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HANDBOOK
OF
INDIAN
AGRICULTURE
HANDBOOK,
OP
AGRICULTWB
INDIAN
BY
GOPAL
NITYA
MUKERJI,
M.A
Holland Gold Medallist of the RoyalAgricultural Collie,Oirencetter(England)
Society (Scotland) of the Highlandand Agricultural Civil Engineering and Agricultural Chemistry^ of Agriculture Professor Sibpur(Bengal) College, Fellow
and
THIRD
"Dl"COVEKIEft AND TO
COUNTRY rOTDRS
AFKORDIHd MULTIPLYING
IN
MIDI IK WHICH
AQI8,
AND
saRSLSTBNCg
LIFE, BUT
THE THEY AS FOR
EDITION,
CULTIVATION ARE
ULTIMATELY
BUT
EARTH TH1Y
TENDING
GENERATIONS
LIKEWISE
THI
OF
D8VBLOFID,
REYIHBP
TO
PROVIDING
OOMK,
KOR
ITS
NOT
ARK MAY
Bl
TO
B1NEFTT
AS
MULTIPLYING
ENJOYMENT.""
CALCUTTA
THACKEB,
8PINK 1915
" CO
MERELY
OON8ID1RID
FOR AS
TH1
Will
iXTtHDIlia
WHOL1 RA01, At UF1, AND HOT ONLY DAYf SlR HUMPHREY
THB
PRINTED
THACKBR,
SPINK
BY
AND
CO.,
CALCUTTA.
DEDICATED
TO
THE
CHARLES
MR.
HON'BLE
OLDHAM
WILLIAM
SERVICE,
CIVIL
INDIAN THE
OF
LATE
ARBUTHNOT
EVELYN
DIRECTOR
BENGAL
AGRICULTURE, OF
AS
A
TOKEN
OF
HIGH
ESTEEM
AND
DEEP
GRATITUDE
NOTE
PUBLISHERS'
THE
Edition
Second
THIRD
TO
of
this
EDITION.
book
popular
sold out
publishers
The
rapidly.
have
again
record
to
the
very
splendid
generosity
of
Editor
the
who
anonymous
his
again
in
accord
and
vservices
with
the
most
brought
the
book
of
recent
progress
up-to-date
Science.
has
PREFACE
publication
THE of
a
of
a
Handbook
on
for
suitable riot
possible
from
and
farm,
a
the
Sibpur
of
use
learn and
of
the
to
Indian
advanced
the
the
in
owing
subject
in
subject
a
want
It
text-book,
a
form
ture Agricul-
students.
from
agriculture
to
Lectures
necessary
whole
the
learn
to
the
found
was
text-book
of
EDITION.
FIRST
,TO
is
apart
systematic
also laboratory are necessary. Even one agricultural college which passing out of an is equipped with and farm, laboratory, and a museum, of a text-book, must possessing a thorough knowledge be prepared to buy his experience, either ship by apprenticein another on person's farm, or by losing money a
manner,
his
museum
for
own,
a
confidence
acquire
a
or
year in
two,
before
himself, his
he
and
crops
expect
can
his
to
methods.
and be Book-knowledge mented supplecollege-education must by detailed experience in that particular department of agriculture which in take chooses to one up, be a to particular locality,before one can expect any
successful the
farmer.
A
and
also
student
farming. to pretends
or
The
book, to
is
however,
the
Handbook'
a
valuable
engaged
man
Indian
of
aid
to
in
planting Agriculture
lie which now originality. Facts in hundreds of Reports, Notes, scattered Monographs, and have been Journals, Ledgers brought together here in one volume in a systematic manner. and But treated it will even a as compilation the author hopes, that of useful students to a planters and companion prove agriculture generally. CIVIL
little
ENGINEERING The
Uth
COLLEGE,
August,
SIBPUR,
1901.
N.
G.
MUKERJL
PUBLISHERS'
lamented
THE
book
took
for
of
death
while
place
of
kindly
of
being
undertaken
the
however,
midst
of
who
which
public
and
to
skill
great
in
This
duties.
the
man, gentlethe
anonymous, second
edition
of
volume a
a
considerable
attained
already
enabled
has
remain
produce
to
has
subject,
on
onerous
prefers
publishers
with
through
carried
trying
most
the
authority
leading
by
work
labours.
was,
a
and
have
personal
his
this
passed
consequence
revision
and
correction
of
in
benefit
the
of
author
were
Chapters
latter
deprived work
talented
the
pages
The
The
RDITION.
final
the
press. been
SKCOND
TO
NOTE
popularity,
a
and
utility
which
they in
the
hope
present
further
will open
edition.
up
a
field
of
CONTENTS.
Page. 1
INTRODUCTION
..
PART I.
II. III IV.
Strata
Geological Surface
I-SOILS, 11
Formation
of
24
Soils
Physical Classification
Soils
of
30 ...
V.
Chemical
Classification
of Soils.
VI.
Chemical
Classification
of Indian
35 .
VII. VIII. TX-
of
Sunlight, Rain
Hail
XI.
44 53 60 67
II-IMPLBMKNTS. Cultivation
Underlying
Theories
Power
Motive
Soils
Barrenness...
PART X.
and
.
Soils
Physical Properties Fertility and
19
Districts
Bengal
of
Geology
or
..70 ..
Movers
Prime
77 ..
XII.
Ploughing
and
Ploughs
Cultivation
XIII.
Other
XIV.
Theories
...
92 ...
...
Appliances
...
108
... ...
XV.
Under)
ying the Question
Water-
Lifts
Other
Agricultural
.
...
XVI. XVII.
Equipments
XVIII.
Economic
XX.
Chemical
XXI. XXII.
XXIII. XXIV.
of Crops of Crops of
...
of
Crops
...153 ...
...
XXXVI. XXXVII.
...
...
...
^
.,
185
Juar
...
...
...
...
190 ...
..
...
...
...
192 or or
Marua
Corn
Millet
Great
Ragi
or
Buckwheat
and
...
...
...
Indian
...
...
' ...
"
".
other
...
...193 ...195
Millets...
Lesser
198 ...
200
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...206
...
...
...
Pulses
201
Oilseeds ...
XXXV.
...159
...179
...
XXXIV.
...
...
Husking
Barley Bhutta
XXXIII.
...
...
...
Wheat
XXIX.
XXXII.
151
...
...
164
Paddy
Oats
XXXI.
149 ...
Rice
XXVIII.
XXX.
147
...
...
Statistics
Farming
...
XXVII.
...
the Principal Crops
...
XXVI.
...143
Classification
...
XXV.
...189 ...
III-CROPS.
Agricultural
Rotation
...136
Classification
of
120
...
..
Composition
Systems
114 ...
...
..
...
...
Botanical
XIX.
...
Implements
of Farms
PART
...
of Irrigation
Mustard
and
...
Rape
...
...
...
Linseed
Gingelly
209 212
or
Til ...
^
...
...
124
CONTENTS.
Xll
PART CHAP. "
XXXVIII.
III"
Sorguja
XXXIX.
or
Castor
XL.
...
Ground-nut
"
"
.,
t"
,,
Cocoanut
XLIL XLIII.
Safflower
XLIV.
Jute
XLV.
...
224 ...
...
...
...
...
226
...
232
...
234
..
..."
Rhea ...
...
...
...
...
...
235
Cotton
XLIX.
Aloe
kl.
%i.
Fibres ...
L.
Other
Fibre
...
...
Crops
...
...
Pineapple
LIIL LIV.
LVI.
Potato
...
...
Brinjal
...
LVII1.
".]* ...
'
... "
...
English Vegetables Carrot,
Radish
Turmeric
and
and
...
...
LX. LXI. LXII.
259
'
Sweet
Sugarcane The
...
Sugars
LXIIL
Indigo
LXIV.
Tobacco
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
268
...
270
...
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
261
...
Potatoes
Ginger
Date-Sugar
262
...
..
...
LXV. LXVI.
Pan
...
...
294
...
298
...
Betel-leaf
or
...
LXVIII. LXIX. LXX. LXXI. LXXII. LXXIIL LXXIV.
...
Tea Coffee Vanilla
Papaya Cassava
Bamboo,
Oranges
Lac-culture
LXXXVI. LXXXVII. LXXXVIII.
...
...
...
...
...
General
314, ...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
for Lower
t
328 ...
...
...
Bengal
333 336
...337 ...
...
...
320
.'..' 323
...
...
315
...318
Grass
...
...
...
...
..
...
..
...
...
343 344 346 348 351 379 382
...
...
...
...383
."
...392
MANURES.
Summary
Exhaustion,
Ruisa
...
...
IV"
...
...
...
and
Gutta-Percha
of Trees
...
...
...
and
...
...
Food
Agricultural Calendar
.
.
...
Recuperation and Absorption
Nitrogenous Manures Phosphatic Manures Potash
...
...
...
Apiculture Propagation
PART
LXXXV.
...
..,
...
...
LXXX.
LXXXIV.
...
...
..
...
Sericulture
LXXXIII.
...
..
India-rubber
...
...
Grewia, Mat-Grass
LXXIX.
LXXXIL
...
...
Famine
as
Arrowroot
LXXXL
...
Cinnamon
......
LXXV.
LXXVII.
393
...
.'.311
...
...
Camphor, Tejpata, and Other Spices Opium
LXXV7!.
LXXVIII.
...
Betel-nut ...
LXVIL
...
272 287
...
...
251 254
Chillies
...
LIX.
'" ^
...
...
...
LVIL
...
...
...
246
250
...
Plantains ...
240
248
...
...
LII.
219
223
...
Hemp
214
221
...
...
...
Bombay
or
Sunn-Hemp
XLVIII.
""
e.
...
...
...
...
Deccan
XLVI.
"
..
."215
...
...
...
...
""
...
..
...
...
...
"
...
...
...
Page. .
Mahua
XLVII.
"*
...
...
,,
XLL
CROPS" (contd.) Niger Oil Seed
Manures
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
395
...400 ...
...
407 426
...431
4
LXXXIX.
Calcareous
Manures
...
...
...
...
437
CONTENTS.
PART CHAP.
and
XCI. XCIL
Page. Salt OF
ANALYSIS.
Remarks
General
Standard
The
446 and
Acid
Alkali ...
"
XCIV. "
XCV. "
XCVI. ,,
XCVII.
0. CI. GIL cm. CIV. CV. CVI. C\7II. CVIII. CIX. ex. CXI. CXTI.
Buffaloes Oxen
...
...
...
...
...
...
Goat-keeping
Diseases
PART CXVII. CXVIII.
...
...
...
Theory of Healtn in Relation to Foods Utility of Growing Fodder Crops Fodder Crops ...
...
Silos
Ratio
Mammal
Value
Food-stuffs
of
..
...
Ham-Curing Curing Sheep and Other
General
...
CXXIV.
Cut-Worms
CXXX. CXXXI. CXXXII. CXXXIII.
The The
...
Sugarcane Borer Weevil
Indian
Goldenand
CXXXV.
"""
...
and Fodders
486 490 495
...
...
...
...
499 500
505
...
50$
...
...
...
...
513 515
...
.,,
...
...
...
...
their
525
...527
629' 533
...
538
...
549
...
...
...
...552
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
553
...555 ...
557
...559 ...561
...
..
...
Preparation
...
...
Apple-Beetle,..
Scale-Insects
Bacteriology
521
...
...
...
Crops Zymotic Diseases and Remedies for Them Agricultural Bacteriology Dairy Bacteriology Soil
...
...
...
Insects Injurious to Indian
Vaccines and
485
...
...
...
...
CXXXIV.
485
,..
...
other Ants
Mango
Plant-Lice
.,,
...
...
...
...
and
...
PESTS.
...
White-ants
...
476
...
...
...
...
CXXIII.
The
474
...
...
...
FUNGUS
Grasshoppers and Crickets Granary Pests Paddy Pests...
CXXII.
470 472
against Pests and Parasites
Remedies
Agricultural Zoology Locusts
465
.
..
..
Skins
AND
VII-INSECT
CXX.
462
518
Butter
and
Insects
CXXI.
...
...
...
...
and
...
...
Milk
Bacon
.
...
...
^
...
Proteid
CXIX.
CXXIX.
.
...
The
Cheese-making
CXVI.
.
...
Cattle
of
CXIV. cxv.
...
Poultry-keeping
Cream
CXXVIII.
,
...
of weight of Livestock
Calculation
CXIII.
CXXVII.
,
VI-CATTLE.
PART
CXXV.
455 458
,,.
XCIX.
448 450
...
XCVIII.
CXXVI.
,
Analysis of Soil Analysis of Bone-meal Analysis of Super Analysis of Nitrate of Soda and Saltpetre Analysis of Oil-cake Analysis of Silage,Grass, etc. Water Analysis
XCIIl.
441
..
V-METHODS
PART "
IV~
Gypsum
XC.
XUl
..
...
...
563
...564 ...565
...
..
...
...
668 570
...573
...
...
...
...
...
...
..'. 579 ...
...582 ..: 585
...
...
CONTENTS,
XIV
CHAP.
AND
VII-INSECT
PART
The
CXXXVI.
FUNGUS
PESTS-(conM.)
Fungi
Higher
...591 ...
CXXXVIL
...
...
Mushrooms
598 ...
...
PART
Remarks
General
CXXXVIII.
VIII"
..
,..
...
FAMINES.
on
Indian
Famines
599 ...
"
The
OXXXIX. CXL. "
JP*ge.
of
System
Measures
of
Land Protection
Revenue
as
and
Affecting
the
Relief
...
6O2
Question
...606
,
...
CXLI.
Agricultural
Education
610 ...
...
...
INTRODUCTION.
report
on
manifold
introduced, of
aim
;
Handbook
the
normal
years
of
for
canal
of irrigation ; Profitableness of agricultural Knowledge I'd ///.// as ; of special scheme of agricultural Need of subjects.] Division
Ti"E
inauguration
British
the
is
their
Report
in
and
Canals
have
scheme
definite
a
The
adopted.
out
and
during
the
irrigation land
for
State Canal
the
Canal
;
well
as
Officers
;
classes
;
different
the
deliberations
India
the
at
of*
instance
Commission
been
to,
since
that
after of
measures
with
the
mitted sub-
date
kept steadilyin
one
then
since
for
period
have
given most important
of
the
Need
of Indian
Colleges
agricultural
Famine
Commission
of
systems
to
by
capital;
in
of
The
extended
been
for
in
Cultivation
of
irrigation to important
effect
the
railways,
against famine, and
and
Government,
by
view
sent
Resources
; ;
Conservatism
;
education
1878.
1880,
of this
India
Engineering
outcomes
was
in
Parliament
recommendations
the
the
of that
India
in
education
agricultural
one
Commission
Famine
the of
India
of
provinces
of
science
already following ; The
expenditure
in
Favourable
;
worth
in
Officers
venue
well
and
by
education
agricultural
India
farmers
farming Ke
years
improvements
depression
Gentlemen
;
Special courses agricultural education among
rti"i/fiti; Need
Southern
agricultural
increase
recent
Agricultural
;
of
system
No
;
the
on
The
partnership; for
within
agricultural improvement of Saidapet work College
of
[Progress
another.
protection
great rapidity,
different
administration
and
provinces istration police admin-
greatly improved, chiefly with a view to give tics statiscorrect security of possession to cultivators, and to obtain and information and regarding agricultural conditions prompt the of institution agricultural depressions. By agricultural experiments have
been
and for
agriculturaleducation,
ascertaining
the
of
produce
the
cultivating
Institute, of
with
facts
land,
and
in gradual institution education agricultural The
establishment
Agriculture in province every
of
in
villages,
district
of
agricultural experiments achieved
to
the
of one
a
actual
text-book in M,
Uriya, HA
district
is
a
further
I have
cultivator.
by publishing a suitable
each of
the
are
in
after
of the
of semi-official
establishment
for
been
laid
to
of
College
a
has
increasing and improving diffusing agricultural knowledge among view
a
The
classes.
foundation
a
use
means
in
among
on
province, a
Research and
the
practical system
ments. developagriculturalassociations most
recent
making the results experimental farms known of
endeavoured book
Pusa
to
the
remove
agriculturein
want
Bengali
cultivatingclasses. 1
and
2
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
been the result of agricultural education it has been the longest t hat established, a mittee comto report on the workingof the appointedby Government department and the agricultural collegeof Madras, agricultural attached the highestimportanceto the agricultural education a nd the in and the devoted schools, more college they imparted So
has satisfactory
in Madras, where
than half their report to this subject. It is often said that the native agricultural the are practices best for India and that they are not capableof improvement. I was surprisedto find duringmy tours of 1898 and 1904 to 1906, of the Madras, Bombay and that the native agricultural practices far advance in of those of Bengal and the Central Provinces are education has been the United Provinces of India. If agricultural in the Madras beneficial where the existing found Presidency, is how much beneficial of more agriculture reallysuperior, system is ! backward We have not only will it be for Bengal, which so of science and western western to benefit from our knowledge but we have also to learn the superior followed practices, practices
by
the
non-Aryan
of
South
India.
Indeed, Indian
culture agrivastlyimproved by our contact with the actually of introducing West. European plantershave been the means out-of-the-way important innovations. In the most placesof find European plantersimperceptiblyand noiselessly India we experimentsand improvements. We find carryingon agricultural delicate Englishvegetables the them most even growing during them in trenches. Some the hot weather by cultivating of our articles of food and fodder have been introduced by commonest beet,papaya, Europeans. Maize, oats, potatoes,tobacco,cabbages, varieties of plantains, lucerne and guinea-grass, the superior are few English cereals,root-crops, all exotics. Indeed, there are and fruits that have not been introduced with success vegetables into India,and European farm implementsare in common in use is difficult I t think to of some plantations. agricultural any or successfully, unexperimentsthat have not been alreadytried,successfully Even the which by European planters. steam-plough, is stillconsidered an expensiveluxury in Europe,has been tried within my own knowledge. by planters races
has been
The to
aim
yieldmore
of this book will be to consider how soilscan than they do, how irrigation be made can
be made
possible
for the poor raiyat,how to extend the cultivation of droughtresisting crops, how to preserve, without damage, food and fodder, how to t^heexcess productionof one year, for years of scarcity, These of famine. measures organise protection against pages wiU be mainly devoted other to the consideration of the food and necessaries of life or what can become food,etc.,for the masses. and machineryas can be They will discuss only such appliances used
or by the raiyatindividually They will analyse collectively.
only such manures the raiyat.They
as
will
may
be
placed within easy reach rid of,and of getting
explainftiemeans
of of
4:
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
of Rs. 10 a maund, fifteen at the price example like jute, the taken as produceper acre, the raiyats' being average be regardedas Rs. 100 per acre, while the share of the outturn may shared and the 50 Rs. are by the Indian middleman remaining a
concrete
maunds
raiyathas always been, his he can it used afford to be, and now little luxuries which his forefathers never
European exporter. Poor poverty is not so intense
spend
to
on
money
the Indian
as
as
dreamt of enjoying. The buy land and to become Rs. 10 or Rs. 12 a month
of the landless labourer
ambition
The agriculturist.
an
in
who
man
a
in
countries Let will pay a
'
be
gentleman/
a
the
gentleman
It is
Indian to
were
He
can
compete
agriculture, by as
get their
outturn
succeed
may
cultivator
a
their at
with
finds out
cultivator)will at
smaller
labourers
number
how
in
some
years of actual the
the
a
and
hard
labour
and
but
cocoon-rearers.
ordinary
and
thus
only cost
for
him.
He
time.
When
the
a
where and
to
undersell he sells
put
it
taught scientificmethods
largenumber
in
cultivators
industrythey will be able
it,and
smaller
accomplishingvery
actually in his presence.
actual
cost
he grows
have
agriculture
mean
of
agriculture pay him. in for and go ordinary when industrious working (so
doing work
crop, a
not
dint
makes
work
and frugality
it at to
be
with
new
grow
his
smaller
a
a
price. I
duringeleven a
settling it is not
labourers
employ
pretendingto
never
only by
cultivator
themselves)sleepingover
littlewhen
I do
misunderstood.
farming,he will find these for
to
Europe. not
me
that frugality
If
for
money
earns
Calcutta mill also looks forward
buying land and cattle and down an as agriculturist. Surely agriculture pays, and in wfiich it happens to be in that depressedcondition
savingenough
is to
on
it,he (the
the market
of sericulture
whom of persons, among It is these latter alone
are
who
while all the educated with profit, have who In a climate like men gone in for it have lost money. that of India, agricultural for men who is unsuitable industry be in the field with their labourers. cannot are
carryingout
new
methods
and educated derive Capitalists men can profitfrom agriculture and by actingas middlemen, findingland, seed, manure for their cattle a nd labour and their cultivators, appliances using and sharingwith them the profits.Cultivation by partnership is indeed a well-recognised culturist system in Bengal,and, iltrained agri"
go in for it
this system may largely, prove to be of the and methods introducing superiorstaples superior of cultivation. One has, say, five-hundred bighasof land. He Cultivators of the neighbourhoodto go in partnership gets some with him and to give him half the produce. He givesthem seed, well-selected and of superior kinds ; he finds them superior appliances for irrigation, hoeing,thrashingand winnowing; he buys
highestbfehefitin 4
for them and he takes half the crop for himself. He manures, knows how to store his crop secure against insects,and he sells it for seed againat twice the priceat which he would have sold his
5
'INTRODUCTION.
at
crop
harvest
time.
ordinary system
Then, by the with
This would
be
improvement over by partnership. can one employment of capital, compete
the
an
of cultivation
cultivators
in such
or agricultural,
rather
cessfully suc-
industrial
as requirea largeoutlay at the start. Two graduates pursuits, of SaidapetCollege are making largeprofits by conductingdairies. of cheese, butter and manufacture The that ghi,with appliances
ordinarilypurchased by cultivators,would prove with a capital. The remunerative to a man method of sugar devised by Mr. S. M. Hadi, of Cawnpore, can manufacture be with capital of a few thousand rupees. by men adoptedin practice a lso would Fruit-farming probablypay well in suitable situations. be preservedby a rapid process of deFruits and vegetablescan siccation. be
cannot
This is
is likely industry which, properly developed,
an
of one importantfuture before it. The abundance year from for in another can rotting preserved consumption year. But some classes will have of the students of the agricultural with do in and agriculturiststhe capacityof revenue to agriculture officers. The knowledge of agriculture is of great value for revenue officers and district engineers. When the Director of the the of Economic or Products, Department, Reporter Agricultural to
have
an
be
or
expert officer
any
of Government,
seeks
any
information
of
an
samples,he
usuallyrefers to district any for such information or samples. The officers district officers and they (thedisconsult their deputiesor the district engineers, trict find how out officers)usually ignoranttheir subordinate character, or agricultural
officers
are
regardingthe Revenue
circumstances
officers and
likelyto training of the populationwho are are
masses
of
life,and
ignore. A littleknowledge
or
to
which
officers
literaryand
mere
of the
the wants
of the cultivators. district engineerswith an cultural agrifor the some acquire sympathy employed in producingthe staff
interests these
whose
and
immediate
are
now
scientific
too
apt
to
forget
traininggivesone
surroundings,in the midst of
one's lot is
and littleaptitude to be cast in actual life, likely in official surroundings, an capacity.The statistics which oughtto be of greatvalue in estimating agricultural the resources of the people in times of famine, being compiled who have by men acquaintancewith land very little practical and its produce,and who, owing partlyto the very education they in
dealingwith
have
such
received,are
accustomed
to
take
very
little interest in such
duringthe last famine in pation Bengal. The famine programmes, annuallypreparedin anticiof famine district wide of found the were by engineers, and mark in practice, ignored. The district staffs might were,
were questions,
found
to
well in future be manned
be of little use
have received not only a and scientific education, but who have been accustomed literary and handle the thingswith which they will be ordinarily to see surrounded in their practical life. Such officers will be able to in an intelligent draw up famine programmes after ascermanner
by
officers who
6
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
taininglocal conditions,and enquiringof if
they
had
any
works
to
the
cultivators themselves which might protect suggest,
In certain localities, I know of cultivators accustomed roads and bunds to cut across have been of their crops. for the protection admittingwater into their fields, for the district have to been applying fruitlessly They years here, a channel there ; and for permission engineerfor a sluice-gate
certain tracts
againstfailure.
who
to open
a
earlieror a little lock-gate
a
little later than
usual,and
so
of crops, officerswith a rural protection and their able to shape their famine programme in the interest of the cultivators. As men annual programme in chargeof Government estates, officers with agricultural training
Having an will be training
on.
eye to the
of Government zemindar the position for will recognise as a model and they will know how to utilisethe Khas the khas mahal raiyats, best ment to the Mahal Improvement Fund advantage. Governthe mahal their khas can initiating tenants, depend upon under their charge,to at least one permanent improvement, for and to the offiwhich they will be always grateful to Government cers in times of famine. concerned, specially If, for instance, the under induce mahal tenants their charge khas they can teach them to use the roots for food to grow tapiocaroots, and and to extract flour out of them, they will have done some nent permagood,and they will have saved those tenants perhaps for all ' '
' '
' ;
' '
' '
' '
times from
As managers the jaws of famine. of Court of Wards will have ample opporestates, officerswith agricultural training tunities for agricultural of utilising the allotment annually made reforms. improvements,by introducingwell-thought-out They it of irrigation will find in most places is some method practicable that the
raiyatneeds,and, if they can
there,a windmill
somewhere
else,and
givehim teach
a
him
canal here,a well how
to lift water
from small depthsand great depthswith fairly cheap appliances, the outlaytheywill incur on account of the estate they may happen to manage, tract for all time to protect a certain precarious may In from droughtand failure of crops. come, parts of Bengal many where water in wells is available at the driest season within twenty or twenty-fivefeet from the surface,the introduction of the most method inexpensive prevalentin the Western Coast of India from Dwarka with hand and foot by means to Eatnagiri water of lifting of a primitive Persian wheel, would become the means of giving less an or impetusto the cultivation of rabi crops, which are more in ignored Bengal. And the educatinginfluence of such innovations, even on the Indian raiyat, who is proverbially conservative,though slow, will be lasting.For the raiyat, thoughconservative,is onlyobliged to be so on account of his poverty. He cannot afford to lose money
by launchingout on mere methods some practicable "
his old ways.
before his eyes, Have
if the benefits of
But speculations. are
demonstrated
"
monstrated depersistently
he will be induced to change cultivators taken to growingpotatoes the not efven
7
INTRODUCTION,
and
tobacco, and usingthe Behia mill for crushingsugarcane, and
the the
silkworm microscopefor selecting raiyatwith a littlepatienceand
you
must
You
have
have
confidence in
to
treat
methods.
own
your
grain?
questionof
The
and
to manage
famine
in India
is
gation, mainly a questionof irrihave must o ne a irrigation properly, fairly and of agricultural science. It engineering
knowledge of of soil diminishes has been observed that the productivepower of years where canal water is used too freelyfor after a number and that localities too freelyirrigated the purpose of irrigation, with canal water, become malarious. The questionof well-irrigation is beingseriously discussed as probablyfraughtwith greater advantage,and along with this must be considered suitable implements solid
for
from
water lifting
various
depths.
be the slightest doubt the whole, however, there cannot the best that canals have famine. I protectionagainst proved will quote a few figuresfrom the reports of the famine year taken, 1896-7, to prove that the construction of canals should be underOn
wherever famine
by possible,
In
of relief work, at
Bengal the capitaloutlay on reached
1896-7, had of canals in
any
rate, in
to the close of The total length 7,61,23,817. 738 miles used 916 miles,including for
canals
up
total of Rs.
a
was operation being used
the rest irrigation, also
way
times.
miles
2,605
of canal
for navigationonly. There were distributaries. These were capableof for 1896-7 The amount to receipts
1,572,005 acres. irrigating Ks. 25,63,047 and the working expenses to Rs. 19,37,142,the net Rs. revenue 6,25,905 againstRs. 2,45,646 and Rs. 1,38,135 being in the two from actuallyirrigated precedingyears. The areas these canals in 1896-7 and the two previous respectively years were 805,387
The
579,933
acres
and
509,811
acres.
The
average
be put areas canal-irrigated may sixteen maunds of rice. at twenty-fourmaunds, representing of grainfrom the 805,387 acres served by canal water outturn
outturn
down
acres,
of
paddy
per
acre
from
The annual consumpbe put down at 12,000,000 maunds. tion of grainper individual adult beingput down at six maunds, of adult units directly the number saved from starvation by canal in Bengalduringthe famine may be calculated to have irrigation been two millions in 1896-97. may
The
figuresfor and
Bombay the Punjab
Madras
the are
United
Provinces, the Punjab, Sind,
equallyor still more the capital outlay of
In satisfactory.
841 lakhs of rupees the net revenue more recovered, up to the end of 1896-7, amounting to 865 lakhs of rupees, or takingthe interest chargeof 556 lakhs of rupees into account, the State has already works recovered 310 lakhs out of the 841 lakhs spent in irrigation exceeded 109 lakhs, in the Punjab. In 1896-7, the gross revenue while the working expenses were below 31 lakhs, leavinga net
the whole
has been
of profit
of
than
about
78J lakhs
to the
to 9*34 State,which is equivalent
8
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTUBE.
invested. The area irrigated in the Punjab per cent, on the capital one-fifth in that famine year was of the total 4,621,000acres, viz., of the province. Of this 1,441,000 acres cultivated area were under wheat (whichalone must have saved between three and four million persons from starvation).The total quantityof foodkinds raised of all by canal water in the Punjab in 1896-7 crops sufficed to feed over six millions of peopleor a quarter of the entire of population
that
province.But
the
does area actuallyirrigated that it is whole the and t o possible irrigate represent grow The capital mous, on. food-grain outlayon canal works, though enornot
representsbut a small fraction of the benefit rendered to The value of the crops raised through their means. agriculture in the Punjab in 1896-7 alone was estimated by canal irrigation of the whole viz.,nearlytwice the amount incurred from the the value per commencement capitaloutlay ; levied was acre being estimated at Us. 33, while the water-rate for more Rs. 3-4. The figures recent still aging, encourare more years the interest on capital than ten per working up to more at
1,508 lakhs
Even
cent.
a
of rupees,
canal like the Eden
Canal in
Bengal,which
has not
benefit to the yet proved remunerative, has brought immense the has been raised and water-rate latelywithout any country, worth speakingof, so that profitmay be expectedin opposition as
future. A
science will enable one to avoid knowledge of agricultural of deterioration about gation-wate Irrisoil by canal irrigation. a bringing of the soil, while used adds to the fertility judiciously and it wash the can injudiciously lavishlyused, good gradually time. out of the soil and render the locality unhealthyat the same
The cultivator will take nine inches of water ifhe can get it,though two to six inches accordingto the season of the year will do him nine of the soil intact, than the more inches,leaving good fertility and the locality free from malaria. It is somewhat unfortunate,however, that in this as in every other country, agricultural education is being taken advantage of almost exclusively by persons who are not directlyinterested in agriculture. Neither the farm labourer,nor the farmer, nor the landed proprietor, education. a as rule, for agricultural cares, and schools in almost Agricultural colleges country are every who either by place-seekers town-bred or by fancy men, they can make their fortune by scientificfarming or by cattle do occasionally turn out ranching. In other countries such men
crammed
*
successful farmers or colonists. But in India the caste system has ingrainedand stamped in different classes,different abilities and disabilities in such an indelible manner, that the priestlyand writer castes who generally in for high education are ab initio go unfit subjects for agricultural and the higheducation they training, in for makes them suitable for less an pursuit. agricultural go Their instincts, their habits oibody and of mind, are not suitable
lor
an
agricultural occupation.They
are
eminentlyfitted
for
INTRODUCTION.
9
but not for success in agricultural It pathso! life, pursuits. therefore for India that classesof the doublyimportant right education peopleshould be encouraged to receive agricultural that the benefit derived by them may easily filterdown to their
other is
To expect the benefits of agrifellow-caste-men in rural tracts. cultural education to filterdown to rural tracts from the prospective farms and plantations that the Bengali or the Maratha gardens, '
'
after receiving education gentleman may establish, agricultural of a high order, is a far-fetched hope. Vernacular education,on the other hand, has spreadso far in rural tracts in Bengal,that find many actual cultivators who have passedthe we now can vernacular middle or even higher examinations. They are quite, of and these in a receiving systematic capable training agriculture,
who will have influence among their fellow-caste-men. of with agricultural In dealing the cultivator class a great pupils But deal of patience, a great deal of sympathy,is at firstneeded. been has made when a once them, headway -agricultural among will their It is therefore come directly through progress agency. are
the
men
of great importanceto induce, by the offer of suitable scholarships or otherwise,sons of bond fidecultivators who have passedat least the middle vernacular examinations,to come for special agricultural to a central institution, and then go back to their respective training will not feel disappointed Such men if they cannot secure villages. Government appointments.Traininga hundred men of this sort allotment of a hundred scholarships, the will have far judicious by the agricultural effect in ameliorating condition of this province who will than training a dozen university graduatesannually, if they in disgust, probablygiveup all connection with agriculture fail to secure Government the It is appointments. spreadof by more
than by reduction of revenue demand must banks that the famine of or agricultural question There is no occasion for the raiyatto starve when there be met. but the raiyatdoes not know how he can help shorter is a rainfall, himself. He -must be taught. So, while a class has been properly
education rather agricultural
openingof
established in Bengal for highertrainingin agriculture given to and engineers a few Universitygraduates or surveyors with the of them Government officersin certain special as object employing in which agricultural capacities knowledgeis needed,it must not be forgotten that the more ly importantscheme, of givinga thoroughin a properlyequipped farm, to practical agricultural training is yet to follow. It is the 'want the actual cultivator, of such a scheme of education that is really at the bottom of the small amount of practical the agricultural success departmentshave attained hitherto. The objectof agriculture is the production of food and other essential requirements of man, and the aim of the science of agriculture is the productionin the best condition,of the greatest of produce, in the shortest space of time, at the least cost amount and with the smallest deteriorationof land. The sciences helpful
OV
HANDBOOK
to
this
end is
which and
required
;
(6)
:
(1) in
Hydrostatics (c/. Parts
Chemistry V)
are
Zoology
(8) Political
IV
"
II)
VII) VI)
(cf. Part
;
I
Part
understanding (c/. Part
(some
Mineralogy
and
Geology
(c/. Part
Economy
AOBIOTOTtTBE.
;
(7)
;
(3)
(5)
of
this
Botany
Veterinary
Bacteriology
VIII).
of
knowledge
book)
;
(c/. Part Science
(c/. Part
(2)
nics Mecha-
III)
;
(4)
(c/. Part VI)
and
12
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
violent in past ages than they are now. more very much Take, for instance,the Deccan trap formation, two hundredthousand square miles in area and as much six thousand feet as
were
deep in some depositmust
places.The
volcanic outbursts that resulted in this fearful. But all over the earth's crust we have evidence of contortions and dislocations of the strata that form the outer crust of the earth,which pointto very great heat actingfrom within the bowels of the earth. This heat gradually becomingless,in other words, the earth gettingcooler and cooler, the disturbances on the earth's surface have also become less and less. At one time the heat and the disturbances in the and dislocations were shape of earthquakes so great that no plant
have been
most
animal could have lived on the surface of the earth. Gradually the surface gettingcooler and quieter, plantand animal lives made their appearance. But thousands and perhapsmillions of years
or
before elapsed It is of the sun,
the surface of the earth became
supposed
that
planet
our
was
and
fit for human
ation. habit-
a originally portion violent sun a by of burning and
that it was spittedout by the action. nebulous This fluid mass centrifugal or
has been graduallygettingcooler and cooler revolvingmatter and solidifying of from the surface downwards. The composition the whole of
a
of the solid crust of the earth can be studied and even ' of the fluid portion as it is called, lyingunderneath magma, '
the crust, as volcanic action has exposed to the surface not the solid strata but also the liquid below. magma have Geologists
and
found
out
dislocationsto which
the
for subjected
in the midst outer
crust
of
only
all the contortions
of the
earth
has
been
formingthe crust occur in a certain definite order all over In England the earth's surface. these strata occur in beautiful regularity west, from south-east to norththe newer older tions formaformations at the south-east and the at the north-west. In other countries althoughthese strata do not occur in such regular succession exposed to the surface, a similar order can be traced all over the surface of the earth. If
ages past,that the
strata
study the character of the rocks so exposedin succession, in cuttingsor horizontally we as vertically pass from field fied and districtto district, find two classes of rocks,stratifield, we and unstratified. Unstratified rocks are igneousin origin, i.e., we
either to
thrown up from the burningbowels of the earth. The stratified rocks have been formed by the action of rivers,lakes,or the When sea. rocks formed by such action have been afterwards heat by or changed, by great pressure, they are called metamorphic rocks. find from below upwards,we order prevailing of these strata : in the deposition following Tht fir$tfthat is,the lowermost stratum, may be called the Lowtr Magma. This consists of basic rocks rich in earthy bases and oxides of iron. Volcanic4 action has exposedthis deep liquid strata Studyingthe geological
the
layerto the
"
surface of the earth in the form of Basalt and similar
GEOLOGICAL
Greenstones
rocks.
and
Basalts
J3
STRATA,
generallyare
called trap-rocks
in the form of stepson hill-sides. The solidification they of the Lower Magma has usuallytaken placeafter volcanic eruption the surface of the earth,and therefore they occur on chiefly which have formed these volcanic rocks. Many of the eruptions as occur
as
rocks took
recent times, and fairly placein, geologically speaking, hence the rocks often lie over others,sedimentaryand metamorthe plains phic,which were formed at an earlier date. All over of Deccan occur usuallyin horizontal layersof six to trap-rocks, each ninetyfeet, layerbeing a separate lava depositevidencing succession of volcanic eruptions.The total depth of these suca cessive of reaches in some deposits trap placesto 5,000 or 6,000 is about 200,000 feet,and the total area covered by these trap-rocks miles. Soils formed of from are "decomposition trap-rocks square
naturallyvery fertile,being rich in silica,alumina, iron,lime, magnesia,potash, phosphates and soda. The celebrated black*
cotton-soil
or
Eegur of
Southern
and
Central India
was
formed
chiefly out of trap-rocks. the Lower on Magma is lighter 2nd. -The Upper Magma -resting is more This and of silica. is stratum largely composed therefore called the siliceous or acidic magma. It is mainlyplutothat under is solidified slow and to say, nic, by cooling pressure, in conseqiience, in the form of coarse-grained occurs pacted crystalscomin of the form The of plutonic granite. together presence is of formation. indication earliest the an granite geological They difficultto distinguish usuallyintrude into gneissand it is sometimes between intruded dykes or veins of graniteand the older of graniteoccur metamorphic schists. Veins andr"dykes out throughthe vast metamorphic(orgneissose) rocks of India,all alongthe Granite Himalayas,in the Arravali hills,and also in the Deccan. consists of quaitz, mica and in felspar, varying proportions.
but felspar is. Quartz and mica are not of much value as fertilizers, Soils formed of graniteare therefore less fertile than those out formed whole hills of feldspathic out of Basalt. But there are
granitenear
Rajmahal,at
the foot of which
are
some
of the most
fertile tracts of land suitable for rice,melons and mustard. The acidic rocks contain sixty to seventy-five per cent, of the basic rocks less than fifty The acidic rocks silica, per cent. and rocks while the basic are are light, more infusible, very heavy and of fine texture, and they are not so infusible. The principal acidic rocks are : Granite, Felsite,Obsidian,Pumice, Syenite, "
Trachyteand
basic rocks are Basalt, Pophyrite.The principal and Labradorite). Diallage (containing
Dokrite,Diorite and Gabbro
consist of gneiss, metamorphic rooks. These mentation the formed jointaction of sediby clay-slate, in water and compactionby heat or pressure. They called azoic because no trace of life has been discovered in are them. There are three distinctsystems of azoic rocks which from 3rd
"
The
Azote
mica-schist and
or
"
14
HANDBOOK
above
downwards
be
OF
AOBICULTURE.
called the
Vindhyan, the Sub-metaMetamorphic. The Vindhyan system consists morphic and of sandstones, limestones,shale and iron pyrites, and the fernof like (dendritic) markings earthymanganese oxide which may be for fossil plants, characteristic of this system. mistaken are easily The Sub-metamorphic system consists of quartzite, sandstone, The slate,shale and limestone of more crystalline appearance. may
the
older and stillmore rock which abounds in Southern crystalline India is called gneiss.More than half the Peninsular area is on gneiss.From Cape Comorin to Colgongon the Ganges,a distance width of 350 miles or an area of nearly of 1,400 miles with a mean 500,000 square miles, the land is composed of gneiss or soils formed mainlyout of gneiss.Patches of newer here strata occur and there on the gneiss.The Bundelkhand gneissis the oldest of in the Himalayas, in the Chutia Nagpur all. Gneiss also occurs It is composed of quartz, Division of Bengal and in Assam. chlorite and hornblende, mica, all or only two of which felspar, be present. Lead, silver,garnet, corundum and minerals may found azoic rocks. The in lead-ore diamond or are occasionally in Chutia Lead-ores occur the azoic system is 26,000 better than granitic but micafeet. The soils are somewhat soils, but only quartz and mica, are schists which contain no felspar, Quite recently apatite has been discovered in the mica poor. mines of Hazaribagh a fact which is of considerable agricultural
galenaof Bhagalpur contains silver. Nagpur also. The greatest depth of
"
importance. Above the Vindhyan system which represents a transition tary between the true metamorphicgneissand the true sedimenSilurian system which are marked rocks of the Lower with terised the Pateeozoic rocks. The Palaeozoic periodis characcome ripples, of the of first remains the life, though by very appearance few animals have been discovered in the older of these rocks. ~A trilobites and graptolites shells called and some few zoophytes, 4th.
"
fossil remains found in them. The greatest Silurian rocks,as these older rocks are called, is about 30,000 feet,and of the Upper Silurians about 108,000 feet. sandstones, limestones The Lower Silurian rocks consist of shales, This system is scarcely in India. and conglomerates. represented
the are Lower the depth of
Oldhamia
Lower
The
the Himalayan gneiss. Silurian beds are found overlying Upper Silurian system consists of the Old- r^-sandstone
and the Permian rocks (15,000feet) the Carboniferous (dO,000feet), ferous feet)or the New-red-sandstone. Of these the carbonigroup (3,000 consist of These India. i n rocks are chiefly represented The limestones,shallow beds of sandstone, and coal measures. them in coal and of of coal measures Bengal are great importance, with and their possible iron associated limestone, importance being Coal exists in an igneous of manufacture is evident* form in the ftlder metamorphic formations, for or* crystalline ordinaryform instance, ia the district of Sambalpur,in the more
as
centres
GEOLOGICAL
15
STRATA.
formations also in carboniferous rocks and in the later tertiary and in the recent formations as peat. Feat can be dug out of a depth of only twenty feet in places south of Calcutta. The coal of Bengalis characterised by the usual fossilsof the carboniferous and systems, viz.,lepidodendron
calamite.
The
fields Raniganj coal-
embrace of about 500 square miles,the Barrakar area an coal-fieldsabout 220 square miles and the Jheria coal-fieldsabout The depth of some of the Raniganjcoal seams 200 square miles. is seventy to eightyfeet. The Bengal carboniferous rocks come is called the Gondwana under what system. The soils of this but poorer than than better granitesoils, system are indifferent, basaltic and alluvial soils. There is not much to choose between the gneissose soils of Chutia Nagpur and the soils of the coal-fields indifferent of Burdwan and Manbhum. As a rule, they are
f:
soils.
i
U
ftj ftfe"
of the The Gond wan a system. Palaeozoic and strata upper from Jurassic the lower strata of the Mesozoic groups in India (i.e., included under the Gonddown to Carboniferous rocks) are have been wana system. They probablydepositedby rivers and "
sandstones and shales. Plant remains are but animal remains. The Eajmehalhills, the Damonot common dar Valley,the TributaryMehals of Orissa and Chhatisgarh, Chutia and and Son the the Valley, Nagpur Upper Satpurarange at the the Gondwana Grodavery basin, are the localities representing
are
chiefly composed of
system. which first Air-breathing animals their appearance the close of the Paleozoic at epoch appearedin abundance at the Mesozoic epoch. The lowest group of this epoch is called the Triassic group (about2,300 feet in maximum The next thickness). higheris called the Oolitic (about and the topmost group is called 4,500 feet in maximum thickness) 5th." The
Mesoxoic Epoch. "
made
the Cretaceous (maximum thickneSvS, 11,000 feet). Fossil remains have been discovered in the Damodar of Labyrinthodonreptiles acteristic Valley above the coal-fieldsof the Panchet hills. These are charof the Triassic period. They have been also discovered in the Central Provinces of India : but Triassic rocks occur chiefly in the North- Western Himalayas,where theyoccur to the thickness feet. The Oolitic group of rocks is subdivided of 1,000 to 2,000 into (1)Liassic,(2) Jurassic and (3) Oolitic proper. Monstrous
Plesiosaurus and Pterodactyle) the were (Icthyosaurus, reptiles characteristicanimals of this period.The ammonite and belemnite of the
Himalayas are Himalayas are both
Oolitic* The shales and limestones of the Liassic and Oolitic. The Bajmehal hills
which abound
in fossilplantsare Jurassic. The cretaceous system at allin Bengal,thoughportions of the Nizam's represented of and the and also of Assam belong dominion Bombay Presidency is not
to this
system. Tracts rich in fossilremains
those where
gneissand limestones meet.
are
also very fertile,
16
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
6th." The Neozoic epoch follows
the rnesozoic,and at this epoch remains of animals and plants across for the first time we come alliedto those of the present time. The trilobiteof the Silurian period,the peculiarbony-armouredfish of the Red-sandstone, and reeds of the carboniferous system, the large club-mosses the Oolite,the ammonites of the Lias and the forms of life. Only from three to four chalk, giveplaceto new per cent, of the tertiary plantsand animals of the earliest strata are modern ; about eighteen and animals of the per cent, of the plants and middle tertiaryperiodare there is no distinct gap modern, the close of the tertiaryperiod and the recent between period. The lowest tertiary forms periodis called Eocene when the existing first seen. The middle period is called Miocene, and of life are of huge reptiles
the
the upp3rnmst tertiaryperiodis called Pliocene. The nummulitic limastone formations of the Himalayas, often attaining a height of 16,000 feet,are marine and belong to the eocene mals period. Mamin the and first the miocene extensive fossil period, appeared remains of the Siwalik range belongto this period. The Sivatherium deer is the characteristic fossil of this period. Giganticcrocodiles and land turtles of modern times also occurred, and a huge but extinct
speciesof tortoise,a
and
agate
knives
have
of
this
characteristic
very
Neozoic
Tertiaryor "
alluvial
the
Indus
plainwhich
of
In
man.
we
as
with
8th."
"
are
much
as containing or
Upper Godagreatest depth of the
Brahmaputra there of miocene
mainly Recent
and
the rock
recent
lies
the
a
pliocene
Formations, the
with
as
impregnated with 25 to
35%
of iron.
hydrated peroxide.
is covered
but
in the
mencement com-
first appearance are
sented, repreconcerned
deposits.
in the origin of laterite and its position of Laterite is subjects some dispute. porous
much
rock argillaceous
exposure
the
and post-tertiary
The
Laterite.
limonite
tho
aie
the
his appearance,
of the other systems Bengal,though some have alreadyindicated,we aie mainly
geological system
as
and
in
seen
is 9,000 feet.
periodbeingcoeval
alluvial
these
discovered
period. The
consists
tertiarydeposits. These of this
been
be
can
first made
periodman
of rocks
group
Between
7th. vast
In the Pliocene
Museum.
Indian
shell of which
with when
The
iron The
surface
peroxide,some chiefly
iron exists of
blackish brown or a freshlybroken is mottled brown
considerable
yellow and
laterite
after
crust
of limonite,
with
tints of
proportionconsists
of and a clay which contains no iron. Examples of all these forms with at Garhbeta in the district of Midnapur. The to be met are caused exposed surface is pittedwith hollows and irregularities The rock has a scoriaeeous by washing away of softer portions. it is associated usually with and volcanic appearance, especially as But it is believed to basalt and other igneousrocks now usually
brown, white
red
*
mentary. be of detrital origin producedfrom other rocks,igneousand sediof and India laterite Central The high-level Western
17
STRATA.
GEOLOGICAL
the iron is not sandy. does not appear to be detrital in origin as The low-level laterite of Bengal is mixed up with sand, quartz, laterite sandyclayand gravel. The high-level ferruginous pebbles,
always caps the highestlava flow,which makes the subjectof its and more originso difficult to understand. It becomes more that it is the normal however, simply weathering probable, product of highlybasic rocks under the conditions of a tropical climate. The low-level laterite is probablythe detritus of the high-level laterite. The action of rain and streams having carried away sand and clay,the heavy iron-sand is left as laterite, the lighter and to this may be due the concentration of the ferruginous element. while The age of the low-level laterite is certainly post-tertiary, is laterite the high-level being constantlyproduced. sands*Blown sand forms the soil is quiterecent. Alluvial close to the sea, and its deposit of places will be dealt with in the next Chapter. deposits should be noted that (1)clay,(2)sand, (3)gravel, It (4)peat, formation and marine of recent ooze shell-marl are (6) analogous (5) to (1) shale,(2) sandstone,(3)conglomerate, (4)coal, respectively of old and chalk formations. The limestone plder geological (6) (5) the But their more the sedimentaryrocks, compact they are. age is indicated chiefly by fossils. and Blown 9th." Alluvial deposits
"
in The strata of the crust of the earth has found recent .to the the top to the bottom or from the most below as : be graphically represented
India, from oldest,may
"
NROZOIC
A.
| I
|Plei8tocene
MBSOZOiu
-v
(3rd).
r Pliocene
Miocene (4th). IEocene (5th).
Tertiary
\Cuddalore /
rooks.
(6th). (7th). (8th). tLiassic (9th). Gondwana Triassic(IOrh). system. Permian (llth). f I Cretaceous
I JK.
(1st).
I Decent
Tertiaru Post rost-lertiaty
( Oolitic 1 Jurassic
Oolitic
proper
.
TT*""~ Upper
C.
PALEOZOIC
"lurian
nftrKnnifl.n,,n (12th). \ Carboniferous
n*
(oldred-sandstone
\ Lower
Silurian
(13th).
(14th).
(15th). Sub-metamorphic (16th). / Peninsular ,^"",^ M"t
(Vindhyan (Bundelkhand
Metamorphic
of following summary refer they particularly
The strata
as
Gneiss (17th). Gneiss (18th).
the characters of the be found to India may
geological
useful : "
A. NEOZOIC. sands, alluvium, fluviatile and marine, including deltas and Blown lagoons, laterite and gravels. Exampl*," the united delta of the Ganges and miles and ft depth the Brahmaputra, covering a space of 60.000 to 60,000square General cf"racof about 600 feet, and the whole of the Indo-Gangetic batfn. t*r," fine sands and clay with occasional pebbles or pebble-beds,beds of peat
Itt. Recent.
"
and remains of tree*, but
no
trace
of marine
organisms.
18
HANDBOOK
02
AGBKJULTURE.
Glacial period." Erratic boulders Modern fauna.
and moraines
in the
layas Hima-
Upper Punjab.
and
3rd. Pliocene period." Sott massive sandstone, also claysand conglomerates, many limestones. frefth*water, resting on the nammulic Example," Sivvalik-beds, allied to modern of animals, chieflymammals fauna ; full of fossil remains '
also in Sind, the Punjab, the North- West Provinces of India, and along layan narrow stripof bills from the Jhelnm to the Brahmaputra in the Sub-Himaregion,1,500 miles long and 12 to 15,000feet in thickness.
4th. Miocene. "Marine fossiliferous bands
sandstones and highly clays with gypsum periodis representedin Sind.
sands, shales, clays with gypsum, Uppermost beds
of limestones. containing estuarine shells. This
a
are
limestones passing "5th. Eocene." Sandstones, probably fresh-water ; also marine limestones ; clays With gypsum and into sandstones and shales ; nummuUtic ligniteabounding in marine fauna. Examples in Sind, tho Punjab, Orissa Burma. Coast, Assam ana
B, MESOZOIC, "6M. Cretaceous over
in the middle
of this
and tbere in the Himalayas, the Indian Peninsula, where it is covered by the Deccan basalt, which is the volcanic lava
system 11,000 feet." Here
Chalk
or
especiallyin Assam, and
but
all
west
over
period. Clth. Oolitic proper."Himalayan shales and limestones. I 8M. Jurassw." Hajmehal hills (characterisedby fossil plants) and I Upper Panchet Series.
OOLITIC
FEET.l 9th. 4,50;)
l.
and limestones of the Himalayas. Lower Li"i9*ic. -Shales beds of the Kajmehal hills and the lias of India belong to the Gondwana
system.
Panchet Series of the Daraodar Lower IQth. Triassic 2,300feet..-" Valley showing also of the valleysof the Central Provinces remains of Labyrinthodon reptiles, and of North- WV"st Himalayas, where they attain to a thickness of 1,1)00to and [theSalt Range of the Punjab. The 2,000 feet chieflyin. North Kashmir like those of the alpine trias. These fossils are belong to the Gondwana
C. PALAEOZOIC. New-red- sandstone or 3,000 feet." Thick beds of sandstones llth. Permian group and shales of flnviatile origin,belonging to the Gondwana system. The Lower rocks which correspond with the Permian Series are the Talchir and Darauda rocks of Europe. 12th. Carboniferous system 15,000 feet."Raniganj, Barrakar Belong to the Gondwana system. i3(/i. Old Red-Sandstone
and
Jheria
fields.
90,000feet."Scarcelyrepresented in India.
Silurian and 30,000 feet."Shales, limestones, sandstones rates. conglomeThis is scarcelyrepresented in India, but is found on the top of Himalayan
llth" Lower
gneiss.
D. Azoic. rocks 26,000feet."Oldest known rocks of India are gneiss ancient Palaeozoic rocks. They belong to two periods. Tfee Gneiss (18th)is covered by certain transition or SubOlder or Bundelkhand metamorphic rocks (called also Vindhyan system of rocks)which (15th)as altered (16th)and intersected by gneiss become they approach the younger The Upper graniteintrusions. In West Himalayas both the gneissesoccur. is fprmed by the metamorphisra of older Pakeozoic Himalayan gneiss(16th)
IbthtolSth.
Arr.h"an
underlying the
rocks*
20
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
though occasional elevation by silt formation,due to inundation, alluvium is ordinarily in places.The newer under also occurs formation and it has the tendency to rise,though occasionally of whole tracts of new and disappearance denudation alluvium often takes place in different localities. This generaldepression elevation of the newer vium alluof the older alluvium and this general from the geological to be distinguished are upheaval and in taken the of Bengal that have alluvial tracts place depression since the tertiary period. The elevation of the Tipperahills and of the Gangeticdelta by of coast the Orissa,and the depression be explainedby alluvial action nearly five hundred feet cannot There is evidence denudation. to show that the drainage and some Indo-Gangeticplain took place at only,viz.,the delta of the Indus, and that of the
been formed
since the
drainageby of jungles Dacca are existed
which accumulation
of depression a
second
The
probablythe remains which priorto this depression
of
one
delta
Gangeticdelta havS litating part of Bengal,faciextensive Madhupur of the
old
alluvium has resulted in the in the greater portion of East
alluvium
new
by
the
the lower
outlet.
time
one
Bengal. the
rocks prevailing
of
Bengaland Bihar are alluvium, whether old and new, are some importantexceptions.First will describe the laterite regionof Bengal,which is also of all we This laterite regioncan be traced up from post-tertiary. Cape Comorin the east coast, Orissa, Bankura, along through Midnapur, Though
there
Burdwan, Birbhum, This
to
fringeof
the flanks of the
Rajmehal hills as
laterite underlies
the
far
as.
and is. old alluvium alluvium. It is often older than seen capping older rocks. Thi" laterite alreadydescribed. is the high-level The low-level laterite Patna.
trulyalluvial,and
it
in
vium patchesthroughoutthe old alluof the Ganges valley. The Pleistocene or glacial boulders and moraines not reare presented in Bengal,except in the lower hills of Sikkim, Bhutan and Nepal, down to a heightof about 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. Next we come in Bengala band of the Cuddalore group across of rocks, sandstones, gritsand clays,underlyinglaterite, from far as Suri. These east of Raniganj,extendingnorthwards as Cuddalore sandstones,etc.,are tertiary.At a lower elevation in
is
occurs
"
the Sub-Himalayan range, on the north of Bengal,there is a band of soft massive sandstones,also clays and conglomerates, resting the older tertiary bed of nummulitic limestone. This belongs on band from Raniganjto Suri. to the same age as the Cuddalore Next the Eocene sandstones,nummulitic come limestones,
the cretaceous
rocks, and
the
slates pre-tertiary Chittftgong, Tippera,Garo
and sandstones and Manipur
that are found in the hills. Tertiaryrocks prevailin these hills which were elevated at the post-tertiary time age about the same
geticdelta from
Rajmehal
to the Garo
hillswas
probably as
the Gan-
depressed.
SURFACE-GEOLOGY,
21
BENGAL.
Jurassic system is next in Bengal in the represented hillsand the Panchet The typical rocks. series of Rajmehal Upper of dark-coloured doleRajmehal rock is a basalt or trap consisting rite interstratifiedwith a hard, white and grey and carbonaceous shale,white and grey sandstones and hard quartzose grit.TrapThe
dykes and
intrusions of the "coal-fieldsof the Damodar .are
common
diminish
in
south-west
Rajmehal age are also abundant in the valleyand dykes and cores of basalt in Birbhum, South- West of Rajmehal. Trap-dykes the Damodar valleyfrom east to west until in the of Hazaribagh volcanic intrusions disappearalmost
Further west, "entirely.
of course, occurs the newer focus of eruption of the Rajmehal trap is at a Raniganj. The Rajmehal beds extend to the east
The to
Cuttack
numerous,
and
but
Deccan
trap.
pointnorth of
close up less Eastward, trap-dykes are throughoutthe Upper Son valleyand coast
southwards.
they
occur
they graduallydie out in Palamau only two hundred miles west of the ground in which the older lava flows of the Rajmehal age and within less than one hundred miles of the Gondwana are seen basins in the Upper Damodar valleywhich are traversed by basalt dykes probablyof the same age as the Rajmehal traps. rocks appear in Bengal, The Gondwana in the Damodar valley and in Chutia Nagpur. In the former, the upper and the lower Gondwana rocks, are both observable at the basal portionof the Panchet hill and the zemindari of Panchet, south of the Raniganj coal-field. The lower Panchet beds consist of coarse felspathic and
micaceous
colour,with
sandstones, usually white
or
in greenish-white
bands
of red clayinterstratified among the sandstones. in close Damuda often rocks, though occurring of different age. The Panchet rocks are distinguishare proximity, able from the typical of red Damudas clayand the by the presence absence of carbonaceous shales,and by the sandstone being usually micaceous. more Fragments of coal and shale are found in the of the Panchet derived conglomerates evidently group, but they are from the Damudas. of The Dubrajpur rocks consisting
The
Panchet
and
sandstones ferruginous
Gondwana
age.
The
conglomeratesbelong to the Upper ridgeof gneissfrom the basaltic plateauof and
the Deccan to the Highlandsof Chutia Nagpur is overlaid and "crossed by Gondwana from the Son to across deposits stretching the Mahanadi. The watershed between the Son and the Mahanadi is pretty highand is occupied by the Talchir rocks of no great thickness,so that gneissforms the rock barrier from east to west. The Tributary Mahals of Orissa also belongto the Gondwana series. The coarseness of the rocks,the prevalence of sandstones, the of bands of conglomerate and the absence of frequentoccurrence marine
characterise them as Gondwanas. fossil, Then come the typical Damuda Barrakar rocks belonging or carboniferous butaries to the river and its trisystem. The Barrakar traverse the whole of this region. It passes round the western into the Damoportionof the Raniganjcoal-fieldand fall|
22
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
within the limits of the field. In the higherportionof its which drain the Karharbari the Barrakar receives streams course coal-fieldswhich are supposedto be Talchirs or the lowest Gond-
dar
waria
and
sandstones, Conglomerates,
carboniferous.
not
shales
stones usuallymicaceous, and coal, characterise this region. The sandand of of are decomposed felspathic, consisting grains quartz of calcareous concretions projectthrough the felspar.Knobs converted into sandstones. Felsparis at different placesseen be traced all the sandstone felspathic pure kaolin. White may Another from the in Provinces. Central Raniganjto Chanda way typicalBarrakar rock is conglomerateof rounded-white quartz pebblesscattered over the surface of the soil. Last
of all
we
have
the
Archaean
rocks
of
Bengal, metamor-
Small hills appearingthroughthe alluvium are most of them Lower Vindhyan, and at the lowest level where the Ganges washes the base of the plateauat Chunar, only Upper Vindhyans are exposed. The concealment of the Lower Vindhyans here is probablydue to
phic and in Bihar
submetamorphic,transition
Vindhyan.
or
in the main axis of the basin. the depression The Lower Vindhyan of the Son rocks valley consist of limestones,shale, sandstone, shales and congloshaley sandstone, trappoid beds, porcellanic meratic
and that is to say, transition
calcareous
gneissand
rocks
in Bihar
True sandstone. encroach granitoids, where
for
some
metamorphic rocks, upon
the
of the
zone
miles north of the Grand
the strike Trunk Road, west of Gaya, gneissreaches quite across of the slates. Several hills isolated on the alluvial plainin thi"
granite. Immediately east of Gya rocks appear again on the prolongationof those on the strike. and havingthe same They form several groups of valley
neighbourhood
are
of pure
transition Son
hillsin East Bihar,known Gidhour hills, which stand or
less isolated
in the
the Maher, Rajagriha, Shaikhpuraand and more clear of the main gneissic area
as
alluvial
plains,and
those
of Mohabar
and
Bhiaura on the northern margin of the gneissic upland. All these isolated Bihar rocks belongto one appearing system, massive quartzites the sides of the hills and the associated schists or slates on ura appearingobscurelyin the valleys. On the north side of the Bhiadomeridgethe bottom quartziteslie steeplyagainstthe of rounded and poisedmasses gneissare gneiss as the peculiar schistose gneiss called. Elsewhere at the boundary. True occur* intrusion may in the soft earthy schists. In be observed granitic ' '
' '
the
neighbourhoodof Gya
forms of special metamorphism many At Lukhisari the quartwell exhibited.
and of contact action are of pseudo-crystalline zite rests againstan amorphous mass nitoid grapura rock of much less sharplydefined texture than at ShaikhThis amorphous in which strings of pebblescan be detected. beds of coarse rests on mass conglomerate.Another outcrop of schist in the east end of the Gidhour range. conglomeratic appears The gneissic uplandsof Hazaribaghin Chutia Nagpur, about and the transitionrocks hundred one twenty miles wide,separated
SUBtfACE-GEOLOGY,
2"
BENGAL,
those which occupy parts of Manbhum and Singh-* in South- West Bengaland stretch far to the west, the whole* transition area here being one hundred and fifty miles long from character of and eightymiles wide. *The prevailing east to west the rocks here may be best explained by an enumeration of the kinds surface. These are quartzite, that the on occur principal
of Bihar from bhum
sandstone,slate,shales,hornblendic,micaceous, talcose quartzitic and
chloriticschists passing into bedded trap,and shales with ripple marks so littlemetamorphosed that they might be mistaken for
Talchirs,or the lowest Gondwana
shales,but for veins of quartz
The Chutia Nagpur gneissis interand occahornblendic and siliceousschists, sionally and metamorphic highly porphyritic granite schists. In Singhbhum the oldest or Bundelkhund gneissis seen in junctionwith transition rocks, interpenetrated by trap-dykes. Sandstones and tnudstones,resting immediatelyon the rough and
penetrating through them. bedded
with micaceous with bands of
weathered surface of the granitic gneisstraversed by trap-dykes is the prevailing the Domecharacter of Singhbhum soil. in the northern fringeof the Hazaribaghplateau gneiss prevails in and the Mandar hill of Bhagalpur. Trap-dykesthough common the Bundelkhund gneissare rare in the Bengalgneiss.We do not ' '
' '
the
extensive basaltic intrusions in Southern Monghyr,. same Hazaribaghand Chutia Nagpur as we do in Birbhum where they belongnot to the Archaean but to the Kajmehal age. We have thus seen character of that, althoughthe prevailing the soilof Bengaland Bihar is alluvial, either old or new, we have where rocka the a ll over importantexceptions outlyingdistricts,
see
of older
epochs prevail.
The age of rocks can be only vaguelyguessedby their texture. The study of fossilsalone givesus exact clue as to which period a
sandstone, or a particular limestone, or a particular particular should be able to judge one shale,belongs.As an agriculturist the external appearance of soils and sub-soils and with such acid, rough and ready test as is afforded by a littlehydrochloric their generalcharacter and composition, and a knowledgeof the of distinguishing and testing minerals and of the method principal them will helpone to judgestillbetter whether a soilis rich or poor and whether it is capableof much improvementby the utilization of local resources. The value of trap-rocks in the formation o" rich soils has been mentioned. The presence of a largevarietyof rocks is also of great value in formingrich soils. A valleyor a
from
plainsituated near a hillwhere shales,sandstones,limestones and ielspathic graniteor gneissoccur in abundance must be rich in formations is always plant-food.The junctionof two geological differ in character accordingto the rich. The alluvial deposits differencein the character of rocks composingthe hillsfrom which however,alluvial soilsabound m plant* t"ey are derived. Usually, the farther theyare situatedaway from mountains. foods,especially The delta of.the Gangesrepresents washingsof the finer particles
24
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
of all the
and what is of great importance, it is full of Bengalhills, of the drainage of a large and organicmatter, beingthe receptacles populoustract of country and of hills aboundingin forests. The combination of minerals and organic matter is far greateri^ the lower part of the basin of the Ganges than in the upper parts. But where from
in the upper
parts of the basin
felspathic graniteor
the soil is clearlyderived trap-rocksand limestones,it is richer
than alluvium.
CHAPTER FORMATION
III. OF
SOILS.
