iraqi power & US security in the Middle East,’ contradicted the media reports by asserting that the Kurds living in Halabja died as a result of a Phosgene gas attack by Iran. Such weapons can be in the form of chemical hand-grenades, artillery shells, rockets or dispersal canisters (of many types) for spraying into the atmosphere. Improvised chemical weapons were Jerricans of nerve Agent Ingredient © UN used in Japan in 1994 in central Japan and again in 1995 on the Tokyo underground train system by Aum Shinri Kyo (Supreme Truth) terrorists, who had manufactured Sarin nerve gas from commercially available ingredients.

NERVE AGENTS BLOOD AGENTS CHOKING AGENTS BLISTER AGENTS IRRITATING AGENTS Twelve people died in the 1995 Aum Shinri Kyo attack and over 5000 were wounded. In February 2001, the London Metropolitan Police found plans for a sarin attack in a suspect’s apartment. The plot was linked to four arms caches found by German police in 2000. Four men with links to Osama bin Laden were subsequently arrested in connection with these arms caches. The 1993 New York World Trade Centre bomb was attached to a chemical weapon - a quantity of cyanide gas. Mustard Bombs in Iraq

© UN

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This failed to have the desired effect of complicating the devastation and injuries, as it became combustible in the intense heat of the explosion and burnt. If intended doses of chemical weapons, especially nerve agents, are delivered to victims, they are often lethal, while lesser doses cause permanent injury, temporary incapacitation or a combination of both, depending upon the agent and its purpose. Refer to Annex G for a full explanation of chemical weapons’ characteristics and effects. Biological Weapons

Aum Shinri Kyo suspect Japanese National Police Agency

If the intended doses of lethal Biological weapons are delivered to victims, most result in death. Most of those cases in which victims receive lethal doses but survive, are due solely to medical treatment. Biological weapons are divided into the following three main categories:

BACTERIAL AND RICKETTSIA VIRAL BIO-TOXINS Examples are as follows:

ANTHRAX

VIRAL HAEMORRHAGIC FEVERS (e.g. EBOLA)

BOTULISM

CHOLERA

ENCEPHALITIS

RICIN

PLAGUE (BUBONIC OR PNEUMONIC)

SMALLPOX (VARIOLA)

Q FEVER TULAREMIA

Lesson 6/ Terrorist Weapons, Resources, and Equipment Refer to Annex H for a full explanation of biological weapons’ characteristics and effects. Biological weapons are banned by international treaties, but have been covertly developed by many countries. Biological weapons were occasionally used for attempted assassinations by the former Apartheid (segregation) South African government, and the former Soviet armed forces are accused of having used fungal toxins called yellow rain in Afghanistan, Vietnam, Laos and Kampuchea. Terrorists encounter difficulties in procuring biological weapons. They are difficult to produce, even for governments. Their use is specific and limited to certain difficult conditions, and most biological agents are not effective, persistent or versatile enough for popular terrorist use. Examples of Biological weapons use in the last century are as follows:

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US 2nd Infantry Div. 4th Chemical Company in NBC kit Courtesy: US Dept. of Defense

After vivisection and so called medical experiments on prisoners (Chinese nationals) to enhance biological warfare capability, Imperial Japanese Army General Ishii Shiro, led Unit 731 in 1940 and 1941 to make biological attacks in Chechiang and other provinces in China. In one attack, thousands of rats were infected with bubonic plague and deliberately released in 22 counties of Heilungchiang and Kirin provinces, killing 22,000 Chinese nationals Between 1990 and 1993, the Japanese Aum Shinri Kyo Armageddonist group cultured anthrax and botulism, unsuccessfully spraying a number of targets from a vehicle In 1985, members of the Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh religious esoteric cult engineered a salmonella epidemic in Oregon, US

Weapons of Mass Destruction Civil Support Team (WMDCST) in training Courtesy: US Department of Defense

An unconventional example of biological terrorism occurred in Bangkok in the early 1990s. Terrorists (political activists) randomly injected members of the public, in the street, with HIV-AIDS infected hypodermic syringes in order to protest lack of government care for AIDS victims

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On 18th September and 9th October 2001, as yet unrelated to the terrorist acts of 11 th September 2001, four letters containing Anthrax spores were posted inside the United States from Trenton, New Jersey. The letters were addressed to several different people and organisations. Subsequently, 22 cases of Anthrax infection were reported in New York, New Jersey, Florida and Washington. Five victims died as a result, since 3 rd October 2001. Those infected included a Senator, postal workers, media personnel, a Police detective, health laboratory workers, a photo editor and others Between October 2001 and March 2002, there were more than 15,000 Anthrax hoaxes in the US, forcing 571 postal facilities to close temporarily. These events resulted in 71 arrests. The US FBI responded to over 8000 cases of use or Anthrax Letter threatened use of Anthrax and other hazardous materials during Courtesy: FBI that same period. Anthrax hoaxes are not a new concept however, and date back to at least 1997. Between September 1998 and January 1999, there were 16 Anthrax hoax incidents in Los Angeles, US, involving response and decontamination procedures, costing in excess of US$ 4 million. Anthrax was used by the German Army in the First World War and in World War II, it was used by the Japanese in so called experiments upon Chinese prisoners of war. A 1972 International Treaty signed by 140 nations, banned production and stockpiling of biological weapons. However, Anthrax is stored in 24 countries on every continent except Africa, at research facilities. Nuclear Weapons “The best defence against the Atom Bomb is not be there when it goes off” British Army Journal 1949 Terrorists attempt from time to time to procure nuclear bombs or the components with which to construct them, usually from illicit arms dealers. Fortunately, this is very difficult, as is assembling them and by-passing coded arming and fail-safe systems, without extremely advanced technical knowledge and facilities, including access. Some facts of interest, including proportion and effect of nuclear bombs are as follows: A sphere of plutonium the size of an apple, can be used to produce a 20 kiloton atomic explosion. That is equivalent to 20,000 tons of TNT (1 kiloton = equivalent 1000 tons TNT). That was the size of the bomb (called ‘fat man’) dropped on Nagasaki, Japan in WWII. It killed 39,000 and wounded 25,000 (approximately) people

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Contrastingly, a smaller bomb (called ‘little boy’) dropped on Hiroshima, Japan in WWII, was only up to 15 kilotons (an equivalent of 15,000 tons of TNT), but killed 66,000 and wounded 69,000 people Contemporary nuclear weapons in national military arsenals include some of several megatons in power (1 megaton is equivalent to 1 million tons of TNT and therefore 1000 KT). A 1 megaton (1000 KT) bomb is 50 times more powerful than that dropped on Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Explosion Nuclear bombs are detonated above the Courtesy: NASA ground to yield more casualties and destruction. The blast, energy and fireball in a bomb detonated at ground level will be partially absorbed by the ground and the lateral blast hindered to an extent, by buildings and natural obstacles

The sequence of events (figures are close approximates) of a nuclear bomb (1 megaton), detonated at about 1000 metres above a city would be as follows: Intense flash of light (1000 times brighter than a lightning flash, which in clear conditions could permanently blind some people up to 37 miles [60 km]) Heat radiation pulse (which can ignite combustibles up to 4.3 miles [7 km] away) Intense X-ray pulse (lethal up to 1.86 miles [3 km] away) Blast wave (destroys reinforced buildings up to 1.2 miles [2 km] away / ordinary buildings up to 4.9 miles [8 km] away) Hurricane force winds (tornado level force of about 372 mph [600km/hr]) Radioactive fallout (capable of causing deaths between weeks and decades) Refer to Annex I for the Characteristics and Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Since 1992, approximately 18 incidents occurred in which weapons-grade radioactive material (plutonium and enriched Uranium) was smuggled out of Russia, although not of sufficient quantity for a nuclear weapon (approx. 100 to 200 kilograms of highly enriched Uranium would be needed). In total, since 1993, a reported 400 cases of trafficking in nuclear and other radioactive materials has occurred, mostly from the area of the former Soviet Union (which during the Cold War possessed 10,000 nuclear weapons in its arsenal). Of concern to the world’s counter-terrorist organisations since the conclusion of the Cold War,

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is the fact that at Russian nuclear facilities, security conditions are still not up to standard. The US Department of Energy has ongoing programmes of cooperation (the US Nunn-Lugar anti-weapons programme for material production, accountability and control), with Russian authorities in all of the 53 former secret nuclear sites, of which 30 are in Russia. The US spends about US$ 400 million per annum on the cooperative threat reduction programme which began in 1992. Russian - US cooperation has resulted in all of the Russian navy’s nuclear fuel being stored at a US and Russian officers cooperate to prevent theft of USSR single well protected site. This programme has cost nuclear weapons from the former Courtesy: US Dept. of Defense the US Pentagon over US$ 1 billion in financial and technological security aid and includes destruction of nuclear and chemical weapons and protecting Russian nuclear material from being stolen. The programme was reportedly not fully funded at one point, and as a consequence, was not 100% effective. Over 25,000 Russian scientists are working in approximately 1000 projects at a cost of over US$ 500 million, in order to keep them employed and their expertise away from terrorists and rogue states. Although the nuclear arms race cost an estimated US$ 10 trillion (at today’s value), it is estimated that US$ 10 billion would be needed to effectively secure its products from terrorism and accident. According to media there were three significant cases of theft from Russian nuclear facilities: In 1992, 1.5 kg of enriched Uranium was stolen from the Luch plant Three kilograms of enriched uranium is reported missing from Moscow Unspecified amounts of nuclear material were discovered missing from Chelyabinsk in 1998 According to a study carried out by Stanford University in the US: over the past 10 years, at least 88 lbs (40 kg) of weapons-grade plutonium and uranium has been stolen from poorly secured facilities in the former Soviet Union. Most, but not all, of the material was recovered. Russian and former Soviet Union nuclear site security conditions have improved in the past few years, especially after the events of 11th September 2001, but are still far from perfect. Past and contemporary problems variously include the following: Strikes and criminality occurred Guards refused to patrol for lack of winter clothing. Morale is low for all nuclear weapon staff Salaries of guards (US$ 150 a month), workers and scientists were not paid for months at a time

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Some security systems were broken down Incidents of guards going on a killing rampage, hostage taking and attempted aircraft hi-jacking Some security systems were cut off from electricity (in one case due to unpaid electricity bills) A guard pried the top off a missile, removed two nuclear warheads, stored them in his garage and was caught trying to sell them in a local bar Attempts by the responsible authorities to investigate irregularities at nuclear missile sites have been resented by many Army officers at those sites. Death threats have resulted, also a bombing in which one person was killed In 1998, a Murmansk sailor took control of a nuclear submarine for eight hours before his suicide (Russian submarines have autonomous nuclear missile launch capability, unlike the Russian leadership which requires the three key figures [President, Minister of Defence and Army Chief of Staff] to feed in their codes to their attaché case launch systems, which rarely leave their immediate vicinity) The fail safe and arming systems at nuclear missile sites have been by-passed by bored missile launch staff. The computer systems do not function correctly and have, by themselves at odd times, brought nuclear ICBM (Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile) systems up to arming and launch modes (requiring only a code to be fed in, which itself is a matter of days or weeks to crack, for anyone having access) On 25th January 1995, the Russian advanced warning station on the Kola peninsular alerted Moscow that an incoming ICBM was being tracked (from an area where NATO submarines are known to patrol for some years now). Combat codes were fed into the launch attaché cases, with under 8 minutes before a counter strike would be launched. On radar, the missile was then seen to spread into several, going off at different trajectories, as expected of a Trident missile launched from submarines known to patrol the area of origin. After a short time the different ‘missiles,’ then went off of radar as they fell into the sea. They were subsequently linked to a scientific research rocket launched from Norway. The Norwegian government had informed the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs of this launch, about six weeks before, but the information had not reached the appropriate Military staff. This was more serious than the Cuban missile crisis and only minutes away from a nuclear strike, the closest, since WWII Terrorists have noticed the flaws in this system, and that it may in fact be easier (in principle) to provoke such a launch, rather than acquire the devices themselves. Moreover, terrorists have evaluated the possibilities of bribing key launch site staff, specifically those with the ability to bypass coded safety systems, in a number of scenarios. The Russian early warning system (satellites, ships and radar stations) is obsolete, partially broken down, working at greatly decreased efficiency, and since independence of the former Soviet Republics, incomplete. It is now in a state capable of being triggered by a flight of birds. A Russian DUMA member, charged with surveying the early warning system, spoke cynically of the degeneration of the early warning ships when he said in a televised interview that ‘it is more important to help Hollywood’ (a Russian radar early warning ship was withdrawn from service for the making of the film ‘Titanic’) The FSB (Federal Security Service), responsible for protecting Russian nuclear facilities, has a ‘B Department,’ with its own SWAT (Special Weapons and Tactics) Team called the Vympel. The 12th Directorate of the Defence Ministry has in each of its battalions, special mobile groups for dealing

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with attempts at seizing nuclear arsenals. There are reportedly between 180 and 200 terrorist groups in the world that have expressed interest and discussed the acquisition of nuclear weapons. Osama bin Laden’s terrorist group has reportedly been trying to procure a nuclear weapon since 1993. According to media, bin Laden’s purchasers tried to procure an illicit nuclear weapon in 1998, but were cheated in the transaction, owing to their lack of scientific knowledge. One of those buyers, Mamdouh Mahmud Salim, a Sudanese national of Iraqi descent, was extradited from Germany to the US in December 1998, and charged with murder (in connection with the 1988 US Embassy bombings in Africa) and conspiracy to use weapons of mass destruction. In 1998, Italian Police arrested members of a uranium-smuggling ring, which was conducting operations under the cover of a Sicilian-based business. In October 2001, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US, two portable moisture density gauges containing sealed sources of radioactive material were reported stolen off the back of a pickup truck at a work site, despite being properly chained and locked. Richard Meserve, Chairman of the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) subsequently issued a public statement that there are approximately 150,000 licensees for radioactive materials in the US, and 2 million devices containing radioactive material in use in the US today. He added that a number of sources or devices of all kinds are reported lost or stolen each year in the US: roughly one per day. Atomic Demolition Munitions (‘Suitcase Nuclear Weapons’) On 19th March 1998, former Soviet General and Russian Presidential candidate Alexander Lebed testified before a US House of Representatives National Security Sub-Committee. He stated that a number of suitcase-sized 1 kiloton nuclear bombs (Atomic Demolition Munitions that can be armed and detonated in well under 30 minutes by a single person) were missing from Russia. He mentioned that they used to be located within special military brigades in some of the former Soviet empire’s remote regions, adding that President Yeltsin had dismissed him in October 1996, during an investigation into this affair. Alexander Lebed was subsequently under investigation by the Russian State prosecutor for revealing state secrets. He was subsequently killed in a helicopter crash in Siberia in April 2002. Vladimir Densisov, head of the Russian investigation team confirmed the dismissal to the Interfax news Agency on 22 September 1998 and added that the investigation was not complete when it was halted. Later in September 1998, Russian government spokesman Igor Shabdurasulov denied that they had ever existed and were missing. At around the same time, Igor Valnkin, a senior Russian Defence Ministry official, stated that nuclear suitcases have never been produced and are not now being produced. On 3rd October 1998, Professor Alexander Yablokov, former environmental advisor to President Yeltsin, testified before the US House of Representatives Military Research and Development Sub Alexander Lebed Courtesy: Funet Committee. He stated that he was sure that the weapons were made, had seen them, and had talked to those who had constructed

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them. He added that the weapons were Atomic Demolitions Munitions, of 1 Kiloton each (equivalent of 1000 tons of TNT, which is about one eighteenth of the size of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima). Professor Yablokov said that they were made for the KGB, and kept secret from the Defence Ministry and therefore were not listed on Defence Ministry stockpile inventories. A model was constructed based upon what he saw, showing that they are not suitcase size, but much smaller; attaché cases have been used to house them. They contain a Plutonium device (with explosives to enhance the detonation), timing, detonation and wiring components. The weight is between 30 and 40 kg each. Professor Yablokov stated in a 1995 televised interview that ‘the Palestinians have several [suitcase nuclear] bombs that they bought in the USSR.’ US State Department spokesperson James Rubin subsequently stated that the US gives little credence to hearsay and that there is no evidence to suggest that the weapons were ever developed for or put under control of the KGB. However, on 2nd October 1998, US Department of Defense spokesperson Captain Mike Doubleday observed: “I think we are aware that the Russian nuclear arsenal contained Atomic Demolition Munitions which some people define or characterize as ‘suitcase bombs.’ They are not really suitcase bombs since it requires two people to carry them, and they are not flat, so that they don’t fit in suitcases.” Captain Doubleday added: “We had munitions that were small like that, also. They were Tactical Nuclear Weapons.” On a different, somewhat eccentric note, there is a so called ‘Doomsday Clock,’ overseen by Scientists at the University of Chicago, USA. It is supposed to be an indication of how close the world comes to nuclear Armageddon; a sort of unofficial gauge of the nuclear threat. A short brief on the events over the decades that have determined the position of the clock’s hands may be found at the following Internet website (Atomic Scientists): http://www.bullatomsci.org/clock.html In February 2002, Nobel prize-winning scientist Leon Lederman moved the clock’s minute hands to seven minutes before midnight, the same position it first had 55 years ago. RDDs An RDD (Radiological Dispersal Device) falls loosely into the nuclear weapons category (and is also considered as a Weapon of Mass Destruction) only because it utilises nuclear material. Unlike a nuclear bomb or device, the nuclear material in an RDD is not subjected to fission or fusion (splitting of the atom or fusing of atomic nuclei), but simply dispersed as radioactive material, by a conventional bomb. For details of the different types of radiation - Alpha Particles, Beta Particles and Gamma Rays, refer to Annex I: Characteristics and Effects of Nuclear Weapons. In an unconfirmed 1999 media article, it was stated that an RDD was found in Chechnia in December 1998. The characteristics of RDDs are as follows: An RDD is a conventional explosive device (IED or bomb) with radioactive material attached to it. The object of such a device is to spread radioactive contamination. RDDs are capable of generating a high degree of terror or public anxiety, due to the lethal, long term, painful and crippling effects of radiation.

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RDDs are much more effective in spreading radioactive contamination than a comparable conventional nuclear weapon using enriched Uranium, because the radioactive materials that would be used to construct an RDD are higher in radioactive yield. RDDs need a considerable amount of radioactive material to be highly lethal or effective and are dangerous to construct and transport. Once an RDD has detonated, the radiation dissipates at a logarithmic rate, diminishing by 90% following one hour after the blast, going down to 1% of original strength after two days. Biological and certain chemical attacks are feared because they may be invisible, silent and odourless, and might not be recognised as attacks until some considerable time afterwards. Many symptoms of these attacks however, may be treated for those who survive the immediate onslaught. An RDD on the other hand, is probably the singlemost effective weapon for generating terror. This is because it may inflict the possibility of a slow death caused by ‘invisible’ radiation, or cause genetic mutation. The symptoms of unnaturally high doses of radiation cause what is known as radiation sickness or radiation syndrome. Unnaturally high doses of radiation from an RDD could variously cause: Devastating damage to immune systems and body tissue Poorly understood genetic mutation Development of cancer Birth defects for offspring A painful death within weeks Development of illnesses between 10 to 15 years later In general, an RDD is the antithesis of MRR (minimum residual radiation). MRR generally means the lowest achievable radiation yield of a nuclear device. Low radiation yield is very important in PNEs (peaceful nuclear explosions), such as are carried out in weapons and other nuclear tests. Examples of radioactive materials that would probably be used in a terrorist RDD are: Caesium 137 (used in Hospitals) Cobalt 60 (used in Hospitals) Iodine 125 (used in Hospitals) Strontium 90 (used in nuclear batteries, providing power in remote areas) Spent Fuel Rods (units of fuel used in nuclear reactor power plants): Uranium 235, Uranium 238, Deuterium and Tritium

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Spent nuclear fuel is stored and at risk from theft by terrorists. An example of this was mentioned in a press conference on 22nd December 1999, by Vladimir Mikheev, head of the citizen centre on nuclear non-proliferation. His report mentioned that in a chemical plant at Zheleznogorsk (in the Krasnoyarsk region), 3000 tons of used nuclear fuel was found to be stored. It had radioactivity of over 1 billion curies (the Chernobyl disaster involved 50 million curies). Security was reported as practically non-existent and experts report that only several kilograms of TNT would be necessary to destroy the storage plant. According to Professor Boris Dubovskii, creator of the Soviet nuclear bomb, that might resemble the Chernobyl disaster. RDD materials are widely used for industrial and medical purposes and therefore much easier to obtain than enriched Uranium. When such less pure radioactive materials are used in atomic bombs, they are sometimes called ‘dirty bombs.’ According to some experts, an RDD (of a conceivable or likely size) would probably produce no more than 4 or 5 cases of cancer in a population of 100,000. The main effects of a powerful RDD in a population centre would be: Psychological Economic Given public knowledge of wind-dispersed radioactive dust and other considerations pertaining to the detonation of an RDD of unknown strength, the infrastructure of a major population centre would most probably be affected as follows: A Mass Casualty Incident (MCI) would overwhelm local and on-scene emergency and law enforcement response personnel for many hours, perhaps even days. This could last until State intervention fully took hold in controlling the scene, locating and evacuating the victims (most of whom would immediately have fled the scene) and beginning decontamination activities Fixed emergency facilities such as hospitals would be overwhelmed with anxious and often aggressive patients (up to tens of thousands demanding prompt radiation-related medical tests) Serious panic and civil disorder in the vicinity, on walkways and roads, possibly ranging for several miles and feasibly resulting in the overwhelming of even State or Federal emergency and law enforcement services. This could well necessitate localised imposition of martial law More severe complications (especially for rescue and evacuation) could occur, depending upon the site selected by terrorists for detonation of an RDD, e.g. •

Near a major hospital, with up to thousands of patients in all stages of care including critical condition, undergoing operations and immobile

•

Near a busy air traffic control tower (e.g. Chicago), that marshals up to approximately 40 or 50 aircraft ‘stacked up’ in the vicinity and waiting to land, at peak periods

•

In a packed sports stadium containing tens of thousands of spectators, with exits of limited number and size, that only permit a fairly slow and orderly evacuation

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• A Luxury ocean liner in which thousands of potential victims could effectively be beyond possibility of rescue To try to combat the transport and import of a nuclear device and materials, the US Customs Service has 4000 radiation detection devices in use by Inspectors along its borders and is deploying more sophisticated X-Ray, Gamma Ray and Neutron Flux detectors, following the terrorist attacks of 11th September 2001. Other sensors are located at overseas facilities and around Washington. On 4th April 2002, ABC news reported that an inventory of US licence holders of nuclear material, revealed that since 1997, over 1500 nuclear devices were found to have been lost, stolen or abandoned, of which only 660 have been subsequently accounted for. In June 2002, Abdullah Al Muhajir (born Jose Padilla, a former Chicago street gang member who converted to Islam while in jail) was arrested in the US on suspicion of planning to detonate a radioactive bomb. He is associated with Al Qa’ida, and is classified as a combatant, rather than an ordinary criminal prisoner. The closest incident to an act of radiological terrorism occurred in 1972 in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA, when two escaped convicts and an accomplice hijacked an aeroplane. They threatened to crash the aeroplane into a nuclear power research centre, unless they were given US$10 million. When their demand was not met, they flew to Cuba where they were arrested. Refer to Annex I for Characteristics & Effects of Nuclear Weapons (including radiation). Volunteer Suicide-Terrorists “I condemn the attacks carried out by terrorist groups against Israeli civilians. These groups do not represent the Palestinian people or their legitimate aspirations for freedom. They are terrorist organisations, and I am determined to put an end to their activities” Yasser Arafat, President, Palestinian National Authority, March 2002 To terrorist leaders, suicide bombers are just another weapon in their armoury. There is little protection from suicide terrorists equipped with bombs, except for guarded installations that are expecting and prepared for such attacks. This type of terrorist is very dangerous and is able to strike where terrorists who seek escape would not normally venture. They are usually extremists motivated by fanatic interpretations of religion or ideology, those on the edge of despair, or a combination of both. At several cities in Israel from 1994 to 1997, there were 10 suicide-terrorist bomb attacks, followed by another ongoing series of periodic suicide attacks, since the breakdown of peace negotiations in 2000 and onwards. The airliners used on 11th September 2001, were used as weapons by suicide terrorists. Compelled Suicide-Terrorists This method of terrorism is discussed in Lesson 7 (Types of Terrorist Acts). It is also mentioned here to illustrate the callousness of certain types of terrorists who evaluate a victim they force to commit suicide and kill others, as merely another type of disposable weapon to be used.

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Computer Viruses and Logic Bombs Computer viruses are discussed later in Lesson 7 (Types of Terrorist Acts: Destruction and Disruption of Information and Networks). Viruses, logic bombs and malicious codes are relatively easy to design or obtain. Introducing them into a protected system is difficult and requires an expert in such matters, sometimes known as a hacker. It is a fairly low-risk act to the terrorist, whose chances of escape and evading detection are reasonably good, since the terrorist may be at a great distance away, in a different country from the victim or target. However, in recent times, as increasing amounts of law enforcement resources are devoted to the apprehension of hackers, the risks of being detected are becoming greater. Hackers all over the world have attacked government sites. A few of those attacked and disabled in the US, are those run by the US Department of Energy, the FBI, the Senate, the White House and the Department of Defense. In several national legislations, hacking is now included in criminal law, and in some as a terrorist offence. One US national legislation hacking law under evaluation carries a penalty of life imprisonment without parole. Other Weapons Besides the weapons already mentioned, any other imaginable device of any size, description or type, whether professionally manufactured or improvised, is suitable and desirable to terrorists, providing that it can kill, maim or cause terror. If it is commercially available, it is safer for terrorists to acquire than trying to manufacture it themselves or purchase it illegally. e.g. If the Japanese Aum Shinri Kyo terrorist group had tried to illegally procure Sarin nerve gas, they would have faced a high risk of detection. In purchasing the ingredients from ordinary Electro Magnetic Pulse (Spike) commercial outlets, they aroused little suspicion and the A dangerous weapon, once developed, procurement of the ingredients did not by itself constitute a especially in the hands of terrorists crime. An example of another type of weapon known to have been evaluated by terrorists is an electro-magnetic pulse device. This type of device works by discharging a large electro-magnetic pulse to a target area, which has the effect of destroying electronic equipment inside that area, immediately shutting down machinery that is operating by virtue of electronics. If used as a weapon it could be disastrous; For example, if deployed against moving vehicles or aircraft. Fortunately, electro-magnetic pulse devices require a high degree of scientific expertise to construct, besides considerable skill, good fortune and circumstances to operate with success.

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Section 6.2: Other Resources, Services and Equipment Illicit Arms Sources “Arms dealers provide the grease that makes foreign policy work. If you're going to have a covert war somewhere, somebody has to provide the bullets” John Miley, former weapons dealer for the CIA Many illicit arms sources exist on all continents of the world with varying degrees of openness. While many terrorist groups procure stolen or illegally sold or smuggled weapons, other weapons are supplied directly by donors or sponsors. An example of this was an arms supply worth US$ 30 million, shipped by Libya in 1987 to the PIRA (Provisional Irish Republican Army), but which was intercepted before reaching its destination. Sometimes weapons are stolen directly from armed forces weapons stores. Guerrillas and terrorists often share illicit weapon sources. Some regular and established illicit arms outlets are known as arms bazaars. An alleged example of such arms bazaars, according to Indian media sources, appears on the next page.

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ALLEGED ILLEGAL ARMS SOURCES USED BY TERRORISTS IN INDIA CENTRE CALCUTTA

SOURCE

WEAPONRY

Stolen from Bihar police

SUPPLY & DEMAND

Hand-made firearms & bombs

For self-protection (gang-wars)

AK-47 (US$) 800-1500

AHMEDABAD

Trained gun-runners through Rocket-launchers, AK-47/56, In transit for Punjab State. Used Kutch/Banaskanta border Machine-guns, Chinese pistols in gang wars

150-300

TAMIL NADU

Tamil Tigers (LTTE, IPKF)

For buyers in Bangalore, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh

700-1500

North (country-made), externally AK-47 / 56, RDX, 9mm Pistols For drug, gold & silver smugglers controlled: mafia (Czech) and Punjab terrorists

450-700

MAHARASHTRA

AMRITSAR

ASSAM

SRINAGAR

Cross-border from Province (Pakistan)

AK-47, automatic pistols

Punjab AK-47, AK-56, explosives

Smuggled from China, Thailand AK-47/56, LMGs, Chinese (via Myanmar), Bangladesh M-22 automatic weapons (Tripura), storming police arsenals

For guerrillas and terrorists in 450 (local), 1500 Uttar Pradesh/other areas (Chinese /French) For insurgency, separatism (Assam) and criminal commerce

Smuggled across Pakistan border, AK-47/56, Rocket-launchers, For JK State and Punjab LoC & Azad Kashmir RDX, other explosives insurgency and terrorism

250-400

800

BIHAR

From Punjab Ultra insurgents

AK-47, Chinese rifles

For Dhanbad mafia

500-700

UTTAR PRADESH

Smuggled across Nepal border

AK-47/56, grenade-launchers

For the heroin trade

400-700

Internal

AK-47/56, crude gelatine sticks

SURAT

bombs, For self-protection

450-650

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Support from Other Terrorist Groups and Sympathisers An example of support by exchange terrorists was the 1972 Lod Airport massacre in Israel by Japanese Red Army (JRA) terrorists, carried out on behalf of Palestinian terrorists (see Lesson 1: Geography of Terrorism and Lesson 2: Co-operation between Terrorist Groups). Exchange terrorist actions are no longer that common, but support is still rendered between some terrorist groups and especially between transnational terrorists. Conventional terrorist groups mostly confine exchange activities to intelligence, training or weapons transactions. Sometimes this support extends to the use of havens and safe houses; terrorists would make their way to such a refuge immediately following extraction or escape from the scene of a terrorist act. They may stay a very short while, or for a longer period, until it is safe to move. Such havens are sometimes maintained by a terrorist group, but more often sympathisers or sometimes governments who sponsor terrorists. Transnational terrorists are similar in several ways to those terrorists that were known as exchange terrorists, since they: Are not bound by geographical constraints Cooperate internationally with each other, regardless of origin and affiliations Are not sponsored by governments Are highly fanatic and prepared to commit terrorist acts of above average brutality Take above average risks Diplomatic Ideological, Political and Spiritual Support Some governments who sponsor terrorism admit to indirect and harmless forms of support for terrorists; usually spiritual, ideological, diplomatic or political support. In theory, this support stops short of direct A number of international terrorists received aid participation in terrorism. In practice, this support is from embassy diplomats in the past, including usually a subterfuge to conceal tangible sponsorship of the provision of weapons, smuggled into countries inside diplomatic bags terrorism. These forms of state support give terrorists notions of legitimacy and this is a motivating factor in the recruitment, running and control of terrorists. Commercially Available Equipment Most terrorists need commercially available supplies and equipment in addition to illegal

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weapons, in order to carry out terrorist acts. This often includes transportation. The vehicles that terrorists use are often stolen a short while before, or are sometimes fitted with false licence plates. Sometimes they also carry false documents that match the false licence plates, so that they are able to proceed if routinely stopped and checked by security forces. Similar to the modus operandi (method of operation) of professional elite-car thieves, a vehicle may be observed, and from there the owner is followed and identified (this sometimes includes obtaining covert entry into the car to examine documents). Duplicate forged documents (driver’s licence, vehicle registration, etc.) are then prepared in the owner’s name, prior to the theft. If stopped by security forces or police who run a radio check of the licence number (which reveals the name and address of the owner), the terrorist driver will be able give all the expected and correct answers, posing as the real owner, with documents in support. Other equipment used by terrorists is commonly available in commercial outlets, such as military surplus stores. Some contemporary terrorists utilise a variety of electronic equipment required to carry out a given terrorist act. This equipment may include computers, software, video and audio recorders, fax machines and ordinary cameras. Use of the Internet and computers with fax modems are an important part of some terrorist acts. There are methods to avoid identification and detection of the computer user, origin and location, such as using another person’s electronic address, although this is becoming increasingly difficult with advances in communications technology. Software exists to identify other computer network users’ passwords; a terrorist can send a message after breaking in, thereby using another person’s electronic address. There are methods to conceal the origin of a fax number, making it possible to fax terrorist threats. Yet other terrorist threats are delivered on audio cassette or video cassette, sometimes with sound or film of a hostage or victim. Commercially Available Communications Facilities Some terrorist threats are despatched through conventional postal services. Other terrorist threats are delivered using ordinary telephones, usually public pay-phones. This can be dangerous for the terrorist if the police are able to quickly trace the call and intercept them or find witnesses who can give a description of the caller (the latter method is more successful than is widely imagined). Moreover, even if terrorists take precautions not to leave fingerprints, there are other personal ‘signatures’ including DNA and clothing fibres that may be left behind in public call boxes. If the call is to the police or other security forces, it is usually recorded automatically, providing a voice print of the terrorist.

Fingerprints (and DNA) are something that terrorists, like serious criminals, have to take great care to avoid leaving in their wake

Lesson 6/ Terrorist Weapons, Resources, and Equipment Funding; Illegally-Generated and Sponsored The primary resource in the terrorist armoury is funding. Any terrorist act involving personnel and supplies requires a budget. Funding is the very first concern of terrorists. Besides funds already in the possession of a few terrorist groups, such as those of Osama bin Laden, not many terrorist groups are affluent enough to begin a sustained campaign of terror. Unless they are sponsored by a government, they tend to generate funds by theft, robbery, extortion, blackmail, burglary, other crimes such as illegal narcotics trafficking, and occasionally by engaging in criminal vice activities (See Lesson 2: Anomalies of Terrorism; Financing terrorism through Crime).

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PKK crest

The PKK (Kurdish Workers Party) terrorist group generates funds in Europe to finance terrorism as follows: Sales of PKK publications Aid campaigns organised by PKK officials Grants and subscriptions to the PKK Funds stolen in robberies by PKK members Funds generated from PKK-owned commercial enterprises Funds collected at special nights organised amongst European PKK cells Funds resulting from PKK narcotics trafficking and illegal arms smuggling and sales Extortion by PKK from Kurdish businesses and other regional commercial targets In those cases where governments sponsor terrorism, funding is usually extensive and can amount to tens of millions of US Dollars. The terrorist and guerrilla warfare in Jammu and Kashmir is reported to cost over US$ 1.5 million per day, paid for by its various sponsors. An example of fund-raising for the terrorist slaughter taking place in Algeria, occurred in 2001 as follows: Video cassette films postured as Jihad were circulated in a Mosque at Finsbury Park, London and sold for £10 each (about US$ 16), just prior to the attacks on the US on 11th September 2001. Algerian Security Service Investigators later described the videos as an appalling pornographic catalogue of violence. One cassette, made and distributed by the bin Laden-founded Salafist Group or Preaching and Combat in Algeria, showed live film of an ambush of security forces (driving over landmines), survivors’ throats being cut, other survivors being shot in the head, followed by footage of the

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murderers (terrorists) congratulating themselves and offering prayers. Pictures of skulls shot away and brains exposed were shown. The second film showed Taliban soldiers decapitating captured Northern Alliance opposition troops in Afghanistan. The sound track calls for “Holy War until Judgement Day” and urges viewers to “kill in the name of Allah (God) until you are killed... then you will win your place forever Finsbury Park Mosque, London in paradise... the war against the Jews Perfect cover for terrorist fund-raisers and recruiters - hiding out in and Christians is being won.” the open, doing their work among the congregations (AK-47 training Law abiding and balanced conducted in the basement). Fortunately, the UK’s domestic security service is highly sophisticated, and honest citizens Muslims reported the distribution to (Muslims) informed the police and media police and media. Two suspects who had attended sermons at the Finsbury Park Mosque in the past, were captured by US security forces: Richard Reid (found with a shoe bomb on a Miami flight) and Feroz Abbasi (a captured Taliban soldier). Negotiating Options “The wind does not break a tree that bends” Sukuma proverb (Tanzania) One useful resource in the terrorist armoury is the option to negotiate. Most governments persistently deny that they negotiate with terrorists. This is in order not to alarm the public and give the impression that the government is controlled by terrorists and thus unstable. In fact, the vast majority of governments engage terrorists in dialogue, wherever possible. This is done usually between intelligence officers and terrorist intermediaries, in the hope of negotiating a bloodless settlement or compromise; the objectives of a responsible government must always include minimising loss of life and destruction, whatever non-violent action might be required to achieve that. A notable case in which all parties denied that any negotiation with terrorists or accommodation took place, was the 1985 hi-jacking of TWA flight 847 at Beirut airport. The Hizbollah (Party of God) guerilla and terrorist group hijacked the aircraft and took 44 hostages. The Shiite Amal (Hope) guerrilla-terrorist group, (led by Nabi Berri, Lebanese Minister of Justice, noted for his considerable US business interests), temporarily suspended its rivalry with Hizbollah and assisted them in deploying the hostages at different locations around the city of Beirut. This effectively ended any plans for a rescue operation. Amal’s leader openly acted as an intermediary and helped negotiate the release of the 44 hostages after 17 days. What took place and

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was secretly negotiated in exchange for the hostages, was the release in Israel of several batches of Hizbollah fighters captured in south Lebanon. All governments later denied that any such arrangement had been reached. In certain cases, terrorists might seek to negotiate a full amnesty (or partial immunity from prosecution) or release of held terrorists in exchange for a cessation of terrorist hostility or a peaceful settlement. An example of such a negotiation took place during a hi-jacking of several airliners at Dawson’s Field in Jordan in 1970, which Palestinian hijackers (the word terrorist was not in common usage at that time) subsequently blew up and destroyed. In an arrangement both extraordinary and unthinkable by today’s standards, the hostages were released unharmed outside of Jordan, following which, the terrorists were released by British, West German and Swiss authorities. Another example of a negotiation not publicised was the case of Abu(l) Abbas, leader of the Palestinian Liberation Front (PLF). He was convicted in absentia by a court in Genoa, Italy, for various terrorist offences, mostly concerning the hijacking of the Achile Lauro cruise ship and callous murder of an invalid JewishAmerican passenger. Abbas received a life sentence from the Italian court, but managed to enter Gaza in 1988, after Israeli authorities granted him entry permission. Diplomatic Immunity Diplomatic immunity is a facility for those terrorists who use diplomatic cover, functioning as officials of an Embassy or other diplomatic mission while also carrying out clandestine terrorist activity. Using diplomatic protection as a defence and means of evading prosecution depends much upon where the terrorism takes place. If a terrorist under diplomatic immunity committed a political murder in a country under an authoritarian regime, it is very unlikely that diplomatic immunity would be honoured. It is sometimes the opposite in democratic countries. An example of this allegedly took place in 1984, outside the London office of the Libyan people’s bureau (Embassy). An anti-Ghadaffi demonstration and march by Libyan dissidents took place. It was routinely accompanied by Police in order to preserve law and order. Woman Police Constable Yvonne Fletcher was murdered allegedly by 9mm shots fired from the Libyan bureau. Ten other persons were wounded. Diplomatic relations were broken off, and the alleged terrorists and other officials of the Libyan bureau were ordered out of the country without interrogation, trial or penalty, on grounds of diplomatic immunity under International Law. Memorial at murder scene of The facts of the case are in dispute allegedly owing to several WPC Fletcher London Met. Police aspects of forensic scientific, forensic medical and audio visual

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Individual Sponsorship Not all terrorism is sponsored, but when it is, it is mostly by governments. A fraction of terrorism is, however, sponsored by wealthy individuals, such as Osama bin Laden, the former Saudi citizen who inherited his wealth from his father. Bin Laden’s wealth is estimated at US$ 300 million. Initial and small scale costs of guerrillas and terrorists are sometimes met by individuals or Muslim religious clerics who sponsor individuals to go and fight under the banner of Jihad (Holy struggle or war). This was especially popular during the era of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. Peshawar Individuals were encouraged all over the Muslim world by some of their religious clerics and sometimes governments, to support what was described as a holy war (Jehad) in Afghanistan. To process the volunteer fighters (Mujahideen or Holy Warriors), special logistics offices were set up in Peshawar in Pakistan to coordinate arrival, recruiting and training deployment. There were five major Mujahideen groups, and one such logistic office was known as the Maktaba al Khidmat (Services Office). It was run by the head of the Palestinian Ikhwan ul Muslimeen (Muslim Brotherhood) - Abdullah Azzam, also author of a Jihad text called Al Qa’ida al Sulbah (the Firm Foundation). He was mentor to bin Laden, who changed the name of his guest-house (related to the Maktab al Khidmat) from Beit ul Ansar (House of Companions) to Al Qa’ida. A typical and common sequence of events in the sponsor (Kafil) system is that a guerrilla or terrorist is given by a sponsor in his own country, a free or subsidised air ticket to travel to the area of conflict. After arriving at his destination, another sponsor provides free or subsidised food and accommodation. That or another sponsor takes care of all of his other needs. This sometimes includes taking care of the guerrilla-terrorist’s family while he undertakes training and operations. An illustration of how widespread this sponsor system was at the time of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, is that reduced price air tickets were openly advertised in a Saudi Arabian newspaper for those wishing to proceed on Jihad to Afghanistan. Sponsorship by Governments As discussed in other lessons, certain countries support terrorism. Some countries support terrorism and guerrilla warfare simply by transfer of funding. A few states sponsor terrorism by providing a full range of recruitment, training and operational services, although after the international crackdown after 11th September 2001, much state support has declined, and what remains has gone very much underground or dispensed through ‘deniable’ middle men and private organisations. Existing (disbursed) funds are being almost frantically re-located and re-invested.

Lesson 6/ Terrorist Weapons, Resources, and Equipment 210 Sponsorship may include the provision of false identity documents such as passports which are authentic but reflect false identities (stolen blanks which are then filled in). The cover used in the target country might (very rarely) include employment with an Embassy under diplomatic cover, or assistance from Embassy-based security or intelligence officers who also function as the terrorist’s support staff. Some governments who engage in sponsoring terrorism believe that the sought result justifies the terrorist act. Yet other governments are unable or choose not to differentiate between possible legitimate struggle and terrorism. They believe certain causes to be legitimate struggles for freedom from oppression, whatever the nature of the acts that they sponsor. Some governments go further than sponsoring and engage their security and intelligence personnel directly in committing terrorism. Following World War II, government intelligence and security officers in several countries of the world have been directly responsible for planning and carrying out attempts to assassinate leaders such as Egypt’s President Nasser, Cuba’s Chief of State Fidel Castro (with the assistance of organised criminal gangs), Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat, the Vatican’s Pope John Paul II and Libya’s President Qadaffi. Several governments continue to periodically field intelligence or security officers who target and wherever possible, assassinate expatriate dissidents and certain intelligence-security officials from opposing countries’ regimes. Such actions are on-going; they invariably provoke a response, which is met by a counter-response and so forth. It is therefore in the interests of the protagonists not to seek publicity; hence (usually) the absence of media coverage. An example of this type of covert action are the teams that, according to media, were fielded by the Iraqi government against selected Syrian diplomats at their embassies around the world, and also the Iranian teams that media reported allegedly were sent out to kill Iranian dissidents in the 1980s. Rogue Intelligence and Security Personnel Terrorists are sometimes controlled by intelligence or security officials on government service. In rare cases, an official of an intelligence or security organisation acts outside of his authority, against the directives and laws of his government, in organising or supporting terrorists. Motives may vary; it may be for vengeance, a refusal to cease hostilities, simply some form of misguided patriotic zeal, frustration with their employer’s system or simply cash remuneration. Such persons are sometimes termed as rogue officials. By the nature of their clandestine work, which is subject to great secrecy, there is much opportunity for unaccountable activity. An example of rogue officials acting without authority, against their government’s policy occurred in 1985, when some officials of the US NSC National Security Council (NSC), acting upon an initiative by Israel to secure the release of American hostages in Lebanon and also to improve IsraeliIranian relations, sold arms and spare parts to Iran, in violation of US laws. In contravention of the Boland amendment to US laws passed by Congress between 1982 and 1984, which precluded any further direct or indirect aid to Nicaraguan Contra rebels, the NSC officials subsequently channelled US$ 30 Million from the Iran weapons sales to the Contra rebels (See Lesson 10: Terrorism During the Cold War; Sponsorship). Another case of a rogue intelligence official was that of Edwin Wilson. Wilson worked at one time for the US CIA and in Task Force 157, a naval operation. He later began to work for

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Libya’s leader, Colonel Qadaffi, allegedly assisting in terrorism training. His accumulated wealth reportedly amounts to approximately 15 Million US Dollars. His motive was probably financial, since he was not independently wealthy and his government salary was modest.

KEYWORDS TO NOTE Anthrax Biological Weapon B-NICE Chemical Weapon Explosives HE / LE

Deadly disease caused by bacillus, mostly in animals, but also fatal to humans Weapon utilising a natural bacterium, virus or bio-toxin Acronym for types of WMD: Biological, Nuclear, Incendiary, Chemical, Explosive Weapon utilising manufactured chemicals, producing the following types of agent: Nerve, Blood, Choking, Blister and Irritating Common terrorist explosives are: Semtex, RDX, PETN and C4 High Explosive and Low Explosive. The two main categories of explosive

IED

Improvised Explosive Device. A non-government manufactured bomb

NBC

Nuclear Biological Chemical [Weapons]

Nuclear Weapon

Fission device (splits atoms); Fusion device (fuses or joins atoms); Radiological Dispersal Device (conventional bomb with radioactive waste attached). Fission / Fusion devices release tremendous destructive energy. All nuclear weapons release radiation

Radiation

Emission and diffusion of rays from nuclear device. In ascending order of Strength: Alpha Particles, Beta Particles, Gamma Rays

RDD Rogue TRACEM WMD

Radiological Dispersal Device. Nuclear waste attached to an IED (bomb) Outlaw. Rogue Intelligence Officer; unlawfully using position, official resources and tradecraft for own purposes Acronym for types of harm caused by WMD and other terrorist weapons: Thermal, Radiation, Asphyxiation, Chemical, Etiological and Mechanical Weapons of Mass Destruction. Usually Nuclear (including Radiological), Biological, Chemical, but can sometimes also include incendiary and explosive weapons

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TERRORIST ATTACK BRIEF Attacks on Cafés, San Salvador, El Salvador Facts of the Case: On 19th June 1985, terrorists disguised as El Salvador soldiers opened fire at two crowded cafés in the Zona Rosa nightclub strip. Four US Marines and two US businessmen were killed. Nine were wounded in the attacks, including one terrorist. Investigation: A left wing splinter group of the FMLN, Urban Guerrilla Commandos ‘Mardoqueo Cruz,’ claimed responsibility, in violent protest against US support for El Salvador’s government. Following the offering of a reward programme, four out of 11 suspects were arrested, of which three admitted the crimes. They were convicted but later ordered released under an amnesty programme calculated to stimulate peace in El Salvador. In 1988 their release was overruled by the El Salvador President.

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END-OF-LESSON QUIZ 1. Terrorist weapons are mostly a) Hunting and sporting weapons b) Military weapons c) Home-made weapons 2. Contemporary terrorists use mostly military bombs, not improvised bombs. a) True b) False 3. The most preferred bomb explosives for terrorist use are a) C4, Semtex, RDX and fertiliser-based b) Semtex, P4, RDX, RDD and fertiliser-based c) C4, Semtex, RDX and RDD 4. Anti-handling devices a) Prevent weapons being fired accidentally b) Are devices to lock and secure weapons c) Trigger bombs if they are moved or handled 5. A secondary bomb is sometimes used by terrorists a) If the first bomb fails to detonate b) To create more fear c) To target vulnerable personnel who have grouped because of the first bomb 6. Weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) generally refer to a) Nuclear, biological and chemical weapons b) Nuclear, radiological, explosive, and biological weapons c) Nuclear, chemical and radiological weapons 7. Occasionally, a terrorist victim is compelled to carry out a terrorist act as a suicide bomber. a) True b) False 8. A radiological dispersal device (RDD) produces more radioactive contamination than the equivalent radioactive content of a conventional nuclear weapon. a) True b) False 9. Support between terrorist groups is limited and confined mainly to a) Donations of weapons b) Exchange terrorist acts c) Exchange of intelligence and training, and weapons transactions 10. Some governments ideologically, politically and spiritually support terrorists they sponsor, which a) Motivates and legitimises terrorists, especially recruits b) Legalises terrorism in some countries c) Is for religious reasons

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11. Terrorists sometimes use ordinary fax machines, computers, pay-phones, video cameras, cassette recorders and the Internet to deliver terrorist threats. a) True b) False 12. Every terrorist act requires a) A trained terrorist b) Funding or assets c) Transport 13. Governments sometimes secretly negotiate arrangements with terrorists. a) True b) False 14. Diplomatic immunity always permits diplomats who commit terrorism to avoid arrest and provides them with freedom from prosecution. a) True b) False 15. All terrorists need financial sponsoring. a) True b) False 16. Some governments’ security and intelligence officers periodically carry out terrorist assassinations. a) True b) False 17. To terrorists, negotiation a) Is considered as a resource b) Should be avoided c) Is only partially successful 18. Bacterial, Rickettsia, Viral and Biotoxins are all forms of which weapons? a) Chemical b) Biological c) Bio-Chemical 19. Iodine 125 could be used in a a) Biological weapon b) Nuclear bomb c) Radiological Dispersal Device 20. MCI stands for a) Military-Civilian Intelligence b) Mass Casualty Incident c) Multi Cluster Incendiary ANSWERS: 1-b, 2-b, 3-a, 4-c, 5-c, 6-a, 7-a, 8-a, 9-c, 10-a, 11-a, 12-b, 13-a, 14-b, 15-b, 16-a, 17-a , 18-b, 19-c, 20-b.

Lesson 7 Types of Terrorist Acts Section 7.1: Extreme Violence Terrorist Preferences Systematic Genocide and Spontaneous Massacre Random Murder and Wounding Selective Murder, Wounding and Torture Forced Suicide of Victims Compelled to Engage in Terrorist Acts De-population or Ethnic Cleansing Political Purges Section 7.2: Other Crimes Destruction or Damage of Structures, Resources, Craft and other Property Hijacking, Kidnapping, Siege-and-Hostage Situations Racketeering, Extortion, Drug Trafficking and other Crimes Destruction or Disruption of Information and Networks Poisoning of Consumer Food Products Brainwashing and Psychological Warfare Threats and Hoax Threats of Terrorist Action Case Study of Terrorism: US Embassy Bombing, Nairobi, 7th August 1998 Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Murder of UK Defence Attaché, Athens, Greece

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Lesson 7 Scope and Objectives Section 7.1: Extreme Violence This section explains terrorist preferences and terrorist acts that are extremely violent, including genocide, massacre, murder, wounding, mutilation, purges, ethnic cleansing and compelling victims to commit suicide in the execution of a terrorist act. Case-examples are mentioned. The Terrorist Attack Brief for this Lesson is the murder of the UK Defence Attaché in Athens, Greece. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Explain contemporary terrorist act preferences Differentiate between selective and random terrorist violence Comprehend forced-suicide of victims compelled to engage in terrorist acts Understand de-population (ethnic cleansing) Section 7.2: Other Crimes This section examines terrorist acts and other crimes of lesser violence, such as kidnapping, hijacking, siege and hostage situations, damage and destruction of craft, structures and resources, and goes on to mention psychological warfare, IT terrorism and hoax terrorist threats. The Lesson concludes with an important case study of the US Embassy bombings in Nairobi and Dar as Salaam in 1998. In this case study, political matters, technical security, communications, information, intelligence and logistics issues are examined in the context of terrorism. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Describe the different types of terrorist destruction and damage to property Explain terrorist hijacking, kidnapping and siege-and-hostage situations Describe conventional crimes engaged in by terrorists Describe consumer terrorism, other types of terrorist acts and terrorist threats and hoaxes Understand security strengths and weaknesses at the Nairobi US Embassy prior to the attack Recall the meaning of the words contained in the Lesson’s Keywords to Note table Recall the basic facts concerning the murder of the UK Defence Attaché in Athens, Greece

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Lesson 7. Types of Terrorist Acts Section 7.1: Extreme Violence What have you done? Hark, thy brother’s blood cries out to me from the ground! The Bible, Genesis 4:10 Terrorist Preferences The zenith of all types of terrorist attacks occurred in the 1970s, but international terrorist attacks were at their height during the 1980s. All main categories of terrorism have decreased in quantity, but they tend now to be more lethal when they do occur. Terrorist attacks from around the middle of the 1990s to the end of the 20th Century (compared to previous years) caused an approximate 75% increase in fatalities, a 119% increase in acts that caused five or more deaths and a 128% increase in acts that caused 10 deaths or more. Statistics show that terrorists still prefer the bomb (IED), detonated without warning, as first choice, against random victims. Collectively, explosives are used in one form or another (including grenades), in approximately 70% of attacks (this figure MURDER This innocent child was deliberately fluctuates). shot in the face at close range and An example of such a stereotype terrorist attack occurred murdered by Serbian armed forces in Islamabad, Pakistan in March 2002, when a terrorist threw ‘ethnically cleansing’ Prekaz Feb. 1999 several hand grenades into a Protestant Church during worship. Drenice, Kosovo, © E. Bardhi / Kosovo Crisis Centre Five were killed including three foreigners, and approximately 40 other people were wounded. An unheard of group (probably renamed or ex-Afghanistan) claimed responsibility: Lashkar e Omar (the Army of Omar). Terrorists incline towards the following acts, in order of preference (descending order, left to right):

Arson, sabotage, grenade and sniping attacks Kidnapping

Bombing attacks Machine gun and pistol attacks Hijacking craft and vessels

Mortar, missile, drive-by shooting attacks Siege with hostage-taking

These patterns suggest that the primary consideration of contemporary terrorists is to evade apprehension; reconciled with the next most important concern of causing the maximum loss of life and damage to property. Bombing (IEDs, excluding grenades) is the most favoured act, accounting for approximately 40% of terrorist acts (this figure fluctuates). Refer to Annex J: Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department), for a comprehensive list of terrorist incidents, as noted by the US State Department.

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Systematic Genocide and Spontaneous Massacre “Even in our defeat we had succeeded. We welcomed Lucifer with joyous and open arms, and went to our deaths knowing we had succeeded in opening the very gates of Hell here on this planet. And for that we would be well rewarded, oh well rewarded” Former Nazi General in South American exile, on the phenomenon of Nazi-style genocide Genocide generates an enormous amount of terror, especially among the victim populations. Genocide is the planned murder (the pre-meditated form of unlawful killing) of a large number of people. The victims of genocide are from a specific religious, ethnic, national or racial group. As discussed in Lesson 1, genocide is the worst form of terrorism and it is generally systematic, not spontaneous, in that it is sanctioned openly or subtly by a government or a state or defacto leader. Genocide is illegal under the 1948 Genocide Convention and is tried as a crime against humanity. Genocide mostly begins without warning, and is often difficult to prevent or to arrest, as it is perpetrated by powerful military forces. Evidence of Genocide is often discovered after the event and mostly, but not always (as in the case of the Stalinist purges), occurs during wartime. Examples of genocide have occurred throughout history. Some examples are: The former Ottoman Empire, 1890 to 1921

Sudan from 1985 to date

WWII Germany & Nazi occupied territories

Former Yugoslavia from 1991 (intermittently)

Cambodia between 1975 and 1978

Rwanda in 1994 (and thereafter intermittently)

In the same fashion as systematic genocide, massacres (also slaughter with cruelty, but on a far smaller scale than genocide) can be subject to pre-planning. A few examples (of many hundreds) of pre-planned massacres are as follows: The massacre of 9,439 Russian citizens by the Soviet NKVD, between 1937 and 1938, with their subsequent burial in 95 unmarked pits The massacres at Katyn wood near Smolensk, Russia where 4,253 unarmed Polish Army Officers were massacred. Soviet authorities blamed the massacre upon the Nazis, attributing the date of the massacre as after 1941 (Operation Barbarossa; the Nazi invasion of Russia)

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and produced items of German military equipment from the burial pits as evidence. The massacre was in fact pre-planned by the Soviet government and carried out by Soviet NKVD troops in 1939; misleading forensic evidence was planted in order to lay blame upon the Nazis. In 1991, it was publicly revealed in Russia that the former Soviet NKVD had committed this massacre. The massacres at Bykovniya, near Kiev, where 6,329 people British Paratroopers await helicopter airlift over the border into Kosovo were massacred by Soviet VV to restore order and help to hunt down war criminals © Crown (Vnutrenniye Voyska or Internal troops) in 1937 and thrown into a burial pit. In 1988, the VV erected a memorial monument over the burial pit falsely attributing the massacre to ‘the fascist (Nazi) occupiers’ during 1941 to 1943 The massacres in the Kuropaty forest, near Minsk, Byelorussia, where an estimated 200,000 Russian bodies were found in 500 communal graves; all were victims of the former Soviet regime Another World War II pre-planned massacre was carried out in 1944 by SS and Gestapo officials. Upon recapture, following their escape from Sagen prisoner of war camp in Germany, 50 British and Commonwealth Royal Air Force Officers were murdered and cremated (to destroy forensic evidence)

British Paratroopers arrest three Serbian gunmen in Pristina, Kosovo

Not all massacres are pre-planned; some are spontaneous. Spontaneous terrorist massacres (or atrocities) are sometimes committed by military or security forces, against victims or prisoners

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that they have at their mercy, mostly during wartime in rural areas, and most frequently, immediately following the heat of combat, or related to recently sustained losses. Reasons vary and may be for vengeance, deterrent by reprisal, ethnic cleansing or Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. A variety of well known wartime examples of spontaneous massacre are: The 1944 massacre of 86 US Prisoners of War at Malmedy, France by Waffen SS soldiers

Murder victims killed by Serbian armed forces ‘ethnically cleansing’ Rogove village, Kosovo, 1999 © E. Bardhi/Albania Net

The 1944 massacre of 648 unarmed men, women and children at Oradour sur Glane, France by Waffen SS soldiers The 1945 massacre of 43 surrendered Waffen SS soldiers in Webling, Germany by US soldiers The frequent spontaneous massacres of civilians by south and north Vietnamese troops and Vietmin Viet Nam Cong San (south Vietnamese communist guerrillas known as Vietcong), during the Vietnam War of 1959 to 1975 The sometimes spontaneous massacres of Cambodians murdered by Khmer Rouge terrorists between 1975 and 1978, in both cities and the countryside A different type of spontaneous terrorist massacre occurred at the 1972 Munich (West Germany) Olympic Games. Palestinian terrorists from the Black September group took 11 Israeli athletes hostage, demanding release of 200 Palestinians held in Israeli prisons, in exchange for releasing the hostages. US FBI forensic specialists uncover war crime mass graves in Kosovo, 1999

Courtesy: FBI

As the terrorists and hostages were about

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to board a jet airliner, demanded as part of the escape plan, German police snipers opened fire upon the terrorists at Furstenfeldbruck airfield. The terrorists spontaneously threw hand-grenades at the hostages and opened fire. At the end of the fire-fight, 11 hostages, five terrorists and a west German police officer were dead. Random Murder, Wounding and Mutilation “It’s not the bullet with my name on it that worries me. It’s the one that says ‘To whom it may concern’” Anonymous Belfast resident, Northern Ireland, 1991 All deaths caused by terrorists are murders as they are premeditated, even if the victims are selected at random. Some terrorist attacks are upon victims who are US Prisoners of War in the snows of selected for their affiliation. Malmedy, murdered by Waffen SS who (i.e. a military group of soldiers, Embassy staff or were later tried and punished for war crimes Government officials). Courtesy: US Army In other attacks, victims are loosely selected at, in or around a given attack-site, with little or no effort to discriminate. Random murder or wounding of victims unknown to the terrorists, especially by bombing, accounts for the majority of contemporary terrorism. The fact that many terrorists murder and wound at random and without warning, adds to the terror (or extreme anxiety) generated amongst populations. Terrorists commonly place bombs in population centres, detonating them without warning, after a delay permitting the terrorists to escape. This results in the indiscriminate murder and wounding of random civilians and destruction and damage of buildings. It is the type of terrorist action much favoured in the Middle East. Different examples of terrorist acts involving selection of random, unknown victims both in and around main targeted areas are:

An elderly victim of terrorism in Kashmir

The pipe-bomb detonated at the 1996 Atlanta (US) Olympic Games, which killed a spectator

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222 The almost simultaneous terrorist massacres in 1985 at Rome and Vienna international airports, targeting Israeli El Al check-in counters and their environs, with hand-grenades and machine guns (also used on the escape route), which killed 18 people and wounded over 100. It was carried out by Palestinian terrorists of the Abu Nidal (Father of the Struggle) group, headed by Sabri al Banna

An innocent truck driver delivering supplies to a village that RUF terrorists were attacking in Sierra Leone. RUF cut his hands off.

© Crown

The Al Qa’ida terrorist bombings of the US embassies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Nairobi, Kenya, on 7th August 1998. In these attacks, the victims killed and thousands of wounded included many Muslims and other civilians, outside of the embassies, and entirely unrelated to the terrorists and their cause

If campaigns in which civilians are killed and wounded are sustained over long periods, it tends to further alienate civilian populations against the terrorists. This trend was most probably a motivation for some terrorist factions in the Northern Ireland dispute; they began to give warnings of bombs to security forces, permitting a part or whole civilian evacuation. The terrorists would have pre-arranged secret code-words known only to them and the security forces (and sometimes media), in order to discount hoax bomb threats. Excluding hoaxes by use of code words, is to the mutual benefit of both security forces and the terrorists.

British Troops restoring order in Sierra Leone

In wartime or combat, the ratio of killed to wounded varies, but is approximately: 1 killed to 3 (or more) wounded In cases of terrorist bombings, the number of wounded is also several times greater than the

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223 number killed. However, in the bombing of the US Embassy in Nairobi on 7th August 1998, the ratio was far from normal proportions, due to the characteristics of the bomb, location, timing and environment: 213 were killed to 4000+ wounded.

Mutilation Besides in Rwanda, widespread examples of mutilation took place in the territory controlled by a terrorist bandit leader, Foday Sankoh, in Sierra Leone. Despite a July 1999 peace US Marine on the USS Kearsarge comforts a small boy refugee that he airlifted out of Freetown, Sierra Leone agreement between government Courtesy: US Dept. of Defense President Kabbah and RUF (Revolutionary United Front) leader Foday Sankoh, the RUF engaged in fighting against UN peacekeeping forces. By 2001, 12,000 UN peacekeeping troops were present to restore order. Sankoh’s RUF committed many barbaric acts of terrorism and mutilation of those captured, whether innocent civilians or combatants. Mutilation was commonplace and isolated cases of cannibalism were reported. Selective Murder, Wounding and Torture “When there is a person, there is a problem. No person, no problem” Joseph Stalin While many terrorists kill unknown persons at random, some terrorists identify, target and take hostage, specific victims whose identity is known to them and whom they sometimes mutilate, torture or murder. It is held in some security circles that on terrorist-targeted international flights, passenger manifests (supplied by corrupt airline staff or others) are scrutinised by terrorists or their agents, prior to the terrorist act. This is presumably done as a precaution to ensure that there are no ‘friendly forces or parties’ on board. e.g. in the case of Pan Am Flight 103, to ensure that no Libyan officials, trade delegations, diplomats or their families are on board. Due to cancellations however, this cannot be very effective. A notorious example of selective (non spontaneous or random) murder was the painstakingly planned bombing of US Pan Am flight 103 over Lockerbie in Scotland, UK in 1988. A bomb was concealed on board the flight, which detonated, causing 259 passengers and aircrew to be killed, in

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addition to a further 11 persons on the ground, killed by falling wreckage. In 1999, the Libyan government submitted to persistent demands that the two government-employed suspects be handed over for trial in the Hague, Netherlands, under Scottish Law. One of two indicted suspects was found guilty and convicted. Abdel Baset Ali al-Megrahi was sentenced to life imprisonment (in effect, 20 years), and lost his appeal in March 2002. The initial trial cost over US$ 75 million, with basic trial facilities alone costing in excess of US$ 15 million, and running costs of US$ 2 million per month. Another example of selective terrorist murders Abdel Baset Ali al Megrahi occurred in 1998 at the Iranian Consulate at Mazar e Sharif, © FBI Afghanistan after the Taliban (Students) militia took over the city. Nine Iranian (Shiite Muslim) diplomats and support staff were murdered by unknown terrorists. The Taliban militia (Sunni Muslims) subsequently denied any knowledge of those responsible. Torture “The dead only count when they leave a testimony” Joel Filartiga, Father of a son tortured to death In Kashmir, members of the Al Faran (the Mountain Fighters) terrorist group, linked to the Harkat ul Ansar (Companions [of the prophet Mohammed] Movement) terrorist group, kidnapped a group of western tourists in July 1995. They eventually beheaded a Norwegian tourist who was one of their hostages, and eluded security forces indefinitely. The terrorists and their other victims never came to light, despite deployment in Kashmir of officers from the US FBI, the UK’s New Scotland Yard and Germany’s GSG-9. It is thought that the objective was to draw western attention to the Kashmir dispute, and that to make sure the fate and graves of the tourists never came to light (to minimise adverse publicity), the terrorists themselves were later killed by their masters. Mercy is not generally shown by terrorists. A historical catalogue of horrific crimes testifies that murder, mutilation and torture are methods to which terrorists resort to without hesitation, if it serves their purpose. Khiam jail in south Lebanon, inside the former Israeli Security Zone area, had a notorious history of savage torture (and on occasions, murder) when under the control of the South Lebanese

Lesson 7/ Types of Terrorist Acts Army (SLA) who were loyal to Israel during the conflict in Lebanon. Grievous bodily harm, mutilation, electrocution, ‘bone-softening,’ rape and mental torture were commonplace in Khiam. Several former prisoners from Khiam stated (to the author, living in South Lebanon at the time) that during the SLA reign, it was standard treatment when leaving Khiam to be threatened. The penalty (carried out on some occasions) for talking of what went on in Khiam would result in relatives being taken there to be beaten and tortured, including the possible rape of their female family members. In the 1980s, eighteen US and a number of European nationals were kidnapped, mainly in Beirut, Lebanon, and dispersed in different parts of west Beirut to deter rescue attempts and bombing reprisals. Two of the more notorious cases were that of:

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The notorious Khiam Jail, south Lebanon

© Al Hayat

US Embassy Diplomat and CIA Station Chief William Buckley, kidnapped in March 1984 Col. William Higgins, US Army, seconded as Chief of UN (UNTSO) Observer Group Lebanon, kidnapped in February 1988 They were both, according to media, subjected to cruel and long-term physical maltreatment accompanied by professional psychological torture, inflicted by a Dr. Aziz Al Abub (also known as Ibrahim al Nadhir), a former Pasdoran* leader at the Teheran University Medical School. He was also trained at the [KGB-controlled] Patrice Lumumba People’s Friendship University in Moscow. The victims were later murdered, according to media, by terrorists within the Hizbollah guerrilla group. [*Pasdaran e Inqilab is the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps, technically a military unit, but with a large number of personnel covertly deployed on domestic political intelligence and security functions, observing their own population and protecting the revolution. According to media, on 17th April 1995, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei appointed Hassan Firuzabadi (a civilian veterinary surgeon) to the military rank of full General and placed him above Brigadier-General Rezai, Commander-in-Chief of Pasdaran, and Brigadier-General Shahbazi of the regular Iranian Armed Forces.] Another example of torture and terrorism occurred in the early 20th century in Afghanistan during Shah Amanullah’s reign. Pasha Sikao, an Afghan warlord, was widely known and terrorised

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Basha Sikao

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his enemies on account of his habit of personally torturing each of his prisoners. In Peru during April 2002, at a Government Truth and Reconciliation Commission, officials heard evidence from witnesses concerning the [Maoist] Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) terrorist activities in Ayacucho, a jungle and mountainous region. Shining Path terrorists, in an effort to force rural peasants to help them overthrow the government, committed many massacres involving torture. An example is as follows: On one occasion, 23 random peasants (men) from a village in Ayacucho were rounded up, hands tied behind their backs, following which, the hooded Sendero Luminoso terrorists crushed their heads with rocks and cut their throats, so that they died in protracted agony.

Forced Suicide of Victims Compelled to Engage in Terrorist Acts “There will be no justice as long as man will stand with a knife or with a gun and destroy those who are weaker than he is” Isaac Bashevis Singer, Polish-born American writer From time to time during the Northern Ireland dispute, terrorists from the PIRA (Provisional Irish Republican Army) would kidnap a male victim with his wife and / or children and hold them hostage, sometimes at gunpoint in their own home. The male victim would then be forced to drive a vehicle (sometimes trapped or handcuffed inside) filled with explosives or another type of bomb, to a target such as a security forces checkpoint. The bomb would then be detonated, killing the Urban Anti-Terrorist patrol: British Internal Security Forces, Northern Ireland male v i ct i m an d © Crown members of the security

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forces and damaging or destroying the checkpoint. If the male victim refused to drive the vehicle, he was offered the alternative of his family members being killed instead. De-population or Ethnic Cleansing “You take my life when you take the means whereby I live” The Merchant of Venice, William Shakespeare Deportation (de-population) of civilians is a war crime under the Fourth Geneva Convention. Some of the most violent post World War II cases of depopulation occurred in Rwanda from 1994 onwards. In July 1995 during the conflict in the former Yugoslavia, Serbian forces overran a UN Protected Area (UNPA) in Srebrenica, an old mining town in eastern Bosnia. They ejected the Muslim population, but detained a reported 5000 men, women and children. Most were massacred and the rest simply UN Int. Criminal ‘disappeared’ while in Serbian hands. Tribunal at the Hague Later in the month at Val d’Aosta in Italy, Pope John Paul II spoke out at the genocide and publicly invoked God to ‘strengthen the Martyred people of Bosnia-Herzogovina.’ According to media, during the first few months of the conflict in Bosnia in 1992, Serbian forces had ‘ethnically cleansed’ Bosnia by killing approximately 100,000 people and by forcing about 3 million to flee their homes (the war crime of depopulation). These cases were carried out by military, police and para-military forces, partly aided by civilians, upon orders and sanction of the highest authorities. The trial of the former President of Yugoslavia (and later Serbia), Slobodan Miloševi , began at the UN’s International Criminal Tribunal in February 2002. He unleashed a savage reign of terror in the Balkans for a decade following the Cold War. He was indicted with three major charges relating to Kosovo, Croatia and Bosnia, of which there were 57 counts. Some are as follows: Evidence of ethnic cleansing: Mass graves in Kosovo, May 1999

Photo courtesy of NATO

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Depopulation of 800,000 Albanian civilians from Kosovo (1st Jan. to 20th Jun.1999) Massacres and attacks on refugees fleeing Kosovo Genocide in Bosnia (two counts) Depopulation of 170,000 civilians in Croatia (Aug.1991 to Jun.1992) Atrocities in Croatia including massacre of civilian refugees Establishment of [Nazi style] concentration camps in Croatia In August 2001, A Bosnian Serb General, Radislav Krstic was convicted at the Hague International Criminal Tribunal and sentenced to 46 years imprisonment, for genocide committed at Srebrenica. Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic and General Radko Mladic are also wanted at the Hague for genocide at Srebrenica. Media reported on a subsequent French Government enquiry to investigate why the General commanding the UN forces in Bosnia at the time did not intervene to stop the genocide at Srebrenica. The former Dutch Defence Minister, Joris Voorhoeve, gave evidence at the enquiry and later went on record saying that: “We [the Netherlands UN contingent] did not stop requesting intervention [air strikes], but General Janvier refused to offer it for reasons that have remained unclear until this day.” In April 2002, the entire Dutch Government Cabinet resigned over a newly released official report, commissioned five years ago, that condemned its failure to prevent the massacres at Srebrenica. In 1994 to 1995, Serbian troops first blockaded the town, a UN protected area, and then moved in without a shot being fired. The Expulsion, from The Dance of Death by Hans Holbein, Lyons, 1538

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On film evidence, women are shown being corralled into a barbed wire enclosure, and the men separated, while Serb troops laughed and jeered. The UN international criminal tribunal heard that some of the men committed suicide rather than have their genitals, lips, noses and ears cut off and then be shot. Film evidence shows that numbers of people lost control of their bodily functions, realising the terror to come. Allegations were also made of women having hand grenades forced into them and detonated and that parents were made to kill their own children or watch Serb troops do it for them. Some who escaped said that they were made to wait in line and watch while their friends were shot and killed in turn. When international investigators entered the cultural centre, they found human remains spread about, traces of explosives, and body parts, even on the theatre stage. The harshest criticism in the report by the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation report was for the Dutch political and military leadership that sent lightly armed troops to Srebrenica with ill-defined goals and a weak mandate. Another case of depopulation or ethnic cleansing occurred in the late 1980s when Iraqi authorities enacted a forced re-location of 500,000 ethnic Kurds and Syrians, in direct contravention of the 1948 Genocide Convention. Since 1967, 2500 Palestinians were deported from Israeli occupied territories, most being accused (but not charged or convicted) of membership of terrorist groups. Several hundreds were allowed back in 1993 after intense international pressure. Depopulation or ethnic cleansing is a type of terrorism calculated to satisfy ethnic, political or religious hatred, enact vengeance or to acquire land. It is carried out upon the direct command or sanction of the highest national or defacto authorities. De-population or ethnic cleansing, is tried as a war crime, while genocide is tried as a crime against humanity. Political Purges “There are times when lunacy takes over and then it is the best heads that are axed....” Albrecht Haushofer, anti-Nazi resistance fighter, executed in Moabit, Berlin in April 1945 Political purges occurred quite frequently throughout the Soviet era, but especially during the Stalin era, in which millions of victims were despatched to the Gulag Archipelago: a grouping of concentration camps filled with dissidents and other victims of the Soviet regimes. Imprisonment in the Gulag was characterised variously by the following: Release from captivity was not automatic afer time-serving Deliberate confinement of mentally healthy dissidents in lunatic asylums

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230 Sentences of detention with forced labour for unspecified periods were common Commonplace malnutrition deaths, untreated ailments and execution-style murder

During Stalin’s political purges of the Soviet Military from 1935 to 1940, he had over 600 General Officers and Navy Flag Officers murdered, in addition to more than 20,000 other Soviet officers. This seriously weakened the Soviet military leadership capability, especially after Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941 (Operation Barbarossa), in breach of a non aggression pact. STALIN Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge purged Cambodia from 1975 to 1978, in a collectivisation programme, forcing millions from to work in the countryside; between two and four million died. Another example of a campaign of terror through purges was carried out by Uganda’s dictator Idi Amin, who illegally seized power from President Obote. Amin then carried out a campaign of terror from 1971 to 1979 in which more than 300,000 Ugandan citizens were murdered. Rooms in several selected villas (where Amin would occasionally take visitors) were filled with dead bodies, stacked from floor to ceiling. The Amin reign of terror ended with his overthrow in 1979 IDI AMIN when Tanzanian troops invaded, Former British colonial army Sergeant, President, and mass murderer © UN whereupon he fled and took refuge in Saudi Arabia.

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Section 7.2 Other Crimes Destruction or Damage of Structures, Resources, Craft and other Property Any victim or physical target is acceptable to terrorists, if they consider it worthwhile and have the resources to commit the act. Records of terrorist acts show that terrorists carry out almost every imaginable type of destruction and damage under the broad categories of: Bombing (IED) Arson (Incendiary) This type of damage and destruction can be further sub-categorised as either:

Wreckage of flight UTA 772. Bomb exploded in mid-air over the Tenere dessert, Niger, in 1989.

Random or Target Specific The physical targets include: Religious or Political centres

Installations (e.g. oil rigs)

The environment

Aircraft

Cultural sites, incl. monuments

Structures (buildings)

Population centres

Vessels

Commercial or Financial centres

Natural resources

Resource supplies

Vehicles

The more valuable or costly the target, the more attractive the target is to the terrorists, as the publicity, terror (extreme anxiety) and asset harm will be correspondingly greater. An example of this is the terrorist bombing of the US World Trade Centre (New York) in 1993, where besides the six persons killed and many injured, the structural damage amounted to US$ 600 million. In the attacks of 11th September 2001, the shock, effects and costs were infinitely greater, with thousands killed and enormous financial costs as yet inestimable. An example of inspiring terrorist acts on structures and landmarks came from US convicted Egyptian religious cleric, Omar Abdel Rahman.

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232 Rahman stated that it was a duty to blow up the United Nations building, the FBI headquarters, two New York traffic tunnels and a bridge, and also to assassinate the Egyptian President. This illustrates that demolition of significant structures and landmarks is a deliberate, well thought out modus operandi (method of operation) and preference of this particular type of terrorist, as opposed to other types of terrorist act. Hijacking, Kidnapping, Siege-and-Hostage Situations “Less fears he who is near the thing he fears” Samuel Daniel; Cleopatra. Act iv, sc. 1

Although popular in the 1960s and 1970s, hi-jacking has decreased in popularity amongst terrorists. This is due to the low chances of escape and the fact that they may leave evidence at the scene of the hijacking The Face of Despair: Refugees outside that later helps in identifying and apprehending them. their burnt-out house in the Jammu and Kashmir state (one of 8000+ cases of Furthermore, terrorists fear the now highly refined terrorist arson since 1991) counter-terrorist operations carried out by special military formations, in which terrorists who have taken hostages are likely to be killed when buildings, aircraft or boats are assaulted. An exception to this are the unique, unprecedented terrorist attacks of 11th September 2001. Kidnapping and its characteristics for the purposes of this course, means the following: Abduction, usually of one but sometimes multiple individuals The victim is carefully selected and targeted by terrorists before being abducted The victim is held at a location unknown to the security forces A demand is usually made by the terrorists in exchange for release of the victim The terrorist demand is usually for release of other terrorists or payment of a ransom The victim is usually released unharmed once the demand is met Sometimes the victim is murdered in order to prevent later identification of the terrorists Sometimes the victim is murdered with no terrorist demand, the objective being publicity

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Several businessmen were kidnapped but later murdered in the 1970s and 1980s for vengeance, notably Hanns-Martin Schleyer, by the Red Army Faction (Baader-Meinhof Gang). Hostage taking and its characteristics, for the purposes of this course, means: The spontaneous seizing of hostages by terrorists The identity of the hostages was not known by the terrorists, prior to the attack The hostages are seized and held at weapon point, under threat of harm The hostages are used to deter immediate action or pursuit by security forces Hostage taking often occurs simultaneously with a hijacking or a siege situation If escaping a siege, terrorists often take hostages with them, to deter security forces action As a result of the deposed Shah of Iran receiving medical treatment in the US, a notorious case of hostage-taking occurred: Iranian revolutionaries of the post-Shah regime, stormed the US Embassy in Teheran, Iran taking 53 US Embassy staff hostage for 444 days from November 1979 to January 1981 Eventually, after a new President was elected in the US, Algerian mediators were able to negotiate the release of the hostages Another example of a siege-and-hostage situation occurred in 1980 at Princes Gate, London:

Ayatollah Khomenei

Six ethnic-Arab Iranian terrorists took 24 men and women hostage inside the Iranian Embassy They demanded the release of 91 political prisoners held by the Khomenei government After five days, a hostage was shot by the terrorists As a result, the Army’s Special Air Service (SAS) Regiment assaulted the Embassy

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During the assault, the terrorists managed to kill one hostage and wound two more Five out of six of the terrorists were killed and one was taken prisoner A historical (and somewhat unusual) siege case occurred as follows: On 23rd January 1909, two Latvian refugees of London' s East End assaulted a wages messenger and fired shots while robbing him. This was heard at a local Police station and police gave chase after rapidly arming themselves (use of firearms by criminals was unheard of at that time and police were unarmed). In the six mile chase that followed, 2 persons were killed and 27 wounded. The Robbers were Asylum seekers who came from the Latvian refugee society in London' s East End. Many Latvians had fled and been allowed into Great Britain to settle in London following the suppression of the Latvian revolt of 1905. In London however, they abused the sanctuary given them and continued revolutionary activities, extorting funds from other refugees, under the leadership of a man known variously as Peter the Painter, Peter Piaktow or Peters. The Home Secretary (Interior Minister) Winston Churchill described Peter the Painter as ‘one of those wild beasts who in later years, amid the convulsions of the Great War, were to devour and ravage the Russian State and people.’ On the evening of 16th December 1910, a neighbour heard hammering caused by tunnelling and called the police. Several unarmed constables responded. Police Constable (PC) Bentley entered the building rented by the Piaktow gang, and was shot dead. In a subsequent battle on the street, PCs Strongman, Choat and Tucker were also murdered by gunfire, and a gang member named Gardstein was accidentally shot and mortally wounded by the other members of the Latvian gang. Peters, Vassilleva, and Dubof made their escape, dragging Gardstein along, ending up in the room of Svaars (another Latvian anarchist). There, Gardstein, tended by a supporter of the gang, Sara Trasslonsky, was left to die. The murders of the policemen sparked outrage throughout Great Britain. Discovering evidence in Gardstein’s room and in receipt of information from informants, the Metropolitan Police arrested several gang members during the subsequent weeks. On New Year’s Day 1911, Charles Perelman, the gang’s former landlord, informed the police that two members of the gang were hiding at 100 Sidney Street. By 0200 hrs on the morning of 3rd January 1911, 200 police officers had sealed off the block in which Sidney Street was located. Armed police officers were posted in shops and buildings surrounding the gang’s house. The battle started at dawn, but the gang seemed to have superior firepower and plentiful ammunition. Army troops were called in from the Tower of London and the Home Secretary, Winston Churchill attended the scene.

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A company of the Army's Scots Guards saturated the upper floors of No. 100 with bullets. The fire brigade tried to pass the police barricade lines to get into No. 100 in order to extinguish the flames of the fire that had started. The police refused to let them through and a heated dispute continued until Churchill forbade the fire brigade to approach the house. He did retain them on standby however, in case adjacent houses became threatened by the fire. By this time, the fire consumed the house and the floors collapsed. The charred bodies of Svaars and Joseph were recovered. The trial of the remaining gang members was grossly mishandled, the prosecution fell to pieces, and those on trial were released. Peters (the most likely murderer of the Policemen), returned to Russia and during the Russian revolution rose high in the Bolshevik Col. William Higgins, Chief of UNTSO OGL Photo: Courtesy of Mrs. Robin Higgins (Lt. Col. USMC retired) regime, no doubt by possessing the required character traits. As was the later fate of so many Bolshevik revolutionaries, Peters himself was murdered by the regime during a Soviet political purge in the late 1930s. An example of a hijacking where terrorists spontaneously seized hostages was the Achile Lauro ocean liner hi-jacking in 1985. The terrorist act was planned as a terrorist mission on land, inside Israel, but went wrong and ended in a chase onto an ocean liner, where hostages were seized and one was subsequently murdered. During the 1980s, different terrorist groups in Lebanon, including the Iranian-supported Hezbollah according to media, kidnapped westerners and held them hostage, some for many years. Victims were sometimes kept chained in darkness, poorly fed and denied medical attention for years: One such case was that of William Buckley, US CIA station chief in Beirut, taken in 1984 and who was murdered by systematic neglect and psychological torture in 1985. Another case was that of US Colonel William Higgins, Chief of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation (Observer Group Lebanon). He was taken hostage in 1988, murdered and hung on a makeshift gallows in 1989, and his remains callously dumped onto a Beirut street over a year later. For further information on the Buckley and Higgins cases, see earlier in this Lesson, under Murder, Wounding and Torture. A British church envoy, Terry Waite, was one of those westerners taken hostage in Lebanon.

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He was trying to mediate, having had some previous success in this type of endeavour. Following his release, he described the apology of one of the terrorist kidnappers: “We apologise for having captured you. We recognise now that it was the wrong thing to do, that holding hostages achieves no useful, constructive purpose.” Terry Waite was released owing to the efforts at that time, of the young and well known UN Assistant Secretary General for Political Affairs and hostage negotiator, Giandomenico Picco of Italy, who risked his life contacting the abductors and being taken to their base. Three western hostages were murdered but the others UN Assistant Secretary General were subsequently released in Lebanon, around the time that (Political Affairs) covert (concealed from Congress) weapons and spare parts Mr. Giandomenico Picco sales and transfers to Iran took place from the US and Israel, respectively. A case of a siege-and-hostage situation by 14 Tupac Amaru terrorists took place in Lima, Peru in December 1996. It occurred at the residence of the Japanese Ambassador to Peru, as follows: The terrorists burst into the residence at a cocktail party for 200 guests They took 72 hostages In exchange for release of the hostages unharmed, they demanded: • Release of several hundred of their jailed comrades •

Transportation to a central jungle

•

A government commitment to change its free-market policy

•

Payment of an unspecified war-tax

After four months of siege, 140 Peruvian commandos stormed the residence All hostages were rescued, but one died later All 14 terrorists and two government commandos were killed in the operation

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Pre-selected installations or buildings are sometimes broken into by protest groups who subsequently threaten to destroy the building if attempts to eject them are made. These types of terrorist are not usually hard core terrorists using military weapons, but usually seek publicity for their cause, which might be humanitarian, animal rights or similar. After illegally occupying buildings, they sometimes destroy or damage them for publicity, if their demands are not met. Sometimes a siege situation can develop, which in most cases ends either in a negotiated settlement with security forces, or very rarely, a counter-terrorist assault. It is worthy of note that a strange phenomenon called Stockholm Syndrome sometimes occurs in hostage cases, whereby after a period of time, the hostages illogically develop positive or sympathetic feelings towards their captors. The term derives from a 1973 bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden, where hostages were taken and the phenomenon was identified by psychologists. Racketeering, Extortion, Drug Trafficking and other Crimes Terrorists engage in many conventional criminal activities such as blackmail of individuals; a threat to divulge incriminating or embarrassing information or evidence, unless a demand is met. Demands vary from cash to information or any other resource useful to the terrorists. Extortion is another method terrorists use to collect funds, sometimes known as protection money. Extortion of protection money first occurred on the large scale during the era of the US Prohibition (1920 to 1933). The US Prohibition meant that manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquor was illegal. It was however carried on illicitly and known as bootlegging. During that era, many gangsters such as the notorious Al “Scarface” Capone, made colossal amounts of illicit money from bootlegging and a variety of constant criminal activities, including the extortion of so called protection money, enforced by terror. In extortion of protection money cases, the victims, usually community shop and business owners, must pay a regular sum to the gangsters (or terrorists), or suffer personal injury or damage to their businesses. Gangsters or terrorists extort this money, telling their victims that it is in exchange for protecting them from criminals. The criminals do not exist in reality - but if the victims do not pay protection money, the gangsters or terrorists will inflict damage, injury or worse. The Robber, from The Dance of Death by Hans In some areas of the dispute in Northern Holbein, Lyons 1538

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Ireland, PIRA (Provisional Irish Republican Army) terrorists regularly extorted money from as many businesses and shops as they could, to the point where for some of the terrorists, this criminal activity had became their primary occupation. Robbery and theft are other crimes committed by terrorists, usually to obtain funding. Burglary is sometimes carried out to steal information, for blackmail or intelligence purposes. Some terrorists traffic in illegal narcotics. An example of a terrorist group heavily involved in narcotics trafficking is the PKK (Kurdish Workers Party) who are responsible for large amounts of heroin smuggled into Europe, especially Germany (See Lesson 2: Financing Terrorism through Crime and Lesson 6: Funding: Illegally Generated and Sponsored). Destruction or Disruption of Information and Networks Computer information terrorism is a fairly new form of terrorism. It requires gaining electronic access to a victim’s computer or computer network and inserting malicious data to change existing data in the computer which affects either the information stored or the operating system within which it is stored. These types of inserted information have the purposes to either destroy, damage or disrupt data systems. They are generally termed as viruses, malicious codes or logic bombs, amongst other names. There are many thousands of purpose-designed viruses, all with different names. Trojan Horse is one such type. This type of terrorism is of great concern to those charged with securing national computer systems. The following areas are generally recognised as being particularly vulnerable to information terrorism: Defence weapon systems Telecommunications Transportation Water supply Oil and gas production Banking and finance Electrical generation Emergency services Essential government functions

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Poisoning of Consumer Food Products Poisoning consumer food products is a potent but not very common form of terrorism. It has occurred in the form of poisoning reservoirs and food products. This form of terrorism is committed for deterring selected companies from certain business or marketing practices, animal rights or simply for extortion of cash. It usually has the effect of the consumer product being withdrawn from up to thousands of retailers; avoiding public fear of the product can be very costly. An example occurred in 1984, when the ALF or Animal Liberation Front claimed to have poisoned some Mars Bars (chocolate bars) in the UK. As a result, every Mars Bar in the UK Animal Liberation Front was withdrawn from retailers at a cost of over £ 3 million (approx. US$ 4.5 million). In 1998, ALF terrorists forced a Swiss chocolate company to halt production by contaminating some of the company’s confectionary products with rat poison and sending them to media. The subsequent halt in production, loss in sales, and related logistical and legal activities, cost the Swiss company US$ 30 million. Brainwashing and Psychological Warfare “Terror closes the ears of the mind” Sallust; Catilina. Ch. 58, sec. 3 Brainwashing and psychological warfare is a very rare type of terrorism. However, brainwashing was occasionally carried out during the Vietnam War by the north Vietnamese against US prisoners of war. They were later filmed and televised in a disinformation campaign calculated to portray that the war was morally wrong and that the combatants were guilt-ridden. Another objective was to spread terror amongst US troops that if captured, they would be subjected to brainwashing. Psychological warfare techniques are sometimes used on captured prisoners of war and guerrillas, in order to break their will during interrogation. Contemporary special forces training often simulates psychological interrogation techniques, which includes periods hooded in total darkness, submerged in water and being subjected to white sound. This form of Psychological terrorism was also carried out on the long-term victims taken hostage between the 1980s and early 1990s in Lebanon, some of whom were kept mal-fed for years in darkness, without knowledge of time, date or situation and with poor or no medical care. Some were subjected to sensory deprivation (wearing of hoods, ear muffs and gloves, subjected to ‘white noise’) and placed in very uncomfortable positions in order to enhance the effects of pain and disorientation. More aggressive forms of mental torture were used on a few hostages, known by a variety of names, such as ‘psychic driving’ and ‘de-patterning.’

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Threats and Hoax Threats of Terrorist Action “The terror we fear is often empty, but nevertheless it causes real misery” Schiller; Piccolomini. Act v, sc. 1, l. 105 A threat of terrorist action in this context, means a threat by a terrorist group capable of carrying out a terrorist act, or believed by security forces as having that capability. Sometimes, terrorists make a threat, which they are capable of carrying out, but have no intention of so doing. Terrorists do this in order to waste the time and resources of security forces, sometimes to cause a diversion to occupy security forces elsewhere, and sometimes to heighten terror of an existing threat. In achieving widespread fear, threats of terrorist action are often as effective as an actual terrorist act. A threat moreover, does not alienate sectors of the population who might react strongly against the bloodshed of an actual terrorist act. It is far easier in many ways to threaten than to mount a real terrorist act. In order to be convincing, it is crucial that the security forces believe in the ability and inclination of the terrorists to carry out the act. Without this, the entire strategy fails. It therefore generally works only if carried out by established and known terrorist groups. Some established terrorist groups have an identification code word or phrase with which they identify themselves to security forces or media, when in contact. By this, the security forces know that it is an authentic terrorist group and not a hoax, and the terrorist group knows that the security forces will take them seriously. Some persons make hoax threats of terrorist action. These threats are carried out by persons who are not known terrorists and do not possess the ability or resources to carry out the acts, such as juveniles and students. Hoax bomb threats however, are also terrorist acts and punishable as such in many countries. Below are a list of characteristics and sounds that [ideally] are noted when receiving a bomb threat, hoax or otherwise, by telephone. From the information noted, investigators can analyse many things concerning the threat and its origin:

CALLER’s VOICE ! #

" $

%

% )

(

&

' *

BACKGROUND SOUND

( + * !

%

* &

! +

*

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A Case Study of Terrorism: The US Bombing, Nairobi, 7th August 1998 At approximately 1030am on Friday 7th August 1998, at the US Embassy in Nairobi, Kenya, terrorists drove into the rear parking area, near a ramp to the basement garage and detonated a bomb, killing a total of 213 people. Of these, 12 were US Citizens and 32 were Foreign Service National employees (FSNEs). Additionally, 10 Americans and 11 FSNEs were seriously injured. An estimated 200 Kenyan civilians were killed and 4,000 were injured by the blast in the vicinity of the building. The building suffered severe damage, especially inside. The locally-contracted guards at the rear of the Embassy saw the terrorist truck pull into the uncontrolled exit lane of the rear parking lot just as they closed the fence gate and the barrier after a mail van had exited the Embassy’s garage. The truck proceeded to the Embassy’s rear access control area but was blocked by an automobile US Embassy Nairobi, Kenya, after coming out of the Co-op Bank’s underground garage. The bombing on 7th August 1988 blocking auto was forced to back up allowing the truck to Courtesy: FBI come up to the Embassy barrier. One of the two terrorists in the truck demanded that the guards open the gates. The guards refused. One of the terrorists began shooting at the chancery and the other tossed a flash grenade at one of the guards. The unarmed guards ran for cover in the guard booth and tried to contact the Marine Security Guard (MSG) at their command post by radio and telephone, but the single radio frequency and the telephone were both busy. The gunshots and grenade detonation caused many employees to go to the windows to observe what was happening. They were either killed or seriously wounded as a result; neither the post’s Emergency Action Plan nor any relevant drills had prepared employees for actions to take in the event of a vehicle bomb or firearms being discharged in the immediate vicinity of the Embassy. The Embassy had only one radio frequency and no alert alarms for use by perimeter guards. There was a time lapse between the time the guards saw the truck enter the rear parking lot and the detonation of the bomb. The inability of the perimeter guards to alert those inside the chancery of a suspected truck bomb explosion could have US Embassy Dar es Salaam, Tanzania been remedied in two ways. Had the Kenyan Government following 7th August 1998 bombing granted the Embassy’s long-standing request to have more Courtesy FBI

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than one radio frequency, the perimeter guards would have had a reserved frequency to communicate with the MSG at the command post. The MSG could then have triggered the Embassy’s internal alarm system, giving personnel time to take cover. Secondly, either a radio electronic emergency alarm for the perimeter guards or an Passers-by rescue the wounded at the US Embassy, Nairobi, Kenya, just after the Al Qa’ida attack on 7th August 1998, which killed 213 and wounded approximately alarm button in the rear 4000, many of them innocent Muslims guard booth to activate Courtesy: US Dept. of State the Embassy’s internal alarm system could have permitted the guards there to trigger the system directly, warning employees of an impending blast. In either scenario, a special alarm signal for taking cover does not exist at any US Embassy’s Selectone alarm system. The 1980 Embassy building was constructed under pre-Inman standards (securityconstruction criteria). It was located at the intersection of two of the busiest streets in Nairobi, near two mass transit centres. It lacked sufficient distance from the streets and from adjacent buildings. To compensate for its close proximity to the streets, the Embassy was surrounded by a 2.6 metre high steel picket vertical bar fence. An outer perimeter was established beyond the fence with a line of steel bollards, ranging 5 metres to 18 metres in distance from the outer walls of the chancery. The window frames were not anchored into the core structure, but the windows were covered by 4mm Mylar protective film. Before 7th August 1998, Nairobi was designated as a medium-threat post in the political violence and terrorism category, and the Embassy was in compliance with that threat level’s physical security standards, except for the lack of a 100ft. clear ground distance requirement. However, the bombing revealed that the system for determining terrorism threat levels, which in turn determine physical security standards and procedures, was seriously flawed. Additional criteria are now being applied to achieve a more realistic threat profile. There were no intelligence reports immediately before the bombing to have warned the Embassy of the attack. However, a number of earlier intelligence reports cited alleged threats against several US diplomatic and other targets including the US Embassy in Nairobi. While all of these reports were disseminated to the intelligence community and to appropriate posts abroad, they were largely discounted because of doubts about the sources. Other reporting was imprecise, changing and non-specific as to dates, diminishing its usefulness.

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Additionally, actions taken by intelligence and law enforcement authorities to confront suspect terrorist groups in Nairobi, including the Al-Haramayn non-governmental organization and the Osama Bin Laden organization, were believed to have dissipated the threats. The Embassy responded to these reported threats by increasing the number of patrolling guards around the perimeter of the chancery, closer monitoring of the visa line, and additional vehicle and perimeter searches. The Regional Security Officer (RSO) advised personnel on security Embassy bombing victim is brought home to US Andrews precautions and the importance of reporting Air Base on 13th August 1998 incidents of surveillance. She and the Marine Security Guards (MSGs) conducted numerous emergency react drills (with only MSG participation), and the RSO requested the Kenyan Government to enhance security around the Embassy, to engage in counter-surveillance activities and met with the Kenyan police to discuss their bomb reaction procedures. The also requested and received a team from Washington to further familiarize the MSGs and the local guards about explosive devices. The Emergency Action Committee met frequently to review security procedures and upgrade them. The Ambassador cabled Washington on 24th December 1997, reviewing the threats and the response to them by the Embassy and the Kenyan government. She pointed to certain reports about terrorist threats aimed at the mission, as well as threats of crime and political violence, emphasising the Embassy’s extreme vulnerability due to lack of distance from the streets and adjacent buildings. She requested Washington’s support for a new chancery. The response to the Ambassador’s cable in January 1998, stated that after a review of the threat, the post’s current security rating of medium for political violence and terrorism was appropriate, and that no new office building was contemplated. The Department offered to send a security assessment team to assist in identifying areas where security could be upgraded, and they found ways to reduce the number of personnel, through re-assignments to Pretoria. The security assessment team (SAT) arrived in March 1998. An offer by the military’s US Central Command (CENTCOM) was also made. The SAT conducted a review of the Embassy’s needs, but no report was filed by the team. Subsequent cables from the Embassy and an interview with one of the SAT engineers indicated that Washington was prepared to support all the post’s requests for upgrades, even beyond the normal standards required for a medium threat post.

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The Embassy senior management, the RSO, and the visiting team did not particularly focus on upgrades in the rear of the Embassy or possible vehicle bomb attacks, but instead concentrated on ways to reduce the danger from crime and political violence. They approved a fence for the parking lot in front of the Embassy, as well as roll-down doors for the chancery’s front entrance and the rear basement garage door. (The latter door, broken for several months, had been replaced by a temporary two panel swing door which remained open during the day). These improvements were in process and had not been completed by the time of the 7th August bombing. As it turned out, they would have made no difference in mitigating the blast, given its size. Nor would they have deterred the terrorists from getting as close to the chancery as they did. In March 1998, the Department of State issued a world-wide alert drawing attention to an Osama bin Laden threat against American A Tomahawk Cruise Missile is launched from a US military and civilians. warship at an Al Qa’ida terrorist training camp in However, this alert was not accompanied Afghanistan in 1998 Courtesy: US Department of Defense by any special warning or analysis that embassies in East Africa might be targeted by Bin Laden’s group. Ambassador Bushnell, in letters to the Secretary in April 1998, and to Under Secretary Cohen a month later, restated her concern regarding the vulnerability of the Embassy, repeating the need to have a new chancery that would meet Inman standards. Ms. Cohen responded in June 1998 stating that, because of Nairobi’s designation as a medium security threat post for political violence and terrorism and the general soundness of the building, its replacement ranked relatively low among the chancery replacement priorities. She drew attention to the plan to extend the chancery’s useful life and improve its security, including US$ 4.1 million for the replacement of the windows. Periodic efforts by the to gain control over the back parking lot, and thus to expand the clear zone, met with limited success. Efforts were made several years earlier to obtain control of all parking spaces in that area from the Co-op Bank, this proved unsuccessful. In late 1997, they increased the number of patrolling guards in the rear area to ensure that unauthorized persons would not park in those spaces leased to the Embassy. In May 1998, the Bank wrote a letter to the Embassy inviting it to share costs of installing

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a fence along side the parking lot and a barrier at the exit to the street which the terrorists entered through on 7th August. The letter was never formally answered as the Embassy did not consider this its responsibility, since the fence and the barrier were not on Embassy property and were being installed in any case. Also, the Embassy had experienced difficulty obtaining permission from the Kenyan government for building a fence around the front parking lot. US Defense Secretary Cohen and General Shelton conduct a briefing on response strikes in Afghanistan and Sudan There was a concern © US Dept. of State that the Bank had not received permission from the government for the construction in the back, and if US funds had been used, the government might condemn the move, bring a lawsuit, and generate adverse publicity against the Embassy. The Co-op Bank’s fence had been completed by August 1998, but the barrier intended for the exit was lying on the ground ready for installation at the time of the bombing. While it is uncertain whether the Embassy’s participation in the Co-op Bank’s project might have expedited the installation of the barrier, its presence could have provided an additional hurdle the terrorists would have had to overcome to enter the Embassy’s rear parking lot area. However, even if the barrier had discouraged the terrorists from entering the rear lot, they still could have proceeded up the street (from which they entered). They would only need to have proceeded for another 50 feet and detonated the bomb at a point even closer to the chancery than the back gate barrier, thereby causing as much if not more damage to the Embassy. That the Embassy did not seek more actively to gain control of the back lot reflected the prevailing view in the Embassy and in Washington at that time that the crime threat was far more serious than the terrorist threat. This conclusion was based in part on the judgment of intelligence officials in Washington and in Nairobi that the potential terrorist threats had dissipated by the latter part of 1997 and that no new threat had been uncovered specifically aimed at the Embassy. Terrorism was seen as a serious but non-specific potential threat, whereas crime, including robbery and murder in the immediate vicinity of the Embassy, was a daily reality that posed a continual threat to every member of the family. The Embassy’s local guard program, under contract with the United International Investigative Service (UIIS) since 1997, is one of the largest in the world. Many of the guards

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serving around the chancery’s perimeter had worked for UIIS' s predecessors. Training levels called for in the UIIS contract fell well short of the specifications, both in quality and frequency. Of particular note was the absence of training and procedures on vehicular bombs. While the guards were trained on s e a r c h a n d identification of parcel bombs concealed on Zhawar Kili al Badr camp west (one of three), Afghanistan. This is an Al Qa’ida vehicles, they were not terrorist training camp which was targeted by US Forces after the attacks on the given any direction on US Embassies in Nairobi and Dar as Salaam threat, search, Courtesy: US Depts. of State & Defense recognition and reaction to suspect vehicle bombs. No procedures or guidelines were established that would cause guards to raise an alarm if a strange truck pulled into the parking lot and/or up to the gate of the Embassy. Another anomaly was that guards at Embassy residences possessed radio electronic duress or panic alarms to activate in times of emergency while those at the chancery did not. The local guards did not participate in emergency drills or have much interchange with the MSG detachment. In spite of these deficiencies, however, the guards in the rear parking lot on 7th August performed well in refusing to permit the terrorists access to the Embassy’s garage. This prevented an even greater disaster. After the bombing, all personnel from the Ambassador on down quickly responded to care for the wounded, account for properly, handle those who died and coordinate the myriad details of reestablishing operations while dealing with the crisis. In Washington, the Task Force formed in the State Department’s operations centre established immediate contact with personnel who had transferred operations from the bombed out chancery to the USAID building across Nairobi. The Task Force began to ascertain the extent of the damage and the casualties, and mobilized resources to dispatch to Nairobi. A special response team departed within about six hours of its alert time. Its aircraft broke

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down in Rota, Spain, causing a 15-hour delay before a backup plane could arrive and be loaded. Though the team arrived in Nairobi nearly 40 hours after the blast, its contingent brought relief to the Embassy, assisting the Ambassador and her staff to restoring functions, restoring communications, and aiding rescue and other emergency relief efforts. On 9th August, another US Air Force plane with additional support personnel from Washington broke down in Sicily and was delayed by about 8 hours before the group could proceed to Kenya. When the US Air Force’s Nightingale medical evacuation (medivac) aircraft arrived in Nairobi from Germany on 8th August, its load capacity prevented it from bringing needed medical supplies already palletized and pre-positioned in Germany. Differing reasons from medical personnel and from the US Air Force were given as to why the medivac aircraft did not return immediately to Germany with some of the most seriously wounded Americans. What was clear was that there was a misunderstanding about aircrew rest requirements and the need for pre-flight stabilization of patients by Air Force medical personnel before departure. Kenyan medical professionals at the Nairobi Hospital where the wounded Americans were receiving care claimed that US Air Force medical personnel were insensitive. The first military medical evacuation did not take place until 40 hours after the bombing. A second medical evacuation 70 hours after the bombing went much more smoothly. A special unit of US Marines was dispatched to Nairobi from Bahrain to help provide security for the Embassy. Their aircraft experienced delays as well. The FBI sent 200 agents to the scene to find and detain the perpetrators of the bombing. These groups performed well in important aspects of the crisis. With the large influx of people from Washington and elsewhere into Nairobi, inevitable coordinating problems with some personnel occurred; they had to be reminded more than once that the Ambassador was ultimately in charge. Logistical facilities were overloaded. The special response team, which normally deals with evolving terrorist crises like hostage taking, realised that its standard personnel formation was not quite appropriate for the situation faced in Nairobi. In Washington, shift changes in personnel on the Task Force bought confusion and unnecessary repetition of requests to the field. Because of the massive damage to operations and the high number of Embassy casualties, operations were at times chaotic. Given the extensive damage to Embassy operations and the large number of casualties, the Task Force had to call on offices seldom used in normal evacuations and other emergencies. Some of the logistical and coordination problems with the US Air Force could have been alleviated if clear instructions had been provided and better liaison established in advance through designated points of contact. The Department of State’s Bureau of African Affairs has completed an after action report from which valuable lessons learned should be instructive for the future. Better crisis management training and contingency planning was identified as an imperative if the Department of State is to handle mass casualties and destruction emergencies in a more expeditious and professional manner. It was proposed that Department of State should also explore the cost effectiveness of

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chartering commercial aircraft in times of emergency to provide more reliable airlift. Media attention following the bombing was immense, since Nairobi is a regional hub for the international media. The Embassy’s public affairs (USIS) officers were overwhelmed. They concentrated on answering the queries of the international press and ignored the local press. By the second day after the explosion, the local media focused their anger on the Embassy in particular and the US in general. The local press reported that the Americans were concerned only with their own people, ignoring the plight and suffering of the many Kenyans who were killed or injured. Had additional public affairs personnel been dispatched to Nairobi immediately following the bombing, this media problem might have been better anticipated and lessened. Also, the Department of State insisted on clearing in advance whether the Ambassador could appear at press conferences and what she could say during those conferences. These limits on the Ambassador’s discretion to speak publicly, unnecessarily limited her ability to counter the criticism in the local media. The US board of enquiry (Accountability Review Board) made the following findings: 1. The bomb that exploded in the rear parking lot of the US Embassy in Nairobi on August 7, 1998 was detonated by terrorists who intended to cause loss of lives and destruction of property. The incident was thus security related. 2. No recent tactical intelligence information existed to alert the Embassy to the bombing. Intelligence received in 1997 about plans for vehicle bomb attacks or assassinations was carefully vetted, but by early 1998 these alleged threats had been discredited. In retrospect, the Department and the intelligence community relied too heavily on warning intelligence to measure the threat of terrorism and failed to take other factors into account in determining and confirming in 1998 that the threat of terrorism was only medium. Also, the Embassy was heavily preoccupied with the critical crime level. 3. In the fall of 1997, the Embassy’s management, upon receiving intelligence information regarding a potential terrorist bomb, took additional steps to upgrade security at the post. The Ambassador alerted Washington to the Embassy’s extreme vulnerability and called for and received assistance in 1998 from the Department of State for a few physical security upgrades beyond those required for a medium threat post for political violence and terrorism. In her messages to Washington, the Ambassador also requested that the chancery be relocated elsewhere. Officials throughout the Department of State rejected this, citing lack of funds and the designation of Nairobi, as a medium threat post, as an unlikely terrorist target. 4. Security systems and procedures at the Embassy were implemented well within, and even beyond, the medium threat level established by the Department of State, although the building had virtually no setback, having been built before the standard was established and therefore was exempted. 5. Local security guards performed as they had been instructed and refused the terrorists access to the perimeter.

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6. But a number of security shortcomings existed. The most critical was that no attention was paid to vehicle bomb attacks in the Department’s Emergency Alert Procedures guidance or the Embassy’s security procedures and systems. The security guards were not trained for such a contingency. They did not have alarm mechanisms to give warning of such an attack. There was no internal alarm signal to warn of a car bomb attack. And Embassy personnel were not informed about what to do in case of a car bomb warning. 7. The Embassy did not have a radio frequency dedicated to security communications, which would have enhanced security, because the Kenyan government had consistently rejected this request. 8. More rigorous efforts by the Embassy could possibly have been made to secure more control over the rear parking lot. But legal impediments and public relations concerns served as constraints. It is uncertain whether additional control would have deterred the terrorists or lessened the damage from the blast, given the lack of setback at other points around the chancery. 9. In the aftermath of the bombing, the special response teams, the medical teams, US Air Force crews and aircraft, and others from Washington provided invaluable support to the Embassy. But logistical problems caused delays in the arrival of people and resources. And the massive influx of personnel from numerous US agencies into Kenya brought problems of coordination and logistical overload in Nairobi. Heavy media criticism in Nairobi could have been alleviated by more public affairs officers on the scene and by giving the Ambassador more flexibility in dealing with the press. The Department’s Task Force performed valiantly under extremely difficult circumstances, but there were problems of discontinuity of leadership and organization. The Department’s ability to handle emergencies involving mass casualties and heavy damage to Embassy operations needs to be improved through crisis management training and better contingency planning. 10. The Board found that no employee of the US government or member of the uniformed services, breached his or her duty. 11. The Board found a possible breach of responsibility in the contractor’s administration of the contract for the training of the Embassy guards. But even if this training had been carried out, it would not have affected what happened in the bombings. 12. In the review of systems and procedures required by the law, the Board found that systemic and institutional failures in Washington were responsible for: a) a flawed process for assessing threat levels worldwide which underestimated the threat of terrorism in Nairobi, notwithstanding the Ambassador’s repeated pleas, b) a chronic major lack of funds for building new, safer embassies, to replace buildings like the Nairobi chancery, which, even had there been no terrorist threat, was

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in a dangerous location and extremely vulnerable to crime and mob violence, and c) failing to prepare for vehicle bombs by providing guidance in Emergency Action Plans to deal with such attacks, and the warning alarm signals and systems to alert personnel to imminent bomb attacks. 13. The Board commended the Embassy personnel for their professionalism and courage in their performance both during and after the disaster. ----------------------------------------------------------------------SUBSEQUENT INDICTMENTS Osama bin Laden, Muhammed Atef (bin Ladin’s military commander, killed by bombing in November 2001 in Afghanistan), Wadih el Hage, Fazul Abdullah Mohammed, Mohammed Sadeek Odeh and Mohamed Rashed Daoud al Owhali (all of the Al Qa’ida terrorist network) and Mamdouh Mahmud Salim were indicted on 4th November 1998 in the US Court for the Southern District of New York, U.S., in connection with the 7th August 1998 US Embassy bombings in Nairobi, Kenya and in Dar as Salaam, Tanzania.

Majority of this report: Courtesy of

the US Department of State.

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The suspects below were sought by the US FBI after the 1998 Embassy attacks in Nairobi and Dar as Salaam

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KEYWORDS TO NOTE Abduction

In the context of terrorism, a pre-planned kidnapping. The victim is specifically selected

Deportation

Depopulation (aka ethnic cleansing). A War Crime under the 4th Geneva Convention. Forced removal of a person who has a legal and widely recognised right of abode or residency, especially a citizen or a person born in the country or land from which he is being forcibly deported. Legal exceptions are governments’ lawful deportation of foreigners who have entered a nation illegally, or dispatch to origin of registered aliens who have their residency rights withdrawn, following conviction for a criminal offence or similar misconduct

Genocide

Willful extermination of a religious, ethnic, national or racial group

Gulags

Soviet political prisons / forced labour camps. The Gulag archipelago (a grouping of similar camps) is located in Siberia

Hostage Taking

In the context of terrorism, captives spontaneously seized by terrorists during a siege or pursuit, to deter attack by security forces, or to use as a human shield during escape

Sensory Deprivation

Form of mental torture. Destabilises and disorientates captive in order to break mental resistance, by denying sensation of sound, vision, touch, smell and taste. Includes covering eyes and ears; wearing gloves; denying food and drink. This torture is sometimes used in conjunction with exposure to ‘white noise’

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TERRORIST ATTACK BRIEF Murder of UK Defence Attaché Brig. Saunders, Athens, Greece Facts of the Case: On 8th June 2000, Brigadier Saunders was driving to work in Athens, Greece when he stopped in traffic. A motorcycle carrying two men drew alongside his car and stopped. The motorcycle passenger drew out a semi-automatic rifle and began firing. It jammed after one shot, whereupon the terrorist killed Brigadier Saunders with four shots from a Colt .45 pistol. Investigation: It was soon established that the group responsible was the Revolutionary Organization 17 November. This is a left wing group, formed in 1975, named to commemorate an uprising by Greek Students who protested rule by the Military Junta in Greece during the same year. Revolutionary Organization 17 November is anti-NATO, anti-Turkish and anti-US. It demands: Removal of Turkish forces from Cyprus; removal of US bases from Greece, and installation of a radical government in Greece. The group carried out several bombings and attacked US military bases in 1987. US personnel murdered by this group include: An Army Sergeant (1990) Defence Attaché Capt. William Nordeen (1988) Navy Captain George Tsantes (1983) CIA Station Chief for Greece, Richard Welch (1975)

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END-OF-LESSON QUIZ 1. Contemporary terrorist bombers prefer killing few victims and causing more structural damage. a) True b) False 2. Contemporary terrorists mostly prefer a) Grenade attacks b) Sniping c) Bombing 3. Genocide is mass killing whether deliberate or accidental. a) True b) False 4. Terrorist massacres are a) Pre-planned b) Pre-planned or spontaneous c) Spontaneous 5. Terrorists murder and wound a) Victims that they do not know b) Victims that are known to them c) Both known and unknown victims 6. The 1948 Genocide Convention includes legislation about depopulation or forced re-location. a) True b) False 7. Hi-jacking in the 1990s a) Decreased b) Increased c) Was at the same level as the 1970s 8. Poisoning of consumer food goods is usually carried out by a) Animal rights terrorists b) Ethnic or political terrorists c) Religious terrorists 9. A hoax threat to carry out a terrorist act is in some countries punishable in the same way as an authentic terrorist threat. a) True b) False

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10. In combat, the average ratio of killed to wounded is a) 1 : 1 b) 1 : 2 c) 1 : 3 11. Which terrorist group kidnapped western tourists in July 1995 and later beheaded a Norwegian? a) Harkat ul Ansar b) Al Faran c) Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front 12. Stockholm Syndrome describes hostages’ a) Hatred or aggression towards their captors b) Traumatic Stress syndrome c) Positive or sympathetic feelings towards their captors 13. The Gulag Archipelago is a a) Grouping of political prisons / forced labour camps b) Grouping of Pacific islands c) Chain of terrorist training camps 14. Which Group carried out terrorist massacres in 1985 at Rome and Vienna international airports? a) Fatah b) Black September c) Abu Nidal 15. Who murdered 9,439 Russian citizens from 1937 to 1938, burying them in 95 unmarked pits? a) Cheka b) NKVD c) VV 16. Hi-jacking was popular in the 1960s and 1970s. a) True b) False 17. From 1971 to 1979, more than 300,000 Ugandans were murdered on the orders of a) Jonas Savimbi b) Idi Amin c) Robert Mugabe

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18. Which hostage was released through great personal risk and efforts on the ground in Beirut, by UN Assistant Secretary General and hostage negotiator, Giandomenico Picco? a) William Buckley b) Terry Waite c) William Higgins 19. Explosives (all types including grenades) are used in approximately how many terrorist attacks? a) 20% b) 70% c) 98% 20. Depopulation is ordered or sanctioned at the highest level of national or defacto authorities. a) True b) False

ANSWERS: 1-b, 2-c, 3-b, 4-b, 5-c, 6-a, 7-a, 8-a, 9-a, 10-c, 11-b, 12-c, 13-a, 14-c, 15-b, 16-a, 17-b, 18-b, 19-b, 20-a.

Lesson 8 Terrorist Tactics and the Targets of Terrorism Section 8.1: Terrorist Tactics Pursuit of Political Status Blackmail and Corruption of Officials Covert Penetration of Security Forces and Target Circles Provision of Clandestine Interviews with Media Dissemination of Inflammatory Material, Disinformation and Propaganda Breaking of Agreements Section 8.2: Targets of Terrorism Evaluation and Selection of Targets Government Institutions International and Non-Governmental (NGO) Organisations Commercial Enterprises Ethnic, Political and Religious Groups Rival Criminal Groups Individuals Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Attack on US Officer's Club, Rome, Italy

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Lesson 8 Scope and Objectives Section 8.1: Terrorist Tactics This section explains some of the tactics that terrorists use in order to enhance their acts or objectives, such as: pursuing political status; blackmailing officials, penetrating security forces and target circles for intelligence purposes; manipulating media for publicity, disseminating inflammatory material, disinformation, propaganda, and breaking of agreements. The Terrorist Attack Brief for this Lesson concerns the attack on the US Officer’s Club in Rome, Italy After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Explain why many terrorists pursue political status Know why terrorists try blackmailing officials and penetrate security forces and target circles Comprehend the purpose of a clandestine media interview of a terrorist Realise the dual terrorist objectives in disseminating inflammatory material Understand the tactic of breaking an agreement at a point too late for the target to withdraw Section 8.2: Targets of Terrorism This section explains the subject of terrorist targets, including governments, international organisations, non-government organisations, commercial enterprise, different social groups, individuals and rival criminals. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Explain how terrorists evaluate and select a target Cite some examples of terrorist objectives and some examples of terrorist targets Describe current attack trends against international and non-governmental organisations State which types of commercial enterprise are most frequently targeted and why and how Describe examples of ethnic, religious and political disputes in which terrorism is used Explain why rival criminal groups sometimes target each other Describe the reasons for terrorist targeting of individuals Recall the meaning of the words contained in the Lesson’s Keywords to Note table Recall the basic facts concerning the attack on the US Officer’s Club in Rome, Italy

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Lesson 8. Terrorist Tactics and the Targets of Terrorism Section 8.1: Terrorist Tactics “Thus, what is of supreme importance in war is to attack the enemy’s strategy” Sun Tzu, Chinese philosopher. The Art of War. c 400 BC Pursuit of Political Status Most terrorists with demands against governments, seek special political status and recognition. These types of terrorists experience credibility problems, as they seek special political status from governments they mostly profess not to recognise. The order of events that some of the more optimistic terrorist groups seek is: Formal recognition by the government Conferral of special political status upon the terrorist group Government concession to terrorist demands An amnesty for all of the terrorists If a government begins to negotiate with terrorists, that government has afforded a degree of political recognition to the terrorists. That is why governments strive to avoid negotiation with terrorists or making any concessions to them. In this context, negotiation means engaging in formal discussions to negotiate a lasting settlement. It does not refer to siege or hostage situations whereby security forces at the scene initiate dialogue to achieve release of hostages (sometimes known as hostage negotiation). Blackmail and Corruption of Officials Another tactic used to achieve terrorist goals is blackmail. Terrorists occasionally engage in ordinary blackmail just as conventional criminals do, in order to raise funds; but sometimes also bribery, in order to corrupt an official they have targeted or find useful for intelligence purposes. Terrorists exploit any weaknesses that they are able to identify: They sometimes target dissatisfied intellectuals, lonely individuals and those with financial, marital, alcohol or drug problems, amongst other problems or weaknesses that can be exploited. Covert Penetration of Security Forces and Target Circles A tactic some terrorists are very occasionally able to use is the covert introduction of a sympathetic supporter of their cause into the security forces, in order to gain intelligence on the forces ranged against them.

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This is progressively more difficult in proportion to the stage of development and integrity of the security force. In fully developed countries, careful vetting and other types of screening and observation practically make it impossible to infiltrate a sympathiser except perhaps at the lowest levels of regular armed forces or police, but not into those special units dealing with anti and counter terrorism. In some theatres of conflict, it is not uncommon for terrorists to have previously served in the regular armed forces now ranged against them. An example of this was the few members of the PIRA (Provisional Irish Republican Army) that had in previous years, served in the British Army. Such intimate knowledge of the inner workings of the security forces can be of some limited benefit to terrorists. In cases of terrorism in which a specific human target (who is also the victim) is selected, infiltration of the circles of friends and acquaintances of the victim is often a terrorist objective, in order to gain intelligence such as habits, movements and other details, which helps them plan and execute the terrorist act. Provision of Clandestine Interviews with Media One relatively effective tactic used by terrorists is giving clandestine interviews to media, in order to publicise their cause. It is an effective way of widely transmitting a terrorist agenda or demands, and reminding the target audience. Once the interview is given, it may be passed or sold to a wide variety of international media networks. Carlos the Jackal (Ilich Ramirez Sanchez) conducted a clandestine filmed interview with media during the late 1970s, in order to boost his reputation. Providing such interviews is hazardous for the terrorist because of the risk of betrayal to security forces, but it can achieve valuable publicity for the terrorist cause. Bin Laden is making full use of media, periodically releasing video cassettes of interviews, re-enforcing his message. Governments who sponsor terrorism often provide or indirectly make possible, televised interviews for members of the terrorist groups that they sponsor. Dissemination of Inflammatory Material, Disinformation and Propaganda “The great mass of the people...will more easily fall victim to a big lie than to a small one” Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf Terrorists routinely disseminate distorted information and propaganda in order to further their cause. This is called disinformation, which is defined as knowingly passing false information to specific bodies or areas in order to achieve a strategic effect (misinformation is innocent or negligent passing of false information). Terrorists sometimes disseminate inflammatory material not only to provoke a response from groups they oppose, but also to incite hatred against them. This material can take the form of hate messages against religious, racial or social groups. Since the advent of the Internet, terrorists have used its easy anonymity to propagate disinformation, propaganda and inflammatory material. It is a very effective tool due to the low

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chances of detection and remote delivery capability, although it is becoming less secure and anonymous with advances in security technology. Breaking of Agreements Terrorists frequently lie in negotiations with governments and other targets, even in everyday dealings with members of their own group, sometimes to achieve their objective, sometimes to inspire members of the group and sometimes for security reasons. Terrorists cannot reasonably be expected to adhere to any form of agreement and they frequently break them. It would not be realistic to trust persons who are prepared to terrorise, murder and maim innocent people, but governments and their forces, when faced with terrorists, often have little option but to trust them in order to keep negotiations open. It is a tactic that terrorists do not hesitate to exploit.

Propaganda in Northern Ireland (UK): PIRA Republican Separatist (above) and UFF Unionist / Loyalist (right) © Crown

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Section 8.2: The Targets of Terrorism Evaluation and Selection of Targets “There will be no justice as long as man will stand with a knife or with a gun and destroy those who are weaker than he is” Isaac Bashevis Singer (1904-91), Polish-born American Yiddish writer, Nobel prize winner (lit.) Targets (entities to be coerced) are carefully evaluated and selected according to the projected terrorist ability to coerce them. The terrorist objectives which determine the particular choice of target may vary considerably. Some widely differing examples of these objectives are as follows:

Indian Army in Kashmir; anti-terrorist bunker

Political change

Deterrent

Extortion

Demographic change

Vengeance

Social change

Before terrorist acts are commissioned, terrorists engage in separate phases of selecting the target and then the type of asset harm (Human and/or non human), in that sequence.

Lord Walter Moyne, UK Minister Resident in the Middle East, assassinated in Cairo on 6th November 1944 by terrorists from the Stern Gang © IPS Washington

Government Institutions Governments and their institutions are the most common targets for terrorists as they possess the power to bring about political changes. They are also empowered to make concessions. What many terrorists fail to grasp is the fact that most terrorist demands are so radical and unreasonable, governments cannot accede to them. Should they do so, they risk loss of public confidence, political failure and possible collapse of the government.

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International and Non-Government (NGO) Organisations International Organisations such the United Nations (UN) are infrequently targeted as organisations by terrorists, in comparison to national governments. This is because organisations such as the UN have little or no practical authority in any sovereign state to make and enforce political concessions or accede to terrorist demands. They exist and function by consent and funding of the member states, whose representatives (Ambassadors) comprise their decision-making bodies. The UN and other international organisations are therefore not generally attractive targets for terrorists pursuing coercion as it is not possible to exploit them to any great extent. The UN is on Al Qa’ida’s potential attack list, but is not the highest priority. NGO employees and their organisations are sometimes targeted by terrorists, especially those engaged on relief, humanitarian or development projects located in remote regions of developing countries, where terrorists kidnap and extort to grow rich from sometimes well-funded NGO projects. Commercial Enterprises Commercial enterprises are sometimes targeted by terrorists, especially with social belief or humanitarian causes. Examples of such companies are those engaged in production of consumer goods or medical research, in which animals are used for experimentation, or those which for commercial reasons, are accused of overexploiting the ecosphere. Such companies or enterprises are usually targeted until either terrorist demands are met or security forces eliminate the threat. An example of commercial concerns targeted in the US are medical enterprises, or clinics involved in abortion, which have been subjected to considerable attacks during the past few years. In general, these attacks have been unsuccessful in coercing the clinics Ecological Action Group logo to close and cease business. Another example of targeting commercial enterprise, which is growing in popularity, is that of oil exploration. Due to the often remote areas of operation, oil companies tend to encounter security problems, where local government security forces are thin on the ground. These companies or corporations are consequently vulnerable to sectors of local communities who seek to extort resources or cash from them. Terrorists engaged in this type of targeting, commonly cause asset harm in the form of sabotage, kidnapping and extortion, in order to coerce their demands through. Ethnic, Political and Religious Groups “The Armenian massacre was the greatest crime of the war, and the failure to act against Turkey is to condone it . . . the failure to deal radically with the Turkish horror means that all talk of guaranteeing the future peace of the world is mischievous nonsense” Former US President Theodore Roosevelt, May 11, 1918

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Ethnic, political or religious groups or sects are sometimes the targets and victims of terrorism motivated by intolerance. The objective in targeting such groups is to either suppress and minimise their activity or to drive them out to a different location and seize their assets. Inflicted asset harm aimed at achieving this is often select murder, random massacre, rape and torture of members of the victim group. Many terrorist campaigns are currently conducted in the world for motives of religious intolerance, sometimes by members of the same religion but from a different sect. These campaigns can be extremely violent. An example of such a campaign took place in Pakistan, where some majority-Sunni Muslim groups Aryan Nations crest engaged in targeting minority-Shiite Muslim groups. The Shiite groups in turn countered the attacks until 1995, when the conflict escalated from infrequent sectarian style murders to low intensity terrorism; acts became more violent and frequent. Another example is the former Yugoslavia, where occasional religious terrorism occurred, but escalated for several additional reasons into genocide and depopulation with the outbreak of war in 1991. Several continuing political conflicts in the world are aggravated by religious intolerance: Examples are the Middle East conflict and the Kashmir conflict, where from time to time, members of all sides target religious sites and shrines. Ethnic groups, especially if in a minority, are sometimes subjected to terrorist attacks for reasons of ethnic intolerance. In the case of Rwanda in 1994, following suspension of democracy, full scale genocide was provoked, a motivating factor being historic reasons of political and ethnic hatred of one ethnic group by another. The conflicts in Sri Lanka and East Timor (until independence) are other examples of conflicts involving ethnicity. Rival Criminal Groups Rival criminal groups sometimes target each other in power-seeking or expansionist initiatives whereby members of different criminal groups fall victim to each other’s terrorist acts, such as assassination or bombing. Usually, police action halts such campaigns, or a settlement is negotiated between the criminal groups. Examples during the past decades have occurred between organised criminal gangs in the US, UK, Italy (especially Sicily), Japan and Russia.

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Individuals Individuals are not usually targeted by terrorists unless they happen to be powerful or wealthy. In those cases, they tend to become victims as well as targets. Individuals targeted by terrorists, such as wealthy industrialists or businessmen, are sometimes kidnapped and later released after the objective is achieved: the payment of a ransom in exchange for the release of the hostage. This is not always the case; in 1977, the Baader-Meinhof terrorist group (Rote Armee Faktion or Red Army Faction) kidnapped and held a German businessman, Hanns-Martin Schleyer. !" Baader committed suicide inside # !$%% his prison cell, in the wake of a Lufthansa airliner hi-jacking at Mogadishu, after the airliner was stormed by German antiterrorist troops. In vengeance, other members of the terrorist group murdered their captive, Hanns-Martin Schleyer. On the following page are police photographs of various convicted terrorists, who were involved in terrorist bombings (explosives offences), as a tactic to try and coerce or achieve their objectives.

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Terrorists who committed bombing and explosives offences involving various targets

George Metesky. New York City Bomber, 1940s

David Gilbert Weather Underground

Theodore Kaczynski The Unabomber Eric Rudolph Atlanta pipe bomber

Timothy McVeigh Oklahoma bomber

David Copeland Neo Nazi nail-bomber, UK Courtesy: US: FBI, NYPD (1). UK: New Scotland Yard (6)

Lesson 8/ Terrorist Tactics and the Targets of Terrorism

KEYWORDS TO NOTE Blackmail Clandestine Demographic

Extortion of money / services in exchange for not disclosing discreditable facts Concealed, private, stealthy, covert, hidden or sly Related to population, especially density and distribution

Disinformation Deliberate passing of information known to be false Ethnic

A member of a racial or cultural minority group

Misinformation Innocent or negligent passing of false information NGO

Non Governmental Organisation

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TERRORIST ATTACK BRIEF Attack on US Officer’s Club, Rome, Italy Facts of the Case: On 14th April 1988, a car bomb was detonated outside of the front of the US Officer’s Club in Naples, Italy. The bomb killed five people, including a US s e rvicewoman, a n d injured 15 others, of which four were US servicemen. Investigation: Inquiries revealed that the Japanese Red Army (JRA) were responsible for the attack. JRA member Junzo Okudaira was subsequently indicted, but remains at large. Substantial rewards, identity protection and relocation are offered for information leading to his arrest.

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END-OF-LESSON QUIZ

1. Many terrorists seek a) Political status b) No compromise in negotiation c) Defeat of governments

2. Terrorists penetrate security forces with a terrorist or a terrorist sympathiser a) Frequently b) Never c) Very infrequently 3. Distributing inflammatory material is sometimes calculated to a) Avoid personal contact with the victims b) Provoke a response not only from the victims, but also to incite others to hate the victims c) Commit terrorist acts that require only very limited funds 4. Terrorists use tactics of blackmail, bribery and covert media interviews if it suits their purpose. a) True b) False 5. To a terrorist, when a target and victims are not the same, the target is a) Of the same importance as the victims b) Of less importance than the victims c) Of more importance than the victims 6. A government can be a) A target and a victim of terrorism b) Only a target of terrorism c) Only a victim of terrorism 7. The UN as an organisation (not individual staff members) is infrequently targeted by terrorists. a) True b) False 8. Examples of conflicts involving terrorism and ethnicity are a) Rwanda and East Timor b) Northern Ireland and Angola c) Algeria and Egypt 9. Terrorism is committed by sects of the same religion against each other a) Never b) Always c) Sometimes 10. Rival criminal gangs who sometimes target each other with terrorist attacks exist in a) Japan, Malta, Jordan, Mali b) US, Italy, Japan, Russia c) UK, France, Cyprus, Liechtenstein

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11. Rival criminal groups sometimes target each other in power-seeking or expansionist initiatives. a) True b) False 12. What do terrorists coerce? a) Victims b) Targets c) Neither 13. Terrorist objectives which determine terrorist targets, may vary considerably. a) True b) False 14. The Baader Meinhof Gang murdered Hanns-Martin Schleyer a) For non-payment of Ransom b) To coerce the German government c) For vengeance 15. Terrorists are frequently honest in negotiations with governments and other targets. a) True b) False 16. If victim and target are an individual, terrorists never infiltrate circles of friends and acquaintances. a) True b) False 17. Most terrorist demands are so radical and unreasonable, governments cannot accede to them. a) True b) False 18. Which commercial enterprise is increasingly targeted by terrorists? a) Sporting events b) Oil exploration c) Confectionary industry 19. Knowingly passing false information is known as a) Intelligence b) Misinformation c) Disinformation 20. Providing clandestine media interviews is not hazardous for terrorists. a) True b) False

ANSWERS: 1-a, 2-c, 3-b, 4-a, 5-c, 6-a, 7-a, 8-a, 9-c, 10-b, 11-a, 12-b, 13-a, 14-c, 15-b, 16-b, 17-a, 18-b, 19-c, 20-b.