; Kankar ; Knowledge of composition of soi* characters far useful ; External ; Evidence of composition indicative of fertility of archsean and fertility ; Value ; Fossil remains metamorphic soils ; Trap-rocka and volcanic tuffs making superiorsoils ; desirable ; Disintegrationby aqueous, Presence of felspathic pheric, atmosstones physicaland organicagencies; Nature's cultivators (earth-wormSf
(Sedentary and and
and
stones
transportedsoils
how
etc.); Chemical
propertiesof
and
humus
bacteriological disintegration : Physicaland ; Mixed
SOILS are formed rocks. Soils are either
by
chemical
soils.] the
weatheringand
of disintegration
lying is,formed out of the underthat is,formed out of the disintegrated transported) that sedentary,
rocks,or parts of rocks, broughtdown, mainly by the
action
of rivers from
fossilremains of plants distance. Sedimentary rocks containing ancient at soils some were geological period. The superposition of layerafter layerof silton them resulted in their becomingcompacted under pressure. By volcanic or other action these solidified have often been brought again to the surface in the masses and thus have become form of mountains more once subject a
heat and cold and the atmosphere, and In weathered into soils. been and converted more once is also a rock,and in some language,the loose top-soil geological future age, what is now soil with herbs and trees growing on it hard rock with other rocks superposed become a fossil-bearing may the loose matting of earth both on land and it. Underneath on under the sea there is the uneven pavement of stone, juttingout and ravines,or exinto high mountains, or sinking tending deep in valleys far and wide in plainsand table-lands. There are mountains and valleys and plains both under the sea and on land. The is with the loose matting of soil concerned agriculturistmainly and sub-soil on dry land and scarcely at all with the stone pavement he within easy depth,in which case underneath, unless it occurs to the action of rain and
they have
valuable even down soil a short improvinghig by digging of ten to An admixture a short distance. depth or fifteenper cent, of small stones of the rightlands with agricultural matesoils is not undesirable, these contain valuable reserve as can
coals,or other minerals,or get building-stones,
mammal
substances for carryingfrom
FORMATION
rials of food which plant-food.But an
OF
graduallyget admixture
of
25
SOILS.
dissolved and
made
stones large-sized
available
as
in the soil is
not desirable, as they interfere with proper aeration of generally of seed and penetration The agriculof roots. soil,germination turist
should not only have an idea of the compositionof his soil and of the stones which are found in the soil, soil but also of the subthe soil immediatelybelow the surface soil interpenetrated or with the roots of deep-rooted pact complants. The sub-soil is more in appearance
and
is
colour. It is very usuallyof a lighter that the sub-soil should richer than the be b ut important lighter the is soil rock should that the underlying soil,and if sedentary, be composed of substances which valuable for plant-life. are soils In transported also, valuable minerals, such" as lime or kankar and gypsum, be found buried within easy reach of may the surface. Chemical analysisdoes not always give a correct idea of the actual present value of a soil,subsoil,or rock, but it tells us of their possible ultimate value. In a hard rock scarcely any on
exists plant-food such
a
rock.
in
In the
an
available form, and of soils also
case
a
nothingwill grow great deal depends on
their potentialrichness as found out by cultivation and not on for instance, chemical analysis.Analysis, shows, that the soil of
the
SibpurExperimentalFarm the Dumraon
and
Sibpur poorer
Experimental Farms.
crops. is difficultand
which
is richer than those of the Burdwan
The
soil of the
But
we
SibpurFarm
actuallyget at is a hard clay
more expensiveto cultivate and under the this soil does not yieldsuch heavy crops as soils easier to cultivate. Nevertheless are actually poorer but which of soils and rocks is of greatpraca knowledgeof the composition tical value to the scientific farmer. what plant-food He knows there is,and it rests with him how much of it he can or he ought to make available for a certain crop. A soil may but be very fertile, be the fertility will exhausted. may Deep ploughing very quickly givebetter results and so will limingfor a time, but these processes and it is for the farmer to judge whether his soil are exhausting, is capable of such exhaustive operations. For exhaustingand valuable crops, deepploughing, ing burning,limingand other exhaustsame
treatment
advisable if the soil is rich,but by bringing too quantityof food into a soluble state and by letting chiefly
processes
largea
are
rain to wash it out of the land,though one heavier crops or two be obtained,the soil in the long run be impoverished. may may Chemical analysis is therefore a guidefor ascertaining the value of rocks and soils, as the farmer has it in his power to utilisethat value
slowlyor quicklyaccordingto his needs by the judicious tion applicaof tillage and by manuring. Though chemical analysisalone givesone the rightclue as to the composition and nature of rocks and soils,their external characters often give a rough idea as to what they are and what to expect of them. Indeed, the scientific farmer depends more and on rough ready tests than on careful chemical analvsis for
26
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and minerals. He looks at a dark-coloured soiland may conclude it is rich in nitrogen and potashand suitable for growingcorn. He looks at a yellowsoil and may conclude it isrich in phosphorusand lime and other mineral matters, and suitable
judgingsoils,rocks
for at
a
growingroot-cropsand
soil and may light-coloured
fruits as conclude
well
as
corn.
He
looks
sand and will it is chiefly
He looks at a grow onlymustard and rape and Jcalaito perfection. fieldovergrown with rich and wild vegetation of various kinds, rank and creepers, he digsit with his spud grasses, leguminousplants, and finds he can that, and while digginghe notices easilymanage dead shells and channels made by earthworms and insects and he concludes it is rich friableloam, and he prefers it to all the others.
The
dark-coloured
soil,first mentioned, though rich,and
though of on a larger proportion well as organic as lime,and other mineral plant-foods phosphorus, is stiff plant-food, perhapsa claywhich he finds it difficult to dig with his spadeand on the surface of which he notices deep and wide cracks. Though he knows it to be richer,he will not preferit for for permanent pasture, ordinary agricultural crops, though he may it may
show
chemical
to contain analysis
and
for such
and
to manuring it is possible
perennialcrops, as Rhea, Abroma augusta, Sabai grass, such agricultural and Tapioca crops as take long growing,such as arahar and sugarcane. If he can afford to keep it in proper tilth facilities for irrigation, he may and if there are special prefersuch clay soil to loam, unless the clay is too stiff. Different soils are cannot one particularly adapted for particular crops, and when choose his soil one at least choose his crops. can By cultivation of certain adaptability be lost sightof in any It has
been
a
limited
soils to certain
to alter the natural
extent
crops
and
not
case.
able loose workfind imbedded that once grew on the
said that certain stratified rocks
soil in former
these should
geological periods.Hence
were
we
in hard rocks,fossilsof plantsand animals soil or disported it. As the remains of animalsthemselves over ance and plantsare very valuable as plant-food, rocks showing an abundof
such fossils,
of productive of
some
very
as
certain
sandstones,and all limestones,are
fertilesoils. The
of fossilsis thus recognition The fertilising property
practical importanceto farmers.
of the rocks of the crystalline group, viz.,archaic and metamorconsists in the phicrocks, chiefly presence of an abundance of felspar.. mentary Mica is of less importance,and quartz is of the least. All sedithese rocks and soils being ultimatelyderived from rocks, a knowledge of the compositionof these is of crystalline Mica-schist consists of quartz and mica, and a soil formed out of mica-schist is therefore poor. Gneiss is the same as granite in in ^composition, is other it words, it has only metamorphic or, become by tljejointaction of heat and compact and crystalline mica and quartz,, of felspar, pressure. Granites,thoughconsisting in composition accordingto the proportionin vary very much value.
which
these minerals
occur.
The
of felspar largerthe proportion
28
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
of the earth's the superficial alter even layers think they do ; but these agencies more were Electric agency is also at work. potent in past ages than now. The water- vapour and the free nitrogen of the atmospherecombine
have the surface
tendencyto
more
than
we
in the presence of lightning and thunder in the form of nitric acid which beingbroughtdown by rain acts on the rocks and helpsto dissolve their particles more quickly. Minute at work in various forms. are (4) Organicagencies bacteria are continually at work in soilsand on the surface of rocks. forms of vegetation,lichens, mosses, grasses, shrubs, rocks. also most potent in disintegrating creepers and trees are Animal lifealso is at work chiefly in the sea in the formation of nummulitic soils. Coral reefs,chalk cliffs, and other limestones of marine and marls, consist of dead shells, animals, large chiefly and small. The lime carried in solution by rivers to the sea goes The silicacarried in solution to form the shells of these animals. is used by a minute animal called radiolaria in the formation to the sea
Higher
"
of its
the shell round its body. Tripoliearth and old Barbadoes-earth used for grindingpurposes are radiolarian deposits, chalk is old foraminiferous as deposit. Lightdiatomaceous earth is of vegetableorigin; but the earth is nearlypure silica. Landshells,caterpillars, moles, voles,musk, shrews
and
body,
or
rather
be also mentioned nature's cultivators, as in the though they are regarded lightof pests. Locusts which are the worst of all pests may be also regardedin the light of nature's fertilizers. If locusts are and prevented frightened
pigsmay
also to be
from alighting, they may not do any damage, but simplyleave a thick depositof droppings, rich in manurial substances culled from forests all along their track. Earth-worms tion have also considerable influence in the formaof soils and
their character. ment They derive nourishaltering passes throughtheir intestinal canal, some of the organic matter while the whole of the earth is beingdigested, mixed up and triturated inside the canal. Worm-casts are cularly partithe useful to the farmer,as theyhelpto loosen and perforate soil for the penetration of roots,water and air. Worms also drag down leaves,piecesof straw, etc.,into their holes,thus incorporating and organicmatter into the soil,and making heavy soils lighter soils heavier. The of earth-worms on light grass-land presence of a shallow layerof soil resting hard rocks is partion consisting cularly of beneficial in gradually the soilin to the an adding depth Darwin manner. imperceptible computed that an acre of garden soilin England contains on an average about fifty-thousand worms, earthIn and in ordinaryarable soils about half this number. is smaller. In good soils India, it is probablethat the number ten tons of dry earth is passedthrough*the intestines of earth-worms and the surface of is about one-fifth of an casts annually deposit inch per annum. Even in poor soils a surface deposit of '08 inch from
per
annum
in
soil which
has been estimated.
As earth-worms
go down
several
FORMATION
feet
deep
and
is often
them
OP
29
SOILS.
up again,the mixing of the soil effected by efficacious than that effected by cultivation. observed that a stream of lava takes sometimes
come more
It has been
several years to cool. Even when cool it is incapable of supporting life. takes Disintegration highervegetable place by hydration, oxidation and physicalaction. Nitrification then proceeds with the help of bacteria. Then lichens and other minute forms of tation vegeobserved to appear. are Graduallythe quantityof soil on the hard
surface
of the rock
becomes
and the growth of vegetaincreases, tion
more vigorous,mosses, ferns and grasses gradually of the place lichens. When visible soil accumulates,and taking fissures and cracks appear on the rock, herbs and shrubs multiply and by their root-action further help to disintegrate the rock to some depth. The formation of soils now on Lichens goes apace. "
and bacteria
able to draw
are
nourishment
from
the most
insoluble
rocks, not only basalts,granitesand schists, but also quartz. Even quartz gets covered with lichens when exposed long enough "
action of higher vegetation on air. The rocks is partly mechanical and partlychemical. Roots get into the cleftsof rocks Chemical action and tear them asunder. is concerned in the of the ingredients of the rock. solution of some The solvent
to
action of roots is partly due to the formation of of soil. All plants, which act on particles largeor year
wholly or partlyand
the rock.
deposit their
dead
acids in them small, die each
organic matter
on
The
leaves,seeds,etc., when falling they accumulate in forests, marshes or bogs, produce a black or brown mass* which is called humus. By decay of roots of plantsalso a similar is formed. When substance organicmatter decays in very high and the carbon hydrogen may get entirely temperature, oxidized and water, but with limited access into carbon dioxide of air the oxidation is slow and the formation of bodies which resist decay for a long time is the result. These are found in the lower layersof turfs and in meadows and forests. The humus formed
is of
complex composition. The
acids and other formed not are clearlyunderstood. The acid (C H,2 06),ulmic acid humic commonest are (C20H14 06), 0 crenic acid acid and apocrenicacid. The com(C10H, 07), geic position so
a
organicsubstances ,
of crenic
and
apocrenicacids, discovered by Berzelius,
All these compounds retain ammonia is uncertain. with great is also a highlyhygroscopic tenacity. Humus substance tending to keep rock moist, and thus helpingtheir further disintegration
by hydration. The generationof carbon dioxide in humus is The air of all soils contains a much higher profuseand constant. of carbon dioxide than ordinaryatmospheric proportion air,which contains only four or five parts of carbon dioxide in ten thousand .
parts,while the air in soils contains from ten to and fiftyparts of carbon dioxide in ten thousand
two
hundred
parts. The acids and carbon dioxide of humus assist in the decomorganic position of minerals. The nitrogenous matters of humus jnte gra-
!30
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
in nitrates,especially
salts and
into ammonium
duallyconverted
bacteria. These salts in their the presence of lime and nitrifying integrating assist in disintegration. Plants thus have the effect of disturn and dead rocks in various ways, both in their living cates, Not only limestones,but even state. quartz and other hard siliare
contain
a
found
eaten
good deal
into
by
of alumina
roots
plants. Clubmosses
of
(which is
not
an
which
essential constituent
of great helpin disintegrating rocks conof every plant), taining are Of alumina. plants, mangold-wurzeland agricultural of oxalic acid, have a condeal Chukd-Pdlam, containinga good .siderable power of assimilating phosphatesfrom the soil,and considerable of disintegrating rocks. have also power
they
decay of organicmatter, helpedby the various processes described,results in a supply of phosphoricacid and nitrogenin available form for the nourishment of plants.Generally an speaking, the more organicmatter there is in a soil the more nitrogen does it contain, and the proportion be of organic matter may of a soil. of the fertility roughlyconsidered as a direct measure The
in addition to humus kankar or other limestones occur is certain. Generally speaking matter, the evidence of fertility the number of rocks mixed a soil is (i.e., also the more the larger it is formed), the more -and minerals out of which fertile it is. soils a nd the Hence alluvial soils, formed at gical junctionof two geolo-
Where
formations,are
Compare, obtained
more
for
archaean
in the
fertile than
mations. on singleforresting comparativelypoor crops
soils
instance,the soils of
Singhbhum
in the mixed geological formation a few of this district beyond Katbari, in the
CHAPTER PHYSICAL
miles
with
the
rich crops outside the borders
Mourbhanj
State.
IV.
CLASSIFICATION
OF
SOILS.
Colluvial Alluvial and soils; Light, Heavy: Warm, Cold; Moist, [Diluvial, Pasture-land Garden-soils and ; ; Wheat-soil ; Ek-jthftull Dry ; Do-jrtwxli calcareous land ; Stony, gravelly,gritty,sandy, clayey and soils ; Peat ; Marsh analysis; different kinds of loam ; Classifications of ; Mechanical Settlement
Officers of different Provinces
;
Tilth, sub-soil and
pans.]
of soils into sedentaryand transported has I^HE classification
alreadymentioned.
Transportedsoils are again subdivided alluvial. Diluvial or drift soil consists of soil proper mixed up with stones and boulders,broughtdown by rain formed from various kinds of rocks. from hills. These are usually Alluvial soil consists of fragmentsor particles of minerals arranged and their size to also according partlyaccordingto their specific been
into diluvial and
fertile, gravity. Alluvial soils are, as a rule, more containing of rocks of different geological fragments periods.Alluvial soils 0* less angularfragmentsof the rocks on which mixed with more called eoUuvial. they lie are
PHYSICAL
CLASSIFICATION
OF
31
SOILS.
and heavy,warm and cold,moist also classed as light classified the to also according dry. They are crops which them for econo* on do best on them, or which ought to be grown form soils richest The mical garden-soils reasons. ; middling Soils are
wheat-soils; hard claywhich is expensive to work, clay-loamsoils, wood-soil. Soils harsh land, also are classified ; poor pasture-land physicalconstituents. These are, accordingto their prevailing calcium carbonate, vegetablematter sand, clay, stone, gravel, grit, Soils are thus divided into stony, gravelly, and moisture. gritty, sandy, clayey,calcareous, peaty and marshy. There is,however, distinction between one It group and the next. where sand beginsand gritends or where stone be again siliceous,or. micaceous, "ends and gravelbegins. Sand may that either is, a or calcareous,or felspathic, containing good at all. Stones and pebblesare not immediately deal of plant-food or none no
hard-and-fast
is difficultto say
useful for
but they plant-life,
and
actingas a therefore thoughusuallypoor are moisture
soils,viz.,those which stones
and
are felspars,
contain
of
reserve
not
serve
so
sample of dry and warm
floor of
a
useful purpose
in
taining re-
plant-food.Stony soils
and necessarily,
stony
some
basaltic chieflyfossils, limestones,
rich.
of soils is done The mechanical analysis and the coarser particles Siftingseparates The
a
soil to be room
;
and washing. by sifting washing the finer particles.
analysed is lumps are to
to
be
be
spread on
broken
up
the and
dryingproceeds.The largestones are then to be picked out, cleaned,dried and weighed. The dry soil is then to be passed meter. througha sieve,the meshes of which are three millimeters in dia-
crushed
as
which passes through is weighed as fineearth,and what remains on the sieve as gravel. The gravelis further washed and dried and weighedagainas true gravel The fine earth is then boiled for an hour to break up lumps,and it is then put into a ducing washing apparatus (e.g.,Schulz's apparatus)in which by introat different rates, firstthe finest suspended a flow of water and then successively is washed the finest sand and matter away sand. coarser Another analysisof soils consists in process of mechanical side side and allowing vessels of series the water a by arranging the into This next. also divides the soilinto from the one to flow For either o f different consistency. portions process it is necessary That
from each vessel and water evaporate completely This enables residue. to separate the the us analysis weigh dry soil into (1) stones ; (2) mechanical gravel sand ; (4) ; (3) coarse fine sand ; (5) finest sand, and (6) clay and impalpablematter. Clay-soil proper is that which contains only clayand very fine sand. A more rough and ready method of mechanical analysis of soil, consists in takingan ounce mixingit up with a pintof water, it for the water in hours, then shakingit up twenty-four leaving to settle for five minutes. the heavier particles and allowing The to let the finally
to
can then be poured into another vgnelwhich supernatantliquid
32
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
for another twenty-fourhours. The settled will be in vessel and the seen one sandy part clayeypart be dried and weighed separately. in the other. These may If one hundred grainsof dry soil, not peaty or unusually rich be
may
in
allowed to stand
matter, vegetable
in this manner, loam ; if from
leave
no
than ten
more
it is called
grainsof claytreated ten to fortysandy
soil ; if from
sandy forty to seventy a loamy soil ; if from seventy
clayloam
; from sand is
to
to eighty-five
a eighty-five ninety-five strong day soil ; and when no separatedat all by this process, it than five per cent, is a pure agricultural more clay. Soil containing a
of carbonate of lime is called marl, and more than twenty per cent. calcareous soil. Peaty soils contain more than five per cent, of humus or Ferruginoussoils contain over five vegetablemould. in Bengal by the names per cent, of iron. Sandy soil is known Balu Balmat, Balsundar ; sandy loam by the names Balu-doas, Dhus and Dhusar ; loamy soil by the names Dods, Do-ras, Do-dns, and Gurmat, and clay-soil Khirni, Pauru by the names Kddd, hard Kewal and Matti-gar is known Anthial as matti and ; clay
Ndgrd
;
grittysoil is loam
For
known
Kankuria
as
or
Rugri ; while red
ruginous fer-
is called Lal-mati.
practical purposes, however, the systems of classification in Bengal and in the other Presidencies are
of soils in vogue
They
numerous.
is
Land
based
are
for classified,
irrigable ; also
as
as
fundamental
distinctions.
instance,as
and ek-phasli
double-cropped ; also The
various
on
as
and nonirrigated, irrigable or and do-phasli single-cropped
cultivated,culturable
cultivated land may bhadoi land or suna
be also divided and
shall
also aghaniland)and paddy (called
low
or
and
non-culturable.
accordingto land
crops, thus suitable for aman
rabi land.
arahar, Vegetables, indigowith bhadoi potatoes with aghani crops. Pan garden land is crops and sweet curiouslyenough classifiedwith the uncroppedarea in settlement in Bengal and thatchinggrass also. The culturable operations and
sugarcane
are
is sub-divided
classed with
rabi crops ;
into
(1) New (or less than three years')fallow ; ; (4) Grass ; (5) Bush ; (6) other kinds (including clumps,threshingfloors, pan gardens,forest,bamboo waste s ites, sheds, cavations). village adjoining pathways and extemporary area
(2) Old fallow ; (3) Groves
sites ;
The non-culturable Sites of templesand (2) * '
' '
area
is sub-divided
burial
ground ;
into
(1)Village
(3) Unculturable
turable ; (5)Rivers ; (6)UnculJhils and Churs ; (7) Government roads ; (8)other roads ; embankments, (9)other kinds of unculturable lands (e.g., campinggrounds, b rick and lime mounds, railroads, barracks,bungalows, kilns,
waste
as, for
instance,
usar
;
(4)Tanks
permanent cattle-sheds,serais,etc.). Land is also classified as and chdhdram, or 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th class ; dwdl, doem, soem and orchard, also as (1)bastu,(2)udbastu,(3)garden,(4) bamboo Each dearh. of and these is sub-divided (7) (5)mathan, (6)bilan, Lands and chdhdram. also classified into dwdl, doem, soem are
according to
: e.g. (1)Permanently Settled proprietaryrights
PHYSICAL
CLASSIFICATION
OP
SOILS.
33
for which revenue has never been settled ; settled tenures the estates or (3)Temporarily property of Govern individuals ; (4)Estates or tenures purchased of private ment or of Government escheated or forfeitedto Governaccount or on ment free lands ; (6)Islands thrown revenue ; (5) Resumed up in accretions rivers Alluvial Lands (8) navigable ; ; (7) acquiredbut for public no longerrequired purposes ; (9)Lands annexed quest by con-
(2)Waste-lands
lands ;
(10) Occupancy holding; (11) Non-occupancyKhudkasta
;
officer describing and Paikasta holdings.A revenue a pieceof of classificationto bear in^mind. land has thus several principles relation to the intrinsic value of the soil They all have some ; and look into all these principles the farmer also must before deciding of a property he wishes to buy for agricultural the value poses. purof tenure and of rent is of the utmost The fixity value to the him to go in for agricultural tenant in encouraging improvements. of tenure, the following and fixity In addition to fertility siderations conalso affect the value of lands : "
healthy unhealthy. (1) Cliiftate, local labour is abundant, industrious and skilful. (2) Whether of rainfall whether inches perannum. (3)Amount morethansixty has been the tract (4) Whether subjectto famine or local or
failure of crops due to droughtor inundations. (5) Whether the land is level and well exposed to sunshine, or
whether
it is
steep ravine
(6) Distance
from
the
land.
residence. purchaser's
(7) Vicinityto good markets. of communication with the markets. (8) Means for instance,the depth of (9) Facilitiesfor irrigation,
water
in wells.
(10) Depredationsby cattle,wild boars, rabbits,etc. (11) Local supply of manures. In the United
Provinces
in vogue : generally land Gohani 1st.
the
of classification following
soils is
"
"
or
land
near
and villages
towns.
In
gohaniland the crops usuallygrown are, wheat, sugarcane village for ywr-making or ukh, vegetables, maize, radish,carrots and is practised, chillies. In town that gohaniland, market-gardening ing chewis to say, the growingof potatoes,cabbagesand cauliflower, or canes poundashand tobacco. 2nd. Loam. Wheat, barley, gram, jowar, cotton, with such lands. Jowar, bajri arahar and maize are usually grown on "
grown, as a rule,with arahar both on gohani and loamy soils. When the land is very rich,arahar which occupies it for a whole year, is not grown in mixture. 3rd!. Sandy loam. Bajri, kalai, barley with gram* jowar" mustard with wheat and other rabi crops, are grown on such soils. 4^. Clay loam. Barleymixed with gram (or gram -alone) or with pea (orpea alone), sugarcane, mung and paddy*are grown and
cotton
are
"
"
on
such soils. Mt HA
-JPB
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
tanks. The same near Clay-soil crops are chosen for such soils as for clay-loam.Only these are harder to work and, being uncertain. more subjectto floods,are more
5th. "
Bhur or sandy soils. (a)near rivers (dearhland),suitable for growing melons and other similar crops : (b)in fields suitable also barleywith for growingbajrialongwith til or kalai or mung, mustard. wheat or Kankreli soil. Full of calcareous nodules,suitable for 1th. and leguminous crops generally.Bajri,jowar, growing gram the usual crops grown are urd gram, barley,pea and mustard on Qth.
"
"
"
kankreli soils. In the Madras
classification of Presidencythe following
soils
in vogue : 1st. Karisol, or Black soil,No. 1 and is generally No. 2. 2nd. GuruSeval,or Red loam, No. 1 and No. 2. SRD. or Clay-loam,No. 1 and No. 2. "th. Veppal,or dry and many "
"
"
"
"
hungry sandy soil,which is so common 5th. Pottal,or barren soil,either "
in Madras, No. 1 and No. 2. saline
too
or
too
ferruginous
crops of any value. divisions are Kali,Nos. 1 In the Central Provinces the recognised Black soil) Nos. 1 and 2 (Loam) ; Kherdi, and 2 (i.e., ; Morun, Nos. 1 and 2 (Sandy soil) ; and Berdi, Nos. 1 and 2 (Stonysoil). In the Bombay officers follow a very Presidency,Revenue soils. This method, however, systematicmethod of classifying for alluvial soils where depth is of no practical is unsuitable deep soilswhich are all very deep. Soils in Bombay value for classifying to grow (laterite)
are
divided
orders
into
nine classes
accordingto
accordingto their colour and
givesan
texture.
idea of the system followed
their The
three
table following
:
"
The
of
depth and
conventional sighsfor peculiarities defects following or soilsare in use in the Bombay Presidency : mixture Denotes a nodules of limestone. containing "
~
o
o "
36
HANDBOOK
other constituents of
OP
AGRICULTURE.
plantswhich
are
essential,though usually
soils on occurringin minuter proportions.Plants depend entirely but essential constituents. When for these minute a plant is and nitrogenpass away, and burnt into ashes, its carbon, water
the ash left always contains the
phuric : phosphoricacid, sulfollowing and iron as acid, potash,lime, magnesia protoxide(FeO) and sesquioxide Fe803,soda, silica and chlorine are also' nearly always present, though some plantscan do without these food "
constituents. Alumina
is only sometimes present. the chemical requirementsof plants,soils can soils ; be divided into : (1)Aqueous or boggy soils ; (2) Nitrogenous soils soils Potassic Calcareous soils ; (4) (3) Phosphatic ; (5) ; (6) an Ferruginoussoils ; (7)Siliceous soils ; (8)Alkali soils (containing
Accordingto
abundance of lime,magnesia,soda,and potash) ; and (9)Sulphureous is of the highestvalue, then nitrogen,then phossoils. Water phorus, then
potash,then
lime
and
magnesia,then sulphur,then
chlorine and soda. The physicalimportance silica, iron,and lastly of silicaor sand, as making the soil freer and lighter to work and for roots to penetrate,is very great, but not its chemical importance. The chemical importanceof the soluble silicatesin soils is,however, very great. The importanceof chlorine and soda as present,for salt for certain crops such as cocoanuts, instance, in common beet (not sugar-beet), onions, carrots, radishes, potatoes, mangoes, cabbages,cotton, cashew-nuts, date, breadfruit tree, asparagus, is undoubted, but the presence of these is not essential in the soil
for every
Potash can replacesoda crop. of potash is therefore doubly
plants,and the important. The absence plants,just enumerated, in
some
presence of any of the essential constituents of makes a soil quitesterile. But it is rare to meet with a soil wanting in moisture, or nitrogen, or altogether phosphoricacid, or potash, or
acid. lime, or magnesia,or iron,or sulphuric in any
soil which
Plants
generally
of these. sufficient proportion The presence of an excess of certain salts or of some substances poisonous to plantsmay render the soil sterilein spiteof the presence in sufficient quantitiesof all the essential constituents. Nearly every soil contains all the essential constituents for the growth of and even the well-water or drainage-water vegetation, percolating throughsoils contains all the essential constituents for the growth of vegetation, much so so, that water-culture with such well or alone has been successful with reference to a good drainage-water grow
contains
a
oats. It is fr""m solutions that plantscan plants, including many absorb food. The solubility is helpedby the organic acids and the carbon-dioxide excreted by the rootlets. Soil digestedin water ought to part with one part of solid for every thousand parts of for plantsto make water two proper use of the solid. If over p"rts of solid are dissolved in every thousand parts of water, the
rootlets cannot make proper use of the food, nor if less than one part in two thousand parts. A soil can be too rich in soluble plantfoods or too popjr.^ A soil becomes too rich if in the dry season it is
CLASSIFICATION
CHEMICAL
OF
37
SOILS.
with fresh urine which contains nearlytwo per cent, of urea, used by plantsas food. But a be directly substance which can is at least ten of a valuable plant-food two per cent, solution even for Bengal cultivators regarding times too rich. This accounts urine as injurious valuable in the to crops, though it is really more fresh state than cowdung. Diluted with ten times as much water urine proves a most excellent fertilizerof soils. As nearlyall soils contain all constituents of plant-food, the chemical classification of soils is based not on absolute but only on relative grounds. Schubler's classificationis based on a consideration of only manured
a
four of the proximateconstituents of soils,viz.,Humus, Lime, Clay and Sand. It takes no direct cognizanceof the proportion of nitrogen, phosphoricacid, and potashwhich are the important mines deterconstituents of soils, the excess of which chiefly or deficiency of soils. But humus implies but also lime itself, only usuallyphosphoric indicate the acid, clay,potash,sand, and the soluble silicates, the
or fertility
barrenness
and lime not nitrogen;
Schubler's classificationhas also the merit of fertility. in practice to ordinary farming,as it does beingeasilyapplicable
nature not
and
of
but only on such rough depend on elaborate chemical analysis and educated ready methods of analysisas an intelligent
farmer
can
easilycommand.
To
determine the class of any soil accordingto the Table, followingdirection should be followed :
Schubler's
"
(1)
Take
in a the
hundred
one
dryingit for half
an
hour
platinumcrucible
over
grainsof in a
an
air
or
a
after Heat it
soil well-pulverized
oil-bath at 250"F. for half an hour, stirring desiccator and weigh. The
clear flame
Cool it in a occasionally. is calculated Humus. as weight (2) Digest the residue in the platinum crucible in a phial with cold diluted hydrochloric of half an acid in the proportion of of water hundred grainsof dry acid to ten ounces to one ounce hour for soil. Let the digesting half with occasional on an go wash with distilled Filter througha weighedfilter-paper, stirring. until the water water to ceases passingthrough giveacid reaction tested with litmus paper. Dry the whole at 250"F. ; weigh the substance in the filterpaper ; deduct the weightof the filter-paper. The loss of weight represents very of roughly the amount mass
loss of
lime.
(3) The
removed contents of the filter-paper are now carefully and the tall matter a impalpable glasscylinder, separated the sand and coarser particles by repeatedwashing with Stir well,let it subside for a minute and then pour off the water. thus separatedis supernatant liquid. The impalpable matter collected on d ried before and a as filter, weighed. The weight representsthe weight of clay. (4) The remainder is sand. refer any soil to can Proceedingon the above method we Schubler's Table which is given on the following pages. into from
*
e
refe
produce, designation their relations barley, land. (Vegetabl caulifl with
cr
to
Agricultural cotton, [Wheat, arakar
of
ence
and appropriate class
general
i
a "s
1!
It
ipipp b"Hib S
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255
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352
322
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555
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k*SD
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h-eBS^.S
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42
OF
HANDBOOK
The
AGRICULTURE.
of soils from fertility
the chemical pointof view depends in sufficient quantities of four essential
mainly on the presence constituents of plant-food, viz.,nitrogen, phosphoricacid,potash and lime. In fact, lime and potash being almost invariably the present in sufficientquantities, and
acid phosphoric
is
character of soils. If
mainly looked
a
soil contains
-5 of
of nitrogen deficiency of the chemical to in judging *1 to *5% of nitrogen and *08 classed as a good soil. Soils
excess
or
phosphoricacid, it may be containing 1% of potashor lime (thelatter not as insoluble silicate but as carbonate) ces. to be considered quiterich in these substanare A sample of dry soil showing *1% of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash would yieldout of a depth of nine inches,two to
to
three thousand
pounds of each of these constituents per
takes ordinarily
acre
; but
than
fiftyto sixtypounds per left a soil even that, properlytilled, without manure A soil containing of crops. would raise hundreds of of '2% as ammonia), '2% nitrogen(calculated phosphoricacid and "5%.of potash,and weighingwhen perfectly dry l,600,0001bs. is to of of five acre a 3,2001bs. inches, capable affording per depth of nitrogen as (calculated ammonia), 3,2001bs.of phosphoricacid and 8,0001bs.of potash. A good crop of twenty maunds of wheat and thirtymaunds more of wheat-straw per acre would not require than 401bs. of nitrogen, 201bs. of phosphoricacid and 261bs. of potash. The objectof manuring is to give a larger quantityof ing and a vailable to to really helpin dissolvplant-food growingcrops the plant-foodof the soil,and thus augmentingits quantity. A judiciously manured soil,also forest and pasture land, may go on .fertile. So few pounds of the chemical and more gettingmore constituents of manures taken up ordinarily are by crops, that it is easy to more of proper manures. than recoup these by the use To ascertain, needs the addition soil whether a particular however, of any of these constituents,whether one phosphoric nitrogen, ciently it is if acid,potash or lime in the form of manure, or alreadysuffirich in this or that constituent,and it will be superfluous no
crop
of these substances.
acre
up So
more
it is not absolutely another of the manures, necessary A ten-plotexperimentmay to have recourse to chemical analysis. be made after Ville's method to understand the chemical character in of a particular Boil. There should be ten equalplotsmanured the following way : No. 1. Sodium nitrate (Na NO.), 2201bs. or Ammonium 361bs, Chloride (NHt 01),1401bs.,i.e.,the quantity containing
to
use
one
or
"
of
should nitrogen,
be appliedper acre. Unmanured plot. 3. Sodium phosphate (Na HPO,), 441bs., i.e., the acid should be applied 221bs. of phosphoric quantitycontaining No. No.
per
2.
acre.
No,
4.
No, 5. after
Unmanured
plot.
*
Quick-lime (CaO), 401bs. should be appliedper
slaking.
acre
44
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
If the plotsare givea very fairidea of the available plant-foods. will be found unmanured and sufficient, quitedetached,one plot in that case it will be a five-plot experiment. As experiments should be always conducted in duplicate, two such series of fivewill also make If a plots ten-plot experiment. none of the applications if the yieldof the cereal and of the prove of any use, i.e., pulsecrop are about the same in all the manured and unmanured the soil must be considered extremelyrich in all available plots, and if all these applications one plant-foods notwithstanding ; does not get any yield or only a very poor yieldof pulsesand the soil should be considered barren or very nearly so, cereals, that is containing of of some salt,or (2)deficiency (1)an excess essential substance. some or constituent, (3) some poisonous Another method of carryingout this experiment is to apply mixture of all the four manures a to one without plot,the same lime to the next, the same without phosphoric acid to
without
potash to
a
third,the
same
and the same without nitrogen a fourth, is called Ville's Five-Plot Experiment. There should,however, be unmanured plotsfor comparison,and the the number of such plots, is the check. the more accurate more Pot-culture experiments have given very useful results in Japan, be more desired can as the conditions that are readilycontrolled in pots than in fields. to
fifth. This
a
CHAPTER CHEMICAL
CLASSIFICATION
VI. OF
INDIAN
SOILS.
[Chemical
of (1) Indo-Gangeticalluvium, of (2)Black cotton-soil, or composition of (4) Laterite soils, of (5) Deccan alluvial tracts,of (6)Dharwar (3)Red soils, soil ; Peculiarities of Indian soils with reference to Iron, Manganese, Lime, Magnesia, Potash, Phosphoric acid, Sulphuricacid, Carbonic acid, and Nitrogen; available Phosphoricacid in Indian soils,high ; Indian soils poor localities.] except in special c"
"
which four main types of soil,"says Dr. Leather, Indian cultivated the far of the area, are greaterpart occupy by alluvium,(2) the black cotton-soil or regur, (1) the Indo-Gangetic red the soils (3) lyingon the metamorphicrocks of Madras, and (4) the lateritesoilswhich are met with in many In partsof India/' THE
addition* to these we might mention (5) Stretches of alluvium which are situated at the mouths of the Mahanadi, Godaveri,and other rivers,which bear no comparisonto the Indo-Gangetic alluvium. rocks which is also quite the Dharwar (6) The soil covering differentfrom the red soilsof the metamorphicrocks of the Madras Soils of other kinds also occur in smaller patches, Presidency. but the .main types of Indian soils are four alluvium,regur, the Madras red soils, and those popularly called laterite. The composition of the last two
classes of soilvaries very much*
CLASSIFICATION
CHEMICAL
OF
INDIAN
45
SOILS.
soils of the Indo-Gangetic The alluvium are of a nd fine the no generally pebbles, texture, containing only ticles parlargerthan sand to be met with in the alluvium consist of within a few feet of the surface. The character kankar, deposited varies within certain limits. In most places the alluvium is yellow loam. is others In some and in it places sandy, clayey. The clay Alluvium
"
is generally also sand dunes bluish grey. Occasionally have been formed by the wind. The following tables furnish the analysesby Dr. of the principal alluvium soils : Indo-Gangetic
or
hills
Leather
"
/.
Sandy
soil from Ison sand
belt
Cawnpore :
near
Insoluble Silicatesand Sand Oxide of Iron Alumina Lime
.
.
.
91'72%
.
2'36
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
.
"
2-92 "
.
.
.
.
.
.
;
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
'35 "
'78
Magnesia
'33
Potash Soda
'08 ..
..
..
-08
acid (Pa05) Phosphoric acid (SO.) Sulphuric Carbonic acid (CO,) * Organicmatter and combined .
.
.
.
.
.
'04
..
..
"
"
..
..
"
"
water
*27 1*07
.
.
100-00 *
//.
Sandy loams
:
Containing -027% of Nitrogen.
"
From
Ganges
Ison
Doab.
From
Burdwan
Experimental Farm.
Insoluble Silicates and Oxide of Iron Alumina Oxide of Manganese .
.
Sand
.
.
.
.
88*08% 3'10
5'58
.
"
Nil .
.
"
"
4'38 .
84'31%
"
6*09 '12
"
"
'47
Lime
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
*32
Magnesia
"
'64
Potash Soda
"
'09
Phosphoricacid (P20S) Sulphuricacid (S08) Carbonic
.
.
acid
Organicmatter
(COJ and
combined
"
'08 .
.
.
.
.
.
"
'05 "
-37 "
water
*2*42 "
100-00 *
ContainingNitrogen
t ContainingNitrogen
=
'081
=
'042 per cent.
per
cent,
100-00
46
Loamy
///.
soils:
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
"
Insoluble Silicates and Oxide of Iron
Sand
Alumina Oxide Lime
of
Manganese
Magnesia Potash Soda
Phosphoricacid (Pa03) Sulphuricacid (S0t) Carbonic
acid
(COJ
*0rganicmatter
'
water
Containing Nitrogen
Clay loams
IV.
and combined
:
"
Bahr, Patna.
Insoluble Silicatesand Sand Oxide of Iron
Dumraon
Sibpur
Farm.
Farm.
72-64% 80-90% 7-58 9-89
Alumina Oxide of Manganese
"
1-64 Potash
6-36 7-93 "
"
"
Lime
73-58%
"
6-50
"14
1-01
6-12
"
'14 2-07 1-17
"
"11 "
1-52 "
1-61 "
"64
"73
"82
Soda "07 Trace "28
acid Phosphoric
*
acid Sulphuric
Carbonic acid
..
^Organicmatter and wat$r
*
Nitrogen Containing
..
)J
"08 V/V/
Trace
"
" "
"11 }y
-05
"03 1-35
"
combined 5-93
2-24
6'76
100-00
100-00
100-00
"061%
"041%
"065%
CHEMICAL
Two
CLASSIFICATION
OF
other
gave
the
samplesof SibpurFarm result : following
INDIAN
Soil
ther analysedby Dr. Lea-
"
Insoluble Silicatesand Sand Soluble Silicates Oxide of Iron(FeflO,) Alumina (A1208) Oxide of Manganese(MnO)
.
Lime(CaO)
..
Magnesia(MgO) Alkalis (sodaand potash) acid (S03) Sulphuric Phosphoricacid (P405) Carbonic acid
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
and combined
of
three
of composition
the
-28
4-73
6*28
4*47
7*96 2*03
2*00
2f14
-08
.
-11 .
.
.
T79 Trace
Trace
..
water
*12
2*07
.
..
Nitrogen(Total) above
.
.
..
72*88
-03
-11
..
.
.
.
78*95
.
.
.
.
(CO*)
Organicmatter
The
47
SOILS.
.
..
12
3*82
3*95
3*63
2*45
100*00
100*00
-063
-065
idea of the variableness analysesgive some soil of SibpurFarm, chiefly in lime and the
alkalis. V.
Calcareous soil from
Pratapgarh(Oudh):
Insoluble Silicatesand Sand
Oxide of Iron Alumina Oxide of
.
.
.
.
Manganese
.
.
Lime
.
.
Magnesia Potash Soda
Phosphoricacid acid Sulphuric Carbonic acid
*0rganicmatter
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
"
.
..
57*52% 3*23 3*39 Nil 14*54 1-86
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
" "
-02
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
and combined
..
water .
"
*18 "
.
'08 "
11*42
..
.
"
-44
.
..
"
"
.
7-32 100-00
*
Containing Nitrogen
..
..
..
'18 per cent.
calcareous soils are rare in India,beds of kankar commonly underlie the Indo-Gangetic alluvium,the black cotton-soil and other soils. The surface-soil of the alluvium is usuallyfree from kankar,except where there is an outcrop of the bed of kankar. and in the black cotton-soil, In the old alluvium the kankar
Though
well as mixed up with the soil. Some of the reten per cent, of calcium carbonate. as gur soils contain as much surface of the rockysoilsin the Kankar often occurs on many parts that cart-loads of lumps of the Santhal Parganasin such profusion occurs
in beds
of kankar
are
as
collectedfor six
annas
each.
The soilof the
Sibpur
48
HANDBOOK
AOBIOULTUBB.
OF
is rich in calcium carbonate (about two per cent.). The of phosphoricacid also in Indo-Gangetic alluvial soils i" of potash than in other Indian soils. The amount usuallymore of nitrogen is sufficient. The amount in the samples examined alluvium is and organicmatter in soils from the Indo-Gangetic in the iron alumina The oxide of and low. of amount usually Farm
amount
alluvium is usuallyhigherthan in European loams Indo-Gangetic The clays. sandy soils contain about two and a half per is higherin loams, while in clays The proportion cent, of these. absent it is from six to eightper cent. Sulphatesare practically and
the regur, the red-soils of Madras and the laterite soils,but contain a small amount. alluvial soils sometimes
from
the black cotton-soils or regurs. Their composition is not very variable in soluble silicatesand sand The of oxide of iron usuallyranges from five amount (65 to 75%). of alumina is usuallya little to nine per cent., while the amount than iron,that alumina Madras soils contain more greater. regur Regur
from
"
-We
next
to
come
the Central Provinces
iron
more
than
alumina.
Manganese
Lime occurs amount. there is more calcium carbonate and calcium silicate. Where than a small quantitypresent,calcium carbonate usually predominates.
is
always
in all these soils
present in small
as
Regurs usually lime.
The
soils. The not
potash is
contain
more
than
1 per
two
to
five per
cent,
in
usually high amount usuallypresent in only small
present
phosphoricacid is
from
in
of
regur tity, quan-
Regurs are poor in soils. bined Organicmatter and combut it is chiefly high proportion,
cent,
is the rule. ' k
other Indian in very water occur and not organic matter. In heating,the regur combined water and contracts changes colour from black to dark-brown very This is due to the loss of the water much of hydrain volume. tion from hydratedferric oxide and alumina, in which substances rich. The regur is rather poor in organic the regur is specially and its richness is chiefly due to its friability matter and nitrogen, moisture. and its power of retaining Indeed the outturn of crops land at the Nagpur Farm is lower than from similar from unmanured the soil in alluvium. is At it Dr. Gangetic loamy any rate, that it is a common that mistake to suppose Leather's opinion, cotton-soil Southern and of is black India is it the rich, very
nitrogenlike most ' '
only richet than
the surroundinggravellyred and brown soils. boiled with concentrated be If regur sulphuricacid for several the silicates) becomes very dark* hours, the insoluble residue (i.e., Other soils colour. t reated in brown similarly usuallygive a black white residue. The of the silicates colouring matter with if due to organic acid, matter, would digested strongsulphuric
disappearunder this treatment,
and it must be concluded that the silicates in dark-coloured blackness of the regur is due to some mineral and not to organicmatter. This has now been shown oxide be of iron. to largelymagnetic
*"
SSO p tfl
"
"
2 jg
C* ^
^
*
G
8 a q5
-
S
!"S
I
S
2
18
H
K M t-
i*1
"N
ds
91
rn
t-
-
o
as
5
CO
^J"
O Oi
i
SOILS.
INDIAN
OP
CLASSIFICATION
CHEMICAL
-
QO
"
o
o
'
" H
w
CC
^
SS^'*1^
00
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S
^"r6,|S
i
H
!
-fl
tf "
"""
O3 **
QO
JLIJL.*-* I
95*
"
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QC
^
L"
*
^P
|O
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i|~s" 9
""
17
"S ffi O
OJ
r;
s"
CQ
I s
2 CO
O"
O5
O
Cl
00
OO
C-l
O O
rf"-^fHio6"WCOCO
N
X
IO
W
"*^
T^
*?P I ^
8
H
1
^Scbi)^^-
^^g/?7"
t*
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2
? *
p*i
o
^Q
!
"g
T3
" 3
|
* M
1 HA
N
50
HANDBOOK
Brown
OF
alluvialsoils of Madras.
AGRICULTURE.
These
"
classed by Dr. Leather, the
soils which
have been separately
loamy high proportions of lime is small and the of iron and alumina, the amount of magnesiahigh. They are, as a rule,rich,in potash amount but not in phosphoricacid and nitrogen.These are believed to do not show them to be but the analyses be very fertilesoils, any alluvium, fertile than the Indo-Gangetic more contain
and
with alluvium soils we have and we givebelow the figures of Dr. Leather to do in Bengal, chiefly the of soils o f with the of Hazariconnection in analyses some rocky Most of these bagh, Lohardaga,Singhbhum and Manbhum. Rocky Soils. "
With
these
ones
and granitic basaltic soils. True soils,including soils are gneissose in a band and in patches it is too stiff laterite occurs ; and where it is barren for and ferruginous, ordinaryagricultural crops. The amount of lime in these is small of also is not that or magnesia high, while that only moderate, The proportion of potash acid is uniformlylow. of phosphoric that of ferric oxide and alumina is indifferently high or low, and of organicmatter of nitrogen is rather high. The proportion soils in main the the low. rocky composition, They resemble of difference being in the proportionof phosphoricacid. Some of this a nd others the rockysoilshave a highproportion constituent, soils of Coimbatore, Madura, Karred the Madras whilst low, very and Kistna are all uniformlypoor in this constituent, nool,Trichinopoly the extreme variation in the samplesanalysedby Dr. Leather beingbetween '04 and "11 per cent. The
Red Soils of Madras.
General remarks
"
about Indian soils"
Iron
in
usually occurs
larger
proportionthan in Englishsoils in the Indo-Gangeticalluvium two to seven per cent.,in the regur four to eleven per cent.,in the Madras red soils three and a half to ten per cent., and in Madras The proportion of alumina alluvium five to seventeen per cent. is also high in Indian soils. In the Indo-Gangeticalluvium three to ten per cent.,regur s six to fourteen per cent., red soils one and a and a half to fifteen half to fifteen per cent., rocky soils seven alluvium six to fifteen per cent, in loams, but per cent., Madras less in sandy soils. Coffee soils of the Madras Presidency "
much contain as seventeen to as twenty per cent, of this constituent. Lime* occurs more usually as silicate than as carbonate. follows : Gangetic Calculated as the as oxide, figuresrun alluvium,two to three per cent., regur one to eight per cent., Madras red soils, lateritesand Madras alluvium less than one per "
cent.
as
An Englishfarmer usually a fair proporaims at maintaining tion This is for the of lime in his soil, cent. about one pose purper say of havingfree basic matter to combine with the organicacids and they are formed from the humus, tinuously consoon as they are "
beingformed.
The
of humus, proportion
however, in
5SJ
over
soils of the
The
this.
soil from
but
the
in
only
phosphates
to
total
fourth
of
the
Indian
soils, while about
higher, "
one
less than
Nagpur
mental experi-
of
proportion About in
usually
unmanured
when
available
one-third
or
available
an
soils
the
and
in
sulphuric acid with
one-
form
in of
proportion manured
is present
some
it forms
which
one
soils
sodium
with
or
in
"
no
soil,
a
of
the of
majority case
much
as
of
case
sulphate and
in
other
The
sulphates.
remarkably little sulphate, the in exception occurs
impregnated
are
the
An
cent.
per
and
one-sixteenth
is about
with
soils contain
which
proportion
Dumraon
cent.
per is
combination
in
oxides,
phosphates is usually
the
fourth.
one-
exists
always
metallic
as
'01
phosphoric acid,
Like
found
showed
farm
phosphates in English
phosphates
available
Indian
one
less than
be
he
Cawnpore,
Dumraon
of
case
available
of total phosphoric acid, *05 to '09 per cent, of the Nagpur and plot in the case one plot
contain
farms
AGRICULTURE.
of
soils the proportion regur In two '01 per cent. cases
and
it
OF
HANDBOOK
soils
usar
sodium
carbon*
ate. AcM
Carbonic
usually
lime
the
with
is
and
and
of
The of iron
are
rich in
not
the
determining humus.
and
water,
soil
a
serve
alumina
nitrogen
alluvium
by
as
of
and
a
so
are
contain
contains
The
other
that
have
had
in old fallows
or
the
Where
reality. virgin richness flooded As
soil has
Indian been
a
loss
constituent,
"
the
tions propor-
Shevaroys Speaking of nitrogen.
Pratapgarh.
or
'05 *03
cent,
higher.
cent.
the The
Laterite
cent.
per per
In
cent.
per little
a
But' soils
accumulating nitrogen,whether a higher proportion. soils is
a
more
in cultivation
myth
for many
has
the (e.g.l
annually Bengal).
of
forests, contain
of reputed fertility
The
canals
in
opportunity
contain
soils of
'1 per about '05
the
lime.
approximately
than
only
the
by combustion
even
coffee
soils of
soils
the
with
chieflywhere
and
regurs
red
that
chieflyto
valuable
proportion is the same usually contain less than rocky soils contain only about
and
loss
of
most
less
to
soils
due
sequence. con-
combine
assumed
Indian
the
of
occurs
some
much
in combination
means
that
great.
are
be
rule,
a
of
sufficient
heating is often
by combustion
soils generally,Indian The Gangetic alluvium
Madras
mainly
As
knowledge
a
is not
not
therefore
or
loss
amount
loss
and
proportions
"
does
of this
it may
Nitrogen. The
little organic matter. of combined
in
present wholly
matter
Organic
exists
present,
acid
carbonic
determination
The
"
It
than
years,
a
the
it is irrigatedby disappeared, except where Eden canal), bringing rich deposits of silt,or rivers in Eastern by leaving such deposits (e.g.,
rule, Indian
soils
yield poor
crops.
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
OF
CHAPTER
PHYSICAL
-n,"iipci",uui.o,
Evenness
ojjcumv;
of
VII.
PROPERTIES
uettL',
53
SOILS.
-EL
xxuuiiuiuu,
OF
usurp
temperature, Inclination, Electric
SOILS.
tiuu
u/uu
cvei/eiiuiuji
UJL
jneuif
influences,Elevation, Lati
Weight. The specificgravity of soil as it naturallyoccurs, the weightof natural soil as compared to that of distilledwater i.e., varies from 1 to 2. Some have less specific peat-soils gravitythan "
1. The floating vegetable gardensof Kashmir consist of lightpeatsoil of this kind. The absolute weight of soils varies from 50 to 120ftls.per cubic foot, a cubic foot of distilledwater weighing 62'5fbs. A cubic foot of rich garden-mould weighs about TOtbs, ; of ordinary arable land 80 to 90fts. ; of dry sand llOfbs. The
weightof an
of soilto the depth of one to foot varies from one loam of of about 4,800,000ffis. pounds ; dry sand, ; of half clay and half sand, 4,200,000fts. consisting ; of ordinary arable soil 3,800,000 to 3,900,000fts. ; ; of stiff clay,3,250,000ffis. of garden-mould,3,000,000fts. An of peat to the depth of acre foot weighs from one million pounds. A soil when to two one soil found to weigh 3,137,000ttjs. The same perfectly dry was when found It should be wet to was weigh 4,000,OOlJbs. acre
five million
remembered an
tons
be
that
rainfall increases the weight of hundred foot by about one a one depth In (224,000ffis.). agricultural language,a soil is said to
acre
of
inch
one
soil to
which
of
of
offers
the
plough. Sandy soils which actuallyweigh heavier than other soils are called soils because they offer least resistance to the plough. A light stiff clay soil which is said to be very heavy becomes i.e., lighter, less resistant to the plough,after there is a shower of rain,though the rain actually adds to the weightof the soil. The specific ity gravof soils, not as theyactually but of the materials of which occur they are composed varies from 2*5 to 2'8. The specific gravityof heavy
soils very
rich in
considerable
organicmatter
resistance
is sometimes
to
less than
2.
The
specific gravityof quartz is 2*65. Porosity. The
fineness of division of the particles of soil has of tion on vegetation.Food plantsmust pass into solube assimilated. before it can with which this The rapidity action can take placeis in direct ratio to the surface. dissolving the space The finer the particles, the greater the surface and more the growing roots have for their developmentand- spread. But "
great influence
when
the
are particles
too
fine,the soil becomes
too
compact for
and it cracks in drying,which also interferes roots to penetrate, with the spreadof roots. Up to a certain limit,therefore,fineness of division of the particles of soilis desirable. The condition known the in is best as loamy respectof porosity.
64
HANDBOOK
Retention of water.
AGRICULTURE.
OF
This capacityof soils depends mainly on the fineness of division of their particles. Humus or vegetable organicmatter in the soil has the greatestcapacityfor retaining in this respectthan sand. moisture,and clayhas a greatercapacity "
Angularfragmentshave greater capacitythan
round fragments for retaining 100 parts of sand take up about 25 parts moisture. of water by weight and 49 parts by volume ; clay40 parts by weight and 68 by volume ; fine calcareous soil,85 by weight and 80
190 by weight and 93 by volume. takes soil Ordinaryagricultural up about 50 per cent, by weight of water. that an inch of irrigation It will thus be seen or rainfall in at a time soaks it to a depth of about two inches,and provision the matter should of irrigation be ordinarily this basis. made on
Heat
by
volume
;
humus,
of The porosity capacityfor holdingwater. also soil though dependingmainly on the fineness of its particles, of soils fineness Loose looseness filth. or depends on agricultural can
decreases this
hold 59 per
cent,
will hold only 45 per
of water, while cent,
and
the
same
presseddown,
soil shaken
down
only 40 per cent.
Capillarity.The capillarypower of soils for drawing water their from below on depends porosity.Clay possesses the greatup est and sand and chalk the least. A column of fine clay capillarity wetted from the bottom will become to two wet to a heightof one "
wetted yards. Quartz-sand similarly
onlyhalf a
yard,and
becomes
wet
to
a
height of
up of of pure calcium carbonate)to a stillless height. The particles of soils in lump is less than that of the same soils action capillary when finelypowdered or broken down. of the many This is one takes cultivation action benefits reasons why Capillary crops. three or four days before it reaches its final limit. Capillarity is disturbed by digging or spreading on irrigated up the surface-soil,
chalkyand
calcareous
made soil (i.e., soil,
soils, dry earth. The retention of moisture \mder trees, or in sugarcane ber, trenches,is thus helpedby digginground the trees in Novemand in earthing trenches with dry earth after up sugar-cane Loss irrigation.
of water
raised
is by evaporation, by capillarity,
thus avoided. Hygroscopicpower
All porous bodies have the power of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. The proportion of moisture absorbed depends (1) upon the surface exposed,and (2)on the, nature of "he substance. Organic substances, as a rule, are than Wool, silk and mineral substances. more hygroscopic hair are highlyhygroscopic.Wool absorbs nineteen to twenty "
per
cent, of moisture
and
this selling,
from
air at the
freezing temperature.
In
buying
be borne in mind. Silk may contain nine or the eleven per cent, and above over of normal moisture,without one noticing it. In buying100 maunds of silk it is quitepossible throw to away Its.7,000 or Bs. 8,000 in must
ten per cent, of latent moisture
should be buying superfluouswater. Dry seasons substances. these with refuse buying Manuring soils
chosen for from wool
PHYSICAL
or
silk factories
moisture.
or
OF
PROPERTIES
with
55
SOILS.
hair,increases their absorbent power for
Absorbent
varies very considerably in soils. power Coarse quartz-sandabsorbs littleor no water from air,calcareous sand very little; ordinary* and more arable,clay and humus soils,
Calcareous sand
finelypowdered absorbs
twelve times as The coarse aqueous rapidityof vapour as of moisture present in the absorption dependsupon the proportion of water air; but the total amount absorbed mainly depends on at at a low than a temperature, more being absorbed high Hence the soil of the at a temperature. necessity desiccating uniformly high temperature for purposes of analysis.Sowing of seed for rdbi crops should be done in the evening after which the land should be harrowed and left in an open state for absorption of dew. In the morning rolling done be as so or ladderingshould more.
much
to
in the
keep in
the moisture
absorbed
state.
night.
at
Evaporation. Soils becoming superficially dry in the day time absorb moisture at night. All soils exposed to air lose their less rapidily, moisture more or sandy soils most rapidly, clay less rapidly, and humus soils list rapidly. Exposed to a dry atmosphere at 19" C for four hours in an experiment "
"
"
Siliceous soillost Calcareous sand Pure
clay
Claysoil Chalk Garden Humus
.
.
.
.
88 .
.
%
of moisture.
76 .
.
.
.
.
.
52 35
..28 ..
soil or
24
.
.
peaty soil
.
.
20 .
.
for a Coagulation In fresh water, clay remains in suspension in a nd but salt it water deposited gets coagulated very longtime, Hence formation of soils in the sea is facilitated. at the bottom. of any soluble salt to salt or gypsum The addition of common or mixture of clay and fresh water, would demonstrate the action a of the sea has in the formation of clay-soils. The application is such as castor-cake or gypsum to clay-soils, certain manures "
known
of gypsum friable. The use soils porous has been demonstrated.
make
to
plastic
usar
it
more
in
making
Shrinkageand expansion. Pure clay contracts eighteenper cent. in volume when it becomes wet, and strong claysoilsmay contract to ten eight Lightsandy soilswith littlehumus undergo per cent. littleor no change in volume when wet. soils expand up Humus and to fifteen per cent, when in frost. more wet, Clay soil also expands in frost. This expansionoften causes rupture of roots of crack. These in drying, crops growingon these soils. Clay soils, cracks also damage the roots of*growing crops. "
Colour.
"
The
colour
Dark-coloured
of the soil somewhat
bodies
being more
.
affects its temperature.
quicklyheated
thaa
56
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
soilsand dark basalt soils are warmer sandy soils. If dark-coloured shales are over vineyardsin cold countries,ripeningtakes place sprinkled white Smooth and substances darkquicker. sprinkledover coloured soil would keep such soil comparatively cool. As we are
bodies,humus light-coloured than limestone soils and
interested in keepingsoils cool rather than warm, we might white chipsof stone or chalk on darktry the effect of scattering coloured soils. For practical the questionof colour is purposes not of much importancein a country where coolness is best secured more
by moisture which most soils are in need of, at certain critical -however, is of periods.The questionof temperature of the soil, great importance. Temperature "
The
temperature
mean
in different climates,but
even
in the
same
of the surface soil differs soils
localitysome
are
The heat of the soil is cold and others as warm. and it is distinguished from three sources accordinglyas solar heat, terrestrialheat, and chemical heat. The chemical heat in porous soils, derived from decayingorganicmatter, especially is very considerable ; but as this heat is evolved very slowly,it has
recognisedas
derived
plant-life. Owing to the internal of the earth,there is very little change of temperature due to radiation,between day and night below a depth of four little perceptible effect
from
the
depth
of
surface
in
on
warm
countries.
In
to eightyfeet the seventy-five
feet
countries,below a temperature is constant,
affected by radiation at night,and solar The mean annual temperature of the surface soil colder than that of the air ; but moist clay-soils are continual above them, as the evaporation goingon the
face sur-
cold
i.e.,not
lowers
heat
heat is
by day. over slightly
the from
atmosphere them
tinually con-
Water
ascendingby capillary temperature. and subsoil the action from the place of that evaporated taking from the surface soil, keepsthe surface-soil always cold. heat The less the specific Specific heat of the soil, the more heat of soils compared to that of rapidlyis it heated. The specific and from *16 to -3 for varies from *2 to *5 for equal volumes water heat than clay. The equalweights. Sand has a greater specific actual capacityof soil for heat, however, is largely dependenton its capacityfor water has four or five times the specific water as heat of soils. Quartz-sand becomes heated to the highesttemperature a$d white chalk-soil to the lowest temperature under the "
solar influence. The coolness of lime-soils is therefore of climates,and the advantageof kankar great advantagein warm beds can be viewed from this pointalso. Moist claysoilswhich are considered very objectionable from the temperature pointof view in cold countries should, from the same pointof view, be looked
same
upon
as
highlyadvantageousfor
Radiation.
Radiation surfaces which polished "
ftiisclin^ate.
also affects temperature. Smooth reflect heat most absorb perfectly,
and and
PHYSICAL
PROPEBTIES
57
SOILS.
OF
moist soils at nightis such soils colder and are called whole, are quick,but, on radiation results in quicker formation 'cold soils.' Nocturnal of dew in the interstices of soils where water vapour accumulates in larger than in the air. proportions
radiate it least
readily.The radiation from the
less
Retention of heat.
Quick
slow fineness or
coolingdepends partlyon heat but chiefly of the of particles on specific largeness covered Soils soil,finelydivided particles more readily. cooling cool more with gravels, slowlythan sandy soils. Sandy soils also and these longer retain heat longerthan clay-soils than humus soils. Water beinga bad conductor of heat,wet soils differlittlefrom one and retention of heat. A wet plotmay another, in the absorption be as much 7"C higherin temperature earlyin the morning or as 7"C lower in temperature at 3 or 4 P.M. in the daytime than a neighbouring effectof irrigation soils in equalon dry plot. The physical ising and soils from be hot cannot keeping gettingtoo temperature overrated in a climate like that of India. In England coldness of soils is avoided by drainage.Drainage for this purpose alone is in this climate. not required "
Evenness to the helpful
or
of temperature and
growth of
slow
nocturnal
radiation
are
plants.Uniformityof temperature
very occurs
in sea-side places, the climate of which should be considered favourable to vegetationfor this reason only. It should be noted, for developing the germinating however, that cold is helpful power of seed in the case of many agricultural crops of the temperate
climates,and
the difference of
ficial. winter is therefore beneplaceshigh winds prove an obstacle to agricultural From difference between the to operations. January May the day and nighttemperatures is the greatest in the plains of Bengal, and
summer
In sea-side
while are
in
in
July and August
hampered therefore July
and
of Calcutta
table
August.
it is the least.
from January to The
throughoutthe
maximum year
Vegetativeprocesses May and highlyfacilitated
and
minimum
will be found
from
temperatures the
following
:
"
Maximum,
January February
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
March
April May
83"F. 91" 99"
..
..
..
..
July
..
..
August
..
..
September
,.
..
..
..
October November ..
..
..
..
December
52"F. 54" 64"
100" 98" 93"
69" 69" 73" 76"
92" 93"
75" 75"
91" 86"
68" 57"
81"
52"
103"
June
Minimum.
68
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
determine The maximum and minimum temperatureschiefly A certain at the crops that can be successfully a locality. grown temperature of over 90"F. is not suitable for growingwheat, and a temperature of under 60"F. is not suitable for the growth of rice. is unsuitable for the growth of A temperatureof 32"F.,i.e., frost, does it kill not though deep-rooted vegetation, crops and trees,the ness are lodgedin warmer securely layersof soil. Evenof soilin which the roots of plants of temperature of the layers to vegetation only when other conditions are lodgedis helpful
roots of which
are
equal. The
followingtable gives the temperature of at the depth of three feet :
Calcutta at the surface and
Metin
temperature
at the
January
February March
April May June
July August September October November December
Yearly mean
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
temperature
the
soil of
"
surface.
a
temperature
depth
of 3 feet.
64*4"F. 71-2"
72'5"F. 74-1"
82-7" 91-3" 90-4" 87-5"
78*4" 84'5" 87'1" 87'2"
86-2"
86-4"
85'9"
86-1"
86-0"
89-1"
83*2" 73-3"
85-2"
64-8"
75-1" 82'0"
80-6" .
Mean at
81-0"
.
the angle at which the sun's rays strike the influences the earth, temperature of the soil. Where there is a
Inclination,or
of moisture,more direct rays of the sun sufficiency causinggreater of the indigenous heat of the soil,only result in richer vegetation kinds. A southern slopein the northern hemisphereis therefore desirable for moist climates ; but a level soil helpingretention of rainwater on it is by far the best for all ordinary purposes, in most radiation from walls is In cold climates even taken advantageof in increasing the heat of the neighbouring soil and in growingfruits on the walls, to greaterperfection. The electricalinfluences of various classes of soils on plantlife in wet an"J in dry conditions,have not been studied sufficiently
parts of India.
enable
givedefinite information on the subject. studied at present, But this is the subjectwhich is beinglargely and and cipated i n France chiefly Germany, importantresults are antifrom this study. Electricity has been appliedto plantsin three ways, the soil of wires buried about by means (1) through two inches deep,(2)by a network of wires carried in the air above which act like the growingcrop, and (3) by powerfularc-lights the lightbeing also softened by amber globes. strong sun-light, minutelyto
us
to
"
Under
the continuous
action of the last of these crops have
been
(JO
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
VIII.