Lesson 9 The Victims of Terrorism Innocent Individuals Military, Police, Security and Intelligence Services Personnel Governmental, International and NGO Civil Servants Leaders in Society Commercial Enterprises Democracy Global, Regional and National Security Societies and Environment Rival Criminals A Case Study: Jammu and Kashmir Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Attack on CIA Officers, Langley, Virginia, USA

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Lesson 9 Scope and Objectives This lesson explains the different types of victims of terrorism; both intended and randomly selected. The categories of victims are explained; individuals, security, police, military and intelligence services personnel, national leaders, government officials and criminals. The lesson also mentions with examples, how entities and institutions such as democracy, global, regional and national security, societies and the environment are victims of terrorism. Finally, a case study of the conflict in the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir illustrates in close detail exactly how victims and society, institutions and the environment have fallen victim to terrorism and guerrilla warfare. The Terrorist Attack Brief for this lesson is the attack on CIA Officers at Langley, Virginia, USA. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Explain why a terrorist victim may be different from the target of terrorism Describe the different types of victims of terrorism Name at least six national premiers or monarchs who have been assassinated by terrorists Give reasons why security, democracy, society and the environment are victims of terrorism Broadly describe terrorist murder and destruction of the society in Jammu and Kashmir Recall the meaning of the words contained in the Lesson’s Keywords to Note table Recall the basic facts concerning the attack on CIA Officers at Langley, Virginia, USA

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“A humane and just society is not built on violence and the force of arms” Pope John Paul II Innocent Individuals Most victims of terrorism throughout the world continue to be innocent individuals (especially those who are caught up in armed conflict and subjected to genocide and so called ‘ethnic cleansing’). Terrorists plan deliberately and often kill their victims in surprise attacks. The result is wide-scale fear by the public, in that anywhere and at anytime, anyone unrelated to the terrorist or conflict may be killed or wounded. If members of security forces or governments were the only victims of terrorism, or only buildings and not people were blown up, wide-scale fear by the public would not be achieved. Jerusalem February 1948 Palestine Police Officers shelter family from Irgun sniper

Courtesy: IPS Washington DC

Military, Police, Security Intelligence Services Personnel

and

“The bravest are surely those who have the clearest vision of what is before them, glory and danger alike, and yet notwithstanding, go out to meet it" Thucydides Greek historian, 460 to 400 BC Being the front-line opponents of terrorism in many parts of the world, these forces naturally sustain casualties who fall victim to terrorism of many varieties.

Rifle and blood-soaked field-dressings. The murder scene of a UN soldier of the Irish Battalion in Lebanon

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The most hazardous of these duties is in the counterterrorism units that engage in sophisticated military operations, such as hostage rescue attempts and ambushes. The next most hazardous duty is in the military intelligence and police anti-terrorist units, whose officers are sometimes targets and victims of terrorists, either to interrogate and gain intelligence from, take hostage or assassinate. An example of such a case occurred in the UK in 1977. Captain Robert Nairac was seconded from the Brigade of Guards to 14 Intelligence Company, a group which works Pte. Hugh Murphy, UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). Ambushed at UN in conjunction with the Special Air Service in Northern Checkpoint 6-22 Delta, then abucted Ireland in combatting terrorism. and murdered in south Lebanon on 27th April 1981. His murderers, either from He lost his sidearm during a struggle with several de Facto Forces or the SLA, are still PIRA (Provisional sought. Courtesy: Litani (UNIFIL) Iri s h R e p u b l i can A r m y) t e r r o r i s t s outside an Armagh inn. He was subsequently taken to a remote area and tied to a fence for a brutal interrogation, which apparently failed. While tied to a fence, he was then beaten unconscious with a fence post and shot dead. Another more recent victim was a Police Officer who was shot and wounded in Vienna in September 1999, during a routine police stop-check in daylight. He was shot by Horst Ludwig Meyer, a member of the Baader-Meinhof gang (Red Army faction) hiding in Vienna. Meyer then made off, shortly to be intercepted and shot dead by another police officer when he again began firing. On 28th February 2002, a bomb was detonated outside the counter-terrorism branch of Jordan’s state security The Soldier, from The Dance of Death, by organisation, killing two people. Hans Holbein, Lyons, 1538

Governmental, International and NGO Civil Servants As media reports from time to time, Government Officials are victims of terrorism, sometimes high level officials. An example is British defence attaché Stephen Saunders. On his way to the British in Athens on 8th June 2000, Brigadier Saunders was shot and murdered in his car at a traffic halt, by two terrorists on a motorcycle. A US Navy officer was murdered by the same group in Athens, in the same circumstances, some years before. Besides several other murders in addition, the same terrorist group murdered the US CIA Station Chief, Richard Welch, in Athens in 1975. The only suspect of this group was caught in June 2002. They are probably the most successful terrorist group in history, if success is measured by

Lesson 9/ The Victims of Terrorism 275 killing victims and indefinitely evading identification and justice. Their agenda is anti western, anti Turkey and anti NATO. The group’s name is Epanastaiki Organosi 17 Noemvri (Revolutionary Organisation 17th November). International and NGO (Non Governmental Organisation) civil servants are also periodically the victims of terrorism. Individual United Nations officials are victims of terrorism more frequently since the conclusion of the Cold War, from a variety of terrorist acts including murder, hostage-taking and bombing, generally in areas where military conflicts are taking place. This is because since the conclusion UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) of the Cold War, the superpowers relaxed UN Peacekeeping forces are lightly armed for self defence © Litani (UNIFIL) control over their client or satellite nations; consequently many semi-official, paramilitary and irregular armed forces all over the world have emerged. Most are ill-disciplined, loosely controlled and do not hesitate to engage in terrorism and criminality. A notorious example occurred at Atambua in East Timor on 6th September 2000 when three unarmed and innocent staff of the UN High Commission for Refugees (Ethiopian, Croatian and US nationals) were murdered in a night of violence. They were beaten and hacked to death with machetes, clubs and knives, and then their bodies dragged into the street and burnt. These crimes were perpetrated by between 50 and 100 militia gang members, professing loyalty to the Indonesian Government, that terrorised Refugee camps, especially after future independence for East Timor became a certainty. Subsequently, six of these terrorists were arrested, confessed their crimes, were charged and appeared in an Indonesian court, potentially facing a 34 year jail sentence. Surprisingly, the Judge handed down jail sentences of between 10 and 20 months each. One of the convicted told the court that he accepted the UN Observation Posts are vulnerable to attacks sentence with pride because he did what he did to and abductions Courtesy: J. Macmillan-Murphy defend Indonesia’s flag.

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Religious and political leaders throughout history have been victims of terrorism. Terrorists kill leaders for personal vengeance, reasons of insanity, because they consider them dangerous to their interests, or because they seek to introduce anarchy and revolution to replace an existing system with a different one, by assassinating its leader. An assassination can sometimes cause the victim to become a martyr figure and rallying point for a movement. Sometimes the assassination of a leader takes place after a revolution, in order to eliminate a possible rallying figure for dissidents. This was one of the major reasons behind the murder in captivity of Czar Nicolas and his family in 1918 at Ekaterinburg, by Bolshevik terrorists. Some of the more well-known cases of terrorist assassination and murder of leaders and other prominent people during the last 150 years are as follows: US President Abraham Lincoln, 1865 US President James Garfield, 1881 Czar Alexander II of Russia, 1881 Chief Secretary of Ireland Lord Frederick Cavendish, 1882 President Sadi Carnot of France, 1894 Prime Minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo of Spain, 1897 Empress Elisabeth of Austria-Hungary, 1898 King Umberto I of Italy, 1900 US President William McKinley, 1901 Prime Minister Jose Mendez of Spain, 1912 Arch-Duke Franz Ferdinand of Austria & Hungary, 1914 King Aleksandar I of Yugoslavia, 1934 Mohandas Gandhi, spiritual leader of India, 1948 King Abdullah of Jordan, 1951

US President Kennedy in Dallas

Lesson 9/ The Victims of Terrorism US President John F. Kennedy, 1963 King Faisal 1st of Saudi Arabia, 1975 President Anwar Sadat of Egypt, 1981 President Mohammad Rajai of Iran, 1981 President (Elect) of Lebanon Bashir Gemayel, 1982 Prime Minister Indira Ghandi of India, 1984 Prime Minister Olof Palme of Sweden, 1986 President Rene Moawad of Lebanon, 1989 Prime Minister Rajiv Ghandi of India, 1991 President Mohammed Boudiaff of Algeria, 1992 Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin of Israel, 1995 President Ibrahim Baré of Niger, 1999 King Birendra Sahadev of Nepal, 2001 President Laurent Kabila of DR Congo, 2001

277 The King, from The Dance of Death by Hans Holbein, Lyons, 1538

Commercial Enterprises Commercial enterprises are quite frequently targeted. In most cases they are both targets and victims of terrorism, since some are forced to close or are driven out of business. This type of terrorism is common against those enterprises that conduct experiments upon animals, use byproducts of animals; against those clinics that provide abortion services, and those that allegedly over-exploit the ecosphere. In the case of other commercial enterprises, many avoid becoming victims by acceding to terrorist demands, which are sometimes to pay off a monetary demand, or occasionally a ransom for a hostage. Commercial companies do not always inform police authorities of pay-offs. As mentioned in Lesson 8 (The Tactics and Targets of Terrorism), oil corporations are increasingly targeted and are often victims. Cases of this have occurred in Libya and Nigeria, frequently involving blown up and damaged pipe lines, in cases where the companies would not negotiate. Media representatives are sometimes victims of terrorism. In many countries, especially developing countries, media that portray terrorists unfavourably are often subject to reprisal terrorist action, such as murder and injury of their employees, arson, bombings and threats. An example occurred in Pakistan when US Wall Street Journalist David Pearl was abducted in Karachi in January 2002 and savagely murdered, for expressed reasons of religious and political hatred, while conducting a journalistic investigation into terrorism. Another way in which media is a victim (and also an unwilling accomplice of terrorism), is as follows: The ideal of the media is to impartially disseminate news, from a neutral and apolitical standpoint. Much terrorism depends upon media exposure, which the media must provide for ethical and commercial reasons. Therefore, the media is in effect involuntarily compelled to contribute to the spread of terror (fear or extreme anxiety), partly by terrorists and partly by its own commercial objectives.

Lesson 9/ The Victims of Terrorism 278 Democracy Democracy has become a victim of terrorism. Certain freedoms have been curtailed during the past decades, but especially since the terrorist events of 11th September 2001, because of increased security precautions, which prevent many terrorist threats, but have not entirely eliminated them. Air travel throughout the world, with its attendant delays owing to security precautions, is an example of a democratic casualty. Democracy is a victim because it is a soft target. Totalitarian regimes are rarely victims or targets of terrorism, because they will simply not tolerate it. Personal freedoms are subordinated to public safety and justice priorities. Many governments in the developing world are authoritarian to varying degrees, but most lack the capability to significantly suppress internal terrorism. There are often a combination of reasons for this such as: Terrain and infrastructure of the country External sponsorship of the terrorists Public terror and sometimes a degree of public sympathy for the terrorist cause However, not all such governments are unable to suppress or eliminate terrorism. Egypt is an example where firm and skillful measures have resulted in a 66% reduction in those killed by terrorists from 1997 to 1999. Another example of such a government is Syria. It is noteworthy that Syria stood accused by the US of actively sponsoring terrorism for many years, up until 1986. Syria is still accused by the US of harbouring terrorist groups, despite passing intelligence (gathered through surveillance of Al Qa’ida associates) to Washington, which saved US lives. Syria provides sanctuary to several exiled Palestinian groups accused of terrorism (and some other regional dissident groups), pending implementation of UN Resolutions to return their land. Domestically, the Syrian government refuses to tolerate terrorism and especially expression of prejudice towards any religion. This is reflected by the fact that the Vice President, in a predominantly Muslim country, is a Christian. In 1982, Muslim Brotherhood (Iqhwan ul Muslimeen) terrorists, with a measure of foreign manipulation, staged a full scale uprising in the west Syrian province of Hama; it was forcefully suppressed by the Syrian army and air force. Reportedly, between 5000 and 10,000 people died as a result; a heavy human price to pay for counter-terrorism.

Militia Political Poster Lebanon

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Domestically however, it was painfully viewed as the only alternative to Syria becoming a sequel to the tragedy of neighbouring Lebanon, which was covertly manipulated into civil war (to an extent by foreign powers) for reasons of political, economic and commercial exploitation. The facts of Lebanon’s civil war are as follows: It lasted for 15 years from 1975 to 1990 Between 130,000 and 150,000 people were killed Resulting war damage was estimated at between US$ 25 billion and US$ 30 billion Over 100 identifiable factions, militias, guerrilla and terrorist groups took part National peacekeepers came from France, Iran, Italy, Saudi Arabia, Syria, UK and US The UN stationed approximately 6000 soldiers there in an Interim force (UNIFIL) Lebanon was subjected to underhand political manipulation and intrigue by several countries The war was artificially stimulated and prolonged by unscrupulous politicians both from without and within, also by drug traffickers and those exercising control over illicit commerce At times, the Lebanese civil war was used as a testing ground for weapons, by unscrupulous arms dealers in league with some foreign and domestic politicians At a news conference on 21st June 2002, the President of the UN Security Council (and Syrian Foreign Minister), Farouk al-Sharaa, was asked about media reports concerning Syrian aid in preventing an Al Qa’ida attack on US troops. He would not confirm security details, but acknowledged that Syria had helped in saving American lives, adding “We have done that because this is a matter of principle. We are against terrorism, and at the same time the Americans know that we differentiate between terrorism, which we condemn, by Al Qa’ida, and the resistance, which we support, in the occupied (Palestinian) territories against (Israeli) occupation.” He went on to strongly deny that Syria supported terrorist organizations like Islamic Jihad and Hezbollah, adding that, “Syria has taken in about 400,000 Palestinian refugees who have the right to express their political opinion.” He said, “Palestinian organizations don’t operate from Syria although they have press offices there. They don’t cross the border and don’t have to do that because ... all operations by the Palestinians are engineered, planned and executed inside the occupied territories. Syria has nothing to do with all these steps.” In the region, uprisings staged by terrorist groups are currently occurring in Egypt and Algeria, despite sometimes quite effective, repressive anti-terrorist measures. The terrorists receive covert aid and sponsorship from dissidents, networks like Al Qa’ida and certain foreign governments. The Egyptian government is currently having some measure of success in containing domestic terrorism, but the Algerian government is struggling very hard against a similar but more

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virulent terrorist campaign, with far less assistance than it deserves from the International community. Global, Regional and National Security Except for some very short but extremely tense moments during the Cold War, global security has never faced such serious threats as this time. This is due to many different and sometimes seemingly unrelated factors, but including: Widespread human rights abuses Widespread and extreme global poverty Genocide occurring more frequently and not necessarily subject to intervention Member States unevenly implementing internationally agreed UN Resolutions A global greed for domination and wealth, dwarfing even the colonial period in comparison An increasing acceptance / acquiescence towards states acting outside of international law International inability or unwillingness to adequately fund and support UN activities Weapons of Mass Destruction in the hands of so called ‘pariah states’ Successful attacks by highly covert, ruthless and sophisticated transnational terrorists Unprecedented new levels of destruction and sophistication in transnational terrorist attacks Perceptions amongst sizable amounts of the global population, of instability, greed, domination, double standards, an absence of justice and integrity, and of being disenfranchised Ruthless use of some sectors of the media, for political disinformation purposes Significant symptoms which illustrate the threat to global security are as follows: For several years, ruthless terrorists (Al Qa’ida) openly established themselves in Afghanistan Al Qa’ida was hosted by the illegal (internationally refuted) defacto Taliban government Through religious bigotry and callousness, the population was decimated and oppressed Al Qa’ida dominated Taliban, forming in effect, the first state governed by a terrorist group National security has steadily declined in many countries over the past forty years, partly owing to the new and potent type of terrorism which emerged in the 1960s, with the removal of the constraints of the colonial era, but also on account of the withdrawal of superpower support and

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control of satellite nations following the conclusion of the Cold War. This situation became worse in the 1990s, with the firm emergence of transnational terrorists such as Al Qa’ida (founded in 1988) - a new, loose, and ever-evolving network coalition of terrorists (many transitory), characterised as follows: CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSNATIONAL TERRORISTS [OF THE TYPE THAT PROJECT RELIGION AS MOTIVE]

Fanatically dedicated:Practically impenetrable non-negotiable and Intelligent Cunning Resourceful circles and associations practically incorruptible Imaginative Wealthy Ruthless Savage No fixed base They have no conventional terrorist group affiliation and very few, if any, tangible activity patterns. They are very conscious of security (avoiding covert communications monitoring) and capture Many are overtly sanctimonious and display great piousness. They freely project that killing innocent victims (including co-Muslims) is part of a Holy duty, in order to achieve their goals They are informally and spontaneously supported when need be, by global networks of ‘sleeper’ type agents and trusted members of disenfranchised or alienated communities

Terrorism is sometimes a cause of bi-lateral and regional tensions, which occasionally erupt into conventional conflicts. National security in certain regions, such as the Middle East and the Indian sub-continent, is seriously compromised as a result of terrorism, especially as it is sponsored and supported by governments, India and Pakistan being a recent example, mentioned in the media. Rival Criminals “You can get a lot farther with a kind word and a gun than a kind word alone” Al Capone (1899-1947), U.S. Gangster Criminal groups have been mentioned in Lesson 8 as targets of terrorism; specifically from rival criminal gangs. Usually the victims are the lowest members in the criminal group, who are killed in a cycle of alternating murders, known as gang warfare, which often involves bombing, assassinations, abductions and drive-by shootings. Sometimes, however, competition for territory results in one group assassinating (or trying to assassinate) the leader of a rival group in order to take over his territory and illicit profits. This type of terrorism characterised the organised criminal gangsters who terrorised several US cities during the prohibition era.

1920s Chicago cartoon

© Chicago Historical Society

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Prohibition was a period in the US when intoxicating liquor, except limited amounts of beer brewed domestically and consumed there, was banned, between 1919 and 1933. Notable gangsters who periodically terrorised some of the major US cities, especially Chicago, with bombings, car chases when exchanging automatic fire, murders and machine gunnings on the streets, included: Al and Ralph Capone, John Dillinger, Legs Diamond, Hymie Weiss, Bugs Moran, Franky Yale, Tony Arccardo, Jack McGurn, Dutch Schultz, Tony Lombardo, Meyer Lansky, Johnny Torio, Jack Guzick, John Scalise, Dion O’Banion, Paul Ricca, Joe Masseria, Sam DeStefano, Albert Anselmi, Pretty Boy Floyd, ‘Lucky’ Luciano, Frank Nitti and Jackie Cerone. Bootlegging made the financial foundations of contemporary US organised crime and can be compared to the Al Capone Courtesy: Chicago Police Dept. criminal wealth and power generated in later decades by narcotics trafficking. i.e. The criminal income of Alphonse Capone in 1930, was estimated at US $100,000,000 (one hundred million dollars) per year. Al Capone was eventually brought to justice by a Treasury Agent named Eliot Ness, who, with his hand picked team, convicted Al Capone for tax evasion. Bootlegging in Chicago, USA was characterised by repeated rival gang shootings, car chases with police and rivals through the city streets and mobile shooting exchanges using military sub machine guns and pistols, leaving a trail of dead and wounded. This intermittent terror culminated in the notorious slaughter of seven rival criminals on 14th February 1929 in Chicago. The slaughter is known as the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre. Gangsters dressed in uniforms and posing as police, ‘raided’ a rival bootlegging factory of the Chicago ‘North Side Gang.’ The bootleggers dropped their guns, believing that police were conducting a raid, only to be lined up against a wall and shot to death with machine guns and a shotgun. Eliot Ness. The Treasury Department (Bureau of Prohibition) Contemporary organised Agent that brought Al Capone to justice, signalling the beginning of the end for the kind of terrorism that involved using machine criminal gangs, most notably in Italy, guns and bombs in the streets of Chicago Japan, Russia, some South Courtesy: US Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms

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283 American countries and the US, target each other from time to time, but on a less frequent and publicised scale, and without causing the degree of public terror generated by the prohibition era gangs.

A Case Study: Jammu and Kashmir Many conflicts in the world are characterised by both guerrilla warfare and terrorism, occurring simultaneously. It is sometimes difficult to St. Valentines Day Massacre, Chicago. 14th February 1929 segregate terrorist acts from those of © Chicago Historical Society the guerrilla. Some guerrillas adhere to military warfare principles, while other guerrillas sometimes also commit terrorist acts. Yet others involved in such conflicts commit only terrorist acts. All of these categories are found in the conflict in Jammu and Kashmir (disputed by India, Pakistan, Militants and CounterMilitants who desire either full independence or accession to either India or Pakistan). Jammu and Kashmir has been an ongoing conflict since 1947; the harm to the populations and damage to the infrastructure is beyond estimation. In that a solution has not been found, it is a notable example of political intransigence, and to an extent, obstinacy and callousness, for which the populations have paid and continue to pay a very high price. Jammu and Kashmir (often termed in an abbreviated form as ‘Kashmir’) is one of 560 former Princely States which mostly chose accession to either India or Pakistan in 1947 under the Independence Act, upon the lapse of the British Crown and paramountcy. Near Muzaffarabad in Azad Kashmir: The Old Domel Bridge, next to the Police Station where Militants Kashmir is disputed by three main parties; would go to hand over their green ‘Jihad card’ and India, Pakistan, and a segment of the several collect their weapons. They would then be Kashmiri populations that demands total transported to a staging area, from which they would depart on an infiltration mission, crossing the ceaseindependence from both India and Pakistan, under fire line (Line of Control) into the Indian side of pre-independence pledges and legislation. Kashmir © G. Hanif

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The remaining segments of the Kashmiri populations support and seek accession to either India or Pakistan and support those governments’ positions on Kashmir. A very small number of intelligentsia, known as Pandits (Panun Kashmir), seek their own independent country within the confines of Jammu and Kashmir, whatever its eventual fate may be. Jammu and Kashmir is divided by a cease-fire line (called the Line of Control, Line of Actual Control or LoC), arising from the Kashmiris in the ruins of their burnt out home - political arson Courtesy: KLC several wars between India and Pakistan. The cease-fire line divides Pakistani and Indian administered or controlled sectors of Kashmir; roughly speaking, Pakistan controls the western part and India controls the eastern part of Jammu and Kashmir. Some guerrillas and terrorists originate and fight from inside the Indian controlled part of Kashmir (known as the JK State) against Indian security forces, which at times number half a million men of many different types of unit. Many guerrillas and terrorists however, cross the cease-fire line from the Pakistan controlled part of Kashmir (known as Azad or liberated Kashmir, that has its own semi-autonomous government) and into the Indian side to fight. The number of guerrillas and terrorists (there are both, all called Militants) present at any one time on the Indian side of the cease-fire line fluctuates between an estimated 4000 and 8000. The Jammu and Kashmir state has been disputed since 1947; the conflict has fluctuated in intensity ever since. The last major escalation of guerrilla warfare and terrorist activity occurred in 1989 and continues until today, with a slight lessening of activity during the winter months. The two (now nuclear) nations have fought three conventional wars over this former princely state since 1948, between which, several protracted Pakistani President Musharraf with US Defence Secretary artillery duels have occurred. Rumsfeld at the Pentagon in February 2002 Courtesy: US Dept. of Defense

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During the summer of 1999, tensions rose (as they tend to, after the winter thaw) and an artillery duel took place. The episode culminated in the shooting down of a Pakistani Air Force (PAF) Fighter aircraft. Prior to the events of 11th September 2001, tensions again rose to a near warfooting and again in May 2002, during which time Pakistan test-fired a missile. In early 2002, President Musharraf of Pakistan ordered the ISI (Pakistan’s Inter Services Intelligence) to cease all training and aid to Kashmir militants, to assist US anti-terrorism coalition efforts. That alone is unlikely to halt the conflict as, despite an informal control over the Azad Kashmir Government (Azad Kashmir’s western perimeter is the ceasefire line), it is a large continent, the ceasefire line is 800 kilometres of mostly unfenced rough terrain and the militant movement is popular and widespread. Moreover, Pakistan now has less influence over the Militants on the Indian side of the ceasefire line. The results of shutting down aid to militants on the Pakistan side of the ceasefire line remain to be seen. The scale of the damage to the population, environment and social structures is apparent from the statistics which follow. Many of the killed are victims of terrorism, committed upon occasion, by all of the sides in the conflict. The figures are very close approximates and span the latest ten-year period of resurgence in guerrilla warfare and terrorism, from 1989 to 1999, with some statistics reaching up to 2000. This resurgence is also known under its military name of Operation Topac. Operation Topac is the plan conceived by a former President of Pakistan, General Zia ul Huq, assisted by some religious clerics, especially Maulana Abdul Bari of the Jamaat i Islami (Islamic Group). Operation Topac has marginally changed over the decade since it was implemented, in order to adjust to new challenges, but remains essentially unchanged, except for media reports in early 2002 to the effect that Pakistan had ordered a cessation of further training of insurgents in the Kashmir conflict. This follows talks with the US, concerning terrorism and the conflict in Jammu & Kashmir. Operation Topac is (according to media): A five-phased plan with the overall objective of ejecting / separating India from all parts of Kashmir. The final phase is to deploy nuclear weapons, should all the other phases fail. Phases one and two are currently in operation. The main two phases are as follows: Phase 1 is to launch a political campaign, internationalising the dispute and Islamicising it. Phase 2 is to wage Jihad, promoting militancy (local term for guerrilla warfare and terrorism) This includes recruiting (some Internationally), training, arming, deploying and remunerating militants (guerrillas and terrorists). Phase 2 is (or was) effected by the Inter Services Intelligence with assistance from the Army, Special Service Group, the Police and other agencies (as mentioned, according to media reports in early 2002, the Pakistani Government ordered ISI to cease operations, so this phase may be frozen).

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Overall, the intolerable price paid in this conflict, during a ten year period, is as follows: Casualties: Killed Civilians 7,124 Civilians were killed. Of these, 4,050 were killed by guerrillas and terrorists. Of the remainder, the majority were killed in cross-fire, 353 adults and 200 schoolchildren were burnt to death, 354 persons were tortured to death and 265 persons were forcibly drowned. Guerrillas and Terrorists 7,932 guerrillas and terrorists were killed, the vast majority in armed combat against Indian security forces, but also some allegedly from torture and killing in over 100 interrogation centres, located in seven main cities / towns, in the west of the Jammu and Kashmir State where the insurgency is most intense. The interrogation centres are run and operated by the Border Security Force (BSF), Jammu and Kashmir Police (JKP), Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) and some by units of the two Indian Army Corps’ deployed in the JK state. Indian Security Forces 11,625 members of the Indian Security Forces were killed, belonging to a large variety of Indian Army units, Police formations, Border Security Force units, Special Forces and Counter Militant forces (former guerrillas and terrorists who have changed sides). Of the 11,625 killed, 134 were Army Officers, 150 were Army non-commissioned Officers and 1872 were Army Privates. Total Killed in the Conflict In 1998, media reported 34,000 (approximately) killed during the period 1989 to 2000 in the Jammu and Kashmir conflict (BBC media, 1998). In May 2002, media (CNN) reported with an updated figure that at least 60,000 people had been killed during this period. Casualties: Wounded, Maimed, Raped, Tortured and Injured

Wounded 12,220 were wounded, of which 8065 were civilians and 4155 were members of the Indian Security Forces. Serious Injuries 15,311 persons from all parties and sides suffered serious injuries. Juvenile Torture Victims 11,729 juveniles suffered physical torture during interrogation. Children with Broken Limbs 2,038 children suffered broken limbs. Women Raped 2,837 women were raped. Persons Deliberately Crippled 766 persons were deliberately crippled.

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Missing and Displaced Persons Abductions 2,503 persons were abducted. Missing Persons 68,000 cases of missing persons were reported. Refugees 29,035 extended families (407,670 members) were forced to flee on account of violence from various parties to the dispute and became refugees. Persons Underground 95,000 suspects were listed as wanted, but went underground to evade arrest. Suspects held without Trial 43,390 persons were held without being charged or brought before a judge. Captured Guerrillas and Terrorists Guerrilla and Terrorist Suspects Arrested 30,000 actual and suspected guerrillas and terrorists were captured or arrested. Guerrillas and Terrorists in Prison Between 1000 and 1500 guerrillas and terrorists were sentenced to imprisonment. Guerrillas and Terrorist Surrenders 2,217 guerrillas and terrorists surrendered to Indian security forces. Guerrillas and Terrorists Turned Between 3000 and 5000 guerrillas and terrorists changed sides after apprehension by Indian security forces. They are called Counter-Militants. Guerrilla and Terrorist Attacks Guerrilla and Terrorist Attacks 12,000 (approximately) guerrilla and terrorist attacks took place against Indian security forces, civilians, buildings and resources. Explosions 6,551 explosions occurred as a result of guerrilla and terrorist bombs, rockets, mortar rounds, mines and hand-grenades.

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Rocket Attacks 547 attacks were made by guerrillas and terrorists using hand-launched military rockets and rocket-propelled grenades. Damage Caused to Buildings Public Property Property damage caused by all sides in the conflict amounted to the value of US$103 million. Schools and Hospitals 189 schools and hospitals were damaged. Bomb-Damaged 194 buildings were damaged by guerrilla and terrorist bombs. Private Dwelling houses 8,093 houses were destroyed by fire and 16,129 were damaged. Shops

4,831 shops were damaged and destroyed by fire.

Religious Temples 132 religious temples were damaged. Cattle

Damage to Livestock and the Environment 1,361 cattle were burnt to death both deliberately and as a result of combat.

Food and crops Crops valued at US$ 1.22 million were destroyed by fire, deliberately and as a result of combat and armed exchanges. De-Forestation Forested trees to the value of US$ 1.1 million were destroyed by fire, deliberately and as a result of combat. Miscellaneous Missionary Schools 490 missionary schools were banned (closed by force).

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Daily Newspapers 3 daily newspapers were banned. Funding of Guerrilla Warfare and Terrorism in the Jammu and Kashmir Conflict It is reported by media that over US$ 1.5 million per day is spent sponsoring guerrillas and terrorists in the Jammu and Kashmir conflict. A proportion of these funds originates from profits arising from cultivation and sale of illegal narcotics, generated by countries bordering and near to India. Other financial support allegedly comes from government and private sponsors from several countries in the region of Kashmir, middle-east, the Arabian gulf and the north of Africa. Indian Security Commitments in the Jammu and Kashmir Conflict Approximately 400,000 Indian security force members are on duty in the Jammu and Kashmir State, on the Indian side of the cease-fire line (LoC). They increase to 600,000 during local election periods. Security Forces consist of members of the police, border security, specialist and para-military forces. In addition, two Army Corps are deployed in the state, partly engaged in counter-terrorism, but mainly to face the Pakistan Army on the other side of the cease-fire line in Azad (liberated) Kashmir. From 1989 to 1998, 174 personnel of the Indian security forces were indicted in India for human rights violations in Kashmir, of which 32 were Army Officers. _________________________ Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) To assist the international anti-terrorist coalition after 11th September 2001, Pakistan’s President Musharraf announced that he stood down ISI’s Joint Intelligence North to a passive Intelligence role.

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KEYWORDS TO NOTE Assassination

Murder by surprise assault, often publically, politically or with treachery

Human Rights

Rights of each human being to freedom and justice, according to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. All nations have ratified this at the UN

Intolerance Militant Militia Tyranny Victim

Inability or unwillingness to tolerate, treat fairly or accept An irregular combatant or one who supports irregular armed struggle A domestic military force made up of civilians, usually raised in emergencies Unjustly controlling, restraining or banishing of people, freedoms, or beliefs A being subjected to death, suffering or ill treatment

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TERRORIST ATTACK BRIEF Attack on CIA Officers, Langley (McLean), Virginia, USA Facts of the Case: On the morning of 25th January 1993, a terrorist got out of his car near the CIA Headquarters entrance at Langley. He approached a number of cars of CIA officers waiting to enter the Headquarters complex for the workday, and fired an AK 47 assault rifle (sub machine gun) at them. The attack killed two CIA officers and wounded three others nearby. The terrorist then fled the scene. Investigation: Subsequent enquiries and operations involving CIA, FBI and Afghans led to the arrest of Mir Aimal Kasi in Pakistan, near the boarder with Afghanistan. Kasi was extradited to face trial in the US. Admitting the crime, he claimed it was retaliation for the US position on Muslims in the Middle East and Iraq. He was convicted and sentenced to death for capital murder in November 1997.

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END-OF-LESSON QUIZ 1. Most victims of terrorism are a) Innocent random civilians b) Members of security, intelligence, police and armed forces c) Politicians and diplomats 2. The most hazardous duties are undertaken by a) Police anti-terrorist squads b) Intelligence organisations c) Counter-terrorist special forces 3. Counter-terrorist operations include a) Hostage-siege assaults, ambushes and sabotage of terrorist weapons caches b) Legal prosecution of terrorists c) Propaganda activities against terrorists 4. UN staff are victims of terrorism far more frequently, since the conclusion of the Cold War. a) True b) False 5. Societies’ political or religious leaders are sometimes assassinated by terrorists a) To elicit widespread public fear and coerce goals b) Who are mostly personal opponents of the victim c) Because they are considered dangerous, or to provoke anarchy 6. The following commercial enterprises are increasingly victims of terrorism a) Airlines b) Oil corporations c) Stock markets 7. One reason why democracy is a victim of terrorism is because a) Terrorists cannot attack authoritarian regimes b) Penalties for terrorism are mild in democracies c) Of institutionalised travel and shipping delays for anti-terrorist checks 8. In Kashmir, how much is spent fighting against how many Indian Security Force members? a) Half a million US dollars per day again 150,000 members of the Indian security forces b) 1 million US dollars per day against 250,000 members of the Indian security forces c) 1.5 million US dollars per day against 400,000 members of the Indian security forces

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9. US Wall Street Journalist David Pearl was abducted in January 2002 and savagely murdered in a) Kabul b) Karachi c) Kandahar 10. The most successful terrorists in history (only one suspect caught in 30 years) are a) Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA or Basque Fatherland and Liberty) b) Epanastaiki Organosi 17 Noemvri (Revolutionary Organization 17th November) c) Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston (EOKA or National Organization of Cypriot Fighters) 11. In September 1999, a Viennese policeman shot dead Horst Ludwig Meyer of which group? a) Committee for the Liberation of South Tyrol (Befreiungs Ausschuss Sudtirols) b) Bavarian Liberation Army (Bayouwarische Befreiungs Armee / BBA) c) Baader Meinhof Gang (Rote Armee Fraction / Red Army Faction / RAF) 12. Operation Topac concerns a) Liberation movements in Iraq b) Militancy in Kashmir c) Libyan training camps for terrorism 13. Al Qa’ida dominated Taliban, forming in effect, the first state governed by a terrorist group. a) True b) False 14. How many identifiable factions, guerrilla and terrorist groups fought in the Lebanese civil war? a) Between 20 and 50 b) Between 50 and 100 c) Over 100 15. Terrorists from which group murdered UK Captain Robert Nairac of 14 Intelligence Company? a) UDA (Ulster Defence Association) b) PIRA (Provisional Irish Republican Army) c) UFF (Ulster Freedom Fighters) 16. Since the Cold War, the superpowers relaxed control over their client or satellite nations. a) True b) False 17. Between 1865 and 2001, how many Kings, Presidents and Prime Ministers were assassinated? a) Between 8 and 12 b) Between 13 and 20 c) At least 23

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18. On East Timor in September 2000, three unarmed UNHCR staff were brutally murdered by a) Militia gang members, loyal to the Indonesian Government b) The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (FRETILIN) c) Ordinary criminals 19. Anti-terrorism measures in Egypt resulted in what reduction of those killed from 1997-1999? a) 23 % b) 66 % c) 95 % 20. Unscrupulous foreign and domestic politicians artificially stimulated the war in Lebanon. a) True b) False

ANSWERS: 1-a, 2-c, 3-a, 4-a, 5-c, 6-b, 7-c, 8-c, 9-b, 10-b, 11-c, 12-b, 13-a, 14-c, 15-b, 16-a, 17-c, 18-a, 19-b, 20-a.

Lesson 10 Terrorism and the Cold War; Terrorism and the Media Section 10.1: Terrorism During the Cold War Sponsorship Organisation and Training Coalitions Section 10.2: Terrorism Since the Cold War Resumption and Re-alignment Loss of Control The Intelligence and Security Communities Nuclear Terrorism New Forms of Terrorism The New Wave of Transnational Terrorism Section 10.3: The Media and Terrorism Media: A Two-Edged Sword Excessive Publicity Media Complicity Professional Ethics of the Media Condemnation of Terrorism Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Attack on MI 6 Headquarters, London, UK

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Lesson 10 Scope and Objectives Section 10.1: Terrorism During the Cold War This section describes terrorism during the Cold War, explaining sponsorship of terrorists and guerrillas by the protagonists and the political reasons behind it. To fully appreciate this, a very basic political explanation of the Cold War is first given. Several authentic cases of sponsorship are outlined. A notable case-study is provided concerning the coalition raged against soviet forces in Afghanistan. The Terrorist Attack Brief for this Lesson is the attack on MI 6 Headquarters, London. After studying this section, the student should be able to: Understand the reasons why the Cold War occurred Describe how superpower coalitions emerged to sponsor terrorism and guerrilla warfare State what the primary objectives for superpower were, during the Cold War Understand how religion was artificially manipulated to motivate terrorists and guerrillas Explain how protagonists tried to distance themselves from overt sponsorship of terrorism Discuss a case of government sponsorship of guerrilla-terrorism in the Cold War Section 10.2: Terrorism Following the Cold War This section explains the period after the Cold War, the disengagement of the superpowers and their withdrawal of war-footing support for client nations. It discusses how the superpowers’ surrogate guerrilla-terrorist forces of the Cold War were not effectively de-mobilised, and how they and their training camps were re-aligned to fight different campaigns. The original motivating element of religion is reiterated and the concept of handling guerrillas and terrorists by security and intelligence officials is discussed. This section also explains the principles of biological and chemical terrorism, and the rationale behind threats of nuclear terrorism. This section describes new forms of post-Cold War terrorism and studies the new wave of transnational terrorism carried out misusing the name of Islam. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Describe the post-Cold war resumption of terrorist and guerrilla training camps Explain how Cold War intelligence communities lost control of veteran guerrillas/terrorists Comprehend the global threat of guerrillas and terrorists that have not been de-mobilised Understand the current rationale and likelihood of terrorists obtaining nuclear weapons List forms of post-Cold War terrorism and the new transnational terrorism, distorting Islam Section 10.3: The Media and Terrorism This section describes how the media can work for or against terrorism. The section explains the differences between sensationalising and minimising terrorist publicity and also influencing public opinion against terrorists. This section goes on to examine media ethics and condemnation of terrorism. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Describe the degrees of publicity afforded terrorism by media Explain the meaning of an agent of influence Discuss media ethics and the defence, often cited by media, to sensationalising terrorism Describe widespread condemnation of terrorism Recall the meaning of the words contained in the Lesson’s Keywords to Note table Recall the basic facts concerning the attack on MI 6 Headquarters, London, UK

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Lesson 10 Terrorism and the Cold War; Terrorism and the Media Section 10.1: Terrorism During the Cold War Sponsorship To understand the issue of state-sponsored terrorism and guerrilla warfare during the Cold War, it is first necessary to briefly clarify what the Cold War was. It began on account of forced expansionism into Europe, by the Soviet Union, in the wake of the Second World War. This expansionism was opposed by the western democracies and it became a conflict for global domination of doctrines and client nations. The Cold War was intensified by arms races, at an eventual cost of over US$ one trillion (a million million), which occurred as a result of the mutual belief that the opposing side would eventually preemptively strike the other, utilising multiple nuclear weapons. Eastern and western superpower coalitions opposed each other and these blocs supported armed conflicts around the world in a competition to wean as many nations to their sides as they were able to. Especially targeted were those developing nations that were strategically or politically important, or rich in natural resources. In the simplest possible terms it can be said that: The Soviet Union and other members of the Warsaw Pact, sponsored any armed struggle against western, capitalist, fascist or right-wing governments or forces. An example of this is the Soviet and surrogate-Cuban aid given to the Marxist MPLA Angolan Government, with which to fight UNITA rebels and South African forces In response, US and some other NATO members, sponsored any armed struggle against the Soviet Union, Soviet-supported socialist, communist or left-wing governments or forces. The most notable example of this occurred in Afghanistan where some western nations supported and helped create Mujahideen units to eject Soviet forces. According to media reports and televised interviews with former CIA officers who organised the training in Pakistan and Afghanistan, the US CIA spent US$ 500 million per year to arm and train Mujahideen (Religious fighters) in this successful campaign to end the illegal Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. The total sum expended to eventually win the war was more than US$ 3 billion. The campaign initially involved the fielding of 10,000 Mujahideen from 14 countries A whole range of allied countries, sympathetic or surrogate to either western or eastern power-doctrines, also helped to support armed conflicts, in the interests of the superpowers. An example was the communist (non-aligned) Yugoslavian aid given to Angolan communists in order to fight Portuguese colonialism up to 1975. Following this, in pendulum fashion, an Angolan Communist government came to power, only to be fought by Angolan UNITA rebels, supported by the US and South Africa East and western government sponsorship in the Cold War occasionally involved setting up camps and providing instructors for training guerillas and terrorists. Sometimes, sponsoring

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guerrilla and terrorist warfare was effected not by practical and visible aid, but solely by covert funding. This type of sponsoring provided deniability, a tactic by which governments politically disassociated themselves from, and denied linkage with, terrorists and guerrillas Further deniability, or distancing from guerrillas and terrorists by their sponsoring governments, was achieved by using retired military personnel, natives of the conflict theatre, other foreigners and intelligence and security operatives posing as businessmen, under the cover of specially set-up businesses, sometimes called front-businesses or covers A notable case of government sponsorship for guerrillas and terrorists in the Cold War was that of the US support for right-wing Nicaraguan Contra rebels (Contras). The Contras were engaged in armed struggle against the Sandanista government whom the US (and other NATO governments) viewed as pro-communist (and therefore Soviet). Viewed by political necessity as freedom fighters by most of the west, the Contras were in fact the brutal hard core of the deposed Somoza dictatorship whose national guards had engaged in murder, terrorising and raping of civilians near the Honduran border. Nicaragua was devastated by the Somoza government in the longest dictatorship in South American history. Congress severed US support to the Contras by law in the 1984 Boland amendment, but aid continued to be covertly channelled by rogue intelligence officials of the National Security Council (See Lesson 6 under Rogue Intelligence and Security Personnel). Such paradoxical support for brutal dictatorships characterised the Cold War, in which the primary and overriding criterion of the superpowers in supporting armed conflicts, was political leaning; all part of efforts to block and defeat the opponent. Organisation and Training During the Cold War, the sponsored training and organisation of guerillas and terrorists was of a high standard; powerful and well organised governments provided adequate funding and professional training. The results of subsequent campaigns reflect this; hit-and-run military defeats of conventional forces by guerrillas and terrorists were commonplace in several African, Central American and Asian countries. On some occasions, governments provided more than instructors, training, weapons and funding. They sometimes covertly encouraged and permitted their domestic guerrilla groups to engage in combat, but not wearing national uniform. Training during the Cold War period was also carried out by a number of non-superpower countries and organisations. During the Cold War, prior to its recognition of Israel, renunciation of terrorism and declaration of peace, the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) was mainly funded by Saudi Arabia and Kuwait (according to media). According to further media reports, the PLO was also funded and sponsored by the former Soviet Union and in turn the PLO supported and trained other guerrillas and terrorists in four-month courses conducted in Lebanon and South Yemen.

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Guerrilla-terrorists involved in insurgency campaigns in their own national and neighbouring conflicts attended these PLO-run training courses, during the Cold War, from the following countries:

Argentina

Iran

Niger

Sri Lanka

Bangladesh

Iraq

Nigeria

Togo

Brazil

Ireland

Pakistan

Tunisia

Chile

Italy

Phillippines

Turkey

Egypt

Japan

Somalia

Uruguay

El Salvador

Mali

South Africa

West Germany

Ghana

Mexico

Soviet Union (Armenia)

Zimbabwe

Coalitions During the Cold War there were occasional instances of coalitions of nations normally unaligned or opposed to each other, but allied against commonly perceived enemies. The following is the most notable example. On 28th December 1979, one day after Soviet Forces blew up the central communications centre and seized control of Kabul, US National Security Advisor (1977-1981) Zbigniew Brzezinsky, wrote a memorandum to President Carter informing him that the US ‘now has the opportunity to give the Soviet Union its Vietnam,’ meaning in essence that the Soviet Union could now be bogged down in an inconclusive guerrilla war. The US, opposing the Soviets on political grounds, was subsequently able to ally with Afghan and other Muslim resistance forces, who opposed communism on religious grounds, to cofight the Soviets and the Afghan Soviet puppet regime. On the practical side, this meant a massive expansion of the forces to form a guerrilla army. This was achieved by a US-Chinese coalition which established guerrilla warfare training camps at Peshawar in Pakistan’s North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and along the border with Afghanistan. The US led Sino-American coalition necessary for this strategy, was a delicate and unlikely union, achieved through a complicated arrangement brokered by the Shah of Iran (shortly before the Iranian revolution), and Israel. The operational task was to train Mujahideen units to defeat and eject Soviet forces from Afghanistan through a large scale guerrilla warfare campaign, greatly expanding upon the marginal resistance that had already begun, but not to any significance. The war was to last ten years from 1979 to 1989, but a decisive turning point, with very far reaching consequences, occurred in 1986 when the hand-held US Stinger (FIM 92-A) Missile was

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deployed against the Soviets. It was an extraordinary example of a coalition in which vastly differing political, religious and religious sect affiliations were put aside in order to fight the commonly perceived enemy. US (and Saudi Arabian) funding amounted to US$ 3 billion, while coordination and logistics were taken care of by Pakistan’s ISI (Inter Services Intelligence). In order to motivate a large number of volunteers to form for this irregular army, the strategy adopted was the widespread The Stinger Missile Courtesy: US Army stimulation of militant Islam. It resulted eventually in 14,000 recruits from 22 Muslim countries going to fight. These volunteers went out (mainly from and via Middle Eastern countries) to train and become Mujahideen, fighting the Soviets under the western-stimulated banner of Jihad. Mujahideen recruiting traffic became so intense at some periods that logistics offices (a type of MoveCon or Movement Control) were set up in the Gulf and in Peshawar to handle the traffic. They were variously called the Maktuba e Khidmat (Services Office) and Maktaba el Khidmat lel Mujahideen el Arab (Office for the Services of Arabic Holy Fighters). Associating with western intelligence agencies, Osama bin Ladin helped set up these offices (with Abdullah Azzam, head of the Palestinian branch of the Ikhwan ul Muslimeen or Muslim Brotherhood), and also fought in combat the Soviets, in addition to becoming an instructor for a period, in one of the training camps. At the beginning of the campaign, Warsaw Pact weapons were supplied to the Mujahideen in order to maintain a degree of political deniability. A milestone came however, later in the campaign when US Stinger missiles were issued to the Mujahideen. This highly effective weapon changed the course of the conflict and played a decisive role in achieving victory. The ten year campaign resulted in the ejection of the Soviets from Afghanistan. This defeat did not pass unnoticed in the Warsaw Pact Countries, especially Poland, that the might of the Soviet Union, a superpower, had been defeated by a much smaller guerilla army, poorly equipped in comparison. This was the single most reason that triggered the chain reaction subsequently leading to the collapse of the Soviet Union. The Soviets had not merely the ‘Vietnam’ that Brzezinsky envisaged, so much as a ‘Stalingrad.’ This protracted defeat not only cost them the entire Cold War, and practically their superpower status, but subsequently destroyed the 70 year old Soviet police state system, triggering wide reform, independence, and events that turned the course of world history.

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Section 10.2: Terrorism Since the Cold War Resumption and Re-alignment Following the conclusion of the Cold War, the superpowers dis-engaged most of the forces and missiles which stood opposing each other. They also ceased to fund most of their irregular warfare programmes, re-assigning, repatriating or dispersing the commanders, instructors and handlers. Guerrilla and terrorist training camps in several countries however, were taken over by many of the governments in whose regions they were sited. This is the case with those camps sited in Afghanistan near to Pakistan’s North-West Frontier Province, which was the hub of anti-Soviet efforts in Afghanistan during the Cold War. Several of those camps resumed operations, having been re-aligned by various powers to train guerrillas and terrorists for other conflicts, notably post-Soviet Afghanistan and Kashmir. Some camps, however, were closed since the end of the Cold War. An example of this occurred around 1994, when owing to international pressure, Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto closed half of the camps located in the North-West Frontier Province and many in Azad Kashmir, co-run by a department of Pakistan’s ISI (Inter Services Intelligence) known as Joint Intelligence North. ISI’s Joint Intelligence North, responsible solely for Jammu & Kashmir, were ordered by the Pakistan Government to cease operations in 2002, and to only monitor intelligence. Loss of Control Following the withdrawal of support, organisation and control of guerrillas and terrorists by the superpowers, especially in the case of Afghanistan, many governments have been unable to solve the problem of what to do with these small armies of highly-trained, fanatically motivated and warexperienced guerrilla-terrorists. Clearing up the debris of war and rebuilding Afghanistan after the Soviet-Afghan war ended in 1989, were tasks left to Saudi Arabia and Pakistan. They neither demobilised all of the Mujahideen left in Afghanistan nor dismantled all of the training camps. The consequences of this directly resulted in: A resurgence of guerilla warfare and terrorism in neighbouring Kashmir (in less than a year after the Soviet-Afghan war ended) The emergence of transnational terrorists such as belong to the Al Qa’ida coalition, responsible for the new strain of terrorism including the 1998 US bombings in Africa and the events of 11th September 2001 The emergence of the Afghani, highly mobile veteran Mujahideen from the Soviet-Afghan war, who travel to fight in any conflict in the world where Muslims oppose non Muslims (e.g Bosnia)

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Just after the Soviet-Afghan war, several of the Middle-East and North African governments who permitted, and in many cases indirectly encouraged their citizens to go and fight the Soviet forces in Afghanistan, did not permit numbers of Mujahideen to return home. This is because militant Islam, under the banner of Jihad (holy war) was used extensively as a rallying factor to encourage, motivate and recruit volunteers. A fanatic (and to an extent) religious doctrine was subsequently instilled into many of the Mujahideen of that campaign. The very same governments who assisted to indirectly dispatch them to Afghanistan, feared and still fear their repatriation and capability to sow domestic dissent. After the Soviet-Afghan war, some Mujahideen were Afghan Liberation Organisation One of dozens of armed groups that able to obtain favourable relocation. There are up an estimated sprang up in the last 30 years 200 living in New Jersey, USA. Of those who did return to their home countries after the Soviet-Afghan War, numbers of them were refused entry and were forced to live in exile back in Afghanistan or elsewhere, while others were executed and jailed by their Governments, immediately upon return. These Mujahideen were fully trained guerrillas and terrorists, with combat experience, many with no other trade or vocation, or indeed interest in life, except to continue fighting for Militant Islam, as they had been manipulated and trained to do. Many of these veteran Mujahideen, although semi-literate and under-educated, hold sophisticated and fanatical religious convictions which include the overthrow of most existing Arabic governments whom they consider corrupt. Prior to the US entry into Afghanistan in late 2001, in order to eject the Taliban, several thousand Arabic Mujahideen from the Soviet-Afghan war were still exiled (and most fighting) in Afghanistan, with nowhere to go. A sizeable amount of these veterans of the Soviet war in Afghanistan are sometimes called Afghanis. Few are Afghan nationals; most are Arabic. Osama bin Ladin is an Afghani. Many Afghanis will engage in any conflict where Muslims oppose non-Muslims, as a principle, whether right or wrong. This illustrates the degree to which religious fanaticism has been instilled in them. Sightings of Afghanis have been reported as far afield as Bosnia, Chechnya, China, Kashmir, Nigeria, Phillippines, Sudan and Tajikistan. In Uzbekistan, bin Ladin, according to Boris Mylnikov, head of the CIS member states Counter-Terrorism centre, is reported to have funded US$ 20 million to rebels of the Islamic movement. Afghanistan is the best but not the only example of a country in which guerrillas and terrorists, professionally trained by the superpowers during the Cold War but not de-mobilised, continue their activities as a result of unemployment, no opportunity to return home, fanatical religious or political convictions, or an inability to re-adjust to ordinary civilian life. [Refer to Annex M for a map showing the present locations in the world of Militants who have trained or fought in either Afghanistan or Kashmir].

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The Intelligence and Security Communities In those countries where guerrilla warfare and terrorism are sponsored, government intelligence and security officials are often engaged in the role of practical organisers, trainers and field handlers of guerrillas and terrorists. This was the case in Pakistan until early 2002 when the government ordered its ISI to halt further assistance and training of Militants destined for the Indian side of Kashmir. This is easier said than done, and some Militants are in defiance of this order. This form of sponsoring entails inherent long-term dangers, as can be noted by the Afghanistan episode; it is one concept to train and field guerrillas and terrorists, but when the time for demobilisation arrives, it can result in an uncontrollable and persistent threat if not handled correctly. Historically, the greatest problems posed by failure to properly demobilise combatants after war have occurred following the Napoleonic and Soviet-Afghan wars. Nuclear Terrorism It is believed that no terrorist group has ever managed to obtain a nuclear device or all of its components. Several have attempted to and continue to do so, from a variety of sources including illicit arms dealers. Osama Bin Ladin’s associates are reported to have been engaged in trying to obtain a nuclear device since 1993. Should terrorists in the future eventually succeed in obtaining or constructing a nuclear weapon, it is likely that sooner or later they would detonate it, probably in a major population centre, in the United States or Europe. A Nuclear Explosion Courtesy: US Dept. of Energy Naturally, they will also have to acquire the expertise to bypass fail-safe, security and arming systems. Safeguarding the movement and production of nuclear materials is monitored by several international and inter-governmental organisations, but following the conclusion of the Cold War, some nuclear materials are unaccounted for, notably in the former Soviet Union. Certainly a few governments who have nuclear capability also sponsor (or sponsored in the past) terrorism. It is extremely unlikely, however, that they would supply the terrorists they sponsor with such weapons, as the governments themselves would then become vulnerable. Furthermore, such governments are deterred in general by other nations who closely monitor nuclear capabilities and the sponsorship of terrorism. A transfer of a nuclear weapon to a terrorist group would most probably be detected, and through intelligence work. To understand the threat of nuclear terrorism, it is necessary to examine the nuclear deterrent of the Cold War, maintained by a status quo, and to examine the possible scenario of a launch and

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delivery, or siting and detonation of a nuclear device by terrorists. The protagonists of the Cold War perceived it as a period in which a nuclear war and a struggle for their very survival and perhaps that of the planet, was at times a grave and awful possibility. Consequently, they often resorted to any course of action, regardless of International Law or UN Resolutions, which gave a short or long term strategic advantage, for their very survival and that of the planet. At times this included sponsoring terrorism, assassination and articulating separatism. Given this, it is not beyond reasonable supposition that one or more of these nations may have breached the nuclear protocols and smuggled the portable components of nuclear devices (perhaps even nuclear ‘suitcase’ bombs of the type allegedly developed for the KGB in the 1970s) into opponent countries, then assembled and armed them in buildings or ground beneath strategic targets, such as capital cities. From a tactical point of view, covert deployment and detonation of nuclear devices beneath an opponent’s population centres is very advantageous as there would be no satellite detection of launch and delivery. The devices could be detonated at will, with the element of surprise. Tracking satellites would reveal no information as to the origin of the strikes and there might well be no time for retaliatory nuclear strikes, even were the origin known. This scenario, whether realistic or not, is necessary to understand the future possibility of a terrorist nuclear attack. Were terrorists to eventually obtain a nuclear device, the target and victim (if not one and the same) would find themselves in a similarly powerless position to that just described. The formal mutual nuclear deterrent posed by the status quo of the Cold War would not relate to the situation. A response by the target or victim for retaliatory purposes would be meaningless as transnational terrorists have no sovereign state to protect; they usually have no base or camp that cannot be abandoned within minutes and without care or consequence. New Forms of Terrorism Although information terrorism existed during the Cold War, it has increased in quantity, corresponding with advances in computer technology and new forms of computer virus. Extensive measures are taken to protect military, defence, intelligence, security, police, hospital, bank and school computers, but commercial corporations remain at particular risk from attacks on data-banks by dissatisfied employees and competitor companies. Since the Millennium, hacking into information systems has become a terrorist offence in the laws of the US, UK and some other nations. It is an established military tactic to destroy the information flow of the enemy. This is known as command and control warfare (C2W). Terrorists are aware of this system. Consequently, national

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security risks to society exist from information terrorists (or terrorists using malicious IT codes). Another form of information terrorism is disseminating inflammatory and hate material through the post or on the Internet. An example occurred in 1995, when Zapista National Liberation Army (EZLN) terrorists very effectively disseminated false news on the Internet concerning alleged atrocities committed by the Mexican army. Since the advent of the Internet, this form of disinformation terrorism has increased. Some forms of terrorism originate from cults or groups concerned with mystical, doomsday and messianic beliefs. The change of the millennium was perceived by some of these cults as the end of the world or a day of divine judgement. Messianic groups believed that the change of the millennium was the day when their messiah or saviour would arrive on earth. They were a cause for serious concern at the time, to many security organisations. Most messianic groups normally seek isolation, but this is not always the case; groups similar to the US Branch Davidians raise ongoing concerns for security organisations. The New Wave of Religious Terrorism “The world is divided into two sects: Those with religion but no brains And those with brains but no religion” Abu lala al Ma’arri, 11th century Syrian poet Following the 1992 cancellation of elections in Algeria, a terrorist group, called the Groupe Islamique Armé (GIA or Armed Islamic Group) began to carry out some of the most violent and barbaric terrorist attacks in history. According to BBC media, by 2002, 120,000 people, mostly Algerians but also including soldiers and policemen, foreign tourists, visitors, and even priests, women and children, had been savagely killed by fanatic Algerian terrorists, misusing the name of Islam. Brutal atrocities committed by these terrorists are commonplace; entire families and groups of unrelated innocent strangers, have been killed in a variety of ways, including being bound and having their throats cut, or being bound and then burned alive. Decapitated human heads, placed on roadways in a pattern, were a trend of these terrorist outrages at one point. In 1992 in Egypt, fanatic religious terrorists, misusing the name of Islam, mainly from the Gama’a al Islamiya (Islamic Group or GAI) began murdering, wounding and terrorising government officials, Coptic Christians, tourists and unveiled women. By the close of the 20th century, this group began to move sizeable amounts of its terrorists and equipment abroad (some into Europe) due to the success of Egyptian intelligence and security forces. A closely related group, El Jihad el Islam el Musri (Egyptian Islamic holy war) targets Egyptian embassies and civil servants outside of Egypt. In 1993, the Egyptian Government tried, found guilty and executed 29 of these terrorists. The Gama’a al Islamiya (and its cohort organisation Egyptian Islamic Jihad) and the Group Islamique Armé are terrorist groups which are now liaising and collaborating with the transnational terrorist coalition Al Qa’ida (the Base or Foundation), led by Osama bin Ladin. Bin Ladin set up a

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further group in Algeria named Groupe Salafiste pour la Predication et le Combat (GSPC / Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat). It is equally as ruthless and savage as the other groups. These groups are arguably the most dangerous of contemporary terrorist groups. They represent a new, more virulent wave of religious fanaticism and intolerance, distorting and misusing the name of Islam. They are certainly the most savage of terrorist groups. Through Osama bin Ladin’s Al Qa’ida terrorist coalition, these groups would be associated with the new and equally dangerous association (or group) that bin Ladin helped form: Al Jabhah al Islamiyah al Alamiyah li Quital al Yahud wal Salibiyyin (International Islamic Front for Fighting Jews and Crusaders). Al Qa’ida is said to be its executive arm.

Osama bin Ladin

This group is the first terrorist group whose name openly incites religious hatred and terrorist attacks on the basis of religion. Bin Ladin helped form this group and is its chairman of the higher council. Its stand is generally anti-US, anti-western, anti-Israeli, anti-Christian, anti-Jewish and for many Muslim countries, anti-government and anti-monarchist. Bin Ladin has stated that he admires several virtues of the western world’s social system, but states that the following points (below) are unacceptable to Muslims. [He has appointed himself to represent 900 million Muslims in the world, but obviously without consulting them, leading many to conclude that his stated desire for democracy may not be as sincere as it sounds]: US sanctions’ policies have resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Iraqi children US forces being based in the general region of Islam’s 1st holiest site (Mecca) US forces being based in the general region of Islam’s 2nd holiest Islamic site (Medina) US aiding Israel’s control of Islam’s 3rd holiest site (Dome of the Rock in East Jerusalem) Double standards: Democracy for the west and dictatorships for the rest of the world Bin Ladin has issued a so called Fatwa (authentic Fatwas are Muslim religious edicts or opinions of Islamic law) that he has signed with four others, mainly against the US and its citizens, but which is widely held as illegal, in terms of the Islamic religion. According to the legal notions of Islamic religious science (known as Usul al Fiqh or rules

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of jurisprudence), a Fatwa is legally binding upon Muslims only when it: Reflects legal proofs derived from the Koran and other Islamic holy documents Is issued by an individual or committee having due knowledge or sincerity of heart Is free of individual opportunism and not politically motivated Is adequate for the needs of the contemporary world The Fatwa is therefore completely invalid (illegal) as: The random killing and wounding of thousands at the 1998 US bombings in Kenya (including many innocent Muslims) and Tanzania, and in the US in New York, Washington and Pennsylvania on 11th September 2001, is the antithesis of the pious ideals required to validate a Fatwa. According to Muslim Scholars, in issuing a Fatwa to kill all Americans, he has exposed the concept of Fatwa to ridicule. Mohammad Ahmad If bin Ladin has compared himself to Salah ul Din, he almost certainly aspires to being the Mahdi. There have been several in history claiming this title. Mohammad Ahmad (above) rose up in the Sudan in the early 1880s and declared himself to be the Mahdi (meaning ‘the divinely guided one’). In Islam, the Mahdi is an Islamic saviour type figure (especially in Shia Islam), expected to appear in the future, and who is most significant for being absolutely guided by God. Mohammad Ahmad fought against Ottoman rule and AngloEgyptian condominium in the Sudan, and is the most significant politician (and warrior) in Sudan’s history. His national revolution and Islamic revival led to the fall of Khartoum and the assassination of Gordon Pasha (a British General, noted for his forceful anti-slavery measures), contracted by the Egyptian Government to save the Sudan, or failing which, evacuate the Egyptian population. Mohammad Ahmad died not long after Gordon.

Bin Ladin must, according to Islamic scholars, first be a qualified mufti (religious scholar) and a mujtahid (a jurist qualified to evaluate legal problems) before he is permitted to issue a legal or recognised Fatwa. Media has reported that bin Ladin has assumed or been conferred with the title of Sheik (Arabian headman) and that he has compared himself with Salah ul Din. Salah ul Din was a 12th century Kurdish Muslim military leader, revered among Muslims for re-capturing the city of Jerusalem. Since Jerusalem (together with Mecca) is at the core of bin Ladin’s published demands, the history of the city is briefly touched upon as follows: Jerusalem (a city destroyed 17 times in violent sieges, and ruled by 25 different peoples during its 3,800 years of existence), was a Canaanite and then Jebusite town (the Jebusite deity was called Salem and the town, UrSalem or city of Salem), details of this being recorded in surviving diplomatic correspondence dating from around 1400 BC.

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Beginning about 800 years later, two Jewish tribes successively moved to Jerusalem and settled (Abraham, from Ur, and Moses from Egypt). Around 1000 BC, David, a shepherd-warrior, united the Jewish tribes, displaced Jebusite rule, and imposed Jewish control of Jerusalem. In 587 BC, Jerusalem was conquered by neo-Babylonians and the entire population (about 20,000) deported. By the 4th century AD, the city was under Roman and Byzantine Christian rule until 614 AD, when Jerusalem was conquered by Persians, who killed a sizable amount of the population and invited the Jews to re-settle the city. The Muslim Empire conquered Jerusalem in 638 AD and ruled the city with several dynasties (Ummayads, Abbasyds, Tulunids [from Cairo] and their successors, Fatamids). One of the Fatamid Pashas, El Hakim (history records him to have been deranged), persecuted the Christian part of the population and had all the churches destroyed, including the Holy Sepulchre, at the beginning of the 11th century. Within 90 years, the Crusader armies (of which many of the leaders were French feudal knights) invaded the city killing most of its inhabitants (approximately 30,000), and forbade Jews and Muslims to re-enter the city. Almost 100 years later in 1187, Jerusalem fell to Salah ul Din. After a brief period in the early 13th century, when it reverted to Crusader rule, control fell to the Muslim Mameluke (Cyrene Lords) dynasty. In the 16th century, the Mameluke dynasty was absorbed by the Ottoman Empire, which was in turn driven from Jerusalem in WWI. The British Empire occupied Jerusalem until 1923 when it accepted the League of Nations Mandate, destined to end in independence for the State of Palestine. In 1948, a minority of Jewish Zionists declared the Jewish State of Israel, upon premature departure of British Mandate forces from Palestine. At the armistice of 1949, following the 1948 war, the historic part of Jerusalem was left under Jordanian sovereignty. During the 1967 war, this part of the city fell from Jordanian control, to Israeli occupation. The Middle East conflict has continued ever since. Section 10.3: The Media and Terrorism Media; A Two-Edged Sword “Fighting terrorism is like being a goalkeeper. You can make a hundred brilliant saves but the only shot that people remember is the one that gets past you” Paul Wilkinson, contemporary British author on terrorism While media frequently gives publicity which is in principle, favourable to the majority of terrorists who wish to instill widespread fear, some media sources strongly condemn terrorism for what it is. Some media sources intentionally minimise the publicity afforded to terrorist groups and highlight successes and prowess of security forces. This was the case following the 1980 Siege of the Iranian Embassy in London, following which, SAS (Special Air Service) almost became a household name.

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Many media newspapers however, portray terrorism in a sensational light, with few reporting it from a neutral standpoint. As explained in earlier lessons, media functions as a commercial enterprise and must market its product in order to remain a viable commercial entity. Partial or incomplete information provided by media results in widespread misunderstanding of many conflicts, including those involving terrorism. This is occasionally the intent, when intelligence services are able to influence media, in the supposed interests of national security. Intelligence services sometimes cultivate or deploy what are called agents of influence; these are persons who are used knowingly or unknowingly by intelligence officers. They share the same doctrine as the intelligence controller and are in positions where they can substantially influence common opinion or beliefs, or influence trends or events. Agents of influence exist inside media organisations. An example of the effects of incomplete media information is the 1980 siege of the Iranian in London by Iranian dissidents opposing the Ayatolla Khomeini Government. It is to this day believed by considerable numbers of Europeans, that the terrorists were civil servants (or diplomats) of the then new and unpopular Iranian revolutionary government and not dissident counterrevolutionaries.

Excessive Publicity Even within the confines of commercial objectives, enough flexibility remains for media to report terrorism in a responsible fashion, especially given the common knowledge that most terrorists seek publicity. A commonly cited defence by some sectors of the media in defending excessive publicity or sensationalism, is that to do otherwise would compromise the democratic safeguard of reporting uncensored information to the public. This is a response which does not correspond to the question. Moreover, no constitutions in the democratic world provide the media with any role in protecting democracy. Free press, however, does deter (increasingly less, as contemporary moral norms are consistently deteriorating) a certain amount of political corruption and abuse in democracies.

Media Complicity In those few countries where terrorism is sponsored, terrorist groups are postured as freedom fighters by government-controlled media. Another example of media complicity is whereby terrorists are clandestinely interviewed by media representatives, who could subsequently aid security forces in apprehending the terrorists, thereby preventing further bloodshed. The media usually choose not to do so, for so-called reasons of professional ethics.

Professional Ethics of the Media There are codes of ethics rigorously applied upon their staff by certain professional media companies. However, apart from the legal constraints imposed by such laws concerning libel,

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slander, pornography and criminal conspiracy, the codes of ethics for the majority of media personnel are largely those that are self-imposed. There is a clear need in democratic societies, on grounds of national security, to address the question of media ethics in relation to sensationalising terrorism, although the media coverage of the terrorist events of 11th September 2001 was fair, unsensational, thorough and effectively patriotic.

Condemnation of Terrorism Terrorism is widely condemned from a legal point of view. It is indictable and punishable under a variety of national laws, either by ordinary criminal legislation or as special terrorist offences. Moralists and philosophers through the ages have, in literary form, condemned terrorism since it is morally indefensible to kill, maim and terrorise innocent people for personal and selfish objectives, passed off as common concerns. Terrorism is widely condemned in political circles, except for those which have a vested interest and defend it as freedom fighting or legitimate resistance. Populations widely condemn terrorism for its random savagery, the anxiety it creates, and the restrictions in liberty that it generates for security reasons. It is resented by ordinary people. The vast majority of recognised religious faiths condemn terrorism as against their teachings. It is clear however that a small fraction of their representatives, from various religions, practice duplicity in this regard and in fact support terrorism, in the name of religion. Scientific condemnation of terrorism is almost absolute. However, some unscrupulous scientists continue to knowingly develop terrorist weapons, especially biological weapons (which are banned) and other weapons of mass destruction (WMDs).

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KEYWORDS TO NOTE Arms Race

Competition between nations to accumulate arms and weaponry

Coalition

Alliance, merger or combination, esp. political or military. e.g. Al Qa’ida coalition

Cold War

Intense struggle between NATO and Warsaw Pact, by every method except open warfare. 1945 - 1991

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. A main protagonist in the Cold War opposing the Warsaw Pact (Soviet Union and its communist allies). This 1949 treaty-alliance organisation between US, Canada and some Western European States, now contains some nations who were formerly members of the (enemy) Warsaw Pact (1955 - 1991)

Sponsorship

Support, surety or promise of funding for another

Warsaw Pact

A main protagonist in the Cold War. The Pact was an agreement between the Soviet Union and some Eastern European States (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Romania). 1955 - 1991, opposing NATO and non communist countries

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TERRORIST ATTACK BRIEF Attack on MI 6 Headquarters, London, UK Facts of the Case: On the evening of 20th September 2000 in central London, two missiles were fired at the headquarters of the UK Secret Intelligence Service (MI 6). The missiles (capable of penetrating one metre thick concrete) were fired from 150 metres distance with a Soviet-made, hand-held anti-tank weapon. There were no casualties and minimal damage was caused to the re-enforced building. Investigation: Part of the weapon (Soviet-made but stolen from the Croatian Army) was recovered and responsibility for the attack attributed to the Real IRA (Irish Republican Army). Suspects continue to be questioned in an ongoing investigation.

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END-OF-LESSON QUIZ

1. Several NATO and Warsaw Pact members organised and funded guerrilla warfare in the Cold War. a) True b) False 2. During the Cold War, with external funding, the PLO trained guerrilla-terrorists from 27 countries. a) True b) False 3. NATO or Warsaw Pact support for guerrillas / terrorists in the Cold War, was determined a) If the country observed human rights b) If the country was a former colony c) According to political leaning 4. How many foreign Mujahideen trained to fight Soviet forces in Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989? a) 2,500 from 8 countries b) 4,500 from 9 countries c) 14,000 from 22 countries 5. Guerrilla / terrorist training camps were generally closed at the end of the Cold War. Many a) Remained closed b) Were re-opened c) Were re-opened and re-aligned 6. Governments banned many guerrillas/ terrorists who fought in the Soviet-Afghan war from return. a) True b) False 7. Abandoning or improper demobilisation of sizeable guerrilla-terrorist forces can result in a) Military threats by neighbouring countries b) Unemployment problems c) An uncontrollable and persistent threat 8. Terrorists have pursued acquisition of a nuclear weapon since at least 1993. a) True b) False 9. Government intelligence officials sometimes influence media in the interests of national security. a) True b) False 10. The most fanatical and dangerous terrorist groups in the world are a) Group Islamique Armé, Hizbollah, Hammas, Gama’a al Islamiya, Harkat ul Ansar, b) Gama’a al Islamiya, Al Qa’ida, Hammas, Al Jabbah al Islamiya al Alamiya li Quital al Yahud wa Salibiyyin c) Groupe Islamique Armé, Al Qa’ ida, El Jehad el Islami el Musri, Gama’a al Islamiya, Al Jabbah al Islamiya al Alamiyah li Quital al Yahud wa Salibiyyin

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12. The name Al Jabbah al Islamiyah al Alamiyah li Quital al Yahud wa Salibiyyin, attacks a religion. a) True b) False 13. Destroying the managerial information flow of an army is known as a) Combatting planning and control or C2PC b) Command and control warfare or C2W c) Destruction of command and control or D2C 14. Agents of influence are used strategically, to influence opinions, beliefs, trends or events. a) True b) False 15. On terrorism, media often publish or announce a) Complete information and facts b) Partial or incomplete information c) As little as possible 16. No media enterprise companies have a code of ethics. a) True b) False 17. Publicity helps the objectives of most terrorists. a) Frequently b) Never c) Infrequently 18. Terrorism is condemned except by governments who sponsor it or defend it as freedom fighting. a) True b) False 19. A small minority of scientists continue to develop banned weapons and more effective WMD. a) True b) False 20. C2W is a) Command Warfare b) Control Warfare c) Command and Control Warfare ANSWERS: 1-a, 2-a, 3-c, 4-c, 5-c, 6-a, 7-c, 8-a, 9-a, 10-c, 11-a, 12-a, 13-b, 14-a, 15-b, 16-b, 17-a, 18-a, 19-a, 20-c.

Lesson 11 Anti-Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism Section 11.1: Institutions and Techniques Law and Terrorism Forces Opposing Terrorism Anti-Terrorism and Special Police Formations Notes on Anti-Terrorism Security Counter-Terrorism and Military Special Forces Assessing Terrorist Threats Section 11.2: Tactics Intelligence Security Security Intelligence Negotiation Concession Deterrent Case Study: Al Qa’ida attacks on the US: 9 / 11 / 01 Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Achile Lauro Hijacking, near Port Said Egypt

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Lesson 11 Scope and Objectives Section 11.1: Institutions and Techniques This section explains the meaning of anti-terrorism and counter-terrorism and describes the different institutions responsible for them. Some notes concerning anti-terrorism security measures are examined. The section also explains the drawbacks of law versus terrorism in a democracy. An anti-terrorism measure is illustrated in the form of a reproduced US Department of State terrorism warning to US citizens. Assessing terrorist threats is discussed with an example of a security alertness plan. The Terrorist Attack Brief for this Lesson concerns the Achile Lauro Hijacking, Egypt. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Describe the differences between anti-terrorism and counter-terrorism Illustrate a drawback of law versus terrorism in a democracy Appreciate effective anti-terrorist measures, including terrorist warning bulletins Understand the meaning of a choke point, a kill zone, and how to escape from a kill zone Comprehend what is meant by target hardening and layered security zones Reproduce a basic security alertness plan with its different stages Section 11.2: Tactics This section explains the critical importance of Security and Intelligence in order to gain a tactical advantage over terrorists. Variants of security and intelligence are explained. Negotiation, concession and deterrent are discussed in this section in the context of anti-terrorism and counter-terrorism. The lesson includes the most important of the case studies in this course: the Al Qa’ida terrorist attacks in New York, Washington and Pennsylvania on 11th September 2001. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Describe the meanings of security and intelligence in the context of terrorism Define security intelligence and intelligence security, in the context of terrorism Understand negotiation, concession and deterrent in contexts of anti and counter-terrorism Understand the facts of the Al Qa’ida terrorist attacks in New York, Washington and Pennsylvania on 11th September 2001; to interpret the future implications of these attacks Recall the meaning of the words contained in the Lesson’s Keywords to Note table Recall the basic facts concerning the Achile Lauro Hijacking, near Port Said, Egypt

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Lesson 11: Anti-Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism Section 11.1: Institutions and Techniques Law and Terrorism “The soul, mind and meaning of a State lies in its Laws” Marcus Tullius Cicero, Roman philosopher, orator, lawyer and politician In the past, perpetrators of genocide have selectively (in some few cases), passed into the annals of history without ever being held accountable in law. The Armenian genocide is such an example; many who carried the atrocities evaded trial. In some other cases, those responsible for upholding the law and executing criminal justice have either participated in terrorism or turned a blind eye. Examples of this are the several South American death squads which lasted from the 1960s to the 1990s. In the 21st Century, with ever-continuing advances in communications and human rights, it is increasingly difficult for any form of terrorism, especially acts involving large numbers of victims, to pass unnoticed. Whether it is arrested is another issue. With the revival of the practice of trying war criminals in the form of the UN International Criminal Tribunals, not seen since Nuremberg and Tokyo (the latter concluded in 1948), even former Heads of State and Army Commanders, that were involved, may be indicted by these courts. There is generally little difficulty encountered by prosecutors engaged on convicting terrorists, once enough evidence is assembled to justify an indictment and the suspect has been arrested. However, as far as assembling the evidence is concerned, some police and security forces tend to be hampered by the constraints of democracy. In western democracies, it is insufficient that police and security agencies are trusted to scrupulously conduct operations within the confines of freedom and democracy; they must demonstrate that they are so doing, with judicial rules and regulations, beyond ordinary codes of conduct. The protection of individual rights, including those of suspected terrorists is therefore exaggerated, as a sort of social re-assurance and safeguard. This is sometimes a great burden to law enforcement officials, and can hamper detection and apprehension of terrorists. Contrastingly, repressive anti-terrorism laws are occasionally passed with little or no response from citizens rights groups. Forces Opposing Terrorism “One beats the Bush and another catches the birds” Old English proverb

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Since the late 1960s, an array of national police, military, security and intelligence personnel have been increasingly engaged in the fight against terrorism, especially so in the western democracies. Terrorism today is a fully acknowledged and evaluated threat, especially since the US bombings in Nairobi and Dar as Salaam in August 1998 and the clear emergence of transnational terrorism culminating in the events of 11th September 2001. Consequently, the sophisticated security and other emergency forces opposing terrorism are now well-established. They are mostly highly advanced in terms of equipment and ability, being able to respond to, if not prevent, almost every type of conceivable terrorist threat or incident, including the use of Weapons of Mass Destruction. It requires merely the political will to do so. These services are more effective than ever before, in terms of human, logistical, technological and legislative resources. This was illustrated well (from an emergency services perspective) during the catastrophic-scale events of the Al Qa’ida terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre at 8.45 am on Tuesday 11th September 2001. Anti-Terrorism and Special Police Formations “Terror.... will always be successful unless opposed by equal terror” Hitler in Mein Kampf Anti-terrorism (sometimes known as ‘AT’) generally refers to passive, defensive, preparatory, protective or legal measures against terrorism. Elite specialised police formations exist whose operational tasks can include: Identification and protection of potential targets and victims Intelligence Gathering Preparation and response to terrorist incidents Containment and Negotiation in siege and hostage situations Seamless hand-over to military counter-terrorist forces if necessary In some countries all functions involving terrorism are carried out by a single specialist force, either police, paramilitary or army. Anti-terrorism takes many forms: The Vienna-based UN organisation for Criminal Justice and Crime Prevention has a unit (with two full time staff) for studying and advising on measures to prevent terrorism, known as the Terrorism Prevention Branch or TPB. At different venues around the world, seminars are frequently conducted on the subject of terrorism by academic and law enforcement institutions. Another example of anti-terrorism is the medical preparedness of the US Military. Following the 1998 US Embassy attacks in Africa, the US Military formed and trained 12 special medical rapid response teams to handle casualties arising from terrorist attacks.

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These US Air Force teams consist of: Between eight and 20 doctors, nurses and technicians Special medical equipment stored in lockers at airfields in: • • • •

Germany Spain Turkey UK

Economic development of impoverished areas by governments can sometimes be an effective anti-terrorism measure. This is especially so in campaigns where terrorists oppose the government and deliberately try to base themselves in under-developed areas. Terrorists sometimes select such under-developed areas as they know that much of the population do not understand the economics of development, which dictate that most development must be in uneven stages. As a consequence, there usually exists a degree of resentment among populations in those areas, towards their government, which they perceive as unevenly distributing resources. Terrorists take advantage of this for three reasons: Chances of betrayal to security forces are less in areas where the government is partly resented Terrorists try to merge their anti-government sentiments with those of the local population It is easier to recruit new members in a climate of resentment against the government Some governments understand this strategy and take steps to deny the terrorists a refuge and logistical source. Such a case occurred in Turkey: The PKK (Kurdish Workers Party) operates in the region of Turkey that is least developed, preying upon social tensions; a fact that the government astutely realises and is keenly trying to reverse with the following anti-terrorism measures: 1.

In 1994, the government allocated the equivalent of US$ 186 million for economic aid and agricultural and housing development for ten south-east provinces

2.

In 1995, the Turkish government allocated the equivalent of US$ 47 million for infrastructure projects and the equivalent of US$ 4.8 million for food, medical aid and consumer goods

3.

Special Housing development included the construction of 6795 urban houses and also new houses for villagers left homeless by PKK terrorist attacks

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A further anti-terrorism measure is the warning of targets or potential victims. Here is an example of an anti-terrorism worldwide warning to US citizens:

PUBLIC ANNOUNCEMENT _____________________________ US DEPARTMENT OF STATE

Office of the Spokesman ___________________

Worldwide Caution February 1, 2002 The U.S. Government remains deeply concerned about the security of Americans overseas. As a result of U.S. military actions in Afghanistan in response to the September 11 terrorist attacks, there is a potential for retaliatory actions to be taken against U.S. citizens and interests throughout the world by terrorists and those who harbor grievances against the United States. The Department urges Americans to review their circumstances carefully and to take all appropriate measures to ensure their personal safety. Americans are urged to monitor the local news and maintain contact with the nearest American or Consulate. The Department will continue to develop information about potential threats to Americans overseas and to share with them credible threat information through its Consular Information Program documents. These documents are available on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov. U.S. citizens and interests abroad remain at increased risk of terrorist attacks, including by groups with links to Usama Bin Ladin's Al-Qaida organization. These individuals do not distinguish between official and civilian targets. The Department of State has unconfirmed reports that American citizens may be targeted for kidnapping or other terrorist actions. In late January 2002, an American journalist was taken hostage in Pakistan. In light of the above information, U.S. Government facilities worldwide remain at a heightened state of alert. U.S. Government facilities may from time to time temporarily close or suspend public services as necessary to review their security posture and ensure its adequacy. In those instances, U.S. Embassies and Consulates will make every effort to provide emergency services to American citizens. U.S. citizens planning to travel abroad should consult the Department of State's Public Announcements, Travel Warnings, Consular Information Sheets, Fact Sheets, and regional travel brochures, all of which are available at the Consular Affairs Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov. American citizens overseas may contact the American Citizens Services unit of the nearest U.S. or Consulate by telephone or fax for up-to-date information on security conditions. American citizens in need of emergency assistance should telephone the nearest U.S. or Consulate before visiting there. In addition to information on the Internet, U.S. travelers may hear recorded information by calling the Department of State in Washington, D.C. at 202-647-5225 from their touch-tone telephone, or receive information by automated telefax by dialing 202-647-3000 from their fax machine. This Public Announcement supersedes the Public Announcement - Worldwide Caution of October 23, 2001 to note concern with regard to possible kidnappings and other terrorist actions.

______________________________________________________________________________

Department of State travel information and publications are available at Internet address: http://travel.state.gov. U.S. travellers may hear recorded information by calling the Department of State in Washington, D.C. at 202-647-5225 from their touchtone telephone, or receive information by automated telefax by dialing 202-647-3000 from their fax machine.

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Notes on Anti-Terrorism Security The following short briefing notes explain in the context of anti-terrorism, the basics of: Choke Points Kill Zones Escaping from a Kill Zone Target Hardening Layered Security Zones Immediate Care [Medical]

CHOKE POINT One anti-terrorism or preventative measure taken by potential victims who must make regular journeys by vehicle, is to vary the routes and timings of those journeys, in order to avoid Choke Points. It is always possible to vary the timings, but to vary the route is not always possible for all parts of the journey. A hypothetical example of a ‘choke point’ would be as follows: For the purposes of this example, Manhattan (Island) New York, has only one tunnel connecting it with the neighbouring Borough of Queens. A potential victim resides in Queens and works in Manhattan, commuting in a limousine with protective armoured plating. The routes between the potential victim’s residence in Queens and his Manhattan office may all be very much varied in route and timing. His vehicle however, is compelled to travel via the only tunnel. The tunnel, including the zones immediately before and after the tunnel, is the ‘choke point’ in this case. A reasonable anti-terrorism working definition of a [vehicle] ‘choke point’ is: A passage which the victim’s vehicle is compelled to travel through, with a potentially high risk of attack. There may a single, several or no choke points on a given journey. When a threat assessment is made by traveling over all possible routes and choke points are identified, they are sometimes referred to as ‘potential choke points’ (PCPs).

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KILL ZONE A ‘kill zone’ (KZ) in anti-terrorism jargon, generally refers to an area where the terrorists open fire or detonate a bomb in a tactically advantageous position, usually in the context of attacking a vehicle. The Kill Zone is literally the precise area or environ where people are attacked and killed. Terrorist attacks which occur against potential victims travelling inside vehicles, invariably occur in areas between departure and destination points. This is because those two points, especially in the case of high-risk potential victims, are usually well secured, under surveillance, very familiar to the potential victim, but unfamiliar to the terrorists. There are generally two types of kill zone: a) A fixed (pre-determined) kill zone is selected where the terrorists know the potential victim’s vehicle will pass through a ‘choke point’ (see Choke Point). An example could be the mouth of a tunnel-exit, where terrorists detonate a concealed roadside bomb (IED), when the vehicle exits the tunnel and draws alongside or over the IED. b) A fluid kill zone is where the terrorists make an ad hoc decision to stop and open fire in one of several possible kill zones where the victim’s vehicle is halted. An example is at a red traffic light or in a traffic jam, where terrorists on a motorcycle approach the halted vehicle of the potential victim, stop alongside and open fire. A ‘trap’ is sometimes used in a kill zone by terrorists, in situations where they try not only to bring the victim’s vehicle to a complete halt but also to block it in, in order to increase the chances of killing the victim. Natural ‘traps’ can occur, such as traffic jams, but a trap is usually given to mean: forcing a vehicle to come to a complete stop, trapped in a kill zone, with no possibility to move. This might be achieved by driving a vehicle out in front of the victim’s vehicle, forcing it to stop, and driving another vehicle behind it as well, preventing it from reversing. It may also be achieved by reckless and offensive driving, in order to force the victim’s vehicle into an environ from which it can no longer drive. i.e. A dead-end street or ‘cul-de-sac,’ or forcing the vehicle off of the road into a ditch, for example. The objective is the same, in trying to bring the victim’s vehicle to a complete halt, with no escape route or possibility to drive out. A reasonable anti-terrorism working definition of a [vehicle] ‘Kill Zone’ is: A pre-determined zone at a choke point or an impromptu selected zone, under conditions where the disposition of the victim’s vehicle provides the terrorists with optimal attack conditions.

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ESCAPING FROM A KILL ZONE In a kill zone, where the victim’s vehicle has been forced to halt for whatever reasons, there are three certainties, based upon statistics concerning those murdered, and those who have survived terrorist attacks mounted whilst they were inside their vehicles: a) If the victim stays in the vehicle, he / she will almost certainly be killed. b) If the victim is able to drive out of the situation (including recklessly, shunting obstacles or other vehicles out of the way) or getting out of the vehicle and running away, the chances of survival increase massively. c) In a terrorist attack, people freeze in a shocked state of disbelief for several seconds or longer. Those who are able immediately to control that shock-freeze, react and move immediately, immensely increase their chances of survival. Some of the more important but often-forgotten anti-terrorism security precautions (when driving) are as follows (this list is not comprehensive): When in traffic which is halting, always leave enough space between your vehicle and the vehicle in front, so that if you have to extract yourself and wish suddenly to turn into the left or right lanes, you are not obstructed or slowed down by colliding with the vehicle in front, as you turn. If forced off of the road, to a halt, or stopped in front (including by mobile authorities that might be bogus), the vehicle should be halted not parallel with the road, but at an angle pointing a little towards the centre line of the road. This is so that if the suspect vehicle reverses hard to trap you or smash your radiator, it will only damage one of the front body panels/lights, and you will already be at an angle helping you to forcefully drive out, most importantly with the radiator intact. If a pedestrian comes up very close to the car door, remember that it is quite easy to knock the person off-balance, using relatively little force, by suddenly opening the door onto them, using both hands and arms. If the vehicle is jammed in, or stalled and will not start, you should get out immediately and run in a zig-zag for cover, and repeat the process if you are pursued.

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TARGET HARDENING Anti-Terrorism preventative measures taken to enhance the security of a potential victim are sometimes called ‘Target-Hardening.’ Target-Hardening is carried out as a result of the following Threat Assessment conclusions: The potential loss is a likelihood in existing circumstances The potential loss cannot be sustained or is unacceptable Target Hardening activities may include: a) Increased Security Intelligence, from: Human Intelligence (HumInt) e.g. Open Source collection and Covert Operations Satellite Intelligence e.g. (SatInt) Imaging Intelligence Signals Intelligence (SigInt) e.g. Electronic Intercept Information Warfare (IW) e.g. Propaganda / disinformation and IT attack b) Increased Resources, which may include: Overall budget and financial expenditure Human resources e.g. Close protection officers (CPOs) Equipment resources e.g. Motion detectors, mat alarms, bomb detection devices, vehicles More powerful and task-orientated weaponry e.g. Sniper rifles, sub machine guns (SMGs) c) Enhanced Use of Resources: Re-structuring/re-enforcement of existing measures. e.g. Increase in layered security zones

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Evolution from defence to offence e.g. Fielding counterterrorist units Penetration tests e.g. Exercises in trying to infiltrate layered zones of security Intensive Security Surveys e.g. An audit of every security aspect of the operation Vehicle route reconnaissance e.g. Identifying alternate routes, kill zones and choke points

British Army Anti-Terrorist Observation Post Londonderry, Northern Ireland, UK

© Crown

LAYERED SECURITY ZONES The majority of journeys undertaken by the average potential victim are between workplace and residence. Terrorists sometimes attack victims who have a high profile. The reason that they are often attacked while in their vehicles, between departure and arrival points at workplace and residence, is that workplace and residence are usually protected or under observation, part of security measures for high profile persons, known as ‘target-hardening.’ These two points are either usually protected by armed personnel or provide cover for the potential victim. i.e. He/she slips out of sight when entering the increased safety of an underground garage, or a building entrance or driveway, where there are armed guards. Alternatively, it may be that there are surveillance / observation alarm facilities that deter the terrorists or diminish their chances of a successful escape or of eluding identification. At a location where a high-risk potential victim spends considerable time, there can be several ‘layers’ of security, sometimes known as ‘layered security zones.’

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A good example is an Embassy. The hypothetical security layers could be as follows: Initial security layer is the entry / exit gate, armed guards, fencing and surveillance cameras Following layer is the dead-ground between the fence and building, patrolled by armed guards Next layer is the building-entry screening by armed guards and window / door alarms Last layer is the type of strong-room that is found inside some embassies, for use in case of attack, with large vault-like sealable doors to close off a re-enforced portion of the building Ideally, from the terrorist point of view, the most desirable attacks against a high profile potential victim are in order of preference: a) Remote detonation of a roadside bomb when the potential victim drives over or alongside it b) Direct confrontational attack with small or medium arms (machine guns, grenades and pistols): When the potential victim is travelling in a vehicle Preferably in a sub-urban area Outside of layered security zones At a pre-determined choke point Where the potential victim is trapped in a kill zone IMMEDIATE CARE [MEDICAL] Anti-terrorist and counter-terrorist teams are trained in many skills including emergency medical response to life-threatening injuries. This is because they often enter into confrontations with terrorists in which terrorists use military weapons, sometimes out of all proportion. Increasingly, some close protection officers who are responsible for protecting high profile potential victims (sometimes called principals), are also trained as Paramedics (Emergency Medical Technicians). This permits (in the event of an attack in which the principal is wounded but alive) an immediate skilled medical response to life-threatening injuries, instead of the alternative of waiting for an ambulance, in which time the victim might likely die.

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The object is not only to remove the immediate threat of loss of life, but prevent further deterioration by stabilising the victim. The victim must be stabilised until an equipped ambulance arrives and can continue that stabilisation while conveying the victim to a hospital operating theatre. This is known as Immediate Care, indicating the need, rather than the action. Basic first aid is almost invariably insufficient for treating the types of serious injuries that can be sustained in a terrorist attack. The most serious common life-threatening injuries in these situations are: Severe Bleeding (rapid, life-threatening loss of blood)

The Knight, from The Dance of Death, by Hans Holbein, Lyons, 1538

No pulse Stopped breathing Shock (increasing suspension of bodily functions caused by trauma) While basic elementary first aid training courses usually last two days (12 to 16 hours), Paramedic (Emergency Medical Technician) training is usually over 100 hours. Counter-Terrorism and Military Special Forces “Fear, not clemency, restrains the wicked” Publilius Syrus; Sententiae. No. 391 Counter-terrorism (known widely as ‘CT’) refers to those active and offensive measures taken to deter and respond to terrorism. Offensive (CT) operations are conducted by: Military Police (in some countries) Paramilitary forces (in some countries)

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Security organisations Intelligence organisations Examples of well known forces with a Counter Terrorist (CT) capability are: UK: Special Air Service (SAS) Germany: GSG-9 (Grenzschutzgruppe 9 or Border Force Group 9) US: Delta Force Republic of Ireland: Irish Defence Forces, Ranger Wing Such units respond to terrorist incidents, such as hostage and siege situations, as well as engage in hazardous preventative activities, examples of which are: Deep-cover penetration operations Ambushes Sabotage of weapons caches Counter-terrorist forces have improved dramatically in the past three decades as many armed forces have formed and developed CT capability. Consequently, contemporary terrorists prefer to avoid siege-and-hostage situations and hijackings, because of their chances of escaping or surviving an assault by counter-terrorist forces are now much reduced. A new and notable development in counter-terrorism occurred in the US in November 1999. The National Capital Domestic Response Squad (NCDRS) was established. This counter-terrorist squad was set up by the FBI field office, due to Washington being a target-rich environment for terrorists. Law enforcement and security officials from 12 local and Federal agencies were drawn in to form the squad, including the following: Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco & Firearms Capitol Police Federal Protective Service

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Federal Bureau of Investigation Immigration and Naturalisation Service Park Police Secret Service State Department Washington Metro Transit Police Washington Metropolitan Police Dept. The National Capital Domestic Response Squad (NCDRS) includes: 50-member special weapons & tactics team Bomb squad 20-member hazardous-materials team Medical unit It is the largest US city counter-terrorist force. Its task is to prevent and respond to terrorist attacks in the Capitol, (some partly related to the change of millennium), to protect monuments, government buildings, major social events and diplomatic missions in the Capitol area. Importantly, it developed contingency plans to ensure that all agencies involved in counter-terrorism remain linked, in the event that normal channels of communication fail. The FBI field office’s terrorism unit also maintains an Infrastructure Protection Squad (IPS), whose task is to prevent and respond to terrorist attacks on data banks and computers. A favourite weapon of counter-terrorist special forces: The German MP53a Heckler & Koch 9mm sub machine gun

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Since the events of 11th September 2001, there has been a tremendous amount of Federal level anti- and counter-terrorism activity in the US, involving well known Agencies such as: INTENSE FEDERAL ANTI-TERRORIST ACTIVITY CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation) FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) Department of Justice Department of Homeland Security US Fire Administration (National Fire Academy)

Training, contingency plans and procedures for Mass Casualty Incidents, involving Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), are at the forefront of US anti-terrorism efforts. Assessing Terrorist Threats A Threat Assessment is an evaluation of a situation in a security context. It is carried out according to a variety of circumstances: Routinely Following a breach of security After a terrorist attack Upon the emergence of a new potential threat Most threat assessments occur as a result of the following preliminary conclusions when a real or potential threat arises: Potential loss is a possibility or likelihood in existing or future circumstances The potential loss cannot be withstood, or is unacceptably high A threat assessment is necessary to evaluate the potential losses in a threat situation, to examine what action can be taken to prevent or minimise those losses and whether such action is overall, an affordable option in financial and political terms.

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Before that can be done, the threat assessment has to precisely identify the threat. In almost any type of situation where there is a potential threat of loss, a threat assessment may be applied to rationalise the situation and help arrive at a decision. A typical threat assessment might include the following: Detailed profile of potential or actual threat, hostile forces and likely outcome Character, disposition and vulnerability of all human resources Nature and disposition of fixed structures and moveable assets Preliminary assessment of potential loss Feasibility study: Prevention/diminishment action including costs, resources and ability 2nd assessment: Potential cost of acquiescence versus cost of prevention / diminishment Conclusions and recommended course of action, calculated to minimise overall loss Threat assessments of terrorists or terrorist groups include an evaluation as follows:

Existence Location Targeting History Capability Intentions Current Mode Security Environment

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The conclusion of a threat assessment often concludes with a change of level in a security alertness plan. It may be higher, lower or be maintained at the same level. There are several different levels or phases in such plans or systems. A typical example of a security alertness plan is as follows:

PHASE

MEANING

CRITICAL

A terrorist group has entered the country or is able to do so. It has the capability to attack and is engaged in target selection (target in this context meaning victims / sites). Its history and intentions may or may not be known

HIGH

A terrorist group exists, has capability, history + intention to attack

MEDIUM

The same conditions as High, except that intentions are unknown

LOW NEGLIGIBLE

A situation in which a terrorist group exists and has an attack capability. Their history may or may not be known A situation in which the existence or capability of terrorist groups may or may not be present

Section 11.2: Tactics Intelligence Security “Fear has many eyes and can see things underground” Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote, Pt.1, Ch.20 Intelligence is knowledge or information gathered about a person or subject, in this case, terrorists. Intelligence security means protecting information that is known about the terrorists. It also means protecting and concealing the methods by which the information is collected. Simply put: Intelligence security is guarding what is known and how it was come by. This involves a variety of shrewd strategies, including deliberately passing false information (disinformation). Intelligence security may also include not only physical protection of installations, offices, computers and persons, but also for example, delaying the apprehension of a terrorist in order to protect a source or deep cover agent operating within the terrorist group.

Lesson 11/ Anti-Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism Security Intelligence “Early and provident fear is the mother of safety” Edmund Burke; Speech; Unitarian petition, 11 May, 1792

333 Reward Poster (US Dept. of State)

Security Intelligence means intelligence which enhances security. e.g. Knowledge of an impending attack becomes known to security forces from an Agent. Security Intelligence sometimes has a secondary meaning: What is known about security forces by opposition forces (terrorists). Negotiation In considering that the primary objective of security forces is the protection of life and property, it is not, in principle, unreasonable to negotiate with terrorists, even if it offends dignity and sense of decency. Negotiation does not necessarily imply concession or surrender. Some governments posture through media the position that they do not and will never negotiate with terrorists. In reality, all governments communicate with terrorists, wherever possible, in order to minimise loss of life and injury to their citizens, and in order to assist efforts to apprehend the terrorists; any contact with terrorists can only generate further intelligence and thus aids security forces efforts at detection and apprehension. Professional psychologists and psychiatrists are routinely utilised by security forces against terrorists, especially in negotiation and siege and hostage situations. Concession Concession to terrorists of a reasonable or politically acceptable nature, can be an option that a government selects to solve a politically unpleasant or dangerous situation. Concessions should be legal, but this is not always the case where matters of national security are concerned. In some political climates, concession to terrorists could easily destroy a government’s credibility or public trust and topple it. Concessions to terrorists are sometimes concealed by governments from their populations, usually in the interests of national security. This was the case in Lebanon in the 1980s concerning release of western hostages. Deterrent “Fear is maintained by a never failing dread of punishment” Niccolo Machiavelli; The Prince Deterrent may take many forms. It might include: more severe penalties under laws for terrorism; circulating descriptions or photographs of terrorists in the media; offering rewards for

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information, or it might be a naturally evolved deterrent. Armed hi-jacking of hostages and spontaneous massacre in population centres by terrorists on foot or in vehicles, does not now occur as frequently as it did before in western European democracies. This is partly due to major improvements in intelligence gathering by anti- and counterterrorist forces, but mainly due to the lower chances of survival for the terrorist, who will almost invariably face a dangerous, probably lethal rendezvous with counter-terrorist forces. Out of this proficiency, a natural deterrent has evolved. A highly effective but quite brutal deterrent occurred in a kidnapping case during the Cold War, in Beirut, Lebanon. According to local media reports, a small Lebanese militia unit kidnapped a Soviet Official. Subsequently, agents of a Warsaw-pact intelligence-security organization arrived and kidnapped a close relative of the militia leader. The officers of the intelligence-security organization then severed an ear from their captive and sent it to the militia leader; he promptly released the Soviet official unharmed and the hostage held by the Warsaw-pact intelligence-security organization was then released. A tactic applied during recent years in some countries, is to contact the family members (parents, brothers and sisters) of known wanted terrorists and inform them of what their son or brother (or daughter / sister in some cases) is engaged in. This is done on the rationale that every little pressure, upon already-stressed terrorists, helps. It is often the case that the family members thoroughly disapprove and apply some degree of pressure, which no matter how slight, results in discomfort and perhaps anxiety for the terrorist. This might eventually result in deterrence or disillusionment with terrorism, in a very small number of cases. The terrorists may also develop a subconscious fear for the safety of their family members, which they realise are known and monitored by security forces.

Former West German Police Anti-Terrorism Poster, 1980.

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Case Study: Al Qa’ida attacks on the US: 9/11/01 PROLOGUE “We laughed when we heard the Americans asking Mullah Omar to hand over bin Ladin...It is Osama bin Ladin who can hand over Mullah Omar, not the other way round. Basically any form of pleasure was outlawed... watching videos, playing cards, keeping a caged bird, owning a kite, men without long enough beards, women who ventured outside their houses... and if we found people doing any of these things, we would beat them with staves soaked in water - like a knife cutting through meat, until the room ran with their blood and their spines snapped. Then we would leave them with no food or water in rooms filled with insects until they died. We always tried to do different things, put some on their heads to sleep... hang others upside down with their legs tied together...I crucified people...we would stretch the arms of others and nail them to posts like crucifixions...a man beaten so much, such a pulp of skin and blood, that it was impossible to tell whether he had clothes on or not. Every time he fell unconscious, we rubbed salt in his wounds to make him scream...I would write the report to our commanding officer so he could see how innovative we had been...the soldiers were given blank marriage certificates signed by a mullah and were encouraged to ‘take wives’ during battle...basically a licence to rape.” Hafiz Sadiqulla Hassani, former Taliban torturer, in an interview with Christina Lamb, Daily Telegraph Reporter, in September 2001 (Reproduced by courtesy of © Telegraph Group Ltd) BRIEF On the morning of Tuesday 11th September 2001, four inter-related terrorist attacks (considered collectively as one terrorist event or strike, carried out by the same perpetrating terrorist organisation) occurred in New York, Washington DC and Pennsylvania, USA. The attacks were unprecedented in terms of casualties, destruction, boldness, scale, sophistication, resources, political and social effect, international outrage, media coverage, and response. They were carried out by a group of transnational terrorists of varying nationalities but of common motive and religious faith, funded and organised by the Al Qa’ida terrorist coalition network, headed by Osama bin Ladin, at that time based in Afghanistan.

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Four domestic US passenger airliners were hijacked after take-off by 19 transnational terrorists divided into four teams, using improvised knives, box-cutting tools and razors. Three aircraft were flown into populated buildings as suicide weapons, and the fourth crash landed en route to a target, believed to be as a result of passengers and / or aircrew rising up to attack the hijackers and thwart their plans. Two aircraft crashed into the 110-story twin towers of the World Trade Centre (New York), a third into the Pentagon (Washington DC) and a fourth did not make its intended target, but crashed in a rural area (Pennsylvania). The 2830 (approximately) victims killed were mostly US citizens, but the remainder included nationals from at least 80 other countries located on all the continents of the world. Damage clearing of the 1.3 million ton of debris and steel on the 16-acre site and rebuilding costs were estimated at US$ 39 billion. Serious localised disruption occurred, with national disruption for 48 hours in aviation, with security forces on national and worldwide alert. Other consequences of the attacks were: Rapid UN Resolutions, condemning the attacks Establishment of UN Security Council and General Assembly Anti-Terrorism Committees Establishment of the US Department of Homeland Security US mobilisation of an international response to terrorism Invasion of Afghanistan by US-led collation, to remove the [Al Qa’ida led] Taliban regime Installation of a coalition democratic government in Afghanistan A large emergency aid programme for the long-suffering Afghan population A US ultimatum that nations sponsoring or protecting terrorists will be held accountable

TIMELINE: SEQUENCE OF EVENTS (All times: US Eastern time or Zulu / GMT -5) Tuesday 11th September 2001 World Trade Centre prior to 9 / 11

8:45 am: American Airlines Flight 11 passenger jet, hijacked after takeoff from Boston, Massachusetts, crashed into the

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north tower of the World Trade Centre in New York and exploded, making a large hole in the building and setting it alight. 9:03 am: United Airlines Flight 175 passenger jet, also hijacked after takeoff from Boston, Massachusetts, crashed into the south tower of the World Trade Centre in New York and exploded, making a large hole in the building and setting it alight. 9:17 am: FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) closed all New York City airports, diverting all inbound flights. 9:21 am: PAs (Port Authorities) of New York and New Jersey closed all bridges and tunnels in the New York Metropolitan area. 9:30 am: US President Bush, announced in Sarasota, Florida, that the country had suffered an apparent terrorist attack. 9:40 am: FAA halted all flights at U.S. airports nationwide, for the first time in history. 9:43 am: American Airlines Flight 77 passenger jet, hijacked after takeoff from Washington (Dulles) International Airport, crashed into the Pentagon (HQ of the US Department of Defence), causing extensive damage to one wing. 9:45 am: The US White House was evacuated. 9:57 am: President Bush departed Florida. 10:05 am: The south tower of the World Trade Centre collapsed, falling into the streets below. A large cloud of debris and dust enveloped the surrounding areas. 10:08 am: Armed Secret Service Agents were deployed opposite the White House. 10:10 am: One wing of the Pentagon collapsed. 10:10 am: United Airlines Flight 93, hijacked after take off from Newark, New Jersey, crashed in Somerset County, Pennsylvania. 10:13 am: The United Nations evacuated 7000 people from its New York Headquarters and environs. 10:22 am: The Department of State, Department of Justice and the World Bank evacuated their Washington buildings. 10:24 am: FAA reported that all US-bound transatlantic aircraft were diverted to Canada.

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10:28 am: The World Trade Centre’s north tower collapsed into the street below, generating a large cloud of debris, dust and smoke into the surrounding areas. 10:45 am: All US Federal buildings in Washington were evacuated. 10.46 am: Colin Powell, U.S. Secretary of State, halted his visit to South America and returned to the US. 10:54 am: Israel evacuated all of its diplomatic missions. 10:57 am: George Pataki, New York Governor, closed all state government offices. 11:02 am: Rudolph Giuliani, New York City Mayor, evacuated an area of south Manhattan. 11:18 am: American Airlines reported it had lost two aircraft. American Flight 11 (81 passengers and 11 crew aboard) and Flight 77, (58 passengers and six crew members aboard). 11:26 am: United Airlines reported United Flight 93, as crashed in Pennsylvania. 11:59 am: United Airlines reported that Flight 175, had crashed (56 passengers and nine crew members aboard). 12:04 pm: Los Angeles International Airport, the destination of three of the hijacked aircraft, was evacuated. 12:15 pm: San Francisco International Airport, the destination of the remaining aircraft (United Airlines Flight 93), was evacuated and shut down. 12:15 pm: INS (Immigration and Naturalization Service) announced highest state of alert for borders with Canada and Mexico. 1:04 pm: President Bush announced from a Louisiana Air Force base, that all appropriate security measures were being taken, including putting the U.S. military on high alert worldwide. He urged prayers for the killed and wounded and announced “Make no mistake, the United States will hunt down and punish those responsible for these cowardly acts.” 1:27 pm: The City of Washington authorities declared a state of emergency. 1:44 pm: The Pentagon announced the departure of five warships and two aircraft carriers from Norfolk Virginia in order to protect the East Coast and to reduce the number of ships in dock. 1:48 pm: President Bush departed Louisiana on Air Force One (Presidential jet) and flew to an Air Force base in Nebraska.

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2:30 pm: FAA announced that there would be no commercial traffic in the continental US until at least 12 noon on the following day, Wednesday 12th September. 2:49 pm: Subway and bus services were partially restored in New York City. 3:55 pm: President Bush conducted a National Security Council meeting by telephone with Vice President Dick Cheney and National Security Adviser Condoleezza Rice (in a secure facility at the White House) and Defence Secretary Donald Rumsfeld (at the Pentagon). 4 pm: Government officials reported good indications that Osama bin Laden is involved in the attacks, based upon new intelligence received after the attacks. 4:06 pm: Gray Davis, Governor of California dispatched emergency search-and-rescue teams to New York City. 4:10 pm: Building 7 (a 47-story building) of the World Trade Center complex caught fire. 4:25 pm: The American Stock Exchange, the Nasdaq and the New York Stock Exchange announced closure for the following day. 4:30 pm: President Bush departed Nebraska for Washington. 5:15 pm: Fires were reported as continuing in part of the Pentagon. 5:20 pm: Building 7 of the World Trade Center cluster collapsed. It was damaged when the twin towers (across the street) had collapsed earlier in the day. Buildings in the vicinity remained on fire. 5:30 pm: Government officials announced that the plane crashed in Pennsylvania was headed for the White House, Camp David, or the U.S. Capitol building. 6:40 pm: U.S. Defence Secretary Donald Rumsfeld announced in the Pentagon that the Headquarters was fully operational. 6:54 pm: President Bush arrived at the White House on Marine One (Presidential helicopter) having landed earlier at an Air Force base in Maryland with three fighter jets escorting his aircraft. 7:02 pm: New York’s Marriott Hotel (near the World Trade Center) was reported as on the verge of collapse. Some New York bridges were re-opened to outbound traffic. 7:45 pm: NYPD (New York Police Department) reported at least 78 police officers as missing and the City authorities reported as many as 200 firemen (first responders) killed.

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8:30 pm: President Bush addressed the nation and announced that “Thousands of lives were suddenly ended by evil.” He asked for prayers for families and friends of the victims, adding that “These acts shattered steel, but they cannot dent the steel of American resolve.” President Bush said that the U.S. government would make no distinction between terrorists who commit acts and those who harbour them. He went on to mention that Washington government offices were reopening later in the evening for essential staff and for all staff on the following day. 9:22 pm: The Pentagon fire was reported as still burning: contained, but not under control. 9:57 pm: New York Mayor Giuliani announced closure of New York City schools for the following day. He announced that there was no electricity on the westside of Manhattan. 10:49 pm: Attorney General Ashcroft told members of Congress that there were three to five hijackers on each plane armed with knives.

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EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE ATTACKS On 11th September 2001, when Al Qa’ida terrorists attacked the US critical infrastructure, terrorism made a graduation. It escalated from the acts of horror we are relatively accustomed to, up to clear acts of war, on a scale normally confined to a wartime battle scenario, and with corresponding carnage. The events which led up to this outrage are rooted as far back as the Afghan-Soviet war of 1979 to 1989. Over twenty years ago now, the Soviet army began invading Afghanistan on 24th December 1979. Four days later, Zbigniew Brzezinsky (US National Security Advisor from 1977 to 1981) wrote a memorandum to President Carter informing him that the US ‘now has the opportunity to give the Soviet Union its Vietnam.’ According to Dr. Charles Cogan, Chief of the CIA South Asia Division (1979-1984), the first US arms sent to the Afghan Mujahideen rapidly arrived only some few days later on 10th January 1980. As this was a clandestine Osama bin Ladin operation and in order to maintain a degree of deniability, Courtesy: US State Dept. the arms were Warsaw pact models and not US weapons. The US opposed the Soviets on political grounds and the Mujahideen opposed the Soviets on religious grounds as communism (specifically atheism, an attribute of communism) is unacceptable to Islam. A massive expansion of the Mujahideen was required. Guerrilla warfare training camps were set up at Peshawar in Pakistan’s North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and along the border with Afghanistan. The US was to fund the expansion with an eventual US$ 3 billion, with some financial aid coming from Saudi Arabia. Pakistan’s ISI coordinated this clandestine warfare effort. A total of around 250,000 Mujahideen (rotating) were to fight in the 10-year war at one time or another, and 14,000 came from 22 Muslim countries outside of Afghanistan. These volunteers went out (mainly from and via Middle Eastern countries) to train and become Mujahideen, fighting

Soviet Military Poster

Courtesy: Funet

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the Soviets under the banner of Jihad, artificially stimulated and sanctioned by the US, China, Saudi Arabia and several other western and eastern countries. An early arrival was 22 year-old Osama bin Ladin from a Yemeni family who had emigrated to Saudi Arabia. He gained quite widespread popularity among the other Mujahideen for two reasons: He used his immense family wealth (millions from the construction industry) and technical knowledge to construct roads, tunnels, orphanages and hospitals for Afghans wounded in the conflict

FIM 92 A STINGER Missile

He took part in the fighting himself at one point, before becoming an instructor for a period in one of the training camps, although he did not need even to go to Afghanistan. Being wealthy and independent, he could have instead afforded to sponsor others and remain safely at home, as most of his wealthy peers chose to do Bin Ladin set up the services office (Maktaba el Khidmat) in Peshawar, Pakistan (near the border with Afghanistan), with Abdulah Azzam, head of the Palestinian Iqwan ul Muslimeen (Muslim Brotherhood). The office processed many of the Mujahideen bound for the training camps and the fighting. It was at this point that bin Ladin began to build up a directory of religious extremists, as thousands of them passed through the services (recruiting) office in Peshawar. This directory become the database and directory of the Al Qa’ida (the base) network-coalition when it was formed in 1988. In 1986, the war was escalated when Milton Bearden, CIA Station Chief in Pakistan from 1986 to 1989, crossed the border into Afghanistan for operations involving supply and training with superior US weaponry. He taught the Mujahideen how to operate the US Stinger missile and soon after, they were used with great success to shoot down Soviet helicopters and aircraft. Milton Bearden so rightly describes this as the turning point of the war. The costly ten year campaign resulted in the ejection of the Soviets from Afghanistan, with 15,000 Soviets and 1 million Afghans killed, and half a million Soviets wounded. 66% of Afghans had become refugees. When US support was withdrawn following the conclusion of the war, it was left to Saudi Arabia and Pakistan to re-establish civil order, rebuild the area and bring the region off of a war footing. US Senator Dana Rohrbacker (California) recalled that “That was a terrible mistake.” Little or nothing was done about the Mujahideen. No one seemed to have foreseen the consequences of training a full-blooded guerrilla army, most of whom had little interest or skills other than fighting a ‘Jihad’ or Holy War, then literally abandoning them to their own devices, fully

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armed with their weapons. Significant numbers of the Mujahideen were refused entry upon return to their own countries and some were killed upon arrival, for fear of them fomenting violent domestic Jihad. Overall, large numbers of Mujahideen felt betrayed and abandoned. Consequently they shifted their focus from anti-communism to the problems in the Muslim world. They founded a new cause of armed Jihad (legitimised for them by the west and their own governments during the war) against their own governments, which they considered corrupt and western vassals. It was at this point in history that in the eyes of the west, the Mujahideen ceased to be ‘heroes,’ and became ‘villains,’ not only for political reasons, but also because they began to run a lucrative narcotics trade, including stockpiles, which apparently continues. As a result, 79% of the world’s illegal opium is supplied from Afghanistan and Opium poppies (Papaver Somniferum) tons of Heroin are smuggled into Europe each year (6 tons Shown after the first stage of heroin of illegal heroin were seized in Europe between October production - gum excretion after lancing Courtesy: UK Home Office 2000 and March 2001). Illegal Opium production in Afghanistan pre-dates the emergence of the Taliban in 1995. That same year, opium produced in Afghanistan was estimated at 2,300 tons. In 2001, 185 metric tons of Opium was produced in Afghanistan, grossing farmers approximately US$ 56 million. The training camps which had not all closed after the war, religious schools (a religious school is a Deenie Medresseh [Arabic]) and other facilities became training schools for terrorism and guerrilla warfare. Mujahideen from over 40 countries subsequently attended these training camps in the years that followed the Soviet-Afghan war. One of the main reasons for the Mujahideen focussing in upon the problems in Muslim countries was the development of the 1979 revolution in Iran, ten years before, running parallel to the war in Afghanistan. This was in character, an Islamic revolution to re-assert Islamic values, as Iranians and others in the Middle East felt that despite the end of colonialism, the west still imposed a succession of western style surrogate leaders upon them. The Iranian revolution heralded the post colonial Islamic revival with establishment of Islamic [religious] government in Iran, and rejection of western style government in which politics and religion are firmly segregated. In 1990, the Gulf war occurred. Bin Ladin saw that the west had armed and supported Saddam Hussein in its war against Iran, but now wished to attack Iraq, using the soil of Saudi Arabia, where access to holy sites by non-Muslims is forbidden. Bin Ladin felt outraged that western troops were an unclean and corrupting presence on Saudi soil and feared a permanent presence. He believed that the west was moving permanently into the Holy Land, not to liberate Kuwait

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so much as to protect its own oil interests and use Saudi Arabia as a base from which to protect Israel. After the Gulf war in 1991, thousands of troops remained on Saudi soil. Bin Ladin failed to persuade the King of Saudi Arabia to permit him to raise a Mujahideen army (along the lines of the one in Afghanistan) to force Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Relations then strained and after a period of house arrest and being threatened with probable arrest for sedition, bin Ladin left Saudi Arabia for Afghanistan. He left Afghanistan a short while later for the Sudan. British Troops in Operation Dessert Storm, Kuwait For ten years, the Soviets had been bin Ladin’s enemy; now the US had replaced them. In Khartoum, bin Ladin established himself, investing large sums of his considerable money, using some of it to help parts of Sudan’s infrastructure. Bin Ladin announced at that time, “We have been denied our religious beliefs, our world, our money. Saudi Arabia has become wide open for all sorts of anti-Islamic powers.” Bin Ladin began to firmly establish a transnational terrorist network while residing in Sudan. He had the makings of this network from some years previously, in the form of the many contacts he made during the Soviet-Afghan war. In 1993 Ramzi Youssef (who had links to bin Ladin) masterminded the bombing of the World Trade Centre. Other [unexecuted] plans by the same coalition included blowing up the UN Headquarters, bridges and tunnels in the New York area. It was following this, according to Oliver Revell, Associate Deputy Director of the FBI from 1980 to 1984, that a CIA anti-terrorism task force was set up. Also in 1993, US Forces in Somalia (aiding the UN effort to help the starving and oppressed masses at the mercy of local warlords) came under vicious attack when US helicopters were shot down. It was later found that bin Ladin was involved. In 1994, a terrorist named Abdul Hakim Murad was arrested in the Philippines. He revealed to investigators that there was a plan to blow up 11 US passenger aircraft in mid air. Murrad added that he had discussed a plan with bin Ladin, about crashing a hijacked airliner into a US Government building. In 1995, a building in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, used by US trainers was bombed. The terrorists had links to bin Ladin. In 1996, a US military complex at Dhahran, Khalid Shaikh Mohammed Saudi Arabia was bombed by terrorists linked to bin Wanted for conspiracy to bomb 12 airliners Courtesy: US Dept. of State Ladin. Also in 1996, as a result of US pressure, bin

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USS’ Shaw and Nevada, Pearl Harbour, Hawaii on 7th December 1941.The attacks in the US on 11th September 2001, were compared to the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbour, in terms of deviousness and savagery Courtesy: US Army

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Ladin was asked to leave Sudan. He took up residence in Afghanistan, where he was welcomed back. He slowly began to take control of the Taliban de-facto government, with whom he had mutual interests, including the running of the large illegal drugs trade. Moreover, it was in 1996 that for the first time, bin Ladin publicly announced that US citizens were a legitimate target. A US plan to insert special forces and abduct bin Ladin was shelved on the grounds that it posed too many logistics problems, would cause too much collateral damage, and too many civilians would lose their lives. In 1998, the US embassies in Nairobi and Dar as Salaam were blown up by terrorists sent by bin Ladin' s Al Qa’ida network coalition. In order to kill a dozen Americans, bin Ladin also slaughtered hundreds of

Kenyans, many of them Muslims. Shortly afterwards, US cruise missiles (terrain and satellite guided, accurate to about 4 yards/ metres fired from up to 1000 miles [1600 kilometres] away) were launched against a terrorist training camp in Afghanistan and a pharmaceutical plant [suspected of manufacturing Weapons of Mass Destruction] in Khartoum, Sudan. In 2000, the USS Cole was attacked with a large bomb while docked at Aden. The terrorists had connections with bin Ladin’s Al Qa’ida network Bin Ladin continued to plan terrorist acts against mainly US targets, but also select European targets, leading up to the terrorist attacks of 11th September 2001. Al Qa’ida terrorists planned on flying a hijacked airliner into London’s Westminster Palace on 11th September 2001, but were disrupted. From 1979 until the attacks of 11th September 2001, the following points are the most important to note: YEARLINES: EVENTS LEADING TO ATTACKS ON 11th SEPTEMBER 2001 1979: Iranian Shah removed by revolutionaries as brutal western surrogate : Iran establishes Islamic [religious] government (politics and religion inseparable) : Iranian revolution leads quest for post colonial Muslim identity 1980 : US and West support anti-Soviet Afghan Mujahideen with funding and weapons : First of 14,000 foreign Mujahideen came to aid Afghan Jihad and fight against the Soviets 1981: Mujahideen recruiting for Afghanistan is strongly stimulating Islamic extremism : West signals Muslims that armed struggle against government is a legitimate form of Jihad

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1986: War escalated as US weapons supplied and CIA train Mujahideen on use of Stinger missiles : Soviets begin to lose war 1988: Osama bin Ladin and Abdullah Azzam (Palestinian Muslim Brotherhood) form Al Qa’ida 1989: War ends: Mujahideen abandoned with their weapons, including Stingers : Pakistan and Saudi Arabia left to clear up area and take it down from a war footing : Muslim world notes that a superpower was defeated by Mujahideen : Mujahideen and Muslim world look inwards to scrutinise their own regimes 1990: Jihad declared upon Muslim nations’ ‘corrupt’ regimes and western supporters : Training Camps turned into terrorist training schools (trainees from 40 nations) : Afghanistan becomes an armed camp of factions led by corrupt and brutal war lords : Between 1990 and 2001, 50,000 Afghans are killed in a protracted civil war : Saudi Arabian King rejects bin Ladin’s leading Mujahideen against Iraq in Kuwait : US and coalition troops land on Saudi Arabian soil 1991: US replaces Soviet Union as bin Ladin’s enemy 1992: Bin Ladin leaves Saudi Arabia for Afghanistan, before he is eventually arrested : After a short while, bin Ladin departs Afghanistan for Sudan : Bin Ladin begins to establish networks of transnational terrorists, using peer war veterans 1993: World Trade Centre bombing: Links to bin Ladin : US forces aiding UN efforts in Somalia are attacked. Links to bin Ladin : CIA establishes anti-terrorism task force 1994: Terrorist in Philippines confesses that a plan exists to bomb 11 US airliners in flight : Abdul Murad / bin Ladin discuss crashing aeroplane into US government building 1995: US trainers’ building in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia) bombed. Links to bin Ladin 1996: US military complex at Dhahran (Saudi Arabia) bombed. Links to bin Ladin : Western pressure upon Sudan compels bin Ladin to leave Sudan for Afghanistan : Bin Ladin announces that US citizens are legitimate targets 1998: US Embassies in Nairobi and Dar as Salaam bombed. Links to bin Ladin : US strikes Afghan training camp and suspected WMD plant in Khartoum 2000: USS Cole attacked while in Aden dock. Links to bin Ladin 2001: MCI* attacks by Al Qa’ida in the US on 11th September. Bin Ladin directly implicated * (Mass Casualty Incident)

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FORTH TO WAR: THE AFTERMATH OF THE 11th SEPTEMBER ATTACKS The United Nations rapidly passed several UN Resolutions, condemning the attacks and establishing a UN Security Council counter-terrorism committee. A massive domestic security overhaul occurred in the US and Europe, in the months following the attacks, to enhance existing security resources and measures. The existing security challenges and assets in the US are as follows:

US Security Challenges

The US (oceanic exclusive economic zone) is 3.4 million square miles (5.4 million sq. kilometres) US land and air borders with Canada and Mexico span 7,500 miles (12,000 kilometres) 500 million people enter the US each year, of which 330 million are foreigners 11.2 million trucks and 2.2 million train carriages (rail cars) cross into the US every year 51,000 foreign ships dock in US ports each year At any given time on an average day, 4000 aircraft are airborne over the United States The US has 350 official ports of entry The rate of military deployment increased 16-fold since the end of the Cold War Post Cold War defence budgets were cut by US$ 50 billion and half a million personnel Military equipment ages faster than it can be replaced There are 200+ US diplomatic missions in foreign countries There are several hundred US businesses with several thousand branches in foreign countries 5 million Americans live within 5 miles (8 km) of the Nation’s most hazardous chemical facilities

US Primary Security Assets

The 13 Departments / Agencies of the US Intelligence Community*

Police and Sheriff’s departments (847,000 + 622,000 deputies and reserve officers) Emergency Medical Technicians [Paramedics] (155,000 personnel) Firefighters (1 million personnel of which 750,000 are part-time volunteers) Army (530,500 personnel) Navy (400,000 personnel) Air Force (385,000 personnel) Marine Corps (174,000 personnel) Coast Guard (37,223 personnel) + (8000 reserves) + (33 Auxiliaries) Ready Reserves (1,276,190 personnel: Army, Navy, Air Force, National Guard, Air Guard, Marines) Federal Emergency Management Agency (2,500 personnel) + (5000 reservists) Department of Homeland Security with a 2003 budget of US$ 37.7 billion Corporation for National and Community Service (20,000 personnel) A massive amount of sophisticated weaponry, communications and surveillance equipment, including nuclear weapons and satellites

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*The 13 Departments / Agencies of the US Intelligence Community are: National Security Agency / Central Security Service [NSA / CSS] Central Intelligence Agency [CIA] National Imagery and Mapping Agency [NIMA] Federal Bureau of Investigation [FBI] Defense Intelligence Agency [DIA] National Reconnaissance Office [NRO] Department of Energy [DoE] Army Intelligence Air Force Intelligence Navy Intelligence Marine Corps Intelligence Department of Treasury Department of State (DoS) The US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was formed in October 2001, as a result of the attacks on 11th September 2001. It is responsible for coordinating Federal anti-terrorism prevention and protection efforts in the following areas:

Detection Preparedness Prevention Protection Response and Recovery Incident Management The Department of Homeland Security is governed by the Homeland Security Council (HSC), which is responsible for advising and assisting the US President with respect to all aspects of homeland security. The Homeland Security Council comprises: The President and the Vice President

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Secretary of the Treasury Secretary of Defence Attorney General Secretary of Health & Human Services Secretary of Transportation Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency Director of the FBI Director of Central Intelligence Asst. to President for Homeland Security Presidentially designated members / Federal officials

Cabinet

The US mobilised the free world in an international response to terrorism and led a collation that invaded Afghanistan in October 2001 in Operation Enduring Freedom (and several other successive operations), to eject the [Al Qa’ida led] oppressive Taliban regime and install a temporary Afghan coalition government.

Director of Homeland Security Tom Ridge

© Dept. of State

Security Levels: Dept. of Homeland Security

Courtesy: Dept. of State

It also undertook a massive aid programme to assist the suffering Afghan masses. Furthermore, there was mine aid provided. There are up to an estimated 10 million landmines in Afghanistan; the most heavily mined country in the world. An allied coalition soldier is injured every ten days (on average), by mines. The Afghan people suffered terribly during the ten year Soviet war, the main civil war that followed, and in later years again, under the Taliban regime. A total of 22 years, but they endured. The US announced in 2002, that sponsoring of terrorism would no longer be tolerated, that states who do not promptly renounce the sponsorship of terrorism and

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providing sanctuary to terrorists would be held accountable in the near future with sanctions and possible military action, including use of nuclear weapons, if necessary and appropriate. As of June 2002, the war continues between the International coalition and the Taliban forces (with some very few armed elements of Al Qa’ida), who are clearly losing the ground war. Ward Elcock, Chief of the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) made a public statement at a two-day seminar in March 2002. He announced that Canada is still in a heightened state of alert due to the threat of more Al Qa’ida attacks, and will be for the foreseeable future. He added that: The war on terrorism did not yet destroy Al Qa’ida, which is willing and able to strike Many Al Qa’ida leaders are at large, reconstructing the coalition to resume operations Many radical Muslims were trained in Al Qa’ida camps in Afghanistan in the past decade Intelligence estimates that these trained militants number about 10,000 After training, many of them settled around the world in about 60 countries They now function in preparing attacks, supporting the network or lying in wait It will be perhaps even years before the West can claim victory over bin Ladin network Warnings of impending Al Qa’ida attacks against the US and other Western and Middle Eastern nations continue to be received in Intelligence circles. [Refer to Annex L to view a map of where the Al Qa’ida network has a firm presence]. In June 2002, some elements of the British Royal Marines began withdrawing from Afghanistan, having completed their Mission to search the ground up to the Pakistan border, without clashes, and secure certain other sectors. US Secretary of Defence, Donald Rumsfeld announced in June 2002 that Al Qa’ida / Taliban were in proximity to the Line of Control (LoC); the ceasefire line between India and Pakistan, in Jammu & Kashmir. From the Marines’ and Defence Secretary Rumsfeld’s reports, it can be concluded that Al Qa’ida / Taliban forces have crossed into Pakistan in numbers; an immensely difficult movement to prevent along such a historically difficult border. Media also reported later in June 2002, that numbers of Taliban and Al Qa’ida had also travelled east through Iran, into Iraq, and then been conveyed to Saudi Arabia, where a number of them were arrested on internal security grounds. Osama bin Ladin remains at large, his whereabouts unknown.