CHAPTER SUNLIGHT,
AND
RAIN
HAIL.
different coloured rays on vegetation; Blue rays the best ; Solar of plants for sunlight of endurance measured ; ; Difference Kainfall how governed ; Regions beyond high hills,rainless ; South- West and North- East monsoons Regions of heavy rainfall ; ; Receding monsoon; Effect of rain on soil ; Loss of water ing by drainage and evaporation ; Sinkof rainwater in the soil ; Rainfall gettingmore precarious on account of destruction of trees ; Untimely rainfall should be utilised ; Catch crops of calculation method and of rainfall and fertilising crops ; Brahmins' of rainfall, temperature, both meteorologists' methods faulty; Table rainfall altitude,latitude and longitudeof typicalplacesin Bengal ; What should be aimed of weather at in securing site for a farm ; Reading charts ; How hailstorms prevented in Austria and Italy.]
[Effect of
radiation how
known to Sunlight* Solar rays of different colours are duce prodifferent effects on vegetation.An experimentwas ed conductin glass of the following colours was compartments in which glass used ; ruby, brown-red, orange, cobalt-blue and deepyellow, soil in the box covered The young plantsfirstbroke the green. with the orange glass,and last under those covered by yellow, found that the effectof green and blue glasses.It was subsequently the yellowrays was such as to prevent the germination of the seed, "
even
althoughthe
rays
only rested
on
the
surface
of the soil while
the seed
lay buried beneath ; while, again,the blue lightseemed to remarkably favour the process. Under the orange lightthe and had white but then stalks, they plantsgrew very tall, they it was refused to put forth any flowers. Under the yellow light remarkable of littlefungior moulds that a number sprang up and withered and flourished luxuriantly while the plant themselves died. Under the red lightthe plants only grew an inch or two high,had somethingof a reddish colour,and soon rotted and perished, the soilin which food in abundance of w ith althoughsupplied
they were placed. Under but tolerably strong,yet
the green would none
lightthe plantsgrew slowly the flower, notwithstanding
results under the The paid to them. littleless seed a different. The germinated glasswere very quicklythan in the open air,but the plantsbecame compact and healthyin their character,puttingforth their flower buds strongly and flowering alone did the various Under this light in perfection.
greatestcare
and
attention
blue
processes go on with the vigourwhich is characteristic of vegetation in the open air. It is inferred that such would also probablybe the case with plantsgrown under violet glass. stations with the Solar radiation is recorded in meteorological of consists mometer of radiation This a delicate therthermometer. help a in a glass tube havinga dull blackened bulb and paclosed This instrument is freely from which the air has been removed. and its maximum of solar radiationwhich
exposed to the heat of the The
greatestamount
sun
readingregistered. occurs during the
HAIN
SUNLIGHT,
AND
61
HAIL.
mum by the excess of this temperature over the maxiIn shade. tlie the of ture, moisthe air in of presence temperature solar heat is most potent in accelerating vegetative processes, solar heat. of endurance of differ in the power but plants Cotton, for and Sida example, though rhombifolia, tropical plants pineapple, is indicated
day
cannot
under
bear the full blaze of the the shade of trees.
tropical sun,
and
they do
better
that govern rainsaid that the1 causes fall well understood. Rainfall is regulated in India are very and w inds the partlyby the contour of the prevailing partlyby with reference to the positionof the seafe and the country, chiefly Rainfall
"
be
It cannot
In the mountains. turned towards the
neighbourhoodof high mountains
the face condensation of sea, the rainfall is heavy, as mountains. A tableland most these takes o n readily place vapour surrounded by mountains, e.g., the Tibetan receives very tableland, littlerain,since the winds which reaqh it have alreadyparted with the hill-sides. Differences of temperatheir moisture in ascending ture of the globe, stimulate currents of air,and in different regions when into a very hot and dry regioncurrents of air flow from the sea
and
cold
from
accompaniedby the continuous and make the
and
moist
rain follow.
In
on
hill-tracts, cyclonicdisturbances the greaterpart of Northern India
heat of
the air April,May and June tends to rarify in that region and continuous atmospheric pressure light
thereafter flow into these in definite directions. Thus in Bombay the monsoon zones rent curis from the south-west,i.e.,the Arabian Sea, while we have it from the south in Calcutta. These winds when theyreach their full force in June, and when they are accompanied by cyclonic Under normal ditions constorms, are termed the south-west monsoon. and in 14th the 20th between of they begin Ceylon May, at and Rangoon a few days later?and at the head of the Andamans currents
Bay
of
of
air laden with
moisture
Bengal during the first or second week of information telegraphic regardingthe monsoon
June.
To
obtain current from various stations in Southern India, from Ceylon and from the Andamans, is therefore of very great importancefrom an agricultural of transplanting at the time point of view, specially
paddy. which a particular and distributionof rainfall ity localdetermine its productiveness, in receives,usually especially the In the Malabar Coast of India and in parts of Assam the tropics. largestquantityof rainfall occurs, and these are among the most productivetracts in India. The regionsof heavy rainfall, i.e., of 70 to 100 inches or more, are Assam, parts of Eastern Bengal, the Cis-Himalayanregionof Northern Bengal "*nd the Eastern and Western Ghauts. The
The
amount
effect of rainfallslowlybut surely in changingthe physical character of the surface soil,where4 siich soil lies bare or is ovetgrown oalyby short grass, must not be ignored.The finerparticles
62
HANDBOOK
OF
AGBICULTURE.
washed out, the soil has a tendency of claygetting to get lighter, which is an advantageonly for soils which are too stiff. High amount of fine dust and tend to winds, however, bringback some balance. winds which High prevailon the seaside districts keep up a therefore not to be regardedas absolutely inimical to In of time pursuits. course agricultural they helpto make sandy tracts loamy and fit for cultivation. On the whole, however, are
boisterous winds
to helpful
the proper growth of less crops unthey are very short crops. An occasional galemay lay low and spoil a crop nearlyreadyfor the sickle and where high winds are the rule, is genervery few crops can be grown and the landscape ally found quitebare of trees in such localities, and how helpful are
not
"
in various ways, we shall see later on. agriculture What proportionof rain evaporates,what proportionsinks into the soiland feeds wells and springs, and what proportion finds its way by means of drains,streams and rivers, into the sea, depend trees
are
to
of the year, the porosity upon tljeclimate of the place,the season the nature of the strata below,and the contour of the of the soil, whole district or locality. Untimely rainfall. It is generally considered that the rainfall "
than used to be the case. in India is becomingmore precarious t he it isdifficult is this case to say, for the precariousfar really in recent years may be simplydue to the fact that the character ness in cycles. But there are some of the climate runs elements in the of which condition of are consideration things from worthy present view. One of form in which the uneven our bution distripresentpoint of rainfall takes in India is the occurrence of heavy rains In 1906, for instance,after a fair amount out of season. of rainfall How
in
January, in most parts of Bengal and Upper India,extraordinarily rains occurred in heavy February,in some placesas
In March also, fairlyheavy rains occurred much as ten inches. followed by the great droughtof April. In Bengal, and this was is made of this untimely rainfall,which use as a rule,no is a Such heavy rainfall,at any time of the year, very great pity. would be at once made use of in Southern and Western India, in
partswhere littlerain is obtained. January rains should be always utilised in gettinglands under the plough after the rice those
harvest. Once brought under the plough, the land can be afterwards kept stirred from time to time until the next rice sowing This results in the soil retaining or season. transplanting moisture much more from the air and in being effectively, absorbing fertility and insect from If free funguspests. rain occur againin February after land has been prepared, or sowingof catch-crops, crops which take only about three months gettingready, should proceed Such crops as have a beneficialeffect on the future rice vigorously. ; so that if the crop should be chosen in preference crops come t he land at to least beufertilized. nothing, Melons ultimately may cucurbitaceous and other wheat, bucktil, bajri, crops" maize,juar, marua,
cotton, cow-pea,
ground-nut,dhaincha,sunn-hemp,gowar
RAIN
SUNLIGHT,
AND
63
HAIL.
EH
S
23
ft "
i
"
S CO CM
S
"
8
-
w
a
O5
CM
OO
00
8
s
s
"
n
o
s
CO
TH
o
CO
g
s
rH
S
CO
O5 0
00
s?
CO
"
1 1 "aunp
O
t-
S
OO
CO
00
a Ip
p
CO
4t"
o
S
00
05
"5
X 05
CO
S
00
OO
CO
CO
S Cl
CO
CO
9*
CO
rH
O5
rH
6
05
^"fi GO
*p
O5
!""
00
*2
o
s O
000
00
O
CO
O
05
r?
1-1
8 s
8
i CO
i
1
ga
w
tta
Bard
O
S
P1 "
OO
64
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
be grown as catcharharia sim (Cyamopsispsoralioides) can The rain. but lastfive with heavy untimely crops should be crops in excellent action have an the soil. a s fertilizing preferred they aim
or
untimelybut heavy
rains
in any
there month, usually in againthe month after,at least that is our experience Lower Bengal; so that there should be no hesitation on the part of cultivators to utilise heavy rains whenever they may happen. It that heavy rains early in Bengal, in the season is also our experience are compensatedby short rainfall late in the season, and short is compensatedby heavy rainfall late rainfall earlyin the season When
occur
is heavyrain
Cultivators make a great mistake to consult in Brahmin and land and sowing almanacs soothsayers cultivating seed. They ought to follow their own experienceand common in the matter, and relyon the beneficent dispensations of a sense of the universe. In 1904, in the diswise Creator and Governor trict cultivators the Hindu found of Sambalpur, they had made a the earlyrains of Apriland May and serious mistake in neglecting in
the
season.
advice in the matter of cultivation, while fellow-cultivators following their own ment judg-
their Brahmin's following
their Mahommedan their land and cultivating secured a bumper crop. season
and
sowing the
It may
be
seed
earlyin the inferred that readily
be true, as they speak of rainfall, not of a the whole of and but from know we village, country,
almanacs
cannot
cular partirience expe-
that rainfall differs from
provinceto province,and district from village and even In 1904 the crops to village. to district, in certain in failed entirely villages the Chanda District,while in the the neighbouring villages crops were very good. A good shower while the absence of such the situation in a village, ruin the crop in the next village. Even for a particular rain may often turn out wrong. the Brahmin predictions soothsayers' village of Pous, from day to He studies the state of the sky in the month of the season for the whole of the next day,and infers the character month the into divides twelve He equal parts,and notices year. of rain may
save
if there are clouds or rain on any day or portionof a day. From which portionof a month in this he concludes which months or the year that is coming are to be rainy. We have studied their Eain could not inferences and found them utterlyin the wrong. in such a simpleway. be predicted are Meteorologists studying of snow in the hills,directions of winds in sun-spots,occurrence different parts of the world, and various other circumstances that but their forecasts known or are supposedto determine rainfall, We have no reliable means also are generally out. as yet for preparing forecasts of rainfallin India. The table in the preceding page
elevation, mean
givesthe latitude,longitude,
temperature (M. T.) and
rainfall
(R.)of the
of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. rainfallof some parts of Assam is highereven than that The average annual rainfallof Cherrapunji of Darjiling. is as much inches. 475 it In some runs as years up to 600 inches. In Sylhet towns principal
The
SUNLIGHT,
KAIN
65
HAIL.
AND
be seen for the several months from the followcan ing figures-."January" 0'39" ; February" 1*59" ; March" 5'74" ; April" 13-73";May" 21-64";June" 32'02";July" 25*48";August" 25-69"; September" 20-05" ; October" 8*31"; November" 1-18"; 0-30" ; Annual average" 156-12". In Chittagongthe December" the averages
rainfall is 104 inches. average rice of the ordinary varieties grows
It should be noted that better in the plainswith of six five rainfall inches or at the germinating and a monthly ripeningperiodsand ten or eleven inches at the growing period. inches per month The rainfall of twenty or twenty-five is suitable annual
even
the excess be easily^ for hill tracts where water drained can often is Excess for as as varieties most injurious deficiency away. varieties of rice,however, can of rice. Some stand a rainfall of inches month. A rainfall of two to thirty monthly twenty per
only
growth of Kharif
the
favourable
most
suited
figurebeing more
lower
as
is the
six inches
to
evaporationdoes
in the nearest registered
and
some
years
cold
crops,
weather
as
it
much
as
be
a
of canals,
is less than
July and twenty
as
avoided
it is
other
or
the
farm
November
localityshould generalfarming,unless
such
a
that in
and precarious,
very in
rapidlyin the
monthly rainfall average station should be consulted. meteorological in any locality in April,May and June, and
If the -average rainfall September, October and or
also for the cold weather
so
on
site for
selectinga
In
go
ordinary vegetation,the early and late periods of
hot.
the
in
does
not
the
tor
crops, and
for
a
as
inches, twelve inches,
to two
one
August over or thirtyinches or more, naturallyunfavourable for
cool hill tract.
Of course,
the presence
alters the specialfacilities for irrigation,
questionentirely. The
Weather-chart
the
reading
that
one
each
sees
chart
The
can
The
placeswhich
connectingall those one
should agriculturist
weather-chart.
be
curved
weather-charts,called isobars,are
on
barometric
same
"
the
of
pressure. see
at
a
From
a
glance the
have
number nature
atmosphericpressure over a country at any department issues these charts difference of pressure between one c ' gradient.A gradientof 4 means,
at
familiar with dotted lines
imaginarylines, a
given time the
of these
isobars on a of the distribution of The meteorological giventime.
isobar and that over
every morning. The the next is called the
distance of 1 degree or by 1for ^th of an inch. close to one When another they indicate high the isobars are drawn wider when are or they apart they indicate a low steep gradient; 60
miles,the
barometer
has risen
a
or
by high winds and low gradient blow directly from regionsof high pressure to those of low pressure ; the atmosphericmovement caused by the rotations of the earth results in an alteration of the In the northern hemisphere if you stand direction of the current. with your back to the wind, the barometric pressure on the regions left hand is lower than on those to your righthand. to your In
gradient.High gradientis by lightwinds.
M, HA
followed
Air does not
5
66
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
the southern hemisphereif you stand with your back to the wind, The same of lower pressure will be on your righthand. the regions in other words thus : if you stand with the is expressed principle to to your left, barometer your rightand the low barometer high the southern In the wind will blow on hemisphere your back. Thus the isobars indicate direction will be the case. the reverse of the wind, and the distances between the lines its strength. barometric readingshave to be reduced to a common Actual ot the place standard by the Meteorological as the elevation Office, of observation and the temperature at the time of observation,make of the column of mercury, a difference in the height apart from the of wind.
difference of pressure causing movements therefore corrected or reduced are
comparison.
has also to
A reduction
All and
32"F. for
account
ence of differ-
"to sea-level
be made
on
the*readings
of gravitydue to difference of length in the diameter of the earth at different latitudes. All reduction is made for the latitude of 45". Hall
"
The
in Lower
occur
is not
of hailstorms
cause
Bengal at
southern
the
breeze
change of
known. definitely
season
bringswinds
from
winter
They to
mer, sum-
laden with
moisture from when northern wind bringsthe clouds back the sea, and occasionally a from the south towards the Himalayas. These clouds are formed Cirrus clouds) and not low down as in the high up in the air (i.e., clouds the of of the of the case rainyseason, and the colder regions rain the sometimes before down come drops they congeal atmosphere hail. smaller of Hailstones size in in the form are as largeror they from a greater or smaller height. The destruction down come
by hailstones,though local,is often very considerable. In Italythe damage to vineyardsannually caused by hail is estimated
caused at
over
"4,000,000.
In
1880
Italian
an
savant,
Professor
Bom-
most bicci of Bologna,observed that showers of rain were frequent where gun practice shook the air and filledit with in those places American followed the well-known smoke. Then experiments
(which have, however,
led to
practicalresults)for artificially
no
producingrain in a cloudless sky. In bicci's researches have led to a very
one
direction Professor Bom-
result. In 1896 in practical Styria (Austria) progressivevine-grower,BurgomisterStieger, started shootingwith cannons againstapproachingstorm clouds. a
He
established
his yards the. hills surrounding vineat an altitude of from nine hundred to two thousand four hundred feet. At every station he had from five to six mortars in could be proceeded with even a wooden hut,so that shooting during rain. His mortars and inches are they weigh about eighteen long 1601bs. each with a three centimetre chamber. He loads them with about 5ozs. of nliner's powder. The clouds either disperse or come down in the form of rain and he has altogether avoided hail by this means.
His
Italy. There in Italy,
shootingstations
example has been are
now
on
largelyfollowed in Austria and stations hail-preventing
about six hundred
68
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
fertileit is. We silicates present in it the more of silicatesmore at absorptionand decomposition
chapteron
in the
exhaustion,recuperationand
will speak
of
hereafter length
absorption.By
the number co-efficientis meant of cubic centimetres form of in the absorbed from a solution of ammonia of nitrogen chloride by one hundred grammes of soil. ammonium the the proportionof a soil which Speakinggenerally, greater the dilute fertileit is. The amount more acids, dissolved of is by absorbent
soil-substancessoluble in But
cent.
water
in pure solubility
usuallyvaries from *1 to '5 per is not a guide to the solubility
water
in the soil. Some actuallyundergoing chemists of plant-food dilute that acetic acid dissolved assumed all the os substances have available to plants; but the acid secretions from rootlets are of a complex nature, and no absolute guide as to the dilution to be used is possible.Professor Stutzer of Bonn, was 1 per cent, solution of citricacid for the ascertaining acid m of available phosphoric and Dr. manures, Dyer of
the firstto amount
use
with soils, and arrived London, has carried out this method in dealing i n the r esults, practical at very important determining proportions acid and potash in soils. But the method of available phosphoric of available nitrogenin soils ; and gives no clue to the amount of is mainly concerned with the after all the question fertility of
amount
available
nitrogenpresent
in the
soil.
Besides,acid '
secretions from all rootlets are not equivalentto a 1 per cent, acid, Some of citric secretions acid than others solution are more tility and some plantstherefore are better able to utilize the latent ferof soils than others. The average acidity of root-secretions all
of citricacid, shown by hundreds of plantsexamined by Dr. Dyer, is about 0*86 per cent. Coming to individual plantshe found the variation was about very great. Strawberryshowed Geum and of a 2 per cent, (anotherplant the order Rosacese) as much
in terms
of Solanaceae and Lilia; while the examination low about results" O36 cese gave very per cent. Crucifera} and Leguminosa3 averagedabout 1%, while Grammes Umbellifene,Composite
as
5'53 per cent.
and
showed only about J%. These results, Chenopodiaceae in showing how some orders of plants^ important very and Leguminosee thrive on poor soils! Rosaceae,Cruciferse,
however, are such
as
while others,such as Solanese, Graminese, Umbellifene' Liliaceae, need liberal manuring. Some Composite and Chenopodiacea3, the of orders natural same differed widely from others in plants of root-secretions and the figures this property of acidity should be judged with this reservation. is governed by the minimum of a necessary ingreFertility dient. A soil may be rich in all essential ash-constituentsof plants but deficientor wantingonly in one, and this deficiency want or result its rocks Soils several barrenness. derived from m may alluvial soils) better than soils from one rock,as there is are ("."/.,
less likelihood of such soils beingdeficientin
anv
necessary
stituent. con-
FERTILITY
Barrenness
Soils
The
"
formed
the
by
of
followingtypes
containing an
oxidation
of
land
barren.
often
are
salts,as, for instance, those
of ferrous
excess
69
BARRENNESS.
AND
iron
barren.
pyrites are
Land
fore newly reclaimed from the sea contains ferrous salts and is thereTank-earth temporarily barren. freshly put on soils also them makes temporarily barren, probably also from the presence of ferrous the
action
of
containing More
but
and
sun
a
air
sulphitesinto
salts and lands
Drainage, liming and
salts.
than two much
very
barren.
Lands
of their
these
(which
the
of
means
reclaiming
it barren ; per cent, of soluble salts in a soil makes less proportion of common make salt would a soil
reclaimed lands
barren
to exposure salts into ferric
ferrous
convert
sulphates) are poisons.
the Sunderbuns
from
salt before
excess
and
cultivation
become
they
of the
United
fit for
have
to
be drained The
cultivation.
Provinces
usually contain an of sodium carbonate sodium excess or sulphate which is locally called Reh. made to reclaim closure Attempts are being by drainage,enand light Voelcker In Dr. 1895-1896 determined, manuring. by a series of carefullyconducted experiments, the proportions salts which of different sodium might be present in a soil without which was To to seen preventing plant-growth. good garden-soil, of any contain of the sodium no salts,were appreciable amount amr
or
added
definite
sodium
sulphate and
from It
'1 to
found
sodium
that
each
three
salts, sodium The
chloride.
and
Cereals
1%.
the
of
amounts
pulses
were
of these
salts
amounts sown
retarded
carbonate, of salt varied
in
separate pots.
the
germination. The cereals were affected by "7% of carbonate or sulphateand by of of the retarded chloride. The by *4% germination pulses was chloride and '7% smaller amounts, i.e.,by '2 to "4% of carbonate or of sulphate. In the after-growth '2% of the carbonate did harm whilst *4% was chloride was quite fatal. Up to "2% of sodium found harmless in a few cases, whilst "]% proved harmful in others. Sodium sulphatewas less harmful, perfectgrowth both in the kkarif and rabi seasons of *5% of the in the presence being maintained salt. As in germination so in the after-growth, the leguminos""were affected of soda salts. more ,than the cereals by the excess was
From
this
experiment it may be inferred how the lands fit for growing Sunderbuns, though they become found unsuitable for a long for are readily, pulse-crops
in the
the presence
of
and
dhaincha
and
in seaside lucerne Another to
this.
lime,however,
can
stand
more
placeswhere and cause
water.
dhaincha
leguminous crops such
some
can
be
of the barrenness
Gypsum
salt than
common
there is no
has
been
doubt
reclaimed rice very time. as
In
lucerne
they otherwise do,
of the presence
stone of lime-
readilygrown. of
usar
used
lands is their with
success
ability imperme-
in correcting
PART
II.
IMPLEMENTS.
CHAPTER
THEORIES
I Objects
of
cultivation
thin
crops
Tull
may
Spacing
"
and
ploughing,
"
of
which free
by
help
of
access
water
of
to
the
take
and
allow
of
"
tillage ing, Ridg-
"
"Subsoil-
"
stubbles
and
sod
nitrates
the
;
(4)
"
to
of
thrive
parasites.
In
microbes
freely with
more
acid
carbonic
and
tion cultiva-
sentence,
one
of
weathering
facilitate
oxygen,
easy
moisture
of the
allow
trate pene-
find
to
water
to
to
roots
absorption
(r")to
action
of
and
air
:
allow
to
allow
to
nitrogen
nests
up
(3)
;
(1)
"
place easily
chiefly by
break
:
arc
soil
formation
oxygen
soil
(6)
;
the
in
ridging
Jethro
"
of
nature
Subsoiling
Burning
"
hoeing
Trenching-
"
tivation cul-
deep
of
]
soil ; (2) to
soil to
the
on
Bakharing
"
rabi
for
but
season,
disadvantages -Drilling and
for
Harrowing
"
dry
influence
adapted
Mulching
and
roots
gases
particles
the
"
irrigation
objects of cultivation into
crops
Climatic-
"
and
Warping,
easily into and
other
Country-plough
"
Stifle-burning THE
systems
Rolling,
and
Advantages
and
-Drainage
for
c.ultiwitiou
"
fibre
for
"
Drilling
access
Protracted
overdone
Lois-Woodon
Nitrification'
"
CULTIVATION.
UNDERLYING
"
bo
X.
and mechanical, suitable helps to bring about a in the soil. biological condition fication, aeriThe (a) better arc : advantages of protracted cultivation tilth ; (c) exposure and specially nitrification ; (6) better chemical
"
of insect a
of
and
fungus pests to the action longer period ; (d) the preservation of the
soil.
Cold
weather
preparation
practised by the best cultivators, In better return. gives them a
deep moisture of
cultivation
in the
which
is not
who
the
always the
layer in which
seed
of
birds,
for
know rabi
kharif it
crops
in
season
be
layers is actually
the
improves
desirable is to
lower
in the
moisture
as
cultivation
needed
should
Valuable
for
commence
proper
as
opportunities
soon
are
after
usually lost when
retention
harvest no
protracted of
is loss
there
placed, the and growth
thfe rice
soil and
Bengal
germination four or should extend for at least a fortnight during which Rabi be done. ploughings and ladderings should should rains after the properly over. are commence is
for
sunlight,
ants,
;
still it
five
cessive suc-
tion cultiva-
Kharif as
sible. pos-
advantage
THEORIES
71
CULTIVATION.
UNDERLYING
istaken of rain from Januaryto May in putting land under preparation for the rice or other rains crop. The advantagesof deep cultivation are : (I)Roots can penetrate "
deeperand
great tendency towards
root
barleyplantsten days' old parts of dry
two
matter
in the
second
leaf,the
Young plantshave a found that development. Hellriegel
find food from the subsoil.
only in their third leaf had fortyof dry their roots for every fifty-eight
and
in
matter
leaves
and stem, while the proportion was twentynine to seventy-one when a month old, and eight to ninety-two when ripe. He also found that barley plants with only one leaf had roots nine or ten inches long, and when they had their a
month
old
roots
had
were
roots
help in developingthe penetratingdeep, a crop rule,more a deep ploughingthe
is, as roots
can
more
distances
resist moist between
drought better
the
deeper one plantscan
The
disadvantageof deep
cultivation
the
as
goes.
soil
(3) By
be shortened
then, instead of spreadingout, sink deep
can
food.
and
twenty inches long,and barley plants long. A loose soil is of great of agricultural roots (2) Roots crops.
three feet
in search
lies in the
fact of
as
of a
of plant-food great deal more beingmade soluble and available than be utilized by the crop, and the liability so can of this plant-food let iree, beingwashed has in the past This is a defect* which out. been
much
too
insisted
upon.
cient Spacing. One objectof tillage operationsis to allow justsuffiA rice plantshould have at its space to each class of crops. one-third have found cubic foot of earth. In Bengal we disposal "
the
of paddy practiceof transplantingseveral seedlings
common
about
nine inches apart very
feet.
In
vicious,and better results have been obtained from singleseedlings planted one foot apart. A bean have should cubic foot of earth, a potato at its disposal one plant cubic plant three cubic feet,and a tobacco plantas much as seven with barleyplants experimentconducted by Hellriegel it found that was out on a jars, a large plant grown grown of 281bs. earth weighed when jar containing ripe and perfectly dry 33,000 milligrammesand bore 636 seeds ; while twenty-four plants grown in a jar containinglllbs. of earth, weighed when dry 21,600 milligrammesand bore only 384 seeds (of a smaller be size). The minimum space consistent with good yieldshould an
on
allowed
each plant. For instance, though one potato plant the is it if give highestyield giventhree cubic feet of space, it is more economical to have two plantsin this space though these will yieldonly a little more two than the one plant. Potatoes plantedin double rows four inches apart have been found at the than those plantedin single SibpurFarm to yieldmore rows, the distances in each case beingeighteen inches by nine inches,though the proportion of increase in the latter case is larger. to
will
and Hoeing. The space allowed between Drilllni plantsnot only in root also in weeding. helps developmentand better growth,but "
HANDBOOK
Sowingin
OF
AGRICULTURE.
drills or
kvel field, regularlines and having a perfectly one do the weeding by bullock-hoes when plants are of that height(threeinches to a foot)when bullock-hoes be can is able to
used without
much
developmentof in the
as
largenumber
of branches
Where
stems.
is considered
able, undesir-
of fibre crops, deep cultivation and thick sowing The objectsof ploughingand reploughing a field,
case
advisable.
are
of
a
Joss by treadingor breakingof
levelling it,of sowingseed
in drills, and
of
weedingit with
bullock-
hoes,are evident from what has been said here and in the chapter on physicalpropertiesof soils. There is a further objectin constantly the soil helpsin usingthe hoe, besides weeding. Stirring removing the surface-pan which is formed after rain or irrigation, and which
prevents free access
the consequent weathering in or sugarcane potato crop should be hoed withweek a after each irrigation to avoid caking of the soil,unless is practised, fit So great is the benetrench-irrigation is desirable. as derived from constant stirriri| of soil during the growthof crops that Jethro Tull,a famous Englishfarmer (1680"1740), jumped to the conclusion that was alone would serve, and no manure tillage needed. Tull's principle issue carried better out to was by the Revd. Mr. Smith of Lois-Weedon, Northamptonshire.Operating of air and
of soil particles.A
upon for
a
Smith clay-soil,
many
manure, and grew
bushels being thirty-four
years
bushels,which
produced largewheat
His average crops. in place of sixteen
the average
yieldof the locality.He used no but simply parcelledout his field in stripsfive feet wide was
the crop in drills on alternate strips in successive years. The vacant were strips spaded and plougheddeeplyand frequently, that by the disintegration so of soil and absorptionof carbonic
nitrogenfrom acid^and year's crop what a
was
secured.
the air. The
and spacingcan tillage
good many
plant-foodenough
Lois-Weedon
do
without
a
for the next
system clearlyshows
particleof
manure
for
years.
that here It should be mentioned deep the point of view of liberating plant-food, so essential in warm climates as in cold climates. Disintegration of deep-seated soilsis favoured by warmth, which generatescarbondioxide gas from organic carbonates. matter and from disintegrating traced disintegration Boussingault to- a depth of three hundred feet in a warm mine. The corrosive action of air and water Climatic Influence. "
cultivation is not, from
much
The air faster in warmer than in colder climates. in the pores of the cultivated soils is highlychargedwith carbondioxide,it is also found in natural waters usuallyto the extent of that has passed through in water nearlyone per cent, and more soils containinglimestones and vegetablematter. The carbondioxide enables water to dissolve and convey to the plantsmany goes
on
substances which are hardly soliible in pure water. fertilizing Phosphateof lime and phosphateof iron even are not altogether insoluble in water
charged with
carbon-dioxide.
Formation
the
well-tilled field
Every
of nitrates. "
light of
The saltpetre-bed.
a
calcium
organic
and
matter
a
value
of
the formation
be over-estimated, and nitrates is facilitated
cannot
73
CULTIVATION.
UNDERLYING
THEORIES
maybe nitrates of
regardedin for
crops
potassium and
by open tilth in the presence of little moisture, by the action of nitrifying
The value of keepingland in tilth during the dry months therefore be over-stated. from December to (i.e., May) cannot be in crop, or else the soils should months wet During ploughedup bacteria.
the
of
excess
be washed
available
plant-foodmade by
away
operationsmav by tillage
rain.
Drainageand Irrigation.The object of draining the soil is to admit air. which water-loggingwould prevent. \Vhcr"" a field he is so situated that drainingis not feasible,the land should "
done after the ridging or kharifseason inches nine maize, groundnut, etc.),are high, plants (?."/.,
ridgedbefore sowing for the me
than others
injuredmore
are
crops
the
of winter
varieties
p, except some plants, can stand
but no by water-logging, Boro rice and aquatic
and
water-logging
throughout the growth. Excess
season
of
of
moisture
its
is
speciallyinjurious at and immediately after the periodof germination,also at the periods of ripening. flowering and This is why Nigarh or letting out
of water
October
is
in September or practisedin some
districts as,
Orissa,for also
for
instance, in
the
Niyarh rice-crop. of the helpstillering plants
if done
earlier in the
it is necessary
If
season.
irrigatefor
to
helpingon
germination, it is better to irrigate the field before sowing than after sowing. field is irrigatedin If a
FIG.
1." IRRIGATION
SPOON.
preparationfor sowing,
i
is
advisable to wait until the soil is sufficiently dry for passingthe Bakhar for the preparationof a tilth and for breakingthe surfacepan.
Scatteringof
does, however, ladles
or
spoons
no
the fields after the sowing of seed, For this purpose, the use of irrigation
water
on
harm.
is advised.
(Fig. 1.)
Bakharing and Trenching. Trenchingbringsthe subsoil to the and where the subsoil is known to be as rich as the surface "
much It is,however, be resorted to. operationmay trenches have to be dug with as expensivethan ploughing,
this
top, soil, more
spades.
Trenchingis done before valuable perennialplants.Mich as roses, are planted, Trenching i" practisedin Bengal for growing mankachu and in Ireland for growingpotatoes. The Irish s\4"Mn of
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
growing potatoes
is called the lazy-bed system. The land is divided into strips in the Lois-Weedon as system alreadydescribed, and from the bare e arth is and out strips, spread over the
strips operationsare equivalent to the two earthings.These bare stripsor trenches are used for planting potatoes the next year and earth is dug out of the strips which had potatoes on them the previousyear. Trenching may be done with Even advantage in growing high class sugarcane. ordinarysugarcane should be grown in trenches in Bengal,as from Januaryto March, when sugarcane should be planted,the soil is
dug
which
on
potatoes
FIG.
are
planted.
2." THE
Two
such
DOUBLE-MOULD-BOARD
PLOUGH.
trenches may be dug with a doublemould-board plough (Fig.2). Making trenches with a doublemould-board plough costs less than one-sixth of what it does when trenchingis done with spades. There are trenchingploughsused in Europe, but these requirevery powerfulhorses to work them. very
dry at the surface.
Shallow
the Ridging The object of ridyiny or hillingis to expose action of and cold the moisture, air, heat, largestsurface to of water and also to prevent accumulation immediately at the base "
of
plants.
For
when ridgingis of great benefit especially clay-soils ed, water-loggingis fearso
which
ridgesor
done are
FIG.
3." THE
HUNTER
a
foot
advisable weather
for and
and
so
ridging should
be
the
after
Sowing
HOE.
crops
cultivated
are
June to September should be grown
from
on
that most
or
ridging plants
two
high.
in trenches in
the
is
dry
done, speciallyin clay soils,
dry weather crops also. Ridging facilitates sowing in lines be using of hoes. The ridges can split or spread out with the double-mould-board plough or a Hunter hoe (Fig.3),and
76
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
bringsthe only stirs the subsoil,but subsoil-ploughing Subsoiling to a be attached subsoil to the surface. A subsoiler (Fig. 5) may richer, ploughifmore bullocks are used. The surface-soilis usually and it is often in desirable unthe than subsoil, especially organicmatter, to bringup the subsoil to the surface by trenchingor But itis very desirable to stir the subsoil for subsoil-ploughing. certain crops with the object not onlyof admittingair and moisture the penetration into it and facilitating of roots, but also of breaking the impervious pan which is formed by the sole of the European be also done by a country-plough being plough. Subsoiling may passedbehind a ploughfitted with mould-board, the plough on the rear stirring the soil of the furrow made by the front plough the in the same way as a subsciler workingbehind a ploughdoes work. is best done in this country by passing Deep-ploughing one plough behind another along the same groove. Another trenching or subsoiling object of deep-ploughing, is to increase the water-holding-capacity of soils. Loose earth receives and stores more than compact earth. Ploughing water
of rain one may find the furrow turned up, wet onlysuperficially, and dry at its deeperlayers. Loose earth could retain over forty per cent, of its weight of earth in a very compact condition would water, while the same hold only about twenty-fiveper cent.
a
field in
May after a
very
heavy
shower
is too Rollingand Mulching. On tjieother hand, soil which loose,will not allow water to raise in it and does not firmly support the plantsgrowing on it. A tilth too open is not desirable should be rolled after ploughing for lightsoils,which especially "
and harrowing. Rolling and mulching are practisedto cause moisture to rise in the soiland to retain the moisture respectively. is meant By* mulch anything laid on tilled soil to keep in '
'
leaves and straw, bits of cowduag cake, etc. Too free a subsoil may also result in water sinkingtoo quickly, leavingthe surface soil hungry. Extremes should therefore be avoided in tilling operations.
moisture, such
as
objectof harrowingis to level the land after producea good tilth,and to collect the weeds. Where ploughing, follows that of ridging the land has to be ridgedthe operation Harrowing.- The
and a ladder acts, both as a harrow and land the levels givesit a roller inasmuch as it collects weeds, is done of compactness, But the work certain amount* very b oard used the levelling by a ladder. The beam or imperfectly weeds, but it is in other parts of India is not effectivein collecting and giving it land effective than the ladder for levelling more It is advisable to introduce a lightharrow and a of
harrowing.
The
native
compactness.
be easilymanaged roller (which can of Bengal. the farm in bullocks), operations
lightwooden
by
a
pairof
k
only for
new Burning tto sod is recommended for and lands, soils some i.e., on clay peaty
jungleland,
for
clay lands which
MOTIVE-POWER
PRIME
OR
77
MOVERS.
of silicateof potashand some lime. The lime and liberates of the silicate the some potash. All decomposes claysare benefited by moderate burningwhich makes the land friable and less plastic.Moderate burning, i.e., more burningin
contain
a
good deal
should be resorted to, except heat,if necessary, stifle-burning,
slow
the loss of
matter would not nitrogenous land. Stifle-burning felt as in ordinary be so severely agricultural and clears it of weeds, insects,fungiand corrects acidityof soils, not onlyis there too their seeds. If burningis done too freely, and nitrates,but the physical much loss of organic matter of the soil becomes deteriorated, character i.e., imperviousbrick-
in
jungleland
new
like
are
masses
where
formed
the surface.
on
As it is not practicable to improve soil by mixing Warping from another locality, character carted with it soil of a different achieved in sandy,stony or peaty result is sometimes the same as soils,favourablysituated,by the operationknown uwrpiny. A bund two or three feet in heightis nit up around the land to be improved,and the enclosed land is sometimes further partitioned Then of a stream, at the the muddy water off by smaller bunds. is diverted into this area, where it beginningof the rainy season, "
flows
from
one
compartment
another, until the whole
to
area
is
and film of silt is deposited,
the operation filled. A by repeating be the land accumulated in silt of on inches one several may season. tides come in, warping is very easy to regulateby means Where as in the low lands to the south of the Sibpur of a sluice or flap-gate, of the land where the objectis not so much the fertilizing College, as
the raisingof its level.
CHAPTER MOTIVE-POWER
OR
XL PRIME
MOVERS.
of man and different classes of ; English farm-labourer farm-labourers Indian compared ; Wages for piece-work; Animal-power, where suited ; Improvement of Indian z\griculturechieflyby means of a power extended employment of bullock-power; Calculation comparing horsemore with Bengal bullock-power ; Bullock gears ; Wind-power; Cheap for estimatingefficiency wind-mills, aeromotors ; Calculation ; Power-mills of aeromotors of aeromotors ; Water-power ; efficiencyof ; Erection
[Classification ; Work
turbines compared ; Advantages of water-power and water-wheels over for agricultural of power other forms purposes ; Steam-power~~Stationary, Oil-engine,and ; portable and traction engines; Gas and oil-engines as a motive-power.] pumping water; Electricity centrifugal
classes in done on the farm may be divided into seven WORK has attained a very those countries where agriculture highstate of of Work done Work man : T hese (2) are ; (1) by animalefficiency.
horses,mules, donkeys,bullocks,etc. ; (3)Work done power, viz., by wind-power ; (4) Work done by water-power ; (5) Work done action of gas and by steam-power ; (6)Work done by explosive ; (7) Work oil-engines
done
by electricity.
78
OF
HANDBOOK
work Where firstform of work is the most the third stillless,and so on. of Man.
Work
"
AGRICULTURE.
has to be done on a largescale the expensive,the second less expensive, Wherever therefore animal-power,
wind-power,water-power, steam-power, etc., can be made the employment of hand-power should be avoided, as a
use
of,
general
country the management
of labour is of very great An will hand-weed Indian labourer who one-tenth difficulty. for be himself, can of an acre a day working hardly got to do oneIn this
rule.
for his employer. Apart from this,there is the hand-power. In hilling general advantage of mechanical over fortieth of
to Us.
comes or
of maize
acre
an
acre
an
5
of
such
only
nature
a
Us. 6 the
hoe
Hunter
a
potatoes,for instance,with kodalies the cost near Calcutta,while with a ridging plough
or
or
work
same
about
eight
to
and
requiresreason
as
accomplishedat Of
annas.
an
course,
diture expenwork of
judgment for guidance must
instance,attendance
for
be done
be
can
twelve
cattle and other liveon by man, stock, of machinery, etc. plantingand transplanting, management
which
work
Some
by machineryis more cheaplyand by hand-power,for instance,bindingof sheaves.
convenientlydone [n managing Indian or
foreman,
or
be done
can
labour
it is very necessary to have to look after the labourers, unless
overseer
a
sirdar
the proprietor
himself. If the proprietor IP himself accustomed cultivator to an he can doing work, expert rough work of labourers out himself always get more by working with the gang. Working Indian labourers on the gang system is of the farm
do
can
so
very
important,and yet each be
judged. on
is
that the amount
to do
work
the
enough
man
It is not
of
and
be
given a separate pieceof
qualityof
necessary to in the same work
course
field and
same
if the
should
each
man's
employ at the
work
may all the ers labour-
time.
same
It
each
easilysee
from where he man When labourers distribute themselves in different parts of a farm and work outside the immediate ken of the foreman, they do very little work. There are overseer
can
is, doing his allotted piece of work.
some
works,
such
broadcasting, dibblingor
as
seed, planting, cuttings, etc.,which are
usuallytwo
ways
of
need
doing a work,
"
close a
of hand-drilling
watching.
careful
and
a
There
careless
It is less troublesome and doing work carelessly, unless way. labourers are immediately corrected when they take to careless into the habit of A great deal they get workingcarelessly. ways, habits depends upon proper beingengraftedto labourers. When Indian labourers 'once get into the habit of doingsome work in the
they continue to do the work in the proper manner, proper manner, when they are not very closely watched. even Some of the cultivator's habits are hereditary, and some castes are therefore found than others. It is less doing work faster and in a neater manner for troublesome, instance, in prepared sticking sugarcane cuttings soil,anyhow, so that some are plantedsix inchesdeep while others
only one \"r two inches deep. But whenever a labourer plants a cuttingone or two inches deep,he must be made to plantit five
MOTIVE-POWER
OR
PRIME
MOVERS.
79
six inches deep,until a proper habit is established. A labourer, however, who is accustomed to do sugarcane plantingin his own the this will at family, cuttings plant habitually depth,when planting
or
erect, or three inches
deep when plantingthem horizontally. be If expert labourers can secured,it is alwaysbetter. But cultivators in this country go in for cultivating few crops that so had be in any particular expert labourers can locality only for three cultivation of two the or An doing crops properly. ordinary labourer in Bengal will transplant cultivating paddy neatly and fast,broadcast jute and kalai seeds evenly, harvest the paddy and the jutein the proper style,but in doing the cultivation of a them
kind of crop
new
must
man
he will be found awkward be behind him to insist on
and slow. the work
An
gent intelli-
beingdone
fast.
properlyand
is fraughtwith more calculation for hand-power difficulty that for stearn-power, horse-power, or An bullock-power. Englishfarm labourer in his own country does far more work than Indian farm-labourer,and an Indian farm-labourer will do far an work for himself than for another more party, while one class of
The
than
labourers
part
same
another
than
work
more
in the
even
class
of the country
of labourers.
does Further
habitually tion complica-
arises from the fact that a certain class of labourers will do a certain kind of work well while they will do another kind of work The Sonthal labourer will dig more than very imperfectly. a
Bengalilabourer,but the latter will transplantmore paddy. The will transplanta great deal more Sonthal woman paddy than the Sonthal
An
man.
of foot-pounds
work
English farm-labourer in diggingdoes 250 In the BengalFamine per minute. operations
of 1897 an average quantity of about 100 cubic ft. of earth was raised 3 ft. during6 hours, and the weightof a cubic ft. of earth beingtaken as 100 Ibs.,the work done in 6 hours was about 100 x
ft.-Jb.or,
100x3
~-^XJ
about
=
83 ft.-lb. per minute.
As
the
mostly non-professional diggersand as the work done weak, the by they average Bengali labourer habitually employed in diggingmay be calculated at about
famine
were
labourers somewhat
were
of 200 to 300 cubic ft. of foot-pounds per minute, though cases sometimes man earth beingdug by one to notice even came in this on the fanr* calculation of Basing a Bengali Deration. ble generally to performonly half the amount laboure a^v ot ^ 125
work
r^
3'
'ish labourer,he should be able to show
" "
~
"
"
gene ft.-lb. of work ft.-lb. " ft.-lb. " (4) 2,000 ft.-lb. "
(1)
(2) (3)
125 165 250
per minute "
in
"
"
"
"
"
digging. dung in filling pitchingcorn. rowing
a
carts.
boat.
filling dung in carts, an Englishlabourer will load thirty fortycubic yardsin ten hours to an average heightof four feet. In
to
The made
weightof fresh dung is twelve to fourteen cwts. and of wellton per cubic yard. 50,000 Ibs. liftedinto rotted dung, one
80
HANDBOOK
OF
AGBICULTURE.
four feet highmeans 200,000 Ibs. raised one foot highper day which is to 330 foot-pounds of ten hours, equivalent per minute. an In pitching corn Englishlabourer can pitchthe corn of one acre of grain and straw. The average height tons two per hour, i.e., is pitchedis six feet 5,000 Ibs. lifted 6 ft. high to which the corn carts
"
30,000 ft.-Ib.per hour, i.e.,500 ft.-lb.per minute. and human-power is as 7 : The relation between horse-power labourer. We of 1 in the case English approximately put may the relation between down horse-powerand the power exerted by a Bengalilabourer as 14 : 1. But it entirely depends upon the work whether human character of the particular power is so much For less efficientor still less so. of Bengal bullocks is at least ten
steadydraught purposes times
a Bengal bullock,as though theoretically
only one-and-a-half
times
Calculatingwages
as
we
powerful as
at three
annas
a
efficientas
as
a
shall
a
pair
a
labourer,
presently see,
is
Bengali labourer.
day, the average cost of hand-power is partly or
principalfarm operationswhere It must ever, be remenbered, howwholly employed,is given below. and that three annas that wages are steadilyrising a day, which was a good wage in Bengal a few years ago, is now very the
bad
except
in certain
tracts
like Behar. PER
*
have
Cultivator* to
pay 6 to 8
usuallyspend Rs. 6 per acre a day to a labourer at annas
for hand the
-weedingpaddy, weeding season.
ACHE.
as
they
MOTIVE
POWER
OR
PRIME
81
MOVERS.
PER
Cutting and strippingsugarcane Cuttingpaddy with hooks or s ckles Thrashing and winnowing paddy with hand and winnowing machines Transplantingpaddy Sowing seed broadcast Sowing seed in drill with Planet Jr. hoe ..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Rs. A.
P.
4
0
("
0
11
.
,.180 thrashing ..480
.
.
.
.
ACRE.
..120
.
0
.
.
.
.
.
180
possiblework should be got done by contract at rates, even by labourers employed by the month. work done Piece-work or by contract is,however, apt to be done unless is exercised. carelessly proper supervision Wherever
%
the
above
cattle, or donkey-power is utilised (1) For direct draught or haulage as in drawing carts, ploughing,etc. (2) For applicationto machines to a wheel to turn a or windlass,e.g., in capstan giving motion Animal
Power.
"
Horse,
for three classes of work.
ginning cotton, pumping water, etc., by animal (3) For pedallingto turn a tread-mill for communicating power. Work done by draught-animals,aided by water. or lifting power is Jess done human expensive per unit than work reason, by hand-power,and it is by the substitution of hand-powerby cattleagricultural improvements may be effected power that a great many hoe (it may Hunter be repeatedhere) in this country. With a drawn which is easily by a pairof country bullocks,maize or potato be ridged at a cost of about eightannas fields may per acre, while done by hand-power with kodalies will cost Rs. 5, work the same watched the cost will even and if the labourers are not closely exceed but for most this amount. efficient, Hand-weeding is more crops bullock-hoes be found with will effective. hoeing sufficiently Freeing land of weeds is not of such importance as givingvigour often results in weeds being smothered. to the growing crop, which mechanical be conveniently When steam, etc.)cannot (i.e., power and extensively and employed, e.g., when fields are small, uneven crooked, or cut by natural water-courses, it is better and cheaper than with steam. As to cultivate with the aid of draught-animals fields which like not from ten to are are fields, English Bengal say in enclosed and ahirs as or borders, they are by area, twenty acres and cut by natural water-courses, steam vation ploughingand steam cultiunsuitable for conditions. are generally usuallyquite Bengal The introduction of implements suitable for the employment of bullock-power is it is of the t han utmost more extensively ance. importnow, Indian cultivators are, as a rule,averse to using mechanical appliances.In this,as in other matters, they have got to be habituated to see the advantageof using mechanical appliancesbefore when the advantageof some Even they beginto take to them. has been demonstrated mechanical applianceor some method new old appliances and to them, they are apt to fall back on their own
thrashingcorn,
M, HA
(5
82
to which
the methods
considerable
been accustomed. In dealing with of local influence are of
importance.
be ascertained Bengal bullock-power may A of : Bengal bullocks,it may be pair followingway
Bullock-power.
the
they had
AGRICULTURE.
questionsof habit and
raiyatsthe
Indian
in
OF
HANDBOOK
"
"
observed, walk
about
exerted
draught Farm being all
ft. per
66
being
about
minute Ibs.
100
The
while ploughing,the fields of the Sibpur
wide, the facts stated here have been constantly tested. The work done per minute by a pair of Bengal bullocks is therefore 66 x 100 6,600 ft.-lb. per minute, i.e., work done The ft.-lb. bullock minute. by ono 3,300 per per ascertained to be about 33,000 Englishfarm-horse can be similarly 66 ft.
-
ft.-lb.(which is the theoretical for
therefore horse.
and
steam
other
performs ten
The
less work
times
horse
actual
horse-power,the high powers). The
or
than
bullock-poweris
unit of
ment measure-
Bengal bullock the English farmonly two-thirds of
in the above calculation no as bullock-power, is taken of loss of times in turning,and for other stoppages. account So compared to Watt's horse-power or theoretical horse-power the actual Englishhorse-powerand Bengal bullock-powerare ft.-lb. as 33,000 : 22,000 : 2,200 respectively do not perform the same animals of work amount Draught chain machine while working a or thrashing by walking pump round and round a track, as they do while ploughing. 1st, the is inconvenient ; 2ndly, positionof the animals in a bullock-gear they cannot exert their full power in a bullock-gear ; and, 3rdly, force is lost by pullingat an angle. In England a pairof horses is calculated as sufficient for keeping in cultivation ; and our cultivators calculate one fiftyacres as being sufficient for keeping sixteen bighas yoke of Bengal oxen Thus from actual in cultivation. practicealso (about five acres)
the nominal
horse
or
Englishfarm-horse is able Bengal bullock, and that the
it is deducible that much
work
as
a
an
to do ten
as Bengal bullock, while ploughing,is 2,200 ft.-lb.,
On acres
lightsoil,three of land.
On
horses
are
thirtybullocks for workingone one
yoke of
oxen
kept
in
this calculation
for
England for
we
hundred
twenty bighas.
In
would acres
of
times
done
work
stated every
as
by
a
above. hundred
requirein Bengal land light
stocking
a
farm
or
about
in Lower
A pair of Gujarat, be borne in mind. three do times the work of bullocks Hissar or Nellore,Dakshini, shini Bengal bullocks. Gujaratbullocks are weaker footed than Dakshould Bengalthese figures
animals
and
hard
soil
able to work
long. will be replaced by steam longbefore bullock-power in this country for farm or electricity operations.Steam and other enginesdeteriorate as time goes on ; cattle have a tendency is one of the chief to multiply. That horses are a farm-produce, considerations why horses are mainly employed in Englishfarm is where steam even applicable.Judiciouslymanaged, operations It will be
on
they
are
not
84
HANDBOOK
OF
AGEICULTUKE.
ted for India. Windmills of cheap construction are popular in the United States also, whence we A get the Chicago aeromotors. cheap windmill may be constructed without a vane, and the wheel is so fixed as to be driven onlyby the prevailing wind duringthe dry which in Lower Bengal are from north and south, or a few off The either sails would catch the wind points way. only when and the mill would it is about northerlyor southerly, thus be set in motion. the wind is easterlyor westerlyit would When not season,
Jt is necessary to enclose the lower part with boards the wind from all sides to exclude except from the
move. so
the
as
of the
action
mill
would
correspondto
that
of
walls
or
top, and over-shot
an
The
figuregivenhere (Fig.7) illustrates a windmill which would 11s. 50 cost only about There is au constructing. which iron axle to G fans or sails (5ft. x (3ft.) are attached. The Jumbo-box is 12 ft. long by 8 ft. wide by (" ft. high. The axle is mounted on to pump posts. Such a windmill has*been known hundred head of cattle from for one water foot well. an eighteen The whole arrangement, if a pump is provided,can be set up by a villagecarpenter and a blacksmith. ber, Any old lumsuch as splitrails,old packing boxes, tin from old tin roots,can be pressedinto water-wheel.
"
"
the service in the
tion construc-
of these mills. The constructed
be
may narrow
and
tall
oblong,the offeringof
largesurface
a
mills
7." TUB
Fio.
also
for
of
mechanical made home-
only be
cannot
pumping water, biit stone, working a grind-
for
WINDMILL.
HOME-MADE
or
wind.
these
arrangements for
the
for
proper
used
square
objectbeingthe
obstruction With
or
sails either
ginningcotton, for for churning
sawing wood, butter, for cutting chaff, for crushing oil-cake
and
tower,
or
doing other
The old forms of windmill work. smock-mill)with a 15| ft. radius and with
ordinarybarn-door eightmiles
per hour
Power-Mill.
"
In
a
yieldabout
one
(called posta
breeze
of
horse-powerof energy.
largefarm, where
cake-crushers,etc., worked chaff-cutters,
it is worth
by wind
while or
having
water-power,
the mill working at all seasons, specially indoor work is preferable to out-door work. at the wet season, when of modern construction* are preferable windmills The self-adjusting wind they do fairly for constant work, as even with very light good in that whatsuch a manner, work, and the vane turns the wheel it is
importantto
have
POWER
MOTIVE
the direction of the wind the
mill.
The
Afterwards out
whole
expense a week
oiling
once
in the erection here
of
a
PRIME
OR
be, the sails catch it and work may is incurred in the first erection. is all that is needed. Rs. 2,000 laid
power-mill,one be got back
(Fig.8), can
35
MOVERS.
form of which is represented in two years, in a properly
farm. "organised
FIG.
Windmills are
either
Fig.8 is The
of
AUUOMOTOR
(POWER
MILL).
construction,called also aeromotors,
modern
here in mill represented horizontal. The or vertical mill,the motion of the wheel being vertical.
a
sails of
be
THE
vertical
horizontal
a
Useful Tables.
may
8."
found
of efficiency
"
A very
few
mill
tables
useful
windmills.
move
in
horizontally.
regardingvelocityof wind, etc., connection
with
the
questionof
86
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
Velocity of icind. exerted
Force
hour.
per
Breeze
hardly
Gentle
breeze
Equivalent in feet
miles
Popular Description.
second.
per
tible percep-
J
breeze
29'3 58 -G
1-107 1-96H 7-S72
50
73-3
12-300
100
146 (i
49-200
15
..
Brisk gale
20
Veiy high v/ind
40
Storm
Hurricane
Ibs.
"005 "123 "492
1-47 7-33 14-07
...
Pleasant
square foot of sail. pe"
Dischargeof ir"ilet'/"// pum/*. disc'h. i' eh of
of wntcr
Amount
i"y every
pump-j-troke. "0076
Dillons.
"0300 "OUO "05 H "0850
Efficiency ofAovmofors. Height water
to whi,h is
to be
lifted.
ft.
Diameter
to
Gallons
pnmp.
when cy Unaer b-foot mill used.
"j
25
4
30 40 50
31
5
3.1,
70 80
Calibre of
of
aeromotors
i "
when
the
The
inches.
v
_f
lni|, usCf
5,508
1,703 1/224
4,700
9HH 784 68!) 6"K) 518 440 37) 30(i
2,644
3.525
248
pump-cylinder
,
mi], 10
3,634
("()
100
foofc
miii used.
inches.
8
10 15 20
per hour 8 foot
when
above
table
velocityof
5
l,9"3 1,377 1 ,377
4J,
1,115
4^
8*2
4
882
*l 3*
770
gives the efficiency
wind
is of
the
mill with
average
wheel sixteen miles an a eightfeet in diameter is constructed to have a pump-strokeof six inches. A mill with a twelve-foot wheel is constructed either with nine-inch or one-foot pump-stroke. The two pump-cylinders diameters with inch and noted in with eight six-inch asterisks(*) the long stroke (one foot) assumed the above table are to have of With mill attachment. wind, an eight-foot average velocity undergoesabout fortystrokes and a twelve-foot mill about thirty is less, With strokes per minute. lighterwinds the efficiency and with strongerwinds, more, than is indicated in the table. For of the calibre irrigation purposes it is best to employ a cylinder benefit from theindicated in the table so as to get the maximum calibre than those indicated But cylinders of smaller aeromotor.
strength,i.e.,about
hour.
A
MOTIVE
in the
table
POWER
for small depths. The table specially be safely which can of the cylinder an eight-inch cylinder given depth. Where may
diameter
employed for a be employed it is false to
use
two
a
very hour)will work
an
or
gated) land has to be irriwhen (specially economy three inch pipe ; though it should be noted
lightbreeze
a
two
a
will requirea fifteen
of (i.e.,
velocityof
the
sixteen-mile
or
wind
two
at the
Local
it.
in which
seasons
three miles
or
eight-inch pump
when an pump breeze to work
three-inch
or
velocityof
to
as
87
MOVERS.
PRIME
used
be
may
givesthe maximum
that
OR
ditions, con-
is irrigation
should determine at these seasons, needed, should the choice of the calibre of the pump-cylinder.The pump is breeze be when the a with handle, as a light, always provided littlecoaxingwith the pump-handle, results in the wheel turning, and
and
the
depth of water
to turn, with continuing
further
a
comparativelygentlebreeze,making
handle
of the
working
unnecessary.
power horsetwelve-foot mill develops two-and-a-half miles sixteen about wind wind blowing (i.e., average
Efficiency A "
with
hour).
per
Erection
The
"
higherthan has
the
should
should
lean Price
Sons,
B.
21, Produce,
priced thus
by Messrs. S. Freeman York City,U. S. A., are
Exchange, New
:" "
wheel
dollar
(
ialvanized
--__:
Rs.
3).
(iralvani/cd)
Ii2-ft. "
.
)
,,
stool tower
..
tor S ft
40 ft.
null,
Ditto Ditto
80ft. for
12-fl
mill
40
high
..
,,
Ditto
ft.
Attachments
Water-power "
a
very
there
,.
.
150 ,,
87 i
2i6 ...
,,
.,
for
power-mills,for feed-grinder, etc.,are also The actual of erect ng cost companies the Sibpur Experimental Farm (which has an
In
about
was
is
and no
If there is water. and efficientmotor
Rs. 900.
utilisingwater-power initial expenditure
important factory.
wind utilising and
100
the aeromotor
the aeromotor at 8-ft. wheel and 40-ft. tower)
is
80ft.
42.',dollars 58i
..
,,
suppliedby
tunrat-holes nelled the
side, will make
one
constructed
(One 8-ft
Even
so.
of the which
that the tower
side.
windmills
Steel
the tower
the base
form
work,
a may the anchor-postson
that
on
"
masonry remain ways
plumb
underneath tower
anchor-postswhich
feet
fifteen
about
buildings.After
and
protectedwith
be
be set
erected
be
trees surrounding
been erected the four
tower
"
should
tower
water-power
expenditure
as on
There there account
is
no
is in
loss
of
time
in
using steam-power,
of coal and
cartage
of
flow of water, it is a more reliable A high elevat on or a precipitate wind. fall is not necessary if the current is sufficiently rent, strong. The curthat is,the speed of water, may be measured very simply. a
constant
than
88
HANDBOOK
Measure stream
a
AGRICULTURE.
distance o^ say, twenty yards,along the centre of the intended to be utilized, and let a bit of cork, or of lightfloat be allowed to pass along this distance of channel
or
kind
any
OF
of the water twenty yards. This givesthe velocity of the channel. At the sides and at the bottom,
at
the
the middle
velocityis
and the sides of the channel are made of bricks, ascertained in the above manner, seventeen per cent, of the velocity should be taken off ; if the sides and bottom of earth twentyare less. If the bottom
nine per cent,
should
be taken
and
off,and
if
they are
stony, irregular
should be taken off,in estimating the Then by multiplying the section of the reduced velocity, one gets the quantity
rough,thirty-six per cent, of a stream. average velocity
the stream
utilized
by expressedin the
of water
The
Efficiency of water-motors "
terms
effective
are
of
so
cubic feet per
many
horse-power of the
"
Of
Turbines fashioned new
forms principal
:
ordinary Undershot- wheels ordinary Breast-wheels ordinary Overshot- wheels
For For For For For
minute.
the theoretical
..
.
and
per cent
08
..
70 75 to
..
wheels
horse-power,
35 55
turbines
80
effective power The varies accordingto the ingenuityof construction and erection,which minimises friction. Properly breastand overshot-wheel constructed, a and turbine a have
may
75 per cent,
a
efficiency.On
the 75
basis,it
per cent,
ascertained that has the height of the fall in feet multipliedby the number of cubic feet of water per minute, divided and by 706 gives the actual horse-power.So, been
c
"
^?
i
.
,
minute; of
and
all
of cubic ft.of water
horse-power X
, ~
-
--
-
quantity of in
number
= "
-c 11 4. fall in feet f
heightoff the
-
-
water
requ red
feet
-
to
f
in
required per i j
706 .
-
height to
--------
i7~r~~r
"-*.-" cubic feet per minute
produce
the
horse-power.The
less efficient is
suitable for level undershot- wheel though more curved with countries like Lower Bengal. If the floats are made will be obtained their concavity backwards, increased efficiency The race channel is obtained from flat vanes. to that which or be should short in the case of a11 the wheels"th""h the tank reserv"ir "f water should be or
^ ~"
.....
as
that largeas possible,
j^|JB]||!1hcurrent
may
be
terrupted.If constant
a
but required, on
a
masonry* increases the FIG.
9." TIIK
OVERSHOT
\VATEU-WIIKKL.
wheel.
When
and
even
the
uninis
stream
reservoir
burnt channel
a
the
c
is not
ay-pipe or
race,
of efficiency a
water-wheel
a
OR
POWER
MOTIVE
PRIME
89
MOVERS.
low to allow the when the tail is not sufficiently is drowned, i.e., is about reduced fourth. its off freely, efficiency oneto run water by instead of floats that by The breast-wheel should have buckets the the in the wheel may water of buckets of the weight means go down
readily,the
more
Thus
goingdown.
the overshot- wheel
as efficiency
But
the
FlG.
buckets
constructed
bucket
10." TliK
their discharging breast-wheel which
may receives the
still further
arrangement
BllJSAST-WHEEL,.
FIG.
11."
contents
be
of the
while same
impulse earlier. improvesthe efficiency
THK
UNDKKSHOT-WHEEL.
wheel
overshot-wheel. Fig. 9 representsin section an overshotwith the bucket arrangement. Fig. 10 representsa breast-
wheel
with
of
the
the
ordinarykind
of
float,while Fig. 11 representsan
curved floats. The with lower portion of the undershot-wheel brickwork in each wheels should be encased in case, the axle of the wheel resting on this brickwork whence the power is transmitted
0
FIG.
12."
THE
TURBINE.
of in the barn. The diameter various machinery worked overshot-wheel should be a littleless and that of the breastwheel somewhat greater than the heightof the fall of the water. Turbine The complicatedmachine than (Fig.12) is a more lages the ordinarywater-wheels,and not beingcapableof repairin vilto
the
the
it is not
so
suited
for
though requirements, agricultural
it
90
HANJJBOOK
will prove
far
AGRICULTURE.
OF
useful where
it can be introduced. It is not of fall woik and water to a very a turbine great necessary the wheel occupies As it little h be with can run gh very space. speedit is better adaptedfor drivingmachineryof different k nds. The water is received at the supply pipe (A),whence it is directed to the vanes of the wheel which revolves on by curved guide-blades more
to have
this pivot. There is a screw arrangement at (C) for raising The wheel is rigidly fixed at the bottom of a shaft (B) which
pivot.
a
the
the
municates com-
The
wheel shell,and
machinery employed. power covered by a cast-iron case are or guide-plates the wheel is kept in an exactlyhorizontal position by a special also rigidly cover are (D). The guide-blades kept in positionby bell cranks and coupling rods (E.E.E.). The water pended having exits force actingon the vanes at different points, passes out of the centre both above and below. be placed The turbine may and
to
the
close to an opening at the bottom of a tank or reservoir of water, be be led by a pipe into the turbine,wh ch may the water may or placedin the barn instead of at the foot of the tank. The velocity of the wheel dependsupon But even with the heightof the fal .
has to squeeze its way in different directions until it reaches the vane* of the wheel guide-plates
small
a
the fall,
water
between the which it has to move before it can escape at the centre of the wheel In the figure is barely above and below. the wheel inside the case visible to the rightof D, but the guide-plates are entirelyhid from view. The
advantagesof water-power
are
power
(1) its
:
constancy,
Water-wheels simplicity. drive
also less A
and
them
work
burst
be
turbines
the boiler,and also do many
wholly
goes
not
do
on
out
bringdown
may
and animals can
and
or
more
the
the
wheel
fuel may
kinds of
of mechanical
(3) its
and inexpensivcness,
they readilyget danger in using this median cal
hurricane
may
do
other forms
over
(2) its
not
requireski
1 to
(4) There is than any other.
of order.
power of an aeromotor
; steam
the fire-box.
burn
damage, and
where
the
r
Men work
partiallyreplacedby the mechanical powers, smoothly. The importanceof having a farm
of water Waterbe overstated. can never differences in where available districts readily hilly power of water-level within short distances are of frequent occurrence.
near
a
flowingstream
is
more
Steam-power.
"
Steam-engineswhich
are.
employed
in
ing farm-
viz.* highlycivilised countries,are of three descriptions, portableand traction. Multitubular boilers are now stationary, in generaluse. Ordinarily 2| to 3 Ibs. of coal are consumed per in
horse-powerper hour. Low-power stationaryenginesare useful in farms for dairy purposes, e.g., for steamingfood, pulpingand cream working the centrifugal separator. Steam clean and free from essential for keepingdairy-utensils for ordinary Portable enginesare in more use common germs. for These who them let out to farmers, use are thrashing farming.
grindingand is most
92
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
at a cost of Rs. 4,000 or Es. 5,000, but in Bengal such oil-engines be said to be non-existent. For ordinary crops also, raiyats may be recommended. the outlay for wells and cannot oil-engines Andrew of Eevd. The A. Ch ngleput a prominent supporter
value of crops The average terton's view., says : the of the raiyatwarivillages in Presidency,excluding per acre 30 for rice,Rs. 10| Malabar and South Canara, is only Rs The average for Ragi,Rs. 10 for Ch lum, and Rs. 9 for Cumbu. for allfood-grains is only Rs 15 per acre, for oil-seedsit is Rs. 22. The average for gardenproduce is very much higher and more
of Mr
"
Cha
profitable.Chillies bring in Rs.
250; sugarcane,
not
pay cultivation of
for the
with
regardto
Rs. 100 ; turmeric, average It is evident, Rs. 100. tobacco,
an
Rs. 200, and
therefore,that it will water
on
to
use
engineand
an
but food-grains,
it is
pump
to raise
quite different
With valuable crops. the for left larger meeting greatermargin the to leference Even with pump." area) Madras an insignificant (which
the cultivation of the
them
more
there is a very much expenditureof running a
valuable crops
more
peop
e
occupy from Mr Chat terton's
experiments,that replacethe singlemot
convinced
not
are
and oil-engines
be able to would ever in the Experiencedplanters except under specialcircumstances. Madras PresidencypreferWorthington'sPumps worked by highly pumps
efficientsteam-enginesto centrifugalpumps by Mr. Chatterton. The maximum
and
cated advooil-engines
result attained at Mr. and 23 ft. deep, Andrew's farm with a well 24 ft. wide at the mouth with a smaller well 15 ft. \yideat the mouth and 7 ft. deep, at the engine that a 3i h. p. oilbottom of the largerwell (whichis 23 ft.deep),was and
different at can
a
cost
be
a
3-inch
seasons
centrifugal pump,
from
able
to
of (57,000to 100,000 gallons
of Rs. 46 to Rs.
kept
were
with irrigated
per month.
GO this
Twenty
pump
water acres
out
at
per day, of land
arrangement, biit the initialcost of by Mr. Andrew)
having this arrangement (whichis not mentioned would be prohibitive for the Bengal raiyat.
CHAPTER PLOUGHS
AND
XII. PLOUGHING.
ploughs ; [Indian ploughs of \arious si/es and efficiency;. Defects of Indian Deep ploughing with cheap implements ; Improved plough ; Principlesof improvement ; lijuropeanploughs swing-and wheel-ploughs, multipledouble mouldplonghs,seeding ploughs, paring ploughs,sub-soil-plough, sulky board plough,pulverising-plough, one plough h, ; Draught, way-plou of ing; ploughThe s team and Judging -ploughs; potato-digger, yoke swingle ; be that may of nrea English system of ploughing;Calculation of improving in possibility one ploughed day ; Expert opinionsregarding the Indian plough. fitted plough,consistingof a tongue of wood with an iron tooth, a stiltfor holdingand a pole for attachment varies of bullocks, works the soil to a depth which ordinarily THE
Indian
93
PLOUGHING.
AND
PLOUGHS
with the district. In Bengal this depth is only from three This primitive to five inches. implement, however, varies very tive effecsize and form, and some are much in weight, more very much The and others. which than Eungpur Jalpaiguri ploughs, scratch only about two inches of the soil,while least efficient, are much
heavy Bundelkhand
the
maunds, This
and
men,
depth of
and
can
body
as
a
small iron
nine
of
it
gets
plough in
each
is fixed it
as
the '
The
out.
worn
on
gets
a worn
provinceare be
plough should
of the peculiarity
chosen
Meerut
the
heel,and '
share
out.
sole. But
at first in
has
are
tongue
longpointedbar
which
and
numerous
local conditions
a
of the
wooden
districts
edge of the
fitted with
tooth, are
projectsout behind
arrow-shapedand it be pushed forward
the
foot.
shaped like two mouldridgingploughs. The
are
the appearance
Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagararid
of
the local as
sides of their
give them
with a instead of
Indian
a
and
or
oxen
half
Bihar
The
the two
of iron which is
pairs of
iron round horse-shoe-shaped
forward
inches
a
togetherto use one another's bullocks heavier and more are ploughsgenerally and than the Bengal ploughs, they woik the soil to a and Noakhali The Cuttack five inches. ploughsarex very
boards, which shod
nine
of
three
and
club
cultivators
heavy and ploughs
depth by
a
is worked
implement
in their fields. effective
soil to
stirs the
latter
plough,weighingnearly three
can
be forced
Gujarat plough This
share
the forms
also
of the
in each
locality preferenceto others, probably determined
Change may be thought of after sufficient experience gained of the local plough. The defects of the native plough are, first,that it has no and it cannot in consequence invert the soil ; secondly, mould-board, that it makes V-shaped furrows leavingridgesof unploughed land and there is waste of power due to rudeness of between, thirdly, the local form. has
been
also,the
native
ploughstirs the soil to a only a bigha a day in placeof three very which be worked with ordinary can more or bighas Englishploughs. fault the the animals than the plough. Where, of But this is more cattle are used, the native in Gujarat and Nellore,large-sized as plough is able to get over an acre a day. Englishor American ploughsmake deeperrectangularfurrows of wider width, and the upturned soil gettinginverted,the grass and \veeds get covered up in the process of ploughing.As a rule,European and American for India. But a Swedish ploughsare too heavy and too expensive in is used in the Nagpur all to others preference plough habitually and SaidapetExperimental Farms, and at Sibpura ridging plough used with of and a turn-wrest-plough bullocks. a are pair ordinary The bullocks of the Central Provinces and Madras beingvery much bullocks the the of Swedish t o use superior Bengal plough is not considered objectionable. For heavy soils the Swedish plough is unsuitable especially but for lightsoils it can for Bengal bullocks,
construction.
As
a
rule
slight depth and
be tried with
The
success
works
where
a
better class of bullocks is available.
or ridgingplough can European double-mould-board-plough
94:
HANDBOOK
with
be worked
OF
AGRICULTURE.
even ploughedfields by Bengal bullocks. this There on plough,especially using heavy soils,where sowing is to be done on ridgesfor rainy season ing crops, or in furrows for the dry season, or where subsequentearth-
is
is
done,
success
in the
as
The
mulberry.
when
furrows
on
advantagein
some
cutting,etc., or
of
case
potatoes,ground-nuts, sugarcane
be
splitand
with Deep ploughing is done also with superiorploughs,by another can
be
in
the
done
and
the on ridges required,for coveringseed-potatoes, sugarcanein the subsequentearthings. can
same
be
the
ordinarynative plough as one plough being passed behind with cheap appliances Deep ploughing
furrow.
in another
firstploughing can
earth thrown
the
way
also.
The
gatheredin the
loose
dry season
soil stirred in two
by
rows
the
ated separ-
by eightor nine ft. by passinga heavy A-shapedwedge of wood, which may be called the Meagher Dragger(Fig.13),through of the cross-pieces the ploughed-upfield. The driver sits on one his and legs againstthe other crossputs piecewhen he is drivingthe bullocks along. The
interval
the
loose
can
soil
spread over.
be
ploughedafterwards and heaped up on the sides then This method of ploughingin
be utilized with layers may great in advantage introducingsewage-farming. two
The
sewage-cart may
thin layerin
be
emptied in
a
very
the
interval before the loose earth on the sides is spread over it. The MwvdiiEii 13 DRA":t:Kii. deodorisingeffected is nearly complete. About two or three months after the spreading and June, the land of the sewage, if it is done between March inoffensive. The addition of a little lime will be found perfectly harmless. Colonel Meagher, of the operationstill more makes the Allahabad Farm, has introduced a similar system of sewage farmingto what is here described. "
the ploughrecently invented by Babu improvedploughs, tural RajeshwarDas Gupta, of the Eastern Bengal and Assam Agriculbe mentioned the the whole as on Department, may raiyat's of wood shaped ideal of an Indian plough. It has a mould-board in the body of the plough,which is otherwise a native ploughwith a wrought-iron tongue driven into it in place of a share. It works the Sibpurplough,though it costs only Us. 4 as well at least as be made in any The Meston in making,and it can country-place. United Provinces of is the another Agricultural Department plough Rs. 4 plough,which is in some cultivators. It is request among to work. It has and mould-board and its depth a very easy light the cast-iron is easilyadjustable.It is useless for heavy soils, as share breaks readilyon such soils. The Watt's plough,also issued by the United Provinces Agricultural Department4is stronger and its but is Rs. 7. The Sibpurploughis rather efficient, more price
Of the
PLOUGHS
AXD
95
PLOUGHING.
heavy for ordinaryBengal bullocks,and its priceis Rs. 7-8. Both Watt's ploughand the Sibpurploughcan be used for ing ploughheavy soils. The Sibpurploughis no better than the Watt's plough,and its construction has been suspended by Government.
too
"Tes sop and Hindustani *
'
Co.'s
Plough/ Plough,' Plough'and Plough' of
S.S.
Seeley's c
the Kaiser the 'Baldeo the United
Provinces
Department, Agricultural other
are
improved
ploughs
that
has also
a
be may mentioned here. The Baldeo plough, which
Frc.
14." THE
Snu"uu
PLOUGH.
mould-board
like the other improved Rs. 3 each, but it is too
ploughs,has been actually sold for and it is altogether lightand inefficient,
unsuitable for heavy classes The Sibpurplough the Watt's ploughdoes a or one-third of an little over
of soil.
acre
the
day (eighthours)at
a
first
ploughing and
a
half an a acre the at day subsequent ploughings.The bullocks little
over
should
be
at
least
high
Fi"
;.
15,
"
KECT
A NG
u LA
u
F
n
jmow-SiiCE.
class Bengal bullocks. If inch and the narrower an the share of this plough is made of less abrupt curve, it would mould-board a littlelarger and On it the bullocks. be for ordinary Bengal whole, answer may of the said, that none ' c
im p r o v e d so-called ploughs"answer all the
requirementsof lightness, cheapnessand efficiency the raiyat looks which for. The
"improved beingproploughs" vided not
with
a
double stilt,
1 6. "Tn FIG. of the bullocks A I'Kzoi i" A L F r u RO vv-S LICES. steering be done by the can who holds down the plough. The Meston ploughis so man name nicelybalanced that it needs little effort on the part of the ploughman to hold it down, but, as alreadysaid,it is unsuitable shows where the trialtakes place for heavy soils. In Agricultural the Meston plough attracts the greatest attention on soil, light
the
96
OF
HANDBOOK
it commands
and
Gupta plough, efiicient
more
sale
some
which
even
also
heavy
come
clear idea or
Das
stronger and
is
doubt
no
have
we
in the manufacture
not
improvement ploughs for Indian raiyats, it is necessary to have a principles which the construction of European of the principles on
ploughsis based, ploughsand the
American
forms
there
limit of
the
rational
on
construction,is
soils.
of improvements." -As principles to
The
cultivators.
among
of ruder
is
on
AGRICULTURE.
and
lifted
furrow-slices
(1) The
of the
methods
of these
character
of
these
by
of
of the
chief
using them.
ploughs are
commonly
(Fig.15),but they are sometimes parallelosometimes crested or trapezoidal (Fig.16). The
rectangularin section grammatic and furrow rectangular furrow-slices furrow-slices
is the best and
ploughsthat turn up rectangular best, other things being equal. (2) The
the
are
be laid
should
evenly at
horizontal. (3) The depth to width inches being the usual depth and ten furrow
air and
to
depth,the effect.
turn
a
depth to
clean,
over
that
(3) (5)
lie flat and
a
(5)
The
stirreror
(9) the
that
to the crests
action to
of
form
a
great for the has not the same
the
should
offer too
great
forms
in
furrow-slice may so a
gently curve resistance
to
in
Europe Swing-Plough,(2) the Wheel-Plough,
common
Double-Furrow-Plough, (4)
the
(seven
width, the furrow-slices back. (4) There ought
faK
mould-board
10
:
is too
the harrow
tendencyto
it will not
European ploughs. The America are : (1) the the
great
width
for the
givethe vertical cut
"
and
the
45" to the
width of a objectsof these angles
greatestsurface
When
is too
show
the
about
be as 7 the usual
passingthrough the
seed-bed.
edge and coulter
backwards the soil.
harrow
furrow-slices
If the on
to be
to expose
the
tilth and
proper
stand
allow
should inches
English plough). The
made
by an proportionsare
and
angle of
an
the
use
Three-Furrow-Plough,
(6) the Subsoil-Plough, Paring-Plough, (7) the Subsoilthe or Subsoiler,(8) Ridging Double-mould-board-Plough, (10) the One-way-Plough,including Pulverising-Plough, the
Turn-wrest
Turn-
or
wrist
the Plough, and Balance-Plough, (11)the Sulky Plough,(12) the Potato Digging Plough, and
the
(13)
FIG.
17.-
THE
Steam-
Ploughs. now shortlygo throughthese that the reader may judge We
WHEEL-PLOUGH.
will
for himself whether any of tee or be any portionsof these can in this ount^v.' As the wheel-ploughis introduced with success a practically swing-ploug with wheels put on, the same figure for illustrating both the ploughs. will answer (Fig.17) '
*
PLOUGHS
The
Swing-plough consists
97
PLOUGHING.
AND
of
the
following parts
:
(1) The
fixed. (2) The Sole, the is which the share or to Bottom, Slav, or Plough-ground part (3) The Share or Sock (C) cuttingpart of the plough is attached. when it can be relayedwhen which is often made of wrought-iron, damaged. For shallow stony soils shares are made more pointed frame
Body (A), or
to
which
other parts are
usuallyfixed at an angle of yielding. For soft or clay-soils prevent for ten pence Shares are sold separately the shares are made wider. Cast-iron each. shares and they common are more a shilling or Heel the The harder. (H) is are posterior (4) part of the sole which in turningor raising the plough. the ploughman uses as his fulcrum the front of is Beam the (B.B.) portion plough between (5) The the Body and the Bridle. (6)The Head (T) is the front end of the to Bridle (L) is fixed. Beam to which (7) The Bridle or Hake (L) by which the depth of the furrow is regulatedin the swing-plough.
and
slightlybent
7" from
the
downwards.
It is
its
groundto
(8) The Coulter (R) or knife which cut to gives the perpendicular
is fixed to the beam
and furrow-slice,slants
which
a slightly like the share for sharpening easilyremoved relayingor replacing. For stony soils,coulters like shares are or of wrought-ironor steel,but they are made made of ordinarily The is coulter-blade and half feet two hard cast-iron (chilled a iron). to three feet wide, and fixed at an angleof 65" to the share in wet forward in the dry weather. weather, but at a smaller angleand more fallow the coulter should pointa little ground Using the ploughon The coulter has usuallya hole in the point of the share. behind it from which suspends a chain and a small iron ball which presses down long grass or dung as the furrow is turned, so that these may A sharp revolvingdisc-coulter is used on grassbe better covered. land
forwards.
or
It
where
level lawns
terminating The
be
can
in wooden
Mould-board
(M)
there are no stones. (9) The Stilts (SS) handles to hold by with both hands. (10) is joinedon to the rightof the body behind
and it is so modelled, that it turns over is kept smooth Mould-board and clean, and the would give obstruction in working, not loaded with earth, which and thus add to the draught. (11) The Cheek-plateis just below the land-side of the body, i.e.,oppositethe Mould-board, and it In the figure this part of the slides againstthe unploughedland. is three to plough is not visible. The weightof a swing-plough and it costs in England from two to three three and a half maunds the shoulder
of the share
soil clean.
The
pounds sterling, The Wheel-ploughresembles the wheels (W " W) attached to the beam
but swing-plough,
it has two of two (B) by means sliding from the beam. One of the wheels bars or uprightscoming down of the (W), called the furrow-wheel, marches along the bottom furrow and the other (thesmaller one), called the land- wheel (W), the unploughed land to keep the plough in position, the along level lower end of the largerwheel should be adjustedat the same the furrow an inch deeper wants to make with the sole. If one M,
HA
7
98
HANDBOOK
than
one
has been
one getting,
OF
AGRICULTURE.
raises the land-wheel
the small (i.e.,
inch to make wants the furrow an inch, and if one an of shallower he sinks the small wheel an inch down. In the case the swing-plough the experiencedploughman adjuststhe depth or by raising loweringthe bridle. The beam in the case of the
wheel)
is a littlecurved the furrow side,and the towards wheel-plough little in is of the swing-plough a than the case draught higher the depth is automatically as adjustedby the difference "between
line ot
the diameters of the two wheels. There is usuallya second coulter called the skim-coulter in front of the ordinary coulter which skims dung,etc.,and spreadsthem out. The wheel-plough, though heavier in weight and costlier,is lighter in draughtand it is easier also to work it. Shallow ploughing for the man be done more can which easilywith the wheel-plough, regulatesdepthsto a nicety, than with the swing-plough.The swing-ploughrequiresto be of time in by expert ploughmen. But there is waste in the of the In the case adjusting depth wheel-plough. the hands
handled
of a good ploughman the swing-plough works at different depths for all practical with sufficientevenness Then the wheels purposes. stony) get cloggedin wet weather ; and for steep and rough (i.e., is of The is t he cost unsuitable. soils, wheel-plough a wheel-plough also
for prohibitive and
where
the
our
able cultivators, though where the land is suitthe not are clever, wheel-plough
workman
cheap in the longrun. Besides,the wheels with the axlebe taken off and the plough used as an bars and uprightsmay ordinary swing-plough.A swing-ploughof very much simpler comes
construction
but
all containing
the essential parts, i.e., the
share, duced mould-board, coulter and an adjustablebridle, ought to be introinto this country. The advantageof the wheel-plough over
in traction is ten to fifteenper cent. swing-plough four plough the share and the coulter absorb forty-
the the
friction
In the per
swing-
cent,
of
per cent., the cheekthe and The thirty-five mould-board, six per cent. plate, per cent., of resistance are in three planes: (1)the perpendicular directions resistance which passes throughthe plough nearer the land than furrow side ; (2) the horizontal resistance which is alongthe the and ; (3)the curved resistance which follows the course sole-plate
of the outer
or
the sole,fifteen resistance,
surface
Draught." The
of the mould-board.
of European the plough in the case from contributes to fifty ploughs thirty-four per cent, of its draught. The shapeof the mould-board also affects the draughtconsiderably, but the depth and width of the furrow of the soil chiefly and the nature influence the draught. A long and gradually curved mould-board offers the least resistance,a is proved overlooked in the construction of imgenerally po^nt which for India. offers ance, resistploughs Dry clay-soil very strong if the mould-board is not of the right sha$e. The draughtof harrows and other implementsis measured by the dynamoploughs,
and
American
weight of
100
of
HANDBOOK
the
which
draught, the are
over
300
OF
AGRICULTURE.
ordinary swing-ploughsor
wheel-ploughs, unsuitable for use in clearly bullocks can work the plough for a
Ibs. in weight,are
Bengal,though a strong pairof days or onlyfor a few hours at a show-yard, to apparent satisfaction. But by adding to the number of animals or givingthem work for a shorter time, implements with heavy draught can be used. Swingles and Yokes. A few
"
plough
or
any
other
vating culti-
ed implementis attachin
European countries to horses or bullocks by means of a swingle or whippletree or trees, and ropes or chains. The yoke to which ends of the the further chains or ropes are attached
be may of wood
only a singlepiece the going across
necks of the animals, traction
be
at
the
the
or
hump
may
lightened by having an-
ether
pieceof wood for the chest with cross-pieces to the in two keep position. The chain or rope to which the whipple-tree is attach""JV.ed called the draughtThe yokes are made rope. of wood of the aerial roots of bar-tree or other light and
strong
wood
having
for curved the notches necks of the animals. Yokes
furnished with breast-beams (Fig.18) are used in some provinces.These distribute* the resistance to a greater surface and thus lessen the 21"
of
yoke-galls. of Bengal method to the sides of a long pole rigidlyattached and cheapness. It does advantage of simplicity bullocks reins being guidedby also, necessityof occurrence
FIG.
MULTIPLE-PLOUGH.
The
yoking on plough has
two
"
the with the away touch or twist of the tail with one a hand, while stilt is held by the ploughman by the other. The and ploughsrecognisethe advantageof this simplicity
the
single
improved cheapness.
of attachment and 22 illustrate the method of one, two, three and four animals respectively to an implement. 23 Fig. illustrates another method of attachingthree animals.
Figs. 19, 20,
21
PLOUGHS
AND
Two Multiple-ploughs.
furrows
"
Avith
ploughinstead
tAvo-furroAV
a
greater,and three horses Having a Avider bottom it does much
soils free from
stones
the
as
101
PLOUGHING.
of are as
turned
are
simultaneously
The
draught is therefore requiredto drive this plough. level and steadywork even on one.
There wheel-plough.
are
platesor sole in this plough,and it does not therefore preparing seed-bed on ploughedland,two horses this plough. It manage
For
does
twice the
as
as
Avork
or
sAving-
wheel
plough. plough turns
can
acres
wide, and
wide
four
plough three
or
of land
day
the soil is
pans.
easily
time,
same
nine inches
each
can
three furroAv-
the
slices at
form
side-
three-furroAV
The
it
much
no
per
if
light.Having
bottom,
the
a
draught
four heavy, are required for The priceof it. dra\viug the double-furrow plough
and
is very horses
"7
is
to
"12,
as
These
more.
of
or
as
eA'en
ploughs are
altogetherunsuitable Indian needs. most While
a
plough
three-furrow
much
and
"10,
to referring
for tiple-ploughs, mul-
however, be
may
mentioned
the
|||
.seedifl.y plough of Messrs. Hornsby " Sons, Grantham
(England).
implement
This
be
can
used
either Avith or without seed-box. Without seed-box be used
(Fig.24) for
(three
the the
it may
simpleploughing or
deep only),or
four for
inches
the seed after it has been
depth up
any for each horses
to four
furrow.
to do the
FIG.
25 "SEEDING
PLOUGH.
covering broadcasted.
It is well within
work,
It
inches and in Avidth it is carried
the
can
be
to six and
of a power three Avheels.
regulatedto a
half inches
pairof light
Best chilled on for the shares,and all the wearing parts are easilyreneAvable. Equipped with the seed-box (Fig.25),it SOAVS the seed directlyinto the furrow efficiently, time. covering it at the same The quantityof seed sown is controlled to a nicety by the per acre
iron is used
as
'
102
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
of an indicating lever. The four-furrow improved simplemovement with seed-box conductors complete is priced and seedingplough This plough used, not for the first ploughingbut for at "7. and specially for sowing,may have a very subsequentoperations,
important future
before
it, if capitalists go
in
largelyfor
more
in this country. agriculture an ordinarywheelinches It is used for share broad. twelve a doing very shallow Avork,and the wheels, are adjusted so as to Deccan Bakhar (Fig. turn two inches deep. The or up slices one
The
paring plough. The paringploughis "
plough fitted with
26)
can
be used
as
paring plough,either
a
sods stifle-burning
for
fairlydry. bed. clay-landfor preparinga seedFor ploughingwet fallow-land two three inches deep or for destroying weeds, and for preparinga fine tilth en fairlydry is an invaluable,though inexpensive, the Bakhar soil, implement. The knife of the Bakhar is made about two feet long,and with a pairof strongbullocks one can prepare two to three acres of land for time destroythe weeds. tilth,and at the same The subsoil-plough is like an ordinarysingle-furrow plough,but of stronger construction, having a deep body and a largemouldIt is used board. behind an ordinary swing- or wheel-plough or preparinga seed-bed on The Bakhar does not work
ploughed-upland
often the subsoil. It may of the drier Indian tracts.
up
subsoil-stirreror
without turning it up. It has no mould-board
sub-soiler (Fig.5) This is also used behind and
it
can
deep.
sometimes
A
for
lightsoils
for
lightor The
from
heavy
very
line with the
to
"7
to
"ll
It
eighteen
to
a
is
strong
rightside and pointof the share. the
It passes along the bottom furrow raised and moves subsoil plough on wheels
BAKHAR.
costs
a
plough.
a
subsoil-stirrer
attached
on wheel-plough
subsoil
ordinaryplough.
an
the soil twelve
inches
in
the
moves
hardly be called
moves
"FIG. 26. -THE
is
in wet
furrow, and it turns alongthe same be of advantagein deep soilsin some The
which
according
as
it is
of the it.
A
adapted required
soils.
ridgingor double-mould-board
plough(Fig.2)
is made
like
either side,. mould-board on shorter and no nearly flat. It is used for making ridgesand splitting them, also for splitting A drills for sowing turnips, marker is hingedon etc. potatoes, to the beam of the ridgingplough. It marks on the ground the The marker is held in position line where the next ridgeis to be. a
swing
but
or
a
wheel-plough.It The
coulter.
has
mould-boards
a
are
^
"
a chain. By another chain behind, the ploughman can turn the marker on either side of the plough. The cost is "4 and "1 extra for wheels. It has been alreadyshown how a native plough* used be a can as ridgingplough.
by
PLOUGHS
AND
103
PLOUGHING.
ploughbreaks up but does not turnover furrows. pulverising be regarded Indian ploughand the sub-soiler may as pulverising and the as improved ploughs simpleswing-ploughs. ploughs, The plough. With an ordinaryplough ploughing one-way The
The
"
line after line in succession,as the slices are turned during the forward march and in the opposite way during one-way in this way The whole of the land cannot the return march. be both ploughed and turned over. With the one-way ploughs, be done
cannot
of which and
the
balance againstanother
another
side
is called
form
one
one
unploughed
furrows
and
the turn-wrest
or
plough,furrow-slices in
the
same
ridgescovered
turn-wrist are
plough,
all laid side
by
direction avoidingopen by furrow-slices. There
shares in the balance-plough. When set is at work on one one side,the other set is kept raised on the other side. At the end of the fieldthe position is reversed, the set which was kept raised being now broughtinto action,and the plough is turned in the ordinaryway is turned. as a carriage Tn the turn-wrest ploughthere is onlyone set of share and mouldboard which are reversible round a hinge,while in the balanceare
two
sets
of mould-boards
and
plough there are two sets. In ploughinghill-sides the ordinary locks system of ploughinground and round a field is unsafe, as the bulwith the ropes liable to go down a precipice or get choked are with which they are attached to the yoke. It is safer in hill-side ploughingto take line after line in the lateral direction only. If is done at all,the bullocks should not be made to cross-ploughing but simply walked ing, ploughup-hill, up, and the down-hill ploughhave if no been made, should be done with the terraces Turn-wrest been extensively ploughs have now greatestcare. 5re and the into in introduced used numbers on India, large and in Gujarat. The Deccan made most popular is one by Sirns and JefCeries, of Ipswich, Messrs. Ransome, which is named C. T. 2 and costs Rs. 40 in Bombay. This is suitable by them "
"
Local manufacture of the Deccan. similar plough has been undertaken, and Messrs. Kirlosa very kar Bros, of Kundal Road, Satara District, in the Bombay for the
heavy
soils of
are doing a Presidency,
make. an
In the
tracts
extensive trade in the plough they named, the turn-wrest plough is no longer very
the country plough. experiment,and is rapidlydisplacing The sulkyplough is used in American man prairies.The ploughsits and drives and covers five acres furrows three a day, two four inches
turned over at the same time. It is driven but strong,wheels almost as fast as a carriage is driven. on light, For perfectly level prairieland it is a very useful kind of plough. The potato-digging ploughis fashioned like an ordinaryplough; but it has two shares,one behind the other, both elevated posteriorly and divided or forked. The shares are driven in underneath to turn out potatoes. The Potato-digger the ridges by Story" Son of Jedburgh,Howard, and other makers, is not exactlya plough. It consists of a strongframework four wheels,the two front run on or
deep are
104
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
beingsmaller
than the hind ones. Abroad sharpshare passes underneath and liftsthe potato-ridges, while a set of 8 revolving forks workingat right-angles to the ridges above the share is worked the hind wheels. This is put on or off gearingat will. It throws by the diggeradvances all the earth and potatoes from ridgeson as land that has been cleared againsta screen which keepsthem from spreadingfar and wide. This bruises the potatoes to a certain is used hardly any loss occurs. extent, but when a canvas screen Potatoes are gatheredcarefully each time, else they get covered up. ones
When
potatoes do get covered up, they can be harrowed up again, but constant with harrows, reduces the knockingabout, especially value of potatoes and makes them liable to putrefaction. On light land two horses can work but on the potato-digger, heavy soil three are required. Four acres be dug out in a day. The cost can of
is "12 to "13. On heavy or wet soil it does not potato-digger The work done by a potato-digger leaves the satisfactorily. soil beautifully fine and mellow and free from weeds. The remains a
work
of the weeds
and
potato-haulmscan be easilyraked off and the land immediatelyafterwards for growing sugarcane, maize, jowar, be used also for digground-nut or arahar. The potato-digger can ging out ground-nutsand yams The implement of different kinds. is unsuitable for the Indian raiyat.but a capitalist going in for will find a great scale growing potatoes or ground-nutson a large saving on the cost of hand-picking.Four strong bullocks must, of course, be employed attached to a proper swingle. The Hunter-hoe has been employed with advantagefor lifting potatoesat Sibpur. been for have unsuitable found most Steam-ploughs Indian surroundings.They have been tried by Mr. Archie Hills, of Patkabari (Dt. Murshidabad),and by Mr. Armstrong, of Dehra the first outlay cost Skilled supervisionand Dun, and others. in and in India more than the advantage of the steamEngland, used
in England is only as 10 : 9. even plough over the horse-plough Where have taken to farming on a Englishmen largescale, e.g., in the FijiIslands,and where labour is dear and labourers scarce, of At the first ploughing,the found are steam-ploughs great use. furrows are twelve inches deep ; at the second ploughing made fifteen inches,and at the third ploughingeighteeninches, and thus than i"s the ground is disintegrated in a far more thoroughmanner
possiblewith any other plough. In some parts of India where the be land is badly infested with deep rootinggrasses, which cannot that than is it more probable ploughedout by the ordinaryplough, be found of very considerable value. If one asked to judge a competitionin ploughing,one were should mark the followingpoints: Whether the furrow-slices are clean-cut on the land-side (1) an*d the bottom. and compactlyone against (2) Whether they are laid regularly another at an angle of 45". (3) Whether grass, stubbles and weeds are turned in and covered
the
will steam-plough*
"
*
.
PLOUGHS
(4) Whether level,so that an (5) Whether
the
seed-bed
even
furrows
furrow-slices are
the
edges of
upper
a
on
by harrowing.
be formed
may
finished
straightand
are
105
PLOUGHING.
AND
at regularly
the ends. turned out and A the last furrow-slice is properly (6) Whether about the size of the rest. the depth has been regulated accordingto the (7) Whether of the soil and the crop to be grown and for the time of the nature four inches nine inches being the limit for this country. to year, (8) Whether the proportionbetween depth and width of the furrow-slices turned over is as 7 : 10. To understand the Englishsystem of ploughing, it is necessary to comprehend a number These are (1)Crown, of technical terms. and (5)Peering. (2)Open-furrow. (3)Gathering,(4)Splitting, Crown The is of line the the (1) ridge,running up highest the middle of one under unit of a field" tilth,all the furrow-slices '
slopingup
'
towards '
(2) The
'
Open-furrow
furrow-slices
the
it.
slantingaway
'
'
(3) Gathering is in which
the horses
round
given to
name
always turn
ridges,
two
this.
from towards
system of
the
the
crown.
When
ploughing ing plough-
by gathering goes on in a field for some the field beginsto'havea wavy appearance, the hollows being
years, *
the
between depression
is the
and
*
round
?
'
open-furrows and the elevated portions,crowns.' (4) Scattering,' Splitting or Scaring is the name '
'
to the
from
'
system the crown.
of
'
'
ploughing in which '
(5) Peering
is the
the hoises
marking out tilth,by means
given
'
'
of land
always
turn
away
for the first time
ing indicatfeeringpoles,' fixed is width The are upon by the foreman or the first ploughman,a width of either 33 ft. or 66ft. being chosen. Narrow width (ICJft. or 33ft.),involvingclose best i s suited for stiffclay-lands inclined to be wet and which ridges, into sections,or units of where the future ' crowns
benefited
-are
is to
say,
'
to
of
'
be.
is 8| ft.,that by surface-drainage.A feering-pole a feering-poles perch in length. Four or more
half
used when a field is broughtunder ploughfor the first time or where no ridgesand open-furrows observable for some reason are
are
after harvesting a (e.g., be
kept up. In very plough,lines of the old *
to
by
*
"iown
as
'
not
the
open-furrows are followed,to replacethem gathering being done round and round the openinstead of the crowns. This serves to keep the crowns
crowns.'
furrows
are green crop); or where the old ridges old fieldswhich have been long under
low
*
as
than the rest
'
'
'
possible.The two first slices to keep down the crown.
are
also cut
thinner
that the future ploughing" It is along the crown first The line is the ploughed feering-poles spt up. along poles way and then in reverse up to get all the land moved, the first one and the two slices -way, so that a double furrow is left at the crown Method
of
are
106
HANDBOOK
turned, one,
OF
AGRICULTURE.
In setting and the other,the other way. up the feering-poles, half the distance desirable between two ridges is measured from the end of the field, and the feering-poles set along this distance. The line along the polesis ploughed as described, and then the polesremoved to the fulldistance between two ridges. This line alongthe poleswhere they are removed, is also marked out the
by
one
way,
ploughas above, and
between
the
ridgesagain,and
field has been marked
the the
polesremoved to the full distance operationrepeateduntil the whole
The ploughing is done round and round these lines by gathering.The horses turn at the headlands, which should be fairlybroad, that no difficulty be experienced by may in horses turningat the ends of the fields. If headlands are left out.
all sides,these may be ploughed up afterwards by drivingthe round and round the field away from the fences and not plough towards them. When set are feering-poles up at the full width between ridges is done by splitting. With to start with, ploughing an 8| ft. staff,66 ft. or 33 ft. may be easilymeasured, and an acre on
ft.X66 ft.,these widths are convenient calculations as to area. Light soil should
being660 mental too
by ploughing. Sections of gatheringon such soil,
wavy
each
132
ft. may
for not
making be made
be taken
for
and ing turnPrincipleof calculation. A man ploughingan acre furrow-slices only an inch wide, would turn over 99 miles of furrow-slices (i.e., wide If he ploughed 12 inches 6??2L?*^i!). "
over
would
he
this distance, i.e..,8*25 miles. one-twelfth If he ploughed up slices six inches wide he would cover 16J miles in a day ifhe succeeded in doing one With an ordinarycountry acre. plough,or with an improvedploughthe utmost width obtained is six inches. of over A third of an acre, which involves a walk five miles while working,may be considered a good day'swork for a
cover
tempt bullocks,at least for the first ploughing. Atfive should be made to get the ploughman to do at least or miles of walk per day while ploughing. To get the number of
ploughman
six
and
miles walked in ploughing an acre, it is only necessary to divide 99 by the breadth of the furrow (ininches)turned out by a particular plough. With ploughs of different widths of share turning out different widths of furrow-slires, the ploughman should show different quantitiesof work. Expertopinions."With regard to the possibleimprovement that may be introduced into the ordinarysystem of ploughing, etc., in India,the following remarks of Dr. J. A. Voelcker,recorded in his worth noting: are reporton the improvement of Indian agriculture, I cannot that the system of shallow ploughing, helpsuspecting aversion to as ploughsthat practised by the native, and his "
turn
over
a
broad
slice and
form
a
thing furrow, may have someretention of moisture, and
wide
of the to do with this matter be to lose that the effect of deep ploughingwould too jgenerally the very moisture the cultivator so treasures." (P. 43). "
108
HANDBOOK
"
OF
AGRICULTURE.
The
effect of soil inversion was equally conspicuous on paddy. The trial with this crop was carried out exactlyin the .same The results are shown in the following way as with wheat. statement
The p. 135
: "
remarks following of his
Textbook
serious consideration
of Mr.
J.
Indian
on
Mollison,taken are Agriculture,
from
Vol.
also
I,
worth
"
To those who are sceptical in I can show of indigenparts Bombay Presidencycultivation by means ous tillage which in of implementsonly, respect neatness, thoroughness and profitableness be excelled by the best gardeners cannot the best farmers in any other part of the world. or This statement :
of the
I
deliberately make,
and
I
am
quiteprepared to
CHAPTER OTHER
CULTIVATION
substantiate
it."
XIII. APPLIANCES.
[The Grubber
or Cultivator (the Madras Grubber) ; the Harrow, the Hand Rake drills ; Nari-nagarwith Surtha Weeclers ; Hoes ; Bullock-hoes ; Hand Grain Scythes; Threshers ; Winnowers cleaner.] ; Hauser's
Seed
THE
; ;
ordinarycultivator or grubberis a simple A five-tined grubber with duckfor Indian use. enough be easilyworked foot coulters, wheels can mounted two on by two bullocks on land alreadyploughed and reploughed, once one way and the second time across. The advantage of using the grubber GRUBBER. instrument
"
The
consists
stirs the
in
it the fact, that soil to a varying
depth of five to nine inches uprootingand draggingweeds
FIG.
27
"
THE
GRUBBER.
and coarse grasses before it. It stirs the soil deep without The practice turningit up.
of smashingup land by cultivators instead of systematically has i ncreased it, ploughing greatly in England of late years, and we take the hint in this can country. The grubber used in the Sibpur*Farm (Fig.27) can be easilymade in country placesin India, and the cost need
OTHER
CULTIVATION
109
APPLIANCES.
Rs. 20. The priceof the ' Madras Grubber is only Rs. 17. For earlypreparation of land for rabi crops, for which time deep, cultivation is desirable, the quick,and at the same exceed
not
'
grubber is should
much
Hairow,
The
and
long.
implement.
It forms
no
bing Grub-
pans.
be done in the kharif season, when opening up loss of fertility results in too much by hashing.
not
the soil too The
invaluable
an
These
"
either
are
rectangular (Fig.28)
drical. cylin-
or
of the
rectangularharrow is several feet wide It is usuallydivided into two or three sections carrying frame
equidistantteeth, usuallyeightto
inches
long,which serve the surface clods after the ploughor grubberhas been used in order to bringup clods to the surface to be afterwards smashed and to detach up by the roller, weeds from land which has been stirred. It is also used after the seed has been sown it. to cover Chain-harrows, constructed as a ten
to break
mail,are composed or circular, polyhedral plain, coat
coarse
of
of
by ringsor links,the
the latter connected
side than used
or
FIG.
'28." THE
HARROW.
ringsand tripods,
rings,toothed
teeth
that either surface
being longeron
one
of the harrows
the other,so be can of the land or meadow the nature are viceable serrequires. They for light covered action,as when seeds requireto be lightly
as
when
on
requiredto
manures
be
The ladder,
spread on grass land.
board, used in this country takes the place of beam, or levelling is a far more but efficientimplement,especially latter the harrow, kinds can be used with bullocks. for uprooting weeds, and the lighter such the cross-killroller or clod-crusher circular as harrows, Heavy or
unsuitable for this country on account except in preparingthe land on very hard soils like those of the Deccan for very valuable crops like sugarcane ;
are
but
as
chain-harrow
a
even
of their cost
and heaviness
would
40, the questionof replacing beams, ladders and bidias by
cost Rs. our
dismissed for the present. Iron-toothed harrow called in India in common bidias are use it is hard to replace these. cumstances harrows
may
about
be used like bidias. Rs. 3.
Rollers in which
and are
the
be
may
common
purpose
preferable.
29.-HAND
RAKE.
and under existingcirSteel hand-rakes (Fig.29) 15-teeth garden rake would cost" only
useful for
are
moisture
is
expensivefor in
A
FIG.
use,
obtaininga level and compact seed-bed better retained. But they are too unwieldy Indian use. Levellingboards and beams in especially
fairlywell.
But
a
South
India, and
lightwooden
they
answer
roller would
be
110
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
been
piepared by ploughing rabi the in season),harrowingand grubbing (aridcultivating done either by scatteris ing for it is ready sowing. Sowing levelling, bv dibbling. By dibbling or the seed broadcast, or by drilling, Seed-Drill. When
the
"
soil has
or
the
of seed
greatesteconomy
.and if the seed is not
is
perfectand
effected,but
it is
slow
a
process,
too many germinationis partial, be left. Dibbling is blanks may done when sometimes large-sized
seeds, such
reliable
of
cotton,
are Duality,
Smaller
in each hole.
should
seeds
be
drilled.
or
and
germinating
two
sown,
broadcasted
either casting Broad-
experiencedhands
in not
maize
amhar,
as
involve
much
of
waste
does
seed,
sowing, and it is the irregular of sowing. But cheapest way is the most desirable sysdrilling tem, it does not as pert requirean ex-
nor
FIG.
and
hand,
SIX-TINED 30-" MADRAS DRILL. SEED
enables
the bullock-hoe
hoe, saving cost
of
its application afterwards
employ
to
one
as
and
weeding, and
enablingone English and American
to
hand-wheel-
keep
the
land
seed-drills with stirred and aerified. The be would the too expensive^as arrangements eightor twelve times three- tined and sixThe Madras of these drillsare too elaborate. and the Surtha or Tari, a seed-drilling tined (Fig,30) Seed-drills bamboo a cylinder with
funnel-shaped hopperat the top, fixed
hole
in the body of the plough, called Nari-Nagar in the Central to
a
Provinces, are adapted for existing stage of Indian
the
When agriculture. a
mixed
and
seeds for
crop, such
cotton
or
maize
as
arahar
jowar
and
and cotton,
arahar, the hopperof are drilled, or
three 31." HENDERSON FERTILIZER AND
FIG.
CORN
PLANTER
DISTRIBUTOR.
with
by
or one
one
Surtha
a
six-tined seed-drill hole stoppedis fed person,
while behind
a
dragged being provided with wheels the and ploughNative seed-drills require experiencedplough-bullocks men to work them, and it requireslong patience to introduce in a new them successfully locality.On the whole, perhaps,the make (fig. one-furrow garden drillsof American 31) have the best fed
by
another
prospect of
success
person.
Not
in India.
is
CULTIVATION
OTHER
Some
of these hand-drills
holding"seed and the other for super or sulphateof ammonia, Planter
Corn
*on
this three
apart and
sowing
same
machine
droppingthe
is furnished with
pinionsto regulatethe number sowing. Extra ringsare also supplied for sowing peas, beans other and special sized seeds. The pricewith the fertilizerbox is eighteen dollars, each extra ring costing twenty-live cents. the
seeds
distance
four
of seeds and
droppingrin"s
distance
apart of
fertilizerbox,
priceof the Henderson
the Corn
teen Planter is only four-
dollars in New Planet Jr. Seeder
York. 5 No. FIG.
is also (pricetwelve dollars)
recommended. Hoes. When "
has been
seed
sown
32."
AMERICAN
the young plants have khurpiesis necessary for most
"
a
once
HAND-HOE.
and
hand-weeding with up, one Afterwards the soil between the rows crops. kept stirred and clean as often as convenient, come
or
at any
time, if needed, any kind of pulverized
and
Without
boxes, one for such as fertilizer,
two
concentrated
some
per day.
at the
fertilizer. Each
fitted with
are
etc. Fig.31 illustrates the HenderFertilizer Distributor. One can with sow
and
of land
acres
Ill
APPLIANCES.
month, accordingto circumstances,
"
of say
plants should once
a
until the
be
fortnight plantsare
eighteeninches high. Two three hoeings give the crop a
about or
start
verv
and
With also left clean hand-hoe
the land is American an
.
wheeled
(Fig.32),one
easilywork one-third of an With a bullock-hoe a day. acre (Fig.33)3however, one acre a day
can
can
done.
be
hand-hoe poses the
or use
The
use
of
the
bullock-hoe pre-supof a seed-drill. The
FIG.
33." MADRAS
BULLOCK-HOE.
or (Fig.32) may be used as a seed-drilled, hilling one working part by another! plough,or rake, by substituting be substituted for the hoe The various working parts that can A in Fig. 32. shown hand-hoe of the American are pattern can
Planet
Jr. hoe
The essential parts are : (1) be constructed for less than Rs. 10. four curved tines screwed on to (2),which is a bar with a slit in the tines can be arranged close the middle, along which somewhat another, according one together, or apart from of the width wheel to the drill,(3) a going in front of the tines which labourer to
serves
push the
guide,and (4) a double handle for the implement with. If instead of four tines onlv
as
a
112
one
OP
HANDBOOK
tines at the two
tine is used, or two
furrow,
made
furrows
the two
or
AGRICULTURE.
by
walking behind
extremities
the
of the slit, the
implement, may
who
can cover with seed by a man with his feet as he walks along. Planet Jr. hoe bar has an arched bar instead of a simplestraight while the tines on the the young plants, goes over costlyimplement than the soil. This is a more
be
sown
the furrows
up with
two
with
wheels
slit. This
a
two
sides open
the
wheelsingle
up
hoe.
Provinces
Central
bullock-hoes cost only Rs. 5 or Rs. 6. They requre trained bullocks to work these hoes is tle. always a littledamage done by the feet of catstraight.There be muzzled. The of the use The cattle must, of course, Madras
The
or
hand-hoe
is accompanied by
and
rows
distance
lines
are
between
more
34." THE
C
P. DUNDIA.
Excelsior Weeder Mowers
farming.
and
called
plants is
(Fig.34)which
For
niranies, certain
Weeder,
Eureka
have
been
reapers
are
The machines
the
a
ordinary khurpiesand (Fig.36)
rows
Dundia
for this purpose.
effective instrument
besides weeders
of
Central Provinces bullock-hoe with a But the combined singleknife may be used. which is hoe and rake (Fig.35) used in the vineyards of France is a is
FIG.
regular.Where the
sufficiently greata
loss if the
no
are
found
very
hand-weeding, specialforms of
Hazeltine
and
Weeder
useful.
kinds of Indian unsuitable for many and the fields too heavy and expensive in
India
small.
cheap,
often
are
too
Labour
being harvesting
the
sickle must
hold its
own
placesfor a long time to come, as the cost
in most of
harvestingis
there is our
FIG.
more
85." FRENCH
work
COMBINED
than the
HOE
RAKE.
AND
reapinghook
Threshers."Steam-threshers hand-threshers But
be
no
paratively com-
small.
But
reason
why
labourers should not the trained to use
scythe, which (kachhior kastia).
does
far
unsuitable for Indian bandry. huscould be introduced with success launch to in middle-class men out wishing farming. Even by of separating is a better mode the grain from the straw flailing than treadingthe corn out by bullocks. The bullocks voidingexcrements the straw and grainthey tread upon, the system is decidedly on of I nstead flails handles with wooden objectionable. and leather thongs, flailscould be improvisedof green bamboos about 8 ft. long,1J ft.of which can be left cylindrical for the handle are
CULTIVATION
OTHER
and the rest made
113
APPLIANCES.
semi-cylindricaland
three strips. Only grainsshould be gatheredand the heap of ears beaten with 3 or 4 flailsby as many and the heap stirred and formed men again and again and beaten upon, until separationof grains from the ears is complete. Beatingbunches of straw with grainon boards is another clean and simplemethod of threshingwhich is in vogu
the
in
cut into
of
ears
parts of this country.
some
faster and
it
for which
the
be
with the flail work
But
appliedto
is executed
all sorts
of crops, is unsuitable.
includingpulses, beating board The European hand threshers that have been found useful " Co.'s Rs. Hand Thresher, price : (1)Mayfurth are 85, exclusive of freight, would come Rs. 50 ; (2)Ransome's to another etc.,*which Bullock-powerThresher ; and (3)Ruston Proctor " Co.'s Threshing Machine. The first is obtainable of Messrs. Mayfurth " Co. of can
Frankfort-on-Main,Germany, and firm
local
who
it
be
can
ordered
throughany
in agricultural European machinery. It is used at the Nagpur ExperimentalFarm, where it is found to thresh three and a half maunds of grainper hour. It is kept workingby It is well made, strong, compact five labourers. and simple in of a revolving construction,consisting drum
which
on
deal
fixed strong iron in close proximity
are
spikeswhich pass along a series of spikes fixed curved platebelow which the The
revolves.
with
straw
on
a
drum
grainis put
in at the
hopper or feedingboard. The drum sucks it in. The spikes revolving detach
beaters
or
and
straw, bottom
the
the
the
grain and
grains fa/1
at the
out
separated.The space between
on
spikeson the drum and the spikes the surroundingplateis adjustable,
so
that
the
the
machine
can
be
used
separatinglargegrains as well as work for paddy, jowar,araJiar and so
well with
works
much
linseed
faster than
and
Ipswich,England. Rs.
160.
used
by
Ruston
members
of the
at the M,
straw
Cawnpore Farm HA
and
Threshing
Jefferies,
Machine
costs
it is said to execute
persons, and been introduced
costs
Army Rs.
into, and mostly at
265.
chaff very rapidly. A is sold for Rs. 60.
which
"
Sims
Ransome,
Salvation
Wlitnowers._Dell's Winnower
grainfrom the
do
adapted for threshingwheat, paddy, jowar and arahar. This
Proctor's
by twelve rapidly. It has
very
the
excellent
it does not
well
of Messrs.
It is worked
the work
does
grains. It grains,but
and
It is very well as as
gram, is obtainable
machine
small similar
at the
use
expensivemachine.
WEKDKRS.
Ransome's Bullock-power gram. work and better does It Farm. Nagpur it is an but Mayfurth's Hand Thresher,
wheat, linseed
Thresher is also in
SG.-HAND
KIU.
for
Ahmedabad.
It
the
cleans
winnower
is made
It is said to work 8
114
HANDBOOK
well
as
by
a
as
OF
Dell's Winnower.
AGRICULTURE.
The
ordinaryfan (sup or kula)helped
dry good system of cottage husbanif basketfuls of grainand chaff are in India,especially prevalent breeze is well
graduallylet fall from grain from chaff
adapted for the
adapted for separatheight. A winnower ing " Co. for Rs. 65. is sold by Messrs. Burn Mr. Hauser, an American gentleman, while stayingin Calcutta, and grain-cleaner sold by Messrs. which is now invented a winnower a
^1'
1l'11h
FIG.
37." HATJSER'S
\VINNOWER
CHAIN
AND
-CLEANER.
down by After a crop has been trodden Co. for Rs. 250. be passed throughthis cleaner bullocks or otherwise threshed,it can be it hand the and will found out longstraw), separating by (after behind, but the that not only the straw and chaff are blown away in sizes different different out at comes spouts front. Grains grainof linseed and wheat, come out at of a mixed crop, such as gram, "
Burn
the different spouts
quiteseparate (Fig.37).
CHAPTER THEORIES
UNDERLYING
XIV.
THE
QUESTION
OF
IRRIGATION.
"
[Character and
of
endosmosed determined
compared
sap ;
used
water
sea-waters
must
be
of ;
great importance; rain, well, canal, river, evaporation ; storage tank ; solids in solution ;
thinner
than
exosmosecl
of paddy-fields irrigation ; duty
sap ; how
in canal
quantity to
be
irrigation; drainage;
depth of water.] The problem stated
enteringinto it is necessary various irrigation appliances, "
Before
theories connected with this
subject. The
descriptionof
a
to
deal
with
question of
the
certain
irrigation
116
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
poor in soluble substances,but of its beingtoo rich in such substances. Spring or well-water may look purer than contain onlyabout one part or less river-water, but the latter may of solids in solution in every thousand parts,while the former may The water of contain as much as two or three parts in a hundred. low and dirtypool may not look very clean, but it contains a a high proportionof solids in solution. We have said before that
beingtoo
water
plantscan take up nourishment only in a very dilute solution,the of plants dilution best adaptedfor nourishment generally beingone than a thousand partsof water. part of solid food in solution in more Five parts in one thousand may be taken as the extreme limit of while two and a half to three partsof solids in endurance for plants, solution in a thousand parts of water indicate the danger-point, i.e., the degreeof solution at which the results of the use of water for leguminouscrops and seedlings. become uncertain, specially The salts in solution may be one or more of the following Sodium : c alcium chloride,sodium sulphate, chloride, magnesium sulphate, "
magnesium chloride,sodium
cium bicarbonate,calcium carbonate, caland alumina some silicate, iron, compounds, nitrates and borates. also some Of these salts, the calcium carbonate, and alumina calcium sulphate, i ron silicon, compounds do no harm when theyare present in large proportionsin irrigation-water
sulphate,and
the evaporationof the water after it has been appliedto the land, these compounds crystallize out and do not collect in the soil in a soluble form. of the other salts in The accumulation solution may go on until the proportionof soluble salts in the soil reaches the danger-point.Herein liesthe dangerof irrigating with as
upon
well-water
low cesspools or canals,which contain a of undesirable solids in solution. There is another highproportion side of the question. Some soils contain a highproportionof these undesirable salts in a soluble state, and when to such soils water the proportionreadily salts is applied, surchargedwith the same reaches the danger-point.Soils containing of these a large excess salts are not
or
usar,
water
from
barren i.e., altogether
and
unfit for
cropping,but soils
such excess but only a highproportion, containing may war by injudicious irrigation. Evaporation "
which
is further
be
dered ren-
The
question 'of evaporation then comes in/ that is the fact much complicatedby evaporation
slower from land under crop than from bare land, and is different and the whole questionof evaporationis of at different seasons, minor importancewhen one takes into consideration the loss by surface flow and percolation in certain soils. But leaving all side issues out of consideration, and assuming that a tank 30ft. deep loses by evaporation 15ft. of water in course of the year, it would be obviously from such a deep tank an advantageto have irrigation than from one, say, 20ft. or 18ft. deep. Just as the 30ft. tank would lose by evaporation15ft., the 20ft. or 18ft. tank. so would Now the remainingquantityof the water in4 the tank would be
THEORIES
UNDERLYING
117
IRRIGATION.
less rich in solids,and the residual 5ft. or 3ft. of water rich in solids unless the water in the tank is rainwater and not water of solids in solution to containingan excess with. Here the of water comes begin danger utilising pumped and stored in a tank for up from a well or shallow pool of water future use for wateringplantsin the dry season. As evaporation more
is
or
to be too likely
becomes more and more concentrated goes on, the residual water in soluble salts,and the water used for irrigation afterwards may do more harm than good. If storage tanks are made at all for and well in water stored such or tanks, they must irrigation, pool be made as deep as possible, or evaporationshould be prevented. But storingof water for agricultural in highlevel masonry purposes gation tanks, is not a practicable project, except for such purposes as irriof seed-beds, etc. But it is in the watering of seedlings
that specially in the water
the
questionof the proportionof solids in solution
importance. Sap usuallycontains about four assumes
of solid in solution grammes The in litre. which the plant-foodis water, therefore, every contain dissolved should less than four grammes of soluble matter of any kind per litre, that absorption with cessive Exsuccess. on may go results in plantsgetting manuring with soluble manures, dried and burnt up. If horse-dung and horse-urine,for instance, to
are
tree
heaped up round the base will dry up and perishin Quantity. The "
of a
proportionof
a
largemango
few
or
other tree, the
months.
moisture
imbibed
and
transpired
by a leguminouscrop period of its growth has been determined by actual experimentsto be about two hundred of the crop ; the weight of the dry matter and eighty times while in the case of cereals the proportionis about 1 : 320. But one one varietyof one crop differs crop differsfrom another, and even and aman from another aus paddies)very much in variety(e.g., this respect. Roughly speaking1 : 300 may be taken as the average pean for crops during the cold weather (which is the result of Eurothis for hot of weather a nd 1 600 the try. coun: experience) crops
during the whole
But
as
hot
weather
crops
can
on depend chiefly
rainfall,
even a tion-water requirementof crops of irrigayear, the maximum 300 the of the down times be at weight dry put may 3 wheat of straw acre weighs tons, including Suppose an crop. The maximum the dry weight of the crop is about 2J tons. for this 300=750 is tons of 2Jx requirement irrigation-water crop of water, or nearly200,000 gallons.A don lifting 10,000 gallons found in practice is to of water per hour, or 80,000 gallons per day, of wheat in one day ; and two irrigations be able to irrigate an acre in the worst found for the wheat season. are ample crop even Thus the maximum requiredfor this quantityof irrigation-water determined, agrees very nearlywith what is crop, as theoretically
in
bad
actuallyallowed in practice.But there are extreme habits of plants. Cicer arietinum (gram),Panicum peculiar
of muticum cases
118
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
and
other crops are able to utilize very largequantities some from moisture the nocturnal varieties of dew, while most rice are benefited by an accumulation of water at their base continuously for about seventy days. Probably plantscovered with leaf-hairs are able to utilize the moisture from dew, hence the of and condition in dry weather muticum Panicum flourishing gram without irrigation. of
Canals and distributaries have been canal-Irrigation. from and other rivers the Son, Rupnarayan, Banka leading for watering the rice and other crops in the surroundingtracts. These are bub not only of the greatest benefit to the raiyats, The silt to the State. they have actuallyproved remunerative Value
of
"
made
and distributed to the Banka fields by the Eden Canal has also proved one of the best fertilizers. Rs. 4 The manurial value of the siltitselfis found to be between and Rs. 5 per acre in years of abundant ; so that even per annum from the rainfall the raiyatsfind that it pays them to take water in May and June, when the silt is richer in organic canal,specially In years of scanty rainfall the canal- water tion matter. bringssalvaThere is a tendencyon the part of raiyats to the crop. to take
broughtdown
more
water
by the Damodar
and
than is necessary
inches of water
for their rice crop. in their fields five times in the year
They
nine
want
for the rice crop,
while experimentshave proved that in ordinary years four and a half inches of water twice,and in dry years three times, are enough. The excessive distribution of water in the country has resulted in the canal-irrigated and Midnapur, of Burdwan tracts, specially become malarious. in Even bad having very years there is some and the rainfall only requires to be supplementedby rainfall,
canal-
The excessive use of canal-water results also in fewer irrigation. A quanpeoplebeingbenefited than might be otherwise the case. tity of water that is now miles might be spreadover ten square distributed with greater advantage over fiftysquare miles. for rice of inches land If is with 4-JDuty an crop. acre irrigated "
~4A of water
once,
the
quantity used
ft.,i.e.,16,335 cub. ft.
In
up
is 660ft.
x
66ft.
x
^
cub.
gation irriproper, the effect of one foe 15 days. The quantity ot
Bengal
of 4J inches last at least that flow oufc of a channel in 15 days at the rate of one water* can cubic foot per second is 15x24x60x60=1,296,000 cub. ft., and the water beijng the of distributed at rate 16,335 cub. ft. per acre, The duty of each cub. ft. of water about 80 acres be irrigated. can flowingper second is therefore said to be 80 acres. According of the openingof the channel and the rate of flow,the to the area duty of any channel can be determined accordingto the above and calculation. Canal Engineersshould see that each lock-gate full that and If water is wasted. is doing its no duty sluice-gate for instance, the openingof a channel is 4ft. X 1ft., and the flow' floated ascertained the middle of the channel' as along by a pith-float, ?
THEORIES
is
2Jft.per
800
second, the duty of
such
a
channel is 10
X
80,
or
acres.
The of
119
IRRIGATION.
UNDERLYING
questionof quantityof
great importance. Wherever there
is also irrigation has been introduced, canal-irrigation needed
water
raiyatsfeel that the
for
they
water
more
This is
value
use
the better very serious
a theyget for the water rates they pay. which it is the duty of irrigation officersto dispel.. By using
error, too much
or or well-water,one is bound to suffer sooner later from the effects of over-irrigation. The complaintis already has ruined largetracts of land beingheard, that canal-irrigation in the United Provinces. It is not the fault of the canals,but of
canal
and of utilizing the over-irrigation, it is low
down, and when
water
it contains
at the driest season
when
high proportion inch of water once month, or at most twice a allowance in the cold weather, a month, should be the maximum and two to six inches in the dry weather, according to the periodof of the From the obtained this, growth by rainfall plants. quantity is of water should be deducted. For winter-rice, a largeramount about twelve inches per month i.e., requiredat the growing period, for a littleover two months, one-half of which quantitymay have of solids ;
to
be
in solution too
a
one
ordinarily suppliedby irrigation.
of paddy-fields. Irrigation Suppose
wishes to providefor the should be what irrigationof paddy-fields, provision of water ? if rice is made It plantshave half an inch of water at enough their base for 72 days, i.e., if they have 36 inches of rainfall during the three months of vigorousgrowth from July to September. An "
(4,840 sq. yds.)would
acre
An
thus
one
require4,840
cub.
yds.of
water.
evaporationand requirementsper acre may 7,000 cub. yds. for the 72 days. Now
allowance
of 2,160 cub. yds. may and percolation, the total maximum
be
made
for
thus put down at If a square mile of rice-fields in a square mile. there are 640 acres has to be providedwith the maximum quantityof water (fora of severe and in the canal runs the at the water season drought), rate of 1 mile an hour, a vent of only about 9 sq. feet is required. To providemeans for paddy, for any considerable of irrigation of tanks and wells is not feasible. area agricultural by means be
Drainage
have said over-irrigation, or irrigationwith soluble in with results of accumulation salts, surcharged an these salts in the soil which graduallyrenders it barren. When the is of the evils of means canal-irrigationprovided, correcting should be also provided. This consists in havingdrainage irrigation channels. Drainagewould make much usar land fertile. A land which is drained,readily parts with its soluble salts. Irrigationcanals should be built with a fall of one foot per mile and the "
We
water
drainagechannels should have a fall of two feet to the mile, and the drains empty themselves finally into a canal, stream, or river farther down where the level is six to eightfeet below the level of the highest portionof the channel where the particular irrigation
120
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
channels begins. Drainageand irrigation
taneously should be simulother than rain-water,is used provided wherever water, for growing crops, whether it is well, or canal,or tank-water.
section
Purity of waters
What
of
solids is contained in solution in a particular water, intended to be used for irrigation, cannot be determined for except by an analysis.This analysis agricultural purposes need not be an elaborate analysisat all. Of all natural
"
quantity
waters, rain-water
is the
purest and
safest to
for
use
Water of a river flowing irrigation. througha granitecountry is also very pure, containing two three grainsof solid matter or only in solution per gallon(i.e., 70,000 grains).The water of a river flowingthrough a country containingmore easilysoluble rocks of solid often contains twenty to thirtygrains (such as limestones) matter in solution in every gallon.Springs, well-water contains or a largerproportionof solids in solution,as under pressure at great phuretted depth, such water absorbs largervolumes of carbon-dioxide,sulhydrogen and other gases, and it also dissolves saline
of different kinds from different rocks. Sea-water contains much as 2,400 grainsof solids in solution per gallon, of which as about 2,000 grainsare common salt. Sea-water is thus absolutely unfit for purposes of irrigation. matters
CHAPTER
XV.
WATER-LIFTS. [Classification according to depth of water to which each lift is adapted net result of Indian experience : The single mdt with self-delivery tube ; The double mdt; Stoney's water-lift ; The Sultan water-lift;Mr. Chatterton's "
experiments; The Madras Paikota ; Tera or Ldthd ; Chain-Pumps ; Persian wheels ; Egyptian appliancesfor irrigation (SackiyehTaboot and Shadoof) ; The Noria ; Windmills and Tube-wells ; Windlass; Baldeo-Bdlti ; Artesian and-Bucket-lift parison ComPumps and ; Fire-engines CentrifugalPumps; ; of cost of irrigation with different appliances. s
Classification
By far the most importantimplement for the is the water-lift. Various forms of water-lifts are raiyat The following are adaptedfor depths of over 25 feet : "
Indian in
use.
"
and double (1)M6ts, single
Water-lift ; and (3)Force; (2)Stoney's and Fire-engines. The following are adapted for medium pumps from 25 10 feet : (1) Paikota ; to i.e., depths, depths varying "
(2) Tera, Dhehkli
Latha
; (3) Persian wheels ; (4) Cawnpore Rao's see-saw water-lift ; (6)Deck-pumps ; The water-lifts adaptedfor {7}Centrifugal ; (8)Windmills. pumps smaller than 10 feet Sewni are : (1) depths or Swing-basket; (2) ladle ; (3) Baldeo-bdUi ; and (4) Don. or Irrigation-spoon Of all these water-lifts experimented with, the single mot has or
chain-pump; (5)Subha
been pronounced by the authorities in
Farms, as
the best for
of the various Experimental charge^ deep wells,everything beingtaken
121
WATER-LIFTS.
into account, and the lifts.
don and
the paikota,
the baldeo-bdlti, the best
for short The
a self-delivery tube, which will o f the reference bucket (which the to by a position is shown in two positions in the figure) costs only about Rs. 25 and it does well as the double such not require as a wide settingup, mot to work it successfully, it is the most suitable water-lift for fairly well-to-do cultivators. In the United Provinces mots are not provided with self-delivery tubes, and there an additional person is for emptying the bucket when it therefore needed or leather-bag of the well. comes up at the mouth The record of an experiment with a singlemot conducted in
(Fig.38) with
Singlemot
be understood
Madras
worked The mot was givesthe followingdata : by two 732tbs. in and 616tt"s. the or weighing respectively, gate aggre"
"
bullocks
l,348tbs. The leathern
bucket, which
fitted with
of iron and
was
a
discharging
trunk, weighed 43Fbs., and
when
full held
31
gallonsof water, but ed, the mean quantitylifta
tank,
per
24'2
was
the lift,
or spilt
into
measured
as
lost
rest
gallons being
by leakage.
the bullocks the rate
With
working
was
ployed, em-
of
Fi",
38."
THE
MOT.
SINGLE
lifts
90
per hour, and the heightof the lift being 23ft.,the total quantity The of work -ffis. to 500,940ft. usefullydone amounted per hour.
draughtexerted by
3831t"8. The useful work
to be or
the bullocks down done
the inclined
planewas
found
singleliftwas 24*2 x 10 x 23, a pullof 383 fts.through be raised an extra 2|ft.to enable it in
a
whilst the bullocks exerted -ffis., 5,570ft.
the bucket havingto 25|ft., its contents, and to discharge tt)s. The
bullocks
the work
then had to return
done is
equalto 9,760ft.-
in gradientof 1 in 5'28ft., ft.-fts. of X they expended 6,510 (1,300* T.-b x 25J), doing in lifting their own weightagainstthe action of gravity. energy of work done by them in a single The total amount liftwas therefore and the useful outturn that the so 16,270ft.-tfes., 5,570ft.-lfts., of of 33 per is than water this method not efficiency lifting greater up
a
which
cent." Tilt double mot
"
The
followingdata
occur
for
an
experiment
"
the
The buckets Double conducted in Madras : mot in of iron t runks and with leathern were were good discharging bucket oi 28 order and dischargedan as gallons per average and measured into a tank. trial 3 that in lasted The hours, ,time with
*
bucket
The and
"
figure1,300
is for the
weight of
1,348-43-5.) rope (i.e.,
the two
bullocks,minus
the
weight of
122
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
buckets
of tlie water raised. The mean 22' 125ft. and! liftwas the useful work done per hour was 413,OOOft.-Ibs.The circumference of the drum of the winch was 12ft. 11 Jin., ference and the circumof the circle in which the bullocks walked was 60ft. 9in.,.