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PHOTO GALLERY 9 / 11 and OPERATIONS AGAINST TALIBAN / AL QA’IDA IN AFGHANISTAN IN THE WAR ON TERRORISM

US President Bush with White House Chief of Staff on Air Force One, 11th Sept. 2001

Courtesy Dept. of State

The Pentagon

© Dept. of Defense

View of the Pentagon during reconstruction

© Dept. of Defense

US CIA Director, George Tenet

Video of Bin Ladin discussing attacks

© Dept. of Defense

Reward posted for Bin Ladin and Al Zawahiri

© Dept. ofDefense

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US F-14 Tomcat readied for Operation Enduring Freedom

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US 101 Airborne Division south of Gardez in Operation Anaconda

© Dept. of State

US B2 Stealth Bomber refuels in mid-air

© Air National Guard

British Harrier Jump Jet being prepared

© Crown

US Airman defends airfield near Kandahar British Commandos hunt Taliban

© Dept. of Defense

© Crown

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US AH 64 Apache helicopter near Kandahar

© Dept. of Defense

US 101 Airborne Division on reconnaissance at Serkenheil © Dept. of Defense

US Navy Seal shows breadth of Taliban / Al Qa’ida cave at Tora Bora

© US Navy

US Special Forces and Northern Alliance

© Dept. of Defense

US Navy Seals on operations in the plains

© US Navy

FBI in Washington unpack cases of captured Taliban / Al Qa’ida documents and other evidence for intelligence analysis

© US FBI

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Northern Alliance fighters inspect Taliban position after USAF bombing ©Dept. of Defense

British Royal Marine Commando in the foothills of Afghanistan

© Crown

US AH 1 W Super Cobra attack helicopter readied for a mission

© Dept. of Defense

Engine change on a US C-5 Galaxy

© Dept. of Defense

German, Austrian & Netherlands soldiers patrol Bagram Airfield

© Crown

Afghan Policeman and British Paratrooper conduct joint patrolling in Kabul © Crown

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British troops patrolling in the mountains

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US 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit disembark at an undisclosed location

© Dept. of Defense

© Crown

British Commando Heavy Machine Gun Team (.50 calibre)

© Crown

British Royal Marines mountain insertion at 10,000 feet

© Crown

British Sea King helicopters on HMS Ocean

© Crown

US 101 Airborne Div. MP outside Kandahar airport with an Afghan child © Dept of Defense

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US F-18C launching from USS Carl Vinson

© Dept. of Defense

In the clouds: British air-gunner at rear of helicopter

© Crown

US 489th Civil Affairs Battallion:10th Mountain Division, delivering earthquake relief to Nahrin, Afghanistan

British 59 Commando Combat Engineers search Taliban bunker

© Crown

© Dept. of Defense

Joint Romanian-British MP patrol in Kabul

© Crown

US B 1B bomber refuels mid-air during a mission

© Dept. of Defense

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EPILOGUE

Taliban / Al Qa’ida prisoner at Camp X Ray. US Naval Station, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba Courtesy: US Dept. of Defense

“Make no mistake, the United States will hunt down and punish those responsible” US President George Bush “This terrorism is the new evil in our world today. It is perpetrated by fanatics who are utterly indifferent to the sanctity of human life...We, like them [the US], will not rest until this evil is driven from our world” UK Prime Minister Anthony Blair “There is no doubt that such inhuman actions cannot be left unpunished. The whole international community must rally in the fight against terrorism” Russian President Vladimir Putin

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“There can be no sanctuary for terrorists ... It is a war that we have embarked on and we will pursue, without respite, in France and overseas” French President Jacques Chirac

“We’re going to find out who did this and we’re going after the bastards” Orrin Hatch, US Senator, Utah

“This is obviously an act of war that has been committed on the United States” John McCain, US Senator, Arizona

“Thousands of lives were suddenly ended by evil, despicable acts of terror” US President George W. Bush

“It just seemed wrong, I just wanted to get there” Lt Col. Timothy Duffy, USAF pilot scrambled on 11th September 2001 for a possible hijacking, who acting on instinct, put his F-15 fighter on afterburner and flew 153 miles supersonically to New York

“We are not hated because we practice democracy, freedom, and human rights. We are hated because our government denies these things to people in third-world countries whose resources are coveted by our multinational corporations. And that hatred we have sown has come back to haunt us in the form of terrorism and, in the future, nuclear terrorism. Once the truth about why the threat exists is understood, the solution becomes obvious. We must change our government’s ways” Dr. Robert Bowman.(decorated Lt. Col. USAF retired veteran, who flew 101 combat missions in Vietnam), in an open letter to US President Bush in April 2002

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KEYWORDS TO NOTE Anti-Terrorism Atheism

Passive, defensive, preventative, legal measures against terrorism The belief that God does not exist

Choke Point

Passage which a victim’s vehicle is compelled to travel through, with a potentially high risk of attack

Communism

Politico-social theory and system in which all property is communityowned, and each member contributes and receives according to ability and needs. Authored by Marx and Engels in the 19th century. In theory it was to create a society of freedom and plenty, where no class existed, all being socially and economically equal

Counter-Terrorism

Active and offensive measures to deter and respond to terrorism

Immediate Care

Immediate scene-rendered medical treatment at paramedic level

Intelligence Security

Protection of information and sources from which it was obtained

Kill Zone

Optimal zone for terrorist assault, pre-determined or random

Layered Security Zones

Integrated system of tiered (but self-contained) security zones, of human, electronic and constructional security resources

Security Intelligence

Information which: Enhances security or is known about security

Target Hardening Trap

Measures taken to increase the security of a potential victim Measures to seal off a kill zone, preventing victim escape

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TERRORIST ATTACK BRIEF Achile Lauro Hijacking, near Port Said, Egypt Facts of the Case: On 7th October 1985, four terrorists from the PLF (Palestinian Liberation Front - a splinter group from the PFLP-GC) hijacked an Italian cruise ship, the Achile Lauro, just off of Port Said, Egypt, in response to Israeli air attacks on the PLO Headquarters in Tunis, Tunisia, some days before. 500 hostages were taken and the hijackers demanded the release of 50 Palestinian prisoners from Israeli jails in exchange for the release of the hostages. During the two day siege, a heated verbal exchange took place between one of the passengers, a Jewish American citizen in a wheel chair, and one of the Palestinian terrorists. The passenger was subsequently murdered and his body thrown overboard. Investigation: The head of the PLF, Mohammed (Abu) Abbas arrived in Cairo from Tunis and engaged in negotiations, following which the four terrorists surrendered to Egyptian police in Port Said, Egypt. On the next day, the four terrorists, the PLF leader, PLO and Egyptian officials flew out of Egypt. Four U.S. F-14 fighter jets intercepted the aircraft and forced it down at a U.S. naval base in Italy. Italian authorities arrested the four terrorists, charged, convicted and imprisoned them for the hijacking and murder. Three of them later escaped by various means. The PLF leader was convicted in absentia by a Genoa court and given life imprisonment, but by 1988, he had returned to Gaza after Israeli authorities granted him permission to enter.

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END-OF-LESSON QUIZ 1. Anti-terrorism generally means passive, defensive, preventive, protective or legal measures against terrorism. a) True b) False 2. Counter-terrorism generally means active and offensive measures to deter and respond to terrorism. a) True b) False 3. In the 1990s, increasingly more intelligence, security, police and military forces have been engaged in combatting terrorism, especially in the western democracies. a) True b) False 4. Which of the following is not an anti-terrorist measure? a) US government warnings to its citizens b) Economic development in Turkey’s under-developed region c) Assaulting a hi-jacked aircraft containing terrorists and hostages 5. Which of the following is not a counter-terrorist measure? a) Ambush of infiltrating terrorists b) Providing full time standby medical teams for the aftermath of terrorist bombings c) Sabotaging weapons in a terrorist arms cache 6. Part of assessing terrorist threats involves establishing a) Counter-terrorist forces b) A plan of attack c) A level in a security alertness plan 7. Intelligence security means a) The name of an organisation b) A type of counter-terrorist duty c) Protecting what is known and how it was come by 8. Security intelligence means a) Intellectual security b) Intelligence that enhances security or, what is known about security c) Someone who works in security and intelligence 9. Governments never secretly negotiate with terrorists. a) True b) False 10. Counter-terrorist assaults by western special forces are now so efficient, especially in siege and hostage situations, they have evolved to be more of a deterrent than just a response. a) True b) False

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11. If the potential loss cannot be withstood, or is unacceptably high, what is called for? a) A counter-terrorist strike b) A threat assessment c) Anti-terrorism measures 12. The west, in stimulating anti-Soviet Jihad in Afghanistan, encouraged Mujahideen to later turn on governments. a) True b) False 13. In the Republic of Ireland, who has a CT (counter terrorist) role? a) SAS (Special Air Service) b) Special Branch (Police) c) Ranger Wing: Irish Defence Forces 14. Hijacking and massacre in European democracies is now not as common as it was before. a) True b) False 15. A threat assessment evaluation of a terrorist group includes a) Evaluating counter-terrorist fire-power b) Targeting-history of the group c) Automatically seeking an increase in budget 16. Sometimes, an anti-terrorist tactic is to inform terrorists’ families about their relative’s activity. a) True b) False 17. The Infrastructure Protection Squad (IPS) is part of a field office terrorism unit belonging to a) New Scotland Yard (UK) b) Sûreté (France) c) FBI (US) 18. A threat assessment cannot include a second assessment. a) True b) False 19. Abandoning large numbers of armed Mujahideen after the Soviet-Afghan was a) The only possible thing to do b) A terrible mistake c) Not an issue 20. Psychologists and psychiatrists are not utilised by security forces against terrorists. a) True b) False ANSWERS: 1-a, 2-a, 3-a, 4-c, 5-b, 6-c, 7-c, 8-b, 9-b, 10-a, 11-b, 12-a, 13-c, 14-a, 15-b, 16-a, 17-c, 18-b, 19-b, 20-b.

Lesson 12 Terrorism, The United Nations, and The Future Section 12.1: The United Nations and Terrorism UN Resolutions and Other Instruments Against Terrorism The UN Organisation Against Terrorism Other UN Activities Indirectly Affecting Terrorism Section 12.2: Terrorism and the Future Technological Advantages; Security Forces Political Integrity and Will to Counter Terrorism The Horizon Possibilities to Effectively Defeat Terrorism Keywords to Note Terrorist Attack Brief: Seizure of US Embassy/Hostages, Teheran, Iran

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Lesson 12 Objectives Section 12.1: The United Nations and Terrorism This lesson explains that anti-terrorism resolutions have been passed by the United Nations organisation and international conventions. The lesson goes on to mention the landmark UN Resolution on terrorism passed with sanctions against a government accused of terrorism in 1992. The lesson continues with the further landmark Resolutions passed following the terrorist attacks of 11th September 2001. This lesson also details the UN organisation’s department concerned with anti-terrorism, the Terrorism Prevention Branch (TPB), its mandate and its current operational tasks. The current situation concerning the UN and terrorism is briefly discussed mentioning the important deterrent value of the UN International Criminal Tribunals. Finally, the student examines Annexes D and E, which list international legal instruments on the prevention and suppression of terrorism and UN Resolutions, respectively. The Terrorist Attack Brief for this lesson concerns the seizure of the US Embassy and Hostages in Iran. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Understand the brief facts concerning UN Resolution 748 List some of the subjects of UN resolutions and international instruments on terrorism Describe the UN organisation’s department for terrorism, its mandate and activities Explain the value against terrorism of the UN International Criminal Tribunals Section 12.2: Terrorism and the Future This section describes the future and terrorism. It briefly explains the evolution of technological advances of anti- and counter- terrorist forces during the past 30 years and the projected continuation of these advances. This lesson also touches upon political integrity and the will to counter terrorism, and also the horizon; a discussion of the single most underlying reasons fuelling terrorism; poverty, followed closely by intolerance. This final lesson ends with a list of political, social and economic iniquities and omissions on the part of the global or international community, which must be addressed if a convincing effort is to be made towards suppressing terrorism in this century. After studying this lesson, the student should be able to: Understand the past and future technological trends of forces ranged against terrorism Describe the current international political will to counter terrorism Explain the two major reasons which fuel terrorism; poverty and intolerance Broadly discuss the main iniquities and omissions which lie behind the poverty and intolerance which fuels terrorism: economic oppression, oppression by dictatorships, widespread and unrestrained abuse of human rights and international double standards Recall the meaning of the words contained in the Lesson’s Keywords to Note table Recall the basic facts concerning the seizure of the US Embassy and Hostages in Iran

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Lesson 12 Terrorism, The United Nations and the Future Section 12.1: The United Nations and Terrorism UN Resolutions and Other Instruments Against Terrorism “Our constant aim must be to build and fortify the strength of the United Nations Organisation” Former UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill, during a speech in Zurich, 19th September 1946 A list of International legal instruments related to the prevention and suppression of terrorism may be found in Annex D. The purpose of these instruments is to achieve widespread formal recognition, condemnation and legislation on terrorism in general, but also for certain specific types of terrorist-specific offences and measures to erode the support base for terrorism, such as: Hijacking and endangering aircraft and ships Hostage-taking Terrorist bombing Agreement to mark explosives Disruption of terrorist funding, investments and assets Conventional crimes committed by terrorists Safety of nuclear materials Punishment of terrorism acts against diplomatic agents A list of UN Resolutions on terrorism appears in Annex E. Please refer to them. They fall into two categories; those passed by the: UN General Assembly (GA) UN Security Council (SC) These two bodies consider and try to resolve issues of a nature that their titles suggest general issues and those of a security nature, although they are not strictly confined as such.

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The purpose of these UN Resolutions is to: Provide a basis to monitor progress of those measures against terrorism which are in a stage of on-going development and to evaluate and enhance those measures already in existence, such as Resolutions GA 42/154 (Consideration of Effective Measures) and Resolution GA 42/22 (Declaration on the Enhancement) To classify and condemn terrorism as a human rights violation (Resolution GA 48/122) To re-enforce existing Resolutions on hostage-taking, such as Resolutions SC 579 & 638 To condemn specific acts of state terrorism and call for remedial action or sanctions, as in the cases of Resolution SC 674 (Unconditional withdrawal of all Iraqi forces from Kuwait) Impose sanctions for terrorism (for the first time in history), specifically against Libyan acts of terrorism against civil aviation (SC Resolutions 748 and 883 - Suppression of Acts of International Terrorism) To condemn other specific acts of terrorism not overtly involving governments such as Resolution SC 6559 (Security Council Strongly Condemns Terrorist Bomb Attacks in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam on 7th August 1998) To condemn the attacks on New York, Washington DC and Pennsylvania on 11th September 2001 (SC Resolution 1368 and GA Resolution 56/1) To provide international cooperation against terrorist threats to international peace and security / to establish a Security Council Committee for Counter-Terrorism (SC Res. 1373) It is useful to be generally aware of these Annexes as the legal international basis upon which terrorism is condemned and attacked, and also as a convenient reference tool whenever the number or date is required for a specific UN Resolution. The UN Organisation Against Terrorism The Terrorism Prevention Branch (TPB) is the United Nations service responsible for research and technical cooperation in the field of terrorism. The TPB began operations in April 1999. It is based in Vienna and forms part of the Office of Drug Control and Crime Prevention (ODCCP), working in close cooperation with the Centre for International Crime Prevention (CICP). The mission of the TPB is as follows: The issue of terrorism was first brought before the United Nations General Assembly in 1972. Since that time the global community has manifested its concern with terrorism in a number of resolutions, conventions, and protocols. The most notable of these, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1269, was adopted on 19th October 1999, and, inter alia, “Stresses the vital role of the United Nations in strengthening international cooperation in combatting terrorism and

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emphasizes the importance of enhanced coordination among states, international and regional organizations.” The principal objectives of the TPB are to: Engage in research activities on terrorism in all its forms and manifestations Promote international cooperation in terrorism prevention Assist member states in preventing / combatting terrorism by providing technical assistance The TPB aims to further the efforts of governments to improve their individual responses to terrorism, and strives to catalogue “lessons learned” and pass these on to other member states. It encourages member states to participate in, and implement, international conventions and protocols pertaining to international terrorism. The Terrorism Prevention Branch engages in research activities, as well as data gathering and dissemination. In pursuing these objectives, the TPB liaises with the Office of Legal Affairs in New York (the focal point for legal matters pertaining to international terrorism). It also develops and maintains links with other United Nations branches, as well as academic and governmental research institutes. Other UN Activities Indirectly Affecting Terrorism There are a whole range of UN (and related International Organisation) activities which make terrorism somewhat more difficult than it might otherwise have been. These range in areas of activity such as Nuclear explosion monitoring (Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organisation or CTBTO); Nuclear facility monitoring (International Atomic Energy Agency or IAEA); Small and conventional arms reduction and destruction (Conventional Arms Branch or CAB), and abolition of Weapons of Mass Destruction (Department of Disarmament Affairs or DDA). War crimes and crimes against humanity are not legally defined as terrorism in legislative circles. However, an interesting de-facto (if unintentional) deterrent against these forms of terrorism has resulted from the establishment of UN International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. They are located in the Hague, Rwanda and Tanzania, and their objective is to try war crimes and crimes against humanity that occurred in those conflicts. However these crimes are categorised, the savings in terms of human lives, by the establishment of these tribunals, is beyond measure. Tyrants who unleash terrorism, tend to observe and carefully calculate their crimes. By no means all, but a proportion of national leaders who deliberately unleash forces to commit genocide and depopulation, are deterred from so doing, by the establishment of these International Criminal Tribunals, who have indicted, arrested and successfully brought even a former president to trial. Those who are not deterred, may remain inaccessible for many years and limited in travel, but it is likely that with the passage of time and changes of governments, they most will eventually be apprehended, tried and sentenced, if still alive. In September 1999, Secretary-General Kofi Annan, told the UN Security Council: “Even the most repressive leaders watch to see what they can get away with, how far they can tear the fabric of human conscience before triggering an outraged external response.”

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Section 12.2: Terrorism and the Future

Technological Advantages of Security Forces There are a vast range of technological advances (some random examples are illustrated on the following pages), which if invested in sufficient quantity by those countries which can afford them, will eventually be a deciding factor in suppressing much terrorism in the developed nations. This range spans from basic and advanced weaponry up to

Dark Star Unmanned Arial vehicle (UAV)

© USAF Air War College

NAV STAR Satellite

© USAF Air War College

sophisticated satellite communications equipment and practical security equipment for dealing with all aspects of terrorism. The past 30 years have witnessed tremendous advances in electronic interception, the advents of explosive detection devices, satellite surveillance-

intelligence and refinement in human intelligence gathering methods. Technical surveillance advances have culminated in Echelon. Echelon is a global electronic communications surveillance system, using satellites and positioned intercept stations with massive computer banks, located in North America, Europe and Australasia. Echelon can simultaneously monitor and process colossal amounts of satellite, microwave, cellular, and fibre-optic voice and data traffic. The

L115A1 Advanced sniper rifle

! "

© Crown

"

data is captured and downloaded to large computers with special Echelon dictionaries, which use keywords and voice recognition to sift critical information. Controversial for its potential for invasion of privacy, it may well be the single most effective anti-terrorist resource in existence, for preventing terrorist

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attacks. However, even relatively older methods of surveillance can be very effective against terrorism. Two examples follow, that were used as far back as 1980: Helicopter Surveillance It is quite possible, using adapted helicopter sighting systems (originally designed for controlling air-to-ground anti-tank missiles) with a flexible periscope, to observe the front door of a house from 8000 feet (3000 metres) height and from five miles (eight kilometres) horizontal distance away. A life-saving technological advance At these distances, the A British Army tracked remote-operated robot for disposing of ordnance, helicopter is inaudible and invisible including IEDs ©Crown to the naked eye, from the target. Fitted with integrated thermal imaging equipment, such sights may observe at night as well as day, and through cloud and rain. When used in conjunction with dome cameras mounted beneath the helicopters, what is observed may also be photographed. The expense of conducting surveillance operations such as this however, does not make it a viable anti-terrorism option for all nations. Audio / Video Surveillance Scanners

An extremely versatile SA 342 Gazelle helicopter

© Crown

Compact, light and portable audio / video surveillance scanners can be set up in a matter of minutes. They are capable of recording an entire street’s conversations and movements which can subsequently be segregated (by dialect, accent and patois) and filtered to provide good quality reproductions of individual conversations and identifiable photographs / film of persons.

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Scanners of this type are very suitable for urban rooftop installation in busy streets. Satellite technology is advanced to the point whereby for example, all the streets of a city may be photographed by satellite, in turn and repeatedly, for long periods. As a resul t o f computerised image-processing, reasonable quality photographs may be produced (suitable for Hi-tech with power MH53 M Pave helicopter identification and comparison Courtesy: US Airforce purposes) of all persons on any given street at the time of observation. Those photographs may then be processed by personnel or by a computer which narrows the quantity of potential matches down to a small fraction of the total number of photographs. This would normally be a very expensive and time consuming exercise, but it has occurred in some cases where an important target is widely sought after. An example of such a target was Dr. Aziz Al Abub (aka Ibrahim al Nadhir). Nadhir was the terrorist Doctor who psychologically tortured selected western hostages who were abducted in Beirut during the 1980s. Not only was he wanted, but his movements would have indicated where some of the key hostages were being held. Despite recording all conversations on the streets of a part of west Beirut, and satellite photography of everyone on the streets in daylight for several weeks, he did not come to light. Technological advances are expected to continue at an even greater rate, especially for the infantryman, whose role is critically important in diverse and unfamiliar battlefield terrain. Already, prototype specialised combat suits are being tested, that permit far greater endurance and extraordinary physical feats by infantrymen. State-of-the-Art technology Apache WAH - 64 Multi-role Helicopter

Courtesy: US Army

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Technological military advantages make a considerable difference in any military action, including counter-insurgency campaigns in unfamiliar terrain, such as removing Taliban / Al Qa’ida in Afghanistan

Hummer Rocket Launching System

Personal Optical Sight Weapon System

TWS Sight

Advanced Sniper Team

Courtesy: US Army

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Political Integrity and Will to Counter Terrorism “God grant that men of principle shall be our principal men” Former US President Thomas Jefferson The absence of sufficient political will and in some cases, integrity, is a major reason underpinning the failure to effectively suppress international terrorism. This is evident by the absence of an agreed definition, the ongoing manifestation of terrorism in all its forms and the covert continuance of government sponsorship of terrorism with impunity. It should be added however, that from the attacks of 11th September 2001, there sprang much global solidarity with the US, and as a consequence, state-sponsored Poster Board in Kosovo: solidarity with US for 9 / 11 attacks and terrorism has become more difficult global anti-terrorism coalition Courtesy: US Public Affairs Office, Pristina, Kosovo and dangerous for governments that still dare take the risk of strong international reprisals. Upon pain of invasion, sanctions or cruise missiles, the trend of sponsoring will likely move towards the more deniable forms, such as simple transfer of funding through third parties or ‘front companies,’ that afford deniability, if discovered. The Horizon “. . . the failure to deal radically with the Turkish horror [Armenian genocide] means that all talk of guaranteeing the future peace of the world is mischievous nonsense” Former US President Theodore Roosevelt, in a letter dated 11th May 1918 The main reason underpinning terrorism, besides intolerance, is unchecked oppression in all its forms; social, political but especially economic oppression (poverty), and for which in many cases, there is seemingly no accountability. Terrorism stemming from economic oppression can be seen throughout several continents in the world. Poverty is caused by firstly corruption and ineptness by the governments or leaders of many developing countries, and secondly, by economic strangleholds imposed by some developed nations

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(in the form of sometimes questionable transnational trading and banking practices, and covert interference in developing nations’ governmental economic and political affairs). The tendency for the moment is for wealthier nations to become wealthier and poorer nations to become poorer. Isolated but interesting results of this have been the consequential advances of ‘shadow governments’ or ‘alternative governments,’ in at least two locations in the world. Examples are the Favelas (meaning slums or ghettos) in a part of Rio de Janeiro, and also in some parts of Columbia. The governments were displaced and control taken over by armed elements and gangs, who provided some relief from dire poverty for substantial amounts of people, through distribution of medicines, foods and money. In Rio de Janeiro, it took considerable efforts and a full military operation to take back control (Operation Rio - see the report by Colonel Mendel, US Army retired, at the following Internet website address: http://www-cgsc.army.mil/milrev/english/mayjun97/mendel.htm) In the book ‘Our Soldiers, Their Cities,’ author Ralph Peters wrote: “They are . . . the post-modern equivalent of jungles and mountains - citadels of the dispossessed and irreconcilable. A military unprepared for urban operations across a broad spectrum is unprepared for tomorrow” With poverty as a catalyst and facilitator, armed elements or criminal gangs are able to seize control of localities under the right combination of circumstances. This is especially so where the infrastructure is poor, extreme poverty and dissatisfaction prevails, government is perceived as callous and oppressive, and traditional law and order is barely present as a norm. It is worth noting that this can occur on rare occasions, for very short duration, even in the odd corners of developed democracies, where local society and infrastructures have degenerated past a certain point. Examples are: The 1992 Los Angeles Riot, in which organised street gangs, armed with automatic military weapons, confronted US military forces For a time in the late 1980s, certain small areas (a few streets) in Brixton, London, were effectively ‘no-go areas’ for police, until they eventually wrested back control

On Poverty fuelling terrorism “Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired, signifies in the final sense a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed” Former US President Dwight Eisenhower (1890-1969)

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Some statistics on the global disparity of wealth and its effects are as follows: A child dies every four seconds of disease attributed to chronic poverty A child dies every eight seconds of a disease contracted from impure drinking water On 11th September 2001, 35,615 children died of starvation 500 million people are currently chronically malnourished Over 33% of the world’s children are continually malnourished 800 million people go hungry and are underfed each day 1.3 billion people exist on US$ 1 (one) per day 15% of the world possess 75% of the world’s wealth Just under 400 billionaires own more wealth than half the planet’s population The UN received a total US$ 23 billion over 53 years, for 54 Peacekeeping Missions Each year the world spends US$ 750 billion on arms US$ 1 trillion was spent on Cold War arms races 50 countries have a lower per capita income than 10 years ago 50% of the world’s adult population has never used a telephone In four years, the world’s richest 200 doubled their wealth to US$ 1 Trillion (1000 billion) Of 250 million working children (5 to 14 yrs old), 120 million work full time 1 Billion (one third) of the global workforce are unemployed or under-employed Work-related disease and accidents cause 1 million deaths per year Conditions for the majority of the world’s population are extremely harsh. Oppression, and in some countries slavery, by ruthless and corrupt dictators and their regimes continues unabated. It is customarily afforded some mention at various political forums, but through either fear, callousness, prudence or so called political correctness, little is done that effectively halts and reverses it. It continues steadily to grow in size. Addressing the poverty in the world is a popular political pastime and generates a deal of political credit or revenue, but mostly amounts to ‘lip-service’ and rarely constitutes some form of serious action taken by governments that generates results of any great impact. This is not entirely surprising in a global political climate where genocide can now sometimes almost pass unaddressed, given the right tempo (Sudan is such an example, and another was the 100 day genocide in Rwanda). Further examples of what are becoming apparently acceptable norms, are trafficking in human beings as well as a resurgence in traditional-style slavery; vices of considerable size which continue to grow, decade after decade. The world population will increase in 15 years from the present five billion to almost nine billion. Coupled with this population explosion, continued economic oppression and hopelessness, and the continued oppression of millions by tyrants and regimes is expected to persist. This will collectively provoke increases in global instability and armed conflict, which are in no small way responsible for a deal of contemporary terrorism. Terrorists often exploit the tension and hopelessness of poverty-stricken masses. The level of global violence, instability and unrest in the future decades will predictably reach new and hitherto unimaginable heights, much in the same way that the ferocity, scale and method of attacks on 11th September 2001, staggered the world and shook its governments.

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Possibilities to Effectively Defeat Terrorism “Terrorism is a global menace, which clearly calls for global action. Individual actions by Member States, whether aimed at State or non-State actors, cannot in themselves provide a solution. We must meet this threat together” UN Secretary General Kofi Annan. General Assembly, September 1998 There is neither a rapid nor an easy solution to terrorism. Fear of law is not an effective solution; Ramzi Ahmad Yousef, convicted for masterminding and helping to carry out the 1993 New York World Trade centre bombing, received a 240 years prison sentence. Members of the terrorist groups to which he belonged, continue to carry our terrorism with impunity. The actions of special counter-terrorist forces are in fact, crisis management, not long-term solutions; their actions do not deter further attacks by strong-willed terrorists, only the weak. The record of specialist counter-terrorist forces (such as SAS and GSG-9) is impeccable and they are the envy of the world in their field. Anti-terrorist and counter-terrorist activities however, are responses, not preventative measures, that specifically address the roots of the problem. What is required is a thorough examination of the contemporary causes of terrorism, which are mainly due to economic oppression and political, religious and ethnic intolerance. Moreover, of no small impact, is the effect caused by member states choosing to ignore or block implementation of UN resolutions (agreed upon by the majority of nations) against some governments but who ruthlessly pursue them against others. This absence of even-handedness is widely noticed among the world’s masses, badly received and generates support for terrorists. A combination of diverse commitments and action, need to be undertaken by a great number of nations, but not to the point where their resources would be jeopardised. e.g. A one year global freeze on arms spending would technically free US$ 750 billion. In conjunction with firm political action, this is enough to solve the world’s most chronic poverty problems and eliminate death by starvation. In order to effectively suppress terrorism, the following iniquities and omissions, which underwrite and fuel terrorism, should be effectively and impartially addressed if terrorism and armed conflict are to be brought down to low levels: 1.

The chronic economic oppression and hopelessness of the world’s masses

2.

The inability of developing and poverty-stricken governments to repay their international loans while simultaneously developing to any significant degree

3.

Corruption and oppression of populations by dictators and regimes

4.

Widespread serious abuse of human rights, especially in the developing countries

5.

The artificial stimulation and resurgence of aggressive religious and nationalist intolerance

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6.

Selective implementation of mandatory UN resolutions; blocking by some member states

7.

The absence of effective programmes for repatriation, de-mobilisation, rehabilitation and employment for former regular armed forces combatants, guerrillas, child soldiers, and those terrorists that are not indicted for crimes

8.

The continued legality of certain forms of irregular warfare and armed struggle

9.

The imposition of ineffective sanctions which destroy innocent populations, but leave tyrants and oppressive dictators intact and at-large

10.

The absence of effective, well-armed, rapid reaction, standing international forces with which to prevent and halt genocide, and impartially impose international security, democracy, international law and human rights, using overwhelming force

11.

Ineffective efforts to halt small arms proliferation

12.

Ineffective efforts to halt organised crime, including vice, human trafficking and narcotics

13.

The failure to address corruption of government officials and politicians by organised crime

14.

Absence of oversight concerning clandestine, non-official relationships or alliances between members of government, intelligence services, arms manufacturers (and dealers) and transnational corporations

15.

Unequal and selective accountability for rogue nations

16.

Manipulation of masses by disinformation through some sectors of the media

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Germany’s GSG-9 - First class counter-terrorist unit; ideal for response and containment of an incident, but such forces have no resources for dealing with the roots of terrorism

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KEYWORDS TO NOTE Echelon

A Global Electronic Communications surveillance system

General Assembly

GA. One of six principle UN organs. Six sub committees, two dealing with security and political issues. Each country has one representative and one vote. Resolutions are legally binding upon Member States

International Criminal Tribunals

UN successor to the post WWII International Military Tribunals that tried Axis nation war criminals. Established for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. The UN Security Council passed a Resolution in 2001 to set up a similar (but not identical) special court for Sierra Leone to mainly try crimes against humanity and war crimes, committed there during the war.

Intolerance

Unwilling to recognize, accept or permit certain types of difference

Poverty

Poor. The state of insufficiency or below recognised and accepted norms

Security Council

SC. One of six principle UN organs. Primary responsibility for world peace. Only UN Organ (Chapter VII UN Charter), which can order peace enforcement action. 15 members (five permanent: US, UK, Russia, France and China). Other ten members rotate (non-consecutive terms) on geographic basis, for two-year terms. Resolutions are legally binding upon Member States

Shadow / Alternative Governments

Groups [usually criminal] that take control of a loose anarchy, after government forces become ineffective or are displaced. Rare phenomena, but has occurred in a part of a Brazilian city and in parts of Columbia.

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TERRORIST ATTACK BRIEF Seizure of US Embassy and Hostages, Teheran, Iran Facts of the Case: On 4th November 1979, at the height of the Iranian Revolution, with full support of the Khomeini government, a violent crowd of Iranian students stormed the American embassy in Tehran. This was contrary to International Law and the United Nations Charter, the Embassy being inviolable and considered as US soil under International Law. Sensitive documents and equipment were seized, and 52 American citizens were abducted and held hostage for 444 days. Investigation: The United States broke diplomatic relations with Iran five months later (April 1980). After a failed rescue attempt by U.S. special forces, the hostages were finally released in January 1981, a short while before the first inauguration of President Ronald Reagan. Ayatollah Khomeini had allegedly refused to release them to the Carter Administration. A formal Iranian apology came in 1997 from one of Ayatollah Khomeini' s successors, President Khatemi.

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END-OF-LESSON QUIZ 1. For the first time in history, a UN resolution (748 in 1992) imposed sanctions under chapter VII of the UN Charter, against a state accused of terrorism. a) True b) False 2. The UN Terrorism Prevention Branch is located in a) New York b) Geneva c) Vienna 3. The international criminal tribunals in the Hague and Rwanda are a significant defacto deterrent to some dictators and tyrants contemplating genocide and de-population. a) True b) False 4. Efforts to define and repress terrorism are partly frustrated owing to a) Passive resistance by governments who support terrorism as freedom fighting b) Lack of financial resources c) The Geneva Conventions 5. Which advances will eventually be the deciding factor in suppressing much terrorism in the developed nations? a) Technological advances by those nations that can afford them b) Political advances c) Advances in counter-terrorist tactics 6. Besides intolerance, what is the main reason underpinning terrorism? a) Political differences b) Illicit financial aid c) Oppression: social, political and especially economic 7. The world’s population is expected to increase in 15 years from the present 5 billion to almost 9 billion, with worsening oppression of large populations by dictators and tyrants, collectively expected to fuel further terrorism. a) True b) False 8. Which of the following are realistic measures to effectively undermine the roots of terrorism? a) Improved detection and harsher sentencing for convicted terrorists b) Increase in the size of counter-terrorist forces and more refined counter-terrorist operations c) Fighting oppression and poverty, enforcement of human rights, democracy and UN resolutions

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9. Operation Rio was calculated to a) Take back civic control from armed elements b) Be an anti-narcotics operation c) Be an anti-money laundering operation 10. How many people in the world are currently suffering from chronic malnourishment? a) 10 million b) 30 million c) 500 million 11. UN resolutions are divided into two categories: Security Council and General Assembly. a) True b) False 12. Which UN resolution condemned the attacks of 11th September 2001? a) SC 1269 b) GA 54 / 164 c) SC 1368 13. Powerful cameras with integrated thermal imaging equipment, can observe and record a) At night, and through cloud and rain b) From distances of several kilometers away c) a and b 14.Satellites cannot take recognizable photographs of individuals. a) True b) False 15. Who said “Even the most repressive leaders watch to see what they can get away with, how far they can tear the fabric of human conscience before triggering an outraged external response”? a) US President George Bush b) Indian spiritual leader Mohandas Gandhi c) UN Secretary General Kofi Annan 16. 1.3 billion people exist on US$ 1 (one) per day. a) True b) False 17. The genocide in Rwanda lasted how long (apparently without intervention or disruption)? a) 10 days b) 30 days c) 100 days

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18. State-sponsored terrorism is no more hazardous a practice than before 11th September 2001. a) True b) False 19. SC Resolution 1373 provided for the establishment of a) An international military coalition to remove the Taliban government b) A Security Council committee for counter-terrorism c) International laws to seize terrorists’ financial assets 20. How many of the world’s children are continually malnourished? a) 1 in 1000 b) 1 in 100 c) 1 in 3

ANSWERS: 1-a, 2-c, 3-a, 4-a, 5-a, 6-c, 7-a, 8-c, 9-a, 10-c, 11-a, 12-c, 13-c, 14-b, 15-c, 16-a, 17-c, 18-b, 19-b, 20-c.

Annex A/ Internet Information Sites Related to Terrorism

Annex A: Internet Information Sites Related to Terrorism

GOVERNMENTAL http://www.nato.int/

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

http://www.state.gov/www/ind.html

U.S. Department of State

http://www.open.gov.uk/

UK Government

http://goov.org/

French Government

http://www.gov.ru/main/page8.html

Russian Government

http://ce.cei.gov.cn/

Chinese Government

http://www.bundesregierung.de

German Government

http://www.mi5.gov.uk/

MI5

http://www.odci.gov/cia/

CIA

http://www.GSG9-INFO.de

GSG-9 (German Counter-Terrorist Police)

http://www.ncis.co.uk

UK National Criminal Intelligence Service (NCIS)

http://www.europol.eu.int

European Police Office (EUROPOL)

http://www.dia.mil

US Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA)

http://www.met.police.uk

UK New Scotland Yard (NSY)

http://www.whitehouse.gov/homeland/

US Office of Homeland Security (OHS)

http://www.fbi.gov

US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

http://www.interpol.com

International Criminal Police Organisation (Interpol)

http://www.nsa.gov

US National Security Agency (NSA)

http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca

Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS)

http://www.asis.gov.au/asiscorpinfo.html

Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS)

http://www.asio.gov.au

Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO)

http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca

Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)

http://www.fema.gov

US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

http://www.nacic.gov

US National Counter Intelligence Centre (NCIC)

http://www.nsi.org

US National Security Institute (NSI)

http://www.gid.gov.jo/english/index.html

Jordanian General Intelligence Department (GID)

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INSTITUTES / RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENTS / ASSOCIATIONS http://www.cdiss.org/

Centre for Defence and Int. Security Studies

http://nsi.org

National Security Institute

http://www.terrorism.net/home.asp

The Counter-Terrorism Page

http://www.emergency.com/cntrterr.htm

Emergency Response & Research Institute

http://www.ict.org.il/default.htm

Int. Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism

http://www.iacsp.com/

Int. Assoc. for CT & Security Professionals

http://www.terrorism.com/

Terrorism Research Centre

http://www.fas.org/irp/

Intelligence Resource

http://polisci.home.mindspring.com/ptd/

Political Terrorism

http://www.specialoperations.com

Terrorist groups

http://www.netaxs.com/~iris/whoswho.htm

Terrorist groups

http://web.nps.navy.mil/~library/tgp/tgp2.htm

US Naval Post Graduate School: Terrorism

http://www.loyola.edu/dept/politics/intel.html

Loyola College: Strategic Intelligence Links

http://www.adl.org/

Anti-Defamation League

http://www.satp.org/index4.asp

South Asia Terrorism Portal

http://www.cdt.org/policy/terrorism/

Centre for Democracy and Technology

http://www.kimsoft.com/kim-spy.htm

Intelligence, Counter Intel., terrorism, WMD

http://www.specialoperations.com/Counterterrorism/default.html

Counter Terrorism operations

http://www.intelbrief.com/

Intelligence Briefings

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NOTABLE TERRORIST ATTACKS / OTHER INCIDENTS / PEOPLE http://www.cnn.com/2001/US/09/11/chronology.attack/index.html

WTC, Pentagon and Pennsylvania

http://www.fbi.gov/majcases/eastafrica/summary.htm

US Embassies (Kenya & Tanzania)

http://www.cnn.com/US/OKC/index.html

Oklahoma City

http://www.cnn.com/US/9804/03/wtc.bombing/

World Trade Centre (1993)

http://cnn.com/specials/1997/unabomb/

Unabomber (Theodore Kaczynski)

http://www.sptimes.com/News/ 122999/Sports/Terrorists_turn72_M.shtml

Munich Olympics

http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9707/30/israel.bombing/

Mahane Jehuda market (Jerusalem)

http://the-tech.mit.edu/V114/N10/hebron.10w.html

Hebron Mosque

http://www.britains-smallwars.com/Palestine/Kingdavid.htm

King David Hotel (Jerusalem)

http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m2082/263/72435149/print.jhtml

Deir Yassin

http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/audiovideo/programmes/panorama/newsid_138 Sabra & Shatilla (Beirut) 1000/1381328.stm http://www.sabapress.com/gallery_thumb.html

‘Ethnic cleansing’:Fr. Yugoslavia

http://www.alb-net.com/warcrimes-img/warcrimes.htm

Kosovo

http://www.wesleyan.edu/gov/us_marines_in_lebanon.htm

US Marine barracks (Beirut)

http://www.af.mil/current/Khobar/

Khobar Towers (Dhahran)

http://cnn.com/WORLD/1996/saudi.special/index.html

Khobar Towers (Dhahran)

http://www.cnn.com/US/9607/27/olympic.bomb.main/index.html

Atlanta (Olympic Park)

http://www.ussliberty.com

USS Liberty (Mediterranean)

http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/news/news_stories/cole.html

USS Cole (Aden)

http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/5260/

Pan Am Flight 103 (Lockerbie)

http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/europe/9903/08/france.libya/

UTA Flight 772 (Tenere Desert)

http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/americas/newsid_1370000/1370205.stm Air India Flight 182 (Atlantic) http://web.qx.net/jon/stalin.html

Stalin’s victims

http://www.candles-museum.com/HITLER.HTM

Summary of Hitler

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CURRENT / FORMER / ACCUSED GROUPS AND RELATED ORGANISATIONS http://www.pna.net/

Palestinian National Authority / PLO

http://www.hizbollah.org/english/frames/index_eg.htm

Hizbollah (Lebanon)

http://www.palestine-info.com/hamas/

Hamas (Palestine, Israel)

http://www.palestinian.org/~alaeddin/jish.html

Popular Front for Liberation of Palestine (PFLP)

http://www.kahane.org/

Kahane Chai (US, Israel)

http://burn.ucsd.edu/~ats/PKK/pkk.html

Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK)

http://burn.ucsd.edu/~ats/PKK/argk.html

People’s Kurdistan Liberation Army (ARGK)

http://sinnfein.ie/index.html

Sinn Féin - PIRA political wing (UK: N. Ireland)

http://www.irsm.org/statements/inla/010428.html

Irish National Liberation Army (INLA)

http://www.ezln.org/

Zapatistas - EZLN (Mexico)

http://burn.ucsd.edu/~ats/mrta.htm

Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (Peru)

http://www.nadir.org/nadir/initiativ/mrta/

Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (Peru)

http://www.csrp.org/

Sendero Luminoso / Communist Party (Peru)

http://www.eelamweb.com/

Tamil Tigers - LTTE (Sri Lanka)

http://www.jvpsrilanka.com/

People’s Liberation Front (Sri Lanka)

http://www.a-l-o.org/index.htm

Afghan Liberation Organisation

http://www.animalliberationfront.com/

Animal Liberation Front (international)

http://www.earthliberationfront.com/

Earth Liberation Front (international)

http://www.eco-action.org/

Ecological Direct Action (international)

http://www.kukluxklan.org/

Ku Klux Klan (US)

http://www.nidlink.com/~aryanvic/index-E.html

Ayran Nations (US)

http://www.wcotc.com/

World Church of the Creator (US)

http://www.sevenseals.com/

Branch Davidians (US)

http://free.freespeech.org/ehj/html/freta.html

Euskadi Ta Askatasuna [ETA - Basques] (Spain)

http://www.jklf.net/

Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF)

http://www.kashmir.org/

Kashmir Liberation Cell (Gov. Azad Kashmir)

http://www.laskarjihad.or.id

Laskar Jihad (Indonesia)

http://www.unita.org/

UNITA (Angola)

http://www.web.net/eln/

National Liberation Army - ELN (Columbia)

http://www.flnc.com/

Corsican National Liberation Front (FLNC)

http://www.contrast.org/mirrors/farc/

Revolutionary Armed Force of Columbia (FARC)

Annex A/ Internet Information Sites Related to Terrorism

387

CURRENT / FORMER / ACCUSED GROUPS AND RELATED ORGANISATIONS, cont. http://www.rss.org/

Rashtriya Swayan Sevak Sangh (India)

http://www.nwo.it/

Ordine Nuovo - New World Order (Italy)

http://www.eco-action.org/opm/

Free Papua Movement (Papua New Guinea)

http://www.dhkc.org/

Revolutionary People’s Liberation Front (Turkey)

http://www.csrp.org

Comm. of Revolutionary Int. Movement (Peru)

http://www.sufo.demon.co.uk/oppos001.htm

Sudan People’s Liberation Movement

http://www.geocities.com/MotorCity/Track/4165/kla2.html

Kosova (Kosovo) Liberation Army

http://www.aum-shinrikyo.com/

Aum Shinri Kyo (Japan)

http://www.meskerem.net/

Eritrean People’s Liberation Front

http://www.skrewdriver.net/

Combat 18 (UK)

http://www.nufronliv.org

National United Front for Liberation of Vietnam

http://www.fmln.org.sv/

FMLN - Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (El Salvador)

http://www.dalitstan.org/tamil/

Tamil Nadu Liberation Front (India)

http://www.sidamaliberationfront.org/

Sidama Liberation Front (Ethiopia)

http://www.oromoliberationfront.org/

Oromo Liberation Front (Ethiopia)

http://www.afrikan.net/NALF/NALF/

New Afrikan Liberation Front

http://www.sierra-leone.org/footpaths.html

Revolutionary United Front (Sierra Leone)

http://www.geocities.com /CapitolHill/Congress/1228/anglais.htm

Emgann - Combat (France)

http://www.democratafrica.org/mozambique/renamo.html

Renamo (Mozambican National Resistance)

http://www.ummah.net/ikhwan/

Iqwan ul Muslimeen -Muslim Brotherhood (Int.)

http://www.bloodandhonour.com/~finland/

Blood and Honour (Finland)

Annex A/ Internet Information Sites Related to Terrorism

388

MISCELLANEOUS / MEDIA http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html

CIA World Fact Book

http://chemdef.apgea.army.mil/

Bio-Chemical Warfare

http://www.chem-bio.com/resource/

Bio Chemical Threats

http://www.unitarpoci.org/

UNITAR-POCI

http://www.undcp.org/terrorism.html

UN Terrorism Prevention Branch (TPB)

http://www.un.org/

United Nations main website

http://www.un.org/site_index/

UN Central Index / links to UN websites

http://www.janes.com

Defence, intelligence, politics, terrorism

http://stratfor.com

Strategic intelligence (STRATFOR)

http://ananova.com

Strategic intelligence (ANANOVA)

http://www.janes.com

Media Co.: Defence, intel., geo-politics, terrorism

http://www.bbc.co.uk/

BBC (UK)

http://www.cnn.com/

CNN (US)

http://www.reuters.com/news/

Reuters (UK)

http://www.the-times.co.uk/

London Times (UK)

http://www.ap.org/

Associated Press - AP (US)

http://abcnews.go.com/

ABC News (US)

http://www.spiegel.de/

Der Spiegel (Germany)

http://www.guardian.co.uk/

The Guardian (UK)

http://www.sky.com/skynews/

Sky (UK)

http://www.lemonde.fr/

Le Monde (France)

http://www.nytimes.com/

New York Times (US)

http://www.washingtonpost.com/

Washington Post (US)

http://www.un.org/News/

U.N. News

http://www.teshreen.com/syriatimes/

Syria Times (Syria)

http://www.jpost.co.il/

Jerusalem Post (Israel)

http://www.cairotimes.com/

Cairo Times (Egypt)

http://www.jordantimes.com

Jordan Times (Jordan)

http://www.worldtribune.com/

World Tribune (US)

http://www.truthout.org

Controversial politics (US)

http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/

5000 International Newspapers On-line

http://www.rewardsforjustice.net/

Anti-Terrorism skills test. US State Dept.

http://www.vwam.com

Vietnam veterans site (Vets with a Mission)

Annex A/ Internet Information Sites Related to Terrorism

389

SECURITY RELATED http://www.un.org

United Nations Main Website

http://www.unitarpoci.org

UNITAR-POCI. UN Peacekeeping Training (distance)

http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/glossary

UN DPKO. Glossary of Peacekeeping terms

http://www.amunet.edu

American Military University -many distance courses

http://www.cia.gov

US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

http://www.mi5.gov.uk

UK Government Security Service (MI5)

http://www.ncis.co.uk

UK National Criminal Intelligence Service (NCIS)

http://www.europol.eu.int

European Police Office (EUROPOL)

http://www.dia.mil

US Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA)

http://www.met.police.uk

UK New Scotland Yard (NSY)

http://www.interpol.com

Interpol (International Criminal Police Organisation)

http://www.nsa.gov

US National Security Agency (NSA)

http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca

Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS)

http://www.asis.gov.au/asiscorpinfo.html

Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS)

http://www.asio.gov.au

Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO)

http://www.fbi.gov

US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca

Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)

http://www.fema.gov

US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

http://www.nacic.gov

US National Counter Intelligence Centre (NCIC)

http://www.nsi.org

US National Security Institute (NSI)

http://www.gid.gov.jo/english/index.html

Jordanian General Intelligence Department (GID)

http://www.fas.org/index.html

US Scientific website on policy, security, groups, weapons etc

http://www.terrorism.com

Independent Institute for study of terrorism

http://www.trojansecurities.com

Global security and specialist training services

http://www.emergency.com

Emergency Response and Research Institute (ERRI)

http://stratfor.com

Media strategic intelligence company (STRATFOR)

http://ananova.com

Media strategic intelligence company (ANANOVA)

http://www.un.org/site_index

UN Central Index and link to UN News website

Annex A/ Internet Information Sites Related to Terrorism SECURITY RELATED, cont. http://www.onlinenewspapers.com

5000 Newspapers Online, listed by country and name

http://www.cnn.com

CNN Media

http://www.bbc.co.uk

BBC Media

http://www.crg.com

Security consultants

http://www.iapps.org

Security protection specialists

http://www.sdms.co.uk

Company marketing wide range of security products

http://www.audiotel-international.com

Company marketing counter surveillance equipment

http://www.spyzone.com/

Surveillance, count. surveillance & Security equipment

http://www.safe-co.com

Security safes and vaults company

http://www.chubblocks.co.uk

Security locks company

http://www.evva.com/WelcomeE.htm

Security locks company

http://www.sasproducts.co.uk

Range of security products for vehicles and home

http://www.safetyandsecurityinternational.com

Range of security products

http://sharplink.com/jkits/

Range of compact survival kits

http://www.spytechagency.com

Surveillance / counter surveillance equipment / services

390

Annex B/ Glossary of Terms

391

Annex B: Glossary of Terms A ABDUCTION. Taking away of someone by force or fraud, usually pre-planned. AGENT OF INFLUENCE. A person strategically influencing opinions, events, or trends. AKA (or aka). Also known as. AK 47. Very common assault rifle (sub machine gun variant). Also AK 56, 74, 74M, 101 & 105. AL (or El). Arabic. The. ALF. Animal Liberation Front. Branches in many countries; some commit terrorist acts. AL QA’IDA. Arabic: The Foundation or Base (military connotation). AMBUSH. Victims approach an ambush party who surprise-attack, sealing escape routes. AMIN. Hebrew: Israeli Military Intelligence. (Spelling varies). AMMEN (or Amin). Arabic: Security [organisation]. (Spelling varies). ANTI-TERRORISM. General, passive, defensive or preventative measures against terrorism. ANTI-HANDLING DEVICE. Device which triggers bomb detonation if handled or moved. ANTI-SURVEILLANCE. Measures taken to confirm that surveillance is being carried out. ARMAGEDDONIST. Believer in: last battle of good versus evil and /or end of the world, followed by divine-judgement. ARMALITE. M16 - very common US assault rifle. Used by security forces and terrorists. ARMOURY. Secured storage area for weapons. ARREST. Detaining a person, stopping their freedom of movement. Not a temporary check. ARSON. Deliberate setting of fires, usually to cause loss of life or damage. ARTILLERY. Heavy weapon of war, land based, tubed, launching shells in a trajectory. ASSASSINATION. Murder of political or prominent public figure. ASSAULT RIFLE. Type of SMG. Automatically fires and reloads single or multiple rifle rounds.

B BALLISTICS. Science dealing with projectiles; bullets, rockets, bombs. BASE. Headquarters or camp. BERETTA. An Italian arms manufacturer. BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS. Bacterial & Rickettsia, Viral, Bio-toxins.

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BLACKMAIL. Extortion in exchange for not revealing discreditable or embarrassing facts. BLAST. High pressure pulse or air shock-wave, caused by explosion. B-NICE. Biological, Nuclear, Incendiary, Chemical, Explosive. Categories of Weapons of Mass Destruction. BOOBY TRAP. A cunningly concealed lethal / injurious trap, often using explosives. BOOSTER. Small high brisance charge, between detonator and main explosive charge. BURGLARY. Illegal entry with intent to steal, and sometimes assault, rape or damage.

C CALIBRE. The diameter of a bullet or shell, or of the bore of a barrel or weapon-tube or gun. Commonly found calibres used by security forces and terrorists are 5.56mm, 7.62mm, and 9mm. CAPTIVE. Prisoner or hostage. CARL GUSTAV. A Swedish arms manufacturer. CASE OFFICER. An official who runs, assists or controls specific agents or terrorists. CELL. A terrorist or guerrilla sub-unit that for security, does not know details of other cells. CHARGE. The explosive content of a bomb, IED, shell or round. CHEMICAL WEAPONS. Nerve Agents, Blood Agents, Choking Agents, Blister Agents, Irritating Agents. CHOKE POINT. High risk passage which target is compelled to travel through. CHRISTIANITY. One of the three great monotheistic religions, as taught by Jesus Christ, believed by Christians to be the Son of God, as recorded in the Holy Bible. CIA. [US] Central Intelligence Agency. CICP. United Nations: Centre for International Crime Prevention. CLANDESTINE. Concealed or sly activity associated with espionage or terrorism. CLOSE PROTECTION. Organised vicinity-protection of a principal, by security personnel. COERCE. To compel or force. Terrorists coerce targets with acts of terrorism. COLD WAR. Post WWII struggle of US and allies against the Soviet Union and allies. COLT. A US arms manufacturer. COMBAT. To contend or struggle. Often describes military engagement of protagonists. CONTROLLER. See CASE OFFICER. COUNTER TERRORISM. Active, hostile or offensive measures to suppress terrorism. COUNTER-SURVEILLANCE. Taking active measures to prevent or halt surveillance.

Annex B/ Glossary of Terms

393

COVER. Legitimate occupation concealing clandestine activity such as terrorism. CYCLONITE. A powerful explosive, also known as RDX, used in IEDs.

DAMAGE. Level of demolition or harm, below destruction. DEENIE MEDRESSEH. Religious School [Arabic]. DEEP COVER OPERATIVE. An undercover agent deep inside an organisation. DELTA FORCE. US counter-terrorist force. DEMOCRACY. Government, where power is vested in a population who elect leaders. A society in which all members are held equal under the law. DEMOLITION. Destruction, especially blowing up. DENIABILITY. Describes evasive possibilities for denying involvement by governments. DE-POPULATION. Forcing civilian population to flee by force or terror. A war crime. DEPORTATION. Formal physical ejection of persons from a state. Can be legal or illegal. DESTRUCTION. Complete ruin, beyond repair. DETENTION. Being legally held, denied freedom of movement, by governments. DETERRENT. A measure or an act to discourage. DETONATOR. Small highly volatile charge, which when triggered, detonates (decomposes) main explosive charge in an IED. Common detonators are mercury fulminate and lead azide. DIPLOMATIC COVER. Use of diplomatic appointment to conceal illegal activity. DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY. Immunity from legal process by International agreement. DISINFORMATION. Deliberate passing of information known to be false. DISSEMINATION. Distribution, especially information or propaganda. DOMESTIC. Relating to home, family or within a nation; not foreign. DOOMSDAY. See ARMAGEDDONIST. DRIVE-BY SHOOTING. Shooting of random victims from a moving vehicle. DYNAMITE. Explosive charge for IEDs. Sometimes used by less sophisticated terrorists.

E EAR. Slang word for a clandestine informant. ECHELON. A global electronic communications surveillance system. ELECTRONIC INTERCEPT. Intelligence collected electronically, especially radio traffic.

Annex B/ Glossary of Terms

394

ENDS. Objectives or successful final results. See MEANS. ENTRAPMENT. Baited trapping of victim; blackmail applied to pre-arranged indiscretion. ESOTERIC. Mysterious beliefs, associated with semi-religions and occult. ETHNIC CLEANSING. Modern name for de-population. A war-crime (Genocide Act). ETHNIC. A member of a racial or cultural group or minority. EXECUTION. Legal capital punishment. Terrorists misuse the word to describe murder. EXTORTION. Illegal securing of money, goods or services by threat or coercion. EXPLOSIVES. Used in ordnance and IEDs. Two main categories: High Explosives (HE burns at between 1000 to 10,000 yards or 914 and 9140 metres per second) and Low Explosives (LE burns at the rate of only inches or centimetres per second). Four main purpose-categories: Disrupting or Bursting explosives; Initiating explosives; Propellants and Impulse explosives; Auxiliary explosives. EXTRACTION. Removal. In this context, of self or others from a situation or zone. EXTRADITION. Legal transfer of an accused person by one government to another.

F FALSE FLAG OPERATION. An act carried out by a person who believes he is working for a certain power, but who in fact has been unknowingly manipulated by a different power. The manipulation may be calculated to engineer the execution of a crime or discreditable act, followed by the deliberate leak of evidence, thereby incriminating the opponent. FATWA. An Islamic religious injunction, edict or precedent. FBI. US Federal Bureau of Investigation. FEDAYEEN. Arabic: plural of Fedayi. FEDAYI. Arabic: literally a ' self-sacrificer'who undertakes dangerous missions (not martyr). FIREARM. Rifle, assault-rifle, pistol, revolver, shotgun, sub, light or heavy machine guns. FN. Fabrique Nationale: A Belgian arms manufacturer. FORENSIC SCIENCE. Scientific collection of evidence for legal purposes (Latin: Forum). FRONT. Slang for a business or cover concealing terrorist, criminal or espionage activity. FUSE. Device which activates a detonator in an explosive charge, or detonates it directly.

G GENEVA CONVENTIONS. International Conventions governing certain aspects of war, especially treatment of captured combatants and civilians. GENOCIDE. Deliberate mass-murder of a religious, national, ethnic or racial group.

Annex B/ Glossary of Terms

395

GLOBAL. World or International. GLOCK. An Austrian arms manufacturer. GRENADE. Hand held/ launched bomb which explodes into fragments. Always lethal to 2m. GRU. Glavnoye Razvedyvatelnoye Upravleniye (Chief Intelligence Directorate) Former Soviet Union Military intelligence organisation. GSG-9. Grenzschutzgruppe 9 (9th Border Guard Group). German counter-terrorist force. GUERRILLAS. Irregular armed forces usually with political, religious or ethnic motives. GUILLOTINE. Mechanical platform device with a large heavy blade that drops down vertically and decapitates the victim. Used in the French Revolution to execute Royalty, aristocrats and political enemies during a period known as La Terreur (French: the terror, from Latin terrere, to frighten), from which the word terrorism came into common use.

H HANDGUN. Pistol or revolver. Sidearm. HANDLER. An official who runs (controls, organises and supports) agents or terrorists. HARKAT. Arabic. Movement (in political context). HEAT-TRIGGER. A trigger in a bomb which is activated by a change in temperature. HEAVY WEAPONS. Weapons of large capability / calibre. e.g. Artillery, heavy mortar. HECKLER & KOCH. German Arms manufacturer. HEZB (or Hizb). Arabic. Party (in political context). e.g. Hizbollah (Hezb Allah) = Party of God. HIJACK. To stop and take over a vehicle, craft or vessel by force, usually for political coercion. HIT. Slang word for attack or an individual murder or assassination. HIT-MAN. Slang word for an assassin or organised criminal murderer. HMG. Heavy Machine Gun, often of calibres such as 50mm. HOAX. Unreal or not authentic. Bogus, in context of bomb-threats which are false. HOMICIDE. Killing of a human being, possibly with extenuating reasons (e.g. self defence). HOSTAGE. A captive held as security or used for coercion, usually taken spontaneously. HOSTAGE-TAKING. Abduction of person for use as a human shield, deterrent or coercion. HUMAN RIGHTS. Civil rights defined by binding International and regional conventions, especially the [UN] Universal Declaration of Human Rights, signed and ratified by all Nations. HUMINT. Human Intelligence. Information collected by persons rather than machines.

Annex B/ Glossary of Terms

396 I

IKHWAN (Ikwan or Iqwan). Arabic. Brotherhood. The Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan ul Muslimeen or Muslimoon) is often referred to in Arabic as simply El Ikhwan (the Brotherhood). 14 INTELLIGENCE COMPANY. Elite British Army undercover counter-terrorist intelligence unit. IED. Improvised Explosive Device. Bomb which is not government manufactured. Delivery methods: Courier, mail, projectile, sited (concealed). ILLEGAL. Not within the law, or a terrorist or agent who is illegally present in a country. IMINT. Imagery Intelligence. Information and photographs collected by special satellites. INFILTRATION / EXFILTRATION. Clandestine entry/exit to/from country, conflict or attack zone. INFRA-RED. Radiation between the red end of the visible spectrum and microwaves. Used for some types of weapon-sight and intruder-detection devices. INSERTION. Describes entry of personnel, usually to a specific zone or organisation. INTELLIGENCE SECURITY. Guarding intelligence and the methods used to obtain it. INTELLIGENCE. Strategic information, especially on opposing forces. INTERNATIONAL. Existing or occurring between nations. ISLAM. One of the three great monotheistic religions, believed by Muslims to have been revealed by God to Mohammed as his last Prophet, and as recorded in the Holy Quran.

J JAISH (or Jesh). Arabic. Army. JAMA’AT. Arabic. Group (in political context). Pronounced with a soft ‘J,’ as in the French word ‘Je.’ In Egyptian Arabic, Jama’at is Gama’at (the G is pronounced hard as in ‘Goal’). JAMIAT. Arabic. Groups. Plural of Jama’at. In Egyptian Arabic: Gamiat (G pronounced hard). JANBAAZ. Urdu. Martyrs or brave soldiers. JARGON. Terminology or slang of a profession or trade. JIHAD (or Jehad). Arabic: Islamic holy (or spiritual) struggle, war or effort. JUDAISM. One of the three great monotheistic religions, which Jews base upon the teachings of the Old Testament of the Holy Bible and the Talmud.

K KAFIL. Arabic: Sponsor. KGB. Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti (Committee for State Security). Coercive former Soviet security and intelligence organisation. KIDNAPPING. Abduction of a human being, usually for ransom or coercion.

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397

KILL ZONE. Area where victims of terrorism or military ambush are trapped and attacked.

L LASHKAR (Lascar or Laskar). Arabic / Urdu / Pushtoon. Army. LA TERREUR. A period in the French Revolution during which Royalty, aristocrats and political enemies were publicly executed by guillotine. Terreur is a 14th century French word meaning: the terror (from the Latin terrere, to frighten). From increased use of the word ‘Terreur’ during the French revolution-period, terror came into common use as an English word, and the words ‘terrorism’ and ‘deter’ derive from it. LAW. Light Anti-Tank Weapon. Often wire-guided onto target. LMG. Light Machine Gun, magazine or belt-fed. Often of a calibre around 7.62 mm. LOW INTENSITY CONFLICT. Short of war. Sporadic fighting, often with irregular forces.

M MAFIA. A criminal organisation opposed to government rule of law (historical origins: Morte alla Francia, Italia anela. Italian: Death to France cries Italy). Aka Cosa Nostra (Our thing / cause). MAGAZINE. Integral container of ammunition in a weapon. An ammunition store. MASSACRE. Slaughter, especially with cruelty and carnage. MAUSER. A German arms manufacturer. MCI. Mass Casualty Incident. MEANS. The method by which a successful conclusion to an objective is achieved. See ENDS. MEDIA. Mass communications industry and those engaged in it: Newspapers, TV, radio. MEDIUM ARMS. Between Small Arms and Heavy Weapons. eg. Rocket Propelled Grenade. MESSIANIC. Pertaining to the religious belief of the coming of a saviour. MI-5. Military Intelligence, 5 branch. UK Security Service. MI-6 / SIS. Military Intelligence, 6 branch. UK Secret Intelligence Service. MINE. A military purpose explosive, within a casing, with a charge, trigger and detonator. MINEFIELD. A regular or irregular patterned deployment of concealed mines. MISINFORMATION. Innocent or negligent passing of information which is false. MODUS OPERANDI.(M.O.) Latin: Method of operation. Especially patterns in criminal acts. MORTAR. A tubed artillery weapon, launching bombshells in a high trajectory onto target. MOSSAD. Hebrew: Mossad Letafkidim Meyouchadim [originally Mossad Le Aliyah Beth]; Israeli Institute for Intelligence and Special Services.

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MOTION DETECTOR. Detects Infra Red Waves (heat) radiating from moving objects. MUJAHID (plural:MUJAHIDEEN). Arabic: Religious fighter (Islamic equivalent of Crusader). MUKHABARAT. Arabic: Intelligence service. Literal translation; those who call / pass messages. MURDER. Unlawful killing with intent and premeditation.

N NATO. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. 1949 ~. A collective western defence allianceorganisation, now containing some members of the former (enemy) Warsaw Pact (1955-1991). NBC. Nuclear, Biological and Chemical (weapons). NEGOTIATE. Bargain, discuss, mediate, arbitrate, intercede, intervene. NEO-NAZI. Similar to or following Nazi traits or political dogma, especially racial. NINE ELEVEN (9 /11). The 11th September 2001 attacks on the World Trade Centre, Pentagon and Pennsylvania, US. NOM DE GUERRE. French: War name e.g. ‘Carlos the Jackal’ (Ilich Ramirez Sanchez). NON-NEGOTIABLE. Those terrorists who will not negotiate. Also called sub-conflict.

O OBSERVATION. Viewing, listening or monitoring, and noting of that which is observed. OCCULT. Concealed, esoteric, mysterious, cult-like. Group, band, sect; especially Satanist and pseudo-religious. ODCCP. United Nations: Office of Drug Control and Crime Prevention. ONU. French: Organisation des Nations Unies. Acronym for United Nations Organisation. OP. Observation Post. A type of small field station or post with observation facilities. OPEN SOURCE. Intelligence from open sources, usually media. ORDNANCE. Military equipment arrangements. Especially ammunition or arms. OXIDISER. Compound containing Oxygenised propellant which enhances combustion of main charge (explosive).