200
that the velocity ratio was 4*67. The pullon the dynamometer at the ordinary speed of working was 90fbs.,and the pullto just full bucket and the pullto justraise a 59ft"s., prevent descending, The mean between these last two quantities, a full bucket, Sifts.
so
is the force TOffis.,
at the end
of the lever-arm requiredto balance full bucket of water when friction is eliminated. a Multiplying the mechanical the unbalanced by advantage, weight is 327ffis., a result probablynot very much in error, as the water in the bucket about 300R)s. The mechanical of the lift just weighed efficiency
moving
is therefore
Tha
6'6 per cent.
74 per cent., and workingat its normal speed, liftsaverage I'lll per minute, and the animal therefore
was
usefullyemployed
for 52a 5 per of the time, cent, and the absolute efficiency of the lift as a machine for utilizing the
of
energy
0-66x52-5, FIG.
39." THE
DOUBLE
iron two
when of 40." THE
(SECTION
MOT.
DOUBLE
THROUGH
A.
B.)
or
suspended in a stirrup by pivotsattached to adjustable bucket very slightlyabove
the the centre
FIG.
is
Stonty'sWater-lift" The principal feature in this lift is the employment of buckets of wrought,
(PLAN).
MOT
bullock
the
35 per cent,"
the
lower
turned
of
gravityof
full of water. bucket
the bucket
The
mouth
is inclined and
the
the stirrup are encircled and outwards
ends
of
steel wires which
are
suspendedin
The screwed eye-bolts attached to the framingabove. of the^ wires are fastened by some to the bottom convenient means and well and act as guidesto the bucket, ascending and descending, prevent it from either turninground or swaying to and fro and thus On the strikingeither the sides of the well or the second bucket. and rapidly bucket beinglowered into the water, it-turns horizontal, the well from
fillswith water, and and
rises
out steadily
on
a vertical position up assumes level is reached, tillthe discharging
beingdrawn
of the water
the upper side of the inclined mouth into contact comes and the stirrup, the framingof the lift, with an iron bar fixed across the bucket to revolve about its upward motion, causes continuing charge of the bucket with the iron rod and thus disthe pointof contact into the delivery its contents The as lift, arranged trough. the the worked at Saidapet was trials, during by arranging ropea turned by which hold the buckets over to a winch guide-pulleys when
124
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
the well. The is fixed 15 feet 3f inches from the working end." The weight of the two sections of the platformis l,4501bs.and 8501bs.,respectively. To diminish the shock when the free end fallsand the bucket is lowered into the the platform water, 2301bs. of iron rails are fastened underneath short end of that before the the a so chain, by just platformreaches
longer segment up and lower the bucket into roller platformis 24 feet longand the supporting
its lowest
the rails rest position, the platform comes
to act, and
on
the
ground and
their
weights
more gentlythan would if the velocityof descent continued to accelerate to be the case the very end. The ropes from the platform wound round drums, are the circumference of which is 3 feet 2| inches,as measured winding by un-
cease
coil of the
rope; and the mot 7 feet 10 inches in circumference,so one
drum
workingend Rao
to rest
told
of the he
me
lengthenin time
from
a
that the motion
platform is multiplied2*443
intended and the
is worked
rope
times.
of the Mr. Subba
chains ior ropes, substituting of lift is reduced the efficiency
as
in
ropes time
thereby.
With the bucket empty and the platformhorizontal,the load at the free end can be varied from 1601bs. to 3621bs. without the equilibrium, whilst with a load of 2471bs. in the "disturbing bucket, equal to 24*7 gallonsof water, the platform remained horizontal though the loads at the working end varied between 581bs. and 2751bs. between the two extreme Taking the mean values to be the actual weightsrequired to balance the platform, it is possibleby taking moments about the centre, to determine the only force actingon the platform which is not measured, viz., the weight of the empty bucket and ropes actingwith a leverage of 2,443 to
With the bucket unloaded, the weight works out 65*41bs. and when as loaded, 651bs., a remarkably close agreement. The liftwas worked duringthe trial by a bullock weighing 7001bs. and a man weighing 1171bs. The rate of working was 81 lifts per hour from well 18 feet 1 inch deep. The average a 1.
"
quantityof tank,
was
broughtup by the bucket, as measured into and the useful work done per hour amounted gallons,
water
23*5
a
to 344,210ft.-lbs. The of the lift can be mechanical efficiency front of of end ascertained by multiplying the the the fall form platby the force requiredto set it in steady motion when lifting full of water. a bucket The total heightthe bucket had to rise to
dischargeits
contents
was
22
feet,and
the end
therefore fell 9 feet and the work
of the
platform
584
done x 9=5.256ft.-lbs. was To raise the plattorm back to its initial position, the free end then falls 5'184feet and the load on it is 3621bs., and the work done is equal to l,875ft.-lbs.The total work therefore done in a singlelift is 7,131ft.-lbs.and the useful work given to the is 4,245ft. water -Ibs. ; so that the mechanical efficiency when just working is 59*6 per cent. ; at the normal rate of working it is much lower,probablynot more than 50 per cent. Mr. Chatterton thus Madras Water-lifts : "
summarises
the
^rialsof
the various
125*
WATER-LIFTS.
Foot-tons Mr. Stoiiey's Water-lift
of work ..
..
Mot
Double
Rao's
Subba also
He
gives
See-saw
.
.
.
.
.
1-930 2-323 3-511
comparison
of
the-
"
here
that
the
dangerous instrument, is
a
.
Water-lift
the following figuresfor
be noted
It may
.
trials :
results of the
though
(Saidapet) (Subba Rao's Improved) .
SingleMot
per Ib. weight. 2'253
ordinary
Pnicota
still considered
(Fig. 43),
in the
Madras
best
Presidency the
appliancefor lifting small
from
water
depths (say 10 to gle and the sin12ft.), the best
mot
for
from
liftingwater great depths. The inexpensiveness of the appliances,the which
with
ease
up and
they are set repaired, very
cannot
be
well
passed sur-
for small
v$ry
depths. The
swing-basket(Fig. 49), and
the
such as Madras
is used
by
person,
are
tion-spoon irriga(Fig. 1), in
single
a
also
sidered con-
very efficient for small depths.
Chain-pumps. "
FUJ.
Of the
found favour with the
43.
"
PAICOTA.
chain-pumpsin use, the Oawnpore Pump has Agricultural Departments.This chain-pump,
126
OF
HANDBOOK
the chain-discs of which
AGRICULTURE.
fittedwith
leather
washers,works well they or repairedfrom time new, farm at Cawnpore time. They are to be had at the Government Chain-pumps Hand-lift "(Fig. 44, I, II and III)works well up to
when to
but
are
be
requireto
renewed
.
depth of
"
feet,but
25
CAWNPORE
44 "THE
FIG.
it is doubtful
whether
it is
efficient
more
than the mot at depths above fifteenfeet.The
CHAIN-PUMP.
cast-iron stand well the two
as
the
(I),as of
top part fixed
pipe,are beams
a
II),walled
into
the
the
top
on
masonry of the well
on
(Iand
a
by
means
of six
bolts,b b. pipe with top c be fixed in such
The is to a
way
that the centre of the pipeand the centre of the wheel are in one line A B (II). The lower end mouthed
of the bell-
pipe
should
extend
at
least
inches
below
the
six face sur-
The
of the water.
pipes,for liftsof BULLOCK-POWER
HAND-LIFT.
LIFT.
than
10 feet
well,ought to on a
a
beam,
d
(I,II
vertical distance of
means
iron
an
and
III),walled
of about
strap,
2
or
e, with
into the masonry the 3 feet above
(I and position. The bolts
more
depth of be fixed
of the well at water-level
III) in
order
by to
should
not pipe keep them firmlyin their proper the but on be fixed vertically, to an incline,according slopeof the chain (Fig.1),in order to avoid friction as much as possible. of should be 25 The worked the to 40 rate at chain-pulley
revolutions
per
minute, accordingto depth of well, from
4 to
25
the approximatecapacities The following are feet,respectively. of a Chain-pump Hand-lift for different depths of well,if worked
by
two
good
coolies
:
"
127
WATER-LIFTS.
by bullock-power.It has
about
Hand-power Lift, and depth of forty feet,but
it is
it
a
can
depthsgreaterthan twenty
at
Double Chain-pump Liftworked a three to four times the capacityof be convenientlyworked up to a
V) shows
and
Fig.44 (IV
probablynot
as
efficientas
the mot
feet.
bullock gear, the shaft of which carries of
It consists horizontal
a
/ /,each working chain-pulleys, chain-pump. The gear is fixed
two a
with four bolts walled
top
into
of the
beams,
two
on
the
The
m,
the
on
masonry
well.
m
top parts
fixed with other beams, two four bolts on into the masonry o o, also walled A well. fifth beam of the p for fixingthe lower part of serves described the pipes similarlyas the Hand-lift. before for
of the
pipings,n
n~Mi~"
Persian
Wheels
are
n,
in
F
"
r
e
s
i
are
in the
coast
lightframework
turns
FIG.
46."
in the
the coast
generally. A
of India
WORKED
WHEEL AND
HAND
Bv
FOOT.
on
THE
an
The
EGYPTIAN
of
(Fig.45)
type illustrated
Kathiawar, Gujrat and
bamboo
axle which
Some
Punjab.
cheap construction.
simpleand
in is used chiefly figure
the west
4-5." PERSIAN
n
and
Coast, Rajputana, Kathiawar of very
a
Malabar
in the
use
FlG"
"
T"
iAfh-*i.
Wheels.
are
rests
PERSIAN
wooden
or on
two
drum
pivots.
of One
WHEEL
and
the other on the top of another support fixed on dry land,or both the pivotsare on with his hands sits and turns the drum A man the sides of a well. is attached endless garlandof mud the drum an and feet. Round of the drums carryrevolution the by vessels which are broughtup
is at the
top
of
a
strong support fixed in
water
128
HANDBOOK
ing water
in
them, time),into
OF
AGRICULTURE.
dischargingthe
and
water
(from three rnud
sels ves-
a troughof stone whence it flows out to the field. vessel is tied on both sides with ropes, and a bamboo Each mud side of the well,i.e., the side at which one on or a rope hanging down
at
a
the
mud
vessels
filled with
water
coming up, bumping against
are
the
side
the
of
well is prevented.
With
this
ment impleman
one
oneirrigate
can
tenth
of
Mr. FIG.
built
a
Persian Wheel
and
3 ft. 8 inches
wide
and
The
Andrews,
a
of old railway
out
24 ft. 6 inches in diameter.
acre
missionary of Chingleput, has
TABOOT.
47." THE
an
day.
a
over rails,
rotatingdrum
carries
a
circular well
a
is 6 ft. in diameter
double
chain
of sheet-iron
buckets, each r80 The
ing hold-
gallons.
axle is prolonged on
through
pairof by
bucket
from
This
a
of air escape the descending as
the
they water.
improved
Persian Wheel very From
Each
provided leather flapto permit of
buckets enter
a
wheels,
is
valve the
bevel
winch.
a
with
side and
one
driven
works
satisfactorily. a raiyat's
ever, point of view, howit is too costly and it has too
many
workingparts. FIG.
48."
THE
Egfptfan appliances. P e r s i an The of the Punjab Wheel
SHADOOF.
"
Egyptian Persian Wheel, is, for ordinaryiraiyats' also somewhat too complicated use (Fig.46) in The in Bombay. Egyptian Bengal,though commonly employed
pattern, which
is the
same
as
the
129
WATER-LIFTS.
Persian Wheel or Saekiyeh,as illustrated in p. 127, is thus described The Saekiyeh mainly consists in Lane's Modern Egyptians: in earthen pots attached of a vertical wheel which raises the water series ; a second vertical wheel, continuous to cords, and forms a fixed to the same axis, with cogs, and a largehorizontal cogged "
wheel, which, beingturned by a pairof beast,puts in motion the former wheels
Egyptian arrangement (Fig.47), which resembles the chief difference
the
is raised bullock a
in
up is blind-folded, and
driver,while
is attached
the
pots."
Wheel
hollow
with
it goes round
cog-wheelto which
in
used,
not
are
the
is
raising water
a
Another
single tiful beau-
Taboot
respects,
some
but
the
water
The round even without the shaft of the bullock
jointsor
fellies.
and
the The
moves
wheels
other two
arid
Persian
being that pots
largewheel
a
for
bulls,or by
or
cows
.
the
with
wheel
fellies faces
channel
a
which
to
hollow
or
seven
the
eight of
hollows
their
pour
out
while
others
tents con-
simultaneously, in
up series.
ing com-
are
endless
an
This arrangement
is
for small
adapted only depths. The
(without the selfliverytube) and the
mot
de
swing-basketare also in use in Egypt, as also the
Tera
The
(Fig.48) two
Shadoof
suspended one
end
made stuff
in
height
pieceof a
49." THE
FIG.
BENGAL
SWING
BASKET,
of
pillarsof wood,
or
5ft.
horizontal
doof. Sha-
consists
posts
about
or
wood
and
rushes and cane mud or with than 3ft. a apart,
of
or
less
from top extending,
slender lever formed
of
a
branch
to
of
top, to a
tree
which
is
having at
pended weight,chiefly composed of mud, and at the other,susfrom two long palm sticks,a vessel in the form of a bowl of basket-work, or of a hoop and piece of woollen a
leather.
With this vessel the water is thrown to up about for its 8ft. into a trough hollowed out height Idthd and swingreception. The Shadoof is thus a combined The ordinary Swing-basketof Bengal is illustrated in basket. or
the
of
Fig. 49. The
Noria
or
Bucket-pump
is another
form
of
sian improved Per-
Wheel, which consists of buckets chained one to another in an endless series and worked ing The followby hand or animal power. facts and figures taken from the catalogue of Messrs. W. J. " M,
HA
9
130
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
Works, Brentwood, Essex, England) C. T. Burgess (Victoria idea of the efficiency of this kind of water-lift : a general
give
"
Number
of bullocks
means
FIG.
Chapter XI. the
S. Freeman
and
60." -THE
BALDEO
BALTI.
are erectingaeromotors given in and Companies constructing supplyingthem.
FIG.
Part
needed.
Full directions for
cataloguesof the
(Vide
donkeys
with centrifugal oil-engines pumps, of raising water, have been already described in
Wind-mills,aeromotors, other
or
THE
ORDINARY
DON.
Steel Wind-mills, CatalogueNo. 29 of Freeman Sons, ManufacturingCo., Racine, Wis., U. S. A.)
1 of "
51."
132
HANDBOOK
There
cherry.
tube-wells
also many
are
Borings at
OP
at Pondiworking satisfactorily to a depth of 200ft. up
bottom
the
AGRICULTURE.
of wells
in the Baroda State by Mr. Kasherao successfully the Bombay AgriculturalDepartment in other by Jadhav, to keep up a continuous supplyin wells. parts of Gujarat, and supply artesian and tubeOf the firms which manufacture wells and the drivingapparatus and boringtools,may be mentioned made
been
have
and
C. Isler "
Co.,Artesian Works, Bear Laner Southwark, London, S. E. Messrs. W. Leslie " Co. of Calcutta, supplv tube-wells at the following Messrs.
prices:
"
Drive
pointand 20ft. l|in., wrought-irontube in short lengthswith a pitcher pump "
Ks. 20ft. ..
..45
..
25
50
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
30 40
The FIG. 54." THE DRIVE-POINT
55 60
priceof the drivingapparatus, the
servingfor any
number,
The
is Rs. 45.
same
set
of
manner
is illustrated in Fig. first, plantingthe drive-point AND MONKEY and the whole the well 54, GEAR, arrangement for fixing in Fig. 53. Another device for irrigation, called the Windlass and BucketLift,is illustratd in Fig.55. It is useful for bringing water from fields. The two positions of the same a stream or canal to adjoining bucket are illustrated in the figure.A tilting what arrangement, somethat in resembling in
use
Stoney's Water
at the top of Lift,occurs the post, and when the
bucket
reaches
it
with the
The
up and FIG.
the when
65." WINDLASS
windlass. there
are
BUCKET-LIFT.
AND
Two two
buckets
may
one steel-ropes,
This the other marches down. hill-sidesfrom a stream water on
be
tion, posi-
gets upset coming
in contact
rod.
this
bucket
down
and
with
rope
it
a an
tilting slides
steel rope,
ordinary
is worked
with
simultaneously worked
bucket
travelling up
while
arrangement is suitable for lifting at the
bottom, and
in other
able suit-
sites. and force suction Of pumpt. pumps be to the given Fire-engines. irrigation, firstplacemust Curricle Fire-engine Platform Fire-engine and Hand
Fin-enginesand other suitable for
Heathman's are
excellent for
out fires. out
on
pumping
"
sewage,
well as irrigating,
as
for
putting
ting tehsildars should have these for letat so and also for regular irrigation emergencies purposes,
Village unions
or
133
WATER-LIFTS.
take placefrom per day. The suction can of much 600ft. as as deliveryhose can be
much and and
about discharging
which
pumps up This pump
man,
hour.
and
suction-hose
of
2 to 4: persons
height Truck-Force-Pump, over
a
from
2ft. of
and discharge-hose
complete, is "5 106. Od. for
nozzle
by
placeto place,and worked by one about 500 gallonsof water or liquidmanure per Its pricewith 10ft. is also used as a fire-engine. about
be moved
can
water
forced
per hour
Heathman's*
10s. 6d.
priced "12
of 60ft. is
1 worked
Fire-engineNo. 2,000 gallonsof
Platform
Heathman's
depth of 28ft. through.
a
a
and
3-inch pump
fan and spray "6 for a 2i-inch
pump. Of "
suction "
Handy
or
and
force
be
may
pumps
also
mounted
Semi-rotaryWing Pump
the
recommended wheels
on
(Fig.
56). These are pricedby Messrs. W. Leslie " Co., of Calcutta,at Rs. 125. They raise 300 to 500 gallonsof water per hour. Handier are adapted for applying syringe pumps specially
FIG.
56"
WING
SEMI-ROTARY
PUMP.
insecticides and
Messrs. Of these may be recommended fungicid|". Heathman's Brigade Suction Pump, made of brass and copper. It ejects of about 30ft. 300 gallonsof liquidper hour. to a distance With 6ft. suction-hose and strainer,2ft. delivery-hose and nozzle the priceis 50 shillings.Extra suction-hose 2d. costs Is. per foot and
delivery-hose, 8^d. per
extra
Centrifugalpumps are
not
pumps,
so
which
liable to get
and
if such
are
do
out
foot.
not
possess
of order
made
with
as
valves
and
ordinary suction
wheels multiplying
washers and
force
suitable
for
to our a raiyats. Centrifugal and in factories indigoplantations pumps with steam-power and they in this country, but these are worked too expensive for the ordinaryraiyat. are
they may hand-driving, are
*
W.
C.
J. H.
in
common
Heathman
prove in
boon
use
"
Co., Manufacturers,
2
"
37, Endell
Street, London,
134
OP
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
worked Comparlton off costs,etc. The centrifugalpump by used and for the 8 H.-P. steam-engine, at irrigation purposes "
an
four Cawnpore ExperimentalFarm, irrigates
in coal, oil and
and it costs Rs. 5 per day The Cawnpore chain-pump worked for
workingit
ot land per day of the mechanic.
acres
wages
quired (4 men by 2 men being reabout'an acre without interruption) irrigates
where is within 4ft. the water about 8 annas is 10 the water at at Cawnpore. Where to 12ft., as as deeper,say is like the the Barakar (which Sibpur, Cawnpore pump) very pump is able to irrigate less than the only one-third of an acre a day, i.e., a
day
at
cost
a
of
of labour also are at Sibpur swing-basket does, and the wages is double what they are at Cawnpore, so that the cost per acre about Rs. 3 at Sibpur againsteightannas, the cost incurred at about one"third of an Cawnpore. The Raldeo Water-Lift irrigates bullock under of six and one man) at acre cost a annas (one per day The conditions prevailingat Cawnpore. Stoney's Water-Lift from a worked by a strong pair of bullocks,and a man irrigates,
deep well cost
work
of 30 to 40ft.,about
of 12 can
(about Re.
annas
be done
and
on
one-third
1-8 in
of
an
Calcutta).
aero
On
per diem at a sandy soils less
The
stiffclay-soils more.
figuresgiven
important compare these high use or improved irrigation applianceswith those in common in this country, viz.,the swing-basket, the terd or Idthd, the don. the singleand double wof and the singlePersian Wheel (Punjab To least work the three at are men pattern). (J) swing-basket the water relieving in turn the two required,the man distributing in The the out water. men employed baling heightto which the be lifted with the swing-basketis from 10ft. water 5 up to can apply
to
a
medium
loam.
It is
to
class
About
one-third of a cubic foot of water is thrown up each time, and there are about 20 deliveries per minute, which gites 400 cub. ft. of water per hour. If 25 per cent, is allowed for wastage, to 300 cub. ft., i.e., percolation, etc., the actual dischargeconies the ordinary 1,890 gallons.(2) To work the terd,Idthd or-dhenkii (i.e., lever and bucket-lift) man one is""mployedat the bucket and one The water can be easily for distributing man the water. raised 16ft. high. The contents of the bucket or dol is about half is about three. The number a cubic foot. of discharges per minute The discharge per hour is therefore 90 cub. ft. Allowing 10 per cent,
in this
case
for
wastage, we
get about
81 cub. ft. "
500
gallons
hour. (3) The don or canoe-shaped lift,made of trunks of in common trees hollowed out or of iron (irondons being now use in Birbhum It and Murshidabad), is also worked by one man. There 10 deliveries raises water onl}r 6ft. 5 of are or up to a height per
minute, each deliverybeing about 3 cub. ft.,1,800 cub. ft. thus lifted per hour. Waste of only about 10 per cent, takes The actual quantityof water lifted is therefore placein this case. cub. which at 6^ gallons 1,620 ft., per cub. ft. gives10,206 gallons tube, one (4)To work the singlemot with per hour. and the two bullocks are required, besides man man distributing per
are
seli^deJivery
135
WATER-LIFTS.
the
Water
water.
lifted from
be
can
The
bullocks walk at the 40ft. the bullocks traverse is 3 cub. ft. The number
a
of 2 miles
rate
80ft.
an
depth
of
hour.
The contents
40
For
of the
80ft.
to
each
bag or
liftof bucket So the
of liftsper minute is only one. 180 cub. ft. Allowing25 per cent, discharge per hour is 60 x 3, i.e., of loss by spilling 135 cub. ft. or 850 gallonsper hour is the result is avoided by But whereas, at the Sibpurfarm, spilling obtained. the bucket beingmade to slide up two tightsteel ropes as in Stoney's Water- Lift,the loss may be put down at only 10 per cent., and in The draughtor trachour. that case we get over 1,000 gallons tion per required being 2551bs.,two bullocks are essential. (5) The double
and two requiresone man of the whim being 3 ft. and the diameter the bullocks 16ft., walking at the rate of
The time per minute. 1-4 minutes. of 40ft. is depth
a
bucket or
cub. ft.,the
being 3
buckets
to 252
comes
Thus
for wastage.
The
ft.,of which wo
arrive
The
at
ratio of power to per hour. of whim and bullock-walk are 3ft. and
being
35 per cent,
165
cub.
ft.
weight where
bucket
or
the
from
take
can
of the
contents,
hour
dischargeper
cub.
diameter
of the bullock-walk
2 miles per hour the bag taken for raising
3*4 turns from
The
bullocks.
also
mot
two
bag or bags be calculated
may
1,045 gallons
or
the diameter The total 16.
16ft. is 3 : weight raised each time being 4601bs.,the draught exerted is 1241bs.
considerablyless than in the case of the singlemot. (6)To work and two bullocks (or even one singlePersian Wheel also one man b esides The the man are water, bullock), distributing required. water being raised 40ft.,the diameter of the drivingwheel being or
the
4ft., the diameter of the wheel attached
being
of one-eighth
also
cubic
to
which
the buckets
4ft.,assuming the
of
content
foot and 6 buckets
pots
or
each
are
bucket
each
turn being emptied of the bullocks,the dischargeat each turn conies to three-quarters of a cubic foot. The lengthol the bullock-walk being 62*8ft. and the speed of bullocks being 2 miles an hour, the bullocks make 2'8 The dischargeper hour is therefore 126 cub. ft., turns prr minute.
of which
a
45 per cent,
thus buckets
to
comes
at
n^ay be allowed for 69*3 cub. it. or 429
charge actual dis-
wastage. The
gallons per
hour.
The
2ft. apart from middle to middle, the number is endless The weight of buckets is chain 40. one ISOlbs. Twenty buckets being always full,the weight of contain is 1561bs. The weight of the rope is 221bs. The they weight raised is therefore,2581bs. The modulus being '6,the this between 2581bs. ratio raise 4301bs. The is to required
beingtied
of biickets in about water
total power
exerted by bullocks beingabout 1*5, the power which is still exerted is draught or power only 861bs., lighter than in be worked of the double mot. the case Such a Persian Wheel can and
power
by
one
the
bullock
From
only.
the above
appliancesare
by
no
means
be
to be
seen
that
the native
and despised,
that
tion irriga-
takingall
conclusions : consideration we come to the following don is the best implement for Indian use for small depths
thingsinto (1) The
it may figures
"
136
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE,
its lifting 6ft.), capacity,being 10,000 gallonsper hour the swing-basket, to it comes which in the hands ot dexterous coolies will liftabout 2,000 gallonsof water per hour irom medium For of 10ft. double either a depth a or (3) depths, triple series of dons, or the lever and bucket-lift (tern) is the best. 500 be of raised hour For the terd. with water can gallons (4) per great depths, the singleand double mot and the Egyptian or Punjab pattern Persian Wheel are the best. The mots will give about 1,000 gallonsper hour, and the Persian Wheel about 500 gallons. the cost, the singlemot is to be preferred to all others Considering for great depths,and to adapt ordinaryringwells of only 3ft.
(up
to
(2) Next
to avoid
diameter, and
of water, spilling
the bucket
be made
can
of to slide up two steel ropes stretched vertically from the bottom the well up to the beam whence the pulleyis suspended. To irrigate of land, 50,000 gallonsare requiredfor clay soils, and acre an for sandy loams. The latter quantityis equivalent 100,000 gallons which is enough to soak thoroughto about half an inch of rainfall, ly of soil.
six inches
above
quantities may
For
double thoroughirrigation,
more
be allowed,viz.,100,000
gallonsper acre 200,000 gallonsper acre sandy loams, and needed for with a irrigating particular locality arrangements clay soils and
for
of the water-lifts for
every
or
described above,
pumps
be
can
worked
the for the any out
locality. particular
CHAPTER OTHER
XVI. IMPLEMENTS.
AGRICULTURAL
cake-crusher, oilkibMei, [Bull's dredger, rice-huskers, chaff-cutters, root-cutter, root-pulper, dles, hurmeal -grinder,hay-trusser,oil-mill,feeding troughs and maize -huller,cotton gin, sugar-rune mill, silos, bone and stone-grinder, and carts insccticidal fungicidal appliances ; balances implements ; dairy ; useful tea and coffee planters' machinery; machinery tound (steel-yard); in the SripurFarm.]
implementsand machinery that operationsmay be mentioned agricultural OF other
in
or
be used
may
following: Dredger for sinking wells.
(1) Bull's These
are
the
"
workshop of the Cawnpore ExperimentalFarm and sold are
for Rs.
made
in the
Rs. 210. (2) Rice-huskers or hullers and 180
which in the
next
to
polishers, dealt with separately
will be
part
in connection
with
the
rice crop.
(3) Chaff-cutter (Fig. 57), by Messrs. " Co., priceRs. 53. (4) Root-cutter. Ordinarydao or kdtdri
Burn
"
FIG.
57." CHAFF-CUTTER,
does the work
slowly.
more
(5) Root-Pulper.Dhenki fairlywell. "
motar
answers
with
ted cemen-
OTHER
(6) Kibbler and
other
sold
at
a
or
mill for
corn.
crushing grain,oats, maize, barley
crushingthree bushels
One
of
corn
per for Rs. 35.
Cawnpore ExperimentalFarm Crusher,by Messrs. Oakes
the
137
IMPLEMENTS.
AGRICULTURAL
"
(7) Oil-cake
hour
is
Co., of Madras, price
Rs. 57. wheat for whole-meal (attd), for (/rinding " Co. The Flour also barley, oats, maize, etc., by Messrs. Burn
(8) Steel
hand-mill
Machine Dressing per
No.
5 is said
to
grind and
dress 30 to 45
hour, and it is pricedat Rs. 2K). (9) Hand-power hay-trusser. (10) Ghani, Kolu or Oil-mill. (11) Feedingtroughsand hurdles. (12) Bone-mill and stone-grinder. (13) Maize-huller (Fig.58). (14) Cotton-gin.The Macarthy Hand-Cotton-gin "
Rs.
220),obtainable cleans 1401bs. of cotton
N.
of Messrs.
two-thirds
seed
obtained.
The
in seed
per to the (according
seed is not
D.
Maxwell
diem, about
"
Co. of
one-third
varietyof cotton
injuredand
it remains
seers
(price
Bombay, lint and
ginned)being
fitfor
sowing.
to be described (15) Sugar-cane mill,etc.,
in Part III in connection
with the sugar-cane
crop.
(16) Silos
to
with
connection
fodder
V in connection
V
in
crops.
(17) Dairy implements,to in Part
in Part
be described
be
described
with milch-cows.
(18) Appliances for spraying or dusting insecticides and in connection
to fungicides,
Insect and
with
(20) Balances.
described Fungus Pests. be
Platform HULLRR. weighingmachines though highly useful for experimental farms where weighingof cattle or of cartloads of crops, etc., has to be done, are too expensivefor ordinary straw, manure, The common scale-beam with wooden use. agricultural pans and As iron weights, obtainable in bazaars, is the best for such use. "
used, for weightsare liable to get lost if they are too frequently dailyweighingsof small quantitiesup to SOlbs.,the balance best adapted is the steel-yard. of the steel-yard in which weights Fig.59 represents the position from
2 to
161bs.
can
be
determined, as
the
the on figuresmarked something high by the
iron-bar will show. It should be hung on The middle hook will not be used at all hook nearest to the arm. in this case. The article to be weighed is to be hung on the double This beingdone, move bar till hooks. the weight on the arm or it assumes a perfectlyhorizontal position. The figureon which the weight will rest will indicate the weight in pounds of the article ment instruweighed. Figure 60 represents the positionof the same reversed,in which weightsfrom 15 to 501bs. can be determined
138
HANDBOOK
by the figures on the steel-yard Ls suspended by is shown
as
the
used
is not
arm
enterprises FIG.
59
.-"
for
which
in
the
iron- bar
middle
the
or
hook
this
In
arm.
and
the
hook
case,
nearest
all.
at
(21) Machinery
AGRICULTURE.
OF
and other indigo, coffee planting capital and intellect are employed are hardly necessary
tea,
European
STKBL-YAKU "
-
handbook
in
of
attention
in their
places
proper III.
in Part
following
The
and
implements
chinery ma-
have
been
tried
the
in
:
"
(1) A Thresher,
Steam
by
Co.,
costing
Aberdeen,
ed adapt-
3,500, and
Rs.
threshing
for
turning
WEIGHING
oats,
barley,
wheat, and FOR
Messrs. "
Reed
J3en,
STBEL-YA1U)
useful
Sripur Farmr Raj, District
Hatwa Saran
been
found
and
N.
N.
reported by Mr. Banerji as having
."
a
ture agriculthough these subjects will receive some
^"
.--"
described
be
to
WEIGHING
FOR
etc., 8
out
f
15
50
TO
tt)S.
maunds
(60 RESEKVED).
of
grain
per
hour.
(2) Donaldson's and
costing
and
Calcutta,
efficient
than
with
together
the
Oil-mill,
Patent Rs.
120,
Kolu,
local
the
help
of
which
Messrs.
by
Jessop
found
was
when
two
or
more
three
"
Co.,
economical are
worked
steam-power.
v
(3)
with
(6) the
The Assam
Country
Native
Seed
Drill
worked
by
locks bul-
training.
some
(4) South (5)
Three-Coulter
and
Two
Indian
Behar
bullock
hoes.
Indigo-Drill used
Cotton-Gin,
Cotton-Gin,
which and
which
was
for
drilling oats
found is worked
more
with
and
wheat.
efficient treadles.
than
*
140
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
farm again,where the fodder, the dung, experimental have to the urine,etc.,have to be weighed; where small lots of corn be separately thrashed,dried,weighed and stored,where detailed In
an
be must money and labour staff buildings, implements,the supervising to be
experimentshave
of
accounts
spent on are force,if the experiments also
ures give reallyreliable results. Man-
such each item instead of Rs. 10 will be needed on for annual expenditure ; while the outturn
bought in
be
must
to
recorded,more
experimentalfarm.
an
For
farm Rs. 20 per acre and Rs. 100 per acre to less than Rs. 50 per acre. for such a farm may come per acre and as thus vary almost infinitely, As the circumstances may estimate the cost of growingeach of the principal shall separately we will be to givea typical the e xample, for aim our present crops, the apdraw certain definite conclusions from it,and recommend plication a
tatis muin each particular case, of these deduced principles what hinted are have we mutandis. In fact,we going already gal, of a 400-acre farm in Lower Beninfer from a typical case to do, i.e., should be allotted for buildings, that about Rs. 10 per acre for implements,by way of for cattle,Rs. 10 per acre Rs. 10 acre
per
charge,and capital
Rs.
50 per acre is very much
by
way
of annual
expenditure.
increased tion proporfarm is if the and and implements, for buildings very much a diminished proportionfor buildingsand implements will larger, enunciated here refers only to mixed The be needed.
If,however,
the farm
smaller,an
principle
gardens or plantations. cutting Capitalcharge (i.e., (1)Laying out at Rs. 10 an acre and making roads, down trees, burning low bushes, levelling, Rs. 10 Rs. 4,000. (2) 160 bullocks at Rs. 25 (i.e., and channels), the implements, principal per acre),Rs. 4,000. (3) Cost of buying like that land of arable of farm 400 for acres heavy etc.,required a of the Sibpur Farm, which : are
farms
and
to
not
"
"
Rs. 16
240
Carts
.
1
Spring-Cartfor
1
Pony
1 Gun
for
.
.
.
market
harness
4
Bakhars
4
.
200 .
.
.
.
.
.
100
100
etc. killingjackals,
4
2
.
.
for market
Improved ploughs Ridging ploughs Five-tinned grubbers Zig-zagharrows
80
.
100
Water-Cart with
.
.
.
.
1
.
.
640 .
.
.
.
"
"
.
.
100 80 "
.
160 .
.
.
.
20 .
.
.
rollers Wooden 8 Ladders 4 Beam-harrows Seed-drill 1 American
4
.
.
.
.
.
.
80 .
.
4 .
.
.
.
20 .
.
"
.
.
50 .
.
bullock-hoes (Dundias) bullock-hoes 4 Narrow 8 Planet Junior Hand-hoes
4 Wide
..
32
..
'""
20
fc
160 ..
EQUIPMENT
OF
141
FARMS.
Rs. 2 Chaff-cutters .
1 Corn-crusher 1 Cake-crusher 1 40
Turnip pulper dons Other suitable etc.
20
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
1 4
.
400
..500 ..
.
.
.
.
weighingup
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
20 4
weights
Grindstone, 24" diameter
.
..
Hooks or sickles 1 Hand-thresher 1 Winnower
250
2
to
.
pairof scales and
Scythes
100
.
Steel-yard
1 Small
100
mot, irrigation appliances,
hurdles Scales and weightsfor mds.
1
40
.
..
Dozen
..80
..
.
.
.
.
.
20
..40
..
20
.
8
.
..
.
.
200
..
.
Chains, rope, bamboos,
*
2
65
.
115
etc.
..
Rs. 4,000 Rs. i.e.,
10 per
for
acre
implements. Rs.
Sheds for 100 resident labourers Covered shed for manure pits Shed for bullocks
.
..
Barn and godown House for residence
Rs. i.e.,
.
.
.
acre
2,000
.
300
..
of Farm
10 per
.
200 .
Overseer
.
1,000 500
Rs. 4,000 for sheds and godowns.
Hedging and ditchingshould be done when a farm is started The of the farm. laying out they are included under the of about Rs. 3 costs work ifthe mere jungle clearing per acre, This item is necessary is done on contract. only when a farm has to be started quitefresh from land in jungle. The annual expense of workingthe above tarm can be estimated "
and
thus
"
: "
Rs. labourers at Rs. 6 per month Overseer or bailiffon Rs. 50 Oil-cake @ 1 maund per bullock month, @ Re. 1-8 per maund Rent 200
..
..
Other expenses
\
.
.
.
.
.
600
per .
3,000 1,200
.
..
.
14,400
.
.
800
Rs. 20,000 U s. 50 per acre. i.e.,
142
ordinary
By
labour,
hired this
such
in
per
acre
them It
is
But
pay.
best
choose
to
the
though
will
sugar-cane from
it and
costs we
set
four
will
discuss
We
should
apart
for
water-courses
200
outturn
in
the
mention roads and
and
we
next
here
paths,
irrigation
one
a
two
crops
double
value much outturn
average down
put
the
costs
Rs.
at
50
therefore
farming
just
and
labourers,
such
as
it
pays
more.
expect the
of
150
and in
An
the
but
each
principal
from
it,
is
a
it
tion, rota-
of
acre
growing,
gur
crop
question
handbook.
that
one-tenth
of
and
one-tenth
for
channels.
these
greater.
What
make
to
only,
crop grow
is
crops
Rs.
hope
one
and
crops,
may
on
jute,
sugar-cane,
may
rely
to
about
part
a
of
the
pulses
maund
which
crop
field
such
or
of
2
in
pay
maunds
crop
safely
crops,
paying
Bengal
farming
Rs.
with
pulses,
coolie.
a
growing
and
cropping,
But
own
safe
five
Rs.
worth
what
a
at
gentleman-farmer
never
or
in
cost
be
may
is
of
cost
be
special or
it
ten
sold
Ordinary
as
growing
or
etc.
their
are
make
or
etc.,
may
service
capitalist
a
farming
by
only
is
that
etc.,
than
better
land,
50.
who
cultivators
no
Rs.
at
to
and
judicious
pulses,
farming is
also
cost
the
keeps
mixed
from
the
the
jute,
maize,
as
are
By
tobacco,
cultivating,
less
these
of
out
year
every
paddy
of
acre.
rice
cultivating expect
when
per
sugar-cane,
as
and
50
AGRICULTURE.
cannot
maunds and
Rs.
taken
be
can
i.e., by
obtained
only
is
yield
farming,
Fifteen
are
acre
OF
capitalist
a
country.
per
HANDBOOK
the
land
farmstead,
should
be
canals,
PART
III.
CROPS.
CHAPTEE
CLASSIFICATION
BOTANICAL Indian
[Principal
('yperaceae, Amaryllidaceoe, Musaceie, Zingiberarese, Can
JDioseorece,
Bromiliacea?,
CROPS,
OF
Gramme*
under
coming
crops
Aroideae,
Liliaceae,
XVIII.
Solanea\ Convolvulacese, Piperacese, Enphorbiaceye, Morete, Sesame*, Linea?, Tiliaceae, Malvaceae, Cruciferse, Leguminosae, Umbellifene, Urticaceye, and Chenopodiacea?, Polygonacca?, Composites, naceac,
Cucurbitaocae,
Onagracese
;
of
Character
these
crops
Abbreviations
[Ce
Cereal
Vegetable T
=
Timber
L
=
Loam
crop ; ;
;
D
S
=
Fodder
=
R
=
; I)e
soil
the
Ft
Pulse
=
;
;
orders
Sp
;
;
"c.,
"
PH
Bl=Bil
which
to
Fb
Spices
=
crop
soil
=
;
Fibre-crop ; V~ seed-crop
O=Oil
Pot-herb
;
Cl
clay
=
; ;
land.]
may
be
they
belong
thus
exhibited :
"
MONOCOTYLEDONS.
"
3. 4.
Oats
5.
Deodhan
2.
|
s.
"
crop;
Fruit
=
grou
(Oryza sativa), Ce (Cl, L " S for Aus). Wheat (Triticum sativum), Ce (Cl " L). hexastichum), Ce (L " S). Barley (Hordeum
1.
Paddy
sativa), Ce
(A vena or
Juar
"
F.
(L/C1., S "
(Andropogon
St).
sorghum),
Ce
"
F
(L
S
St). frumentaceurn),
Ce
"
F
(S
St). 6.
Cheena
7.
Kayon
8.
Maize
9.
Shama
(Panicum (Panicum
miliaceum), Ce " F Italicum), Ce (S).
(Zea mays), Ce (Cl,L Bhura or (Panicum
(S).
"
St). 10.
Gondli
(Panicum
miliare), Ce
(S.
"
12.
St). Menjhri (Panicum psilopodeum), Ce (S. " Marud (Eleusine coracana), Ce (8 " St).
13.
Kodo
11.
14. 15. "
;
each
:"
-Miscellaneous
=
natural
various
(I) GRAMINE^
"
explained
I)ye ; P St Stony
=
A.
"
M
Root-crop
I)rug
Sandy
=
;
which
on
principalagricultural crops,
THE under
F
crop;
"
soils
;
St).
(Paspalum
scrobiculatum), Ce (S " St). Bajrd (Pennisetum typhoideum), Ce (S " St). Ulu or thatching grass (Imperata arundinacea),
M
(Cl
L). 16.
Kasha,
Tchag or
reed
(Saccharum
spontaneum),
M
(S).
144
HANDBOOK
(I) GRAMINE.E
AGRICULTURE.
contd.
"
17.
M (Cl " L). Sugarcane (Saccharum offieinarum),
18.
Fb Munj (Saccharum ciliare),
19.
Durba
20.
Bamboo
(St).
F (Cl). (Cynodon dactylon),
23.
(Bambusa arundinacea),M (Cl," L " Lata-grassor para-grass (Panicum muticum), Era-kati (Ischsemum rugosum), F (Cl). Guinea-grass(Panicum jumentorum), F (Cl,St
24.
Sper-grass(Heteropogoncontortus), F
25.
Koisa
21. 22.
and
(II)CYPERACE.E 2. 3.
Poina
grasses
Kathi
(IV) LILIACE^E
(Andropogon Sp),
(Cyperustagetum),
"
M
(St).
M
Agaves, Fb
(S
"
St).
"
Onions
2.
(Allium (L). V (L). Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis), Yucca and Fb (Cl). gigantea,aloifolia, gloriosa, Dracaena ovalifolia, F. (Cl). Fb Sansieviorias, (L).
(Allium ascalonicum),V
Garlic
5. 6.
AROIDE^K
"
1.
Man-Kachu Kachu
3.
01 (Arum
(Alocasiaindica),R (Colocasiaantiquorum), R
Campanulatum), R (L
(VI) BROMELIACE^E (VII) DIOSCOREA
3. 4.
(VIII)
Pineapple (Ananas sativa),Ft
"
(Musa Sapientum), Ft Fb (Cl" L). hemp (Musa textilis), Plantains
ZlNGIBERACE^:
4.
S). "
Fb
(L).
alu
MUSACE^:"
Manila
3.
"
(Dioscoreasativa),R (Cl " L). R (Cl " L). Ghupri "lu (Dioscoreaglobosa), alu Lai garaniya (Dioscoreapurpurea),R (Cl " L). R (L " S). Sutni-alu (Dioscoreafasciculata),
2.
2.
(L). V (L).
"
"
Kham
1.
1.
(L).
sativum), V
2.
(IX)
L).
(St).
1.
4.
"
(L). (Scirpuskysoor),M (Bl). grass (Cyperusrotundus),F (Cl " L).
(III)AMARYLLIDACECE
3.
St). (Cl).
F
"
Madur Chufa Mutha
1.
(V)
OP
"
"
"
R (L " S). (Maranta arundinacea), " Edulis,R (L S).
1.
Arrowroot
2.
Canna
(Cl " L).
"
Sp (L " S). officinale), Ginger*(Zingiber Turmeric (Curcuma longa),Sp (L " S). Amada (Curcuma amada), Sp (L " S). R (L Sathi or zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria),
(X) CANNACE^E
V
S).
BOTANICAL
CLASSIFICATION
OF
145
CROPS.
(B) DICOTYLEDONS. (XI) PIPERAC.E 1. 2. 3. 4.
"
Betel
(Piperbetle),Sp (Cl " L). Long pepper (Piperlongum),Sp (Cl). Chai (Piperchaba), Sp (L " S). Round pepper (Pipernigrum),Sp (Cl).
(XII) EUPHORBIACEJE 1. Castor (Ricinuscommunis), 0 (S " St). 2. Cassava (Manihot utilissima, and aipi), R (L 3. Ceara rubber (ManihotGlaziovii), M (St). 4. Papaya (Caricapapaya), Ft " V (Cl" St). "
(XIII) MORE^E 1. 2. 3.
"
S).
(Mulberry) "
Morea alba, F and Ft (Cl " St). Morea serrata,F, T and Ft (Cl" St). Morea nigra,Ft (Cl " St).
(XIV) SESAMES
gingellyor (S " L).
Sesamum,
"
0
(XV) SOLANE.E
til
(Sesamum
indicum),
"
(Solanum tuberosum),R (L " S). 2. Brinjals(Solanum melongena),V (L " S). 3. Kulibegun and baromeshe begun (Solanum longum),V (L " S). 4. Chillies (Capsicum frutescens), Sp (L, St " S). 5. Teepari or Cape Gooseberry(Physalisperuviana), Ft (C " L). Tomato 6. esculentum),V (Cl " L), (Loycopersicum 1.
Potatoes
7.
Tree- tomato
Java
or
8.
Tobacco
(Nicotinarustica
(XVI) CONVOLVULACE^E
"
(XVII) CUCURBITACE^)
"
Nicotana
Rdnga-alu, R
V
Ffc plum (Cyphomandra betacea),
L).
(St "
(S
"
sddd-alu
tabacum),D (L), (Batatus edulis).
L).
"
V (S " L). vulgaris), (Lagenaria
1.
Ldu
2.
Kumrd,
bilitiand
deshi
(Cucurbitamaxima
and
pepo),
(S " L). 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
(Momordica muricata),V (S " L). V (S " L). Jhinga(Luffaacutangula), V (S " L). Dhundul (Luffa^Egyptiaca), Ft Tarmuj (Citrulusvulgaris), (S). Uchhe
Khero Shasha
(round cucumber), V (S " L). V and Ft cucumber), (Cucumis sativus) (ordinary
(Cl " L). Phuti (Cucumismomordica),Ft (S " L). Gomukh V (S). (Cucumis maderaspatanus), K"nkri or b"khari (Cucumisutilissimus), V (S). K"nkrol V (St " L). (Momordica CochincEinensis),
9. 10. 11.
12. M,
HA
10
146
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
contd. (XVII) CUCURBITACE^E V (S " L). 13. Karala (Momordica charantia), 14. anguina),V (S " L). Chichinga(Trichosanthes V (S). 15. Fatal (Trichosanthes dioica), "
V diseca), (Trichosanthes
Kundruki
16.
(XVIII)
LEGUMINOS.E
"
Ft
(L " St).
"
26.
(Pisum arvense),P (L " S). Englishpeas (Pisum sativum),V (L). P (L " Cl). Payra Matar (Pisum quadratus), P (S " Cl). Kaldi (Phaseolusradiatus), Cl). Mug (PhaseolusMungo), P (L " P " Gram L). (Cicerarietinum), (Cl Musuri (Ervum lens),P (Cl " L). P (Cl" L). Khesari (Lathyrus sativus), P (Cl). Arahar (Cajanusindicus), P " V (Cl" and Barbati (Vignacatiang), Rambha juncea),Fb (S). Sunn-hemp (Crotolaria De(S"L). tinctoria), Indigo(Indigofera Fb (Cl). Dhaincha (Sesbaniaaculeata), Sajna (Moringapterygosperma),V (Cl " St). P " F (Cl " L). Bhringi(Phaseolusaconitifolius), P " F (S " St). Kulthi (Dolichosbiflorus), F " V (Cl,L Arharia Sim (Cyamopsis psoralioides), 0 Ground-nut (Arachishypogea), (S). Babul (Acaciaarabica), F, T " De (Cl" St). M (Cl" St). Palas (Buteafrondosa), Bakld (Viciafaba),P (L). Sim (Dolichos lablab),P " V (Cl" L). Sim (Canavaliagladiata), Makhan V (Cl " L). Sola (Aeschynomena aspera),M (Bl). Tamarind (Tamarindasindica),S (Cl" St). Bean V (S " St). Soy (Glycine soja),
27.
Sank-alu
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.
(XIX)
Peas
"
LINE.E
"
S).
R (L). (Pachyrhizus angulatus),
Linseed
"
St).
0 (L (Linum usitatissimum),
"
C).
(XX) TILIAC^E" 1.
2.
(XXI) 1.
Fb
Jute (Corchoruscapsularis), Fb " P H (Cl " L). Sirajgunj Deshi Jute (Corchorusolitorius), Fb (Cl " L). MALVACEAE
"
Cotton, or
Kdpas (Gossypium
herbaceum
"
arboreum),
(L,S " St). 2.
Silk-Cotton
3.
Musk-mallow Ambari hemp
4.
or
Simul
Fb (Cl" St). (Bombax malabaricum), Fb and D (S " L). (Hibiscusabelmoschus), or Fb mestd-pdt (Hibiscus cannabinus), '
(S"L). 5. 6.
Roselle Bhindi
or or
mesta
(Hibiscussabdariffa), V (Cl" L).
Ladies' finger V (Cl" L " (HibscusesculSntus),
S).
148
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
(4) Fibres (Fb),e.g., jute,sunn-hemp,cotton, musk-mallow, aloe (Agave lurida and other agaves),Manila hemp, munj-grass, Mauritius hemp (Furcreseagigantea), rhea, ulat(Musa textilis), e tc. kambal (Abroma augusta), arnatto safflower, (Bixa orellana), (5) Dyes (De.),e.g., indigo, bahera haritaki chebula), (Terminaliabelerica), (Terminalia palds, aich or al (Morinda citrifolia), dmlaki (Phyllanthus emblica), etc. Cinchona officinalis, Plantagoovata (Ishap(6) Drugs (D),e.g., tea calamus Coffea arabica, Acorus (Camellia t heifera), (bach), gul), rustica and
tabacum, Papaver somniferum, Cannabis metel, etc. dmddd, chillies, onions, (7) Spices(Sp),e.g., turmeric, ginger, coriander seed, anise, (Cuminum cyminum), jira fenugreek garlic,
Nicotiana
sativa,Datura
(Apium graveolens), fcenumgraecum),rddhuni (Trigonella tejpdtd chai, sulpa(Fumaria parviflora), p dn, (Lauruscassia), peepul, keyacardamom (Amomum subulatum), phul (Pandanus odoratissimus), mint (Mentha arvensis), supdri,etc. Tablevegetables(V),e.g., potatoes, brinjals, radishes, (8) bottle snake(Deshi-kumra), (Ldu), gourd,pumpkin gourd yams, ladies' dumbur finger, country figsor (Ficus gourd (Chichingd), Indian roselle, beans, horse-radish, arums, tomato, cabbage, cunia), salem knol-kol,turnip, cauliflower, carrot, beet,lettuce,artichoke,Jeruetc. artichoke,palval, etc., asparagus, (9) Pot-herbs or sags (PH), e.g., Indian Spinach or Puinsag alba and rubra),Kalmi-sdg(Ipomseaserpiaria), (Basella ChampdGobra note (Amarantus lividus), note sdg (Amarantus polygamus), Palam, Betosag (Chenopodium Dengos"g (Amarantus giganticus), Helancha viride), sag (Hingcha repens), Sushni sag (Marselia etc. quadrifolia), (10) Miscellaneous
crops
(M), such
as, sugar-cane,
Madurkdti,
bamboo, Ulu, Supari(Arecacatechu),mulberry,asan (Terminalia tomentosa), cucumber, melons, chufa (Scirpus kysoor),Sank-alu, date
(Phoenixsylvestris), sago (Caryotaurens),etc. cocoanut (11)Fruits (F),e.g., Mango (Mangiferaindica), Cashew nuts nucifera), (Carica (Cocos Papaya (Anacarpapaya), dium occidentale), etc. jack (Artocarpusintegrifolia), (12) Fodder crops (F),e.g., Guinea-grass, spear-grass, sugarReana luxurians,Bhringi, sorghum,Sorghum halipense, lata-grass, etc.
(13) Yams, potatoes,turnips, arrowroot,
cassava,
cauliflower,
cabbages,beet, carrots,etc.,are sometimes called root-crops(R). be classed also as fruits Cucumbers, melons and water-nuts may as
be eaten raw. (14) Timber trees (T) can
they can
be hardly classed as agricultural the B"bul but used for making agricultimber,beinglargely tural crops, and the fruitsand leaves of this tree beingin comappliances, mon for feeding use cultivators. cattle, are largely grown by
(15) Sandal- wood, Rosa grass and Poina essences
are
grass
able yieldingvalu-
in the wild state,though not cultivated. protected
COMPOSITION
CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION
OF
THE
PRINCIPAL
[Considered under fat and green
CROPS.
H9
XX.
CHAPTER CHEMICAL
PRINCIPAL
OF
the six heads" moisture, albuminoids ash. Average compositionof the commonest with that of agricultural crops ; variabilityof and succulent.]
CROPS.
fibres, carbohydrates, food-substances
pared com-
compositionchieflyof
usuallyconsidered under six heads, viz.,(1) Water, (2) Albuminoid or flesh-forming matter, and Fat (3) Carbohydrates or heat-forming matter, (4) Fibre, (5) THE
chemical
of composition
crops is
(6) Ash. Of these the albuminoids and the fat make the richest food. Carbohydrates though less concentrated, are also highly Fibres are more less digested or digestible. by ruminant animals, but in largequantity, they are not an economical component of food-substances. The ash constituents of plantsare not altogether in the feedingvalue of a crop, these useless,though estimating '
usuallybe neglected.The bones and the ash constituents of the animal frame are derived from the ash constituents generally Before givingthe of plants,and hence they have a great value. chemical composition to giveat the it best is of the principal crops outset the composition articlesof food and fodder as a of the principal for all the value of food-substances and fodders. guide judging may
Average compositionof the commonest
food-substances.
The of Composition." compositionof grainand seeds Variability and is tolerablyconstant, but that of straw, leaves, roots
tubers, varies manure
and
very
season.
considerably accordingto the variety,soil, The same varietyof wheat, rice,maize or
ferent )"ut difcomposition, any other grainor seed,has about the same The hill in composition. varieties often differ very much fat than the ordinaryrices. rices,for instance,contain much more differsvery much With regardto fodders,the chemical composition accordingas the crops are cut in a mature or immature condition, and also
to according
the process of
dryingthey afterwards under-
150
HANDBOOK
exposure to go. Too much of the The resultsof analyses in the following : pages "
OF
AGRICULTURE.
them considerably. impoverishes fodders,grains, etc.,are given principal sun
AGRICULTURAL
CHAPTER AGRICULTURAL
XXI. STATISTICS.
Area and cultivated yield under areas; Relative importance of crops in Bengal ]
[Uncultivatedand
151
STATISTICS.
different
crops;
India are still condition ; those of the Native unreliable than of British India. Indeed, very States beingmore has few Native States send in any returns. Stilla good beginning been made, and the figures, are even regardedas mere estimates, remarks in and reliable. With these more kept view, gettingmore Statistics for the following figures compiledfrom the Agricultural Uncultivated Land.
on
the whole
in
an
"
Agriculturalstatistics for
unreliable
The area of all Asiatic interesting. of Great Britain,including India,is 1,100,800,000acres. possessions of British India professionally The area surveyedis 554,234,736
India for 1906-07 will be found
The acres.
under forests in British India is 67,136,162acres. not available for cultivation in British India is 138,373,825 in British India is estimated at The culturable waste
The
acres. area
area
152
HANDBOOK
103,395,256acres,
to
AGRICULTURE.
OF
which
be added
may
10,550,759acres
in the
few Native States like Mysore, Jaipur,Gwalior,etc.,which submit
The area of fallow land in British India is estimated at 36,908,596acres, and in the few Native States alreadymentioned 4,261,151acres. returns.
Cultivated Land-
"
The
in British India is estimated mentioned the Native States
croppedarea
and in 208,901,314 acres, areas 15,002,673 acres, of which the irrigated and 2,125,202 acres respectively. at
Arta undtr
tht
principal crops. "
in British India in 1903-04
In
were
The
areas
are
34,244,590 acres
under the
principal crops
: "
order of Bengal the importantcrops stand in the following in of area : precedence point rice,oil-seeds, jute,maize, wheat a nd tobacco. Southern In mania (ragi) India,jowar sugar-cane, cholum t he second or occupies placenext to rice,and in many parts of Southern India,either jowar,or bajra, or ragi, occupiesthe first e ither the other grainbeingthe staple or food of the peoone place, ple, instead of rice. In some districtsmulberry, chillies, sunn-hemp, onions,turmeric, ginger,English brinjals, pan, potatoes, palval, table-vegetables, thatchinggrass, bamboo, mango, jack, date, supari,cocoanut, rubber trees, are grown as papaya, plantains, and extensive areas. Agave and rubber plantations crops occupy have been started in many places, and the latter are likely to rank as of considerable India. and importancein South crops Lac-growing sericulture will be also treated in this book as agricultural *
industries.
SYSTEM
OF
XXII.
CHAPTER SYSTEMS
153
FARMING.
OF
FARMING.
of seed ; Seed-farms ; JMH ; Exchange of seed ; Selection middleand Mixed Farming by planting ; ; crops ; Farming class men system ; Bare-fallowing system ; Green-crop; The one-crop system ; Irrigation fallowing system ; Prout's plan ; All-stock-and-no-crop system ; Mixed farming ; Market-gardening; Dairy-farming; Fruit-
[Demonstration farms cultivation
farming.] Demonstration
of bost mtthods
of farming. "
The
resources agricultural
India may be said to oped undevelbe more less in an or condition. The largevarietyof crops that may be raised and the quantityin which they can be raised,are not to be judged obtained. In by those actuallygrown and the average outturns here and there,excellent crops are raised,and great care is places, of and The rice obtained districtof in the given. crops sugar-cane
of
Burdwan, of tobacco at Petlad north of Baroda, of onions,lucerne and carrots obtained at Veraval, in Kathiawar,are as good as any obtained in any part of the world. Some castes are habitually and industrious than but the others, more intelligent average yield The demonstration of crops is very poor. farms that are being established in different parts of the country will do well to secure the services of the best cultivators in the country in various departments, and demonstrate the best methods practised the in country. be done without This cannot the helpof science. One system of is not or cropping,irrigation, manuring applicable everywhere, but the scientificagriculturist can easilysee what has proved so successful in one place, can prove successful under similar conditions elsewhere. Every crop, or every method is not suitable for every be chosen for each farm by the demonstration can farm, but some is best for each district and division scientificagriculturist. What has to be found out by experienced and such alone agriculturists, adhered to, to the exclusion of others. No centralised policywill in the case of agriculture. answer Saltpetremay prove to be an for paddy in Surat, but it may not be a suitable excellent manure this for manure crop in the regionsof heavy rainfall in Bengal. Egyptian cotton is an excellent staplefor Sind, where irrigation is readily available and where the climate is dry and the soil sandy, but it will not do to grow this cotton allover the country. We not canall that f or in so (or 'dogmatise places India, many irrigations needed for and at are all) irrigation potatoes. In any sugar-cane and be and in ten one even place required, twenty irrigations may others none at all. Distribution of seeds and advice from a common in would each in in not source India,or even province India, should for each part. Each division, each have district, answer nay its agricultural farm and bureau, where the crops and method suitable for that division or districtare to be studied,and seed and information distributed thence to the cultivators of the division or district. Each area with similar soil and climatic conditions has dealt with, and the system of farmingbest suited to be separately
154
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
who have experience for it judgedby men of crops and conditions divisions and provinces in other districts, of India. The agriculture of India is shapingto this end, but the scheme, organization indicated here, is too vast to be at once realised. A great deal as of time and patience will be required, and the money that should be spent to attain this end bears no comparison J;owhat is being
spent
at
present.
It is a great mistake to choose for demonstration farms, sites with exceptionalfavourable environments, such as good very fertilesoil,presence of a canal, close proximity to a Choice of site. "
market,
privatefarmer should seek all these conditions. An educational farm may also be favourably situated. An mental experifarm may requirecertain specialfacilitiesto be present for the purpose of special experiments,e.g., of a canal for irrigation experiments. But for a demonstration farm the objectaimed at should be the removal or avoidance of a certain felt defect.There A
etc.
largetracts
are
and
once
of land
Birbhum, that
are
why these are say, they cannot
districtsas Nadia, Murshidabad vators without cultivation. Ask the cultilying lyingwithout cultivation,and they will at be cultivated. Demonstration farms should in such
even
be set up in these tracts to show that these lands can be improved and broughtunder cultivation. The effect of such demonstration will be practical vated, ; these lands will be taken up by raiyatsand cultiif they see the demonstration farm methods successful. are Some of these lands are be improved by too sandy. These may the cultivation of ground-nut. Some have too much iron and are
hard.
These may in which
be
them by digging much too have put. may salt or soda salt. These and improved common might be drained further by planting of Babul or other trees. Some too are dry for the ordinary crops of the locality, rice,jute, etc. These be utilized for growing cotton, agaves, etc. The effect of may such demonstrations will be of benefit to zemindars in the first instance and the members of each District and Divisional Agricultural
too
holes
such
be
be
on
Some
small should farms in demonstration start situations under the expert advice of the Agricultural farms to grow good Department. For demonstration
Association unfavourable
crops, where * '
provedby growing trees
manure
also get good raiyats ' '
crops and
feel no
want, is useless.
is the valueless excuse Nothing succeeds like success in out pointed selecting particularly good sites for
farms, but the
' '
that may tion demonstra-
' '
of such farms is of no practical value. Utilization for agriculture of such lands as are not at present utilized for any good purpose, should be one aim of principal demonstration farms. success
Exchange. By the advocatingof a local system as opposedto tion, informacentralised of agricultural a system of dissemination division it is not meant that exchange of seed between one and another, and between one province another, or even or country "
156
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
of subsistence with the least trouble; the plantersaim at the largest value off their land. The hill-tribesof Garo, obtaining Khasia, Chittagongand Rajmehal Hills are accustomed to hacking down trees,making holes in the ground,and sowing several kinds of seed without usingcattle or regular implementsof cultivation. means
mestd cow-pea, cotton, Italian millet, Rahar,maize, jowar, mestd-pdt,
til,aus
paddy, cucumber, country
the crops, the seeds of which
are
beans and
put
pumpkin
are
some
of
vested in the holes, and the crops har-
they get ready. On the virginsoilsof forests,the result obtained is by no means bad. But the system is quitebarbarous, and on ordinary of hillsides, soilsit givesvery poor results. Terracing as
and growing crops by civilized and methods of cultivation are not very easy for hill-side places, their cultivate yet advanced nation like the Japaneseand Italians, hill-sides up to the very top. The special to jumming objection consists in specialmethods of cultivation adapted for different and levelling them, clearing
crops not
They
where beingpossible
so
crops are grown harrowingand without many
together.
left to nature without weeding, dustrious and the return is poor. Kols and Beharies, Santals, though incultivators using both ploughs and plough-bullocks, still addicted to the are growing of mixed crops. Ordinarily mixed crops should be avoided, though a few mixtures, such as rahar with castor or cotton, and with mustard peas are found remunerative to grow together. In the cotton-districts proper of Western India,even cotton is grown by itselfthough cotton is probably are
benefited
littleshade, such as is afforded by rahar or of peas and mustard, mustard seed should be and after a fortnight the musthe pea seed. In this case sown tard first, fited affords means of climbing to the peas, and isitself perhapsbeneby the root-nodules of the peas. In other cases the value of the mixed crops does not come up to the value of each crop grown singly.Mixed crops besides are apt to result in mixture of grains which are very much objected to by exporters. castor.
In the
by
a
case
Planting. Such
crops as tea, opium, coffee,indigo, of are mulberry,round-pepper, tobacco, etc., which sugar-cane, value and which to a exceptional respond specially large outlay of capital,are best suited for plantingenterprise. Planting differs from farmingproper, inasmuch it is concerned with the as growingof one valuable crop only. Gardening,on the other hand, differsfrom both,inasmuch as the methods, the tools,the manures, used in gardening, are different from those used in farmingor planting. A planter is a one-crop farmer. A gardenerusuallygrows a mum great many crops and flowers. But his aim is not to get the maxiamount of nourishing food at the smallest expenditureof but rather to producethe best size,shape,flavour,in fruits, capital, flowers and vegetables, by expensiveand highly careful methods of work. The farmer aims at doingwithout manures, as much as Farming
and
at keeping possible, up
"
the
of his lancfsimplyby feeding fertility
SYSTEM
OF
FARMING.
157
oil-cakes and utilizing his cattle with nourishing allthe cattle dung urine and litter in manuring his fields. By growing leguminous he also tries system of rotation, crops and by adoptinga judicious The farmer's methods of cultito avoid the purchaseof manures. vation He does not aim at straight of a wholesale character. are lines and neat curves, al absolute freedom from weeds, all of which attainable by the use of hand tools and at a great cost. are By and crossingand hybridizing, by budding and grafting, judicious similar methods, the gardenerattains exceptional results at a great rich towns, where there are always peoplewho are a largepricefor a the where is not judged fine value of articles particularly pineapple, from quantityand intrinsic merit in the shape of nourishmeht,but from bloom, flavour,look and size. The gardenerdoes not, as a cost
; and
yet gardeningpays
largeand ready to pay
near
rule,trouble himself with rotation,nor does the planter,but the latter growingonly one crop has no choice in the matter, while the former usually thingsin small patcheson land grows far too many for which he pays a very high rent, to be able to choose a definite of rotation,or to adopt the methods in generaluse in farms. course Then there are various kinds of gardens. In tea-gardens, though
(spades,rakes, forks, etc.)are in use, the one-crop garden-tools of plantations.Then them partakeof the nature makes system for all,such as flowerthere are gardenswhich are laid out once and also and orchards, tea-gardens; while marketgardens gardenshave to be laid out at least twice a year. A garden,which and which is once contains mainly perennial laid out at a plants, cost does not initial more cost, keeping any great up than a farm. after to three look two of One labourer can acres gardenland as of farm land. But in market-gardeningcosts a great deal more labour.
Even
one
labourer per
acre
is not sufficient for every mixed garden,where English
though a market-gardening, be worked vegetables, sugar-cane, green maize, etc.,are grown, can farm appliances labourer per acre, if some with one and bullocks where no farm implements,such as are kept. In tea-gardens, used two labourers are and bullock-hoes -are considered ploughs of land. In plantingand necessary to properlywork every acre and other utilized animal much as possible as are farming, powers is the while in gardening hand-power mainstay. however remunerative The single-crop at first, is liable system, to end in failure or later. Competition sooner bringsdown prices, increases wages and diminishes profit : the land gets exhausted for insect and fungus parasites this special accumulate : crop : special the manager and the proprietor the or understanding only handling s ticks to it of this special to the last and is thoroughly, very crop unable to take to anythingelse for want of experience and for fear of losing until the crop failsentirely. more, Middle-class men goingin for farmingshould go in for mixed which givesrest to land if a judicious cropping, system of rotation We will go in for dairying, is adopted. They should not say, kind of
"
158
HANDBOOK
coifee, or for tea, or vanilla, for in as should many go They
or
They
must
AGRICULTURE.
OF
banana, or sugar-cane, or rice. thingsas have a good local sale. at firstgrow only such things i.e., proceedtentatively, or
' J
what
for the consumptheyrequire tion for their servants of their family, and their of the members That is the market ready for them. farm animals. They should in the locality, at firstas are ordinarily such only grown crops grow and better methods and appliances staples thoughsuperior may be introduced from the very first. Then vation they can extend the cultiof anythingthat they find they can well grow particularly their land, or which suits their tastes and fancies best. If they on are to find that cows doingvery well under their management, come that they understand them, and that they would like to keep more some of them, they must givedairying ing prominence,and beginsellmilk and butter and bullocks and bulls. If they find goatbreedingdoes well and that they would like keepingmore goats, branch of their this extend should first at farming, though they as they should keep only just many goats as they requirefor supplying of their neighbours. meat to their family and perhapssome the needs of their In this way they should advance from supplying needs t he of their friends and neighbours, t o own supplying family, It is market. easier the and more and then supplying tive lucrageneral market for producewhich shows any specialto create a special ity. in mind, one should determine Bearing the above generalprinciple the system of farminghe is to follow eventually which must be governedvery much by local circumstances. The principal lows folas systems of farmingmay be enumerated as
theycan
consume
at
home,
or
:
"
system. Growing the same crop year after is land without the common manure system of year on the same this country. The Jethro Tull system is only a slightdeparture from this,the land beingcultivated deep and well. Deep cultivation and hoeingare not, however, in vogue in India. The one-crop tract of country. But sooner later the or system suits only a new in the Sunderbans,one finds the land getsexhausted. In settling (1) The
one-crop
"
system of growingrice only pays best. But as time goes be altered. the system must on (2) Bare-fallowingsystem. According to this system no is used, and no crop is grown field once on a particular in manure three,four,five or six years. In some parts of this country poor land under the utbandi system of tenancy is bare-fallowed for two one-crop
"
after two or three years successive three years successively ping. cropvariation of the bareThe Lois Weedon system is an ingenous to which three rows of wheat are drilled fallow system, according 12 inches apartand three feet of space leftfallow alongside the drilled and this succession of croppedand fallowed strips is repeatstrip, ed. The fallow strips are kept cultivated deep and exposed to the action of air. Keeping land cultivated and exposedwithout crop The ^Jewish system of should not be done in the rainy season. or
ROTATION
givingrest
OF
seventh
all land every
to
159
CROPS.
also
year,
under
comes
the
bare-fallow system.
(3) Green-crop-fallowing system. This is where a green or The land is well cleaned and fallow. root-cropis substituted for thoroughlymanured, either by direct manuring for the previous "
cattle crops, and by tethering oil-cake in addition.
or
(4) Prout's plan. Under
this
"
the land and
sheepon
all
system
givingthem
thingsare
grown
No live-stock is kept and all the by artificialmanures. crops are sold off as they get ready. This is a wasteful plan,except in certain localitieswhere there is a railwaystation close by and a readymarket and special for obtainingmanures facility cheap. The ploughing,
etc.,isdone
hired bullocks,and the straw of cereals
by
no
crop
is used for
feedingfarm
nnimals, even beingsold off (5) All-stock-and-no-crop system is the oppositeof Front's plan. The land is mostly let down in grass. Such foods as cake, bean-meal, chaff,etc., are bought. The dung is returned to the and the meadows On poor land and
is used
manure liquid on
.
for
the irrigating
hill-sidesthis system may
(6)Irrigationsystem. "
If
water,
be found
meadows.
profitable.
liquid manure,
or
town
be followed. sewage, is available in abundance, this system may meadow for For market for and gardens, pastures green crops, this system is adapted,but not for growing cereals (exceptrice) need not be appliedwhere there are special and pulses.Manures for with sewage, as sewage water itselfcontains facilities irrigation sufficientplantfood. (7) Mixed arable-and-stock-farming is the safest system for lands. most agricultural market-gardeningand (8) Near large towns dairyfarming better. (9) Fruit for lands away pay
station
or
are farming and jam and jelly-making
from
towns
but
to river,etc.,leading
a
not
removed
best
adapted
from
railway
largetown.
CHAPTER ROTATION
far
XXIII. OF
CROPS.
of a large variety of crops ; (2) Interpositionof : (1) Growing [Principles leguminous crops rich in root-nodules ; (3)Fallowing ; (4) Prevention of insect and funguspests ; (5)Recuperation after temporary exhaustion ; (6) from different Avoiding of poisonous excreta ; (7) Availing food-substance strata Growing of catch-crops; (9)Of different crops suited for different ; (8) for different classes of soil ; (11) classes of soils; (10) Typical rotations in planting.] Local crops to be at first grown even ; (12)Rotation necessary "
of dividingup the land and Principles. The principle ing growvarious crops accordingto man's natural requirements, is so obvious,that it has been adoptedby cultivators all over the world ; of growing one but the principle crop one year and another crop "
160
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
follow in a country where cultivators grow and where a certain pieceof land is reserved for a crops, Good cultivators avoid ther for jute or cotton, and so on. ricv, of the same cession, piece land two years in succrop on growingthe same much as as possible.They usually grow jute and aus land. Another paddy or cotton and juarin succession on the same t, is difficultto
few
c.
good cultivators follow is to grow a crop of rahar,or sunnprinciple their land. They are not hemp, or a pulse crop for renovating however, of the fact, that
aware,
of
the roots more
that
and
by as
to
leguminous crops
are
less rich in root-nodules, these nodules are caused
or
bacteria
harbouringon the roots, beneficent parasites. If one were take up a vigorously growingplant
of Dhaincha
or (Sesbania aculeata),
simn-hemp,
rahar,or ground-nut,
or
finds the
one
roots
developed nodules.
full of wellThese nodules
squeezedthrow
when
out
a
viscous
innumerable fluid, which contains bacteria which can be readily recognised under a powerfulmicroscope. bacteria which The form these nodules are able to derive their sustenance from
the air,which to do.
vegetationis unable
higher The
largerthe quantityof root-nodules, the greaterthe amount of nourishment derived from the air and stored in the soil.
beans
The
and
advantageof growing clover is well stood under-
in
England,but Dhaincha and simw-hemp are far richer in rootthan nodules perhaps any other and plant, being fast-growing they be grown can just before or after the FIG.
6l.-~Dhaincha
SHOWING
PLANT,
ROOT-NODULES.
rainy
as
season
a
preparatory
and catch-crop,
soil to the
ploughed into the benefit of the succeeding
crops.
principleinvolved
in
rotation, is the available in the farm, by keeping a portionof the lands by turns fallow and havingthe cattle tethered here for one year under some temporary structure made of wooden This is an posts and roof on which fodder is stored for the year. excellent system of making the best use of the manure available in the raiyats holding, in Mymensingh and it is one which is practised Fallowing. Another "
economisingof the
'
and
other districts.
manure
ROTATION
OF
Insect anil Fungus Ptsts.
Protection from
161
CROPS.
Another
"
great
advantage
in rotation
the same land is, on derived from crops being grown have would which i f the of a same multiplied that the pests crop, the of same piece land, die out again on crop had been grown in the immediate of the host-plant neighbourhood. The for want is the worst for encouraginginsect and system of planters one-crop
funguspests. Recuperationafter temporaryexhaustion. Another theoretical one. underlies rotation is a somewhat "
exhausts
crop which
minute
some
but
principlewhich It is this :
A
of the soil ingredient and also that the require,
necessary
crop probablydoes not in the soil which excrementitious soil some matter crop leaves in the is dispersed to that crop, but which is injurious by growing another another
by growing does
not
is found
a
of
crop
a
yielda
poorer
regardto
certain principles in what way exactly Jute following land jute on the same result than when intermediate crop an
different
clear.
appear to
soil getsrest with
The
crop in the soil.
kind, but
of rice is taken. taken
up by different crops, the while others, such as soil, exhausting top barley, some, from food of or maize, drawing up cotton deeperlayers the soil. Another which should guide a principle Growing of Catch-crops be of choice to the on in a farmer piece of land grown crops of rain by growing is the takingadvantage of occasional showers two between regularcrops. Catch-cropstake only catch-crops of these can be grown three months' about maturing,and some Certain when there is heavy fall of rain out of season. to perfection the such shati as or sixty-day varieties of ordinarycrops, varietyof which is mathia of cotton a the kapas, variety mis poor paddy, Food-substances from
such
differentstrata
are
as
"
in Kathiawar,
grown
be
may
grown
as
in less than three months, catch-crops.Other crops, which are particularly which
matures
are cheena,buck- wheat, growing as catch-crops, and various kinds of sag. Cyamopsis psoralioides,
adaptedfor cow-pea,
in succession
The main aim of rotation is to grow
of crops
are
with interspersed
crops
rich
differentvarieties
in root-nodules.
for differentkinds of soil,as certain soils Differentrotations are applicable suited for certain crops, but not so well for others. particularly soils are well suited for growingthe following Stony and gritty
(1)
the superior winter maize, oats, jowar,gondli(including called kodo, ; bajra m arua, laio), agaves, mesta-pat, cotton, variety
crops
:
mesta
or
sorrel, ladies' finger,sabai
sweet-potatoes,sank-alu
cassava,
;
grass,
cow-pea,
buck-wheat,yams, coarse
mung,
kulti,
makhan-sim, ordinary rahar, bhringi,Cyamopsis psoralioides, mulberry, dengo indigo, chillies, bean, sag, soy-bean, country cape tobacco kankrol, kankri, ; chichinga, tomato, castor, gooseberry, safflower ; also such trees as Ceara rubber,kusum, asan and sorguja, lac cultivation ; bhela or marking-nuttree ; asn for for baer, M,
HA
11
162
HANDBOOK
silk ;
growingtusser
AGRICULTURE.
OF
simul tree, myrobalantrees, tea, coffee, laurel in seaside placeswhich not too dry are under of other shade the trees. grow
leaf tree, and cashew-nuts The coffee would and hot.
land
Low-lying growingaman
and
and
hollows
in
be utilized
hillyplacescan
by
paddy.
aus
(2) In sandy soils. The crops that could be grown well are : tard, musbajra,barley,oats, cheena, kayon, aus paddy ; til,sorcjuja, s afflower ground-nut, ; mesta-pat, sunn-hemp,dhaincha,kalai, buck-wheat hill-sides ; melons, patol, and on kulti, indigo; mung, "
Sank-alu
sank-alu.
largely
a
as
or
it in
be sown,
can
May
or
June,
(3) In loamy
possibleafter
largely grown
more
should
leguminouscrop
a
catch-cropwhere should be
Ground-nut and
being
such
on
be
mesta-pat. soils,harvest
if there is sufficientrainfall, either in or
grown
or
aus
February,
in October.
soils should
be
potatoes, tobacco ; rhea grown (itsoilis very rich and moist),jute,buri-cotton ; paddy,jowar,maize, wheat, barley,oats, sugar-cane, English and country vegetables, linseed,ground-nut, kalai,mesta, gram, pea, musuri, khesari, mung, turmeric, ginger,arrowroot, melons, cassava, sweet-potatoes,oland mulberry. kachu, man-kachu, yams, plantains The suited soils winter paddy,wheat, oats, to are day (4) crops jute,sugar-cane, rahar, mat-grass, mulberry, gram, peas, beans, linseed,and cabbages. In lands subjectto flooding only mung, winter
paddy and juteof
certain
kinds special
grass and mulberry like sabai grass are suited for ordinaryrotation. (5) For calcareous soils the crops rahar in rotation ; (2) wheat and gram
musuri, followed
be
can
grown. perennial crops and
suited
are
jowar,and
(1) paddy
:
in rotation
Matare
;
or
sank-alu
not
and
barley,and in rotation
by ; ed followby potatoes; (4) Cyamopsis psoralioides by bajra; (5) Kulthi followed by oats ; (6) lucerne ; (7)carrots, onions. Lucerne cotton or beinga perennialcrop is not subject to ordinaryrotation.
khesari
or
(3) maize
followed
(6) For
peaty soils the
pumpkin, gourd,luffa oats, \\heat or the year round.
(7) The hundred
or
rotations following
cucumber, followed
and barley,or brinjals,
rotations following
miles of the seaside
:
are
paddy
be may
adopted:
by linseed,mustard, vegetablesgrown
adopted in
soils within
be followed
all
a
by radishes,
mangold (forfodder only and not dhaincha followed by potatoes and afterwards by sugarsugar); cane or jowar; ground-nutfollowed by cotton ; gourdsand pumpkins followed by barley. The perennialcrops suited to such lands date,cocoanut, supari,cashew-nut,and lucerne,if soil plantains,
beet carrots,onions, cabbages, for
may
other
be
may
or
is calcareous. .For the firstfour classes of soil,viz., stony, sandy,loamy and various and the rotations possible mentioned, crops are clayey, rotations suitA few tjrpical in these lands would be innumerable. able be givenhere,but onlyby way of example. for Bengalmay
164
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER RICE
XXIV.
(ORYZA
SATIVA).
wild rices of swamps, dry land and hills : The typical cultivated rices Division, speciallythose grown Area ; Principal paddies of the Burdwan at the Sibpur Farm* ; Aus paddy ; rotation,manuring ; soil ; tillage; irrigation paddy ; a discoveryin ; cost ; husking ; Peshwari ; harvesting; outturn with aus paddy ; Boro connection or long stemmed paddy ; ; Hornn of Haydn paddy ; Best conditions for paddy cultivation ; Average outturn and tins paddies at Sibpur and at Dumraon, of aman all paddies; Outturn and manured rice crops ; Paddy cultivation in the Jatter irrigated ; Mixed the Sunderbans; Chemical Composition.]
[The
-
paddy
is
The wild rice. Rice "
Australia,but cultivated
regionsof the Old
warmer
indigenousto from and
the
East
Indies
and
very ancient times throughoutthe the New World. Some of the wild
awned and others awnless. But other peculiarities, stand of more economic t o or are inundation, drought ability be studied by collectorsof wild and cultivated importanceand should varieties
such
are
as
of species to
root-stock.
woody
it is collected and rice
on
dry soils at
tudes alti-
3,000 feet,in
The
flavour
of the
grainis so good that granularstructure of its is characteristic inner glume peculiarity.No cultivated this pecuto have been derived from this wild species as seems liarity another perennial is not possessed by any. Oryza officinalis,
almost the
Oryzagranulatais found
Sikkim, Assam, Burmah, Pareshnath It is a perennial and Malabar. Hills, specieswith an Rajmehal up
and
rice.
eaten
by
children.
The
talland sparse branches, multi-nerved ters has its characpanicles, and intermediate between sativa. This granulata Oryza Oryza and in wild rice occurs Burmah. Sikkim, Khasia Hills, Hairy found in rices which cultivated in this are some are glumes present wild species.The umbellate, naked peduncles also are sometimes is distinctly met with in the cultivated hill rice,which Oryzasativa. is The Oryza sativa with in the wild state wherever marshy met with species,
a
with sub-woodyroot-stock,
leaves and
profusebranched
lands occur, in Madras, Orissa,throughout Bengal,Arracan and The plantis generally annual. The inflorescence Cochin China. an of spikeson short peduncles is a panicle which have hairy scales, tuft of in at the point hairs,as frequentlya distinct Oryzaofficinalis of the spikes. The outer glumes are large, of origin very often trimidrib dentate, prominent,inner glumes variouslyshaped,but in the wild state considerably elongated,' being,as a rule,*325 inch in length, and in the majority of cases the larger .one is produced into whidh is distinctly articulated and possessedat its base a longawn of two glandular to the extremities of processes which correspond the lateral nerves less hairyespecially : the surface is more or on keel and of forms the Whilst the vast majority of Oryza nerves. sativa possess only one grain,certain forms have two or even three The Uri Jhara rice of Bengalis only one form of wild or grains. of the various aus, aman and Oryzasativa,which may be the origin boro paddies. The wild rice is hardier than cultivated rices,and
165
RICE.
it is self-sown and is easily carried from field to field, it has been known sometimes the cultivated rice and take its to exterminate detached grainby bindingthe place. Fishermen collect the easily into tufts before they are ripe. When ears ripethey go in their
.as
the ears or simplyshakingthe graininto their .palmcanoes collecting rice is met with even in the dry regionsof Wild primitivebarges. in the Central Provinces,usually shallow poolsof water, for instance in railway cuttings.In the dry regions of Partabgarh(Oudh), I have seen wild rice growing where there is no accumulation of water. rices. He between and late guishes distinearly Roxburgh distinguishes
eightforms
of late rice
all awnless white grains. affording awned and yieldred or coloureU grains, but yielding is awned white grain,while there are awnless "one a w hite Of the grains. earlyrices six have coloured husks, yielding while two have white or pale husks ; of the late rices four have coloured and four white husks. The progress of cultivation is from "
Of his
earlyrices,four
awned
to
and
awnless
should suppositions sis
or
Uri-dhan has
"
are
coloured
from
be mentioned a
white husk and
finest cultivated rices have
an
to
colourless.
the fact that the
awned
and grain,
some
Against these Oryza Bengalenof the best and
spikelet, e.g.,, the
karpurkati,
and coloured husks. daudkhani, have kelejira some, classification does include ihe'bildn not rices, Roxburgh's probably
and
such
which the
may
have
ordinaryred
as
been
alone
rices
derived from
the wild Uru
probably derived
rice,while
from
Oryza rufipogon That a/man Oryza abuensis. paddy has be can aus actuallyproved by an experiment. from a second cuttingof an aus If grains that yieldsa second cutting instead of the are i.e., plantsyieldaman paddy aus, sown, they ripen in four to five months instead of three, give a larger yieldand the grainsdo not shed easily.
the blackish originatedfrom and
ones
are
from
under rice in India is enormous, and this Area. The area first cereals in all the the country. crop stands easily among grown The total area lies usuallybetween lion miland seventy-five seventy of of million in which nearlyforty lie the three provinces acres, Burma Behar and Orissa,Bengal and Assam. stands second with and million of between nine ten an area beinggrown acres, much "
for
export, while
between
eightand
nine
million
cultivatral Of the remainder of India,the Cenfour and a half million acres under acres
are
vated with this crop in Madras. Provinces and Berar grow this crop, the United Provinces about six million acres, Bombay (with Sind) two and a half million acres, and the Punjab (withthe Frontier Province)nearlythree-quarters The of a million acres. India three North f or vation cultiof East rice (the importance provinces) will be seen from these figures, as land of India is included in them.
more
than
half the rice
The varietiesof rice recognised in Bengalalone are innumerable. of Economic Watt, as Reporter Products, had occasion to examine four thousand varieties of Bengalrice at one Of the time. Division the following rices grown in the Burdwan varieties aman Dr.
166
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
(1) Atirang,(2) Hati shal,(3) Sacla-ora, (4) Meghi,(5) Rupshal,(6) Ora, (7) Paramayushal,(8) Ora-meghi,(9) Chile-rangi, (10) Bankmal, (11) Uttarkal(12) Lal-ora, (13) Shankchur, (14) Dhuki-lata-mol, (15) Kama, nakchur, (16) Uri, (17) Lakshmi-bilash,(18) Muktashal, (19) Sindurtupi,(20) Bhut-kaurabi, (21) Pashakati, (22) Soura, (23) RatiRamshal, (24) Nilkanthashal, (25)Kal-bayra,(26) Panikalma, (27) (28) Paramananda, (29) Amdn, (30) Nadanghatta,(31) Shol-pand, Sambara, (32) KatoshAl, (33) Mete-kuji,(34) Nilratan, (35) Nilthe Of the above kantha, (36) Boyal-d"nr,and (37) Ure-shals. has be noticed Hatishal a : (1) followingpeculiarities paddy may be
may
mentioned
suited for bil lands
as
:
high. though the yieldper acre is not exceptionally very biggrain, It goes up occasionally maunds to thirty-six acre. or (2) forty per The
the followingvarieties is large: Atirang,Sada-ora, Ora? Bankmal, Uttar-kalma, LalBoyal-danr,Chile-rangi, Meghi, Bhut-kauDhuki-lata-mol,Uri, Lakshmi bilash,Sindurtupi, ora, rabi,Pashakati, Soura, Rati-ramshal, Kalbayra, Panikalma, SholKalashal, Mete-kuji,and Nilpana, Aman, Nadanghata,Sambara kantha. These are expectedto yieldas much to fifty as forty-live maunds (3)Paramayu-shal,the yieldof which often goes per acre. to to thirtymaunds twenty up per acre, is a sweet-scented variety
yield of
considered
be very
easilydigested,and highly valued for this varietyare not very fine. (4)Kanakchur, the yield of which may also come to twenty to thirtymaunds per valued is of made it. is because kluti out (popped-corn) acre, Of aman paddiessuited for ordinarypaddy land (not bil land), noted varieties may the followingBurdwan be mentioned for as to
The
reason.
grainsof this
virtues special
phuli,Kamini, which
gal are and
are
:
(1) Gobindabhog,Khash-khani, and
fine and
Badshabhog, are highly prized. (2) Paramanna-shal
also scented
Bankchur
are
varieties,
Ramdhimipa-
not
(4) Khejurchariis a rice,the inflorescence bunch
and
Bena-
very fine. (3) Harinakhuri of which khai (pop-corn) is made.
but varieties,
paddiesout
Bansmati, scented
of
wrhich
has
some
semblance re-
of dates ; and
a paddy of winged (5)Pakshiraj, is have medicinal to supposed properties.(6)Chhotaappearance, bangota,Chhanchi-mol, Bankui, Harinakhuri, Dhale-kalma, Kalikalma, Jhingashal, Ajan,Kate-nona, Lal-kalma, Lata-mol, Chhotadhole, Chhanchi-ora, Jata-kalma, Dudhe-nona, Hara-kali, Manikkalma, Kartik-shal,Kartik-kalma, Khepa, Rangibangota, Nadnashal,Mehupal,Jal-shuka, Altapati-nona, Mugurshal,Dhole, ShunDhukishal, KashMota-nagra, Bangota Patategara, no-gangajal, phul,Nona-Laushal,Kalma, GddhashAl, Dudh-kanra, Kalam-kati. Laushenkdta, Sindurmukhi, Bankatd, Champashal, Neulipatuni, Bari-amla,Machyiydn,Akindi, Bagi-lal-patuni, Leajkata, Sonddlmukhi, Noyachur, Khayershal and Noyan, are heavy yielders.
to
The the
superiorfine and scented rices are kinds. quantity of the coarser
High get
a
class
too much
aman
under
paddiesalso water.
On
grow very
producedin only about
half
best on land which does not land fine rices show wet a
167
RICE.
tendency
become
to
the
At
coarse.
SibpurFarm,
the
Kataribhog
and coarser paddy of Dinajpuris steadilybecoming coarser ; but the Samudrabali varietyof Bhagalpur,the finest variety of all, has
remained
heavy, and of
fine so far. The yield of Samudrabali variety is ety it is worth cultivating largely.The Badsabhog variis also worth
paddy
aman
not only extensively, cultivating
for its
high quality,but for its largeyield. The introduction of variety of paddy in Hazaribagh,through the Reformatory Not School, has proved a great boon. only in the school farm,
this
but also in the lands of others who have taken to growing this variety of paddy, it has given a largerproducethan the coarsest variety of local
The
paddy.
but whether prolific, Division
wan
The and
is not
it will be found
varietyof fine paddy is also outside the Burdso prolific
known.
rice of
aus
Daudkhani
Bengal
is
nearly all
difficultto
coarse,
by the poorer classes alone. It is grown on and the plant requiresmuch sandy banks of rivers,
eaten
and than
the
and
ordinary
aman
boro
done broadcast,it is more It
smaller
paddies. As
troublesome
and
the
high-lands less water
these
the
get
outturn
When
scarce.
fails, poor
aman
the
fetches
rainy
arily is ordin-
sowing
to hoe
than
a yields price. the rail/at with a food-grain and fodder (incommon inferior grains, the millets,maize, etc.),at a time of the a
digest
lower
the But
aman.
it supplies
with
other
year
when
is of short duration
season
peopledepend for their subsistence
on
and
the
am
The growingof aus paddy, millets and maize is advisable the and therefore highly againstfamine, as a provision
and
millets.
the
introduction of fine varieties of would fine aus
be
a
palatableand easily digested, of possibility growingvery
greatimprovement. demonstrated at Sibpur Farm.
rice has been
in years 16 maunds a
more
The
of the yield of fine
or
aus,
the
aus
paddy
Sibpur Farm
from
has been
the average per acre, little less than 19 maunds per
Central
the
l,3031bs.or
yieldof acre.
In
The
Provinces a
average for seven
littleless than
being 1,53lifts,
straw
1901 from
^th
of
an
obtained of straw of paddy and 52 seers 34 seers were of straw from the and 9 seers of paddy and 20 seers the first cutting, second cutting. The growingof aus paddy is also desirable owing of land for rabi it gives for early preparation to the opportunity (winter)crops, such as pulsesand oil-seeds. Potatoes and sugarcane later are also benefited by a longerpreparation. which are sown There varieties of Burdwan aus are some paddy such as Niali, from
acre,
Kele, Aswingota,Kartiksal,etc., which
form
a
sort
of
a
connecting
and the aman. link between the aus These are also transplanted The time of transplanting like aman, and requiremore than the aus. water these is somewhat later than that of ordinary aus, but which is a greatmonth before the aman, two or they are reapeda
advantage. paddy is also all over greatlyappreciated Pethwari
an
earlyvarietyof India, specially by
paddy
which
rich Mahomedans.
is
168
HANDBOOK
It is a
OP
AGEICULTUBE.
highlyabsorbent varietyof paddy which
is in
great request
for the
preparationof pelao. Naturallyit produces a small crop in Bengal,the average of three years'produceat Sibpurbeingl,0961bs. of paddy and l,3031bs.of straw, or 13 J and 15| maunds tively respecacre.
per A
discoverywhich
is of the highestpractical benefit was author in connection fine aus, at with by Sibpur the seed of which he originally broughtto Sibpur from the Central new
made
the
Provinces, and for
sent
the
Swati
varietyof Peshwari paddy which was Sibpurby the Bengal Agricultural Department.
experiment at
The Central Provinces aus gave the firstyear a good result, of paddy per acre, but the Peshwari i.e.,about 20 maunds Swati, which
is
largegrainedvarietyand which produced a exuberant growth of leaf,produceda very small maunds of grainper acre. A small second crop was a
and 7
both,
which
second The and seed
used
was
withstood
crop
droughtwhen
fair
a
gave very of the Central
yield.
Provinces
The
year.
The aus
paddy
result in was
1002"
Tn
19U3-716
In
1904"1,640 result from
from (the crop failing
"
"
"
"
Swati
2,050 from
healthy of only
crop taken
seed
from
from
remarkable
the
result.
other seeds failed
from
the
grainfrom
ordinary
"
obtained -1.4 76tt"*.againstl,804lb*. 927 "
In
The
for seed the next
the after-math, produced a
cuttingor
very
fiom
ratoon
seed.
"
ordinary vseed
in
1902
was
nil
from ratoon-seed, drought)against l,250ffis.
obtained from ratoon-seed, and in 1904, l,558fl)s. againstl,570ffis. under favourable climatic conditions. The second cuttingor ratoonof years at seed has uniformlygiven a higher yield for a number this farm.
A
paddy like high-class
Swati
the
givinga largeyield
production. even droughty weather is an extremely valuable be should These two highclass varietiesof autumn extensively paddy in
from
groAvn
the
second-cutting-seed for its producing
The second-cutting-seed.
produces a deeper rooted plantwhich accounts There is another reason in droughtyweather. largeryield even The Swati has the for the Swati specially by benefiting process. flowers the rainfall and in August when it ordinarily an open panicle, washed and ation fertilizout the is so heavy, that pollengrainsget a
is
prevented. All
aus
paddy
has
or
more
less
empty grains
but the Peshwari paddiescontain a larger (agra)in consequence, just mentioned. proportionof agra than any other for the reason later matures the the fullya month second-cutting-seedcrop Using
takes placeat a season and the floweriAg (inSeptember)when the rainfall is not so incessant,and when, in consequence, grainsget of forming properly. the opportunity Rotation." Aus
another
paddy
grown
cereal crop such form a rotation in
The
on as
dearh wheat
land or
is
often
barley.
parts of the Burdwaa
rotation following
is recommended
followed
Potatoes
Division.
:
"
and
by aus
169
RICE.
First year." -4ws
paddy together.
mixed
two
Second year." Jute or
the two
mixed
by
pat, followed by
Mestd
paddy
followed
the
pulse or oilseed
a
by sugar-cane.
year"Sugar-canefollowed by
Fourth
pulseor oil-seed or
a
together.
Aus
Third year."
or
followed
Fifth year."
Potatoes
Sixth year."
Bare
followed
fallow
with
by
paddy.
aus
paddy.
aus
tetheringof cattle.
cates paddy is considered the best cleaning crop, as it eradiWhen ulu grass (Imperataarundinacea) and other weeds. orchard has to be made on foul ulu land,aus an paddy is sown, and in the midst of the standing crop, plantains and other fruittrees are Aus
planted. It is also Manuring." Aus paddy is often grown with manure. sides where there is river without on manure largelygrown silt deposit. The used are cowdung, ashes, tank-earth, manures
quantityof dung the raiyatgets and there is no rule observed afford to apply,he applies, can benefits the subsequent to quantity. The application that aus also, and it is for this reason paddy is heavily
.and,rarely,oil-cake. Whatever hold of
or as
raU
crop manured.
manured. 250ffis. rice grown after potatoesis not the usual is quantityused, per bigha)of oil-cake per acre is appliedonce 3 or is applied.Tank-earth this manure m Aus
.(1maund when
4 years, 30 to 100 cart-loads per
acre
; SOffis.of bone-dust
and
80jf"s.
would be a good substitute for oil-cake,and saltpetre per acre would givea greateryield. The cost would be Rs. 6 or Rs. 7 (i.e.,
of
Rs.
2
by
of crude
saltpetre).The
increased
the
SOlhs. of bone-dust
Rs. 2-8 for
or
80K)S.
The
outturn.
and
Rs. 4-4
outlaywill be
Rs. 4-8 for
than
more
should
bone-dust
or
be
realised
appliedat
the saltpetre a cultivation,and fortnightafter mixed transplanting, up thoroughly with the earth along the lines the of
time
of
transplanting. Soil." The
Joam
and
soils considered
best
for
loamy sand, situated rather
aus
paddy are
loam, sandy
high.
should be cross-ploughing Ullage. The first ploughing and after the rabi harvest as possbile. done in the cold weather, or as soon If the land is too hard to plough,ploughingshould be done after The longerthe interval the first shower of rain in February or March. the ter, betbetween and allowed the firstploughing sowing,the hence the importanceof doing the ploughing as earlyas possible. after be first used the The plough need not ploughingand but the bakhar may be substituted in its placetwice cross-ploughing, the weeds and prethree times, as occasion will arise,for killing or paring "
a
seed-bed.
The
burning heat
of
summer
will
destroythe
170
HANDBOOK
weeds
and
in the
season.
AGRICULTURE.
OF
leave the land clean. Six or seven ploughingsare not requiredif one ploughingand one cross-ploughing done early are
Later, after
fairly heavy shower of rain,two successive bakharingsfollowed by harrowing and laddering will level the land. Sowing should be done by drilling, but transplanting is stillbetter even for aus. If sowing is done broadcast or by drilling, wooden roller should be used to cover a light the seed and give the land beam can
the proper be used as
a
A
rounded
log of should transplanting seedling being planted at
compactness. roller. The
a
intervals of nine inches,one and not several as is the custom. should be close to water, that it may done at the very commencement
The seed-bed for be kept watered and
wood
or
be done each aus
a
at
spot
paddy
ing transplant-
of the
regularrainy season, The sowing in seed-bed or say, about the 15th or 20th of June. in field should be done earlyin May, and the firstheavy shower of rain from the middle of Aprilto the middle of May be utilized may for this purpose, i.e., for final preparation of land and sowing. Ten of seed
seers
are
sowing is done done,
20
requiredper
broadcast
30
acre
if
is done. If transplanting is ample ; if drilling
of seed is
seers
For
be sown. seed-bed, 3 maunds may per acre is done early,i.e., when the Transplantedpaddy (iftransplanting seers.
plantsare only about 9 inches high)grows more than vigorously from broadcasted drilled seed. Transplanting paddy grown alsoor for the after-ploughing givesfacility ning i.e., operations, hoeing,or runthe spade in lines and overturning either of which operathe soil, tion gives vigourto the plants.This ploughingwith a small plough called Idngld, or should be done when the transplanted hoeing,or spading, well established. Seedlings be kept even are seedlings can four or days after uprootingthem with impunity,but it is to have the bundles of seedlings in damp and shady places
three safe
r
or
actuallyin
produceof The the
tops
water
each
if
they
cottah of seed-bed
of the bundles
out planting
cannot
be planted out is made into 30
should be cut off before each
is done.
Before
water transplanting,
The
at
once.
or
32 bundles.
is untied should
and mulate accu-
in the field and
The ploughingin puddle should be done. ladder should be also passedover the puddle. But in sandy soil is not necessary. The ladderingof puddle before transplanting seed should be sown the in in season early lightshowery weather,, the cakingof the soil after a heavy shower of rain as prevents free when germination. Broadcasted aus seedlings they are about nine inches high are harrowed with a bidia. It is an operationwhich does as much harm as good and it is not recommended. The harm done by the uprooting of seedlings is not very noticeable, as a great seed is used than is deal more and The hoeing weeding necessary. done by the bidia are very imperfect. Passingthe bullock-hoe,or the wheel hand-hoe,or the Idngld, or the spade, drills, alongstraight is much better. Seedlings from one of seed-bed would suffice acre for at least ten
fine
paddy
acres
stillmore.
of
aus
and
more
of toman, and
in the
case
of
172
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
12 mds. per acre, but the money- value will be about the same. fine aus paddy grown at Sibpur actuallyyields20 mds. per
the
when
The acre
is used. second-cutting-seed
Husking. By husking the paddy after steaming, 20 mds. should giveat least 14 mds. of rice,and the cost of husking (3 2 mds. of women 7 annas a day at a cost doing per md. of rice)may be calculated at about Rs. (3. 14 mds. of aus rice at Rs. 2 a md. may be valued at Rs. 28, this addingto the net profit another Rs. 2 per "
If
acre.
fine
a
variety is
chosen
in this Rs. 70, and the profit to Rs. 50 per acre. of
Most
paddy.
Aman
"
case
the
the 14 mds.
(ifno
manure
remarks
and
of rice may is
used) may
calculations
bring come
about
paddy apply to aman paddy also,and it is only the distinctive characters of this crop that will be described here.
aus
Soil.
are preferredfor this crop. High Low-lyingclay-soils The suited. fine not lands,which cannot be easilyirrigated, are under inches 9 need be varieties specially 6 to to or are supposed inches of water from the time of transplanting to that of the plants accumulation of water but for the need at a coming to ear ; large "
the base of the fine varieties of
Paddy
aman
has
been
much
exaggerated.
other logging, being injuredlike most plants by waterthe water-logged condition of the soil hasjhe effect of killing
plantsnot
in the case leavingthe land very clean. But even of paddies (notably the Peshwari and other superiorvarieties) of old of out or twice, is an "change water, i.e.,letting water, once paddy this precautionshall advantage. In growing Peshwari be taken. of out water Niyurh or letting earlyin August (before the Hathia period)is considered necessary for ordinarypaddies broadcast. also. In lightsoils aman sometimes is sown paddy It is a lazy system which is prevalentin the southern portionof Murshidabad and northern and of Nadia perhaps in other portion parts of Bengal also. out
weeds
and
Cultivation." The
immediately
a
dry
shower
should
the
previous
after
be
ploughed and aman
cross-ploughed
harvest, if feasible,i.e.,
the land to get should not be wasted allowing for ploughing.If the land has become too dry already,
in December. too
land
in
Time
January
or
February should
be taken
advantage of
in
fields. If gram or any rabi crop follows the aman .ploughing up new should take placein first the intr"p, ploughingand cross-ploughing doesch or April,i.e., there is a shower of rain following as soon as done *abi harvest heavy of the land. But enough to allow ploughing deal ie ploughed in an open conup land under rabi crops is generally seldom there is about done"n, ploughingup fields any difficulty the a fter rabi At the harvest. the Mediately beginningof the rainy is moii, or a littleearlier, of the end about i.e., May, if possible(in for te in Behar and in Aprilin Eastern Bengal),seed is to be sown fine should then properlycultivated seed-beds. The paddy-fields
RICE.
of the rains, undergo regularcultivation after the commencement The of in this done is to bury object puddle. ploughingbeing Two a nd the grasses and weeds. ploughings two cross-ploughings,
followed by one ladderingin each case, to receive seedlings. is the of transplanting The method
are
same
enough
for the field
in the
case
of
aus
is done later and and aman, only in the latter case, transplanting further apart (one seedling beingput in 1 foot apart in each spot).
broadcast and no transplanting is commonly sown T he earlier the is done ; aman commonly transplanted. paddy be safelydone, the better it is for securinga can transplanting be kept in a flourishing condition The seed-bed can good outturn. in be comif necessary June, and transplanting can menced by irrigation first about sets the when the regular season in,i.e., rainy just earlier. If transplanting is put off to August of July or week
paddy
Aus
is
is not
there
because
sufficient accumulation
will be poor, and need for
irrigation may
be
of
the result rain-water, feltif the rains stop early
and Early preparation
a are earlytransplantation and where there is facility for canal againstfailure, great security in the in in for water and June, a early taking season, say irrigation,
in the
season.
rich in manurial matters can silt deposit should the Meteorological Department ; but
season
be
put
better
be secured. be
The reportsof
closelywatched
at
this
of the seed-bed should on no account preparation of the monsoon. commencement It is regular to resort irrigationto keep seedlingsalive, if the
off to the to
So instead of sowing seed in July, the season. necessary, earlyin be done by the beginning of June as is usuallydone, sowing should of instead end of in the June, and transplanting by August. In
unusual years there is sometimes
July.
beginningof
In
such
no
years
rain tillthe end must preparations
of June
and
be perforce
there where are canals,but in this case it is in of sowing it in seedseed fieldsinstead bed drill advisable to paddy the seedlings. This saves and afterwards transplanting time, the the of when and time is rainy season greatest importance At such a season it is advisable threatens to be a short one. am also to grow as much paddy, maize and millets,as the high
delayed,except
lands will carry. land is seldom manured, but manuring maunds three with oil-cakes,at per acre, would generally give a and perhapspay for the outlayby the increased outturn. better yield, accumulation of is too great, and surface water the Where Manuring.
damage
too
-
Aman
or dung,or tank-earth should be applied free,oil-cake,
But even these retentive manures to saltpetre. are preference washed the out be and, on to heavy rainfall, liable duringvery whole, for aman is of not manures recommended. paddy application for aman should not be used as manure paddy in Bengal, Saltpetre this manure is suitable for all though in regionsof short rainfall, in
kinds of
paddy.
174
HANDBOOK
Thrashing."Aman but harvesting,
AGRICULTURE.
OF
need
paddy
be thrashed
not
kept stacked for two
or
three months
soon
and
after thrashed
at leisure.
floodof September 1900 enabled us to find out, that of stand the flood paddy,the following superiorvarieties of Aman Samudrabali and MohanKelejira, remarkably well, viz.,Kapursal, scented a nd the three first the third and,' varieties, being bhog, the fourth, prolific varieties. The seed of Ketejira particularly, The
the
black, small, but long : of Samudrabali, dark brown, small and short,and of Kapursal,lightcoloured and small, but long. After the water subsided, the plants of these three varieties after
is
being12 days under
yieldeda crop as if nothinghad happened. Mohanbhog are lightcoloured and large. It is an Eastern out of Bengal varietyand very prolific.This also came the flood unscathed, while most other varieties perishedor suffered less in the immediate or more vicinity. The proportionof grainto straw is higherin the case of aman The
water
grain of
paddy, and of
maunds acre
the absolute
grainper
yieldis being
acre
is,therefore,largerin
per Rs. 15 of net
profit per acre may adoptingproper methods.
Boro-paddy."This
is
crops of boro cultivated as a rdbi or successive
a
also
as larger,
often
the be
soft
low-lyingand
seed-bed.
comparatively
paddy may and winter-crop,
be obtained
pieceof
If necessary,
aman
expectedby
in November November, transplanted The kharifboro is grown with in May. A
of
case
rain-crop. The kharif varietyis sown in July or August July,transplanted rdbi The October. varietyis sown "or
the
the
and
net profit paddy. Us. 10 to ator cultivintelligent
minor in
Two
crop.
a
year,
other
as
in seed-bed or
a
being
one
kharif or
in October
December,
and
or
harvested
the aid of artificialirrigation.
by
is flooded
soft
50
or
seed-bed in June or harvested in September
land
ploughed. The seed is sown on For thrashed grainis used.
an
40
as
The
in the
land
a
much
obtained.
river
mud,
or
bil side is chosen
before artificially
but not
in water.
for it is
Newly-
three
days and nightsthe grain is dried in the sun and exposed to the night dews. It is alternately then put in a bag,which is kept under water all the nightand dried all the day. This process is repeated for three days and nights. If the seeds have all germinatedby this time they are immediately Otherwise they are filledinto a bag and covered with blankets. sown. day
the seeds are taken out and broadcasted in the nursery at the rate of four maunds The seedlings per acre. for sufficient from au 8 After are 10 acre the seedlings or acres. After
are
two
a
inches
high,the
when transplanted field is
8
or
nursery is watered once 9 inches high. After
kept irrigatewhen
boro is grown or
two
or
in
November.
usuallysoft,and
necessary
a
week.
are
the transplantation
till harvest
time.
where fields, low-lying ploughingis needed are when seedlings simplytransplanted
No
They The
rabi
in October there is water in such lands, which are 10 inches
175
RICE.
or
12 inches
high into
givenwhen the
One
the soft mud.
land is not
or
two
quitesoft.
out of weeds is pulling harvesting, in the soft mud. to the time of
The
winter
Apriland or
are
or
even
May
or
four
buryingthem per
acre.
The
outturn.
and only in November February, and harvested in sometimes transplanted, two, and February.
in
and
January
in June.
Boro
times, between
is
December
These are varieties of coarse Long-stemmed Aman." which habitually 5 to 15 feet deep. They in water grow broadcast in bil or low-lying lands. As the water rises sown Boran
aman
afterwards,
districts boro is broadcasted
most
December,
and
is 20 to 25 maunds
paddy
(rabi) varietygivesa better
In
three
of boro
outturn
ploughingsare
All that is needed
Aman
or
growth of as much as 9" to 12" in 24 hours of the rainyseason at the beginning having been observed. When than three days, submerged through a sudden floodingfor more the crop is completelydestroyed. This accounts for the failure of the experimentin the growing of the long-stemmed paddy in the ArgoalCircuit of Midnapur. The sowing and harvestingtakfc place time as the sowing and harvestingoi ordinaryaman. at the same the and a foot or two of straw The rest harvested. are ears Only the
plant also
of the straw
grows,
is used
for fuel
gatheredand
or
burnt.
as peculiarkind of boro rice is known rdydd or This is with ricein boro ber. Decemsown ordinary bhdsd-ndrdngd. along
Rayda.
"
A
The
young this does not
stems
shorn
are
to do
when
the
the
rdydd any of 10 and a height grow in water, attaining till September or October, thus harvested but
tor
10 months.
seem
Only
the
with
ears
harvested,the rest of the straw or
gatheredand
or
a
nara
boro crop is removed, It continues harm. to even
20
feet,and is not
remaining on
the
land
foot and-a-half of straw are left to rot the on land, being
set fire to.
the poorest Rayda paddies supply the food of Aus, Boro and peopleof Bengal. Fully one-third of the whole produce of Dacca
the aman belongs to the aus and boro classes of rice,and even the is of a Dacca, variety, especially long-stemmed paddy coarse Bordn and inferior grain. Rdydd and paddiesare grown in Eastern Bengal and Sylhet. climatic conditions for the rice crop are : The most favourable final preparation (1) Premonitory showers in May, facilitating of land and sowing in seed-beds ; (2) heavy showers duringJune fair and in July, facilitating weather for transplantation ; (3) in August,facilitating a niyarhand weeding operations; fortnight the aman is coming into ear rains in when September, {4) heavy ; in October, about once a (5) casual but heavy showers week, two or (6) one duringthe first fortnight especially ; and good showers at the end of January facilitating ploughingup of rice-land in the cold weather.
rainfall, nor
late
The
aus
crop
the as rainfall,
aman
does not does.
need
such
a
heavy
176
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
differs so outturn much in different different conditions and for different varieties, that Sir W. Hunter gives15 inaunds it is difficult to strike an average. Average Outturn." The
under districts,
and boro
acre
the
as
as
maunds
paddy,
12
coarse
manure
:
"
grain per acre.
Ibs.
Badsabhog
fine scented
on
aman
grown land, i.e., low, rich land
aman
Badaabhog
3.
Rsinipagal(tine scented
on
grown
land
...
aman)
5.
Chinor
(".
Btinsphul(tine aman)
7.
Daudkhani
Provinces)grown
on
land
(fine aman)
8.
Kanakchur
0.
Karpurkiili(second
ordinary on
grown
aman
;
11.
Kataribhog (tine aman)
12.
Hatiabal (coarseraman) grown on aus Swati, Peshwari (big and scented
...
...
...
15.
Bara, Peshwari
...
1(".
Very
17.
Very
coarse
aman
fine Central
paddy
land
am
...
This
of straw scented
comes,
per
acre.
land
400
71("
875
2,13("
910
2,184 1,303
992
2,910
1,239 1,175
2,039 1,43O 1,880
grain,
..
1,096 1,041 1,378
1,764
1,826
2,173
...
1,303
1,825
...
1,208
1,960
...
...
aus
land
paddy
grown
on
aus
...
820
aw
...
Gerteral average '
...
laud
...
...
...
1,921
grown
...
grown
Provinces
...
aman)
aus
...
Madhumati, Peshwari
...
...
on
gown
14.
1,045
1,405
...
land
...
scented
...
paddy)
1,711
awned, fairlyfine)
10.
aus
1,011
table-rice)
aus
land grown Samudrabali (very fine and land aus on on
4,400 2,039
...
...
...
2,600 1,423
...
land
aus
tbs.
on ...
...
on
per
acre.
Central
the
land
aus
grown for
(amati, aits
grown
from
aman
straw
aus
...
...
...
(very fine scented
on
cms.
...
Randhuni-p"gal (tine .scented aman)
grown
on
grown
4.
land
for
...
...
Average produce of
propel
...
suitable
high land
2.
13.
or
better
the Report of the Sibpur the of different outturn give average varieties of paddy for several years,
clay soil without
aus
aus
maunds,
is probably a
Average produce of
1.
for
for 1904-05,
of fine and
races on
of rice
About
acre.
of
Sir A. P. Macdonell
8 maunds
yieldper acre. gatheredfrom following figures,
ExperimentalFarm grown
and
yield per
average 16
IjOOOlbs. of rice,or of average The
yield,while
the average of rice for aman
of clean rice per gives 10 maunds
...
1,462 1,435
on
of paddy and 24J maunds to 15 maunds roughly, The produceof Badsabhog,which is a fine and
variety,obtained
from
a
low-lyingfield where
there
was
shows what the possibilities throughoutthe growingperiod, in and situated land. The outturn are properly good actually obtained from the Bddsabhog varietyrepresentsa produceof over of straw of grainand over 50 maunds 30 maunds The per acre. of 50 maundfc per acre in the case of coarse rdiyafsexpectation and is this is vain, not, therefore, altogether paddy frequently water
177
RICE.
and in the Sundarbans. obtained by the Eden Canal in Burdwan The figures givenabove show how difficultit is to arrive at a fair and unless a fair average for each subdivision and district average, is reached it is not possible to estimate the potentialfood-stock of the country.
the outturn is affected be seen can from the following by heavy manuring and by irrigation the Report of the Dumraon table compiledfrom Farm for Four irrigations 1904-5. were givenin each case, and cow-dung and saltpetre enough for supplying401bs. of nitrogenper acre. be that the increase in yieldis chiefly It will in the straw : seen and Manured Outturn of Irrigated
paddy." How
"
Name
No.
of
Average yield of
variety.
grain per
3.
Sukvel of K a mode Ambamohor
4.
Jirasal
1.
2.
Bombay
Kalumbia
7.
Halvagadhya Tinpakhalia(Kamoda) Ban galia
8. 9.
695
4,560
...
4,710
...
1,160
...
Zina
...
...
1,370
10.
Welch!
710
11. 12.
Rajavil Tinpakhalia(black)
202
13.
Chinor
14. 15.
Daudkhani Banktulai
16.
Kandhunipagal
17. 18.
Samudrabali Bansmati
19.
B"Mbhog
20.
Patnai
21.
Ramsal
Central
or
of
of
1,113
...
...
...
...
...
...
1,253
...
Bengal
Karpurkati
24
Balam
25.
Bansphul (local)
26.
(do.) Mobarajoa (do.)
...
...
.
...
Srikole
29. 30.
Bagami
31.
Bansmati
1,413 1,680 1,460 1,278 1,516 2,000 1,100
...
Kalajira
Batasfeni Sheila
6,180 4,080 5,430 2,850 4,190 4,800
5,066 5,466 4,233 3,650 4,291 4,480 4,350
906
22.
28.
Provinces
do.
23.
27.
4,780"
786
Bengal
...
..
(do.)
...
(do.)
...
of the
Punjab (do.)
5,710 4,500 4,500
1,040 1,080 2,150 1,476 2,150 1,210 1,400
5,000 4,936 5,591 4,865 5,080 2,965 2,230
510
1,110
.".
38,942^31
=
acre.
1,010 1,300
...
Sherabutty
1,885 1,351
per
1,160 1,470
...
5,
straw
4,968 4,180 4,533 4,063 5,890
...
6.
acre.
Average yield of
1,256 Ib. 142,127-r
31
"
4,584 Ib.
the above table,it seems, the Moharajoavariety of Behar of the Calcutta, paddy,the Patnai variety a paddy grown near and Sukvel of the the most are Bombay paddy Bddsdbhog superior Two be mentioned other prolific which paddiesmay prolific. the Chandramuni of fine Aua, and the variety belong to Chittagong, fine variety. of Aman, which is also a fairly Rasail variety From
M,
HA
12
178
"
in the
bora
and
Aman
mentioned.
already
been
of
mixture
The
Rlct drops.
Mixed
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
Aus
field,e.g., in Rajshahi and
same
smdrdydd paddies often
are
like this is grown, usually a full crop if everything goes is of Aman obtained, crop is short rainfall early or late in the season, one crop
fails
crops seed
are
by
broadcast
sown
twice
levelled The
after.
bidia
hand-weedings
ladder.
given
broadcast
sown
in
studied
such
Aman
ed preced-
ladderings. ploughed and
once
again
and
a
one
that
or
week two
this
rough
largequantity
of seed
in the
Sunderbans, given in be should interest, and
intention
of
taking up
is deficient
in
mineral
any
of the
of
is
there
two
is used
a
other
sowing
passed,
considerable
of
is
if
seers
and
is obvfous
cultivation
rice
have
who
by those
It
only irregularmanner.
an
Dictionary, is
Watt's
field
ladder
because
of description
The
the
is also
afterwards.
is withstood
treatment
acre.
The
bullock-rake
or
The
ploughing
a
germinated, the
with
by
18
12-anna
a
But
the
or
mixed
a
only
well.
and
of Aus
seers
together per
have
seeds
36
followed
ploughing and
a
the
Dr.
less.
or
more
After
is
and
of Aus
grown
When
Chittagong.
has
mixed
lands
in the
Sunderbans. *
Chemical
Composition. The
matters.
"
Rice
composition
average
Water
"
13
...
...
...
...
...
Ash
1 ...
Nitrogenous
matter
Fibre
...
but
The
a
of the
lower
; but
value
inner
7 .
...
...
has
...
\\ 76
nitrogen than higher proportion of phosphoric proportion of potash and nitrogen than wheat.
Rice
rice
contains
of rice contains
husk
albuminoids
...
glutinous
rice.
as
...
...
So-called
...
...
treated
Starch
acid
7
1
Fat
ordinary
ous nitrogen-
is
...
...
and
the kunra
husk
and
feeding value, the
average
not
more
any
a
ing great deal of silica and is of little feedit does, largely rice-dust,consisting, as
a or
of
the
rice grain, is richer than of this substance composition being
germ
in
"
Water
11
Ash
9
Fat
14
% "
"
Nitrogenous
matter
treated
aa
albuminoids
13 "
Fibre
8 "
Starch
45 "
Containing a high proportionof oil,kunra and in which
i'tshould
be
therefore
used
the rice is boiled renders
especiallyin ash
as
fresh
the cooked
constituents,than
uncooked
gets rancid
by keeping, possible. The water rice stillmore deficient,
as
or
steamed
rice.
180
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
shaft and one out at for feedingthe mill. The paddy came man the vent at the bottom only partially husked the firsttime ; it had result to be run the mill twice before a satisfactory more through obtained. The rice obtained at the third turn weighed after was
winnowing machine, which separate machine, is pricedKs. 65. It does its work of rice and it is capableof winnowing 40 to 50 maunds winnowing 17
The
seers.
The
mill looks from outside like an The vertical (oil-mill). cylinderworked attached to it three sets of slanting vanes.
positionby
ringsjoinedto the outer
is
quite a well
very
day.
per
ordinary ghani or kalu by the bullock-shaft has The
cask of the
of bars.
is kept in cylinder
by three sets from the hopper
mill
The paddy in working its way down bars into the the is vent through subjectedto the squeezing It is by this action action of the vanes. that the husk gets detached from the rice, in the same detachment the as way takes
place if paddy
is rubbed
or
the
squeezedbetween
palm
and the thumb. that Comparing the cost of huskingpaddy with the dhenki with be of huskingit with Messrs. Burn found that " Co.'s mill,it will for in the favour latter there is some of advantage husking rice for consumption by poor people. The coolie rice,i.e., coarse the twisting 29 seers of paddy filled the mill at first,but as trial action the volume The went on, steadily diminished. been would have givena better result if the mill had kept filled
husked rice. From by a continuous supply of paddy or partially of the trial itself, however, it could be inferred that each maund rice would cost about 4 annas huskingwith this mill. The wages for 2 hours may of 1 man be taken 9 pies,and the cost of as 17 seers keep of a pairof bullocks for one-fourth of a day as 1 anna. of rice costing each maund 1 anna 9 pies, would cost about 4 annas, exclusive of the cost of steaming and drying the paddy. One and dry 3 maunds steam of paddy per diem from which, can woman with the dhenki, 2 maunds of clean rice is obtained. So the cost of is and maund of rice turned out dryingper steaming put down at
up
To husk
anna.
one are
3 maunds
of
paddy
with the dhenki 6
required.Thus
the wages of 7 women, i.e.,about for obtaining 2 maunds of clean rice. So
needed
14
women
annas,
are
the difference of in favour of Messrs. Burn " Co.'s system is 2 annas per maund inferior clean rice. The rice turned out is, however, somewhat to
ordinarybazar rice,and
if this makes
a
difference of
2
annas
per maund, there is no advantagein introducingMessrs. Co.'s machine. But, as alreadypointed out, continuous diminished the cost. feedingwould have considerably As to the quantity that the machine turns out per diem, on the or
more
Burn
"
can expect only 68 seers per day of 8 hours per than 5 with continuous day. feedingprobably not more maunds of clean rice could be expectedper day. If it does this the cost of huskingcomes to onlyabout much, annas per maund
17
seers
basis,we
Even
l|
PADDY
is a
rice,which
of clean
181
HUSKING.
great improvement
over
7
annas
per
maund,
is the average cost of huskingwith the dhenki. If,however, in for husking are instead of 2 bullocks,8 prisoners employed jails paddy with Burn " Co.'s mill, the advantage in, its favour which
disappears. rice-mill driven
A
a
portableengine and
turningout
140
rice per day is also advertised by Messrs. Burn " 7,700, the engine and the paddy smutter beingpriced
of white
maunds
for Rs.
Co.
by
separately. "
"
The sold
Eice
Engelberg by
Huller
Messrs. Marshall
"
(Fig.62), an*
Sons,
and
by
American
chine ma-
Messrs. Macbeth
Brothers " Co.,of Calcutta,, be seen at and which can work at Ramkristopore, Howrah, yields 3001bs. of It is cleaned rice per hour.
capableof dealingwith as
well
varieties
coa.rse
as
fine
unsteamed paddy, ing and steamed, and the huskin is done completely The machine one operation. both
of
tfre oil
itself,without
or
steam-engine required to drive it,weighsonly500ft s., and it occupies a superficial of
power about
to required
4-H.P.,
For
can
drive it is with
and
enginea
16-H.P. machines
The
3ft. square.
space
worked.
without oil-engine
a
an
boiler
and being is quitesufficient, driven direct by a belt from
the
S"
of four
set
be
single machine
a
a
FlG.
HULLEU.
62.--EN(JELBKK(i
is very simpleto manage. If a special is employed to look after the engineand the paddy-husking
the arrangement engine,
mechanic
machine, it
is best to
employ a set of four or five machines driven engine furnished with a boiler. The cost of for 1,100,of a separatingfan or winnower
16-H.P. steam huller is Rs. single taking out the dirt, sticks,straw, and stones from the paddy, rice of different sizes, Rs. 125 ; and of *a grader for separating
by
a
a
Rs. to
100. 16
A
12-H.P.
indicated
H.
(nominal)engine (whichusuallygenerates15 be bought in Calcutta for about P.) can
for
5,000 and four sets of hullers would Rs. 10,000 the whole plant about
can
be
Rs.
set up. cost of
cost
Rs. 4,400. Thus
of buildings) (exclusive
working the engine will consist of (1) the price of coal used, (2)the wages of the mechanic,and an attendant to the The
"
182
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
hullers,and (3) priceof oil used
for
the engine lubricating
and
huller. tank near at hand, there should not be or with water. The any extra expense in keepingthe boiler supplied o f be coal used 4fts. expenditure put down at may per H.P. per hour, which for a 16-H.P. engineworkingfor nine hours a day is If there is a well
maunds about seven 16x9~5761bs. or costingabout Rs. 2-8. The wages of the mechanic may be put down at Re. 1 a day, and of the attendant at 5 annas Inclusive of oil the daily a day. Interest and depreciation cost will thus come to about Rs. 4. at to another of Rs. 10,000 will come 10% calculated on the capital Rs. 5 per day,ifthe work of the machine isdistributed over 200 days in the year. The, outturn per hour from four sets of hullers being
equalto
4x
l,203tbs.daily, 10,800,or, So the cost
say,
comes
10,000,tbs.
to less than
(about12 maunds) of cleaned rice turned
a
of clean rice
rupee out.
can
be obtained.
for every l,000ffis. This is at least four
times cheaperthan the rate at which paddy huskingcan be done with the ordinaryvillage appliances. The Engelberg Rice Huller and Polisher No. 3, the cost of which New York, U. S. A., is $150 (sayRs. 450 to Rs. 500 at Syracuse, landed in Calcutta), ers the demands of smaller capitalists meets or farmwho do not require to shell such a largequantityof paddy as indicated above. Not beingsuch a powerfulmachine as the Hullers Nos. 1 " 2 which are adaptedfor steam-power, the paddy used for Huller No. 3 must be free from sticks, straws, and grit.It requires horse or bullock gear to drive it,and a high-speed horse-power Huller Company be employedfor the purpose. The Engelberg may 65 dollars. locks for Two of supplyhorse-gear pairs powerfulHissar bulturn be employed to drive it instead of two horses. The outmay two
of clean rice per hour from this huller is about 70tbs.,which is maunds to about seven equivalent tal per day. The whole of the capiof of bullocks inclusive exclusive the outlay (but buildingor shed) in this case would be about Rs. 1,000. The pay of the two attendants,,one lookingafter the bullocks and the other feeding the huller and removing sacks of rice when full,need not exceed 6
annas
a
day
in
a
and the feed of country-place, than 8 annas a day. The cost
the 4 bullocks
of huskingin need not cost more of this case, therefore,comes to only about 3 annas per maund rice turned out, inclusive of interest on capital and wear and tear. We have,in discussing the efficiency of Messrs. Burn " Co/s Mill, alreadygiven the average cost of huskingpaddy with the dhenki. with the helpof expert women work out It is possible to get more Two of Jbhedhenki. of such women, one*workingfrom 6 to parties 6 in the evening, the and in other 12 the from to 12 can morning of paddy,an average quantityof either turn out from four maunds 2| maunds (more exactly2 maunds 25 seers)of steamed (siddha) the former, rice. In obtaining rice,or 2 J maunds of unsteamed (atap) is besides the three the dhenki extra at woman an requiredfor steamingand dryingthe paddy and thus keepingthe supplyat the
dhenki
uninterrupted.Two
of four parties
women
at 2 annas
a
day
FADDY
will cost
183
HUSKING.
and the cost of huskingthus comes to about 6 In maund. the of rice where case no atap steaminghas per to be done, the cost conies maund to about 5| annas under the per most favourable conditions. The advantageof having rice husked by the EngelbergHuller is thus obvious. The workingpartsof the machine, beingmade of chilled steel, 1 rupee,
annas
are
extremely substantial.
Still the outer
of the
coat
paddy
is
machine work this grain, a very toughsubstance,and without can no and tear, which has been allowed for in the wear undergoingsome above calculations. The huller-screen (duplicates of which cost dollars
only 2
which requires each) is the part of the machine from times time The cylinto time, say, 4 or 5 renewing der evejy year. also is apt to get worn and the although out, blade-adjusting
helpsto keep
screw
and
the
between
space
when
FIG.
do in three
paddy
blades
63."
ENGKLBERG
four years.
or
the
dhenki. sunned and
be expected out, which they
These cannot
in this
be renewed
in New
York
country, The condition of the
20 dollars.
hopper of the huller in the
same
it is considerd
in which In
cylinder
(BULLOCK-POWKH).
HULLER
be fed into the
must
the
on
huller cannot
the blades get altogether worn
costs duplicatehuller-cylinder
a
the
cylinder-shell properlyadjusted,the
to work
and
the
case
then
to feed the mortar necessary of unsteamed paddy, the paddy should
spreadout
for
a
the next day. properlydried in the
before
it is husked
paddy
is not
nightin The sun
a
cool
(cemented)floor
breakageis greaterif and
be
also if it is in
a
the
brittle
in a hot day. In to the sun condition immediatelyafter exposure is nearly 10 per cent, more the case of steamed paddy the outturn with the and the dhenki both with EngelbergHuller. The produce of steamed
rice is
on
the average
rice 50 per cent, paddy is obtained with dhenkis. of the
The the
motion
Huller
No.
3, a shaft
communicated
per cent,
used, a
EngelbergHuller Company
to drive
and
68
to
a
and
result which also
is
supply a
beingmoved pulleyto
of
unsteamed
equal to what gear
for
power man-
round by 12 men which the huller is
184
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
attached by a leather belt. At least 20 Indian coolies would be of rice needed to work this gear, and the cost for tusking per maund There would be therefore no would thus come to over 8 annas. shaft is adaptedfor attaching the advantagein havingthis gear unless
bullocks,wKich
can
be
easilydone
as
shown
in the
is 75 dollars.
The
figure63. It is easier
York at New priceof this man-power the horse-gear than this for tioned alreadymenadapt bullock-power should be above. The huller and the pulley or bullock-gear both placedin a circular hollow, and the shaft drivingthe pulley should work above, the bullocks beingattached to the end of the A railing shaft and goinground and round above the hollow. or a into the hollow parapet should protect the bullocks from slipping accident. throughany Huller No. 2 is constructed without the fan or polisher, a rice for the made a being polisher, separate arrangement being conveyed from a series of 10 or 12 hullers to a singlepolisher placedat the end of the series. For largemills this huller is better in Fig.62 where adapted than the more completeone represented the polisher is enclosed at the lower portion of each huller. Huller No. 2 not being provided with the polisher costs less (about Ks. 900 instead of Rs. 1,100). The of a price separate polisher capable of cleaning2,400 to 3,6001bs. of rice per hour is 300 to
dollars
(about Rs. 1,000).
for separatepolisher The is
each
For
series of 12
winnowing machine
pricedat
to India.
30
largemill,Huller No.
a
suppliedby
it would dollars, i.e.,
It is
are hullers,
cost
the
about
from scarcelydistinguishable
the best
2, and to
a
have.
Engelberg Company Rs.
125
broughtout
Dell's Winnower.