P PARKER-HALE. A UK arms manufacturer. PENETRATE. Clandestine infiltration of opposition forces. PENTOLITE. A combination of Pentaerythritol-tetranitrate and TNT, used in IEDs. PETN. Pentaerythritol-tetranitrate. An explosive in IEDs. See RDX. PHOTO-ELECTRIC TRIGGER. Light-activated cell in IED, causing fuse to detonate charge.

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399

PISTOL. A semi-automatic hand-gun (small arm or side arm), with a magazine of ammunition. PLANT. Slang word for agent infiltrated by opposition forces. PLASTICISER. Practical compound to bind explosive charges and make them malleable. POLITICS. The study of people in a group context. Used to describe government actions. POPULATION CENTRE. A heavily-populated urban capital, city, town or centre. POSITION. Small defensive military site. May be a bunker, trench or shell-scrape. PRINCIPAL. Person vulnerable to attack, being guarded by security close-protection personnel. PRISONER. Captive or hostage. PROCUREMENT. Supply acquisition process after logistical needs are identified. PROFILE. A characterisation of an individual or a site. PROTECTION MONEY. Money illegally extorted for bogus protection services. PTSD. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Formerly battle fatigue and shell shock. Also known as burn out. Stress disorder resulting from severe traumatic experience or persistent exposure to negative stress. PURGE. Cleansing, purifying, filtering. Especially widespread political detention and murder.

R RACIST. One who holds and sometimes exhibits animosity for other (usually specific) races. RANSOM. Sum of money or goods, illegally demanded for return of person or property. RDD. Radiological Dispersal Device. Bomb attached to radioactive material. RDX. Research Department Explosive. A powerful high explosive used in IEDs. RECONNAISSANCE. Preliminary survey to discover enemy position or strength. REGULAR WARFARE. Conflict of conventional, recognised (government) combatants. RELIGION / RELIGIOUS. Moral belief system in a higher unseen controlling entity (ies). REVOLVER. A handgun (sidearm or small arm), with rotating cylinder, containing ammunition. RIFLE. A long arm with spiral grooves in barrel to spin projectile (bullet) and enhance accuracy. RIFLE-GRENADE. A grenade fired from a rifle, using a special round of ammunition. ROBBERY. Theft, accompanied with violence before or during the act of theft. ROGUE. Word to describe an intelligence or security official acting outside of his legal authority. ROUND. A charge, bullet, shell or piece of ammunition. RPG. Rocket propelled grenade. Shoulder-held weapon which fires a rocket-driven grenade.

Annex B/ Glossary of Terms

400 S

SABOTAGE. Deliberate and often clandestine damage or destruction as part of a tactical plan. SAFE HOUSE. A house (for a fugitive) of which opposition forces are supposedly unaware. SAS. Special Air Service (Regiment). Elite British Army regiment with counter-terrorist wing. SATELLITE. Technical entity orbiting the earth, for communications or sensor activity. SAT-INT. Intelligence gained by satellite technology. SAWAB. Arabic: Divine credit. SC. United Nations: Security Council. SEAJACKING. Taking over a vessel by force, usually for political or financial motive. SEARCH-AND-DESTROY. Military mission in hostile territory, to find and kill enemy. SECT. A division, cult or group. SECURITY INTELLIGENCE. Information enhancing security or known about security. SECURITY. Condition, sense or capability of safety from threats or harm. SEMI-AUTOMATIC. Weapon that fires one shot at a time, re-loading itself automatically. SEMTEX. A very powerful type of Czech-manufactured plastic high explosive. SERIAL KILLER. A murderer who kills multiple victims, sometimes over a long period. SHAHEED. Arabic: Martyr. SHRAPNEL. Pieces of projectile, usually from an artillery shell, mortar round or grenade. SIDEARM. A pistol or revolver. Literally an ‘arm worn at the side’ (waist). SIEGE. Situation in which persons are encircled and contained in structure or vessel. SIG. A Swiss arms manufacturer. SILENCER. An attachment on the barrel-end of a hand-gun, rifle or SMG, which suppresses sound, prolongs the element of surprise or alert, and facilitates escape. SLEEPER. Slang word for an agent infiltrated by opposition forces, activated in long term. SMALL ARMS. Side arms, hand guns, some types of rifle and SMG, usually small calibre. SMG. Sub machine gun (assault rifles are variants). Single or fully automatic fire / reloading. SNIPER. Concealed marksman with enhanced rifle sights who shoots over long distances. SOCIAL. Term to describe terrorists and causes such as anti-abortion and animal rights. SOURCE. An intelligence informant.

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401

SPONSOR. A person, group or government who provides free money, services or provisions. STERLING (ARMS CO). A UK arms manufacturer. STOCKHOLM SYNDROME. A phenomena by which hostages begin to experience sympathy for their captors, first formally recognised in Stockholm after a bank robbery / siege and hostage incident. STUN GRENADE. A type of grenade used by counter-terrorist forces which is non-lethal. SUB-CONFLICT. Describes those terrorists who will not negotiate. SURVEILLANCE. Open or covert monitoring, often with electronic or mechanical aids. SUSPECT. A person believed to have committed, or be about to commit a given act.

T TARGET HARDENING. Reinforcing security measures to enhance protection of a potential victim. TARGET. The objective. Terrorist targets may be individuals, groups and also the victims. TEAM. Slang word for a security force, terrorist or criminal group. TEHREEK. Urdu / Hindi. Movement. TERR. Slang word for terrorist. TERROR. From the French: La Terreur, derived [root] from Latin: Terror-terrere (to frighten). THEFT. Dishonest taking of another’s property with intent to permanently deprive. THREAT. Warning, intimidation or danger. TNT. Tri-Nitro-Toluene. An explosive used in IEDs. TPB. United Nations: Terrorism Prevention Branch. Unit of ODCCP’s CICP branch. TRACEM. Thermal, Radiation, Asphyxiation, Chemical, Etiological, Mechanical. Types of harm caused by terrorist weapons or Weapons of Mass Destruction. TRANSNATIONAL. Extending or operating across national boundaries. TRIGGER. Device when activated that operates the fuse or detonator in an IED. TURN / TURNING. Changing service, loyalty or views of a target, to that of his opponents.

U ULTRA VIOLET. Beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum. Radiations are less than those of visible light. Limited forensic use as a detective tool. UN. United Nations (Organisation). Planned in WWII, formed 1945, superseded the League of Nations and assumed all of its un-discharged responsibilities in 1946.

Annex B/ Glossary of Terms

402

UNDERCOVER OPERATIVE. Covert operative or agent. UNO. United Nations Organisation. UZI. An Israeli arms manufacturer.

V VICTIM. The prey, casualty, hunted, dead. In the context of terrorism, may also be the target.

W WARSAW PACT. Former Soviet Union treaty with its allies (1955-1991). A Cold War force opposing NATO (1949 ~ ) and consisting of the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. WEAPON READINESS. Alertness in which weapons are loaded, cocked and ready to fire. WEAPON. An instrument of defence or offence. May or may not be purpose manufactured. WIRED. Slang word for a dwelling or object with a hidden IED bomb attached (booby trap). Secondary slang meaning: A person with a concealed tape-recorder or transmitter. WIRE-GUIDED MISSILE. Hand-shoulder launched missile, guided onto target by electronic signal wires. Origin in wire-guided air-to air missiles on Nazi Luftwaffe jet fighters, late in WWII. WORLD WAR I. From 11:10 am, 28th July 1914, to 11 am, 11th November 1918. WORLD WAR II. From 11 am, 3rd September 1939, to 8 am, 5th May 1945 (German surrender) and 9:08 am, 2nd September 1945 (Japanese surrender). WOUNDING. Serious physical injury, generally breaking of skin, causing blood to flow. WMD. Weapons of Mass Destruction.

X XENOPHOBIA. General fear of foreigners or their customs.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media

403

ANNEX C: List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media * This list is not comprehensive. * Arabic, Cyrillic, Farsi, Hebrew, Hindi, Pushtoun and Urdu translations reflect English spelling variance, according to accepted phonetic practice. * Note: The material contained here is not the [apolitical and unexpressed] opinion of UNITAR or the Author. UNITAR and the Author disclaim any and all responsibility for facts or opinions contained in the text, which have largely been assimilated from media and other independent sources.

NAME 14k Triad 15th May Organisation

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

REMARKS

Macau

Macau

Criminal Rivalry

Organised criminal gang.

Iraq

Middle East

Political

Dormant.

Spain

Political

Seeks US forces withdrawal from Spain and revolutionary government.

1st October Anti-Fascist Resistance Group (GRAPO)

Spain

Abu Nidal (Father of the Struggle) Organisation. Abu Nidal is the nom de guerre of Sabri al Banna. Also known as Abu Nidal’s Arab Revolutionary Command, Black September, Cells of the Arab Fedayeen (Self-Sacrificers)

Lebanon (Beka’a Valley)

International

Political

Opposed to Israel, western countries with Middle East interests, PLO and moderate Arab states. Restrained by Syria. This group is an umbrella Organisation for at least seven other groups; Fatah Revolutionary Council, Arab Revolutionary Council, Arab Revolutionary Brigades, Black September and Revolutionary Organisation of Socialist Muslims.

Abu Sayyaf Group (Father of the Sword)

Phillippines (Mindanao)

Phillippines (Mindanao)

Religious Separatist

Seeks independent Islamic state on island of Mindanao. Linked to Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF).

Aceh Security Disturbance Movement

Indonesia (Sumatra)

Indonesia (Sumatra)

Ethnic Political

Seeks independence from Indonesia.

France (Paris)

France

Political

Marxist-Leninist group. Sought revolution to overthrow world capitalist system.

Action Directe (Direct Action)

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Aden (Abyan) Islamic Army

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

404 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Yemen

Yemen

Political Religious

US

US

Social Convictions

Afghanis

Afghanistan

International

Religious Ethnic Political

Mobile former Afghanistan-Soviet war veterans from 14 countries. Participate in any conflict involving Muslims.

Afghan Liberation Organisation

Afghanistan

Afghanistan

Political

Seeks Marxist Government in Afghanistan. Anti-US.

Aimal Khufia Action Committee

Pakistan

Karachi

Religious

Anti-US, Anti-Western.

Akbar Tigers (Greater Tigers)

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Azad Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Al Aqsa Martyrs’ Brigade (named after Islamic holy site [and also Mosque] in Jerusalem)

Palestinian Autonomous Areas (PAAs)

PAAs Israel

Political

Seeks independence of a Palestinian State. Related to Hammas.

Al Badar (The Perfect)

India: Jammu and Kashmir

India: Jammu and Kashmir

Religious Political

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Al Barq (The Lightening. Named after the white of Prophet Mohammed)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Advocates For Life

Anti-Government, Anti-US and Anti-UK. Anti-abortion. Violent.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

405

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

Iran

Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon

Religious

Seeks to promote Shiite revolution.

Indian part of Jammu and Kashmir

Indian administered part of Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Related to Harkat ul Ansar in Jammu and Kashmir.

Israel Palestine AA, Lebanon, Tunis

Israel Palestine AA

Political

Renounced terrorism in 1993. Dormant.

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

US

US

Religious

US Black Muslim sect.

Al Gama’a al Islamiya (GAI, The Islamic Group)

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Seeks to establish a GIA Islamic regime in Egypt. GIA is sometimes held responsible for acts of small largely unknown Egyptian terrorist groups (up to 50 such groups).

Al Hadda (the Guides)

Yemen

Yemen

Criminal

Tribesmen.

Al Hadid (The Edicts [of the Prophet])

Jammu and Kashmir

Indian administered part of Jammu and Kashmir

Religious Political

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Al Hamas (Harakat al Muqawama al Islamiya or Islamic Resistance Movements)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Al Dawa al Islamiya (Party of the Islamic Call) Al Faran (The Mountain Fighters)

Al Fatah (The Conquest), also known as Amn Araissi (Main Security)

Al Fatah (The Conquest)

Al Fuqra (The impoverished)

REMARKS

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

406 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Al Harakan al Islamiya (The Islamic Movement)

Pakistan

Iran

Ethnic

Al Haramayn (word to describe Mecca and Medina [ancient Yathib]; 1st and 2nd holiest sites in Islam)

Kenya

Kenya

Religious Political

Anti-US members.

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Al Ittahad al Islamiya (The Islamic Union)

Somalia

Ethiopia

Political

Seeks to overthrow Ethiopian government. Linked to Iraq and Al Qa’ida.

Al Jama’a al islamiyya al Muqatilah bi Libya (Islamic Fighting group of Libya)

Libya

Libya

Religious Political

Anti-Qadaffi, Anti-US. Links to Al Qa’ida.

Al Jehadia Police Commandos (Police Commandos of the Holy War)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Al Jihad or New Jihad (Holy War or Struggle)

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Seeks overthrow of government.

Al Jihad (The Holy Struggle)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Al Karbala (lit. Those close to God, named after Iraqi city, holy to Shiites)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Al Inqualab (The Revolution)

Seeks to establish an Arab state in south west Iran (Arabistan oil-fields).

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

407 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Al Khomeini (named after Iranian Ayatollah)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Al Mahdi Mohammed (Mohammed, the Guide)

Somalia

Somalia

Political

Clansmen.

Al Mujahid Force (The Force of the Religious Fighter)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Al Mujahideen (Religious Fighters) Force

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir Afghanistan

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Al Najun min al Nasar (Those rescued from the Christians)

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Seeks overthrow of government.

Al Qa’ida (The Base [military connotations] or the Foundation)

Afghanistan (remnants) Pakistan Lebanon Somalia Sudan International presence focussed around Gulf and East Africa

Afghanistan, Kenya, Tanzania, US, Europe, Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Yemen

Religious Political

Seeks to liberate holy Islamic sites and establish Islamic world state. Anti-US, Israeli, western, Arabic governments and monarchies. Named after a guesthouse owned by Osama bin Laden, as part of the recruitment process for Mujahideen in the Soviet-Afghan war. See Maktaba I Khidmat (Service Office). A Muslim extremist network (loose coalition) of transnational terrorists, of no particular group affiliation or national base. Headed by bin Laden, responsible for 9 /11 and many other attacks.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Al Qanoon (the law)

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

408 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Pakistan

Pakistan

Political Religious

Anti-US / west. Detonated bomb outside US Consulate in Karachi, Pakistan, on 14th June 2002, killing 11 and injuring 25.

Al Shawqiyoun (The Zealous Ones)

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Splinter of Gama’a al Islamiya (GIA).

Al Takfir wa el Higra (The Atonement and Flight [of the Prophet] )

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Seeks overthrow of government.

Al Tawaqquf wal Tabayyun (Final Judgement and the Converts) also known as Al Najunmin al Nar (Deliverance from Hell)

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Anti-Government.

Germany UK

Germany UK Europe Tunisia

Religious Political

Anti-Western and moderate Muslim governments. Interacts with Al Qa’ida.

Al Umar Mujahideen (The Religious Fighters of Umar [2nd Caliph] )

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Alex Boncayao Brigade (also ABB; Red Scorpion Group)

Phillippines (Manila)

Phillippines

Political

Maoist group. Seeks overthrow of government. Acts in urban areas. Rural acts carried out by co-group; New People’s Army.

Allah Tigers (Tigers of God)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Al Tawhid (The Union)

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

409 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Allied Democratic Forces

Uganda

Uganda

Religious Political

An Anti-Western Islamic group.

All India Sikh Students Federation (2 factions)

India (Punjab state)

India (Punjab state)

Religious Separatist

Seeks independent Sikh country called Khalistan, around Amritsar in India’s Punjab state.

Al Sha’if (tribesmen)

Yemen

Yemen

Criminal

Engage in Extortion and Kidnappings.

Amal (meaning Hope / also an acronym: Afwaj al Muqawamah al Lubnaniyyah (Lebanese Resistance Detachments)

Lebanon

Lebanon

Religious

Seeks to replace Hezbollah as primary Shiite group.

US

US

Social Convictions

Greece

Greece

Anarchist Political

Animal Abuse Society

UK

UK

Animal Rights

A cover name used by the Animal Liberation Front to disassociate themselves from terrorism.

Animal Defence League

UK

UK

Animal Rights

A cover name used by the Animal Liberation Front to disassociate themselves from terrorism.

American Coalition of Life Activists Anarchist Attack Groups

Anti-Abortion. Violent. Arson attacks. Demands imprisoned anarchists.

release

of

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Animal Liberation Front (ALF) also known as - Animal Abuse Society, Animal Defence League, Animal Rights Militia, Hunt Retribution Squad and Justice Department

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

410 MOTIVE

REMARKS

UK, US, Italy

Australia, Canada, Finland, France, Italy, Poland, Sweden, UK, US

Animal Rights

Origins from a group called Bank of Mercy whose roots emerged from a group called Hunt Saboteurs Association. Uses following cover groups to commit terrorist acts; Animal Abuse Society, Animal Defence League, Animal Rights Militia, Hunt Retribution Squad and Justice Department. Members include those who are politically far left and far right, and from all classes.

UK

UK

Animal Rights

A cover name used by the Animal Liberation Front to disassociate themselves from terrorism.

Ansar ul Islam (The Islamic Supporters [Companions of the Prophet] )

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Ansar ul Mujahideen (Supporters of the Religious Fighters)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Anti-American Arab Liberation Front

Libya

Germany, Europe

Political

Anti-Western.

Arab Fedayeen Cells (Arab Self Sacrificers* Cells) * Fedayeen is not translated as Martyrs

Lebanon

Lebanon

Political

Anti-Western. Possibly dormant.

Iraq

Iraq

Political

Dormant.

Animal Rights Militia

Arab Liberation Front

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

411

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

REMARKS

Arab Revolutionary Brigades (ARB)

Lebanon (Beka’a valley)

International

Political

Opposed to Israel, western countries with Middle East interests, PLO and moderate Arab states. Restrained by Syria. One of several groups under the umbrella of the Abu Nidal Organisation.

Arab Revolutionary Council (ARC) also known as Arab Revolutionary Organisation

Lebanon (Beka’a valley)

International

Political

Opposed to Israel, western countries with Middle East interests, PLO and moderate Arab states. Restrained by Syria. One of several groups under the umbrella of the Abu Nidal Organisation.

Aracan United National Front

Burma

Burma

Ethnic Political

Seeks Autonomy / Independence.

Arewa

Nigeria

Nigeria

Political Ethnic

Anti-Government.

France (Corsica)

France (Corsica)

Political Ethnic

Seeks elimination of organised crime on Corsica, Independence from France and release of Armata Corsa members from French prisons.

Armed Forces of Madina (3rd holiest site in Islam)

Pakistan; Rawalpindi

Pakistan; Rawalpindi

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Armed Forces of Popular Resistance

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico, US

Political

Seeks Independence from UScommonwealth association.

Armed Forces Revolutionary Council

Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone

Political

Opposition Movement.

People’s

Congress

Armata Corsa (Corsican Army)

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

Armed Islamic Movement

AREA OF ACTIVITY

412 MOTIVE

REMARKS

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Very small group.

Algeria

Algeria

Religious

Seeks to establish an FIS Islamic regime in Algeria. Armed wing of FIS.

Italy

Italy

Political

Left-wing anti-fascist group.

Middle East, Europe, North America

International

Political

Communist. Seeks to elicit Turkish government acknowledgement of responsibility for Armenian genocide at turn of 20th century. Anti-Turkish colonialism, anti-imperialism, NATO and Zionism.

Yemen

Yemen

Religious

Seeks overthrow of government.

Aryan Nations (also known as Church of Aryan Nations and Church of Jesus Christ-Theological Arm)

US

US

Racial Political

Neo-Nazis.

Aryan Republican Army

US

US

Political Racial

Neo-Nazis.

Asbat ul Ansar (League of Companions [of the prophet])

Lebanon

Lebanon

Religious Political

Seek overthrow of government replacement by strict Islamic regime.

Aum Shinri Kyo (Supreme Truth) aka Aleph

Japan

Japan

Armageddonist

Autonomia Operaia Workers movement)

Italy

Italy

Political

Armé Islamique du Salut (AIS, Islamic Salvation Arm) Armed Revolutionary Nuclei Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA, aka Orly Group, 3rd October, Asalarm, Asal Mi l i tan t, Revol u tionary Movement) Army of Suicidals

(Autonomous

and

Uses chemical and biological weapons. 10,00 members, US$ 1 billion assets. Seeks revolution.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

413 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Avengers of Infants

Israel

Israel

Political religious

Very small group. Planted a bomb in a Palestinian schoolyard in retaliation for Palestinian terrorist acts.

Azione Rivoluzionaria (Revolutionary Action)

Italy

Italy

Political

Anarchists.

India (Punjab state)

India

Religious Ethnic

Seeks independent Sikh country called Khalistan, around Amritsar in India’s Punjab state.

Balokot Tanzeem (Balakot Group)

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Very small group.

Batmaloo Co-ordination Committee Named after small area of Srinagar, summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

BBA (Bayouwarische Befreiungs Armee or Bavarian Liberation Army)

Austria

Austria, Germany, other European countries

Racial Political Frustration

One member convicted. Believed to be the sole terrorist (Franz Fuchs) of a neo-Nazi group.

Befreiungs Ausschuss Sudtirols (Committee for the Liberation of South Tyrol)

Austria Italy

Austria Italy

Political Ethnic

Dormant for many years.

India: Assam

India: Assam

Political

Separatists.

US

US

Religious

Used biological weapons.

Babbar Khalsa (Babbar Group)

Bengali Tiger Force Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh Cult

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

414 MOTIVE

REMARKS

India

India

Religious Political

See RSS.

North India

India, Europe, Asia, U.S., Canada

Political

Sikh Separatist group.

Black Hand

Serbia

Europe

Political

National Extremists.

Black June

Lebanon (Beka’a valley)

International

Political

Opposed to Israel, western countries with Middle East interests, PLO and moderate Arab states. Restrained by Syria. One of several groups under the umbrella of the Abu Nidal Organisation.

Black September

Lebanon (Beka’a valley)

International

Political

Opposed to Israel, western countries with Middle East interests, PLO and moderate Arab states. Restrained by Syria. One of several groups under the umbrella of the Abu Nidal Organisation.

Middle East

Middle East

Political

Dormant. Formed after expulsion of Palestinian guerrillas and terrorists from Jordan in 1970.

Sri Lanka (Jaffna Peninsula)

Sri Lanka, India

Ethnic Separatist

A group of volunteer suicide terrorists within the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE, Tamil Tigers).

Europe, US

Europe, US

Racial Political

Neo-Nazi.

Bhutan (south)

Assam

Ethnic Separatist

Seeks an independent country called Bodoland in northwest Assam.

Bhinderanwala Tiger Force

Black September Organisation

Black Tigers - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE, Tamil Tigers) Blood and Honour Bodo Security Force

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

Papua New Guinea; Bougainville Island

Papua New Guinea; Bougainville Island

Political Ethnic

US

US

Religious Messianic

Messianic Group which seeks isolation and low profile.

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia

Religious

Seeks to overthrow Royal family in Saudi and establish Sunni Islamic state.

Namibia

Namibia

Ethnic

Separatist / Independence group.

Senegal

Senegal

Political

Separatist. Seeks Independence.

Champions of the Prophet’s Example (Ansaru es Sunna)

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Seek overthrow of government.

Cholana Kangtoap Serei Cheat Kampouchea (Cambodian Freedom Fighters)

Cambodia

Cambodia

Political

Anti-Government (Cambodian People’s Party).

US

US

Social Convictions

Japan

Japan

Political

Extremist left wing group. Seeks to overthrow government. Anti-US. Armed wing is Kansai Revolutionary Army.

US

US

Racial Political

Fascist, Anti-Semitic, Anti-Christian, racist group.

Bougainville (BRA)

Revolutionary

BASE

415

Army

Branch Davidians Brethren Brigades of the Faithful Caprivi Liberation Front Casamance Movement

Democratic

Forces

Christian Action Group Chukaka Ha (Central Faction or Kansai Revolutionary Army) Church of the Creator

REMARKS Seeks secession from Papua New Guinea.

Anti-Abortion. Violent.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

416 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Collegiates Activated to Liberate Life

US

US

Social Convictions

Column 88

UK

UK

Racist

Neo-Nazi group.

France

France

Political Racial

Neo-Nazi group.

UK

UK

Racial Political

Neo-Nazi group.

Committee for Road Safety Committee for Security on the Roads

Israel

Israel

Political Religious Racial

A splinter group of Kach, that attacks random Palestinians.

Committee for Solidarity with Arab and Middle Eastern Prisoners

Turkey

Turkey, France

Ethnic

Committee of the Revolutionary Internationalist Movement

Peru

Peru

Political

Anti-US, Anti-Interventionalist.

Communist Combatant Party (PCC)

Italy

Italy

Political

Split from Red Brigades with Union of fighting Communists.

Belgium

Belgium

Political

Marxist-Leninist group. Opposed US troop presence in Europe.

Philippines

Philippines

Political

Seeks overthrow of government.

South Africa

South Africa DR Congo

Political

Some members train as insurgents and terrorists.

Column 88 Heil Hitler Combat 18

Communist Fighting Cells (CCC, Cellules Communists Commbattantes) Communist New People’s Army Congolese Movement for Democracy

Anti-Abortion. Violent.

Armenian group.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

417

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

REMARKS

Continuity Irish Republican Army (also known as Continuity Army Council)

Northern Ireland, UK Rep. of Ireland

Northern Ireland, UK Rep. of Ireland

Political Religious

Fanatical group established to continue terrorism after PIRA announced cease-fire.

Convoy of Mercy

Jammu and Kashmir

Indian administered part of Jammu and Kashmir

Religious Political

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

US

US

Religious

Some members are accused of terrorism.

Dagenstani Kidnappers

Russia

Chechnya

Criminal

A criminal gang that commits terrorism.

Dal Khalsa

India (Punjab state)

India

Religious Ethnic

Seeks independent Sikh country called Khalistan, around Amritsar in India’s Punjab state.

India (Punjab state)

India, Japan

Religious Ethnic

Seeks independent Sikh country called Khalistan, around Amritsar in India’s Punjab state.

Libya

Libya, centre and east

Religious

Seeks to overthrow government and establish Islamic regime in Libya.

US

US

Social Convictions

Anti-Abortion. Violent.

Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP or Popular DFLP)

Palestinian Territories

Israel, Palestinian Territories

Political Ethnic

Seeks Palestinian state.

Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan (DPIK)

Iran

Iranian Kurdistan

Ethnic

Seeks to establish a Kurdish state.

Da’ar al Islam (The House of Islam)

Dashmesh Dashmesh Regiment)

10th Regiment Regiment and

(also 10th

Da’wa (The Call or Mission) Defensive Action

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

418 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Democratic Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Arabistan (DRFLA)

Iran

Iran, UK

Ethnic

Seeks to establish an Arab state in south west Iran (Arabistan oil-fields).

Devrimci Sol (Revolutionary Left). Changed name to Revolutionary Popular Liberation Party / Front

Turkey (Ankara)

Turkey

Political

Marxist group. Opposed US troop presence in Europe.

Dukhtran e Millat (Daughters of the Nation)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Women’s group; a few members commit terrorism.

UK

UK

Social Beliefs

Environmental protection group. Very few terrorists in this group.

UK, International

UK, International

Social Beliefs

Environmental protection group.

Burma

Burma

Ethnic Criminal (narcotics)

Ecological Direct Action

International

International

Social Beliefs

Egyptian Regional Group

Afghanistan

Afghanistan

Religious

Some members are accused of terrorism.

Ejercito de Liberacion Nacional-(ELN, National Liberation Army-Columbia)

Columbia

Columbia

Political

Marxist-Maoist group. Anti-Government and US.

Ejercito de Liberacion Nacional Bolivia (ELN, National Liberation ArmyBolivia)

Bolivia

Bolivia

Political

Marxist-Leninist group. Anti-Government and US. Founded by Che Ernesto Guevara.

Earth First Earth Liberation Front - Eastern Shan State Army - Mong Tai Army Myanmar - National Democratic Alliance Army - United Wa State Army

Oppose(d) anti-narcotics efforts by Burmese Government.

Environmental protection group.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

419 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Ejercito Guerrillero Tupac Katari (EGTK, Tupac Katari Guerrilla Army)

Bolivia (Chapare)

Bolivia

Racist Political

Maoist and racist group. Indigenous Indian natives. Opposes government, Anti-US.

Ejercito Popular de Liberacion (EPL, People’s [or Popular] Liberation Army)

Columbia

Columbia

Political

Maoist group, opposes government. Split into two factions.

Ejercito Popular Revolucionario (EPR, People’s Revolutionary Army)

Mexico (Guerrero)

Mexico

Financial Political

Seeks political reform. Kidnaps for large ransoms. Avoided by other terrorist groups. Political wing is the Ejercito Popular Revolucionario.

Ejercito Zapatistas de Liberation Nacional (EZLN, Zapatista National Liberation Army)

Mexico (Chiapas)

Mexico

Political Ethnic

Ethnic minority group. Seeks implementation of government-promised autonomy and democracy.

Emgann - Combat

France

France

Ethnic Political

Separatist / Independence.

Enough is Enough in the Niger

Nigeria

Nigeria

Political

Anti-Commercial exploitation (oil companies).

Epanastaiki Organosi 17 Noemvri (Revolutionary Organisation 17 November)

Greece

Greece

Political

Committed several attacks spanning decades. Only one suspect has ever been caught. Anti-US and NATO. Evolved from student uprising against Greek military junta in 1970s.

Eritrean Islamic Jehad (Holy War)

Sudan

Eritrea

Religious

Seeks overthrow of Eritrean government.

Eritrean Liberation Front

Sudan

Eritrea

Religious

Seeks overthrow of Eritrean government.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

420 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA, Basque Fatherland and Liberty). Also known as Tierra Vasca y Libertad. Sub groups of ETA are K.a.s.; Xaki; Ekin; Jarrai Haika Segi; Gestoras Pro Amnistia; Askatasuna

Spain

Spain

Ethnic

Separatist group seeking an independent state. Split in 1974 into ETA / PM (politicalmilitary) and ETA / M (militant).

Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna-Militant (ETA, Basque Fatherland and Liberty-/ M)

Spain

Spain

Ethnic

One of two splinter groups which in 1974 emerged from Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA, Basque Fatherland and Liberty).

Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna PoliticalMilitary (ETA, Basque Fatherland and Liberty-P/M).

Spain

Spain

Ethnic

One of two splinter groups which in 1974 emerged from Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA, Basque Fatherland and Liberty).

Exercito Guerrilleiro do Povo Galego Ceibe (Free Galician Peoples Army)

Spain

Spain

Political Separatists

Eyal

Israel

Israel

Ethnic Political

Opposes Oslo peace accords.

El Salvador

El Salvador

Political

Opposes government.

Lebanon (Beka’a valley; Lebanese part)

International

Political

Opposed to Israel, western countries with Middle East interests, PLO and moderate Arab states. Restrained by Syria. One of several groups under the umbrella of the Abu Nidal Organisation.

Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN, People’s Revolutionary Army, Revolutionary Party of Central American Workers) Fatah Revolutionary Council (Conquest Revolutionary Council)

Seek independence for Galicia.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

421

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

REMARKS

Ferkat Salahudin (Saladin Brigade). Named after the Kurd, Salah ad Din Yusuf, the first Ayyubid Sultan [born in Takrit, the same town as Saddam Hussein] who repelled the Crusaders from the Holy Land

Palestinian Autonomous Areas (PAAs)

Palestinian Autonomous Areas (PAAs)

Political Religious

Unites militants from Fatah and Hamas.

Fighting Ansar (Companions) of Allah (God)

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia

Religious

Seeks to overthrow Saudi Royal family and establish Sunni Islamic state.

Fighting Communist Party (Fighting Communist Nuclei)

Italy

Italy

Political

One of two splinter groups originating from the Red Brigades.

Fighting Guerrilla Formation

Greece

Greece

Political

Anarchists.

Fighting Islamic Group in Libya (FIGL)

Libya

Libya, centre and east

Religious

Seeks to overthrow government and establish Islamic regime in Libya.

Lebanon, Europe

Middle East

Political Religious

Originally bodyguard group for PLO chairman Yasir Arafat. Dormant since 1985.

France

France

Political Racial

Neo-Nazi.

Indonesia (Aceh, Sumatra)

Indonesia (Aceh, Sumatra)

Ethnic Political

Seeks independence from Indonesia.

Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea

Political Ethnic

Seeks separatism from Indonesia, federation with Papua New Guinea or independence as West Papua or West Melanesia.

Force 17 Frankreich Hoffmann Group (Pfeiffer Group) Free Aceh Movement (Gerakin Aceh Merdeka) Free Papua Movement (OPM or Organisasi Papua Merdeka)

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

422

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

REMARKS

Front contre l’occupation Tutsie (Front against Tutsi occupation). Political wing is Union des forces vives pour la liberation et la democratie en RDCZaire

Congo (DR)

Congo (DR)

Political Ethnic

Seeks restoration of former Zaire and ethnic cleansing of Tutsis.

Front de la Liberation Nationale de la Corse - Canal Habituel (FLNC, Corsican National Liberation Front Regular Branch)

France (Corsica)

France (mainland and Corsica)

Ethnic

Separatist group. Regular Branch. Political front of this group is the Movement for SelfDetermination (PMA).

Front de la Liberation Nationale de la Corse - Canal Historique (FLNC, Corsican National Liberation Front Historical Branch )

France (Corsica)

France (mainland and Corsica)

Ethnic

Separatist group. Historical Branch. Political front of this group is the Conculta Naciunalista.

Front for the Liberation of the Cabinda Enclave - Cabindan Armed Forces (FLEC-FAC)

Congo

Angola (Cabinda enclave)

Separatism

Seeks independence. Opposes MPLA government and foreign oil companies. Aided by UNITA.

Front Islamique du Salut (FIS, Islamic Salvation Front)

Algeria

Algeria Jammu and Kashmir

Religious

Seeks to establish an FIS Islamic regime in Algeria. Outlawed with its armed wing the AIS. Few members in India; Jammu and Kashmir.

Front Islamique du Salut (FIS, Islamic Salvation Front)

Europe

Tunisia

Religious

Seeks to overthrow Tunisian government and establish Islamic state.

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico, US

Political

Seeks Independence from UScommonwealth association.

Fuerzas Armadas de Liberacion Nacional (FALN, National Liberation Armed Forces)

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

423 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Fuerzas Armadas Revolutionarias de Columbia (FARC, Revolutionary Armed Forces of Columbia)

Columbia

Columbia, Panama, Venezuela

Political

Communist group. Opposes government and US. Sometimes acts under the umbrella of the Simon Bolivar Guerrilla Coordination Group.

Gama’a Al Islamiya (Islamic Group)

Egypt

Egypt, Italy, UK, Belgium, Germany

Religious

Seeks overthrow of Egyptian Government and establishment of Islamic regime.

Green Army

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group, possibly dormant.

Grey Wolves

Turkey

Turkey, Latin America

Political

Reportedly dormant.

Groupe Salafiste pour la Predication et le Combat ( GSPC / Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat)

Algeria

Algeria

Religious

Offshoot of Group Islamique Armé.

Group Islamique Armé (GIA, Islamic Armed Group)

Algeria

Algeria, France

Religious

Seeks to establish a GIA Islamic regime in Algeria.

Group Islamique Armé - GSPC

Algeria

Algeria

Religious Political

Dissident splinter group of Group Islamique Armé.

Israel, Palestinian Autonomous Area

Israel, Palestinian Autonomous Area

Religious

Seeks destruction of Israel and establishment of Palestinian state within former borders of Palestine. Main armed wings are Izz al Din al Qassam (Izz al Din Brigades).

Hamas (Harakat al Muqawama al I s l a mi ya [I s l ami c Res i s t a n c e Movement]) or Hammas Izz al Din Al Qassem

Political

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

424 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Harkat (i) Mujahideen (The Movement of Religious Fighters)

India; Jammu and Kashmir; UK

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Harkat ul Ansar (HuA, Companions [of Prophet Mohammed] Movement)

Jammu & Kashmir (disputed)

Indian administered part of Jammu & Kashmir

Religious Political

Seeks pledged plebiscite and accession to Pakistan.

Harkat ul Jihad Islami Bangladesh (Islamic Holy War Movement Bangladesh)

Bangladesh

Bangladesh

Religious Political

Seeks strict Islamic regime in Bangladesh, Kashmir and Pakistan.

Harkat ul Jehad e Islami (Islamic Holy War Movement)

Pakistan India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Many members joined Harkat ul Ansar. Small group, probably dormant.

Jamiat Ulema-I-Islam Fazlur Rehman faction (Accepted Groups of Islam, Fazhur Rahman faction)

Pakistan Azad Kashmir

Jammu and Kashmir

Religious Political

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Harkat ul Mujahideen (Religious Fighters Movement)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Many members joined Harkat ul Ansar. Small group, probably dormant. Different group from Harkat i Mujahideen.

Hawari Group (Fatah Special Operations, Group Martyrs of Tal al Za’ atar, Amn Araissi [Main Security])

Middle East

Middle East

Political Religious

Many members accused of terrorism.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

425 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Helpers of God’s Precious Infants

US

US

Social Convictions

Hezb e Hurriyat (Freedom Party)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Umbrella group created for Al Inquillab, Pasbane Islami, Islami Jang, Islamic Freedom Movement and Tehreek ul Mujahideen to form a coalition with JKLF, JKSLF, Ikhwan ul Muslimeen and Tehreek ul Mujahideen.

Hezb el Nahda (Islamic Revival Party) Other name; Leadership of Islam

Europe

Tunisia

Religious

Seeks to overthrow Tunisian government and establish Islamic state.

Hezbollah (Party of God)

Lebanon

International

Religious

Seeks to establish a Shiite Islamic state in Lebanon and the destruction of Israel.

Iran

Bahrain

Religious

Seeks establishment of Shiite Islamic government in Bahrain.

Hezbollah (Party of God) External Security Organisation

London

London

Religious Political

Small Presence in London, Proscribed List.

Hizballah (Party of God)

Turkey

Turkey

Political

Kurdish (and Muslim) extremist group, formed in response to Kurdish PKK atrocities against Muslims in southeast Turkey, where Hizballah wants to establish strict Islamic state.

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia

Religious

Shiite Muslim group. Seeks to overthrow Royal family in Saudi Arabia.

Hezbollah (Party of God) - Bahrain

Hezbollah (Party of God) -Gulf

Anti-abortion. Violent.

but

on

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

426 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Hizb Islami (Islamic Party)

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Azad Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Supplies recruits. Small organisation.

Hizb i Wahadat (Unity Party)

Afghanistan

Afghanistan, India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Anti-Taliban. Some members fight in Jammu and Kashmir.

Hizb ul Jihad (Holy Struggle Party)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Hizbullah (Party of God)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Hizb ul Momineen (The Believers Party)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Hizb ul Mujahideen (Party of the Religious Fighters)

Jammu and Kashmir

Indian administered part of Jammu and Kashmir

Religious Political

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Hizb ul Nissa (The Woman’s Party)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group; a few members commit terrorism.

UK

UK

Animal Rights

A cover name used by the Animal Liberation Front to disassociate themselves from terrorism.

Hunt Retribution Squad

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Ikhwan ul Muslimeen Brotherhood)

BASE (Muslim

AREA OF ACTIVITY

427 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Egypt, Syria

Egypt, Syria

Religious Political

Shiite Muslim group. Dormant in Syria.

Ikhwan ul Muslimeen (The Muslim Brotherhood)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Shiite Muslim group.

Ikhwan ul Muslimoon (The Muslim Brotherhood)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political

Former Guerrilla-terrorists, engaged on counter-insurgency in support of Indian security forces.

Libya

Libya, centre and east

Religious

Shiite Muslim group. Seeks to overthrow government and establish Islamic regime in Libya.

Ecuador

Ecuador

Environmental, Political

Accused of terrorism.

Israel

Israel

Political religious

Right Wing Israeli group. Anti-Government and Anti-Peace process. Claimed responsibility for the assassination of Prime Minister Rabin by Yigal Amir. Possibly a cover name.

Rwanda

Rwanda

Ethnic Profit Political

Hutu Militias and former Rwandan Army soldiers.

Afghanistan

International

Religious

Seeks removal of US troops from Saudi Arabia and Islamic world revolution.

Ikhwan ul Muslimeen Brotherhood) - Libya

(Muslim

Indigenous Defence Front for Pastaza Province (FDIP) INE

Interahamwe (those who kill without mercy) International Islamic Front Fighting Jews and Crusaders

for

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

428 MOTIVE

REMARKS

International Justice Group (International Group for Justice)

Egypt

Egypt Switzerland

Religious

Seeks overthrow of government.

International Sikh Youth Federation

India UK

India UK

Religious Ethnic

Separatist Independence. Homeland (Khalistan).

Iraq, Jordan

Iraq

Political

Anti-Government.

Ireland (Dublin)

UK (Mainland and Northern Ireland)

Ethnic Political

This group aids separatists in Northern Ireland and seeks unification of Ireland.

Turkey

Turkey

Religious

Anti-Government.

Arabian Gulf or Afghanistan

Kenya Tunisia

Religious

Anti-US, Israel, West, Arabic and Arabic monarchist governments. A group using this name claimed responsibility for the 1998 attacks on US embassies in Kenya and Dar as Salaam, and an explosion (truck carrying gas) at a Jewish Synagogue on the Tunisian island of Djerba (11th April 2002) that killed 15 people including ten German tourists. Likely Al Qa’ida affiliation.

Islamic Freedom Movement

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Islamic Front

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Iraqi National Accord Irish National Liberation Army (INLA, People’s Liberation Army, People’s Republican Army, Catholic Reaction Force) Islamic Action Islamic Army for the Liberation of Holy Places (sites)

Seeks

Sikh

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

429 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Iran

Bahrain

Religious

Seeks establishment of Shiite Islamic government in Bahrain.

Turkey

Turkey

Religious

Members accused of terrorism.

See ‘Remarks’

See ‘Remarks’

Religious

Various national groups in: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Azerbaijan, Bosnia, Croatia, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Indonesia, Lebanon, Pakistan, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Yemen, the Kashmiri region of India and the Chechen region of Russia.

Islamic Jihad (Holy Struggle) for the Liberation of Palestine

Lebanon

International

Religious

Splinter- group of Hezbollah (Lebanon). Seeks to establish a Shiite Islamic state in Lebanon and the destruction of Israel.

Islamic Jehad (Holy Struggle) - Egypt

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Seeks to establish an Islamic regime in Egypt. A coalition group including Al Takfir, New Jihad group, Tala’al al Fateh and Vanguards of Conquest.

Islamic Jihad (Holy War) -Egypt; Al T’uhari Faction

Egypt

Egypt International

Religious

Seeks overthrow of Egyptian Government and replacement by Islamic Shari’a law government.

Saudi Arabia (east)

International

Religious

Seeks to establish a Shiite Islamic government in Saudi Arabia.

Turkey

Turkey

Religious

Anti-Government.

Islamic Great Eastern Raiders Front Islamic Jihad (Holy Struggle)

Islamic Jihad (Holy War) in Hejaz Islamic Liberation Movement

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

Islamic Liberation Party

AREA OF ACTIVITY

430 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Tunisia

Tunisia

Religious

Seeks to overthrow Tunisian government and establish Islamic state.

Islamic Movement for Change

Libya

Libya, centre and east

Religious

Seeks t o overthrow government and establish Islamic regime in Libya.

Islamic Movement of Change

Saudi Arabia

Riyadh

Religious

S eeks to overthrow government and establish strict Islamic regime in Saudi Arabia. Anti-US, Anti-Western.

Islamic Movement for Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan

Religious

Seeks to establish Islamic state. Anti-US and West.

Islamic Movement Organisation

Turkey

Turkey

Religious

Anti-Government.

Islamic Movement of Martyrs

Libya

Libya, centre and east

Religious

Seeks to overthrow government and establish Islamic regime in Libya.

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia

Religious

Seeks to overthrow Royal family in Saudi Arabia.

Lebanon

Lebanon, France, International

Religious

Armed wing of Hezbollah. Seeks to establish a Shiite Islamic state in Lebanon and the destruction of Israel.

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Joint operations Co-ordination group for Hizballah, Al Fatah, Hizb ul Momineen, Jamaat i Islami and Jamiat ul Muslimeen.

Iran Pakistan

Tajikistan, north Afghanistan

Ethnic Religious

Seek separatism government.

Islamic Peninsula Movement Change- Jihad (Holy War) Wing Islamic Resistance (Jihad Organisation Islamic Resistance Force

Islamic Resistance Party (IRP)

for

Islami)

and

opposes

Tajik

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

Islamic Revolutionary Council

AREA OF ACTIVITY

431 MOTIVE

REMARKS

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group, possibly defunct.

Islamic Revolutionary Organisation

Saudi Arabia (east)

International

Religious

Seeks to establish a Shiite Islamic government in Saudi Arabia.

Islamic Salvation Front

Afghanistan (moved to unspecified location)

International

Religious

Group of Osama bin Laden (Head of Al Qa’ida and chairman of higher council in the International Islamic Front for fighting Jews and Crusaders).

Islamic Students Organisation

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious Separatist

Divided; seeks either accession to Pakistan or independence of Jammu and Kashmir. Small group, dormant.

Tunisia

Tunisia

Religious

Seeks to overthrow Tunisian government and establish Islamic state.

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Religious Political

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group. Anti-US, AntiWestern.

Pakistan

Karachi Pakistan

Religious

Anti-US, Anti-Western.

Islamic Tendency Movement Islami Jang (Islamic War)

Islami Inqalab Group Revolution Group)

(Islamic

Islami Inquilabi Council (Islamic Revolutionary Council)

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Islami Inquilabi Revolution Front)

BASE

MOTIVE

REMARKS

(Islamic

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Nepal, Bangladesh

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Ittehad Shoora e Jehad (United Council of Holy War)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

A coalition umbrella group comprising: Harkat ul Ansar, Hizb ul Mujahideen, Al Jehad, Tehreek ul Mujahideen and Al Umar Mujahideen. Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Izrael Group

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group, possibly dormant.

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Azad Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Azad Kashmir; UK

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Jago Mujahideen Religious Fighters)

Mahaz

AREA OF ACTIVITY

432

(The

Jaish e Mohammed Mohammed)

Vigilant

(Army

Jama’at Ahle Hadith (Group of the Pure Edicts)

of

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia

Religious

Seeks to overthrow Royal family in Saudi Arabia.

Jammu and Kashmir

Indian administered part of Jammu and Kashmir

Religious Political

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Some members commit terrorism.

Jama’at al Fuqra (The Group of the Poor)

Pakistan

Pakistan, US

Religious

Members accused of terrorism.

Jamiat Hamadania (Groups of Hamadan [Hamadan introduced Islam to Kashmir])

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group, possibly dormant.

Jamiat i Ulema e Pakistan (Accepted Groups of the Land of the Pure)

Pakistan

Pakistan

Political Religious

Political Party; a very few members commit terrorism.

Jamiat Taliba (Students Group)

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group, possibly defunct.

Jamiat ul Fugra (Groups of the poor)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small political party; some members commit terrorism.

Jamiat ul Mujahideen (Groups of Religious Fighters)

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Azad Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks a Caliphate.

Jama’ at al Adala al Alamiya (International Justice Group) Jamaat e Islam (Islamic Groups)

BASE

433 REMARKS

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

434 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Jamiat ul Muslimeen (The Muslim Groups)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Jamiat ul Shabab ul Islam (Islamic Youth Groups)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group involved in recruiting.

Jammu Kashmir Harkat ul Momineen (Jammu Kashmir Believers Movement)

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Jammu Kashmir Ikhwan (Brotherhood), also known as Islamabad Ikhwan, Kashmir Ikhwan and South JK Ikhwan

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political

Former guerrilla-terrorists, engaged on counter-insurgency in support of Indian security forces.

Jammu Kashmir Islamic Front

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front or JKLF (7 factions)

Jammu and Kashmir (disputed)

India, Pakistan, UK, US, Holland, Canada

Ethnic Political Separatist

Seeks pledged plebiscite and independent country of Jammu and Kashmir.

Jammu Kashmir Muslim Mujahideen (Religious Fighters)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

435 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Jammu Kashmir National Liberation Front

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious Separatist

Japanese Communist League

North Korea

South Korea, Japan

Political

Seek overthrow of government.

Japanese Red Army (JRA, AntiImperialist International Brigade, Anti War Democratic Front, Nippon Sekigun)

Lebanon Japan

International

Political

Communist group. Former instructors of multi- national terrorists. Seeks overthrow of Japanese government.

Jawed Langra (The Lame Jawed)

Pakistan

Pakistan

Political

Incites terrorism, possibly dormant.

Jehad (Holy Struggle) Force

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Jema’ah Islamiya (Islamic Groups)

Singapore Malaysia Phillippines

Singapore Malaysia Phillippines

Religious Political

Anti-US. Links to Al Qa’ida.

Canada

Canada

Religious

Members accused of terrorism.

Afghanistan

Afghanistan

Political

An Anti-Taliban alliance.

Armenia

Armenia, Turkey, Austria, France

Ethnic Religious

Members accused of terrorism.

Jihad (Holy Struggle) Council for North America Junbish I Milli yi Islami (National Islamic Movement) Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide

Seeks independence.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Justice Department

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

436 MOTIVE

REMARKS

UK

UK

Animal Rights

A cover name used by the Animal Liberation Front to disassociate themselves from terrorism.

Just Retribution Unit

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Seeks overthrow of government.

Kach Party

Israel

Israel West Bank

Ethnic Political

Seeks deportation of Arabs from Israel and Occupied Territories. Opposes Oslo peace accords.

Kahane Chai (Kahane lives)

Israel

Israel West Bank

Ethnic Political

Splinter group of Kach group. Seeks deportation of Arabs from Israel and Occupied Territories. Opposes Oslo peace accords.

Kakumaruha Revolutionary Marxist Faction

Japan

Japan

Political

Opposes government.

Kakurokyo Hazamaha Revolutionary Worker Organisation

Japan

Japan

Political

Opposes government.

Kansai Revolutionary Army

Japan

Japan

Political

Extremist left wing group. Seeks to overthrow government. Anti-US. Armed wing of Chukaka Ha (Central Faction).

Kashmir Freedom Fighters

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Kashmir Liberation Army

Kashmir Liberation Cell

Kashmir National Liberation Front

Khalifah (Caliphate) Khalistan Commando Force

Khalistan Liberation Force; Khalistan Liberation Front; Khalistan Liberation Tiger Force; Khalistan Liberation Force-Shahidi Group; Khalistan Commando Force; Khalistan National Army; Bhinderawala Tiger Force Khalistan Movement

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

437 MOTIVE

REMARKS

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group, name sometimes used by Islamic Revolutionary Council.

Azad Kashmir

Azad Kashmir, India; Jammu and Kashmir state

Political

A branch of the Azad (Free) Kashmir Government on the Pakistan side of the cease-fire line (Line of Control).

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Azad

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious Separatist

Seeks independence. Small group related to Plebiscite Front and National Liberation Front. Believed to be dormant.

Egypt

Egypt

Religious Political

Seeks overthrow of Government and establishment of a Caliphate.

India; Amritsar

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Amritsar

Political Religious Separatist

Seeks independent Sikh country of Khalistan (Land of the Pure). Aids Jammu and Kashmir guerrillas and terrorists.

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Punjab

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious Separatist

Seeks independent Sikh country of Khalistan (Land of the Pure). Aids Jammu and Kashmir guerrillas and terrorists. Some members joined the Jammu Kashmir Harkat ul Momineen in 1996.

Pakistan (exiled)

India; Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Amritsar

Political Religious Separatist

Seeks independent Sikh country of Khalistan (Land of the Pure). Aids Jammu and Kashmir guerrillas and terrorists. Leaders in exile in Pakistan; wanted in India.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

Khalistan Zindabad Force

AREA OF ACTIVITY

438 MOTIVE

REMARKS

India; Punjab state

India; Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir

Religious Political Separatist

Seeks independent Sikh country of Khalistan (Land of the Pure). Aids Jammu and Kashmir guerrillas and terrorists

Khawateen i Kashmir (The Kashmir Sisterhood)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Women’s group; a very few commit terrorism.

Khmer Rouge (The Democratic Kampuchea)

Cambodia

Cambodia

Political

Extremist communist group. Fragmented into many uncontrolled factions.

Ku Klux Klan (97+ groups)

US

US

Religious Political Racial

Anti-Semitic, Anti-Catholic, AntiCommunist and Anti-Abortion. Racial Protestant fanatics.

Komala; Komala Lidni Kurdistan; Komalay Shoreshgeri Zahmatkeshani Kurdistani Iran (Komala, Revolutionary Organisation of the Toilers of Kurdistan in Iran)

Iran

Iran

Political Ethnic

Separatist. Seeks Independent Kurdish State.

Kosova(o) Liberation Army (KLA)

Kosovo

Kosovo

Political Ethnic Religious

Anti-Serbian paramilitary group.

Kurdish Communist Party of Iran

Iran

Iranian Kurdistan

Ethnic

Seeks to establish a Kurdish State.

Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP)

Iraq (north)

Iraq (north)

Ethnic

Seeks to establish a KDP Kurdish state in northern Iraq.

Party

of

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

439

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

REMARKS

Lascar Jihad (Holy War Militia)

Molucu Islands (Mollucca Islands)

Molucu Islands (Mollucca Islands)

Ethnic Religious

A militia of religious fanatics helping Indonesian government troops and Taliban to suppress Moluccan Islanders (both Christian and Muslim).

Lashkar e Ayubi (The Militia of Ayub)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Lashkar e Jhangvi (Jhangvi Militia)

Pakistan

Pakistan (Lahore)

Religious

Religious fanatic group. Anti-Muslim Shia Sect and Anti-Government.

Lashkar e Omar (Army of Omar)

Pakistan

Islamabad

Religious Political

Anti-Western and Anti-Christian. Previously unheard of group claiming responsibility for throwing grenades into a Protestant church in Islamabad, in March 2002, killing five (including three foreigners) and wounding about 40 others.

Lashkar e Toiba [or Tayyba] (The Holy Army / Militia)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Laskar e Sajjad (Army of Sajjad [named after 4th Imam])

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group.

Laskar Jihad or Jihad Troopers (Holy War Militia)

Indonesia

Indonesia

Religious Ethnic

Religious fanatics group. Engaged in ethnic cleansing of Christians and tribal natives.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

Lautaro Youth Movement (Lautaro Popular Rebel Forces or Lautaro Faction of United Popular Action Movement)

AREA OF ACTIVITY

440 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Chile

Chile

Political

Members accused of terrorism.

UK

UK

Political Racial

Neo-Nazi.

League of the followers of the Sunna (Sunni Muslims)

Tajikistan

Tajikistan

Religious

Members accused of terrorism.

Lebanese Factions

Revolutionary

Lebanon

Lebanon, France

Political

Anti-Western.

L ef tist Revol u ti on ary Armed Commandos for Peace in Columbia

Columbia

Columbia

Political

Leftist group. government.

Legion of the Martyr Abdullah al Huzaifi

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia

Religious

Seeks to overthrow Royal family in Saudi and establish Sunni Islamic state.

Liberation Front

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious Separatist

Seeks independence. Small group. Worked with People’s League and Jamiat Tulba. Possibly merged with JKLF.

Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE, Tamil Tigers)

Sri Lanka (Jaffna Peninsula)

Sri Lanka, India

Ethnic Separatist

Seeks to establish an independent Tamil country called Eelam

Libyan Jehad (Holy War) Movement

Libya

Libya, centre and east

Religious

Seeks to overthrow governm ent and establish Islamic regime in Libya.

League of St. George

Armed

Seeks

overthrow

of

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

441

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

Libya

International

Political

Life Enterprises Unlimited

US

US

Social Convictions

Anti-Abortion. Violent.

Life Ministries

US

US

Social Convictions

Anti-Abortion. Violent.

Sudan

Uganda (north)

Religious

Seeks implementation of extremist Christian religious law.

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico, US

Political

Seeks Independence from UScommonwealth association.

Russia

Russia

Criminal

Organised criminal gangs accused of terrorism.

Northern Ireland (UK)

Northern Ireland (UK)

Religious Political

Protestant group.

Libyan Security Services

Lord’s Resistance Army (Formerly Holy Spirit Movement) Los Macheteros Lower Tagilsk and Serovsk Group Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF)

REMARKS Deputy Chief (Abdullah Senoussi, brotherin-law of Muammar Khadafi) and five other members of this state security organisation were convicted in absentia by a French Court for the bombing of a French UTA airliner that killed 171 persons in 1989. Abdel Baset Ali al-Megrahi (of the same service) was convicted at the Hague in 2002 for the bombing of Pan Am flight 103 (Boeing 747 ‘Maid of the Sea’) over Lockerbie, Scotland, UK in 1988.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

442

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

REMARKS

Maktaba I Khidmat (Service Office) or Maktab el Khidmat lel Mujahideen el Arab (Office for the Services of Arabic Holy Fighters)

Afghanistan

Afghanistan The Gulf

Religious Political

The notable [now defunct] Peshawar recruitment-logistics office of the SovietAfghan war which processed Arabic volunteers for fighting in Afghanistan. Bin Laden was associated with setting up this office. The Al Qa’ida network is based upon the information and associations resulting from this office.

Maktaba I Khidmat (Service Office)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Religious Political

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group. Named after the office in Peshawar during the Soviet Afghan war.

Solomon Islands

Solomon Islands

Ethnic

Separatist Malaitans seek independence from Solomon Islands.

Manuel Rodriguez Patriotic FrontDissident (FPMR-D)

Chile

Chile

Political

Opposes government.

Maoist Communist Centre (MCC); Maoist Coordination Committee (MCC)

India

India

Political

Attacks so called ‘class enemies.’

Markaz Dawat ul Irshad (Centre for Guidance Appeals)

India; Jammu and Kashmir, UK

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan.

Mayi Mayi or Alliance for la resistance democratique (Democratic Resistance Alliance)

Congo (DR)

Congo (DR)

Ethnic

Militias alliance. Anti-Tutsi and AntiRwandan army.

Malaita Eagles Force; Isatabu Freedom Movement

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

Michigan Militia

AREA OF ACTIVITY

443 MOTIVE

REMARKS

US, Michigan

US

Political

Missionaries of the Preborn National

US

US

Social Convictions

Mojahideen e Khalq (Religious fighters of the people, also known as The National Liberation Army of Iran [militant wing of MeK]; The People’s Mujahideen of Iran; Sazman e Mojahidin e Khalq e Iran; Muslim Iranian Student’s Society; National Council of Resistance).

Iraq

Iran

Political

Seeks to overthrow Iranian government and replace it with a Marxist regime.

Honduras

Honduras

Political

Members accused of terrorism.

Moro Islamic Liberation Front

Phillippines (Mandanao)

Phillippines

Religious Separatist

Mouvement de Liberation Congolais (MLC)

Congo (DR)

Congo (DR)

Political

Seeks overthrow of Kabila government.

Movement for Islamic Change

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia

Religious

Seeks to overthrow Royal family in Saudi Arabia and establish Sunni Islamic state.

Iran

Bahrain

Religious

Seeks establishment of Shiite Islamic government in Bahrain.

Mozambique

Mozambique

Political

Members accused of terrorism.

Morazanist Patriotic Front

Movement for the Liberation of Bahrain Mozambican (Renamo)

National

Resistance

Anti-Government. Anti-Abortion. Violent.

Seeks an independent Islamic country on Mindanao Island. Splinter group from Moro National Liberation Front (dissolved).

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

Muhammad Commandos

AREA OF ACTIVITY

444 MOTIVE

REMARKS

US

US

Religious

Members accused of terrorism.

Mujahideen (Religious Fighters) Balakote [scene of Raj uprising]

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group. Associated with Hezb e Hurriyet.

Mujahideen (Religious Fighters) Coordination Committee

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Umbrella group; failed to merge several guerrilla-terrorist groups.

Muslim Guerrilla Tigers

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group, possibly dormant or merged.

Muslim Janbaaz (Martyrs/Brave Soldiers) Force

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small group, possibly dormant or merged.

Muslim Khawateen Markaz (Muslim Central Sisterhood)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Women’s group; a very small number commit terrorism.

Muslim Liberation Army

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political

Cattle herdsmen and former guerrillaterrorists engaged in tracking guerrillas and terrorists for Indian security forces.

Muslim Militant Faction

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political

Former guerrillas and terrorists, now engaged in counter-insurgency in support of Indian security forces.

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political

Former guerrillas and terrorists, now engaged in counter-insurgency in support of Indian security forces.

Muslim Mujahideen Fighters)

(Religious

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

445

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

South Africa

South Africa

Political Religious

A front organisation for the Muslim group; People Against Gangsterism and Drugs (PAGAD).

US

US

Religious

Members accused of terrorism.

Mutahidda Quami Movement (Mohajir Quami Movement); Khidmat e Khalq Foundation

Pakistan

Pakistan

Ethnic Political

Refugee / Immigrant movement: Muslims who left India for Pakistan in 1947 upon partition. Opposes government for discriminatory treatment.

Nadeem Commando

Pakistan

Pakistan

Political Ethnic

Linked to MQM (Mutahidda Quami Movement).

National Army for the Liberation of Uganda (NALU)

Uganda

Uganda

Religious Political Profit

An offshoot of the Allied Democratic Front.

East Timor Indonesia

East Timor Indonesia

Ethnic Political Religious

Fought for separatism / Independence from Indonesia, and committed some acts of terrorism. Dormant / Defunct.

Pakistan

Pakistan

Religious

Members accused of terrorism.

Indonesia (East Timor)

Indonesia (East Timor)

Ethnic Political

Separatist group, prior to Independence. Dormant / defunct.

National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam

Vietnam

Vietnam

Political

Seeks overthrow of Government.

National Front for the Renewal of Chad (FNTR)

Chad

Chad

Political

Members accused of terrorism.

Muslims Against Global Oppression (MAGO) Muslims of the Americas

National Council Resistance (CNRM)

of

Maubere

National Council of Resistance National Armed Forces Liberation of East Timor

for

the

REMARKS

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

446 MOTIVE

REMARKS

National Front for the Salvation of Libya

Libya

Libya, centre and east

Religious

Seeks to overthrow government and establish Islamic regime in Libya.

National Islamic Front

Sudan

Sudan

Religious Political

Anti-US, Anti-Israel.

National Islamic Movement

Afghanistan

Afghanistan, India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Afghan Party allied to the Taliban Militia. Some few members involved in Jammu and Kashmir insurgency.

National Liberation Army

Columbia

Columbia

Political Criminal (narcotics)

Anti-US communist group / force seeks overthrow of government.

National Liberation Front

India; Jammu and Kashmir; Azad Kashmir; Pakistan

India; Jammu and Kashmir; Azad Kashmir; Pakistan

Political Separatist

Seeks independence. Small group related to Kashmir National Liberation Front and Plebiscite Front. Believed to be dormant.

National Revolutionary Army

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political

Claimed responsibility for one terrorist attack: bombing of a bus in 1993; many Muslims killed, including children. Not heard of since. Possibly non-existent (a false flag operation).

National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NCSN)

India (Nagaland)

India Nagaland

Ethnic Secessionist

Bolivia

Bolivia

Political

Nestor Paz (CNPZ)

Zamora

Commission

Seeks union with ethnic group in Burma. Marxist-Leninist group. Operates under the umbrella of the Ejercito de Liberacion Nacional (ELN, National Liberation Army).

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

New Mon State Party

AREA OF ACTIVITY

447 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Burma

Burma

Ethnic Political

Seeks Autonomy / Independence.

Thailand

Thailand

Political

Members accused of terrorism.

Phillippines (Manila)

Phillippines

Political

Maoist group. Seeks overthrow of government. Acts in rural areas. Urban acts carried out by co-group; Alex Boncayao Brigade.

Egypt

Egypt

Religious Political

Seeks overthrow of present government and establishment of an Islamic State.

Ogaden National Liberation Front

Ethiopia

Ethiopia

Political

Seeks to overthrow Ethiopian government.

Oodua Liberation Movement; Oodua Peoples Congress; Revolutionary Council of Nigeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

Ethnic Separatist

Seeks independence from Nigeria.

Operation Balakot [named after scene of uprising during the Raj]

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks a Caliphate. Many of the 300 members left to join the Ikhwan ul Muslimeen between 1993 and 1994. Possibly dormant.

Operation Rescue

US

US

Social Convictions

Orange Volunteers

Northern Ireland (UK)

Northern Ireland (UK)

Religious Political

New Pattani Organisation

United

Liberation

New People’s Army

Nida’ul Islam (Call of Islam)

Anti-Abortion. Violent. A protestant so-called ‘loyalist’ paramilitary group in Northern Ireland. Anti-IRA, prosecurity forces.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

448

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

REMARKS

Ordine Nuovo (New Order)

Italy

Italy

Political

Fascist group which is now possibly dormant or split into other groups.

Organisation Revolutionaries

Egypt

Egypt

Religious Political

Anti-government.

Italy

Italy

Religious

Anti-US, Anti-Western.

Organisation of the Oppressed on Earth

Lebanon

Spain, Germany, International

Religious

Splinter group of Hezbollah (Lebanon). Seeks to establish a Shiite Islamic state in Lebanon and the destruction of Israel.

Organisation of Volunteers for the Puerto Rican Revolution (OVRP)

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico, US

Political

S eeks Independence fr o m t he US commonwealth association.

Organisasi Papua Merdek (OPM, Free Papua Movement)

Papua New Guinea, Irian Jaya

Indonesia, Irian Jaya

Ethnic Separatist

Socialist and Melanesian nationalist group. Seeks an independent country.

Ethiopia

Ethiopia

Ethnic Political

Separatist / Independence group.