A very
Das Khan, of of Rakhal mechanic, of the name ingenious has constructed number of Howrah, a steam-power, bullock-power, and hand-power rice hullers and polishers, which do excellent work. of capitalhe is unable to push his business,but his For want machines are certainly worthy of extended patronage. The handis machine pricedonly Rs. 10, and it does the huskingin power huller and one operation,but not polishing.The bullock-power and he has It huller at 400. consists of Rs. a polisher priced polisher and a winnower, all worked simultaneouslyby a pair of bullocks. With this polished rice is obtained in one operation.The dailyoutturn of ricefrom this machine is about 20 maunds. Five sets of
and winnowers hullers,polishers,
simultaneouslyworked
by a engine. From each set 50 maunds of rice is either husked or is best done by adding with each maund of polished.The polishing rice only half a seer of dust (kunrd)of unsteamed rice, unpolished and passingit througha set of hullers and winnowers. With five and with sets of hullers 250 maunds either husked or polished, are are
steam
one
set of winnower
250 maunds
of rice
can
be divested of husk
and
cleaned. Each set of huller or winnower is pricedat Rs. 300. If to this isadded Rs. 5,000 for purchaseof an engineand boiler, the total cost of machinerywill cost (Rs.300 x 5-f Rs. 300 +Rs. 5,000 Rs. 6,800,and with leather straps"nd a shed, the capital charg =
185
WHEAT.
will be at least Rs. 8,000. As each part of this machine is made in the country, it can be also renewed in the country, and for this alone it should be regardedas a better machine than the reason have been found In Surat. the hands of in better than the EngelbergHuller machines will have a great future Rakhal Das Khan's a capitalist Babu Kakhal Das that now It may before them. be mentioned
EngelbergHuller,or
the German
machinerywhich
and a boilers and steam taken to constructing engines, and polishing J-H.P. boiler with steam engineand a set of husking rice 45 maunds of It husks Rs. machine is priced 500. a day, at only this machine and if polished rice is wanted, the daily produceout of machine is 25 maunds. I commend these as well as the dal-splitting Khan
has
invented
by
this
the notice of my
gentleman to
XXVI.
CHAPTER WHEAT ^Classification ; Excellence
countrymen.
(TRITICUM SATIVUM).
of Indian
Wheats
;
the best varieties ; the Muxafter-
Wheat; Acreage ; Soil; Cultivation ; Manuring; Rotation ; Harvest ; Outturn; Improvements suggested.] main WHEATS divided into two are classes,soft and hard. The latter are more suitable glutinous, renderingthe grainmore nagar
for
while the *oft,starchygrainsare (suji), the productionof fine flour or maidd.
making semolina suitable for especially
also divided accordingto the colour of the Wheats are The following strains of wheat white and red. races or in
graininto are
nised recog-
Bengal: "
(1) Dudhid
suitable for making fine flour, wheat especially maidd grain white, soft, plump, and rounded ; leaves usually broader than those of other varieties. "
"
"
(2) Jdmdli "
wheat
; grain fairlylarge,soft,pale-red
"
"
leaves
narrow.
(3) GANG
A
wheat
JALI
grain pale-grey,large,hard,
"
"
gated, elon-
with somewhat angularoutline,difficultto break or bite. Best adapted for making sujiand atta (whole meal). Leaves broad. size ; wheat hard, pale-greygrainsof medium (4) KHERI "
"
leaves
"
narrow.
(5) PIUSA wheat
grain soft,pale-grey, very "
"
small ; leaves
"
narrow.
(6) NANBIA "
wheat
"
grain hard, reddish,very "
small ; leaves
narrow.
varietyof the Jdmdli wheat (softred wheat) is called Maghia, as it ripensvery early,in Magh or Falgun (aboutFebruary). A bald or beardless varietyof dark brown but soft grained wheat, All the in is k nown as Ghyochangmed. Singbhum, locally grown other Bengal wheats are more less bearded. or A
Better
the
vinces, classes of wheat are, however, grown in the Central Prothe Central In Provinces. and United the Punjab,
186
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Provinces the best hard wheats are grown* while the best soft wheats in Northern India, in the basins of the Ganges and the are grown Indus, and their tributaries. In Southern India,in the moist parts of the Gangetic Delta,in Orissa,and in Burma poor hard red wheats and
noticed for high class wheats to degenerate the United Provinces,Central in and white wheats Behar soft realisehighervalues than Provinces, and some other any others. The relative value of Indian, English, are
grown,
a
high class wheats
tendencyhas been these regions.In
can
be
judgedfrom
: following figures "
that Indian wheat compares with other and is it wheats, supersededonly very favourably by the finest Russian and Australian varieties. The Indian wheat of moisture and is therefore well is also remarkably free from excess adaptedfor mixing with Englishwheats which are too moist. The From
the above
table it would
the
seem
of thinness of skin of Indian wheats and the consequent largeness yield must always placethem in the front rank as millers' wheat, whenever theyare handled with intelligence. Indeed, Indian wheats are fullyknown in the Englishmarket, and their value is equalto that wheats. of the best European and American of some of the Indian wheats which are The names prized as equal Gundun of to any in the world are Delhi, : Safed (1) (2)Daudiof and Meerut in the Uniof Bulandshahr ted Unao in Oudh, (3) Saman in Khan the of Ismail Dera Provinces, (4)Safed Punjab, (5)White Pissi of the Central Provinces,(6)Buxar No. 1 Club wheat, wheat. The weightper bushel of Indian and (7) Muzaffernagar "
while the recognised wheat varies from 60 to 65 ffis., weight of a bushel of Englishwheat is 63tbs. Calcutta wheat is burdened with refraction of 5 per cent.,and Bombay wheat of 4 per cent.,in the a Englishmarket, which only induces cultivators or mahajans to mix In post-monsoon with the wheat. earth or other foreignmatter in wheat due to Indian the are chiefly impurities consignments weevils. The Agricultural Departmentsof Northern India have is as the Muzaffernagar succeeded in popularising wheat, which in recent good as any of the soft white wheats. The demand for hard tended and has be to wheats, more years, however, rpore
183
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
situated in a dry*locality" irrigation, is the best soil to choose for wheat. Sandy loams are also utilised alluvial lands, where dearh or new for growing wheat, especially Soil."
Clay-loam,easy
of
and linseed mustard of wheat and barley or wheat or wheat lands taken. of The best are on are commonly grown crops canal-water is used Where newly broughtunder canal-irrigation. of years the outturn is found to fall off for irrigation for a number of level. This is due (1) to excessive use below the original even food-constituents which washes valuable for water irrigation away tion and bringsup to the soil undesirable soluble salts,and (2) exhaus-
mixtures
by the taking of heavy crops
caused
Cultivation." Shortly, the
at first without
land is to be
manure.
ploughed and crosssome improvedplough
the country ploughor then cultivated with the grubber,as often as convenient,and after the rains are over as as soon operationscommenced possible. ing, When by ploughing, cross-ploughing, grubbing,harrowing,and rollland has been prepareddeeplyand thoroughly(all the operations close one upon another,that there may be no undue following loss of moisture), night's seed should be sown by drilling.At least a fort-
ploughed,firstwith
and
tween be allowed for the proper aerification of soil betime must the first ploughingand the sowing. If rolling or laddering is done after each operation there will be Jittle loss of moisture in a vation time after the monsoons over. soon are Deep cultifortnight's is advisable for the wheat ed. recommendcrop, hence grubbingis be done should after the cold weather properlysets Sowing somewhat in,i.e.,
The
sown."
Lower
later than
middle
Bengal.
In
20th
earlyin October.
cease
used per acre, but this is too
barleyand
worked
or
25th
October, or
are
boys in the United
earlier still if the
lOOlbs. of seed
About much.
SOlbs.
fieldshould be divided out into littlebanks of earth with a wooden
by
rabi crops
is
sowing,the up
other
the best time for ordinarily laterite soils sowing should be done
rocky and
earlier, say about the rains
when
of November
are
are
commonly
quiteenough.
After
irrigation-beds by scraping shovel which
Provinces.
is
usually
This wooden
shovel in for into be well introduced practice Bengal making may very littleirrigation-beds. If the soil is too dry,it should be irrigated before sowing. Three or four irrigations are ample for altogether are dry localities; but one or two irrigations usuallyrequired, though in moist tracts irrigation for the be w ith dispensed altogether may and wheat barleycrops. In such tracts,however, wheat does not do well.
two
Where
the natural
conditions in any season are be required.One favourable,no irrigation exceptionally may should be done within week ten days after the a or hand-weeding firstwatering. Two hoeingswith the American wheel-hoe may be afterwards of to the the given growth promote crop. Manure."
best manure of bonemeal
1J Saltpetre
climatic
is the (top-dressed) to be poor, 1 J maund time of ploughing, the a t beforehand
maund acre per If the land is known
for wheat. should be used
189
WHEAT.
immediate benefit will be derived from such application. Five maunds of oil-cake may be used instead. But better immediate effectwill be obtained from the saltpetre. The best manure to apply varies much, however, with the locality, and no generalstatements is required be made. No manure for dearh land which is annucan ally renovated with silt.
though no
Rotation." Juar
in
grown
other
or
millets
rotation,though both
are
and
wheat
commonly
are
Juar grain-crops.
and barley
being surface feeders
be grown togetheror successively may But better result would with wheat which is a deep-rooted crop. be obtained from Kulthi,or Bhadoi Mung, or Bhadoi Kalai being Lentils or gram grown before wheat. alongwith wheat is, grown bad practiceas the leguminous crop a and the ed wheat-crop prevents exhaustion of soil ; but mixsupports than one crops with wheat are found to be undesirable for more
not theoretically speaking,
reason.
Harvest." The
grainsare
wheat harvest should be commenced after the quiteripeand the straw quitedry and crisp.
Outturn."
of
grain,and Cost
9
or
maunds
10
is about per acre of straw.
10 to 12 maunds
the average
(inBengal)" Bs.
1
Ploughing Cross-ploughingfollowed by laddering Bakharing
1
Cross-bakharing
1
I
Grubbing Cross-grubbing Harrowing
1
Boiling
1 1
1
...
...
...
...
...
.
...
-.
Cost of
pickling Boilingafter sowing of
...
A.
...
...
...
...
...
...
,.
12
0
0
12
0
60
060 060
...
...
...
...
060
...
...
040
...
040
...
...
..
..
00 0
...
Maund
...
.-"
...
...
0
...
...
Hand-weeding Wheel-hoeings Reaping Threshing and winnowing with Bent (half-year's) Depreciationon implements 1
2
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Total Produce of 12 maunds and straw 16 maunds "
...
machine
...
grain @
cost
...
Bs. 3
...
...
..
Total outturn about Bs. 11.
...
Net
profitper
8
2
0
1
20
I
20
0
""
300 1
80
0
80
26
80
36
0
0
1
8
0
8
0
37
acre,
seed with the help of an Cost of drilling to nearly Re. 1 per acre. being used) comes to only about 6 annas cost would come per acre *
40 00
..
...
...
...
0
..080
...
...
1 2
...
Bs. 3 per maund
6 saltpetre solution with I saltpetre Watering of saltpetre 280 after application 1 Begular irrigation J
p.
0
0
...
...
1 Drilling* Cost of 501bs. of seed @ 1
yield
American with less. or
But
wheel-hoe a
proper
(I tine only seed-drill the
190
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
should be borne in mind in extending vation the cultiof wheat in any part of India are : (1) the seed should be suited to the locality in which it is grown ; (2) of the best variety should be chosen ; (3)the soil should be deepa rust-resisting variety ly The
pointsthat
"
as cultivated, deepercultivation
is
requiredfor
wheat than for should be used for top-dressing and oats ; (4)saltpetre rice,barley, ; mixed with other crops, and the seed used should be it not sown (5) and the threshing should be as clean as should be unmixed and select, until the should be done not cold weather fairly possible ; (6)sowing sets
in, barley and
earlier in the
being sown
oats
there is not sufficientmoisture
season
;
(7) if
at the
time, land should be irrigated and bakhared afterwards before sowing ; (8) wheat should be twice
in wheat if possible, irrigated,
districts proper, and the sites chosen for wheat land should therefore be close to water ; (9) harvesting should be done after the grainis thoroughlyripe; (10) grainshould be stored so that there may be completeprotection againstweevils. not to the and attack weevils of oats are so subject as Paddy wheat, and cultivators often find their wheat seed completely destroyed by weevils at sowing time, and their sowing of wheat seed results less partial germination. (11) Wheat seed or always in more should be isown after pickling, to avoid and smut, insect-pests, damage by birds. of grains The subjectof storing againstweevils and pickling will be discussed in the part devoted to Insect and Fungus Pests.
CHAPTER BARLEY [Occurrence
in
wild
state
(HORDEUM ;
Two-rowed,
Barley ; Composition of Indian Cost; Barley Meal; Barley Straw;
XXVII.
HEXASTICHUM). four-rowed, and Huskies** Exhaustion
six-rowed Barley ; Cultivation ; Seed ; of Surface Soil.]
Barley ;
of the most ancient of cultivated Barley,like wheat, is one but two-rowed the alone has been barley(Hordeum distichum) crops, discovered in the wild state in several parts of Central Asia, while The six-rowed barley(Hordeum wheat has not been so discovered. has hexastichum)or bigg,which is the stapleof Indian cultivation, in wild the been discovered not which state,though this is the variety
Europe,Asia, and Africa in very old times. The isthe stapleof European culfour-rowed barley(Hordeum vulgare) tivation now. Probablythe four-rowed and six-rowed barleysare derived from the wild two-rowed variety.Indian barleyis richer in albuminoids than Englishbarley. The composition mer of the forwas
cultivated in
is,
on
the average
Starch Cellulose Oil Albuminoids Ash Water
:
"
63
cent.
per
7 "
I "
11*5
"
3 "
12-5
191
BARLEY.
India Barleyis grown to a small extent all over either Provinces the mixed United in or and chiefly by itself, with wheat, or gram, or with peas, or lentils. The most favourite mixture is barleyand gram. Barleyand wheat as a mixture is not Cultivation. "
popular,but barley as surface feeder and wheat as a sub-soil camfeeder may be grown togetherin rich soils. Rape (Brassica tdr"mani tir"mird or mustard (Brassica vuncea), (Eruca pestris), and linseed are also grown along with barley. Lightersoil sativa), The land is prepared, and for barleythan for wheat. is preferred in than wheat, unless they the season a littleearlier the seed sown used per acre. lOOlbs. of seed are sown are together.About seed is requiredfor barley than for wheat, but A little more is too liberal an allowance. Seed properly stored acre lOOlbs. per and againstweevils germinates properlyand smaller protected of seed are sufficient; 60 to 701bs. of barleyshould such quantities be ample to sow acre. an Barley is a hardier crop than wheat of amount not it does and weeding and requirethe same It can be also grown and it is not so subjectto rust. irrigation, so
in different climates than successfully
more
not do
so
well in
warm
and
moist
wheat, which
regionsas
(Planet Jr.)
hoeing with the American of manuring with 1 maund when with great advantage
barley does.
wheel-hoe
and
does One one
be applied may above six inches plants is practisedfor barley. The high. In Bengal no irrigation done be before the grains earlierthan should wheat, i.e., harvesting be made to stand with ears are very ripe. The cut sheaves may when the and floor the grains are quite threshing upwards, near be threshed
dry they can Cost
or
saltpetre per the
acre
are
flailedout.
(inBengal)" H.
A.
P.
8
0
Ploughing and cross-ploughing 1 Bakharing and 1 cross-bakharing Seed (601bs.) Picklingthe same Cost of sowing in drills 1
...
Heaping Threshing and winnowing if necessary Irrigation, Manure, Imd. of
saltpetre
with water Applying the same Rent (halfcharged againstthis crop) etc. Depreciation, 18
Outturn. straw
12mds. of grain at Rs. 2, and
"
at
of 25
1 anna
Net profitper acre, about
I6mds.
...
6
To separate the adherent glumes from barleygrainsJmsking does not answer, frying or parchingbeingnecessary. Barleygrain, parchedand mixed with gram, is givento animals as food. Barley is eaten largely meal (sattu), by up-country preparedafter parching,
192
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and is givento animals also. Barleystraw is not a safe straw to giveto horses and cattle, as itisliableto cause colic, being bearded and spiney. It may be used for litter with great advantage. Barley, and beinga surface feeder, littlecrop-residue is a greater leaving exhauster of surface-soil than wheat or rice. For this reason this or only the ears should be grown, crop should be either sparingly men
harvested
and
the straw
ploughedin.
CHAPTER OATS [Soils suitable
XXVIII.
(AVBNA SATIVA).
for this crop; Range of Temperature; for fodder by irrigation.] Grown
Cultivation
"
Seed;
Harvesting;
in Bengal. Like OATS are a very minor crop in India,especially be grown lands suitable for Aus wheat and barley,oats may on Aus has been after the harvested. This crops or paddy jute paddy be also grown well on dearh lands and low-lying lands which are can and
November.
be grown all fact,oats can on kinds of soil, lightand heavy, rockyand calcareous,the best result of course being obtained from rich friable loam, somewhat lighter than typicalwheat land. The range of temperature at which oats properlyis greater than in the case of wheat or rice. The grow range of temperature at which oats will grow well is also very great.
dry by
As
October
soon
as
the rains have
In
stoppedin September
or
October
the land should be ploughed and cross-ploughedand bakhared, and rolled before drilling. Rotten harrowed 150 cow.-dung, maunds per acre, appliedon the land at the time of cultivation, of saltpetre when the seedlings 30 seers and | maund or top-dressed about six inches high,givethe best result. 501bs. of seed (which are is lighter than wheat seed) is ample per acre. After drilling the wooden rollershould be passedto bury the seed and give seed,a light compactness to the soil. Seed should be pickledwith Sulphateof Copperas usual before sowing. One wateringat the time of applying If the crop looks vigorous in solution is necessary. the saltpetre and if the land is not very harsh and dry,no other wateringwill be required.One hand-hoeingand one wheel-hoeingwith the Planet Jr. American hoe should be sufficient. of oats requiresspecial The harvesting care, as it should be and the straw is stillsomedone when the grainsare not fully what ripe Harvested the shed and loses the straw late, grains green. is value. in feeding Oat-straw nutritious than rice or wheat more of grainand 30 maunds An acre should yield20 maunds of straw. straw cultivated as above. Oats are sometimes grown by irrigation to supply green fodder, Cattle Farm, where three cuttings e.g., at the Hissar Government of the green fodder are taken, and the fourth cutting left to bear a thin crop of grain. then
BHUTTA
OB
INDIAN
XXIX.
CHAPTER BHUTTA [Area
Manure
;
Area
million
;
The
"
maize types ; Quality of food ; Straw ; Indian Soil ; Cultivation ; Outturn ; Jaunpur maize ; Maize
the
plant has antiquityit was
not
the Peruvians
and
Classification. This
In
state.
but
remote
only by
grown
acres
Patna
is about in
are
as
der fod-
huller.] six
Bengaland
Division, in Monghyr,
Parganas, Hazaribagh, Singhbhum and Darthe poor. a principalarticle of diet among
Bhagalpur, Sonthal forms maize jiling, "
British India
in
million
nearly two
districts of
all the
In
maize
under
area*
of which
acres,
Bihar.
(ZEA MAYS).
American
Origin;
;
CORN
INDIAN
OR
195
COBN.
been
discovered in the
known
not
in the
the Mexicans.
wild
Old
World, has been,
It
for nearly every climate,and it is now hills cold Sikkim the of and Bhutan, as well in successfully grown soil arid of and Manbhum in the hot and as Singhbhum. It does found
however,
suitable
Bengal and Provinces, Rajputana and the
Well in the moist
United varieties into
the
are
types
of
climate
best,but
similar
to
these
those
Indian
maizes
into
in India the
on
dry climate of the American Punjab. The
introduced
grown
generations.Improvement
in the
lines of
to be the
India, degenerate
in the
of
course
a
the cultivating
few
best
of
only, practical dealing way maize must have come from America question. Originally to India,but there are now regularIndian types. The three recognised Indian classes are : (1) large-cobbeddry-grainproducing class,usuallyyellow; (2) the class that produces sweet and large purposes ; and (3) green cobs,usuallywhite, for roastingor boiling the class that givesthe best popped corn (or khai),which is usually a many, but small-cobbed,class. White, yellow,red and and then there is the further black varieties are also distinguished, seems
most
with the
' '
kharifand
distinction between take
about
' '
rabi
maize, also
months
three
between those
and
those which
which
take as growing six. The stalks of maize being very tough and free from as many used in Germany for making high class paper. siliceous matter, are maize-stalk Bank-notes made from are pulp. Attempts may be the in of Indian made maize to grow vicinity largely paper mills
only
induce
and
the paper
Cornflour." Maize
grain, both
uncooked, is somewhat cooked,
it is
maize
mill-stones.
The
where
to
use
green
difficult to
maize-stalks. and
digest. But
easilydigested.Cornflour
steepingthe vats
manufacturers
dry, made
cooked
and
into meal
and
is manufactured
by
and then grinding it between in hot water into is then sieves pulp passed through
the cornflour
the glutenremainingin settles,
first
large
hug$
the sieves.
internal fat which is givesthe tendency to accumulate If cattle like bullocks and horses. to working animals injurious fed with maize it should be given mixed with other food, such are Maize
as
diet
straw, grass and M,
HA
oil-cake.
Too
much
maize
producesacute 13
194:
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
colic, impactionof indigestion,
the rumen, swelled legs, But etc. and habit have a great deal to do with the questionof diet. Bhutia poniesand Sonthal coolies are able to digestmaize even Maize contains more outside their own native climate. fat and is than other grainsif it can be digested.The cobs more fattening divested of grainsare rich in carbonate of potash,containing as climate
twice 1*762 per cent., i.e.,
much as is contained in wood, as thrown be into the manure they should, therefore, pit. The value as fodder (exceptfor elephants), is not of much if the straw cobs are allowed to ripen; but if the cobs are disposedof in the much
as
and
valuable for fodder as are state, maize-stalks into if converted silage. specially they are
as
green
Manuring and Rotation." Maize
is
heavy manuring requirevS very in are frequentlysown lines of rabi
the when to
drought
cattle and
the
while
maize,
is threatened.
the roots
eaten
are
mustard
gram,
poppy, is barley often
The
or
soil
good
it
produce good
to
the United
yield. Carrots
and
exhaustingcrop
an
or
juar stalks,
Provinces between
especially crop is still standing, leaves of the carrots are given
by people. In
fall, years of heavy rainBut wheat safflower follows maize.
maize, though it is against the grown of rotation of crops to do so. In some principle parts of the Punjab
or
after
three crops are taken in succession in the same year from the same Melon is grown after wheat land. or barleyis off the ground in and the land is preparedearlyin July for the maize March crop as
by then the
melon
Soil." Maize
with
is
crop
over.
prefershigh
daga, Singhbhum, are
intended
for
and
Manbhum
obtained
alluvial low-lands
in Bihar
of
Bengal
grain.
But
are
not
"
In
May
homesteads,
already ploughedup 1|
or
once
deep
districts
The
damp
for this crop, if it is throughout Bengal, where
either as
after
also,largecrops
lands.
a
a
as
a
kharif or
a
rabi crop unless there
good
shower
weather,
should
of be
rabi are
rain,land
ploughed
seed should be dibbled in regular lines eighteeninches apart at the
and cross-ploughed to 2 inches
June
In Lohar-
adapted for growing maize
well
in the cold
trict Darjeelingdis-
maizes.
suited
so
be grown Maize for green cobs. may to grow it crop, but it is not profitable for facilities irrigation. special Cultivation.
the
homestead
near especially
takes place,are water-logging
and
rough grittysoil,
even
plentyof humus in it. The hillyregionsof suited for growing high class are especially
of maize
no
and
open
and
the
When the plantsare all well acre. soil is found If the too be given. up, one dry three days after sowing and no rain is immediately expected, the land once. it is safe to irrigate (if Early sowing with irrigation late result when much better than no gives sowing necessary), is requiredowing to the monsoon beingin full swing. irrigation rate
of three to four
harrowed,
seers
per
hand-Weedingshould
Heavy rain does the greatestharm yet of small size.
No
harm
to
is done to
maize-plantswhen
they are
by heavy rains maize-plants
196
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
of special merit : (1) as sorghum should be recognized Sugar Sorghum,Sorghum saccharatum,which yieldsseveral cuttings Karmi fodder ; (2) the Gahama of sweet and palatable or sorghum
varieties of
(Sorghum Roxburyhi),which yieldsthe heaviest crops of fodder ; sorghum, the Cholam of Southern India (Sorinferior only to the best yieldsthe best grain, wheat for bread-making. The first is also known as Sorgho or and (3) the Deo-dhan which yhum vulyare),
Imphe and is grown in America and Africa. There are three distinct Bhadoi varieties of Soryhum,vulyare, a variety,a winter or late and a springvariety(calledShalu juar). In Bengal the variety, the riceShalu varietyshould be introduced as a catch-crop, as and no use is made of late rain in October crop is sometimes a failure, in districtswhere
and November
rice,maize
and
millet
the
are
principal crops. Chemistry. The be evident from the
high
value
possessedby Sorghum grainwill followingtable :
"
"
Albuminoids.
Sorghum
Indian Indian Indian Indian
The
Rice
...
Wheat
...
Oats
turnipswhich
68*4
"
10 1
...
show followingfigures
78'3
"
135
Oil.
72-3%
7*3
...
...
compared to
93%
...
...
...
Starch.
56'0
"
2'
"
"
12,, 2'3
"
"
the high value
of green juaras greatlyprizedas fodder in
are
%
-f" "
der fod-
land Eng-
:
"
Green Water
...
..
Albuminoids Starch and fat Ash ...
-
...
...
...
...
8;V17
Turnips. 90-43
2'5f" 1T14 1'14
T04
789 -64
in many agricultural population, parts of India juar is ing more importantcrop than even wheat and rice. It yieldsa nourishand about wheat acre as (900ffis.) the]samequantityper grain, To
8
...
...
Juar.
and
ten
crops.
the
times As
much
as
fodder crops
in fuel and are
at
a
fodder as the ordinarycereal discount in India, the growingof
superiorvarieties of juar for food and fodder should be encouraged much as possible.When as grainis allowed to ripen,the lower half of the juarstalk should be used for fuel and the upper half for fodder. But the best fodder is obtained from green juarjustwhen the heads it is in full vigourof growth and not too tall. visible,when Cut at this stage,it affords a .more nutritious fodder than turnips and a second and a third cutting,and sometimes even a fourth, if also obtained is each be the land after cultivated may cutting. The second cutting is of less nutrient value and weight, and third cutting of stillless value,but these are obtained at the dry season are
of
of fodder. when there is great scarcity The hard lower and be stalks converted into fodder. can juar silaged
should be sown with the helpof irrigation, and May, sowingsshould continue through June
Juar for fodder
if necessary,
in
portion
JUAR
GREAT
OR
197
MILLET.
and
July,that there may be a succession of fodder crops of first, from July to March or April, of secon4 and third cuttings, a portion which can be dried and preserved for use from Aprilto June. The dry stalks should be stacked and thatched, either on high land,or over
about
temporary cattle 22,000fts.is the
maunds per acre, of first cuttingand the weight About
sheds.
280
i.e.,
the average if irrigated, second and third cuttings produceas much again,or if left unirrigated but cultivated in proper season, about 10,000tbs. more. Dried, the fodder loses about two-thirds in weight. If is still on, and the the first cutting is taken when the rainy season second
the land is stillmoist, say early in November ploughedboth times,very fair results can be had without of green fodder to 40,000]t)s. even 30,000lt)s. irrigation. will keep a yoke of oxen GOffis. diem for one receiving per year. into grainwill also afford Any of the juar that is allowed to run about 10,OOOFbs. be used as of dry straw per acre, half of which can and
cuttingwhen
if the land
fuel and
half
is
this fodder is less valuable than green is better as a fodder than straw considerably rice straw, and it should be given at the rate of half a maund per bullock of ordinaryBengal size,properlychopped up and mixed with oil-cake and water. of straw If SOOltis. of grainand 10,000lt)s. obtained per acre of juar, will and lock, are a bulan acre support a man
fodder,but
as
juar(dried).Juar
the Soil. "
it does
beingallowed 40J1)s.of grainper month.
man
Juar
is grown
both
rich
on
and
on
poor
and though soil,
deeply cultivated rich loam (likethe black cotton Southern India),it is a very hardy crop and it well,though it is not a deep-rooted droughtfairly crop like for such For very dry soils, suitable and is not a juar crop, best
on
soil of Central and stands maize.
Bajra and crop
the
are
yield of
showing a lor
Kodo most
more
suitable.
grain is
luxuriant
If
rich land is chosen
for this
proportionately very small, the straw growth. Low-lying land is unsuitable
kills it. juar as water-logging Cultivation. The "
for maize
same
sort
of cultivation
as
is recommended
should be adopted. The roots are easilyspoilt logging, by waterhence ridging lating or earthingis advisable and water accumu-
in the field should be let out.
In
dry climates
this precaution
is unnecessary
but interculture here is essential. Ten pounds for grain, be used per acre, if it is grown but SOlfts. if is it for acre fodder, sowing being done 18" x 9" apart grown in the former case, and 9" x 6" in the latter. It is usuallygrown mixed with arahar, cotton, etc. But the best result is obtained by growing it singly. of seed should
Diseases. The
juar crop is very much subjectto fungoid diseases specially if the heads appear in the rainy season. Rust, and bunt havingbeen allnoticed. Insects,birds and squirrels smut also do a great deal of damage. We have seen in a very exagsmut gerated form in the juargrown at the SibpurFarm. The seed should "
198
HANDBOOK
always be
AGRICULTURE,
OP
of with sulphate pickled
sown
diseases.
Another
fungoid for preventing
copper
and obtaining a avoidingsmut better yieldof grainis to do the sowing in July instead of in May or June, when the floweringtakes place after the rains are over. in a damp climate it is impossible Grown to avoid diseases in juar for and in such a climate juarfor fodder alone should grain, grown of
means
be grown.
juar juar. It should be noted here, that stunted of rainfall, is poisonous there is deficiency to cattle,
poUonous
"
when
grown and contains be sown not
acid. prussic
If
juar should
available
is not irrigation
till June, i.e.,the commencement of the monsoon, be avoided. that the ill-effectsof earlydrought on this crop may late in ill-effects that should be done the not August either, Sowing be
drought
of late
may and
eatingstunted
also avoided.
parched up
Death
sorghurn is
cattle from
among
in the
fairly
common
Punjab. of
Extension
the cultivation where
juar is
grown
Matichur of
the cultivation
juar of the Central
juar fodder
arc
than
men
RA"JI
OK
Mn
Kdun
Mama
or
run
Ami
;
(ELEUSIXE
crop; ( hrrnn
of food.
CORACAXA)
AND
OTHER
Chemical
Cultivation:
Slnunn
;
Ctondli
;
Laid
;
Composition J
Mrtijhn
some
red
or
"/tt/af:
i*
more
commonly
grown
in
Bengalthan juarthough its
yieldis rather In
superior tion introduc-
cattle as difficulty,
such
with
the The
and
MILLETS.
Yield; :
and
Nadia
XXXI.
LESSER
[Value ot the Beverage;
parts of
introduced.
in their choice
CHAPTER MARTA
in
extended
Provinces
attended
is not
less conservative
be
can
introducing easy this crop, but know
be
not
juar where people do not by a few cultivators, as
of
Murshidabad,
will
It
cultivation."
poor, the average beingabout eightmaunds parts of Madras it produces over 2,000ft"s. per
per acre. in the
acre
soils with
of each stem are our irrigation.At the summit full of This is never digitate spikes grain. grain supposed to be attacked by insects and to keep for any lengthof time. There is some advantage therefore in growing this grain for storingit againstyears of famine whenever that may happen. 4,OOQR"s. of is obtained in some straw soils in the Madras irrigated per acre Presidency. cruciform
Cultivation. "
crop
Immediately
is harvested,the land is
prepared for Aus
paddy.
The
after
wheat
or
preparedin the seed
(7
to
same
other
some manner
as
10tt"s.per acre) is
rabi it is sown
the land to broadcast, and a log of wood or roller is passed over the seed. When the plants are two or three inches high, cover and is vacant harrowing done, spbts are filled in by plantstaken
MARUA
out in
from
those
spots where
OR
they
are
199
RAGL
too
thick.
In
the
Punjab,
Mysore and in parts of Bihar the seed is sown
in seed-beds and This is a better system. afterwards transplanted. The harvesting is done in September, about three months after sowing It is a i.e., harvest the difficult to The as ears ripenvery irregularly. procrop portion .
between 1
:
the
quantityof
seed
and the outturn of grain than rice-straw, though it is said to decrease the flow of milk. The quantity of in Bengalis less than LOOOtKs. obtained per acre straw ordinarily The The grain contains very littlehusk, only about 5 per cent. of the husked grainis givenbelow : chemical composition is about
The
40.
straw
is
more
sown
nutritious
"
Water Albuminoids
Of
/9
Starch
73i"
Oil Fibre
15
Ash
23
Nutrient
The
ratio
I'll
grain is somewhat
The poor classes. this of out grain.
and indigestible hilltribes of Bengalmake
is eaten only by the a fermented beverage
under this millet in Britsh India is estimated at over in Bengal three million acres, of which nearly a million acres are in the districts of Bihar, (liliota The crop is grown and Bihar. The
Nagpur
area
and
in
Darjiling.
Other millets. With "
regard
cereals,a table may be given their cultivation : regarding
other less important the principalfacts summarising to
the
"
REMAKKS.
Homettmeft
by irrigation. and
Digestible
like rice
cooked
fodder only Punjab.
;
for
also
in the Seed
easily. Parantanna of it
IH
mad* deli-
jungle land
Hough
Consi-
is chosen. a
No or
needed. fodder.
poor ing manur-
irrigation Good
200
HANDBOOK
OF
CHAPTER BUCK-WHEAT
AGRICULTURE.
XXXII.
(POLYGONUM FAGOPYRUM).
THOUGH not a graminaceouscrop, buck- wheat is classed among out of the flour from this grain. Its straw as bread is made cereals, is more is in the Darjiling nutritious than cereal straw. It grown vinces, where it is called Phdpar, also in Bihar and in the Central Prohills, where it is known is June of end at the sown as Rdjgir. It *
201
PULSES.
on
roughly preparedland at the or
The to
seed
get
on
the straw
12 to 25tbs. when
sheds
acre
casted broad-
when
Harvestingis done in October. and it is therefore necessary ripe, harvestingoperationearly. Harvested early, drilled.
when easily
with the also is more
rate of SOlbs. per
it is
The green leaves are cooked and be taken as the of grainmay eaten as l,200ft)s. sag. average produce suitable soils. Clay soil is not suitable for this on per acre soils crop, and it is very curious,that it grows best on poor granitic and that it is scarcelyever manured. The grainof buck- wheat is A bushel of buck-wheat weighsabout 50ft"s.and a very nourishing. bushel of oats about 40ft)s.One bushel of buck-wheat is considered nutritious.
equal to two of oats in feedingvalue. Stfes.of buck-wheat flour is equalto 12fbs.of barleymeal. For feedinghens,buck- wheat is specially them to lay eggs earlier. Another as it induces appropriate, advantageof growing buck- wheat consists in the fact of its getting catchready in ten weeks after sowing,and it is therefore a splendid for growingon poor soils is further enhanced crop. Its suitability of cold and by the fact of its beingable to stand greaterextremes heat than most crops. Hence it is suitable for growingboth in the hills and in the soils of Chhota Nagpur which are Darjiling poor in lime. It is killed by frost,but it can stand a temperaeven ture of 105" to 110"F. It should be introduced a catch-crop as for
rain utilising
out
of
season.
CHAPTER
XXXIII. PULSES-.
and [Acreage under pul*e crops generally; export; the principalpulsegram cative effect of recuperative growing pulse-crops ; leguminous weeds, indicrops ; of rich soil; best weeds for pasture land; Arahnr^ Mat/hi and Vnl ; Soy bean ; Ckaiiali ; gram Madras ; Po/mt-he"n or ; Kidtht or gram Khexari Muxur't ; ; JJ/iringi;Vrfl ; Mash Jtala'i; MHMJ ; French beans ; and Ghanyra ; cluster-beans ; cost; country peas ; English peas ; Burbati
mixtures
;
NEXT
to
best
soils.]
the most importantplaceas and oil-seeds land in Bengal. jute occupy more food-grains, though The only pulse-crop for which separate statistics are obtainable is the gram, under which in there are more than eleven million acres British India,including million acres in Bengal. The over one districts of Bengal specially suited for the gram crop are, Gaya,
cereals,pulsesoccupy
Monghyr, Bhagalpur,Patna, Murshidabad, Nadia, Shahabad, The Darbhanga, Santhal Parganas,Hazaribagh and Palamau. other under other pulsesare included in Government returns million which of 30 in and there acres are nearly grains pulse," in Bengal. It has been about 5" million acres India, including in India is about estimated that the total area under pulse-crops "
about 48,000,000 acres, i.e.,
15,000,000 acres
more
than
the
area
202
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
The export of gram, which is fairly constant, valued about 10 lakhs of at to only about 315,000 cwt. amounts valued of about and other 632,000 cwt. pulsesput together rupees, India at 18 lakhs of rupees. The principal pulsesof are, according
occupiedby
to
wheat.
their relative
importance :
"
ddl,tuer or arahar. (1) Cajanus indicus,pigeon-pea, Cicer arietinum,chicken-pea, (2) gram, chhold or chend. the horse-gram, kurthi-kalaior kulthi. '3) Dolichos biflorous, desi Pisum matar. (4) field-pea, arvense, American sativum, European and (5) Pisum pea, bilati matar.
Indian bean, Shim, popat, vol. (6) Dolichos lablab vulgare, Soy-bean,bhdt or gari-kaldi. (7) Glycinehispida, (8) Lathyrus sativus,khesari,tur or teicra. (9) Ervuin lens,the lentil,musuri. moth, mothi or bhringi. (10) Phaseolus aconitifolius, Phaseolus (11) Mungo, var. glabar,green gram, mung or mug. (12) Phaseolus Mungo, var. radiatus,mdsh-kaldi or urd, cot. harior (13) Phaseolus vulgaris,Kidney-bean, French-bean
(14)Vigna catiang, Cow-gram,barbati and ghangra. urharid shim, or cluster-beans, (15) Cyamopsis psoralioides simmi gamhar ; or bilatisim. effect of pulse-crops soils should on generalrecuperative Lime and for pulse the be remembered. ashes are best manure The the worst. crops, and cowdung and other organicmanures, The
commonest
leguminousweeds of Sibpur,which are also excellent milch cattle, are Pdyrd matar (Pisum quadratum), Chund
fodder for kaldi or Ankrd
hirsuta).
The
the regarding
(Viciasativa)and Chund musuri the following table summarises cultivation of
: pulse-crops "
or
Ankri
(Vicia-
principalfacts
204
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
PULSES.
205
206
HANDBOOK
The
of
expense
OF
AGRICULTURE.
growing leguminouscrops generallyis very pulsesand Rs. 15 to Rs. 20
for the country Rs. 5 per acre little, for European peas and beans.
Kalai, country
fodder.
Green
"
arharia
peas,
and khesari plantsare sometimes grown cattle. Sometimes two or more of the
only
as
sim, bhringi, fodder for
green
following crops, viz., rape, and linseed khesari,wheat, barley, peas, gram mixed together.Rape ripens then ordinary sown are first, mustard, then musuri, then linseed, then matar, then khesari,wheat, barley, musuri, country
and gram.
Barbati is of two varieties. The one with soft skinned short bushy creepers is eaten as a table- vegetablein the
pods and
green state ; the other with harsh skin and largerplantsis grown for ddl. It is a highlyfertilising is largely as grown crop, and
a
preparatorycrop for sugarcane. In the United richer generally
Provinces and
in lime
land is lighter and
in Bihar where
than
in Lower Bengal,pulse-cropsgive do yield. In the deltaic portionof Bengal pulse-crops of not grow well,an excess ordinary salt in the soil being very to these crops. Well-drained land injurious annually renovated with silt producesthe best pulse-crops in Lower Bengal. a
heavier
CHAPTER
XXXIV.
OIL-SEEDS. oil-seed [The principal and
the minor oil-seeds; seeds crops; acreage; export trade in oiloils ; the former trade to be deprecated. Sunflower, cashew nut,
Pittaraj,Nim. The
Drying and
non-drying oils.]
oil-seed crops of India principal
mustard), Linum
usitatissimum
are,
Brassica
Sesamum (linseed),
(rape,colza
and
indicum
or (til Eruca sativa,tdrdmani, Carthamus tinctorius (safflower), yinyelly), Ricinus communis Guizotia abyssinica(niger), (castor),Papaver somniferum (poppy),Arachis hypogcea(groundnut), and Gossypium {cotton).
Minor oil-seeds."
for which
use, are
minor
some
in common Besides, the oil-seeds which are this in book, there separate chaptersare provided which are used in some try oil-seeds, parts of the coun-
for extraction
of oil. These
are
Helianthus
annum
or
sunflower,
occidentale or cashew-nut Anacardium Semicarpus (Hijli-badam), rohituka Amoora anacardium or marking-nut, (Raynaor Pittaraj), Melia Azadirachta or margosa (Nim),Galedupa indica or Pongamia
Calophy(Kenjaor Karanja)Argemone mexicana (Sialkanta) Bullum inophyllum(Punang),Schleichera trijuga(Kusum), and of of seed oil chanania the The lati folia(Chironji, Piyaltree).
(jlabra
Cocos more
nucifera(cocoanut) and of Bassia (Mahua) are in latifolia be and will use common separatechapters providedfor these. Acreage." The
occupy
an
area
recognizedoil-seed crops 14" million acres, of
of about
of British India which the Province
207
OIL-SEEDS.
of
Bengal furnishes nearly 4 the
crops occupy of cultivation
extent
million
largestarea of these
provincesof North-East
three
1st, My
2nd,
acres.
Next
Bengal. According to the the different districts of the crops in the following India come order : "
singh
men
Son thai
462,300 230,300
Parganas
3rd, Darbhanga
229,400
4th, Gay a 5th, Rungpur 6th, Purnea 7th, Pubna
210,500 173900
148,200 146,300 140,500 130,200 110,600 108,520 103,500
9th, Nadia 10th, Dinajpur
llth, Sylhet
Uazaribagh
12th,
13th, Jessore Trade.
to the
The
"
and
cake
export
for
India
of oils from
valued
a
loss
great
food
is
or
in the
manure
The
country.
little over
eightmillion gallonsper annum, of rupees. Of this quantitythreeof castor-oil, which is highlyvalued for lubricating,
at about
consist
fourths
is
highly advisable to organisea system of country, exportingonly the oil and retaining
animal
as
use
in oil-seeds
it is
oil in this
pressingthe
trade
export
enormous
country,
acres.
17*?,700
8th, Dacca
the
seed cereals,oil-
to
in
one
a
crore
other in Europe. One-and-a-half soap-making and purposes oil valued million gallonsof cocoanut at 16 lakhs of rupees, is the which is oil of next importance exported. Against this, there is a rapidlyincreasing valued at over 12 crores export of oil-seeds, The questionof the fertility of rupees from India. of Indian soils with that of the export of oil-seeds and bones. blended is intimately of the linseed. America To England goes most also buys a good deal. The other oil-seeds go chiefly to the Continent of Europe. Helianthus as
a
and
uses
a
are
it it is
making
valuable
fond specially shown eaten
may
by
not
largelyused superiorto most is
food of the
it is
that
a
cattle and
be also used
Europe
For Russia. oils. Sunflower
for cattle. seed.
fuel and
candle seed
and and
Poultry,pigeons and
Experiments conducted
costlycrop they make
as
in
to grow. a
the
The
soapoil-cake
rabbits
in India
leaves and
fairlygood manure. ashes employed as
table
stalks
The
are
have are
stalks
a potash manure. garden plant only, yieldingseeds which are useful poultry,its propagation can be encouraged but feedinghome oil-seed as a regular crop.
As
for
oil is used (sunflower),"Sunflower in for olive and almond oil for culinary and
annuus
substitute
a
occidental
(cashew nut or hijlibadam)." Originally a native has established itselfin the this tree America, coast forests of India," in the Contai sub-division of Midnapore, in Orissa^jJ A Madras. in weak and solution of the Cbittagong of also gum in is soluble which water slightly be very plant may Anacardium
of South
208
AGRICULTURE.
OP
HANDBOOK
of insects. to make
againstthe attack preventive
little aloe
little asafcetida and a juiceissuingfrom the bark
is used
as
is used
bark
like bhela-nut juice.The
To this may be added a it more effective. The indelible
an
for
tanning.
marking ink ripefruit
The
of the seed which is partlyoutside the fruit, The pericarp is a good preventive in colour,which black contains an acrid oil, boats white ants and which is used for tanningor colouring against of like the the and and fishing lines fishingnets, gab mesocarp fruit. The kernels of the seed are delicious eating,and about 40 oil and superior to olive per cent, of an oil which is equalto almond is eaten.
the kernels.
oil is obtained from rohituka
Amoora
tree is used
in
some
or rayna)." The (Pittaraj
oil from
partsof Northern
Eastern
and
the seed
Bengal as
of this a
lamp
fried and bruised, then boiled with water, The the top. timber is good but little on
oil. The seeds are when the oil floats used.
seed
Melia azidrachta." Nim
nim
oil
and antiseptic
an
as
oil-cake as nitrogenand about of nim
trees to
may a
1| per
oil
5|
of cent, per of phosphoric acid should be here
cent,
be
can
of the crushing plentiful
are
be taken
up
a
as
cotton-ginningand Dried
instance. from
fertilisercontaining 5 to
a
and other paintedon young cocoanut protect them againstinsect pests. In districts where nim The
mentioned. trees
the value of common, very anthelmintic veterinarymedicine, and
being
nim
the nim
seed for oil and
oil-cake
in connection with secondary mill industry for e stablishments, cotton-seed-crushing leaves are often used for storinggrainssafe
weevils. The
kenjaoil and
here
as
sidlkdntd
need oil,as lamp-oils,
beingactuallyin
In Orissa the
use.
be
tioned only men-
cultivator
who
Galedupa (Kenja)trees, considers himself quite of lamp-oil. Sidlkdntd oil is used chiefly of Rajmehal.Punang seed which is globular the Sonthals among and large(about an inch in diameter)contains a largeproportion of oil which is used by Uriyas and also in Western India, for kusum of Schleichera The seeds contains or a trijuga burning. oils and for soapis used for making Macassar valuable oil which making. Chironjiseed which is fullof a rich oil is used for making possesses
twenty
in the matter independent
sweetmeats
but not
for extraction of oil.
Drying and non-DryingOils." The from the following plants:
drying oils are principal
obtained
"
Juglans regia(walnut, dkrot)which yields tinctorius kusum) which (sattiower, about yields Guizotia abyssinica (nigerseed,sorgvja)
...
50
%
of oil.
Carthamus
...
...
usitatissimum (linseed,masind) Papaver aoraniferum (poppy,postddand) rohituka (pittaraj Amoora ). occu|rgemone mexicana (Mexican pricklypoppy, Linum
...
...
...
...
25
"
23 "
28 33
to 27
%
,, "
to 47
Shidlkdntd).
"
MUSTARD
The
AND
209
RAPE*
principalnon-dryingoils are obtained from the following
plants:
"
Brassica juncea (rdi) Brassica napus (lutni) Brassica campestris (var.sarson) Brassica campestris (var.ioria) Ricinus communis Cocos riucifera (cocoanut) Sesamum indicum (til) Eruca sativa (tdrdmani) Bassia latifolia (mahua) Helianthus annus .
21 to 28 32 to 40 33 33
.
of oil.
"
"
"
"
47
52 to 57 45
.
.
%
%
12 to 25
27 to 37 27 "
The commonest drying oil used for paints and varnishes is linseed-oil. Boiled linseed oil dries up quickerand helpsthe paint to stick faster to the substance painted,hence about one-fourth of the boiled oil is added to three-fourths of the unboiled oil when it is used
for
paint and
varnish.
CHAPTER MUSTARD
XXXV. AND
RAPE.
four-rowed sarson, [Botanical classification ; mustard, colza, rape, uUi sarson, white mustard, China cabbage, the black and Kalimpong mustards of or Rai9 Tori or rape and Europe : Distinguishingfeatures of mustard colza ; Chittagong mustard, Sarson or Nepalese mustard ; Eruea sativa ; cultivation ; acreage.] Botanical classification
The Bengal mustards have been studied him to there and three distinct are according by Dr. Prain, closely be thus which of : distinguished mustard, may types Indian Mustard or Rai, the Sinapisramosa of Roxburgh IST. and Brassica juncea of Hooker and Thomson. "
"
"
2ND. very
Indian
"
Colza
or
Sarson, the swet-rdi of Central
Bengal,
bling Bengal except Chittagong, plantsresemtall,grown all over of and the Brassica swede, or Sinapisglauca Roxburgh, turnip
sub-speciesgenuina, variety glauca of Hooker campestris,
and
Thomson. of Central Bengal, species Roxburgh, and Brassica campestris,suband of Thomson. Hooker dichotoma variety
Indian Rape of the Sinapis dichotoma SRD.
"
napus,
or
Tori, the Sorshe
there are some others also cultivated staplevarieties, Brassica trilocularis of (1) Bengal,e.g., (UUi parts is unlike ordinarySarson only in having pendent
Besides these in
some
Sarson), which
which pods ; (2) Brassica quadrivalvis
of Sarson which is a variety of Brassica two ; (3) of seed instead has four rows rugosa, Prain, the Kalimpong rdi ; (4) Brassica rugosa, var. Cuneifolia,Prain, or grown by Cacharis and RajbansisthroughoutUpper Bengal and be also Assam ; (5) Brassica Chinensis or China Cabbage may and Cauliflower mustard. Indeed Turnip,Cabbage regardedas a M,
HA
14
210
are
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
allied to mustard, closely botanically Brassica
all of which
are
included
of Linnaeus.
under the genus The black and white mustards (Brassicanigra and alba) of Europe are not grown in Bengal. It is from these that the mustard obtained. The and hospitalpoultices are of European condiment useful a s oil of these mustards, though very medicinally a very
suitable for food as the oil of Indian is not so strong antiseptic, meal of diment. European mustards is a better conmustards, though the in all the First,Rai, Lahi, Li, or Raichi-rai is grown Divisions of Bengaland Bihar, except Chhota Nagpur, where it is unknown, except in Singhbhum. It is easilyrecognized practically Ral.
"
and after reaping, its of its leaves stem-clasping, from those of seeds,which are brown, can be readilydistinguished Tori or Indian rape, by their small size,and their being distinctly From Sarson which has white seeds,or, reddish brown all over.
by having none
as
occasionally happens,brown seeds
Sarson
are
seeds, it is easilydistinguished.
often alwaysconsiderably,
very
much
and larger,
There three the seed-coat smooth. are even sub-races of Rdi, a tall late kind and two shorter earlier kinds,one of these latter roughingwith bristly hairs,the other smooth with The taller sub-race is quite absent from darker coloured stems. Chhota Nagpur and from Tipperaand Chittagong.The shorter absent from North sub-races are quiteabsent from Orissa and are
brown, have
when
Bihar. Rdi or Rdi-shorshe and in Orissa,because the seeds are small.
Bengal
Tori
is called chhota-sarisha
Second, Tori, Lutni
(Chhota Nagpur) and Sarisha or importance of Rdi, and it is grown in every district in Bengal and Bihar except perhapsSaran It is easily and Shahabad. from Rdi by its stemdistinguished leaves and its small size. When clasping reapedthe seed is recognised of the as beinglarger, same colour, and by havinga though palerspot at the base of the seed ; the seed-coat too is onlyslightly rough. From sarson or Indian Colza it is easily by distinguished its smaller size and by its leaves, thoughstem-clasping, in Sarson, as The seeds of beingless lobed and having much less bloom. "
(Indianrape)is next
shorshe
in
Tori and ordinarySarson are much of the same size, but as a rule the seed of Sarson in Bengalis white. When Sarson seeds are brown they are of an amber colour and they have no palerspot. The The seeds of Sarson are sometimes considerseed-coat is smooth. ably than those of Tori. When this is the case the two are larger
There easilydistinguished.
kinds of Tori, a taller,rather which is the commoner very early kind Both kinds,however, ripenwell ahead of any Rdi or any variety. The earlierkind of Tori probably does not occur Sarson. in NorthWest Bihar and the later kind is unknown in Eastern Bengal and both sorts prevailthroughout Chittagong; with these exceptions Bengal and Bihar.
later,and
a
shorter,and
are
two
212
OP
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
however, earlyand late varieties of allthe three crops.
It should be,, that all mind of borne in sorts mustard however, crops are very and a crop which is late is much subjectto the attack of aphides, always badly infected if there is an earlier crop in the neighbourhood. Mustard should therefore be all sown at the same time and not sarson
in different lots,and very with wheat or is sown
earlyin barleyat
the season. When tori or the rate of l|ft"s. per acre, Sown by itself, at per acre.
the produce is only 1| to 2 maunds the rate of 4 to Gtbs. per acre, the produce is 4 to 6 maunds. Rai 3fts. and at is usually sown afterwards on per acre peas are sown in this way land. Grown the outturn the same of rdi is per acre Grown without peas, scarcely 3 to 4 maunds. by itself, any higher Rdi with in obtained. is the sown wards afterfield same yield peas is therefore
a
splendidmixture, specially as
the pea
usingthe
of rdi as support, bear more tall steam pods and give a better yield Rai it is itself. when seed than sown by yieldsless oil than sorsheIn the former case and shweti-sorshe seeds. the yieldis ten seers in 13 14 the and latter maund to All the three varieties seers. per
of mustard
sometimes
and sometimes for green plantsbeingcut and given to cattle in when and i.e., times February, they are justin flower. SomeJanuary of mustard is a but this form ploughedin as manure, crop of green manuring has not the specialmerit as the ploughingin of dhaincha, sunn-hemp, indigo,or barbati. are
as
grown
a
green
manure
fodder only,the
Acreage.
"
Rape
of land in British million
two
mustard
In
Bengal
in the rest of the
occupy
it is the most
LINSEED
important oil-seed
the firstplace. country tiloccupies
CHAPTER
XXXVI.
(LINUM USITATISSIMUM).
[Flax for fibre and seed
History. This
about
3| million acres India, Bengal includingAssam accountingfor
acres.
though
crop,
and
;
Acreage
;
Cultivation
;
Linseed-cake.]
plant has been
discovered in the wild state the Black and CaspianSeas and the Persian home of the Aryan racel Gulf, the original It is one of the most ancient fibre plants of India being mentioned in Panini thus : Atasi of Kshouma-bashan syat-uma-kshuma" Whether the the Vedas is silk cloth or linen cloth,is doubtful. Probablythe wprd Tcshuma was appliedfirstto silk and afterwards to linen,as Jcshaume bashane bashanam agnimadihyatam has always been understood in practicewith reference to silken wedding robes. What is most ancient survives in the most ancient religious customs. Besides it is not at all certain that linen cloth was made in ever India. Flax is grown for its fibre but for its seed in India, not and thoughthe knowledgethat linen fibre was obtained from the "
in the
regionbetween
"
"
"
"
"
.
flax
plantexisted
in ancient
India,the
use
of silken cloth has
been
213
LINSEED.
for religious observances among all classes of Hindus. prescribed 'The growingof flax for fibre instead of seed (fibre and seed cannot be both grown to perfection from the same with imported plants) seed and by sowingthe seed thick,has been tried with success in
Tirhut and
elsewhere,and reports of these will be
Bulletins of the Pusa the oil of which is more
The
Institute.
growing
found
of white
in the
linseed,
than that of the ordinary brown is another improvementwhich should not be lost sightof. linseed, White linseed grew quite as well as brown linseed at the Sibpur ' Farm. Acreage. The "
valuable
total
under
area
3 million acres, of which
qyer
924,000 acres
at
the
only,or
area
linseed in British India in
is is mated estiand Bihar Bengal
1-25 per cent, of the total cultivated
of the
province.Darbhanga,Saran,Gaya.Nadia, and Champathe most ran in Bengal. are districts, important linseed-growing of cultivation has been in the districtsof Expansion Nadia, chiefly Gaya and Darbhanga,while in Patna and Mymensingh there has
area
been
great contraction of Soil "
for
area
under
linseed of late years.
Linseed grows well on heavy land,and it is not well lightand sandy soils,which are particularly
for mustard
land which
and
til crops.
In
fact,linseed
is unsuitable for tiland
so
able suit-
adapted
be grown on Aman In rockysubcrops.
can
mustard Himalayan tracts, however, linseed does very well. Wheat, gram and linseed requirethe same kind of land. Gram and linseed are lusually together, doingwell also on heavy loam, if it gram grown The sowing of linseed should be done early is fairly rich in lime. and
preparations may
stillon, actual the
September,when the rains are immediatelyafter or even before
in
commence
sowing beingdone
ing Sowis over, at the rate of four to six seers per acre. done when the Aman logging is sometimes rice is stillstanding.Watermonsoon
does not do this crop so much harm in rocky and laterite soils. Thorough and deep cultivation is as beneficial to this crop be scattered in between the lines of paddy as to wheat, but seed may and when
simply ploughedin. the crop is in flower
Sown or
later,linseed needs
but irrigation,
nearlymature, rainfalldoes harm.
The
at the end of February or plantsare cut down when ripe, of the Six to seed extracted by flailing. beginning March, and The eightmaunds of seeds being the average produceper acre. linseed is useless as fodder,and it is said that green plants straw of cattle fatal to them. eaten by prove
The
seed
yieldsabout one-quarterits weightof
oil. Linseed-
valuable manure, valuable cattle food and a more for milch cows, than rdi or tori cakes,though the butter especially produced from milk given by cows eatinglinseed-cake is softer than that from cows eatingmustard or cotton-seed cake. Linseedcattle than any other food. cake is more potent in fattening cake is
a
more
214
HANDBOOK
OF
XXXVII.
CHAPTER GlNGELLY
AGKICULTURE.
TlL (SESAMUM INDICUM).
OE
valuable oil than the white linseed, white tilyields a more is often til White as a variety. grown along with cotton rdbi crop, while black til is grown alongwith a tall crop, such as juar,as a kharifcrop. The high and lightalluvial (Dearh)lands and rocky soils are suitable for the til crop. Indeed, all oil-seed LIKE
black
soilsrich in mineral matters, tildoingbetter on lighter crops prefer classes of soils, either rocky or riparian. Til occupiesthe largest oil-seed crops in British India, though in Bengal it area among under this is a crop of secondary importance. The total area crop at
in
Bengal,and
430,000
acres,
Bihar
Assam, including
while the
under
area
has
this crop
been
estimated
in all India
is
4J million acres. Til may be grown on poor soils providedthey are not too low or heavy. It does not requiresuch deep preparationof land as linseed does. Eightto ten seers of seed are used per acre when it is districts, grown by itself. Both the varieties of tilare grown in some til is in Bhadoi Jcat-til the coarser called sown or January variety over
reapedin June or July,about 6 maunds beingobtained per acre.. low Aman on sowing of this varietyof tilis done in Birbhum land after a maghi shower of rain. The seed needs husking and the The rabi til is sown in August oil extracted rather thin and poor. and reapedin November or December, 4 to 6 maunds being obtained rabi Til is sown in October also like ordinary crops as in per acre.
and The
Orissa and Chhota Nagpur. On dearh lands of E. Bengal,sowing til is done in January and February. The stocks of harvested the seed being .stalks should be left to dry in a standingposition,
afterwards detached
by flailing.
flowers are kept in between layersof til, the til being night sifted out next day, and this operationbeingrepeatedfor a fortand the scented tilafterwards pressed,phuleloil is produced for this which fetches over Rs. 150 per maund, but the demand but article is limited. The oil-cake is used not only as animal The yieldof oil also as human food mixed with gur or sugar. If scented
tilseed is about 45 per cent. About 25 per cent, oil is obtained from til seed treated with flower. from
CHAPTER SORGUJA THIS
OR
NIGER
of
phulel
XXXVIII.
OIL SEED
(GUIZOTIAABYSSINICA).
follows Aus paddy, and is sown in August, crop usually itself with or by some pulse-crop (kulthi, etc.). Rough and rocky lateritesoil or lightsandy soil is chosen for this crop. The of land is of the simplest character. Two preparation ploughings followed by a laddering that all is done before are sowing. About
either
215
CASTOR.
half
a
maund
November maunds
of seed is or
sown
the
December,
valued
at Rs. 5
The crop is harvested in produce coming to only about 4
per
acre.
Rs. 5-8 per maund. considerable A of land is under this crop in Chhota Nagpur. proportion The yieldof oil is about 35 per cent, of the weight of the seed. The oil-cake is highlyappreciated for milch-cows in the Deccan. Mr. Mollison speakshighly of this oil-cake as for the a manure or
and castor oils are adulterated with sugarcane crop. Mustard The oil. relative value seed in the of and sorguja sorguja rape seed Englishmarket is 48s. : 37s. per quarter. While rape seed yields 20 gallons of oil per quarter in England,sorgujaseed which dries
yieldsonly 16 gallonsper quarter, but a mixture of quicker, with actuallyincreases the yieldof oil of the latter sorguja rape seed. Hence the universal use of sorgujaseed for mixing with up
mustard seed before pressingoil out of the latter seed. and for lighting, For lubricating this oil is useful,and it is used in some of India for cooking and for anointingthe body. parts
XXXIX.
CHAPTER CASTOR
,
(Ricmus COMMUNIS).
[Use for extraction
of oil ; use for silk rearing ; uses of oil ; cold -drawing desirable ; cake substance for extraction of gas ; yield, a as as a manure, cultivation ; varieties ; different processes of extraction of oil.]
THE
of this crop is of a two-fold nature : (1) the Eri from .silkworms are reared on its leaf,and (2) the oil extracted castor-seed is highlyvalued for lubricating machinery,for dressing tanned hides and skin,for lighting, for soap and candle-making and other arts, and lastly, The largeseeded varieties as a medicine. and lighting are oils,while appreciatedfor extractinglubricating of oil used the small seeded varieties, for extracting a fine quality value
castor-oil burns, effects half in saving consumption quarter to one such as kerosine,mustard oil, oils, comparison with other lighting and from linseed oil,etc. freer danger giving Beingcomparatively The qualities little soot, it is used in railways all over India.
for medicine.
The
slowness
of
a
with
which
ranging from
a
cool and the pores of the skin ture and roots of the hair soft and open, are availed of in the manufackinds. various of of golden-oil, and oils perfumed pomatum Cold-drawn brilliant lightthan castor-oil castor-oil gives more from boiled or roasted seed. The oil,therefore,extracted from of castor-oil for
keepingthe
head
unheated shelled seeds is more valuable. The manufacturingof cold-drawn castor-oil in India offers a great opening for capitalists. wheels of Castor-oil agitated with nitric acid is used for lubricating of the best Castor-cake manures is one vegetable railwaycarriages. This cake is also used for extracting in use. gas which is actually in
use
in
the
Allahabad
Railway
station for
lighting purposes.
216
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTUBE.
Several of the Indian railwayshave their own castor-oil mills and they use the oil and cake both for lighting.Castor-oil is also in for extraction of gas for lighting the streets of Jeypore. As a use castor-cake and bone-meal together have been found better manure, for sugarcane than the cake alone,while for rice and potatoescastorcake alone has given the best results in India. Castor-cake is considered to the injurious
being mustard-cake. castor-cake
is richer in
Poppy-seedcake
plant,the
pan
It is
a
richer than rape
1
It is very
used in pan
mistake
to
barojes
suppose
that
cakes. or rape-seed is not castor-cake and phosphates
phosphatesthan linseed
is the richest in
any
manure
common
linseed-cake in this respect. that while castor-oil plant leaves eaten by milch cows to helpincrease the flow of milk, a pulp made out of castor leaves is used externally to stop the flow of milk by women from their breasts. Sometimes whole leaves are appliedto the breasts for this purpose. The dried stalks are used for thatch and wattle and as also as fuel. The stalks are not attacked by whiteor
curious
ants.
The
of yield
oil is about
25%
to
36%
of the
weightof seed, and
of cake from 36% to 44%, the rest beinghusk, etc., which lias to be got rid of before the oil is extracted. The cultivation of castor-oil plant,so far as Bengal and Bihar sions, concerned, is done chieflyin the Patna and Bhagalpur Diviwhere it is usallygrown along with potatoes. In other parts
are
of
Bengal also
juar,or
it is grown A small
arahar.
more
or
less
abundantly with cotton,
sized,a middle sized
and
a
or
largesized
from May the last are sown Janto July and grown The seeds ripenin uary with some bhadoi crop. and February. The winter varietyis sown in Septemberand the seeds are gatheredin March or April. This varietyyieldsa are variety,
recognised.The
first and
largerproportionof oil than the bhadoi varieties. On dearh land the cost of cultivation is littleand the yieldis large. Like other oil-seed crops, the castor-cropis benefited by mineral manures, and the annual renovation tute of soil by silt is an appropriatesubstifor
Red
manure.
soils situated at the foot of
chosen for growing castor-oil plants. Such specially in of 20 to organicmatter, get an application poor
hills are
also
soils if very 30 cart-loads
of dung (7 or 8 tons)per acre, or flocks of sheepare hurdled on them. of Two or three ploughing^ then given at the commencement are the rainy season and the seed sown by dibbling six feet apart, about 6tfcs.of seed beingused per acre for the larger variety. In each
hole 2 seeds
dry at the time, The smaller covered water hole before it is put up. varietyis planted18 in. by 36 in. apart, 4fts. of seed being used. Castor is an exhausting crop, and it should not be grown on the same land oftener than once in five or It is never six years. irrigated, after which is a great advantage, all the operationnecessary sowing beingploughingthe land a month after sowing in between the rows of seedlings, to keep it free from weeds. is
in
are
each
put and if the
soil is too
217
CASTOR.
plantations beingvery much subjectto the attack of of land in the cold weather is necessary, caterpillars, preparation that grubsmay be exposedto the attack of birds and ants, also Castor
The seed should month until sowing time. also be pickled with an insecticidalmixture before sowing. The pickingof capsules continues from the seventh to the ninth month after sowing, after which the remaining leaves are givento cattle and the stems cut and used for fuel,or for making charcoal
of the soilonce stirring
a
which
is used in the preparationof fireworks. The seed-podsare stacked in a corner of a house, covered with straw and weighted. After a week the capsules found soft and rotten. are They are then
exposed to
the
for two
sun
days, dried
and
beaten
with
heavy
mallets 2ft. longby l|ft. broad, which process extracts about half the seed. The remainingcapsules are again dried and beaten, until all the seeds have been extracted. A
small
seeded Deccan varietygoes on bearing for five years The quality of oil of this variety is also superior. of cleaned seed with other crops, the yield castor is grown
in succession.