Palestinian Islamic Jihad (Holy War)

Israel and Palestinian Auton. Area

Israel and Palestinian Autonomous Area

Religious Political

Seeks destruction of Israel and establishment of Islamic Palestinian state. Political headquarters in Damascus.

Palestinian Islamic Jihad (Holy War) Shaqaqi Faction

Israel and Palestinian Autonomous Area

Israel and Palestinian Autonomous Area

Religious Political

Seeks destruction of Israel and establishment of Islamic Palestinian state.

of

Egyptian

Organisation of Jihad (Holy War) Brigades

Oromo Liberation Front

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

449

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

REMARKS

Palestine Liberation Front (PLF, three factions)

Iraq (Baghdad), Syria (Damascus), Libya (Tripoli)

Middle East

Political Religious

Seeks destruction of the state of Israel. Splinter group from PFLP-GC.

Palestinian National Liberation (or Salvation) Front

Syria Lebanon

Middle East

Political

Opposes peace-treaty with Israel.

Parti pour la liberation du peuple Hutu -Palipehutu - (Hutu people’s Liberation Party)

Burundi

Burundi

Ethnic Separatist

Seeks separatism.

India: Jammu and Kashmir

India: Jammu and Kashmir

Political

Separatists.

Turkey

Turkey (southeast) Iraq (north), Europe, Armenia

Ethnic Political

Marxist. Seeks to establish an independent Kurdish state. Heavily engaged in narcotics trafficking to Europe.

Pasbane Islami (Guardians of Islam)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Associated to the Hezb e Hurriyat. Small group, may have merged.

Pasdarani Islami (Guards of Islam)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Noted for its attempted kidnap of Europeans and Israelis.

Pakistan

Pakistan

Religious Political

Anti-US, Anti-Western. Liked to Lashkar e Tayyba.

Partisans Movement

Partiya Karkeren Kurdistan (PKK, Kurdistan Workers Party or Kurdish Labour Party)

Pashan e Ahle Hadis (Followers of the Divine Edicts)

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

450

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

REMARKS

Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK)

Iraq (north), Iran

Iraq (north)

Political

Seeks to establish a PUK Kurdish state in north Iraq.

People Against Gangsterism and Drugs (PAGAD)

South Africa

South Africa

Political Religious

A Muslim group which attacks criminals and moderate Muslims. Uses a front organisation; Muslims Against Global Oppression (MAGO).

People in Action for the Liberation of Rwanda

DR Congo

DR Congo

Political

Believed to be former Rwandan soldiers.

Peo p l e ’ s E x t r a - Pa r l i amen tary Opposition

Austria

Austria Germany

Political Racial

Neo-Nazi. Very small group, probably dormant.

Peoples’ Kurdistan Liberation Army (ARGK)

Turkey

Turkey, Europe

Political

Separatism from Iraq and Turkey - Seek Independent Kurdish State.

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka

Political

Seek to establish a separate Tamil state.

Plebiscite Front

India; (Jammu and Kashmir; Azad Kashmir; Pakistan)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious Separatist

Seeks independence. Related to Kashmir National Liberation Front and Plebiscite Front Party. Possibly dissolved or merged.

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command (PFLPGC)

Syria (Damascus)

Lebanon, Israel, Palestinian Autonomous Area

Political

Seeks destruction of Israel. Restrained by Syria.

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP and PFLP; Red Eagle Faction)

Syria (Damascus), Lebanon

International

Political

Seeks a Marxist-Leninist Arab revolution.

People’s Liberation Front

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

451 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - Special Command (PFLPSC)

Syria (Damascus), Lebanon (south)

Middle East Western Europe

Political

Seeks overthrow of Israel and establishment of a Marxist-Leninist government in Palestine.

Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario)

Western Sahara

Western Sahara

Political

Seeks to remove Moroccan security forces and gain independence for the Western Sahara. Dispute over eligible voters for referendum.

Syria

Syria Lebanon

Political

Palestinian group.

Austria

Austria

Political Racial

Neo-Nazi group.

Pro-Life Action Network

US

US

Social Convictions

Anti-Abortion. Violent.

Pro-Life Virginia

US

US

Social Convictions

Anti-abortion. Violent.

UK (Northern Ireland)

UK (Northern Ireland and mainland), Republic of Ireland

Political Religious

Engaged in a cease-fire.

Ecuador

Ecuador

Political

Small but violent. Possibly dormant.

South Africa

South Africa

Religious

Seeks to establish Shiite Islamic state in South Africa.

Popular Struggle Front Popular Union of Carinthia and Styria

Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) Puka Inti (Sol Rojo or Red Sun) Quibla (Security or the Direction of Mecca)

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

452 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Rashid Khan Group

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Possibly dormant.

Rashtriya (Presidential) Rifles

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Large Indian paramilitary force; some members commit terrorism.

Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (RSSS, Presidential Personal Service Union)

India; Jammu and Kashmir

India; Jammu and Kashmir

Political Religious

Fundamentalist Hindu Political Organisation; action group for the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP or Indian People’s Party). Some members commit terrorism.

Real (or New) Irish Republican Army [Also known as Oglaigh na hEireann]

UK (Northern Ireland)

UK (Northern Ireland)

Political Religious

Fanatical splinter group of PIRA.

Italy (north)

Europe

Political

Marxist-Leninist group. Seeks revolution to overthrow world capitalist system. Split in 1984 into two groups; The Fighting Communist Party (FCP) and the Union of Fighting Communists (UFC).

Red Hand Commandos

UK (Northern Ireland)

UK (Northern Ireland)

Religious Political

Extremist Christian (Protestant) group professing loyalty to UK, formed as a response to oppose PIRA (Catholic).

Red Hand Defenders

UK (Northern Ireland)

UK (Northern Ireland)

Religious Political

Extremist Christian (Protestant) group professing loyalty to UK, formed as a response to oppose PIRA (Catholic).

Holland

Holland

Political

Communist.

Red Brigades (Brigate Rosse)

Red Aid

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Reform and Defiance Movement

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

453 MOTIVE

REMARKS Opposes government.

Jordan

Jordan

Religious

Rescue America

US

US

Social Convictions

Rescue Operation

US

US

Social Beliefs

Lebanon

Lebanon

Political Religious

Splinter group of the AMAL militia. Possibly dormant.

Revolution of Egypt

Egypt

Egypt

Religious Political

Anti-Government and Anti-Western.

Revenge Underground

Israel

Israel

Ethnic Political

Opposes Oslo peace accords.

Revolutionary Organisation of Socialist Muslims

Lebanon (Beka’a valley)

International

Political

Opposed to Israel, western countries with Middle East interests, PLO and moderate Arab states. Restrained by Syria. One of several groups under the umbrella of the Abu Nidal Organisation.

Revolutionary Popular Struggle (ELA or Epanastatikos Laikos Agonas)

Greece

Greece

Political

Opposes Government, NATO, west.

Revolutionary Peoples’s Liberation Party - Front (Devrimei Halk Kurtulus Partisi, Cephesi)

Turkey (Ankara)

Turkey

Political

Marxist group. Opposed US troops presence in Europe. Changed name in 1994 from Devrimci Sol (Revolutionary Left).

Revolutionary Justice Organisation

Lebanon

International

Religious

Splinter group of Hezbollah (Lebanon). Seeks to establish a Shiite Islamic state in Lebanon and the destruction of Israel.

Resistance of the Believers

Anti-Abortion. Violent. Anti-Abortion group.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Revolutionary Proletarian Initiative Nuclei Revolutionary United Front (RUF)

BASE

454

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

REMARKS

Italy

Italy

Political

Anti-US, Anti-Italian Government Foreign Policy and Labour laws. Links to Red Brigades.

Nigeria

Nigeria

Political

Opposes government.

Religious Revolutionary United Front (RUF)

Guinea,

Sierra Leone

Political

Post-settlement remnants seek overthrow of government.

Germany,

Political

Marxist-Leninist group. Sought revolution to overthrow world capitalist system. Originally called the Baader-Meinhof gang. Declared operations ceased, but members still sought, armed and dangerous (one killed in a 1999 shoot-out with police in Vienna, Austria).

Liberia Rote Armee Fraction (RAF, Red Army Faction)

Germany

Austria

Rwandan Liberation Army

Rwanda

Rwanda

Political

Killed random Hutus and Tutsis. Agenda not clear. Possible cover name for another group.

Saharawi People’s Liberation Army (SPLA)

Western Sahara

Western Sahara

Political

Seeks to remove Moroccan security forces to gain independence for Western Sahara. Dispute over eligible voters for referendum.

North India

India, Europe, Asia, US, Canada

Political

Sikh Separatist group.

Lebanon

France,

Political

Anti-Western, Anti-US, Anti-Israel.

Saheed Khalsa Force Sana Mheidleh Commando (named after female martyr)

Europe

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

455

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

Scottish National Liberation Army

Scotland

Scotland

Political

Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path)

Peru

Peru

Ethnic Political

Serbian Volunteer Guard (Tigers)

Former Yugoslavia

Eastern Bosnia, Former Yugoslavia

Ethnic Religious Criminal

Shanti Bahini (Peace Force)

Separatists. Mostly threats of violence. Marxist-Leninist-Maoist group of Peruvian Indians. Opposes government. Formed from amongst Serbian White Eagles paramilitary forces in 1992. Led by Zeljko Raznatovic (Arkan); wanted for crimes against humanity (until his murder in 2000), committed in 1991 with White Eagles.

Bangladesh (Chittagong)

Bangladesh

India;

India;

Political

Jammu and

Jammu and

Religious

Kashmir

Kashmir

Fundamentalist Hindu Political Party; some members conduct counter-insurgency operations in Jammu and Kashmir; a few commit terrorism.

Sidama Liberation Front

Ethiopia

Ethiopia

Political

Separatists.

Simon Bolivar Guerrilla Coordination Group

Columbia

Columbia

Political

Communist umbrella government and US.

Sipah e Sahaba

Pakistan

Pakistan

Religious

Anti-Shiite Muslim.

US, Canada

US

Religious

Mystical suicide cult, Anti-Government.

US

US

Religious

Members accused of terrorism.

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Anti-Government.

Shiv Sina (Party of Shiva [Indian Deity] )

Solar Temple Cult Soldiers of Allah Soldiers of God (Gund Allah)

Religious

REMARKS

Separatist

Seeks secession from Bangladesh and accession to India as a Buddhist state.

group,

opposes

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

Sons of Glendower (Meibion Glyndwr)

UK (Wales)

AREA OF ACTIVITY UK (Wales)

456 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Ethnic

A very small separatist group.

Political Southern Sudan Independence Movement (SSIM). Formerly the Sudan People’s Liberation Army Dissident (SPLA-D)

Sudan

Sudan

Separatism

Separatist movement. Seeks independent state in south Sudan.

Sudan People’s (SPLA)

Army

Sudan

Sudan

Religious

Seeks a secular Sudan. Armed wing of Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM).

Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM)

Sudan

Sudan

Religious

Seeks a secular Sudan. Political wing of Sudan People’s Liberation Army.

Supreme Assembly of the Islamic Revolution in Iraq

Iraq

Iraq

Political

Seeks overthrow of government.

Liberation

Ethnic Religious

Supreme Council Revolution in Iraq

for

Islamic

Iran

Iraq

Ethnic Religious

Shiite group; government.

seeks

overthrow

of

Sword of David

Israel

Israel

Ethnic Political

Opposes Oslo peace accords.

Tabligh wa Da’wa (Evangelisation and Mission)

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Opposes government.

Takfir wa el Hijra (The Repentance and the Flight [of the Prophet] )

Lebanon

Lebanon

Religious

Seeks to overthrow government and establish Islamic regime in Lebanon.

Political

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

457 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Takfir wa el Hijra (The Repentance and the Flight [of the Prophet] )

Libya

Libya, centre and east

Religious

Seeks to overthrow government and establish Islamic regime in Libya.

Tala’al al Conquest)

of

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Anti-Government.

Tali’ atu al Salafiya (Vanguard that Emulates the Pious Forebearers)

Egypt

Egypt

Religious

Opposes government.

Afghanistan,

Afghanistan

Religious

Pakistan

Jammu and Kashmir

Political

Originally formed in Pakistan. Initially noted for opposing Iranian Shia influence in west of Afghanistan. Took over Afghanistan and imposed harsh Islamic regime. Eventually controlled by bin Laden and Al Qa’ida. Ejected by US led coalition.

Tamil Nadu Liberation Front

India

India

Ethnic

Tarsq ul Mujahideen (The DivinelyRewarded Religious Fighters)

India;

India;

Political

Jammu and

Jammu and

Religious

Kashmir

Kashmir

Armenia

Armenia

Fatah

(Vanguards

Taliban (students)

Tashnag (Right-wing)

Ethnic Religious

Tehreek i Movement)

Wattan

(Homeland

India;

India;

Jammu and

Jammu and

Kashmir

Kashmir

Political

Separatist group. Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Small Group. Member of Mutahidda Jehad Council coalition. A tiny handful of this very large (global) mainly social group / political party are terrorists (Anti-Turkey, on account of the genocide). Former guerrillas and terrorists, now engaged on counter insurgency in support of Indian security forces. Transferred from the Ikhwan ul Muslimoon counter-militant group.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Tehreek ul Mujahideen (The Movement of Religious Fighters) Tehreek e Islami Jamhoria Kashmir (Islamic Kashmir Republican Movement)

Tehreek e Jafria Pakistan (Movement for the Religious Land of the Pure)

The Order

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

458 MOTIVE

India;

India;

Political

Jammu and

Jammu and

Religious

Kashmir

Kashmir

India;

India;

Political

Jammu and

Jammu and

Religious

Kashmir; Azad Kashmir, Pakistan

Kashmir

Pakistan

Pakistan

Political Religious

US

US

Racial

REMARKS Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Related to the Hezb e Hurriyet coalition. Divided. Seeks either accession to Pakistan or independence for Jammu and Kashmir. Demands 10-year UN Trusteeship for deciding accession or independence.

Pakistan Police registered cases against this political party after a drive-by machine-gun massacre on Pakistan’s 1996 Independence day celebrations. Neo-Nazi.

Political The Martyr Khalil Alsid from the Heavenly Battalion for the Liberation of Holy Kaba’a

Arabian Gulf

The Organisation of Martyrs and Wounded 1957-1994

Pakistan;

Pakistan;

Rawalpindi

Rawalpindi

Arabian Gulf

Arabian Gulf

The Warrior Abdullah Alzawi (or Alazaam)

Arabian Gulf

Religious

Anti-Saudi Arabian government and Anti-US.

Political

Opposes foreigners.

Religious

Seeks overthrow of moderate Arabic and Arabic monarchist governments.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

459

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia

Religious

Seeks to overthrow Royal family in Saudi Arabia and establish Sunni Islamic state. Anti-US.

Ethiopia

Ethiopia

Political

Political Party. Members occasionally carry out assassinations.

Indonesia

Indonesia

Ethnic

(East Timor)

(East Timor)

Political

Tunisia

Tunisia

Religious

Europe

Europe

Political

T u p a c A ma ru Revol u ti on ary Movement (MRTA)

Peru

Peru

Political

Marxist-Leninist group. Opposes government and US. Seeks communist revolution to overthrow capitalist systems in Latin America.

Tupac Katari Guerrilla Army (EGTK)

Bolivia

Bolivia

Political

Anti-Western.

Turkish Communist Party

Turkey

Turkey

Political

Anti-Government. Several attacks on Police.

Turkish People’s Liberation Army

Turkey

Turkey

Political

Anti-Government, Anti-Western and AntiNATO.

Turkish People’s Liberation Front

Turkey

Turkey

Political

Anti-Government.

Turkish Workers Liberation Army

Turkey

Turkey

Political

Anti-Government.

Uganda

Uganda

Political

Opposes government.

Tigers of the Gulf

Tigray People’s Liberation Front Timorese National Resistance Council Tunisian Combatant Group (aka Tunisian Islamic Fighting Group)

and

Peasants

Uganda National Rescue Front II

REMARKS

Separatist group. Dormant/defunct. Seeks overthrow of Government in Tunisia and imposition of strict Islamic rule. AntiUS and Anti-Western. Links to Al Qa’ida.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME Uganda National Resistance Front II

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

460 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Uganda

Uganda

Ethnic

(northwest)

(northwest)

Religious

Uighur Militants Committee for Eastern Turkistan

China

China

Ethnic Religious Separatist

Separatist / Independence.

Ulster Defence Association (UDA)

UK (Northern Ireland; Belfast)

UK (Northern Ireland)

Religious Political

Christian (Protestant) group professing loyalty to UK, formed as a response to oppose IRA (Catholic).

Ulster Freedom Fighters (UFF)

UK (Northern Ireland; Belfast)

UK (Northern Ireland)

Religious Political

Christian (Protestant) group professing loyalty to UK, formed as a response to oppose IRA (Catholic).

Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF)

UK (Northern Ireland; Belfast)

UK (Northern Ireland)

Religious Political

Christian (Protestant) group professing loyalty to UK, formed as a response to oppose IRA (Catholic).

Uniao Democratica Timorese (Democratic Union of Timor)

Indonesia (East Timor)

Indonesia (East Timor)

Ethnic Political

Former separatist group. Dormant / defunct.

Angola

Angola

Political

Seeks overthrow of government or coalition with conditions. Leader killed in 2002.

Uniao Nacional para a Independencia Total de Angola (UNITA, National Union for the Total Liberation of Angola)

Seeks tribal dominance. Splinter group emerged because of Muslim dominance of West Nile Bank Front.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

461

AREA OF ACTIVITY

MOTIVE

REMARKS

Guatemala

Guatemala

Political

Opposes government.

Union of Democratic Forces

Chad

Chad

Political

Demands removal of French troops and western oil companies from Chad.

Union of Fighting Communists (UFC)

Italy

Italy

Political

One of two splinter groups originating from the Red Brigades.

Burundi

Burundi

Ethnic Political

Hutu umbrella group.

United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA)

India (Assam state), Bhutan, Bangladesh

India (Assam state)

Ethnic Separatist Political

Seeks secession from India and an independent country called Bodoland in northwest Assam, India.

United Self Defence Forces of Columbia / Group of Columbia (Autodefensas Unidas de Columbia)

Columbia

Columbia

Political Criminal

Criminal group.

Usbat al Ansar (Union of Companions [of the Prophet])

the

Lebanon

Lebanon

Religious Political

Fanatic religious terrorists. AntiGovernment, Anti-Western. Linked to Tafkir wa al Hijra in Lebanon.

Ushtria Clirimtare e Kosoves (UCK) or Kosovo [Albanian] Liberation Army (KLA)

Kosovo

Kosovo

Political Religious

Opposing Serbian forces.

Vasat

Turkey

Turkey

Religious Political

Seeks overthrow of government. Fanatic religious group.

Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca (URNG, United National Guatemalan Revolution)

Union pour la Liberation Nationale

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME

BASE

Vigorous Burmese Student Warriors

AREA OF ACTIVITY

462 MOTIVE

REMARKS

Burma

Burma

Political

Opposes government.

Vishwa Hindu Parishad (Hindu Saints Organisation)

India

India

Religious Political

Political party that engages in violence. Part of a Hindi revivalist movement.

Volcano

Italy

Italy

Political

Anti-Libyan.

France

France

Political

Neo-Nazi.

Volk (People) Socialism

United

National

Weather Underground (formerly Weathermen; an offshoot of a group called Students for a Democratic Society. This group was also known as Non-sexist Weather Underground) West Nile Bank Front (WNBF)

White Beret

Racial US

US

Political

Dormant. Anti-Vietnam War. Anti-Racist, Anti-Government.

Uganda

Uganda

Ethnic

(northwest)

(northwest)

Seeks tribal dominance. This group is a Splinter group of the Uganda National Resistance Front II.

US

US

Racial Political

Fascist.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media NAME White Eagles

BASE

AREA OF ACTIVITY

463 MOTIVE

Former

Eastern Slavonia,

Ethnic

Yugoslavia

Former Yugoslavia

Religious Criminal

White Ranger

US

US

Racial Political

White Wolves

UK

UK

Racial

REMARKS Paramilitary formation led in Bosnian war by Vojislav Seselj and Zeljko Raznatovic (Arkan, a former ice-cream parlour owner, wanted for crimes against humanity [and for bank robbery in several western European countries], committed in 1991). Raznatovic was publicly killed in a Belgrade hotel by unknown gunmen in 2000, probably on orders of senior politicians, to silence him, or by his peer organised criminals. Fascist. Neo-Nazi. Splinter group of Combat 18.

Political Won On Lok World Church of the Creator

Macua

Macau

Criminal

US

US

Racial

Organised criminal gang that commits terrorism. Racial Political group.

Political World Union of National Socialists

France

France

Political

Neo-Nazi.

Racial Zia Missionary Force (named after Pakistan’s President Zia ul Haq)

India;

India;

Political

Jammu and

Jammu and

Religious

Kashmir

Kashmir

Seeks accession of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Quite a small group, possibly dormant.

Annex C/ List of Groups Accused of Terrorism by Governments or Media

464

Some random crests and logos of groups accused of terrorism by Governments and / or media

Revolutionary Armed Forces of Columbia (FARC) Combat 18

Emgann-Combat Popular Front for Liberation of Palestine General Command (PFLP-GC)

Jammu & Kashmir Plebiscite Front

National Liberation Army Columbia

Ulster Volunteer Force

Kahane Chai

MRTA - Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement

Revolutionary People’s Liberation Front

World Church of the Creator

Tamil Tigers (LTTE)

PKK (Kurdistan Workers Party)

Kosovo Liberation Army

Annex D/ International Instruments: Prevention & Suppression of Terrorism

465

ANNEX D: International Instruments: Prevention & Suppression of Terrorism UNIVERSAL INSTRUMENTS Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, signed at Tokyo on 14th September 1963 (in force on 4th December 1969) Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft signed at The Hague on 16th December 1970 (in force on 14th October 1971) Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, signed at Montreal on 23rd September 1971 (in force on 26th January 1973) Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 14th December 1973 (in force on 20th February 1977) International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 17th December 1979 (in force on 3rd June 1983) Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, signed at Vienna on 3rd March 1980 (in force on 8th February 1987) Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation, supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, signed at Montreal on 24th February 1988 (in force on 6th August 1989) Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, done at Rome on 10th March 1988 (in force on 1st March 1992) Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, done at Rome on 10th March 1988 (in force on 1st March 1992) Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection, signed at Montreal on 1st March 1991 (in force on 21st June 1998) International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 15th December 1997 International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 9th December 1999

Annex D/ International Instruments: Prevention & Suppression of Terrorism

466

REGIONAL INSTRUMENTS OAS Convention to Prevent and Punish the Acts of Terrorism Taking the Form of Crimes Against Persons and Related Extortion that are of International Significance, concluded at Washington, DC, on 2nd February 1971 (in force on 16th October 1973) European Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism, concluded at Strasbourg on 27th January 1977 (in force on 4th August 1978) SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism, signed at Kathmandu onth4November 1987 (in force on 22nd August 1988): all seven member States of SAARC (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) are parties to the Convention Arab Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism, signed at a meeting held at the General Secretariat of the League of Arab States in Cairo from 22nd to 24th April 1998 Treaty on Cooperation among the States Members of the Commonwealth of Independent States in Combating Terrorism, done at Minsk, on 4th June 1999 Convention of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference on Combating International Terrorism, adopted at Ouagadougou, on 1st July 1999 Organisation of African Unity Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, adopted at Algiers on 14th July 1999

OTHER INSTRUMENTS Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations, on 9th December 1994 (in force on 15th January 1999) Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Conditions of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, signed at Geneva on 12th August 1949 (in force on 21st October 1950) Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Conditions of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked members of Armed Forces at Sea, signed at Geneva on 12th August 1949 (in force on 21st October 1950) Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, signed at Geneva on 12th August 1949 (in force on 21st October 1950) Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, signed at Geneva on 12th August 1949 [Protocol I] (in force on 21st October 1950) Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12th August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, signed at Geneva on 8th June 1977 [Protocol II] (in force on 7th December 1978) Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12th August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-international Armed Conflicts, signed at Geneva on 8th June 1977 (in force on 7th December 1978)

Annex E/ UN Resolutions on Terrorism

ANNEX E: UN Resolutions on Terrorism UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTIONS A/res/56/1.

Condemnation of Terrorist Attacks in the United States of America

A/res/55/158. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/res/54/164. Human Rights and Terrorism A/res/54/110. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/res/54/109. International Convention for Suppressing the Financing of Terrorism A/res/53/108. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/res/52/165. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/res/52/133. Human Rights and Terrorism A/res/51/210. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/res/50/186. Human Rights and Terrorism A/res/50/53. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/res/49/185. Human Rights and Terrorism A/res/49/60. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/res/48/122. Human Rights and Terrorism A/res/46/51. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/res/44/29. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism A/res/42/159. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism A/res/40/61. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism A/res/39/159. Inadmissibility of State Terrorism/Undermining State Socio-political Systems A/res/38/130. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism A/res/36/109. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism A/res/34/145. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism A/res/32/147. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism A/res/31/102. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism A/res/3034 (XXVII). Measures to Prevent International Terrorism

467

Annex E/ UN Resolutions on Terrorism

468

UN SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTIONS S/res/1373. International Cooperation Against Terrorist Threats to International Peace and Security [Security Council Committee for Counter-Terrorism established pursuant to this Resolution] (2001) S/res/1368. Condemnation of Attacks of 11/9/01: New York, Washington, DC & Pennsylvania (2001) S/res/1363. Mechanism to Monitor Resolutions 1267 [1999] and 1333 [2000] (2001) S/res/1333. Measures against the Taliban (2000) S/res/1269. International Cooperation in the Fight Against Terrorism (1999) S/res/1267. Measures against the Taliban (1999) S/res/1214. Situation in Afghanistan (1998) S/res/1189. Terrorist Bomb Attacks of 7th August 1998 in Kenya and Tanzania (1998) S/res/1054. Sanctions Against Sudanese Government for Non-Compliance with S/Res1044 (1996) S/res/1044. Sudan Extradition concerning Assassination Attempt upon President Mubarak (1996) S/res/748. Sanctions against the Libyan Government (1992) S/res/731. On the Destruction of Pan Am Flight 103 and Uta Flight 772 (1992) S/res/ 687. Restoration of Sovereignty, Independence and Territorial Integrity of Kuwait (1991) S/res/ 635. Marking of Plastic or Sheet Explosives for the Purpose of Detection (1989)

VERBATIM UN SECURITY COUNCIL RECORDS S/PV/4385. Meeting of 28th September 2001 S/PV/4370. Meeting of 12th September 2001

REPORTS OF THE UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY’S SIXTH COMMITTEE Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/40/1003

A/49/743

A/50/643

A/54/615

A/42/832

A/46/654

A/53/636

A/55/614

A/44/762

A/52/653

A/51/631

A/48/609

UN DECLARATIONS Declaration to supplement 1994 Declaration: Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism (A/RES/51/210) Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism (A/RES/49/60)

Annex E/ UN Resolutions on Terrorism

469

REPORTS OF THE UN SECRETARY-GENERAL A/56/190. Human Rights and Terrorism A/56/160. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/55/179 + Add.1. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/54/439 Human Rights and Terrorism A/54/301 + Add.1. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/53/314 + Add.1. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/52/304 + Add.1. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/51/336 + Add.1. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/50/685. Human Rights and Terrorism A/50/372 + Add.1. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/49/257 + Add.1, Add.2 & Add.3. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/48/267 + Add.1. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/46/346/Add.1 + Add.2. Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism A/44/456 + Add.1. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism A/42/519 + Add.1. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism A/40/445 + Add.1 + Add.2. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism A/38/355 + Add.1 + Add.2 + Add.3. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism A/36/425. Measures to Prevent International Terrorism

STATEMENTS BY PRESIDENTS OF THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL S/PRST/2000/38. Security Council Responsibility for Maintenance of Int. Peace and Security S/PRST/2000/12. Situation in Afghanistan S/PRST/1999/29. Situation in Afghanistan S/PRST/1996/10. Terrorist attacks in Jerusalem and Tel Aviv on 3rd -4th March 1996 S/PRST/1995/3.

Terrorist attacks in Nordiya, Israel on 22nd January 1995

S/PRST/1994/40. Condemnation of Terrorist Attacks in Buenos Aires and London S/20988.

Assassination of the President of Lebanon

Annex E/ UN Resolutions on Terrorism

470

UN COMMISSION OF HUMAN RIGHTS: RESOLUTIONS ON TERRORISM E/CN.4 / RES/ 2001 / 37

Human Rights and Terrorism

E/CN.4 / RES/ 2000 / 30

Human Rights and Terrorism

E/CN.4 / RES/ 1999 / 27

Human Rights and Terrorism

E/CN.4 / RES/ 1998 / 47

Human Rights and Terrorism

E/CN.4 / RES/ 1997 / 42

Human Rights and Terrorism

E/CN.4 / RES/ 1996 / 47

Human Rights and Terrorism

E/CN.4 / RES/ 1995 / 43

Human Rights and Terrorism

SUB COMMISSION RESOLUTIONS: HUMAN RIGHTS PROMOTION & PROTECTION E/CN.4 / SUB.2 / RES/ 2001 /18

Terrorism and Human Rights

E/CN.4 / SUB.2 / RES/ 1999 / 26

Terrorism and Human Rights

E/CN.4 / SUB.2 / RES/ 1998 / 29

Human Rights and Terrorism

E/CN.4 / SUB.2 / RES/ 1997 / 39

Human Rights and Terrorism

E/CN.4 / SUB.2 / RES/ 1996 / 20

Human Rights and Terrorism

E/CN.4 / SUB.2 / RES/ 1994 / 18

Human Rights and Terrorism

REPORTS BY THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR (HUMAN RIGHTS) E/CN.4 / SUB.2 / 2001 / 31

Terrorism and Human Rights (progress report)

E/CN.4 / SUB.2 / 1999 / 27

Terrorism and Human Rights (preliminary report)

RESOLUTION: HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN E/CN.6 / RES/ 36 / 7

Advancement of Women & Acts of Terrorism against Women

QUICKFINDER FOR UN WEBSITES RELATED TO TERRORISM www.un.org

Main UN site

www.un.org/site_index/

UN Central Index / links to UN websites

www.unitarpoci.org

UNITAR-POCI

http://www.un.org/terrorism/

UN Action Against Terrorism website

http://www.un.org/terrorism/sc.htm

UN Security Council

http://www.un.org/terrorism/ga.htm

UN General Assembly

http://www.un.org/terrorism/ecosoc.htm

UN Economic & Social Council

http://untreaty.un.org/English/Terrorism.asp

UN Terrorism Conventions (Instruments)

http://www.undcp.org/terrorism.html

UN Terrorism Prevention Branch (TPB)

http://www.odccp.org/pdf/leaflet_2000-04-30_1.pdf

UN TPB brochure

Annex F/ International Terrorists Attacks by Region, 2001

471

ANNEX F: INTERNATIONAL TERRORIST ATTACKS by REGION, 2001

Annex G/ Characteristics and Effects of Chemical Weapons

472

ANNEX G: Characteristics and Effects of Chemical Weapons

NERVE AGENTS

TABUN (GA) SOMAN (GD) SARIN (GB) V SERIES (VX)

Function: Disruption of Nerve Impulse Signals

Tabun [GA] (G for German) was discovered in 1936 and Sarin [GB] in 1938 by G. Schrader of IG Farben. In 1944, Richard Kuhn discovered Soman [GD]. Between 1952 and 1953, VX (the most toxic nerve agent) was almost simultaneously prepared by Schrader (with Bayer AG after WWII); R. Ghosh and J. Newman of ICI; and M. Tammelin of the Swedish Government Chemical Warfare Defence Laboratory.

Lethality

High. A small drop on skin or inhaled is fatal. LCt50 (lethal concentration that kills 50% of people): 75 -100 mg min/m3 (inhaled).

Delivery

In droplets, aerosol or vapour form, it may be inhaled or ingested.

Symptoms (mild dose +)

Symptoms (lethal dose)

Treatment Decontamination

Pupils contract, headache, eye pain, running nose, loss of appetite, nausea, sweating, tight chest, heartburn Stomach cramps, vomiting, increased sweating, painful involuntary or ineffective defecation and urination, drooling, respiratory secretion Fatigue, jerking, twitching, staggering, cramps, paleness Tension, anxiety, restlessness, emotional disturbance, giddiness, insomnia Headache, drowsiness, slowness of recall and confusion The afore-mentioned symptoms and the following: Lack of muscle control, slurred speech, coma Loss of reflexes, alternate rapid breathing / not breathing Convulsions, respiratory halt and death Atropine, Oximes and anti-convulsants. Hydrolysis with solids, powders and solutions containing bleach. For V agent (series X): Oxidisation. Special DeCon powder.

Notes: Tabun(GA) Dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate (C5 H11 N2 O2 P).

Pure: Colourless / fruit odour. Impure: Brown / bitter almonds odour.

Notes: Sarin(GB)

Dethylphosphonofluoridate (C4 H10 FO2 P). Colourless and odourless.

Notes: Soman(GD) Methylphosphonofluoridate (C7 H16 FO2 P). Pure: Colourless / Fruit odour. Impure: Yellow - brown / camphor odour.

Notes: V Series(VX) Methylphosphonothioate (C11 H26 NO2 PS). Colourless and odourless.

Annex G/ Characteristics and Effects of Chemical Weapons

BLOOD AGENTS Function: Hindering ability

473

Hydrogen Cyanide (CH N) Cyanogen Chloride (CC1 N)

of blood to carry oxygen Lethality

High. Death within 6 to 8 minutes if above LCt50 (lethal concentration that kills 50% of people): Cyanogen Chloride (11,000 mg min/m3). Hydrogen Cyanide (2500 -5000 mg min/m3).

Delivery

In droplets, aerosol vapour. It may be inhaled or ingested.

Symptoms (mild dose +)

Respiratory distress, vomiting, diarrhoea, vertigo, anxiety, headache.

Symptoms (lethal dose)

The above, followed by seizures, cardiac arrest and death.

Treatment

Decontamination Notes:

Immediate removal to fresh air. Aggressive oxygenisation and blood treatment. Antidotes: Amyl Nitrite, Sodium Nitrite, Sodium Thiosulphate. If ingested, charcoal and stomach wash. Purpose designed DeCon powder. Soap and water. Both agents usually colourless. CH N sometimes has odour of bitter almonds. CC1 N often has a pungent biting odour.

Annex G/ Characteristics and Effects of Chemical Weapons

CHOKING AGENTS Function: Damage or Destruction of Lungs

474

Phosgene Gas (CCl2O) Chlorine Gas

(Cl2)

Lethality

Low to Medium, mostly if not treated and depending upon dose. General exposure to 50 ppm is dangerous and 1000ppm is fatal (ppm = parts per million).

Delivery

Aerosol vapour.

Symptoms (Mild dose +)

Cough, chest pain, breathing difficulties, wheezing and railing, eye irritation, tearing at ear, nose and throat, distress, cyanosis (bluish skin from lack of oxygen), rhinorrhoea (excessive discharge from nose), blepharospasm (fluttering eyelids).

Symptoms (Lethal dose)

The afore-mentioned + within 2 to 6 hours, swelling and fluid in lungs which reacts with phosgene to form hydrochloric acid (causing further lung damage). Sensation of drowning. Death by asphyxiation.

Treatment

Chest X-Ray. Diuretics (lessen fluid loss into lungs). Bronchodilator therapy (airway enlargement with aerosol). Attention to ABC (airway, breathing, circulation). No antidote.

Decontamination Notes:

Disrobing. CCl2 O (Carbonyl Chloride): Colourless. Odour of mown hay. Cl2 (Chlorine): Green-yellow. Suffocating odour.

Annex G/ Characteristics and Effects of Chemical Weapons

BLISTER AGENTS

(VESICANTS) Function: Damage or Destruction of Lungs, Eyes and Skin Lethality

Mustard Gas

(C4H8Cl2S)

Lewisite Gas

(C2H2AsCl3)

475

Mustard: Approximately 2 to 5 % of military combat exposures die. Three grams absorbed through the skin is fatal. LCt50 (lethal concentration that kills 50% of people) for Mustard Gas is 1500 mg min/m3. Lethal dose to 50% of exposures (LD50) for Mustard liquid on skin is 100 mg/kg. A few drops on the skin causes severe injury. Lewisite: Approximately 2 to 5 % of military combat exposures die. LCt50 (lethal concentration that kills 50% of people) for Lewisite Gas is 1500 - 2500 mg min/m3. Lethal dose to 50% of exposures (LD50) for Lewisite liquid on skin is 95 mg/kg.

Delivery Symptoms (mild dose +)

Aerosol vapour. Mustard: Itching, burning, and inflammation of contact areas approximately 4 hours later, followed by swelling of tissue. Small blisters form in the vicinity of the affected area after 20 to 24 hours. These develop to large blisters filled with a colourless to yellow liquid. Severe tissue damage occurs inside the blisters. If infected, the blisters take up to several months to heal. In serious cases, eyes may take months to heal and sight may be lost, unless treated. Can cause long-term cancer with high (sub-lethal) intakes. Lewisite: As for mustard but with immediate pain and 2nd or 3rd degree burn symptoms. It is faster acting than Mustard, but healing is more rapid with less chance of infection.

Symptoms (lethal dose)

Central Nervous System depression. The afore-mentioned + pulmonary edema, flooding of lungs with body liquids. Sensation of drowning. Death by asphyxiation. Some long term deaths caused by bone marrow failure.

Annex G/ Characteristics and Effects of Chemical Weapons

BLISTER AGENTS

(VESICANTS) Function: Damage or Destruction of Lungs, Eyes and Skin

476

Mustard Gas (C4H8Cl2S) Lewisite Gas (C2H2AsCl3

Treatment

Mustard: no antidote. Lewisite: Antidote- 2,3-dimercaptopropanol. Provides good level of protection for skin and mucous membrane. Both Mustard and Lewisite: Ointments, antibiotics, eye drops (atropine), pain relievers, range of respiratory treatments, depending on dose. Hospitalisation. Possible plastic surgery.

Decontamination

Chlorine (old method). DS2 (2% Na OH, 70% diethylenetriamine and 28% ethylene glycol monomethyl ether). Hypochlorite solution (10% bleach with 90% water or saline solution). DeCon must be within 2 minutes to prevent blistering but is needed in all cases to prevent harm to others handling casualty. Aqueous chlorine solution, washed off by soap and water.

Notes:

Mustard is generally known as H. Mustard (1,1'Ç thiobis [2 Çchloroethane] ) has variants including N Mustard. Pure Mustard is colourless and odourless. Impure Mustard is amber-dark brown with a sweet odour like garlic, onion or horseradish. Nitrogen Mustard Agents are HN1, HN2 and HN3. Sulphur Mustard Agents are H, HD, HT. Mustard is also mixed with Lewisite and termed as Mustard Lewisite Mix. Arsenical vesicants such as phenyldichloroarsine (PD) or chlorovinyldichloroarsine (L) are often mixed with Mustard Agent. This causes the same level of blisters but confuses and makes the diagnosis more difficult. Lewisite (2Çchloroethenyl arsonous dichloride) is a complex mixture of compounds, known as L. Discovered by Capt. W. L. Lewis (US Army). Toxic, non-vesicant variants of main Lewisite Agent (L1) are L2 and L3. Pure Lewisite: odourless and colourless. Impure: Brownish colour with geranium odour.

ANNEX H/ Characteristics and Effects of Biological Weapons

477

ANNEX H: Characteristics and Effects of Biological Weapons

Category: Bacterial & Rickettsia

Agent: ANTHRAX Type

Cutaneous

Respiratory

Intestinal

Probable Delivery

Via broken skin.

Aerosol.

Ingestion.

Lethality

20% if untreated.

90% if untreated.

20% to 70%.

Incubation

1 to 12 days.

1 to 7 days if intake is sufficient.

1 to 7 days.

Symptoms

Lesions (sores or blisters) on skin. Possible: fever; fatigue; headaches and other pains; Lymph gland infections; muscular aching; respiratory failure; shock; Meningitis; Lower intestinal infection; nausea; stomach pain; bloody diarrhoea. Possibly lesions on base of the tongue.

Contagion

Non-contagious.

Treatment

Penicillin, Ciprofloxacin, Doxycycline. Vaccine required 18 months before, for full effectiveness. Serious side effects reported by some soldiers, after use of vaccine.

Notes:

Anthrax spores are highly persistent and may survive in the earth for decades. Resistant to 159ºC. Approximately 8000+ Anthrax spores needed to inflict respiratory anthrax illness. Approximately 100 spores needed to inflict intestinal anthrax. DeCon (Decontamination) with bleach (chlorine).

ANNEX H/ Characteristics and Effects of Biological Weapons

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Category: Bacterial & Rickettsia

Agent: CHOLERA Probable Delivery Lethality

Ingestion of contaminated food or water. 50% to 80% without treatment. 3% to 30% with treatment.

Incubation

Between 12 hours and 6 days.

Symptoms

Vomiting, nausea, chronic diarrhoea, rapid loss of body fluids, toxaemia, unconsciousness, death.

Contagion

Medium to high, depending upon personal hygiene and preventative measures. Ingestion usually via mouth.

Treatment

Routine injection vaccine is not always effective. Two oral vaccines available provide high degree of protection for some months. Treatment: Replacement of lost fluid and salts by Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS). Antibiotics may shorten illness.

Notes:

Resistant to 117ºC. DeCon (Decontamination) by boiling, steam, and disinfectant.

ANNEX H/ Characteristics and Effects of Biological Weapons

479

Category: Bacterial & Rickettsia

Agent: PLAGUE Type

Pneumonic

Bubonic

Probable Delivery

Aerosol.

Extremely difficult. Requires rat fleas to transmit.

Lethality Incubation Symptoms

Contagion

Treatment

High. 1 to 2 days if untreated within 24 hours. 1 to 6 days.

2 to 6 days.

Fever, extreme pain in lymph nodes, headaches, muscle aching, fatigue, inflamed glands, pneumonia, haemorrhages in skin and mucous membranes, Septicæmia, death. Sometimes generates meningitis. High.

Cycle of Infection is: Rat-Flea-HumanRat. Bubonic plague can become pneumonic plague and is then easily and highly contagious.

No Pneumonic plague vaccine. Bubonic plague: Vaccine is effective only for Bubonic form. Doxycycline, Streptomycin, Ciprofloxacin and Gentamicin. If administered within 24 hours of symptoms, chances of recovery are enhanced.

ANNEX H/ Characteristics and Effects of Biological Weapons

480

Category: Bacterial & Rickettsia

Agent: Q FEVER Probable Delivery Lethality

Aerosol, or ingestion of contaminated food. Very low.

Incubation

2 to 3 weeks.

Symptoms

Fever, headache, shivering, fatigue, perspiration, respiratory irritation, pain in joints, muscles and chest.

Contagion

Infrequent.

Treatment

Ciprofloxacin and Tetracycline. No vaccine.

Notes:

This is rarely lethal, so is largely considered as an incapacitating agent. A Persistent Agent: It can withstand temperatures within -52ºC to +40ºC. It can also survive on non-living surfaces from 1 to 8 weeks.

ANNEX H/ Characteristics and Effects of Biological Weapons

481

Category: Bacterial & Rickettsia

Agent: TULAREMIA Probable Delivery Lethality

Aerosol. Medium if not treated.

Incubation

2 to 10 days.

Symptoms

Fever, shivering, fatigue, muscle and headaches, loss of bodily fluids. Deep cutaneous ulcers. Swelling of Lymph nodes.

Contagion

Non-Contagious.

Treatment

Gentamicin and Streptomycin. Some national Armed Forces have developed a vaccine.

Notes:

Highly infectious. A single bacterium will cause infection in 90% to 100% of people exposed.

ANNEX H/ Characteristics and Effects of Biological Weapons

482

Category: Viral

Probable Delivery Lethality

Contact with victim fluids, or aerosol. High. 50% to 90% death rate, 7 to 16 days after symptoms appear.

Incubation

2 to 21 days.

Symptoms

Fever, fatigue, head and muscle aches, sore throat, vomiting, diarrhoea, rash, kidney failure, liver failure, internal and external bleeding after the fifth day.

Contagion

Medium.

Treatment

None. General medical care only. No vaccine.

Notes:

Different strains of Ebola Virus exist with varying degrees of virulence. Other related but less virulent Viral Hæmorrhagic fevers are Marburg fever, Congo fever, Crimean fever and Argentine fever.

ANNEX H/ Characteristics and Effects of Biological Weapons

483

Category: Viral

Agent: ENCEPHALITIS Probable Delivery Lethality

Aerosol. Low.

Incubation

1 to 5 days.

Symptoms

Fever, despondency, vomiting, nausea, diarrhoea, severe head, muscle and back ache, sensitivity to light, respiratory irritation. 3% to 5% develop symptoms of CNS (Central Nervous system) infection: convulsions, coma and paralysis. 1 to 3 day peak, with full recovery after 1 to 2 weeks.

Contagion

Low. Mosquito vectors, as with Malaria.

Treatment

None. General medical care only. No vaccine.

Notes:

Of the several strains of encephalitis, the most probable for Biological weapon use are Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis and Eastern Equine Encephalitis.

ANNEX H/ Characteristics and Effects of Biological Weapons

484

Category: Viral

Probable Delivery Lethality

Aerosol. High to Medium.

Incubation

7 to 17 days. Illness afflicts after 10 to 12 days, followed 2 to 4 days later with cutaneous rash. Illness lasts 4 weeks.

Symptoms

Harsh fever with 15% of patients becoming delirious. Blisters on skin, which bleed together with mucous membranes. Blisters form scabs, leaving permanent scars.

Contagion

High. Infected retain contagion 16 to 17 days after contraction.

Treatment

None. General medical care only. Prophylactic vaccine available in limited amounts.

Notes:

UN (World Health Organisation or WHO) eradicated naturally occurring smallpox by 1980.

ANNEX H/ Characteristics and Effects of Biological Weapons

485

Category: Bio-Toxins

Agent: BOTULINUM TOXIN Probable Delivery

Contamination of food or water, or aerosol.

Lethality

High. 60% to 100% (depending on dose) without artificial respiration. Death in 24-72 hours. If not fatal, impairs metabolism for many months.

Incubation

Illness onset after 1 to 12 hours in bloodstream, longer if inhaled.

Symptoms

Blockage of motor nerve transmissions. Impaired speech, swallowing and vision. Dryness of throat and mouth. Drooping eyelids. Muscular paralysis, resulting in respiratory failure.

Contagion

None.

Treatment

An anti-toxin exists but must be delivered rapidly. Otherwise artificial respiratory support and general medical care only.

Notes:

A highly lethal toxin generated by the bacteria Clostridium Botulinum. Especially potent if inducted orally or into abdomen; marginally less lethal when inhaled. The mean lethal dose for humans is 1 nanogram (10-9 grams) per Kg of body weight. Not very persistent: stable in water for 7 days and in air for 12 hours. DeCon (Decontamination) by boiling or alkali solution.

ANNEX H/ Characteristics and Effects of Biological Weapons

486

Category: Bio-Toxins

Agent: RICIN TOXIN Probable Delivery Lethality

Contamination of food or water, or aerosol. Extremely High. Death within 36 to 48 hours.

Incubation

Illness onset after 1 to 12 hours.

Symptoms

If inhaled: nausea, muscle ache, respiratory difficulties; tightness of chest and coughing is experienced within 3 hours. This escalates to severe inflammation of the lungs, cyanosis and death within 36 to 48 hours. If ingested: vomiting, nausea, internal bleeding in stomach and intestines, kidney failure, liver failure, spleen failure and circulatory collapse causing death.

Contagion

None.

Treatment

None. No vaccine.

Notes:

Ricin is a derivative of the seeds of the castor bean plant (Ricinus communis). A mean lethal dose for a human being is approximately 30 micrograms per Kg of body weight (if ingested orally). It is approximately 130 times more toxic than potassium cyanide. A persistent agent: stable in water and dilute acids.

Annex I/ Characteristics and Effects of Nuclear Weapons

487

Annex I: Characteristics and Effects of Nuclear Weapons

! "#

.

FLASH

Intense flash of light (1000 times brighter than lightning). On a clear day, could permanently blind people up to 37 miles (60 km).

FIREBALL (HEAT)

Within 1/1000th of a second, a heat radiation fireball or heat pulse would envelope a two mile radius of the weapon site at a temperature of 20 million degrees Fahrenheit (11 million degrees Celsius). Humans, buildings, vegetation, vehicles and everything else would be vapourised. At six miles distance, car body panels would be vapourised and glass would melt. At 29 miles (46 km) distance, all uncovered skin would suffer 3rd degree burns.

X-RAY

X-ray pulse, inflicting lethal radiation doses to 2 miles (3.2 km).

BLAST / WIND

A blast wave would reach levels of 25 pounds per square inch (1.7 kilograms per square centimetre) at 2.5 miles (4 km) from the detonation. Those at distances considerably farther away who survived the fireball and blast would suffer burst ear-drums and collapsed lungs. Hurricane force winds at 4 miles from the blast site would reach speeds of 650 mph (1046km/h).

CASUALTIES

Of 2.8 million people, 1 million would die within minutes of the detonation. Of approximately 1.8 million survivors, 1.1 million would die from their wounds in the near future. 500,000 might live if treated (extremely difficult, given the numbers). 200,000 would be uninjured.

FALLOUT

Radioactive fallout would cause deaths of those contaminated from weeks up to decades later.

Annex I/ Characteristics and Effects of Nuclear Weapons

488

ALPHA PARTICLES

Alpha particles are the heaviest and most highly charged of emitted nuclear particles. Limited in travel and penetration, Alpha particles do not travel more than a few inches or centimeters in the air. They are repelled by a single sheet of paper and certainly by the epidermis (outermost layer of dead skin on the body).

BETA PARTICLES

Beta particles are smaller than Alpha particles and their velocity is higher. Beta particles can penetrate several millimeters of human tissue, but not to the depth of the vital internal organs. However, if they are ingested (by eating contaminated food, drinking contaminated water, breathing contaminated air), or if they enter through broken skin (an open wound), they damage and destroy human tissue and body organs.

GAMMA RAYS

Gamma rays are the most dangerous type of nuclear radiation. They are a pure energy form and the most penetrating type of radiation. They are able to travel considerable distance through uninterrupted space (in the form of radiation waves), and can penetrate most materials. Once inside a human body, Gamma rays damage and destroy all types of human tissue and organs.

Please refer to the next chart for characteristics of Radiation Sickness.

Annex I/ Characteristics and Effects of Nuclear Weapons

489

A 20 Megaton nuclear detonation in daytime, above a city of 2.8 million people, would shortly generate tens of thousands of casualties suffering from Radiation Sickness. Radiation Sickness injuries depend mainly upon weather conditions, especially wind direction and speed, which determines how far and in what direction the nuclear radiation ‘fallout’ travels, and by extension, the level of contamination.

LOW

Casualties with a small radiation exposure, would experience hæmatologic radiation syndrome (a blood disorder). They would also temporarily experience nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea for some days. Approximately three weeks after contamination, their bone marrow would stop producing the normal blood cell count. The number of blood clotting cells (platelets) would drop. The white blood cell deficit would weaken the immune system and mouth ulcers would be experienced. Injuries and burns would become infected, not heal up and hæmorrhage (bleed) into the skin with fresh hæmorrhaging commencing in the intestines and stomach.

MEDIUM

Casualties with a medium radiation exposure, would experience gastrointestinal radiation sickness. This amounts to nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea shortly after contamination and would last several days before appearing to stem. After some days (up to about a week), the same symptoms return in an intense form. The diarrhoea and vomit becomes blood impregnated as the radiation-damaged lining of the stomach and intestine disintegrates. In spite of intensive [medical] care, this level of radiation sickness proves fatal in most cases.

HIGH

Casualties who are exposed to high doses of radiation, experience central nervous system syndrome. Radiation damaged brain tissue swells up, and the casualty experiences nausea, vomiting and intense diarrhoea; increasing difficulty in thought and speech processes; deteriorating mobility. Convulsions result in a coma, followed by death with a couple of days after contamination, despite the most intensive [medical] care.

(Approx. 100 - 130 Rads)

(Approx. 400 - 600 Rads)

(Approx. 4000 - 5000 Rads)

490

Map showing the area worst affected by Radiation from the Chernobyl Nuclear Reactor explosion in the Ukraine, USSR, on 26th April 1986. An operator made a series of mistakes during reactor economy tests. After mis-setting the output (too low) and having disabled the automatic shutdown for the tests, he tried manually to shut down the reactor. This latest Soviet model of reactor then reached 120 times its safe maximum power. The radioactive fuel disintegrated and blew the top shield entirely off of the reactor. 3% of the Nuclear Reactor core escaped, eventually having world wide effects.

Example of Nuclear Radiation Effects: CHERNOBYL

Annex I/ Characteristics and Effects of Nuclear Weapons

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

491

Annex J: Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Dept.) $%&$ $%# First US Aircraft Hijacked, May 1, 1961: Puerto Rican born Antuilo Ramierez Ortiz forced at gunpoint a National Airlines plane to fly to Havana, Cuba, where he was given asylum. Ambassador to Guatemala Assassinated, August 28, 1968: US Ambassador to Guatemala John Gordon Mein was murdered by a rebel faction when gunmen forced his official car off the road in Guatemala City and raked the vehicle with gunfire. Ambassador to Japan Attacked, July 30, 1969: US Ambassador to Japan A.H. Meyer was attacked by a knife-wielding Japanese citizen. Ambassador to Brazil Kidnapped, September 3, 1969: US Ambassador to Brazil Charles Burke Elbrick was kidnapped by the Marxist revolutionary group MR-8. US Agency for International Development Adviser Kidnapped, July 31, 1970: In Montevideo, Uruguay, the Tupamaros terrorist group kidnapped USAID Police adviser Dan Mitrione; his body was found on August 10. “Bloody Friday,” July 21, 1972: An Irish Republican Army (IRA) bomb attack killed 11 people and injured 130 in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Ten days later, three IRA car bomb attacks in the village of Claudy left six dead. Munich Olympic Massacre, September 5, 1972: Eight Palestinian “Black September” terrorists seized 11 Israeli athletes in the Olympic Village in Munich, West Germany. In a bungled rescue attempt by West German authorities, nine of the hostages and five terrorists were killed. Ambassador to Sudan Assassinated, March 2, 1973: US Ambassador to Sudan Cleo A. Noel and other diplomats were assassinated at the Saudi Arabian Embassy in Khartoum by members of the Black September organisation. Consul General in Mexico Kidnapped, May 4, 1973: US Consul General in Guadalajara Terrence Leonhardy was kidnapped by members of the People’s Revolutionary Armed Forces. Domestic Terrorism, January 27-29, 1975: Puerto Rican nationalists bombed a Wall Street bar, killing four and injuring 60; Two days later, the Weather Underground claims responsibility for an explosion in a bathroom at the US Department of State in Washington DC.

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Entebbe Hostage Crisis, June 27, 1976: Members of the Baader-Meinhof Group and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) seized an Air France airliner and its 258 passengers. They forced the plane to land in Uganda, where on July 3 Israeli commandos successfully rescued the passengers. Assassination of Former Chilean Diplomat, September 21, 1976: In Washington DC, exiled Chilean Foreign Minister Orlando Letelier was killed by a car bomb. Kidnapping of Italian Prime Minister, March 16, 1978: Premier Aldo Moro was seized by the Red Brigade and assassinated 55 days later. Iran Hostage Crisis, November 4, 1979: After President Carter agreed to admit the Shah of Iran into the US, Iranian radicals seized the US embassy in Tehran and took 66 American diplomats hostage. Thirteen hostages were soon released, but the remaining 53 were held until their release on January 20, 1981. Grand Mosque Seizure, November 20, 1979: 200 Islamic terrorists seized the Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, taking hundreds of pilgrims hostage. Saudi and French security forces retook the shrine after an intense battle in which some 250 people were killed and 600 wounded. US Installation Bombing, August 31, 1981: The Red Army exploded a bomb at the US Air Force Base at Ramstein, West Germany. Assassination of Egyptian President, October 6, 1981: Soldiers who were secretly members of the Takfir Wal-Hajira sect attacked and killed Egyptian President Anwar Sadat during a troop review. Murder of Missionaries, December 4, 1981: Three American nuns and one lay missionary were found murdered outside San Salvador, El Salvador. They were believed to have been assassinated by a right-wing death squad. Assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister, September 14, 1982: Premier Bashir Gemayel was assassinated by a car bomb parked outside his party’s Beirut headquarters.

$%#' Colombian Hostage-Taking, April 8, 1983: A US citizen was seized by the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and held for ransom.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

493

Bombing of US Embassy in Beirut, April 18, 1983: Sixty-three people, including the CIA’s Middle East director, were killed, and 120 were injured in a 400-pound suicide truck-bomb attack on the US Embassy in Beirut, Lebanon. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility. Naval Officer Assassinated in El Salvador, May 25, 1983: A US Navy officer was assassinated by the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front. North Korean Hit Squad, October 9, 1983: North Korean agents blew up a delegation from South Korea in Rangoon, Burma, killing 21 persons and injuring 48. Bombing of Marine Barracks, Beirut, October 23, 1983: Simultaneous suicide truck-bomb attacks were made on American and French compounds in Beirut, Lebanon. A 12,000-pound bomb destroyed the US compound, killing 242 Americans, while 58 French troops were killed when a 400-pound device destroyed a French base. Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility. Naval Officer Assassinated in Greece, November 15, 1983: A US Navy officer was shot by the 17 November terrorist group in Athens, Greece, while his car was stopped at a traffic light.

$%#( Kidnapping of Embassy Official, March 16, 1984: The Islamic Jihad kidnapped and later murdered Political Officer William Buckley in Beirut, Lebanon. Other US citizens not connected to the US Government were seized over a succeeding two-year period. Hizballah Restaurant Bombing, April 12, 1984: Eighteen US servicemen were killed, and 83 people were injured in a bomb attack on a restaurant near a US Air Force Base in Torrejon, Spain. Responsibility was claimed by Hizballah. Golden Temple Seizure, June 5, 1984: Sikh terrorists seized the Golden Temple in Amritsar, India. One hundred people died when Indian security forces retook the Sikh holy shrine. Assassination of Prime Minister Gandhi, October 31, 1984: The Indian premier was shot to death by members of her security force.

$%#) Kidnapping of US Officials in Mexico, February 7, 1985: Under the orders of narcotrafficker Rafael Cero Quintero, Drug Enforcement Administration agent Enrique Camarena Salazar and his pilot were kidnapped, tortured, and executed.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

494

TWA Hijacking, June 14, 1985: A Trans-World Airlines flight was hijacked en route to Rome from Athens by two Lebanese Hizballah terrorists and forced to fly to Beirut. The eight crew members and 145 passengers were held for 17 days, during which one American hostage, a US Navy sailor, was murdered. After being flown twice to Algiers, the aircraft was returned to Beirut after Israel released 435 Lebanese and Palestinian prisoners. Air India Bombing, June 23, 1985: A bomb destroyed an Air India Boeing 747 over the Atlantic, killing all 329 people aboard. Both Sikh and Kashmiri terrorists were blamed for the attack. Two cargo handlers were killed at Tokyo airport, Japan, when another Sikh bomb exploded in an Air Canada aircraft en route to India. Soviet Diplomats Kidnapped, September 30, 1985: In Beirut, Lebanon, Sunni terrorists kidnapped four Soviet diplomats. One was killed, but three were later released. Achille Lauro Hijacking, October 7, 1985: Four Palestinian Liberation Front terrorists seized the Italian cruise liner in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, taking more than 700 hostages. One US passenger was murdered before the Egyptian Government offered the terrorists safe haven in return for the hostages’ freedom. Egyptian Airliner Hijacking, November 23, 1985: An EgyptAir airplane bound from Athens to Malta and carrying several US citizens was hijacked by the Abu Nidal Group.

$%#& Aircraft Bombing in Greece, March 30, 1986: A Palestinian splinter group detonated a bomb as TWA Flight 840 approached Athens Airport, killing four US citizens. Berlin Discoteque Bombing, April 5, 1986: Two US soldiers were killed, and 79 American servicemen were injured in a Libyan bomb attack on a nightclub in West Berlin, West Germany. In retaliation, US military jets bombed targets in and around Tripoli and Benghazi. Kimpo Airport Bombing, September 14, 1986: North Korean agents detonated an explosive device at Seoul’s Kimpo Airport, killing five persons and injuring 29 others.

$%#* Bus Attack, April 24, 1987: Sixteen US servicemen riding in a Greek Air Force bus near Athens were injured in an apparent bombing attack, carried out by the revolutionary organisation known as 17 November.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

495

Downing of Airliner, November 29, 1987: North Korean agents planted a bomb aboard Korean Air Lines Flight 858, which subsequently crashed into the Indian Ocean. Servicemen’s Bar Attack, December 26, 1987: Catalan separatists bombed a Barcelona bar frequented by US servicemen, resulting in the death of one US citizen.

$%## Kidnapping of William Higgins, February 17, 1988: US Marine Corps Lt. Col. W. Higgins was kidnapped and murdered by the Iranian-backed Hizballah group while serving with the United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO) in southern Lebanon. Naples USO Attack, April 14, 1988: The Organisation of Jihad Brigades exploded a car bomb outside a USO Club in Naples, Italy, killing one US sailor. Attack on US Diplomat in Greece, June 28, 1988: The Defence Attache of the US Embassy in Greece was killed when a car bomb was detonated outside his home in Athens. Pan Am 103 Bombing, December 21, 1988: Pan American Airlines Flight 103 was blown up over Lockerbie, Scotland, by a bomb believed to have been placed on the aircraft in Frankfurt, West Germany, by Libyan terrorists. All 259 people on board were killed.

$%#% Assassination of US Army Officer, April 21, 1989: The New People’s Army (NPA) assassinated Col. James Rowe in Manila. The NPA also assassinated two US government defence contractors in September. Assassination of German Bank Chairman, November 30, 1989: The Red Army Faction assassinated Deutsche Bank Chairman Alfred Herrhausen in Frankfurt.

$%% US Embassy Bombed in Peru, January 15, 1990: The Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement bombed the US Embassy in Lima, Peru. US Soldiers Assassinated in the Philippines, May 13, 1990: The New People’s Army (NPA) killed two US Air Force personnel near Clark Air Force Base in the Philippines.

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496

$%%$ Attempted Iraqi Attacks on US Posts, January 18-19, 1991: Iraqi agents planted bombs at the US Ambassador to Indonesia’s home residence and at the USIS library in Manila.

$%% Kidnapping of US Businessmen in the Philippines, January 17-21, 1992: A senior official of the corporation Philippine Geothermal was kidnapped in Manila by the Red Scorpion Group, and two US businessmen were seized independently by the National Liberation Army and by Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). Bombing of the Israeli Embassy in Argentina, March 17, 1992: Hizballah claimed responsibility for a blast that leveled the Israeli Embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina, causing the deaths of 29 and wounding 242.

$%%' Kidnappings of US Citizens in Colombia, January 31, 1993: Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) terrorists kidnapped three US missionaries. World Trade Center Bombing, February 26, 1993: The World Trade Center in New York City was badly damaged when a car bomb planted by Islamic terrorists exploded in an underground garage. The bomb left six people dead and 1,000 injured. The men carrying out the attack were followers of Umar Abd al-Rahman, an Egyptian cleric who preached in the New York City area. Attempted Assassination of President Bush by Iraqi Agents, April 14, 1993: The Iraqi Intelligence service attempted to assassinate former US President George Bush during a visit to Kuwait. In retaliation, the US launched a cruise missile attack two months later on the Iraqi capital Baghdad.

$%%( Hebron Massacre, February 25, 1994: Jewish right-wing extremist and US citizen Baruch Goldstein machine-gunned Moslem worshippers at a mosque in West Bank town of Hebron, killing 29 and wounding about 150. FARC Hostage-Taking, September 23, 1994: FARC rebels kidnapped US citizen Thomas Hargrove in Colombia.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

497

Air France Hijacking, December 24, 1994: Members of the Armed Islamic Group seized an Air France Flight to Algeria. The four terrorists were killed during a rescue effort.

$%%) Attack on US Diplomats in Pakistan, March 8, 1995: Two unidentified gunmen killed two US diplomats and wounded a third in Karachi, Pakistan. Tokyo Subway Station Attack, March 20, 1995: Twelve persons were killed, and 5,700 were injured in a Sarin nerve gas attack on a crowded subway station in the center of Tokyo, Japan. A similar attack occurred nearly simultaneously in the Yokohama subway system. The Aum Shinri-kyu cult was blamed for the attacks. Bombing of the Federal Building in Oklahoma City, April 19, 1995: Right-wing extremists Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols destroyed the Federal Building in Oklahoma City with a massive truck bomb that killed 166 and injured hundreds more in what was up to then the largest terrorist attack on American soil. Kashmiri Hostage-Taking, July 4, 1995: In India, six foreigners, including two US citizens, were taken hostage by Al-Faran, a Kashmiri separatist group. One non-US hostage was later found beheaded. Jerusalem Bus Attack, August 21, 1995: Hamas claimed responsibility for the detonation of a bomb that killed six and injured over 100 persons, including several US citizens. Attack on US Embassy in Moscow, September 13, 1995: A rocket-propelled grenade was fired through the window of the US Embassy in Moscow, ostensibly in retaliation for US strikes on Serb positions in Bosnia. Saudi Military Installation Attack, November 13, 1995: The Islamic Movement of Change planted a bomb in a Riyadh military compound that killed one US citizen, several foreign national employees of the US Government, and more than 40 others. Egyptian Embassy Attack, November 19, 1995: A suicide bomber drove a vehicle into the Egyptian Embassy compound in Islamabad, Pakistan, killing at least 16 and injuring 60 persons. Three militant Islamic groups claimed responsibility.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

498

$%%& Papuan Hostage Abduction, January 8, 1996: In Indonesia, 200 Free Papua Movement (OPM) guerrillas abducted 26 individuals in the Lorenta nature preserve, Irian Jaya Province. Indonesian Special Forces members rescued the remaining nine hostages on May 15. Kidnapping in Colombia, January 19, 1996: Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) guerrillas kidnapped a US citizen and demanded a US$ 1 million ransom. The hostage was released on May 22. Tamil Tigers Attack, January 31, 1996: Members of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) rammed an explosives-laden truck into the Central Bank in the heart of downtown Colombo, Sri Lanka, killing 90 civilians and injuring more than 1,400 others, including two US citizens. IRA Bombing, February 9, 1996: An Irish Republican Army (IRA) bomb detonated in London, killing two persons and wounding more than 100 others, including two US citizens. Athens Embassy Attack, February 15, 1996: Unidentified assailants fired a rocket at the US embassy compound in Athens, causing minor damage to three diplomatic vehicles and some surrounding buildings. Circumstances of the attack suggested it was an operation carried out by the 17 November group. ELN Kidnapping, February 16, 1996: Six alleged National Liberation Army (ELN) guerrillas kidnapped a US citizen in Colombia. After nine months, the hostage was released. Hamas Bus Attack, February 26, 1996: In Jerusalem, a suicide bomber blew up a bus, killing 26 persons, including three US citizens, and injuring some 80 persons, including three other US citizens. Dizengoff Center Bombing, March 4, 1996: Hamas and the Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ) both claimed responsibility for a bombing outside of Tel Aviv’s largest shopping mall that killed 20 persons and injured 75 others, including two US citizens. West Bank Attack, May 13, 1996: Arab gunmen opened fire on a bus and a group of Yeshiva students near the Bet El settlement, killing a dual US-Israeli citizen and wounding three Israelis. No one claimed responsibility for the attack, but Hamas was suspected.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

499

USAID Worker Abduction, May 31, 1996: A gang of former Contra guerrillas kidnapped a US employee of the Agency for International Development (USAID) who was assisting with election preparations in rural northern Nicaragua. She was released unharmed the next day after members of the international commission overseeing the preparations intervened. Zekharya Attack, June 9, 1996: Unidentified gunmen opened fire on a car near Zekharya, killing a dual US-Israeli citizen and an Israeli. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) is suspected. Manchester Truck Bombing, June 15, 1996: An IRA truck bomb detonated at a Manchester shopping center, wounding 206 persons, including two German tourists, and caused extensive property damage. Khobar Towers Bombing, June 25, 1996: A fuel truck carrying a bomb exploded outside the US military’s Khobar Towers housing facility in Dhahran, killing 19 US military personnel and wounding 515 persons, including 240 US personnel. Several groups claimed responsibility for the attack. ETA Bombing, July 20, 1996: A bomb exploded at Tarragona International Airport in Reus, Spain, wounding 35 persons, including British and Irish tourists. The Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) organisation was suspected. Bombing of Archbishop of Oran, August 1, 1996: A bomb exploded at the home of the French Archbishop of Oran, killing him and his chauffeur. The attack occurred after the Archbishop’s meeting with the French Foreign Minister. The Algerian Armed Islamic Group (GIA) is suspected. Sudanese Rebel Kidnapping, August 17, 1996: Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) rebels kidnapped six missionaries in Mapourdit, including a US citizen, an Italian, three Australians, and a Sudanese. The SPLA released the hostages 11 days later. PUK Kidnapping, September 13, 1996: In Iraq, Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) militants kidnapped four French workers for Pharmaciens Sans Frontieres, a Canadian United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) official, and two Iraqis. Assassination of South Korean Consul, October 1, 1996: In Vladivostok, Russia, assailants attacked and killed a South Korean consul near his home. No one claimed responsibility, but South Korean authorities believed that the attack was carried out by professionals and that the assailants were North Koreans. North Korean officials denied the country’s involvement in the attack.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

500

Red Cross Worker Kidnappings, November 1, 1996: In Sudan, a breakaway group from the Sudanese People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) kidnapped three International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) workers, including a US citizen, an Australian, and a Kenyan. On December 9, the rebels released the hostages in exchange for ICRC supplies and a health survey for their camp. Paris Subway Explosion, December 3, 1996: A bomb exploded aboard a Paris subway train as it arrived at the Port Royal station, killing two French nationals, a Moroccan, and a Canadian, and injuring 86 persons. Among those injured were one US citizen and a Canadian. No one claimed responsibility for the attack, but Algerian extremists are suspected. Abduction of US Citizen by FARC, December 11, 1996: Five armed men claiming to be members of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) kidnapped and later killed a US geologist at a methane gas exploration site in La Guajira Department. Tupac Amaru Seizure of Diplomats, December 17, 1996: Twenty-three members of the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) took several hundred people hostage at a party given at the Japanese Ambassador’s residence in Lima, Peru. Among the hostages were several US officials, foreign ambassadors and other diplomats, Peruvian Government officials, and Japanese businessmen. The group demanded the release of all MRTA members in prison and safe passage for them and the hostage-takers. The terrorists released most of the hostages in December but held 81 Peruvians and Japanese citizens for several months.

$%%* Egyptian Letter Bombs, January 2-13, 1997: A series of letter bombs with Alexandria, Egypt, postmarks were discovered at Al-Hayat newspaper bureaus in Washington DC, New York City, London, and Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Three similar devices, also postmarked in Egypt, were found at a prison facility in Leavenworth, Kansas. Bomb disposal experts defused all the devices, but one detonated at the Al-Hayat office in London, injuring two security guards and causing minor damage. Tajik Hostage Abductions, February 4-17, 1997: Near Komsomolabad, Tajikistan, a paramilitary group led by Bakhrom Sodirov abducted four United Nations military observers. The victims included two Swiss, one Austrian, one Ukrainian, and their Tajik interpreter. The kidnappers demanded safe passage for their supporters from Afghanistan to Tajikistan. In four separate incidents occurring between Dushanbe and Garm, Bakhrom Sodirov and his group kidnapped two International Committee for the Red Cross members, four Russian journalists and their Tajik driver, four UNHCR members, and the Tajik Security Minister, Saidamir Zukhurov.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

501

Venezuelan Abduction, February 14, 1997: Six armed Colombian guerrillas kidnapped a US oil engineer and his Venezuelan pilot in Apure, Venezuela. The kidnappers released the Venezuelan pilot on February 22. According to authorities, the FARC is responsible for the kidnapping. Empire State Building Sniper Attack, February 23, 1997: A Palestinian gunman opened fire on tourists at an observation deck atop the Empire State Building in New York City, killing a Danish national and wounding visitors from the United States, Argentina, Switzerland, and France before turning the gun on himself. A handwritten note carried by the gunman claimed this was a punishment attack against the “enemies of Palestine.” ELN Kidnapping, February 24, 1997: National Liberation Army (ELN) guerrillas kidnapped a US citizen employed by a Las Vegas gold corporation who was scouting a gold mining operation in Colombia. The ELN demanded a ransom of US$ 2.5 million. FARC Kidnapping, March 7, 1997: FARC guerrillas kidnapped a US mining employee and his Colombian colleague who were searching for gold in Colombia. On November 16, the rebels released the two hostages after receiving a US$ 50,000 ransom. Hotel Nacional Bombing, July 12, 1997: A bomb exploded at the Hotel Nacional in Havana, injuring three persons and causing minor damage. A previously unknown group calling itself the Military Liberation Union claimed responsibility. Israeli Shopping Mall Bombing, September 4, 1997: Three suicide bombers of Hamas detonated bombs in the Ben Yehuda shopping mall in Jerusalem, killing eight persons, including the bombers, and wounding nearly 200 others. A dual US-Israeli citizen was among the dead, and seven US citizens were wounded. OAS Abductions, October 23, 1997: In Colombia, ELN rebels kidnapped two foreign members of the Organization of American States (OAS) and a Colombian human rights official at a roadblock. The ELN claimed that the kidnapping was intended “to show the international community that the elections in Colombia are a farce.” Yemeni Kidnappings, October 30, 1997: Al-Sha' if tribesmen kidnapped a US businessman near Sanaa. The tribesmen sought the release of two fellow tribesmen who were arrested on smuggling charges and several public works projects they claim the government promised them. They released the hostage on November 27.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

502

Murder of US Businessmen in Pakistan, November 12, 1997: Two unidentified gunmen shot to death four US auditors from Union Texas Petroleum Corporation and their Pakistani driver after they drove away from the Sheraton Hotel in Karachi. The Islami Inqilabi Council, or Islamic Revolutionary Council, claimed responsibility in a call to the US Consulate in Karachi. In a letter to Pakistani newspapers, the Aimal Khufia Action Committee also claimed responsibility. Tourist Killings in Egypt, November 17, 1997: Al-Gama' at al-Islamiyya (IG) gunmen shot and killed 58 tourists and four Egyptians and wounded 26 others at the Hatshepsut Temple in the Valley of the Kings near Luxor. Thirty-four Swiss, eight Japanese, five Germans, four Britons, one French, one Colombian, a dual Bulgarian-British citizen, and four unidentified persons were among the dead. Twelve Swiss, two Japanese, two Germans, one French, and nine Egyptians were among the wounded.

$%%# UN Observer Abductions, February 19, 1998: Armed supporters of late Georgian President Zviad Gamsakhurdia abducted four UN military observers from Sweden, Uruguay, and the Czech Republic. FARC Abduction, March 21-23, 1998: FARC rebels kidnapped a US citizen in Sabaneta, Colombia. FARC members also killed three persons, wounded 14, and kidnapped at least 27 others at a roadblock near Bogota. Four US citizens and one Italian were among those kidnapped, as well as the acting president of the National Electoral Council (CNE) and his wife. Somali Hostage-Takings, April 15, 1998: Somali militiamen abducted nine Red Cross and Red Crescent workers at an airstrip north of Mogadishu. The hostages included a US citizen, a German, a Belgian, a French, a Norwegian, two Swiss, and one Somali. The gunmen were members of a subclan loyal to Ali Mahdi Mohammed, who controlled the northern section of the capital. IRA Bombing, Banbridge, August 1, 1998: A 500-pound car bomb planted by the Real IRA exploded outside a shoe store in Banbridge, North Ireland, injuring 35 persons and damaging at least 200 homes.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

503

US Embassy Bombings in East Africa, August 7, 1998: A bomb exploded at the rear entrance of the US Embassy in Nairobi, Kenya, killing 12 US citizens, 32 Foreign Service Nationals (FSNs), and 247 Kenyan citizens. About 5,000 Kenyans, six US citizens, and 13 FSNs were injured. The US Embassy building sustained extensive structural damage. Almost simultaneously, a bomb detonated outside the US Embassy in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, killing seven FSNs and three Tanzanian citizens, and injuring one US citizen and 76 Tanzanians. The explosion caused major structural damage to the US Embassy facility. The US Government held Osama bin Laden responsible. IRA Bombing, Omagh, August 15, 1998: A 500-pound car bomb planted by the Real IRA exploded outside a local courthouse in the central shopping district of Omagh, Northern Ireland, killing 29 persons and injuring over 330. Colombian Pipeline Bombing, October 18, 1998: A National Liberation Army (ELN) planted bomb exploded on the Ocensa pipeline in Antioquia Department, killing approximately 71 persons and injuring at least 100 others. The pipeline is jointly owned by the Colombia State Oil Company Ecopetrol and a consortium, including US, French, British, and Canadian companies. Armed Kidnapping in Colombia, November 15, 1998: Armed assailants followed a US businessman and his family home in Cundinamarca Department and kidnapped his 11-year-old son after stealing money, jewelry, one automobile, and two cell phones. The kidnappers demanded US$ 1 million in ransom. On January 21, 1999, the kidnappers released the boy.

$%%% Angolan Aircraft Downing, January 2, 1999: A UN plane carrying one US citizen, four Angolans, two Philippine nationals, and one Namibian was shot down, according to a UN official. No deaths or injuries were reported. Angolan authorities blamed the attack on National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) rebels. UNITA officials denied shooting down the plane. Ugandan Rebel Attack, February 14, 1999: A pipe bomb exploded inside a bar, killing five persons and injuring 35 others. One Ethiopian and four Ugandan nationals died in the blast, and one US citizen working for USAID, two Swiss nationals, one Pakistani, one Ethiopian, and 27 Ugandans were injured. Ugandan authorities blamed the attack on the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF).

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

504

Greek Embassy Seizure, February 16, 1999: Kurdish protesters stormed and occupied the Greek Embassy in Vienna, taking the Greek Ambassador and six other persons hostage. Several hours later the protesters released the hostages and left the embassy. The attack followed the Turkish Government’s announcement of the successful capture of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) leader Abdullah Ocalan. Kurds also occupied Kenyan, Israeli, and other Greek diplomatic facilities in France, Holland, Switzerland, Britain, and Germany over the following days. FARC Kidnappings, February 25, 1999: FARC kidnapped three US citizens working for the Hawaii-based Pacific Cultural Conservancy International. On March 4, the bodies of the three victims were found in Venezuela. Hutu Abductions, March 1, 1999: 150 armed Hutu rebels attacked three tourist camps in Uganda, killed four Ugandans, and abducted three US citizens, six Britons, three New Zealanders, two Danish citizens, one Australian, and one Canadian national. Two of the US citizens and six of the other hostages were subsequently killed by their abductors. ELN Hostage-Taking, March 23, 1999: Armed guerrillas kidnapped a US citizen in Boyaca, Colombia. The National Liberation Army (ELN) claimed responsibility and demanded a US$ 400,000 ransom. On July 20, ELN rebels released the hostage unharmed following a ransom payment of US$ 48,000. ELN Hostage-Taking, May 30, 1999: In Cali, Colombia, armed ELN militants attacked a church in the neighborhood of Ciudad Jardin, kidnapping 160 persons, including six US citizens and one French national. The rebels released approximately 80 persons, including three US citizens, later that day. Shell Platform Bombing, June 27, 1999: In Port Harcourt, Nigeria, armed youths stormed a Shell oil platform, kidnapping one US citizen, one Nigerian national, and one Australian citizen, and causing undetermined damage. A group calling itself “Enough is Enough in the Niger River” claimed responsibility. Further seizures of oil facilities followed. AFRC Kidnappings, August 4, 1999: An Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) faction kidnapped 33 UN representatives near Occra Hills, Sierra Leone. The hostages included one US citizen, five British soldiers, one Canadian citizen, one representative from Ghana, one military officer from Russia, one officer from Kyrgyzstan, one officer from Zambia, one officer from Malaysia, a local Bishop, two UN officials, two local journalists, and 16 Sierra Leonean nationals. Burmese Embassy Seizure, October 1, 1999: Burmese dissidents seized the Burmese Embassy in Bangkok, Thailand, taking 89 persons hostage, including one US citizen.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

505

PLA Kidnapping, December 23, 1999: Colombian People’s Liberation Army (PLA) forces kidnapped a US citizen in an unsuccessful ransoming effort. Indian Airlines Airbus Hijacking, December 24, 1999: Five militants hijacked a flight bound from Kathmandu to New Delhi carrying 189 people. The plane and its passengers were released unharmed on December 31.

Car Bombing in Spain, January 27, 2000: Police officials reported unidentified individuals set fire to a Citroen car dealership in Iturreta, causing extensive damage to the building and destroying 12 vehicles. The attack bore the hallmark of the Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA). RUF Attacks on UN Mission Personnel, May 1, 2000: On May 1 in Makeni, Sierra Leone, Revolutionary United Front (RUF) militants kidnapped at least 20 members of the United Nations Assistance Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) and surrounded and opened fire on a UNAMSIL facility, according to press reports. The militants killed five UN soldiers in the attack. RUF militants kidnapped 300 UNAMSIL peacekeepers throughout the country, according to press reports. On May 15 in Foya, Liberia, the kidnappers released 139 hostages. On May 28, on the Liberia and Sierra Leone border, armed militants released unharmed the last of the UN peacekeepers. In Freetown, according to press reports, armed militants ambushed two military vehicles carrying four journalists. A Spaniard and one US citizen were killed in a May 25 car bombing in Freetown for which the RUF was probably responsible. Suspected RUF rebels also kidnapped 21 Indian UN peacekeepers in Freetown on June 6. Additional attacks by RUF on foreign personnel followed. Diplomatic Assassination in Greece, June 8, 2000: In Athens, Greece, two unidentified gunmen killed British Defense Attache Stephen Saunders in an ambush. The revolutionary organisation 17 November claimed responsibility. ELN Kidnpapping, June 27, 2000: In Bogota, Colombia, ELN militants kidnapped a 5-year-old US citizen and his Colombian mother, demanding an undisclosed ransom. Kidnappings in Kyrgyzstan, August 12, 2000: In the Kara-Su Valley, the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan took four US citizens hostage. The Americans escaped on August 12. Church Bombing in Tajikistan, October 1, 2000: Unidentified militants detonated two bombs in a Christian church in Dushanbe, killing seven persons and injuring 70 others. The church was founded by a Korean-born US citizen, and most of those killed and wounded were Korean. No one claimed responsibility.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

506

Helicopter Hijacking, October 12, 2000: In Sucumbios Province, Ecuador, a group of armed kidnappers led by former members of defunct Colombian terrorist organization the Popular Liberation Army (EPL), took hostage 10 employees of Spanish energy consortium REPSOL. Those kidnapped included five US citizens, one Argentine, one Chilean, one New Zealander, and two French pilots who escaped 4 days later. On January 30, 2001, the kidnappers murdered American hostage Ronald Sander. The remaining hostages were released on February 23 following the payment of US$ 13 million in ransom by the oil companies. Attack on USS. Cole, October 12, 2000: In Aden, Yemen, a small dingy carrying explosives rammed the destroyer U.S.S. Cole, killing 17 sailors and injuring 39 others. Supporters of Osama bin Laden were suspected. Manila Bombing, December 30, 2000: A bomb exploded in a plaza across the street from the US Embassy in Manila, injuring nine persons. The Moro Islamic Liberation Front was likely responsible.

$ Srinagar Airport Attack, January 17, 2001: In India, six members of the Lashkar-e-Tayyba militant group were killed when they attempted to seize a local airport. BBC Studios Bombing, March 4, 2001: A car bomb exploded at midnight outside of the British Broadcasting Corporation’s main production studios in London. ETA Bombing, March 9, 2001: Two policemen were killed by the explosion of a car bomb in Hernani, Spain. Bus Stop Bombing, April 22, 2001: A member of Hamas detonated a bomb he was carrying near a bus stop in Kfar Siva, Israel, killing one person and injuring 60. Tel Aviv Nightclub Bombing, June 1, 2001: Hamas claimed responsibility for the bombing of a popular Israeli nightclub that caused over 140 casualties. Hamas Restaurant Bombing, August 9, 2001: A Hamas-planted bomb detonated in a Jeruselum pizza restaurant, killing 15 people and wounding more than 90.

Annex J/ Significant Terrorist Incidents 1961-2001 (US State Department)

507

Terrorist Attacks on US Homeland, September 11, 2001: Two hijacked airliners crashed into the twin towers of the World Trade Center. Soon thereafter, the Pentagon was struck by a third hijacked plane. A fourth hijacked plane, suspected to be bound for a high-profile target in Washington DC, crashed into a field in southern Pennsylvania. Approximately 2950+ US citizens and other nationals were killed as a result of these acts. President George W. Bush and Cabinet officials indicated that Osama bin Laden was the prime suspect and that they considered the United States in a state of war with international terrorism. In the aftermath of the attacks, the United States formed the Global Coalition Against Terrorism.

Annex K/ List of Terrorist Organisations complied by US, UK and EU

508

Annex K: List of Terrorist Organisations compiled by US, UK and EU

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Annex K/ List of Terrorist Organisations complied by US, UK and EU

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509

Annex K/ List of Terrorist Organisations complied by US, UK and EU

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510

Annex L/ Locations Where Al Qa’ida Network has Firm Presence

511

Annex L: Locations Where Al Qa’ida Network has Firm Presence

Annex M/ Militants Presence (fought or trained in Afghanistan / Kashmir)

512

Annex M: Militants’ Presence (fought or trained in Afghanistan / Kashmir)

1. AFGHANISTAN 11. BRAZIL 21. DAGESTAN 31. GUINEA 41. KAZAKHSTAN 51. MAURITANIA 61. PHILIPPINES 71. SOMALIA 81. THAILAND

2. ALBANIA 12. BULGARIA 22. DENMARK 32. HUNGARY 42. KENYA 52. MEXICO 62. POLAND 72. STH. AFRICA 82. TUNISIA

3. ALGERIA 13. BURMA 23. DJIBOUTI 33. INDIA 43. KUWAIT 53. MOROCCO 63. PORTUGAL 73. SPAIN 83. TURKEY

4. ARGENTINA 14. CAMEROON 24. EGYPT 34. INDONESIA 44. KYRGYZSTAN 54. NAMIBIA 64. QATAR 74. SRI LANKA 84. TURKMENISTAN

5. AUSTRALIA 15. CANADA 25. ERITREA 35. IRAN 45. LEBANON 55. NEPAL 65. ROMANIA 75. SUDAN 85. UAE

6. AUSTRIA 16. CHECHNYA 26. ETHIOPIA 36. IRAQ 46. LIBYA 56. NETHERLANDS 66. RUSSIA 76. SWEDEN 86. UGANDA

7. AZERBAIJAN 17. CHILE 27. FRANCE 37. ISRAEL 47. LUXEMBOURG 57. NIGERIA 67. SAUDI ARABIA 77. SWITZERLAND 87. UK

8. BANGLADESH 18. CHINA 28. GERMANY 38. ITALY 48. MACEDONIA 58. NORWAY 68. SINGAPORE 78. SYRIA 88. USA

9. BELGIUM 19. CROATIA 29. GREECE 39. JAPAN 49. MALAYSIA 59. OMAN 69. SLOVAKIA 79. TAJIKISTAN 89. UZBEKISTAN

10. BOSNIA & HERZ. 20. CZECH REP. 30. GREENLAND 40. JORDAN 50. MALDIVES 60. PAKISTAN 70. SLOVENIA 80. TANZANIA 90. YEMEN

Annex N/ Photographic Evidence: The Armenian Genocide

513

Annex N: Photographic Evidence: Armenian Genocide

ATTENTION:

The following pages contain photographs submitted for trial evidence. They are provided for those students who wish for academic reasons, to fully comprehend the depth and terrorist nature of war crimes and crimes against humanity. However, they may perhaps be disturbing to some students, and while viewing is encouraged for purposes of education and humanitarian concern, it is naturally not mandatory, and does not provide the Student with any advantage when taking the final examination.

“What on earth do you want? The question is settled. There are no more Armenians” Talât Pasha to the German Ambassador, persistently bringing up the Armenian question in 1918 __________________________________________ “I refer to those awful massacres. They are the greatest stain that has ever disgraced our nation and race. They were entirely the work of Talat and Enver. I asked him [Enver] if it was true that they intended to recommence the massacres which had been our shame and disgrace under Abdul Hamid. The only reply I could get from him was ‘It is decided. It is the program” Prince Abdul Mecid, heir-apparent to the Ottoman throne in an interview following the massacres __________________________________________ “. . . the Armenian massacre was the greatest crime of the war, and the failure to act against Turkey is to condone it . . . the failure to deal radically with the Turkish horror means that all talk of guaranteeing the future peace of the world is mischievous nonsense” Theodore Roosevelt in a letter to Cleveland H. Dodge on 11th May 1918 __________________________________________ “It was not war. It was most certainly massacre and genocide, something the world must remember...We will always reject any attempt to erase its record, even for some political advantage” Israeli Deputy Foreign Minister Yossi Beilin in the Knesset on 27th April 1994, in response to claims that ‘it was war,’ by the Turkish Ambassador to Israel during a TV interview

Annex N/ Photographic Evidence: The Armenian Genocide

Deportees fleeing in 1915

Children dead and dying in the gutter to the indiffference of passers-by

A boy, starved to death on a doorstep

Widowed homeless women , living in the streets

Massacred and left in the street

The executions in Constantinople

514

Massacre, burning to death and other savagery

A boy stripped and beaten to death

Courtesy and copyright of the Armenian National Institute, USA. Photos taken by a Missionary, John Elder, and a German Officer, Armin Wegner, serving with the Ottoman Army (he was arrested for disseminating photographs and information on the genocide).

Annex O: Photographic Evidence: Nazi Genocide

515

Annex O: Photographic Evidence: Nazi Genocide

ATTENTION:

The following pages contain photographs used in UN War Crimes trial evidence (UN Military Tribunals) . They are provided for those students who wish for academic reasons, to fully comprehend the depth and terrorist nature of war crimes and crimes against humanity. However, they may perhaps be disturbing to some students, and while viewing is encouraged for purposes of education and humanitarian concern, it is naturally not mandatory, and does not provide the Student with any advantage when taking the final examination.

“The things I saw beggar description...The visual evidence and the verbal testimony of starvation, cruelty and bestiality were...overpowering...I made the visit deliberately in order to be in a position to give first-hand evidence of these things if ever, in the future, there develops a tendency to charge these allegations merely to propaganda” US General Dwight D. Eisenhower in a letter to General George C. Marshall, 15th April 1945 _____________________________________ “I have only one purpose, the destruction of Hitler, and my life is much simplified thereby. If Hitler invaded Hell, I would make at least a favourable reference to the Devil in the House of Commons. We will never parley...never negotiate with Hitler or any of his gang. We shall fight him by land...by sea...in the air...until, with God’s help, we have rid the earth of his shadow and liberated its peoples from his yoke” UK Wartime Prime Minister Winston Churchill, when his private secretary asked him, as an arch anticommunist, how could he bring himself to assist the USSR ____________________________________ “We who did not go their way owe them this. We must make sure that their deaths have posthumous meaning. We must make sure that from now until the end of days, all humankind stares this evil in the face...and only then can we be sure it will never arise again” President Ronald Reagan, at the site of the US Holocaust Memorial Museum, 5th October 1988 ____________________________________ “...and later the work of transporting hundreds of thousands of Jews to their deaths, was carried out by Jewish collaborators...the entire Nazi success...stemmed from the subtle and diabolical use of collaborators, who did most of the dirty work for them. Therefore, if we knew a little of the truth about the Holocaust, we would at least understand (with or without agreeing) why the Palestinians are now eliminating their collaborators. That is the only means they have if they wish to continue to struggle against our limb-breaking regime” The late Prof. Dr. Israel Shahak (Hebrew University), Holocaust survivor of Bergen-Belsen camp (Photos courtesy of: US Army; UN; British Government; US Holocaust Memorial Museum; Vad Yashem).

Annex O: Photographic Evidence: Nazi Genocide

Students and SA burning ‘un-Germanic’ books, in a night ritual, Berlin 1933 Nuremburg Rally 1928

Nazi Police at Zawierca cut off elderly Jew’s beard

The beginnings of Terror

Buchenwald prisoner intake including Clergymen

516

SA and SS enforce boycott of Jewish shop

ID tag of Jewish child sent from Austria to England in 1938 by Kinder (children) Transport

Reinhard Heydrich, a Major-General at 29: chief architect of Nazi genocide

Siegen Synagogue burning down on Krystall Nacht, 10th November 1938

Other categories (note triangle badges) of prisoner

SS herd Jewish families (Warsaw Ghetto)

Annex O: Photographic Evidence: Nazi Genocide

Captured Maquis (French Resistance) fighters massacred by the Nazis

Soviet prisoners of war at Auschwitz

517

Belgian civilians massacred by Nazis

New arrivals at Mauthausen kept waiting in a courtyard. After 24 hours, 140 were dead

The real meaning of Nazism

A death camp oven for disposing of the bodies of murdered victims

An inmate of a death camp

The murdered at Mauthausen

SS Einsatzgruppen (special action squads; a name for mobile murder squads) murdering Jews in the Ukraine

Annex O: Photographic Evidence: Nazi Genocide

Einsatzgruppe A near Kovno, 1941-2, about to murder Jews Mother and child wait in turn to be murdered at Lubny, 1941

The murdered at Buchenwald

518

Jewish men forced to dig their own graves before being murdered by SS and SD men

Nazi sets his dogs to attack a Jewish forced labourer

The Nazi murder continues

Woman and child murdered by Einsatzgruppen at Ivangorod, Ukraine, 1942

Mass grave at BergenBelsen A young political prisoner about to be murdered in a forest at Buchenwald

Annex O: Photographic Evidence: Nazi Genocide

Map of SS Einsatzgruppen & Sonderkommando Crimes Against Humanity

519

Annex O: Photographic Evidence: Nazi Genocide

US General William Parsons and Congressman John Vorys, stunned at the full horror of a death camp

The remains of so called Nazi medical experiments

US soldier oversees the burial of murdered children

German civilians compelled to view the horror of the death camps by the allies

520

US 3rd Army at Buchenwald crematorium

What the Allies found

SS prisoners of war compelled by the allies to bury 800 of their murder victims at Namering

Shrunken head of Polish Prisoner found at Buchenwald

Eichelsdörfer, SS commandant of Kaufering 4 camp, wading amongst those he murdered. He was compelled by the allies to clear up and bury his victims

Annex O: Photographic Evidence: Nazi Genocide

Joseph Schleifstein, a 5-year old survivor of Buchenwald, sitting on a UN truck

80 Christian and Jewish graves of Nazi victims at Ludwigslust. All Residents of the Schweirin district were compelled to attend the burial by the Allies

521

The Nuremburg War Crimes Trials

The Nazis face justice

Franz Trenkle is identified as a Nazi torturer during a War Crimes Trial

Dr. Klaus Schilling explaining how he murdered 1000 camp inmates in experiments with Malaria parasites. He was convicted and hanged

Joseph Harzgen, one of five German civilians convicted and sentenced to death for murdering six US Airmen

Annex O: Photographic Evidence: Nazi Genocide

522

Some of the SS-T (Totenkopfverbände or Deathshead Detachment) and Einsatzgruppen (Task Forces) convicted of War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity Martin Sandberger, Commander of Einsatzgruppe A

Erwin Schulz, Commander of Einsatzkommando 5 (part of Gruppe C)

Otto Ohlendorf, Commander of Einsatzgruppe D

Amon Goeth, Commandant of Plaszow camp, later portrayed in the 1990s film Schindler’s List

Franz Six, Commander of Einsatzgruppe B Moscow detachment

W erner Braune, Commander of Einsatzkommando 11b (part of Gruppe D)

Annex O: Photographic Evidence: Nazi Genocide

523

Consequences of Nazism SS General Paul Blobel, Commander of Einsatzkommando 4a (part of Gruppe C), is sentenced to death for war crimes by the UN Military Tribunal

The ancient city of Nuremburg - spiritual home of Nazism, bombed to ruin

Nazi General Anton Dostler after sentence was carried out at Aversa by the UN War Crimes Military Tribunal. He was convicted of war crimes in Italy and shot at dawn by military firing squad.

1947. Political activist Marc Jarblum addresses a crowd of Jewish Displaced Persons (DPs) from the ship Exodus (refused entry to Palestine and returned to Europe)

Annex P:Photographic Evidence: Chinese (Nanjing) and Asian Genocide

524

Annex P:Photographic Evidence: Chinese (Nanjing) and Asian Genocide

ATTENTION:

The following pages contain many photographs used in UN War Crimes Commission trial evidence (US Military Tribunal for Asia). They are provided for those students who wish for academic reasons, to fully comprehend the depth and terrorist nature of war crimes and crimes against humanity. However, they may perhaps be disturbing to some students, and while viewing is encouraged for purposes of education and humanitarian concern, it is naturally not mandatory, and does not provide the Student with any advantage when taking the final examination.

“After having been subjected to all the standard forms of torture, they were taken, one at a time, marched blindfold for a considerable distance and then halted. The victim heard voices and marching feet, the sound of a squad halting and loading their rifles as a firing party would. A Japanese officer then approached the American pilot and said, ‘We are the Knights of Bushido, of the order of the Rising Sun. We do not execute at sunset, but at sunrise.’ The pilot was then marched back to his cell, and told that unless he talked before dawn, he would be executed” Extract from evidence given at the UN (US held) Military Tribunal for the Far East __________________________________________ “They were nothing more nor less than brutal acts of indiscriminate vengeance which both violated the unchallenged rules of warfare and outraged the general sentiments of humanity” Lord Russell of Liverpool __________________________________________ “A favourite method of execution was to herd groups of a dozen men at entrances of dugouts and to shoot them so the bodies toppled inside. Dirt then was shoveled in and the men buried” Eye witness report (New York Times reporter) sent from the U.S.S. Oahu, 17th December 1937 (Photos Courtesy: © China News Digest, US Army, UN, Imperial War Museum)

Annex P:Photographic Evidence: Chinese (Nanjing) and Asian Genocide

Soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army about to bury Chinese prisoners alive

Imperial soldier posing for photograph with victims

Imperial soldiers bayoneting Chinese prisoner Imperial soldier and victim after atrocity

The Knights of Bushido in Nanjing, China, 1937

Rape victim forced by Imperial officer to pose for a degrading photograph

525

Remains of an atrocity victim displayed by Imperial troops

Remains of decapitated victims. Put on display of Imperial troops

Atrocity victims’ remains

Chinese women, raped and murdered by Imperial troops

Annex P: Photographic Evidence: Chinese (Nanjing) and Asian Genocide

526

War Crimes in the Philippines for which General Yamashita was convicted and executed

(Extract from Trial proceedings, United Nations War Crimes Commission) __________________________________ ________

General Tomoyuki Yamashita, Commander of the 14th Army Group, Japanese Imperial Army, during his trial and in the custody of a US MP

War Crimes evidence uncovered at Luzon, Philippines

(1) Starvation, execution or massacre without trial and mal-administration generally of civilian internees and prisoners of war; (2) Torture, rape, murder and mass execution of very large numbers of residents of the Philippines, including women and children and members of religious orders, by starvation, beheading, bayoneting, clubbing, hanging, burning alive, and destruction by explosives; (3) Burning and demolition without adequate military necessity of large numbers of homes, places of business, places of religious worship, hospitals, public buildings, and educational institutions. In point of time, the offences extended throughout the period the accused was in command of Japanese troops in the Philippines. In point of area, the crimes extended throughout the Philippine Archipelago, although by far the most incredible acts occurred on Luzon.

War Crimes trials for Asia

Starved Allied Prisoners of War are liberated

September 1945: Fifteen years of Asian terror come to an end

Shortly after the UN War Crimes trials came to an end, prior to the suppression of Imperialism, this memorial was set up honouring the actions and memory of the convicted and executed war criminals

Annex Q: Photographic Evidence: Former Yugoslavia Genocide (Kosovo)

527

Annex Q: Photographic Evidence: Former Yugoslavia Genocide (Kosovo)

ATTENTION:

The following pages contain photographic evidence submitted to the (UN) International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. It is provided for those students who wish for academic reasons, to fully comprehend the depth and terrorist nature of war crimes and crimes against humanity. However, they may perhaps be disturbing to some students, and while viewing is encouraged for purposes of education and humanitarian concern, it is naturally not mandatory, and does not provide the Student with any advantage when taking the final examination.

“This ‘fatherland certificate’ must have on its cover page the Serb coat of arms: the white doubleheaded eagle of the Nemanjics, and the crest with four Cyrillic Ss. The failure to possess this paper would be the basis for expulsion... However, we consider that through a strong and efficient police force, it is quite easy to make people seek refuge abroad... Distinguished individuals [Kosovo ethnic Albanians] who play important roles in their political life should be eliminated through scandals or by staging traffic accidents, jealousy killings or infecting them with the AIDS virus when they travel abroad...” Extracts from a written statement by Serb Deputy Prime Minister Voislav Seselj in Velika Serbija, Belgrade, dated 14th October 1995 “If you kill one person, you are a murderer, if you kill ten people you are a celebrity, and if you kill a quarter of a million people, you get invited to a peace conference” Haris Silajdzic, Bosnian Foreign Minister referring to Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic “Lying is a form of our patriotism and is evidence of our innate intelligence. We lie in a creative, imaginative, and inventive way” Dobrica Cosic - former President of FR Yugoslavia and a Member of Serb Academy of Arts and Sciences, referring to nationalism and the Serbian nation (Photos courtesy of Kosovo Crisis Centre)

Annex Q: Photographic Evidence: Former Yugoslavia Genocide (Kosovo)

Child murdered at Abri e Epërme, Drenicë, in October 1998

Men of different ages murdered in Reçak, Nerodime, in January 1999

528

A baby murdered at Abri e Epërme, Drenicë in October 1998

Men from Lybeniq, Drenicë, Murdered in early summer, 1998

The meaning of ‘Ethnic Cleansing’: a so-called politically correct phrase to describe what is actually a Crime (Murder), a War Crime (Depopulation) and a Crime against Humanity (Genocide)

Man from Lybeniq, Drenicë. Murdered in early summer 1998

Massacre at Rogove village in January 1999

Elderly man murdered at Abri e Epërme, Drenicë, in October 1998

Young child from Prekaz, Drenicë. Murdered in February 1998 A young child murdered at Skederaj

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Annex S/ Further Reading

545

Annex S: Further Reading NAME

AUTHOR

PUBL.

The Operators

James Rennie

Century

Dark Nature

Lyall Watson

Hodder & Stoughton

Witch Craze

Anne Barstow

Harper Collins

006250049X A history of the Witch killings.

Birth of a Tragedy

Alastair Lamb

Roxford Books

0907129072 History of the Kashmir dispute.

Before Their Diaspora

Walid Khalidi

Papermac

Roy Godson

Transaction Publishers

The Knights of Bushido

Lord Russel of Liverpool

The Scourge of the Swastika

REMARKS

0712677305 About 14 Intelligence Company:

UK’s top secret army elite (counter-terrorism intelligence gathering).

034061787X Bio-Philosophical

view of anthropology, especially human nature, survival and evil.

Institute for 0887282288 Palestine Studies, Washington DC

Callum MacDonald

The Killing of SS Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich

ISBN / REF.

Photographic history of Palestinians 1876-1948.

the

0333540263 Operation Anthropoid - the

assassination of the head of the Nazi security police and Governor of occupied Bohemia and Moravia.

076580699

US Covert Action and CounterIntelligence. The author was largely responsible for institutionalising the teaching of Intelligence Studies at University-level in the Englishspeaking world.

Cassell

1st print 1958

Imperial Japanese War Crimes.

Lord Russel of Liverpool

Cassell

1st print 1954

Nazi War Crimes.

Encyclopaedia of Espionage

Norman Polmar; Thomas Allen

Gramercy

051720269

A comprehensive work.

A Touch of Genius

Malcolm Brown; Julia Cave

Paragon House

Dusty Sklar

Dorset

0880294124 The foundation of the 3rd Reich.

Clifford Simonsen; Jeremy Spindlove

Prentice Hall

0023017317 The history of contemporary

Dirty Tricks or Trump Cards?

The Nazis and the Occult Terrorism Today: The Past, The Players, The Future

1557782032 Life

of Lt/Colonel Lawrence.

T.

E.

terrorism. Well presented in a learning format.

Course Epilogue

546

COURSE EPILOGUE Most of the terrorism in the world is under control or at least manageable by governments. Given the limited resources spent on suppressing (pre-9/11) terrorism (which were certainly nowhere near approaching what security forces would ideally desire), vis à vis the sometimes enormous sums spent on trivia, most governments clearly viewed the status quo, as the solution to terrorism; as a type of low intensity conflict in which some casualties would inevitably be taken. In a few locations, terrorism is at a dangerous level, such as Algeria, Kashmir, Sudan and the Middle East, where a significant number of victims are regularly generated. In the Middle East and Kashmir, terrorism has the clear potential to threaten regional peace between those [nuclear] nations. In most other countries suffering terrorist campaigns, death and injuries from terrorism are a tiny fraction of those caused by conventional criminal murder and wounding; and this is the political crux of the issue - loss of life by political and unlawful violence. Most countries have suffered intermittent terrorism for decades now (as conventional crime went on to outpace it) and are conditioned by the absence of effective preventative political action, to almost accept it as a hazard of modern life. The real challenge (or danger) comes from Osama bin Laden and Al Qa’ida. Afghanistan was taken over and run by what are indisputably terrorists (in a modern, widely accepted understanding of the word, in which random innocent civilian victims are murdered for what are clearly not conventional criminal motives). The first terrorist state came into existence in Afghanistan, until it was eventually invaded and toppled in 2001. If the free world responds to bin Laden and Al Qa’ida with traditional anti- and counterterrorist responses alone, it will confine itself to an everlasting present, always one step behind, and will not be in a position to pre-empt the future. The West will scrutinise bin Laden’s demands and try to undermine or circumnavigate them. Strategies to achieve this might include removing the potential Iraqi military threat to Saudi Arabia and its oil, which by extension, might permit a withdrawal from the gulf, undermining the primary grievance and rallying point of bin Laden: Christians near Holy sites in Saudi Arabia. This does not detract from the indictments against him for terrorist offences, for which he should naturally be punished (if or when convicted, to the harshest possible extent under the law, to satisfy the sense of justice for the US and other 80 or so nations whose citizens he is responsible for murdering), but it would deflate his popular and inflammatory grievance, his main war-cry. This is not giving in to terrorism, it is defusing the threat of terrorism, the primary and overriding objective being to avoid loss of innocent lives. Another strategy to undermine bin Laden, would be in establishing the Palestinian State. The cheering seen in the Palestinian territories on and about 11th September 2001, was not because innocent US and other nationals’ lives were lost, but because of the political blow dealt by 9/11, to the US, West and free world. It is unpalatable, but unfortunately true that the common, popular perception in the Muslim and Arab world is one of covert domination by the West and other non-Muslims; to subordinate them and acquire their natural resources through use of political intrigue and subornation of their leaders by intelligence services and transnational corporations. Bin Laden propagates and capitalises on these notions, exploiting the anxieties they create. Those masses (rightly or wrongly) view the West as the main cause behind continued suffering and humiliation of Palestinians, Kashmiris and others. It would be a major political and tactical error to underestimate this or to dismiss it. But more importantly, with 9/11, bin Laden provided the free world, especially the Western nations, with an unprecedented political opportunity; a tremendous chance to coerce by force, just settlements in the Middle East and Kashmir (with attendant security) disputes, and be fully justified in so doing in the wake of not only the events of 11th September 2001, but the continued threat of their being repeated in the West and at other locations, probably on a growing scale and perhaps one day in the foreseeable future, involving chemical, biological and even nuclear or radiological weapons. Not only would coercing just settlements be good for business, from the viewpoint of the transnational corporations (which go hand in glove with governmental economic and national security pursuits), but it would demonstrably lift Western nations up to the politico-moral point they (most, not all) held at the close of the Colonial era. At that time of implementing the painful and

Course Epilogue 547 final stages of de-colonialism, the West clearly expressed by its actions that it was driven in the final analysis, not by politics per se or a redundant appetite for foreign possessions (in an age when Empires had clearly run their due course), but by morality, in withdrawing from lands that could plainly if desired, have been retained by use of force, albeit at considerable cost. What has changed that the West should now intervene and impose political settlements? The first reason is that Terrorism changed with 9/11, in that the West began to sustain large numbers of innocent victims [Mass Casualty Incidents] for the first time, murdered by Al Qa’ida terrorists. The second reason is that [alleged] oppression of populations in the Middle East and Kashmir (where no Western populations are located) is resulting in terrorism inside Western nations. The West therefore has every moral (and legal) right to intervene, not merely to ruthlessly pursue, try and punish the terrorists, but to ensure the alleged root of the problem (which is not oppression by the West, but for which it is nevertheless being attacked) is rectified, if found to be substantiated. What is certain following the events of 9/11, is that to sustain attacks from large transnational terrorist networks spread across the world, without seeking a political solution in tandem with the full use of counter-terrorism force, will expose many more innocent victims than need be. The hidden agenda of bin Laden and senior Al Qa’ida figures, is to split the Muslim world from the West. Only after ejecting all Western presence and influence (with related military and intelligence aid), do they stand any chance of overthrowing and replacing the existing governments of Arabic and Islamic countries (most of which, they condemn as either corrupt or as Western surrogates) with a single Islamic ruler of their brand. This is their [very] long term objective; their hidden agenda. We have already had a preview of the brand of government that bin Laden and his followers would provide once they seize power, from their activities in Afghanistan (see Lesson 11: 9/11 Case Study prologue, concerning the Taliban torture and crucifixions). As a result of 9/11, bin Laden was successful in causing some rifts between the Muslim and Western (or non-Muslim) worlds. Fortunately, most (in both spheres) are well able to imagine bin Laden’s agenda. At this point in time, the most important overall anti-terrorist goal of the free world (to defeat bin Laden’s tactical campaign of winning hearts and minds, and trying to divorce East from West), is to ensure that neither bin Laden, nor any other entity can further damage relations between the Muslim and Western worlds. The most important practical anti-terrorist step for the West to take, is to insist on not the implementation of national, regional or partisan policies, but outstanding UN resolutions, which are internationally agreed upon and legally binding. Selective, partial implementation of UN Resolutions has resulted in armed conflict and terrorism in the Middle East and Kashmir for over fifty years. It has not escaped anyone’s notice that UN Resolutions in favour of Palestinians are frequently unimplemented, defied or ignored, but that for example, UN resolutions (sanctions) against Iraq (affecting the civilian population, not the tyrannical ruler), are promptly and vigorously applied. There is a price to this partiality: The masses in the Middle East have long concluded that there are double standards within some sectors of the international community, which the UN has been powerless to remedy. It therefore, really can come as no surprise that masses of people who are persistently denied legal redress and the security of UN Resolutions, lose hope and a small number of fanatics among them become ruthless murderers or terrorists. A poignant fact in the War on Terrorism, is that innocent Western (mostly) victims are paying the price and being murdered, for events and disputes occurring in lands thousand of miles away. The most difficult challenge ahead for the West, is not to deploy counter-terrorist and intelligence personnel to suppress terrorism, which is relatively easy (largely a matter of funding), but to politically subdue the [alleged] injustice which generated this terrorism in the first instance. Fortunately, with the declaration by the US in June 2002, of a Palestinian State in being within three years (if Chairman Arafat steps down), the West seems well up to the challenge or duty. If the US is recorded in Middle East history as a liberator [of an Arab or Muslim nation], it would be a major political and practical setback for Osama bin Laden, apart from exemplifying the very best of time-honoured American traditions.

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http://www.unitarpoci.org NOTES

Illustration Copyright Acknowledgments

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ILLUSTRATION COPYRIGHT ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

(Numbers denote page number. Letters denote illustrations: left to right in descending order) Al Hayat: 225. Albania Net. E. Bardhi: 4c, 10a, 24c, 217, 220a, 528a, 528b, 528c, 528d, 528e, 528f, 528g, 528h, 528i. Armenian National Institute (Elder/Wegner /Stevens collections): 3b, 24a, 35b, 153, 514a, 514b, 514c, 514d, 514e, 514f, 514g. Author / UNITAR: charts, maps, tables, photographs, posters, prints, work, collection, property: 2b, 8a, 18, 23, 26a, 26b, 28a, 28b, 31b, 34b, 37b, 40b, 43a, 47b, 49b, 51a, 51b, 52a, 52b, 54b, 61a, 61b, 61c, 61d, 61e, 61f, 65, 71b, 71c, 74a, 74b, 75, 80a, 80b, 80c, 93a, 93b, 100, 101, 106, 119a, 119b, 121, 125a, 125b, 135, 149, 156, 161a, 161b, 161c, 162a, 162b, 163a, 163b, 168, 172a, 172b, 177, 178a, 178d, 178e, 178f, 178g, 178h, 179b, 180a, 180b, 180c, 181a, 182, 184c, 187a, 187b, 187c, 188a, 188b, 189b, 190b, 190c, 201, 203 (data from India media), 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 212a, 212b, 218, 221b, 239, 240, 253a, 253b, 262a, 263, 264, 265, 266a, 266b, 273b, 281a, 289, 291a, 291b, 299, 302, 304, 312a, 312b, 329, 330, 331, 332, 334, 347a, 347b, 348, 360a, 360b, 383-390, 391402, 403-464, 465 (data from UN), 466-470 (data from UN), 471 (blank template supplied. Data US State Dept.), 472-476, 477-486, 487-490, 491-507 (data US State Dept.), 508-510 (data from US State Dept., UK Home Office and European Union), 511 (blank template supplied), 512 (blank template supplied). Azad Kashmir Government: Kashmir Liberation Cell: 98, 169a, 284a. British Home Office: 343. British Museum: 32b. Chicago Historical Society, IL, US: 281b, 283a. China News Digest: 38, 39a, 39b, 525a, 525b, 525c, 525d, 525e, 525f, 525g, 525h, 525i, 526e. Crown: UK Ministry of Defence; British Army Picture Library: 1a, 7b, 14a, 14b, 50, 53a, 54a, 63, 64, 72a, 95, 103, 104, 115, 178b, 178c, 183a, 183b, 219a, 219b, 222a, 222b, 226b, 261a, 261b, 325, 344a, 352d, 352e, 354a, 354e, 354f, 355a, 355c, 355d, 355e, 356a, 356d, 356e. Federal & Islamic Republic of Comoros: 32a. Fotolab, Wien: 48b. Freestock Photos com: 276. Finnish University Research Network (Funet): 11b, 13a, 36, 196, 341b. Gode Cookery com: 29b, 30, 31a, 96, 122a, 131a, 167b, 228, 237, 274b, 277, 310, 327. Imperial War Museum, London, UK: 45b, 46a, 70, 71a, 525b. Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington DC, USA: 9a, 53b, 55a, 55b, 56a, 56b, 58b, 118b, 262b, 273a. Liberation Magazine: 120a, 120b. Liddell-Hart Centre for Military Archives, King’s College, London: 5a. Lion, UK: 45. MPLA (FAPLA) Government, Angola: 5b. NASA, US: 193. National Maritime Museum (UK): 33a, 33b, 34a, 35a. NATO: 227b. Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs, Jerusalem: 60. Palestinian National Authority (Beirut): 116. Pallasweb: 37a. Police: Australian Federal Police: 165. Police: Boston, MA, US: 141c. Police: Bogotà, Colombia: 141f. Police: Budapest, Hungary: 26a. Police: Caracas, Venezuela: 139. Police: Chicago, IL, US: 282a. Police: Bundespolizei Wien (Vienna), Austria: 27a. Police: Dusseldorf, Germany: 141a. Police: Florence, SC, US: 141b. Police: Guardia Civile, Madrid, Spain: 170. Police: Grenzschutzgruppe 9, Germany (GSG-9): 7a, 15a, 377a, 377b, 377c, 377d, 377e, 377f, 377g, 377h, 377i. Police: Interpol (RP 5): 102. Police: Lima, Peru: 118a. Police: Los Angeles, CA, US: 141d. Police: Milwaukee, WI, US: 141g. Police: National Police Agency, Tokyo, Japan: 123, 185, 190a. Police: New Scotland Yard, UK: 98, 140, 141i, 266f. Police: New York City, NY, US: 163a, 163b, 266a. Police: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: 74b. Police: Rostov-on-Don, Russia: 141h. Police: Salt Lake City, UT, US: 141e. Private Individuals: A. Joundurian: 145, 233, 278, 307. Alexei Chouprygin: 37b, 230a. Dr. Charles Roland: 8b. G. Hanif: 283b. G. Azam: 59b. Havildar (Sgt.) M. Lahorgul Khan: 226a. Jim MacMillan Murphy: 275b. M. Doummar: 29a. Marcus Wendel [www.Skalman.nu]: 73. Mrs. Robin Higgins, Lt. Col. USMC retired: 235. Think Quest Library: 16a, 16b, 17, 48a, 49a. UN: Secretariat: 27b, 142, 188c, 189a, 189c, 227a, 230b, 236. UNIFIL: 274a, 275a. UNMOGIP: 131b. 231. UNWRA: 57a, 57b, 58a, 62. US Air Force: 370a. US Air National Guard: 352c. Air War College: 117, 368a, 368b. US Army: 4b, 22b, 24d, 40a, 41b, 42a, 42b, 44b, 86a, 97, 137, 166, 167a (MRDU), 221a, 300, 345, 370b, 371a, 371b, 371c, 371d, 516b, 516g, 517a, 517c, 517e, 517f, 517g, 518e, 518h, 520a, 520b, 520c, 520f, 520g, 520h, 520a, 520b, 520c, 520d, 520e, 520f, 522a, 526a, 526c, 526d. US Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms: 282b. US Central Intelligence Agency: 291b. US Department of Defense: 191a, 191b, 223, 244, 246, 284b, 342, 351b, 351c, 351e, 35f, 352f, 353a, 353b, 353c, 354b, 354c, 354d, 355b, 355f, 356b, 356c, 356f, 357, 368c. US Department of Energy: 303. US Department of State: 11a, 12b, 13b, 15b, 22a, 59, 77, 154, 181b, 184b, 186d, 186e, 186f, 210, 242, 243, 245, 250, 251b, 320, 333, 341a, 344b, 349a, 349b, 351a, 351d, 352a, 352b, 471 (data), 491-507 (data). US Environmental Protection Agency: 6b. US Federal Bureau of Investigation: 3a, 9b, 68, 133, 184a, 192, 220b, 224, 241a, 241b, 251a, 251c, 251d, 251e, 251f, 251g, 251h, 251i, 251j, 251k, 251l, 251m, 251n, 251o, 266b, 266c, 266d, 266e, 266f, 353f. US Holocaust Memorial Museum: 24b, 43b, 47a, 101, 516a, 516c, 516d, 516e, 516f, 516h, 517b, 517d, 517h, 518a, 518b, 518c, 518d, 518f, 518g, 519, 520d, 520e, 521a, 521b, 521c, 521d, 521e, 521f, 522b, 522c. US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: 6a. US National Archives: 1b, 11c, 12a, 41a, 46b. US Navy: 10b, 306, 336, 353d, 353e. US Public Affairs Office, Pristina, Kosovo: 372. Veterans with a Mission (VWAM / US Army), US / Vietnam: 2a, 72b, 86b. Washington State Military Department: Emergency Management Department, US: 4a, 169b, 179a, 186a, 186b, 186c. Yad Vashem: 44a.

UNITARPOCI Global Terrorism

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End-of-Course Examination

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End-of-Course Examination

The End-of-Course Examination questions cover the material in all the Lessons of this UNITAR Course. Read each question carefully and mark your answers on the Examination Answer Sheet or fill in your answers on the UNITAR Internet home-page ( http://www.unitarpoci.org)

End-of-Course Examination

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INSTRUCTIONS FOR FILLING OUT THE ANSWER SHEET

The End-Of-Course Examination Answer Sheet is designed to: 1. Formally record your answers to the questions of the Final Examination. 2. Be returned by you to UNITAR-POCI for review and grading*. *Alternatively, it may also be found on UNITAR’s home-page and sent in electronically: (http://www.unitarpoci.org) or faxed to 757 253 6954 (use codes to reach the US).

Format of Questions There are 50 Examination Questions. The Answer Sheet has numbered blocks and each block corresponds to a similarly numbered question on the End-of-Course Examination. First, read a question through carefully. Then, mark your answer on the Answer Sheet in the space where the answer number corresponds to the question number. Throughout the examination, for each question, check that the answer sheet number you are filling in, is the same as the question number. Exam questions generally give you a choice of answers, marked as A, B, or C; or, they may be True or False questions that give you two choices, A (True) or B (False). Choose only one response and mark only one choice on your answer sheet. If you mark more than one answer for a question, it will be graded as incorrect.

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Depending on the type of question, the following responses are appropriate for the End-Of-Course Examination Answer Sheet: True / False questions

:

A = True , B = False

Multiple-choice questions

:

A, B, or C

Use a Dark Pencil Mark your responses on the Answer Sheet using a dark lead pencil, unless submitting electronically.

Time Limit to Complete Exam Because your enrollment in the course is valid for one year only, the Examination must be submitted before your enrollment expires.

Passing Grade A score of 75% is the minimum score required for a passing grade. If you pass you will be sent a letter indicating your score along with your signed Certificate-ofCompletion. If your score is less than 75%, you will be sent a letter indicating that you have received a failing grade. At that time, you will be provided with an alternate version of the End-Of-Course Examination, which you may complete when you feel you are ready. If you pass the second version of the examination, a grade report and a Certificate-of-Completion will be sent to you. If you fail the second time, you will be informed and dis-enrolled from the course.

End-of-Course Examination

Global Terrorism FINAL EXAMINATION 1. Terrorism has occurred a) Since the beginning of the 20th century b) Throughout history c) Since the late 1960s 2. The ‘Four Pillars’ of terrorism are a) Motivation, Target, Victim and Damage b) Motivation, Objective, Target and Asset Harm c) Motivation, Objective, Planning and Execution 3. Terrorism is committed by members of a) Different religious and political groups b) Different social and ethnic groups c) a and b 4. Domestic terror has killed approximately how many people in the 20th century? a) 42 million b) 9 million c) 6 million 5. Single international terrorist attacks occurred most frequently in the a) 1970s b) 1980s c) 1990s 6. One reason why there is no universal definition for terrorism is that a) Some governments support terrorism as freedom fighting b) There has never been a convention to define it c) No government needs a universal definition

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7. Terrorists always justify the acts (means) they use by their objectives (ends). a) True b) False 8. The amount of publicity generated by a terrorist act is proportionate to a) The type of weapons used b) The scale of the terrorist act c) The reputation of the terrorist group 9. Terrorists always present their cause and acts as a) Political alternatives b) Unavoidable and sometimes accidental c) Reasonable and justified 10. De-population (ethnic cleansing) and genocide are a) Criminal and civil law offences b) Military court martial offences c) Terrorism, war crimes and crimes against humanity 11. Terrorists who commit conventional crimes are different from conventional criminals who commit terrorist acts. a) True b) False 12. Terrorism is a violation of human rights. a) Never b) Always c) Sometimes 13. Victims and Targets of terrorism a) Are the same b) Are different c) Can be the same or different

End-of-Course Examination 14. Terrorists who commit acts and those who plan acts share the same motives. a) Never b) Always c) Sometimes 15. Terrorists may have a) A single motive b) A single or several motives c) No motive - most only obey orders 16. Sawab and Kafil mean a) Divine credit and sponsor b) Holy war and divine credit c) Sponsor and holy struggle 17. Some terrorists are opportunists, who commit terrorism a) For religious and political reasons b) To create anarchy c) For wealth and power 18. Terrorism is often rooted in a) Political misunderstandings b) Poverty, oppression and hopelessness c) Accidental conflicts 19. The 1994 Rwandan genocide and de-population was caused by a) Suspension of democracy and ethnic hatred b) Religious and ethnic hatred c) Political and ethnic hatred 20. The NSDAP genocide was caused mainly by a) Racial and ethnic hatred b) Political hatred c) Communism

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21. How many people were killed by war, purges and other persecution in the 20th century? a) Approximately 150 million b) Approximately 50 million c) Approximately 15 million 22. Contemporary terrorism emerged from 20th century guerrilla warfare. a) True b) False 23. All terrorism includes the essential elements of a) Motive, ends and means, ability, calculation, terror, victims, targets b) Publicity, political demands, murder, victims, hatred, terror c) Use of weapons, calculation, terror, political demands, murder 24. Terrorists generally prefer committing acts in democracies because of a) Easy availability of terrorist weapons and political sympathy b) Victims not expecting terrorism, and rewards being greater c) Greater publicity, less chance of apprehension and easier penalties 25. Sub-conflict terrorists carry out terrorism generally for a) Ransom money b) Vengeance or punishment c) Religious or social reasons 26. Unemployment amongst the 21 to 25 years age group is the main reason for recruitment of guerrillas and terrorists in the Jammu & Kashmir conflict. a) True b) False 27. Terrorists carry out reconnaissance before committing an act, in order to a) Conceal bombs and select secondary targets b) Warn other terrorists in the locality and note security forces c) Ensure a smooth operation and avoid apprehension 28. Some terrorist groups use several different names for their groups in order to a) Recruit more terrorists b) Obtain more sponsoring and funds c) Overburden the intelligence machinery of the security forces

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29. The bomb is the preferred weapon of contemporary terrorists. a) True b) False 30. Preferred terrorist IED explosives are a) Semtex, TNT, P4, fertiliser-base b) Semtex, C4, RDX, fertiliser-base c) RDX, RDD, Semtex and C4 31. Some suicide bombers are victims who are compelled to commit terrorism, because if they refuse, their hostage families are murdered. a) True b) False 32. A secondary bomb is sometimes used to a) Kill even more victims assembled together after the first detonation b) Make certain that at least one bomb detonates c) Gain more publicity and establish a hard-line reputation 33. Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) are generally a) Nuclear, radiological, chemical b) Nuclear, biological, chemical c) Explosive and radiological 34. A radiological dispersal device (RDD) produces more radiological contamination than equivalent amounts of weapons grade nuclear material in conventional nuclear weapons. a) True b) False 35. Governments sometimes secretly negotiate with terrorists and make concessions, without informing their populations. a) True b) False 36. Diplomatic immunity provides Diplomats who commit terrorism with freedom from arrest and immunity from prosecution. a) Never b) Always c) Sometimes

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37. Terrorists view negotiation as a) A resource b) A last resort c) Full of dangers 38. Some government intelligence and security officers carry out assassinations. a) Never b) Only in wartime c) Occasionally 39. To suppress terrorism by attacking its roots, what would be the most effective strategies? a) Capital and corporal punishment for convicted terrorists, rewards for informants b) Addressing oppression, global poverty, adequate and even enforcement of human rights, democracy and UN resolutions c) Establishment of global intelligence and counter-terrorist forces to target all terrorist organisations 40. The international tribunals in the Hague and Rwanda have been a defacto deterrent to some leaders contemplating genocide and de-population (ethnic cleansing). a) True b) False 41. Anti-terrorism generally means a) Anything opposing terrorism b) Passive and defensive measures against terrorism c) Special forces assaults upon terrorists 42. Counter-terrorism generally means a) Active and offensive measures against terrorists b) Analysing intelligence on terrorists c) Repairing the damage after a terrorist bombing 43. Threat assessments concerning potential terrorism involve establishing, increasing or maintaining a level of alertness in a security plan. a) True b) False

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44. Security intelligence means a) Academic security measures b) Intelligence that enhances security, or what terrorists know about security arrangements c) An agent dealing with both intelligence and security 45. Intelligence security means a) Combining security and intelligence for efficiency b) Protecting intelligence officers c) Protecting intelligence and sources (how it was come by) 46. Evidence for the attacks on 11th September 2001 established responsibility on a) Osama bin Laden and terrorists from the Al Qa’ida network b) Taliban c) Afghan Mujahideen 47. Some members of guerrilla groups that originally fought to end the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan have since attacked the United States and several other countries. a) True b) False 48. The most dangerous terrorist groups (with fixed bases) in the world are in a) Colombia, Rwanda, Peru b) Algeria, Egypt, Afghanistan c) East Timor, Kosovo, Jammu and Kashmir 49. A Fatwa is a) An injunction for holy war b) A contract for assassination with financial reward c) A legal religious opinion or edict 50. The most hazardous duty against terrorists is undertaken by a) Military counter-terrorist forces b) Police anti-terrorist units c) Professional regular army troops

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END OF EXAMINATION PLEASE IMMEDIATELY SUBMIT YOUR ANSWER SHEET •

You are advised to double-check that the End-of-Course Examination Answer Sheet is properly filled out, and that your answer numbers correspond exactly to the question numbers.

•

Please see the Answer Sheet for submission instructions

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About the Author Paul Medhurst was educated at the King’s School Canterbury, UK, following which he became a UK Police Officer, serving a number of years in B and D divisions of the Surrey Police, then A and W districts of the London Metropolitan Police (whose Headquarters is New Scotland Yard). It was while serving in London that he first encountered a terrorist, held in a high-security police station, awaiting trial. In 1980, he was on duty at the Iranian Embassy Siege at Princes Gate, London. Following his police service, he volunteered as an Infantry Officer Cadet with E Company, 5th (V) Battalion of the Queen’s Regiment, during which time he lectured on the detection of terrorists, improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and anti-handling devices. He later served in 63 Squadron (V), Corps of Royal Military Police, from which he took up an appointment with the United Nations Secretariat. In addition to UN postings in New York, Geneva, Vienna, Jerusalem, Damascus, Naqoura, Luanda, Rawalpindi and Srinagar, he has undergone short tours of duty at several other stations. His UN assignments have mostly been in the areas of security and administration, as part of the Field Administration and Logistics Division, within the Department of Peace-Keeping Operations (DPKO). While attached to the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP), he was appointed as a Political Assistant by the Chief Military Observer and authored a 570-page guide (with campaign maps) to the dispute in the former Princely State of Jammu & Kashmir. During his service with the UN, he enrolled with the Pacific Western University in California, studying terrorism towards a degree in Criminal Justice and attaining a Doctoral degree with honours, in Political Science. He was based in several locations of the world where terrorism is endemic, and has personal experience of being held for a short while by irregular armed elements, negotiating release, and being under fire and bombardment. When head of the Security Unit of UNAVEM II in Angola, he twice operationally commanded a local army platoon in short fire-fights involving automatic weapons, repelling night raiding parties of renegade soldiers and looters from the Headquarters camp area. Paul Medhurst passed the UN Competitive Professional Examination in Security and was appointed as the Deputy Chief of the United Nations Security & Safety Section in Geneva and later Vienna. He is the author of the UNITAR-POCI course: Security for UN Peacekeepers. The American Military University appointed him as an Adjunct Professor, for the Departments of Unconventional Warfare and Criminal Justice, while UNITAR-POCI appointed him as a Consultant for Counter-Terrorism, Low Intensity Conflict, Security Management, and as a Thesis Advisor for the Peace Support Operations Training Programme (jointly conducted by UN DPKO, UNITAR-POCI, several world renowned Universities and National Peacekeeping Training Centres). In the UN DPKO project for global standardisation of peacekeeping training modules, he was appointed as a Terrorism Expert.

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