When per to
is about
acre
500
to
while 250ft)s.,
9()0flbs.per
grown
The
acre.
cost
the yieldcomes by itself, of cultivation being very
little(aboutKs. 10 per acre),it is a profitable crop to grow. There are four processes of extraction of oil which can followed
without
much
: difficulty "
zontal with horiand pressed. resulting pulp put into ghanies
(1) The shelled seed rollersand the This cold-drawn
castor
36 per cent, of as per cent, of husk
(2) The and The
mixture
may
oil
can
be crushed in
a
be obtained at
the shelled seed.
screw-press as
high a proportion
37 per cent,
be
roasted in
a
pot, pounded in
tinies of water, which its volume constantlystirred with a wooden
four is
of cake and
27
being also obtained.
seed may
placedin
be
is
a
mortar
kept boiling.
After spoon. the oil skimmed off.
time the pot is removed from the fire and The residue is then allowed to cool,and next day it is again boiled and skimmed. The second day'sskimming givesbetter oil which is kept separate. If the beans are over-roasted a smaller proportion of oilis obtained. The proportions of oil to cake,etc.,obtained
a
by this method are 30 \ per cent, per cent, of husk-wastage. (3) The
seed
of oil : 43
1 per
cent,
of cake
first boiled and then dried in the
ma^ be
sun
:
20
for
days,then pounded in a mortar, placedin four tinies is which is kept boiling,while the mixture stirred with a wooden The skimming of the oil spoon as before. takes placeas in process No. 2. The oil thus obtained is a superior
two
or
three
its volume
of water
to that obtained by process No. 2, thoughit is inferior to lamp-oil that obtained by process No. 1. (4) The seed may be soaked for a night in water, and next ually morning ground up in an ordinaryyhani. The oil is removed gradby puttinga pieceof cloth into the pulp and squeezingthe '
oil out
of the cloth into
a
pot. This oil is also
a
better
lamp-oil
218
OF
HANDBOOK
than
that
best
oil-cake.
obtained
That
ought
and
kernels
bleached
the
This
by
increases and
make
when
machine
the
are
:
then
oil is the
In
noxious
for medicinal
made
this
in
filtered
extraction obtained
by
The
vats
the
causes
ment sedi-
through vegetable fire is put in
but
neath under-
bags.
canvas
of the
some
the
into
cinal medi-
adopted
processes
tating irri-
oil, which
cold-drawn
But
purposes.
in
jails
"
seed
(1) Cleaning and grading of the with (2) Splitting of the seed iron consisting of two distance. adjustable
the
(3) Sunning to
also
Eajshahi Jail, are pressed
jail.
of
been
kernels
the
larger yield,
a
put in galvanized iron
which
sun,
gives the
process
has
yield of oil by 10 per cent., properties of the seed, go
it unsuitable oil is also
the
to
exposure
oil
it is
bags,
in gunny
precipitate. The and flannel bags.
to
charcoal
This
beans.
cold-drawn
the
After
more.
pressing the and
roasting the
by
machinery gives cold-drawing with proper to adopt this method capitalists encourage
to
more
AGRICULTURE.
husk
with
with
or
parallel to each
set
the
from
mallets,
with
winnowing
kernels
the
(4) Crushing
and
seed
kernel
the
separate
rollers,
hand.
with
on
dhenki,
other
kulo
wide
a
machine,
a
or
and
at
as
so
sup,
platform. masonry another roller
with
or
machine.
(5) Putting the it in
screw
in
put
at
presses each feed
into
pulp
in between of the
15"
bag
canvas
plates
of
iron,
12"
X
about
and 150
pressing bags being
press.
(6) Boiling (40 parts of oil with
5 to
is needed
for
8
parts of
water) in copper
this
operation. experience of charcoal and of calico. bed 8 folds (7) Straining through a The in plantations for the purpose of rearing growing of castor be recommended. Eri silk Eri silkworms a on large scale cannot be carried domestic on as a industry rearing, to be profitable,must pans
by in
the
;
great
poor.
particular
thousand immediate
spinning but
delicate
Poor
of
with cloth
their
wheel out
have
other
no
time
in
or
of
lakur it.
(spindle),and Two
or
three
woven
reading
weaving pieces ot
would bring her a annually by a woman whatever. This in of Rs. 36, with outgoings no for would be considered women. a profitable industry
cloth
avocation
from dalas, picking leaves near on homesteads, cocoons utilising the
indoors
vicinity thread
their
profitably employ
can
silkworms
substantial
who
women
gross some
a
a
few the for
coarse
chadder outturn
districts
HANDBOOK
OF
in the
figure. Grown year has degenerated crop
the
is necessary crop ashes a
with
as
and
other
lime
deal
good
manure,
desideratum.
a
are
all of of
The
does
have
Madras
demand
for
growing
be
met
this
from
Madras.
of
crop
should case
inches
per
India
and
these
either
have
oil
has
quickly and
nut
making, yield of should as as
tor
cake
for
and
a
is
distance
a
forty maunds
to
Spain, Japan ai\d particularly in Western under
area
the
crop
in
give largely used not
oil.
brilliant
a
It does
light.
even
cinal for medi-
not
get rancid
for
adulterating cocoaextensively employed for soapfor lubricating machinery. The
and
It is unfortunate and
great benefit
to
that
not
in the
the
country
form as
the
export
of oil a
food
only, and
soil. oil-cake as
cooked
lentils in
cake
of
at
it is
of nuts
be
may
from
supply
acre
per
largelyused
the
per form
is
olive
cent.
the
phosphoric the
Europe
recommended in
for
forty
ground-nut
been food
peas
would
of
come may seed from
it does
but
It is
dressing cloth,
manure
it has
In
failure
very chosen
increased.
oils do.
oils.
is
may demand
the
to
with
be
Bengal
same
ground-nut
threatened
that
sown
success,
olive oil,and
as
chieflyin
The
foreign
substitute
oil is about
be
the
other
as
outturn
is
off
tendency
a
ground-nut-oil
the
be
may
with
slowly, a
with
without
or
of the
the
with
now
consequently the
rapidly
as
other
and
good
as
purposes so
tried
burns
It is almost
of
types
Burma,
regions
The
way.
been
in
The
passu of seed
maund
a
Many
acre.
America
a
show
which
in
stand
to
cultivators
crops
ground-nut and light soils judicious manner,
Bengal pari
Half
of nine
in
crop
dealing with this manuring with
throwing successfullyout
Presidency
It
of
the crop seems well at first with
great, especially in France, and for
in
diseases.
to
That
This is the
the
Pondicherry
near
subject
equally tendency
the
sudden.
a
tracts
become
taking several surprised that the
deteriorate ruin.
has
after
as
in
year
principle of rotation A judicious system
neglect and
land, they cultivation
and
crops.
facts which
guard,
after
the
is also
of
are
their
observe
to
AGRICULTURE.
fattens a
cattle
highlv nutritious
condition.
The
flesh-formingmatter,
acid
than
given below
Moisture
very
pulses.
The
cake
is
while
Indeed
rapidly. and
man agreeable hu-
actually richer it contains
percentage
more
than fat
composition of
:
"
9'6
Fat
11-8
Nitrogenous matter Sugar and starch
31*9 37'8
Fibre
4-3
Ash
4-6
OOCOANUT.
CHAPTER
(COCOS NUCIFEBA).
COCOANUT
ordinarysense
in the
ALTHOUGH
XLI.
cocoanut
cannot
be
regarded
used in India,and oil is so extensively crop, yet find should it a placein our that so description largely exported, in India has been The area under cocoanut of the oil-seed crops. The tree is put to such varied uses estimated at 480,000 acres. of an oil-crop, in as be regardedas much in the light that it can fruit miscellaneous of or that timber, fibre,fuel,vegetable, crop. as
cocoanut
a
vinegaris made of the juiceof this palm, also toddy,punch and liqueur. GUT and sugar are also made out of the juice.Soap and
A
oil has a larger candles made out of cocoanut percentage of water in saline or hard soluble candles. other and than any Being soap of marine soap, but the smell water, it is used in the manufacture of highclass toilet manufacture the used it in not is beingoffensive, oil is exported One million gallonsof cocoanut to two soaps. to England. annually,chiefly
The sliced kernel,dried in the sun, or artificially dried,contains ftom 30 to 50 per cent, of oil. The country methods of extraction of oil fall under two heads : (1)Dry expression ; (2)Extraction by
boiling.
chargefor a full-sizedghani and a pairof stout bullocks will get throughfour chargesa day, that 20 yhanisare required tons of kernels to get throughtwo so who drives has a boy to assist him in taking The man in 24 hours. is the mortar of which out oil, by dippinga pieceof rag into got it out into an earthen vessel, but if the bulthe fluid and squeezing locks be trained with. the are boy can dispensed (2) The second process consists in boilingthe kernels with in a press. an equalquantityof water, then gratingand squeezing (1) Half
a
cwt.
of dried kernel is
a
The
emulsion thus obtained is again boiled until the oil is found rise to to the surface. Fifteen to twenty nuts yieldtwo quarts of oil treated in either way. The firstmethod is the one commonly employed. The merits of coir as a rope-fibre, and possessingelasticity resistance and the action to of water are lightness a highpower of the world. About a ll million ten over now recognised pounds of coir and
coir-made
exportedannuallyfrom
India. About six lakhs of rupees worth of nuts are also exportedannuallyfrom India. An acre plantedwith 200 cocoanut palms (about 15ft.mpart)
Fiftycocoanuts
would
rope
are
now
yieldabout 61bs. of coir.
yieldin coir alone 2 to 2J annas per tree or nearly Us. 30 The average yieldof fruits may be put down at for the 200 trees. But the plantation to eightannas per tree or Rs. 100 per acre. be situated 100 within the much miles of must yieldso sea-coast^ that the sea-breeze may bringenough of salt into the soil to keep also,half a up its vigourfor this crop. At the time of planting
"22
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
of khari nimak (crudesalt)should be used per plant. The be importedfrom Ceylon seed-cocoanuts used should,if possible,
*seer
In
Madras.
or
Madras,
cocoanut
plantationsare
kept regularly
irrigated. flowers in about five years after planting, The cocoanut in the The and for nuts are ripe -hotweather. in ten months ready plucking after flowering.Nuts allowed to remain too long on trees, the and brittle. The fibre of green nuts is lighter fibre gets coarse and The removal of finer,but there is less quantityand it is weaker. the nut upon a pointed the fibre from the shell is effected by forcing
implementstruck
into the
ground. With this arrangement, one a day. The fibrous husks are next which is variously submitted to a soaking, conducted. In some in of salt brackish for are water 6 to 18 or placed pits placesthey If the fibre). steam is admitted into months (freshwater spoiling the water, the operation the steeping is rendered shorter vat to warm and the fibreis also softened and improved. The further separation -of the fibre from the husk is largelyeffected by the hand. After the husks beaten with are thorough soaking heavy wooden mallets can
man
clean
-and then rubbed
1,000
nuts
the hands, until all the interstitialcellular from fibrous the separated portion. When quite into a loose ropingpreparatoryto beingtwisted, clean,it is arranged which is done between the palms of the hands in such a way as to producea yarn of two strands at once. substances
between
are
Analysisof cocoanut. Husk.
weightper
Total
57-28
cent.
Shell.
52-80 nearly 100 47-20 Trace
65-56
15-20
Dry
matter
34-44
84-80
"Nitrogen
0-137
o-ioo 0-29
1-K3
Milk. 12-58
18-54
Moisture
Pure ash
Kernel.
11-59
0-504
Do.
0-79
0*38
1-31
2-95
Including "
Silica (SiOo) iron of Oxide
T22 and
(Fe9OaandAl3O3)
..
Lime
(GaO) Magnesia (MgO) Potash (K,,O)
*
Soda (Naa-O) chloride (K Cl) Potassium chloride (Na 01) Sodium Phosphoricacid (P2 O5) Sulphuricacid (SO^)
1,000 nuts removed from the soil.
Nitrogen Phosphoricacid Potash Lime Sodium
chloride
4 '(54
alumina
Husk.
0-54
1 '59
4-14
""-26
2-19
1-32
30-71 3-19
45-01 15-42
45-95
15-56
1-92
4-64
3-13
5-75
Shell.
Kernel.
Milk.
Total.
223
MAHUA.
CHAPTER MAHUA
XLII.
(BASSIA LATIFOLIA,
ETC.).
fat yielding tree, the Bassia butyraceais of Bassia than the value mahua tree. This tree common or greater the Indian Butter tree grows in the Sub-Himawhich is also called layan Kumaon and Bhutan tract between at 1,000 to 5,000ft. The pulp of the fruit and even the cake above the level of the sea. of oil are eaten by men. The flowers are left after the expression As
not
a
eaten
sugar
and
like the flowers of the
ordinarymahua
tree but from
them
preparedwhich is boiled down into sugar. It is equal, syrup to ordinarydate-sugar. The gur havingsmall grain if not superior, is
a
fetches
a
smaller
price. The
largelyemployedfor
oil is used
ghi. adulterating
as
a
substitute
It burns with
a
for
ghi and
brightlight
smell and it makes excellent soap and candles. such been taken of as it deserves. The oil has notice not This tree The seed is beaten to pulp and is extracted in the following way. and to subjected pressure until allthe fat is expressed. put in bags It is largely About 35 per cent, of fat is obtained out of the seed.
without
smoke
or
used mixed up with attar called the fat phulwa. mahua The common
as
a
tree
hair-oil which
by up-country people,who is found
abundantly
in the
dry and stony regionsof Bengal and, in fact,over the greaterpart of Central India is highlyappreciated by the poorer peoplefor its edible flowers,which drop in abundance in March and April. The after fruits from which an edible oilis extracted ripenthree months In famine times the mahua tree is the shedding of the flowers. The of the is also timber tree. mahua tree regardedas a life-saving of considerable value, and in dry and arid regionsin the plains the propagation pursuits ordinaryagricultural prove difficult, much as possible.The dried as of this tree should be encouraged in water allowed to ferment, yielda spirit flowers being steeped consumed tribes and by aboriginal by distillationwhich is largely of six be 1 cwt. Over from others. can gallons proofspirit produced
where
five to eightmaunds of fresh flowers, Each tree yields of mahua. of dry food. The dry flowers are an which giveabout one maund food for cattle. They keep very longand they -excellentfattening attack of weevils. the resist to seem The mahua oil is extracted from the kernel of the fruit. The kernels are taken out from the smooth chestnut coloured pericarp
by being bruised, rubbed
and subjectedto moderate pressure. oil obtained by expression.In the and the They are then ground Central Provinces, the kernels are pounded and boiled and then wrapped up in two or three folds of cloth and the oil thereafter expressed.In the western tracts of Bengal and in the Central used for lighting and as a substitute Provinces,the oil is largely oil for soap-making for ghi. It is of equal value with cocoanut
-and has been valued at "35 per ton in London.
224
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER SAFFLOWER
XLIII.
(CARTHAMUS TINCTORIUS).
THIS crop was seed formerlygrown both as a dye-cropand as an oilfor it is exclusively the sake of the oily produced crop ; now seed. In the Central Provinces, safflower oil,though it is slightly for culinaryand other purposes, and it is. use bitter,is in common sold at about 200 tolas per rupee like any other ordinary oil. Formerly it was chieflyfor its red dye that it was cultivated all over
India, as
well
as
in
Spain,Southern
Germany, Italy,Hungary,.
Persia, China, Egypt, South America, and Southern Russia. It is found in a wild state in the Punjab and elsewhere,the seeds of the wild safflower beingmuch smaller than those of the cultivated kind, and aniline colours gradually Safflower dye beingfugitive replacing died out. it,the cultivation of this crop as a dye has almost entirely other rabi crop, such as It is usuallysown along with some
wheat, barley,tobacco, chillies, opium, or carrots,from the In Chittagong middle of October to the end of November. sowing for this crop. is done as late as January. Low chur land is preferred gram,
It is
exhaustingcrop
an
and
grown
for three
years
in succession
soil it is known In Jessore the same to yieldvery poor crops. on both on lowlands and on highlands, and it is the crop is grown earlier. It requiresa found that the crop on highlandscomes on with fair w ell of moisture^ amount a soil, ploughed sandy light, and on highlandit does not succeed, unless there are three or four
duringthe earlystage of the irrigations plant. It is,therefore,usuallygrown as a subsidiary crop along and weeding.Rain is very injuriwith others that requireirrigation ous to the crop after the flowers have formed, as the dye is washed The central bud is usually out by rain. nipped off to encourage of flower heads. number side shoots and the growth of a larger The flowers or rather florets are pickedevery second or third day, be pickedwhen in January and February. They must they begin coloured. of the dye. to get brightly Delay causes weakening of the flowers in favourable seasons The picking through may go on As fertilisation March and even usuallytakes place up to May. the removal of the florets from the heads does before the picking, the not interfere with subsequentformation of seed which is gathered afterwards for oil. -The priceof the dry florets varied from The average yieldof dry flowers is about Rs. 20 to 30 per maund. $01bs.per acre and of seed 4001bs.,161bs. of seed being broadcasted when it is sown by itself. There is also a thorny variety per acre adapted for growinground fields grown for oil,which is especially cattle. The a as against spineless varietyis preferred protection of rain
showers
or
as
many
for flowers.
The florets are dried ij^shade (asexposure to the the dye) and sold afterwards ; or sometimes
Dye. "
sun
dry
ens weak-
florets
225
SAFFLOWER.
are
pickingsin the middle of the
The
dye.
first and the last
sifted. The
powdered and
ferior pickings give in-
season
give the best a red dye, the The yellowdyes
dry floretscontain two yellowdyes to the former. beingsoughtfor in preference One of them is highlysoluble in water, have to be first extracted. if clean river water and if the florets are kept in a basket and red dye) be washes the alkaline water out as acidulated, (slightly will be found coming out. poured on them, yellowdye Trampling at intervals while the yellowdye is being or kneading is continued washed out, the operation takingthree or four days, the mass being the washings. To ascertain if all the allowed to get dry between yellow colour has been removed, a small quantity of the stuff is thrown into a glassof clean water and it is seen if any yellowcolour The pulpy mass is now out. comes squeezed between the hands into small, flat,round cakes, which when dry are sold in the market safflower." as or ''stripped exported The quality of this safflower cake is estimated by dyeingaknown Four ounces of safflower will dye lib. of cottou weight of cotton. will it cloth light 8 dye rose pink ; 12 ozs. to lib. will dye pink ; ozs. and
The
result. latter
The that it may
it full crimson.
cotton
be
must
dyed
take
several times
of the
the whole
in fresh
red dye dye. of safflower or (C14HJ6 07). Cold water of the oil removes two one or only yellowdyes in safflower which of the while there 36 form 26 to weightof the dry florets, per cent, The second yellow dye is is only '3 to *6 per cent, of carthamin. solutions
up carthamic
is carthamin
removed
in this way. ' ? add safflower, filter, and
the second
the lead salt. of soda
acetic acid
of lead and
acetate
then
will be
yellow colour
To extract
acid
with
Acidulate
The
the
ammonia
' '
stripped
trate to the fil-
precipitated alongwith
pure state take carbonate of the weight of florets, after
carthamin
in
(washingsoda),15 yellowdyes have
a
per cent, been got rid of ; digestthe florets in the the dye (which is inalkaline solution ; filter and then precipitate soluble in acids) by addition of an acid. In India,pearl-ash from
both
the
bajraor sajiis used Oil.
"
The
the dhenki.
yields 7 The
seers
dry The of
for
obtainingthe red dye.
husk
oil is
of
the seeds
in expressed
oil, 14
oil-cake is considered
seers a
of
very
a
is removed
ghani.
oil-cake and
good manure
19
maund seers
of of
for sugarcane,
that
seed
husk. etc.
valuable a most been recently only brought to property for four oil of the Boiled hours the becomes one slowly light. mixed with best waterproofing materials It can be known. black oxide of manganese, white or lead, or yellow ochre, and the boiled oil so dyed applied with a brush or canvas drill, on cloth it other into cloth. to convert or or waterproof paulin any becomes The boiled oil poured into cold water rubber-like a be used as a cement for sealingglassor substance, which can fixingornamental stones or tiles on walls. For this purpose it isOther economic
of
M,
HA
uses.
"
It is due to Dr. Watt
by pounding in
One
safflower-oil has
15
226
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
better substance to use than plasterof Paris. It is this much rubber-like substance that is appliedon ornamental cloths made in the Punjab, to preserve -the ornamentations intact. A small a
(say 1 proportion is meant
substance
:
400) of to
arsenic should be used
the attack of insects
keep out
CHAPTER JUTE
if the rubber-like
permanently.
XLIV.
(CoRCHORUS CAPSULARIS
economic classification;
OLITORIUS).
AND
the jute industry; area; uses; classification ; early cultivation in East classes of jute grown ; trade Bengal ; climate and soil suitable ; sowing of seed ; preparation ; harvesting; steeping; washing ; cost ; chemistryof jute fibre ; improvements suggested.]
[Botanical
historyof
main
The four common varieties of jute, Botanical classification. the in in found be wild in localistate India ties even all of which may "
juteis not
where
cultivated
looks for the
in (e.g.,
the district of
plantsthere
in
Pertapgurh
October), are
the black seeded the Corchorus capsularis (the round capsuledand brown variety), the Corchorus acutangulus(the short and winged seeded variety), in
if
Oudh,
one
olitorius (the long cylindrical podded and
Corchorus
podded variety),and
Corchorus
cultivated. is wild and never is The first which
antichorus, the
The
third
which bil-nalita,
varietyis
also
tivated. rarelycul-
Southern
in
more common Bengal, Deshi pat ; the second which is more common designated may be designatedSerajgunj and Eastern Bengal may in Northern
be
pat. Uses. eaten
are
The
"
as
a
young
leaves
potherb,and
as pat (Corchorusolitorius),
speciallyof Corchorus capsularis, the dry leaves, specially of the Deshi an
alternative
and
medicine febrifuge
of the fibre are sometimes The stems, after the removal (nalita). charcoal. used for making gunpowder creation of the The a industryis practically jute-cultivating first The mention of last century. jute as an article separate in the customs for 1828, when returns of export is made only 364 to Europe. In 1854, the first European of this fibre went Serampore. Several jute factory was established at Rishra near and of rope and gunny of manufacture for raw factories jute baling of a few years, bags,sprang up round about Calcutta in the course time value the total of the fibre the has reached until at present cwt.
the
sum
of many
crores
of .rupees.
; and within the five years
The
1900
to
There are twenty-five per cent. in work mills at for Bengal fortyjute
than
outturn
1905 now
is
ing annuallyincreas-
the outturn between
rose
more
thirtyand
the manufacture of gunny hundred thousand spindlesand
contain about two thousand looms. fourteen and a half The under jutein India is over two Area. area The is c million acres. area jute-growing practicallyonfined to districts of Eastern, Northern and Southern the damp and warm of Assam. and Bengal
bags. These "
HANDBOOK
228
OF
AGRICULTURE.
of fibre may be taken as the average produceper acre, twelve maunds beingthe produceof the early of the late varieties. As 75 varieties and twenty maunds per for sale and export,16 crores of rupees cent, of the jute is grown food-earning at presentrepresentthe reserve or potential per annum which be utilized in of of time for course raiyats, may capacity Yield. Fifteen maunds "
its
legitimate purpose
as
populationincreases
and
greater
stress
is felt by the cultivator. All non-food crops grown chieflyfor cultivator be the looked upon in this light. sale and export by may of juteprevailing was so In 1905 the price great (about Rs. 10 per Eastern of Bengal reached the extreme maund), that the raiyats rice and the as not a good one limit in cultivating jute, crop was in 1906 was found to be too short. that year, the stock of food-supply in the hands of raiyats, of course, money But there was, and they thus no actual famine, could import and buy grain. There was of food local and hardship the was grains deficient, supply though had connection with the jute tj*ade. no felt by the poor who was A
and
damp
climate and yet not the essential conditions of success are of too incessant rainfall, in in and Madras this crop. Experiments growingjute Bombay and is not there unfavourably reported upon, have been elsewhere of the competition much ruining jute prospect industry of Bengal. Attempts at growing jute in South Bihar, Chota Nagpur, Orissa and other dry placesin Bengalare not very Conditions of success
"
warm
successful either. Soil. "
With
allsoilsare soils,
givesthe
exceptionof rocky, laterite and poor sandy adaptedfor jutecultivation. Rich loam, of course,
the
varieties grow luxuriantly in low of fibre is obtained from Aus land. better quality
best result.
The
coarse
lyinglands,but a Pulses, oats, barley,wheat,
tobacco
and
Aus
paddy
are
grown
on
such lands in rotation. Dearh and chur lands and islands,also lands producemore bil lands and ordinaryAman vigorousgrowth of the fibre is poorer. An excess and longerfibre,but the quality does in Sunderbun the not injuriously soils) of salt (suchas occurs affect the Corchorus olitorius, though it is not quite suitable for In lands south of Calcutta therefore the the Corchorus capsularis. in preference, on Corchorus olitorius should be grown highlands. sunn-hemp or dhaincha should precedejuteand on no If possible, account should two crops of jutebe taken in succession on the same
land. *
"
November
or
In
lowlands, preparation ought to begin December, though usuallythe winter cultivation
Cutivation
in is
the firstploughing givenin Februaryor March before with ing laddersowing. Two'ploughingsand two cross-ploughings of weeds, are a sufficientpreand one harrowingor collecting paration^, aerification continued but previous by occasional stirring for a long periodis essential. The sowing in lands subjectto and neglected
4
229
JUTE.
takes placein March flooding February. Sowing goes on
in
and in some parts of Eastern Bengal to from FebruarytillJune according of rainfall. In the bil land amount
the positionof the soil and north of Rajshahiwhere obtained sowing are very heavy outturns is done as earlyas February. In 1906 the rainfallin Februarywas that so in in February, Nadia a good deal of jutewas heavy even sown and February sowing that year gave the best result. July b ut it may sowing usuallyfails, succeed in Bihar and Chota NagOne and a half seers pur. per bigha(i.e., nine pounds per acre) is the to
quantity of certain
seed
to be used.
Exchange
of seed is
practised
for the cultivators. The ordinary time t he is the middle of August to the middle of Sepharvesting crop tember. But juteand in in some washingbegins July parts goes on to the end of November ed in others,the earlyvarieties being harvestin July and the late varieties from October. Ten to thirty maunds of fibre are obtained per acre be the average may ; but put down at fifteen maunds. By using two or two and a half of seed per bigha,i.e., tseers by thicker sowing,no better yield in fibre is obtained,and the direction in which improvement should a
extent
by
be
aimed at to arrest the degeneracythat is at present going in the jute on be to get the cultivators do the to crop, would thin in sowing growing this crop for seed-purposes. By thick sowing the crop yieldspoorer seed and the degeneracy comes
throughpoverty
of seed.
The seed should be sown by drilling, only nine inches apart, so with wheel-hoe or bullock-hoe may be done. hoeing Hoeing at least once should be done after sowing when well the plantsare and if lock-hoeing one up, possible, hand-hoeingand one wheel-hoeingor bulthat
should be given at an interval of a fortnight or twenty between the two operationsbefore the rains set in regularly, days when wheel or bullock-hoeing will not be feasible ; or the wheel
bullock-hoeing may
be done* when the land is not too wet, say, of June, and the weeds pulledup with hand when the rains have set in properly. Native cultivators use the bidia after germinationto loosen the soil and uproot extra plants.
or
^at the end
Maturing. Where "
required. be
Elsewhere
appliedwhere
there
cowdung
is silt
deposit
at the rate
of 150
no
manuring
maunds
per
is
acre
are appreciably necessary. cowdung manure, except those belongingto the leguminousorder. Growing of a preparatory crop of dhaincha or sunn-hemp has been already recommended. The proper time for harvesting the fruits have is when just commenced to form. Cut earlier, the produce is less and somewhat weak, though whiter and more glossy. Cut later,the fibre is coarser and rougher,though slightly heavier,but it does not do heavier a of outturn and coarse getting eracy dirtyfibre. The degentors complained of by jutemerchants is also due to the cultivaallowingthe juteto stand tillthe seed has begun to mature.
may
benefited by
All fibre crops
230
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
mature seed, and get a In this way they secure some partially fibre. littleheavier outturn, but of coarser deep clear,sweet (not salt) Steepingshould be done in fairly in running water a done is but stagnantwater. longer If steeping and the fibre is infiltrated with a grey for retting, time is required
depositof iron salts. Salt water also delaysthe process of retting. Steepedin shallow and dirty water also the fibre is somewhat if the whole heap is not specially grey, and it takes longerretting, to the The entirelysubmerged in water. grey colour is due depositof iron salts. Districts of which the soil is too rich in iron not suitable for growing high class jute. are have been cut, they are left employed." After the plants The in the field for two or three days for their leaves to shed. stalks are then gathered, tied in small bundles and arrangedin heaps of about maunds two each, which are covered with leaves and weeds and earth and leftin this state for three or four days. These fields. heapsshould be made on highgroundand not in water-logged Method
then well shaken of leaves, the branching tops beingloppedoff and then removed to water where they are kept submerged under a weightof logsor wood, earth and weeds being If it is not feasible to give also used for weightingthe bundles. of great bac"~ to the soil the shed leaves and the tops which are to for rial value,the stems may be removed retting water as man soon as they are cut with leaves and all. In the hot weather, i.e., from July to September,the rettingis finished in ten days to a fortnight.If cold weather sets in, it takes longersometimes as of the fibre gets too much long as two months, in which case some
The
bundles
are
y
the colour of from removed the fibre is grey and the outer bark is not entirely the lower part of the fibre. The submerged bundles should be that the stems to see from time to time after a week examined fibre the over-retted. not are Over-rettingnot only makes When the it. retting is darker in colour,but it also weakens
retted,or rotten,
and
others not
retted
enough,and
after bundle is taken by a man goingdown into with a flat battered is water, and the lower end of the bundle The pithstick or mallet,usuallymade out of palm-leafmidrib. fibre from the by shakingthem sticks of the lower end are separated then takes hold of the bundle of fibre and The man out in water. with a jerkymotion, the whole of by alternate pushingand-pulling bundle of fibres Each out. the fibre out of the bundle is drawn from out it, and water is Vinsed and washed, the excess wrung to it is then opened out in long strands and hung up in the sun bundle complete,
bundles of fibre are kept in a heap for one the second day. day, and the exposure to the sun given from break is to Another This improves the colour of the fibre. plan off the bundle against the knee in the middle (a smaller bundle be convenientlybroken being taken),to shake off the which can the fibres stalks at the thicker end, to wrap of the
get dry. The
wet
portions
pith
231
JUTE.
the palm of the right hand and then pulland push the rest of the stalks as before, in water, until all and wringing the fibres are removed. Instead of merely rinsing the fibresclean,it is better to wash them cleaner by takinglarger handfuls at a time and swingingthem round the head and dashing
from
these
portionsround
ties surface of the water, until the impurithree for fibres two or washed After exposingthe out. are days in the sun, they should be tied in bales and got readyfor sale. If the washing can be done away from the steepingplacein clean and runningwater the fibre would be cleaner,but this is generally
them
not
repeatedly againstthe
feasible. The
Rs.
of cultivation inclusive of
cost
32 per
acre
followed ploughingand cross-ploughing by laddering with 2nd ploughing and cross-ploughing beaming Spreading 150 mds. of cowdung before 2nd ploughing Broadcasting 4" seers seed (with cost of
March
1st
April Do.
about
calculation the following
from
will appear
as
to
comes
manure
:
"
Rs.
A.
P.
1
8
0
6
0
8
0
...
Do.
seed)
Harrowing immediatelyafterwards One hand weeding Pullingup of weeds Cutting of stems (10 men)
Do.
May
July August
Tying bundles
Do. Do.
Making heaps
Do.
Removing
Do.
Cost
to
water
of
weighting Washing (40 men) Drying and making
September Do.
Rent
bundles
for half year
Rs
The
outturn
15 maunds a
net
per
of profit
when acre,
Ks.
so
much
which
58
per 10 per maund.
Rs. 5 to Rs.
is
money at Rs.
acre.
spent,ought to maund,
6 per
come
would
to
bring
jutevaries from
priceof
The
32
ing standbe called a ligno-cellulose, Chemistryof Jute. Jute may and cellulose midway between cotton which is almost pure of jutehave the following lignoseof woody fibre. Good qualities "
composition:
"
Cellulose Pectose matters Mineral matter Fat and wax Extractive matter
64
to
70
24
to
28
0-2
to
2
0'4
to
0'8
1 to
2
per cent. " " " "
less than in In when young is richer in cellulose cotton. fact, jute-fibre this becomes but gradually partlyconverted into lignose.Like The
proportion of cellulose in juteis much
232
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE
be dissolved by a concentrated solution of cotton, jutecan chloride or by a mixture acid. of zinc chloride and hydrochloric dilution is and acidification of fibre the the By solution, tated precipia gelatinous as hydrateto the extent of 75 to 80 per cent, of the original fibre when the solution is fresh. It is important to distinguish between jute and cotton, as jute cloths are now combines Chlorine sold in the market. commonly readilywith jute,the latter takingup fifteen to sixteen per cent, of this element. If the chlorinated fibre be treated with a solution of sodium
zin^
a magenta sulphite, of only jutefibre.
red colour is obtained, which is characteristic To distinguish jutefrom flax and hemp, an solution of iodine should be used. Jute is coloured deep aqueous brown, while flax and hemp are coloured blue or violet. Jute absorbs acids and alkalis from solutions,much more readilythan and If is it such therefore fibre cotton. not cotton, a lasting as the alkaline treatment is carried on at high temperatures (as in the Dhobis' boiler) the non-cellulose of the jute constituents attacked and converted into soluble products, are the fibre finally
gettingdisintegrated. of Improvement recommended. (1) Thin sowing ; (2) Eeservation of crop for seed which should be allowed to mature the best portion fully; (3) Harvesting when pods have begun to form ; (4)Longdistrict where preparationof soil ; (5)Exchange of seed with some different. the soil and climate are somewhat "
CHAPTER DECCAN
OR
BOMBAY
BOMBAY
hemp, in Mesta-pdt, Bengal
Ambari Orissa
largelyas a run, is grown the Centra] Provinces and extent
in the United
XLV.
HEMP
(HIBISCUS CANNABINUS).
hemp, Kaunria crop
and
Bombay.
Provinces
and
Deccan
or
and as
a
hemp,
in Bihar
called
Paltua
or
in hedge-plant,
It is also grown the Punjab. In
to
in
Kud-
Madras, a
certain
Bengal,it
is
grown chieflyin Chota-Nagpur. The merits of this fibre have not hitherto been recognisedas they deserve, lby exporters. It is superiorto jute in every respect and its cultivation should be of cultivation encouraged wherever possible,and the method contains the best fibre changed. The lower part of the stem be in and as much of secured as possible this should harvesting. It is not only used as substitute for jutebut also for making fishing The pulp for making paper out of mesta-pdtis nets and paper. of clean water to made by addingsix seers of kaolin and a maund of maund fibre. sized 39 grains weighing Slipsof paper every from maize stalk pulp,jutepulp and mesta-pdtpulp, bore made the weightsof 4tlbs.,GOlbs. and 711bs.,which show respectively the superiority of the mesta-pdt article for the paper-manu$s an facturing fibre is five to ten feet as The the of industry. length
233
DECCAN.
in the
of
case
fibre best,i.e.,strongestand glossiest, in in and is of the not as flower, case plant The
jute.
is obtained when
the
and Abroma jute,Crotalaria juncea,
augusta, when it is justin fruit. Jute contains 76 per cent, of cellulose, 73 per cent.,nonu mesta-pdt fibre 62*3 per cent., plantain fibre 64*6 per cent., sunn-hemp 83 cent, fibre and much as 83*8 per cent. sida as Though in per respectof cellulose it is not equal to the best fibres,in pointof strengthit is almost as good as sunn-hemp and it is much glossier than juteand stronger. The following facts illustrate the strength of the mesta-pdtfibre : "
(a) A
preparedfrom mesta-pdtfibre obtained
line
from plants the weight sustained steepedimmediately, of 1331bs. when wet, and 1151bs. when dry, A line obtained from plants fibre from (6) prepared mesta-pdt cut when the seed was ripe,sustained a weight of 1181bs. when and HOlbs. when wet, dry. (c) A line preparedfrom sunn-hempfibre obtained from plants "cut when in flower sustained a weight of 1851bs. when wet, and 1301bs. when dry. when
cut
in blossom
(d) A
in fruit sustained
IGOlbs. when
Rocky are
even
more
a
weight
from
of 2091bs. when
plants
wet, and
dry.
and well
are
that
preparedfrom sunn-hemp fibre obtained
line
"mt, when
and
laterite soils which
adapted
are
suitable
not
for the cultivation
of
vation jute cultia nd areas mesta-pdt, for
considered suitable for growing ordinaryjute may be well utilized in growing mesta-pdt,while it should be also noted that low-lying lands which are flooded,are not suitable for The yield of this this crop, though jutemay be grown in them. fibre is about the same that of jute,and the fibre is extracted as
jute is
not
easilythan jute-fibre.At Sibpur,the average and of mesta-pdt twelve twenty maunds per acre
yieldof to fifteen
maunds. From water-logged plotsa smaller outturn was obtained. The best result in quality is obtained by the bundles of stems being
steepedin
immediately after cutting. and eaten as a pot-herb, plant are young the seed,which is rich in oil,makes and is so used a good cattle-food water
The
in Poona
leaves of this
and also
All the remarks to this crop
is
an
source
a
as
of edible oil.
cultivation of the jutecrop apply The extension of the cultivation of this crop of agricultural improvement. The fibre
the regarding
also.
importantmeasure bad reputation in
the Calcutta market, but it is not the fault of the plant but of the extraction of fibre. Cultivators get seed and fibre out of the same plantsand allow them to get too mature. when justcoming to The plantsbeingcut at the proper time, i.e., the is fibre. fibre t o .Mr. Benson, Manager flower, superior jute of the Shalimar Rope Works, who buys the mesta-pdt grown at the SibpurFarm, speakshighlyof it,and he pays a higherprice of seed are sown for it than for jute. Fifteen seers per acre, if the has
a
crop is grown
singlyas
it should
be.
234
HANDBOOK
The
AGRICULTURE.
OF
in the cultivation of this improvements recommended (1)longpreparationof the soil; (2)growingit as a single the crop not in mixture with other crops ; (3) harvesting
crop are : crop and for fibrewhen
the plantsare Justin flower and reservingthe best for plants seed till they are dead ripe; and (4)removing the cut plantsin the fresh state to water for retting.
XLVI.
CHAPTER
SUNN-HEMP
(CROTALARIA JUNCEA).
THIS is the ordinarysunn, but not the true hemp, or Canndbis sativa,of commerce. Hibiscus cannabinus (seeabove) is also called sunn or Bombay hemp. The Cannabis saliva or bhang plant is found in the wild state in most parts of India,but the fibre is cultivated hemp plant,except or In fact,the hemp plantdoes not produce a plainsof India. The sunn of India is either binus That Hibiscus cannaHibiscus cannabinus. with is classed in the Indian markets sometimes juteand sometimes with sunn-hemp,shows also the greatervalue of this
rarelyextracted from the wild hill tribes. by some valuable fibre in the Crotalaria juncea or
article than of ordinaryjute. The true hemp plant,producing hibited ganja and siddhi,is an excisable article and its cultivation is pronon-recognition for the This also account law. by may of true
hemp
Two a
tall
as
a
fibre-yielding crop
varieties of
sunn-hemp weaker
varietyhaving a
strongerfibre. The former
is
in India.
are
commonly
fibre and
a
grown
short
India,
in
varietywith
in Mymensingh as recognised
a
a
great
fertiliserof the soil. The seed of the Indian sunn very (Crotalaria juncea)is sown Eastern thick from the 15th Aprilto 15th June and in Bengal in September and October also. The plant flowers in August, but it should not be cut till September when the seeds have properly the harvesting season Sown in September or October formed. is February. It is not a profitable crop to grow in the ordinary lowlyingdistrictsof Bengal, except as a fertiliser of the soil. soils and low damp soils give vigorousgrowth, but poor fibre. High and lightsoils are yield of a coarser is better adapted for better suited for this crop. Old alluvium minous this crop than new alluvium,when it is grown for fibre. As a legueven by cultivators as a crop, sunn-hemp is recognised this renovator of soils,and it is a good preparationto grow
Clay soil,rich
before
valuable potato, jute,and a
in, in young
crop, some
state, as
and many
a
sugarcane, tobacco, It is sometimes ploughed of singh Mymenby cultivators
before especially other
crops.
green ipanure, other parts of India.
236
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
worked with profit in this country,except with very expensive "being of ribbons or bark, as European machinery. The hand-stripping practisedin China and in this country, is very expensive. The crudelycleaned and unbleached fibre is used by the ^Burmese, Bogra, Assamese,Nagas and by the peopleof Rangpur, Jalpaiguri, Dinajpur,Purneah, and Bhagalpur,for making fishinglines It is grown by a few cultivators only,each on a few of these districts could the yards of land. But in none square if a seer fibre be procuredfor less than eightannas ; and raw from any of these districts, any considerable quantityis wanted would be the raw article not forthcomingfor less than Rs. 50 to doubt could no machine A decorticating Rs. 100 per maund. several of render the raw produce cheap, and there are now extensive trial is needed these favour, but more and
nets.
claimingpublic
before
one
can
say
industry will that the rhea-cultivating definitely
hand"40 a ton for the raw "20 or even profitable. remunerative pricefor this strippedribbons is not a sufficiently and though such priceshave been offered for some years, article, into been have Europe. rhea ribbons exported no practically Besides it is a mistake to suppose that rhea will grow anywhere become
and under
that crop after crop
in any it grows
It
any conditions and soil without manure.
the if
doubt
a
but perennial,
in
plantsin vigour.
a
no
taken
shade, on rich loam, and the land must be above moist to keep time sufficiently level,but at the same
best
inundation
is
be
can
continuous
the
It demands
series of
rankest
and
richest soils
crops is to be obtained. the best tobacco soils of
The
crop
Rungpur. luxuriates in fact only on in Rungpur, the crop is of so little importance,that the But even villagecalled Kankurapara (named after this crop)and where only the crop is considered of any importance, has only about twenty cultivators growingit. Native method
from Bogra the ribbons stripped
of extraction." In
for a 'few minutes, or in boiled in turmeric water softens the in which rice has been boiled. This operation water In pur Bhagalfibre and assists in the subsequentcleaningprocess. the with in water boiled leaves of divested are stems the green in the boiler, of plantput addition of 10 chhitaks of sajiper maund and a half to two for boil one simmer allowed whole or to and the
the stems
are
of boiled stems are afterwards dashed on a board, end, then the other, until all the pith is removed. firgtone liquorand The fibre is again boiled for half an hour in the original then again beaten and washed on the board which is arrangedlike a dhdbie's board by the side of water. in the outer bark or parenchyma is practised off Scraping after In Assam before the fibre is hand-stripped. most districts, it is divested of the off a stem the leaves have been hours.
Bundles
stripped
outer
skin
is left to
by rubbing it with
dry
for two
or
a
blunt
three
knife,after which
days in
the hot
sun.
the stem The third
RHEA.
23T
the stem has been exposedto dew for several houra off the stem by breakingthe woody stalk right the fibre is drawn the fibre throughtowards the thicker end and then separating it towards off the slender gently therefrom by drawing end, some in givingthe fibre the peculiar twist in order care beingrequired
morningafter
it off without breaking.A good deal of the fibre (about after the drawingoff has to the stem remains adhering one-fifth)
to draw
done
been
as
described.
of green stems producesabout a seer of fairly in and this treated two half i.e., a only way, white fibre per cent. of fibre may be obtained per acre to eight maunds Seven per of the fibrefrom the stems is so difficult but the separation A maund
|. "
annum,
and
few a costlythat cultivators actuallygo in for cultivating
deductions as to cost and outturn can be with regardto this fibre from the data they are drawn definitely estimate the produceat as much as 50 to able to furnish. Some
yardseach, and
square
no
55 maunds
per acre. In Spain and other
European and American
and experimentally
being grown for the extraction of fibre,500 is
rhea
per
of
a
machinery}sused properlymanaged plantation
is estimated to produce7,000 to 9,000 tons of green stemsout of which it is estimated that five per cent, of fibre annum,
obtained,which
be
can
per
acres
countries where
where
annum.
without stems
is
The leaves
per
to 1,792 Ibs. of fibre equivalent per acre of 100 stems of full-grown weight rhea
average 241bs. is about
acre,
The
Chinese
grow
19,2001bs. Paure's
i.e.,about
about
80,000
decorticating
3 per cent, of fibre which is in a purer machine which extracts in European experiments is said to produce, state than China-grass, cutting.In the remainingtwo cuttings 5761bs. of fibre from one be reasonably least another 57 Gibs, at expected,or a total may which at "30 acre of l,1521bs. annum, per per ton (theprice per class is for China-grass')worth about "15 high paidin London and American estimates and from the From 225. Ks. European or it seems, one fairlyestimate the produce the Chinese figures may '
of rhea fibre at
l,0001bs.or
say
12 maunds
per
acre
per
annum,
to go upon than either 7 to 8 maunds reliablefigure which is a more 50 to 55 maunds or variously per acre, which are the figures given the Of climate and soil cultivators. have course, Bengal by thing everythe climate is damp and at to do with the produce. Where the foot of a hill where the soilis renewed annuallyby siltdeposit,
and the soil is
or always more maunds twenty-five water-logged, localitiesthe producemay dry
less damp, without ever getting of fibre may be obtained, while in not reach even five maunds to the
acre.
is propagatedfrom stem-cuttingsseed. The cuttingssix inches to and three to four inches nine inches longmay be plantedhorizontally each foot under soil one Forty to fiftythousand apart way. Method
of cultivation." Rhea
also root-cuttings,
from
238
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
The fieldsshould be weeded are requiredto plantan acre. "cuttings and heavilymanured each and hoed after each cuttingof stems Blanks should be filledup from time year duringthe dry season. three inches deep as time by plantingcuttingshorizontally to down The shoots are cut when the bottom alreadymentioned. and brown the leaves to low down turn of the stem begins portion obtained the stem are begin to fall off. Two to five cuttings richness soil and of the the the with to which care annuallyaccording the plantsare tended, three cuttingsbeing a good average crop. in shade be obtained if the plantsare heavily "Six cuttingscan If stems readyfor cutting alone selected, and watered. are manured with the is some cultivators, intelligent .as cuttingscan be practice had throughout the year. If the cuttingsare uninterruptedly first plantedin September,the first1 crop may be harvested in May (which is the shortest crop),the second in June (the best crop), the third in July,and the fourth in August. Plantingof cuttings take placein May and June also. "can If rhea is propagated from seed,it is necessary to sow the seed with rotten dung. on lightsandy soil well manured superficially seed should
Rhea a
be covered
not
lightcoveringof
earth prevents
there should be a "cabbageand cauliflower
with
after
sowing.
germination.But
coveringof mat seed.
earth
This
put
mat
on
should
as
bed the seed-
on
is done be
Even
in
sowing
kept moist
and
watered
direct. When the seed should not plantshave fully of should be the taken and watering mat off, covering appeared is the best time for done occasionallya^ required.September be
rhea. transplanting
-sowing and
they
when
about
are
The
three
seedlingsshould
inches
be
planted trans-
high.
from the steins is so question of the extraction of fibre India offered Government of time at one a important,that the reward of "5,000 for a rhea fibre-extracting machine, but this offer 1881. This Reswithdrawn by a Resolution,dated 19th March olution was low From the valuation the : put by English says The
' '
fibre
producedat the late competition,it rhea fibre will be able, for the Indian that seem probable with the Chinese product; present at least,to compete successfully while the experience which has been so far gainedalso pointsto
firms
on
the
samples of
does not
the conclusion that in most be undertaken with
"cannot
plant and
it
requiresa
parts of India the cultivation of rhea
profit.Rhea
m'oist air and
is naturallyan equatorial rich soil and plentyof water, unfavourable to it. Such
of temperature are conditions may be found in parts of Burma, in and Northern districts of Eastern in some be grown in such placeswith only so much can in an ordinary well-farmed field for a rather
wjiileextremes
Upper Assam, and Bengal,and if rhea care
as
is
required
superiorcrop, it is that it may succeed commercially. Until,however,private possible taken has shown that the cultivation of the plantcan be under"enterprise these or other parts of the country, and that for an improvedmethod of preparing has arisen real need the with
"a
in profit
KHEA.
fibre in order think
inadvisable
it
is difficult
it has now offer, which made result, of rewards for suitable
without
to
valuable
so
whether
say
of Mr.
Faure,
the
be
to
them.
Gomes,
the
; but
The
those
are
of
inventions
degumming
claim
they
as
good machines among very mentioned be prominently M.
lately made
rhea
there
fibre will
inventions
which
of Messrs.
Burn
of 400
plantation of
outturn
Co., of Macdonald, Boyle " Co!, of S. and London, of Mr. Charles W.,
Rs.
two
sets
of
comprising of forty drums for a machinery for a plant of this size this they anticipate an buildings. From and clean fibre dry day, at a cost of per
of
tons
two
"
set
The
acres.
"3,000, without
cost
some
should
Messrs.
each
decorticating battery,
of
really
be
to
seem
39, Victoria Street, Westminster, J. Dear, of 28, Victoria Steeet, Westminster. Messrs. Macdonald, Boyle " Co., recommend
will
of India
the
renew
decorticatingand
for
machinery prove
production, the Government
"
machines. It
its
to
time
second
the
for
stimulate
to
239
282. aims
Dear's
decorticatingthe fresh cut stems the crude the fibre in England, degumming on Mr. Dear has in Yorkshire, where, equipped a factory to turn out of fibre for spinning, at a cost of 600 l,0001bs. to ready per day only Mr.
process plantations and
of the
exclusive
"1,000,
of,
spoken
but
power,
of
supply
inclusive
crude
durable.
Compagnie
N.
C.
Riviere,
fibre
of
the
lation instalto
comes
little doubt
this, in addition textile and
of
of which
of
to
a
him
a
plant
out
the
it
could
of the
those also
height
by
of grape
the
of about
be
the
in
Botanist
would
at
of the
steamers
after
ninety
forty-fivetrips. make
introduced
of
it as
a
an
ramie,
highly cultural agri-
country.
heterophylla,the
vines, is extracted
tribes ten
exceedingly
lasting qualities
silky character, if
is
Government
worn
will be
II.
supplied good condition
was
highly
in Behar.
Coventry
stinging nettle, Girardinia
resemble and
rhea
to
in
to
Bernard
French
is also
extent
India, Vol.
the
linen
article
commercial
fibre
grows
its
product
by the Nepalese, nettle
to
considerable
a
the
as
Decorticator
by Mr.
Transatlantique was while ordinary linen
seems
leaves
ramie
the
that
Algiers,states
The
to
its work
of it and
M.
valuable
Fibre
used
Agricultural Journal fibre produced from
The
voyages,
Ramie
been
the
in
There
has
and
full account
found
Patent
's New
Faure
and
The
China.
from
A
motive
light.
of electric
at
of the
and
Nilgirihills. Nepal terai.
feet in the
used
This
210
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE
CHAPTER COTTON
XLVIIL
(GOSSYPIUM).
[Area of
cotton in India. Historyof attempts at cotton improvement ; on what the value of cotton depends ; stems may be used for extraction of fibre ; oil ; for sowing and picking; conditions trade ; acreage ; yield; times ; mixture cost of the crop; of of profitableness cultivation; silk-cotton or simul ;
Akanda.] The
devoted
area
It varies
acres.
to
cotton
in India is about
considerablyfrom
tendency is upward. The
actual
year
to
year,
twenty million but
the
general
of cotton is (estimated) The average annual about fotir million bales of 400 pounds each. yieldof cotton per acre seems to be from 80 to 100 pounds of clean cotton
per
outturn
acre.
is a very minor factor in this production.There devoted of the to and this half about acres the 60,000 crop only ; is in the Saran district. It is sown area partlybefore and partly In Eastern after the rainy season. Bengal and Assam the crop is also only a minor one, and the production is almost entirelyin the various Assam valleys. the hills surrounding
Bengal is
The other
importantcotton-producing provinceshave approximate follows
as
areas
: "
AREA.
Bombay Presidency
6,000,000 I,200,0a0
Provinces
Central Berar
3,000,000
Presidency
Madras
Punjab United
1,500,000 1,500,000 1,250,000 2"'0,000 3,400,000 40,000 1,000,000 450,000
...
Provinces
Burma
Hyderabad (Deccan) Ajmere
Merwara
Central
India
Raj pu
acres.
tana
efforts have
been made duringthe past of the character Indian cottons. Exotic improve seventy years have been introduced againand again. American cottons planters A
very
great many to
But the generaleffect of such been broughtto grow them. of the varieties introductions has been small. In a few cases some themselves small but established have over areas, except in the in South .India in the past few years, cotton of Cambodia case have become a very largefactor in the produceof the counnone try. be said that the character of Indian On the whole it may the same it was is practically as cotton So much fifty years ago. that the authorities have largely is this the case abandoned the have
importingvarieties from abroad, and Mr. Gammie, the present has summarised ImperialCotton Specialist, recentlythe tion posi-
idea of as "
season
follows 1.
That
cotton
:
"
long season districts and
cottons
are
vice versa,
quiteunsuitable for early that slight differences
and
241
COTTON. "%
of climate
large differences
cause
in
the
quality of
cotton
produced. in
away
varieties characteristic of the black cotton soil fall inherent quality if transferred to another class
That
2.
some
of soil That
3.
varieties thrive
exotic
thus
been
in red
sandy soils,
or
introduced
and
have
the
Konkan
and
United Provinces. 4. That inferior varieties
only
better
permanently with varying the outside of regularsuperiorIndian areas, e.g., degrees success in Coimbatore, North Gujarat,and Dharwar American, Bourbon ;
Egyptian
in Sind
the
and
Khandesh
That
6.
Karunganie in
rare
cases,
when first,
cotton
are isolated,
generalmixture
superiorto often
too
tice prac-
found
in the Central Provinces
and
provided conditions can
for
are
similar,a
be substituted with
Kumpta
perior su-
advantage,
in the Dharwar
District
Bombay. cross-fertilisationinter se has in many cases doubtedly unthe but the method stock, same strengthened employed different varieties has, up to the present,yieldednothing
That
7.
between of
this,plus the fraudulent
in Madras.
type
same
instance,Broach
Punjab
that the so-called deterioration
fields, e.g., Malvensis
varietyof the for
the
of the
remaining constituents
growingin the
of
of cotton, and
varieties from
Good
the
are
is really due to
of Indian cotton of middlemen. 5.
upland Georgian in
in many tracts oustingsuperior certain greater hardiness and more
of their
chieflyon account yieldof a largeoutturn
;
permanent advantage In conclusion,the 8. that in
environment varieties which
some
appear
to be
plant is so influenced by its provinces,for instance, in Gujarat, the same from a botanical absolutely
cotton
view have, nevertheless, individual characteristics which in perfection and with profit them to be grown only in the where they have become the actual children of the soil. tracts These statements should give pause to attempts to make of largescale introduction generalstatements as to the desirability of one transferences of cottons from outside,or even large type of in from India without very careful cotton one place to another experimentbeforehand.
point of allow
determine the value of a cultivator of a are several,and some these are often ignoredby outsiders, who look to the character and value of the marketed cotton only. Thus it is necessary to take into account This (1) The lengthof the periodof growth of the cotton. from months. 3J months to seven may vary to attack (2) The hardiness of the plant,and its liability insect by pests. Points of cotton
cotton particular
"
The
points which
plantto
"
*
M,
HA
16
242
HtANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
(3) The yieldof seed cotton per acre. (4) The ginning percentage,or the percentage of The
seed in the crop. crop with in
cent,
be
as
low
of the fine varieties,or
some
of the very
some
the
marketed are:
lint may
factors
poor
which
cottons
lint to
25
per cent, of the reach 50 per over
as
may
of the Assam
determine
hills. When value of cotton
the
"
length of staple.This
(1) the
the best Sea-island cotton varieties Iiidian ;
inches with poor
may to
vary
half
an
from over 1" inch with very
(2) the colours; of the fibre ; (3) the glossiness
(4) the strengthof the fibre. rule the introduction of a new varietyis so difficultand doubtful that it would be well for a would-be cotton grower to so beginwith the varietyalreadygrown in the district in which he desires to plantthis crop, and only after thoroughly understanding the local difficultiesof soil,climate and other conditions,to make directions. largedevelopmentsin new As
a
relative value of cotton fibre depends the and fineness of the on length,strength mainly staple. The its has 1/65 Sea-island cotton inches long, the Egyptian staple American 1-10 inches,and the or 1-50 inches,the Bourbon ordinary '65 to 1*3 Indian inches,the latter figure ordinary applyingto the the former best varieties of Gossypium arboreum, and the to The herbaceum. strengthof the Egyptian cotton is Gossypium the and but that Sambalpur Bhagalpur tree-cotton very great, Points of cotton. "
latelycollected
been
have
The to the time
Steinsand seed. "
fibre.
Up
cotton-seed it is thrown
placesalso
The
and
stems
of
the
examined
are
also very
strong.
of the plant,if rotted,yielda good American War of Independence
regardedas a useless article. In India, even now placesas a useless article; but in many away in many is seed the to milch-cows, given to cattle,especially was
the flow of their milk. In the district of Patna, used for making a high-class cotton-seed is In the sweet-meat. of two Farm, seers cotton-seed diem are Nagpur Experimental per "and one seer a day may givento each bullock in placeof oil-cake, be givento Bengal cattle. Smooth seeds yielda largerproportion extraction of oil has been, until of oil than fuzzy seeds. The unknown in India, but a considerable recently,practically very cotton-seed oil has taken place development of mills extracting
to
increase
in the Bombay Presidencyand in the Berars in the last two three years. Decorticated cotton-cake is considered or one of the best oil-cakes both for feedingcattle and for fertilizing the soil. It is as good as the best Bengaland United Provinces castor6 to 7 per cent, of Nitrogenagainst cake as a manure, containing 6 to 8 per cent, which is the proportionof Nitrogenin the best ash of cotton-cake castor-cake. The is particularly rich in
244
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
to as much Indian cotton to England amounted as 86,555,0001bs. bale of In bales (a 1821, only 20,000 or 247,300 cotton^3| cwt.). bales were exported. In 1841, however, the export rose to 278,000 bales. In 1848, the export fell to 49,000 bales. During the Civil War, India again became the chief source of American market. of of the the At to end the cotton English supply war, cotton American The regainedits footingin the Englishmarket.
in the Englishmarket to the Indian cotton objections (1} were, of picking, cleaningand packing,(2) adulteration, imperfection (3) the higherpricewhich has to be paid for the inferior handginned cotton, compared with the pricepaid for the superior of machine-ginnedAmerican cotton, and (4) the shorter-staple "
The improvement in cotton cultivation in due of numerous to the establishment mainly years in Bombay, mills in India chiefly Ahmedabad, Cawnpore
Indian
the
recent cotton
and
cotton.
is
Nagpur.
and maize often grown Arahar, castor,til, juar are Groundnut with cotton. be with Where cotton. can along grown is grown with other crops the yieldof lint is 50 to SOibs. cotton it is grown where the yieldis 751bs. to 1501bs. by itself, ; per acre such as the Nausari cotton and per acre, though the best varieties, Mixtures.
"
kapas,often yieldas
the Buri
Grown about
much
as
4001bs.
lint per
acre
and
by itselfthe
common Gossypium herbaceum varieties nine inches sown are bushy Burhi apart ; while the more are varietyis grown 2| to 3ft. apart. The tree-cottons grown 8ft. apart. The last are grown at theby transplanting seedlings of the monsoon, the seedlings commencement being grown in From seedbeds beforehand. prepared sowing or transplanting more.
pickingof bolls,two hoeings and fresh branches By nipping
to
plantsbear
more
nipping of
one
desirable.
are
thrown
buds
out, and
are
the
fruits.
The time for sowing and pickingcotton in the growing districts of Bengal are given below :
cotton principal
"
Solvingtime. Midnapore
May and June. (1) June to July. (2) February.
...
Cuttack
...
Manbhum
...
(2) October. (1) May and (2) October.
*
Durbhanga
...
Saran
June
...
Chittagong
Hill
time.
September to March (1) October and November (") May and June. (3) February to June. (1) October to December. (2) February to April. to January. (1) November (2) April and May. (1) March and April.
(3) October and November. (1) May to July. (2) September to December. (1) June.
...
Lohardaga
Harvest
June.
(2) August and September. April and May.
and
July. (1) April and May.
and
(1) November
cember. De-
Tracts.
(2) January
Accordingto the months
when
cotton
and
above is not
February.
(2)August
and
September.
table,March and August are the only sown
and
July the onlymonth
when
245
COTTON.
done. For Egyptiancotton, the late Mr. Tata recommended the best months for sowing. November October and as in this But we have found that the plantsrequire more irrigation the and full in when in comes rainy season bearing they are case, for sowingand July and spoils the bulbs. June is the best month for transplanting in Bengal.The cotton after August is called sown is used,as a rule for cotton, late cotton." Though no manure lime the use of bonemeal or (3 mds.),and salt (40 Ibs. (2 mds.),
pickingis not
*'
per
acre) has sometimes
proved beneficial.
seed is used per acre. For treein seed-bed and afterwards transplantwhich be sown cottons ed, may for an acre. 1 Ib. of seed is a sufficient allowance Between The first picked of cotton the rows groundnut can be grown. Seed
Five
"
ten
to
Ibs. of
'
and
clean bolls should be reserved for seed.
30 parts of to an average, every of 20 seed and 10 parts there are seed) parts of lint,and the feedingvalue of 200 Ibs. of cotton-seed obtained is at least Rs. 5. otherwise of the The profitableness or per acre three considerations : (1) the crop therefore depends mainly on the of the cotton use staplechosen, (2) gin,(3) the utilisation of the seed as cattle food. One variety would yield300 to 400 Ibs. of lint per acre, whereas another will yieldonly 75 Ibs. On the in Bengal, whole the Burhi cotton to be the best to grow seems should be made the to grow though persistent superior attempts Conditions of
success.
"
On
lint and (i.e.,
cotton
tree-cottons.
The
cost
of cultivation per
be calculated
may
as
below
for the cotton
acre
in
crop
"
Rs. Four
ploughingswith laddering before sowing with cowdung and lime (150 maunds
Manuring and
4 niaunds
of lime
Bengal
:
per
...
of
A.
P.
8
0
300
dung
acre)
Watering before sowing (unlessthere is rain) Picklingof seed (5 seers) (Rubbing with cowdung, lime ami ashes) Cost of sowing behind plough Watering after sowing (not needed if sowing June or July) Hoeing and thinningor patching Nipping of tips ticking (1-lOth of produce) .
.
done
in
Rent
Cleaning or ginning (l" annas
per
10 Ibs
) 26
The
priceof
lint varies much. cotton One hundred Ibs. of Ib. can fetch only Rs. 25, and unless a heavy is chosen, cotton-growing does not yieldingvarietyof cotton deal than the costs a more good Hand-ginningusually pay. calculated above, but where the industryis well estabamount lished do w ork low at these actually poor women wages.
cotton
at 4
as.
a
246
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Silk cotton or simul (Bombax Malabaricum) is a tree. The fibre of this is almost worthless for textile purposes, and it is used chieflyas padding for pillows. Blankets and other articles are ing. beingnow made out of this fibre,and the demand for it is increasAkanda Mdddr fibre be or (Calotropis gigantea)pod many looked upon in the same light.But the fibre obtained from the of this plantis one of the strongestfibres known. stems The stems cut into sticks about eighteeninches long dried in the sun for are three days, battered afterwards, and then peeled off and the fibre pickedout with teeth and
two
or
inner
No
bark, and then twisted is used either for water
of the
into rope
rettingor
the
outer
bark
fingersfrom the net. cordage or fishing for helpingin the twisting for
rope.
CHAPTER ALOE
XLIX. FIBRES.
VARIOUS plants of the natural order Liliaceae and its allied order Amaryllidacese, ful yieldleaves rich in very strong and beautifibres. To the former belongYuccas and to and Sansievierias the latter Agaves, all beingpopularlycalled aloes. "
The
fibre of Yucca
needle,which gloriosaor Adam's is and fine, Sibpore, silky strong,but the plantcannot complete with Sansievierias Agaves, or Pineappleplants. The fibre is not unlike pineapple fibre but the lengthis less than two feet. average Yuccas.
"
have as a hedge at lengthis so short that this we
Sansievierias. These
fibre
produce the
celebrated
bow-stringhemp* beingsilkywhite, is superiorto Agave fibre,but the "
This
"
seldom often reach six three feet while agaves over feet. The wild Sansievieria (Sansieveria Zeylanicd)of Faridpur and other districts of B. Bengal (called CTihuncJimuJchi
length
is
famous moorva) produces as good fibre as the more foreign but the length of the fibre is very short, not more varieties, than all the feet. Of two Sansievierias, the Sansievieria in Calcutta which is to be commonly trifasciata seen gardens, best, and is on the whole, the best variety to choose. grows
or
The
feet
lengthwhich the leaves while the lengthof the
attain is generally three to four under three other kinds is generally
This does not requireso much wateringor manuring as the other varieties. The strength of the Sansievieria fibre compared other fibrescan be judged from the following to soqae : figures feet.
"
Line
fibfe (coir) fibre Hibiscus cannabinus Sansievieria zeylanica Gosaypium herbaceum Agave lurida
316
Crotolaria j"ncea
407
" "
Calotropisgigantea
made " ,, " "
of cocoa-nut
224
"
346
" "
362 "
...
"
...
...
Ibs.
290
552
,,,
ALOE
247
FIBRES.
Though coarser than Sansievieria fibre,Agave fibre beingstronger,and beingproducedby plantswhich seem to grow better on poorer soils, is likely to respond better to cultivation the All American,and imported operations. plantswere originally into India probablywithin the last four hundred years. They all and the be found over can have, however, spread country, growingin a semi- wild condition in most parts of India. One other of them has been used as or fence along railway lines a in almost every province. The classification of the agaves is botanical names and the difficult, by which they have been commonly known have been frequently changed. A very thorough of the whole subject and examination reclassification of the a Indian agaves was recentlymade by Drummond tural (see AgriculAll of of them, with the Ledger). Agave exception sisalana or Sisal-hemp, of fibre, amount yieldabout the same namely, two to three per cent. This last,however, yieldsmuch from four to five per cent, rule. This plant has or a as more, few or no spineson the sides of the leaves,and hence is much Agaves. "
-
with than most of the other kinds. The general rules to be observed in planting all Agaves are : (1) Plant about 400 suckers to the acre, eightfeet between rows and six feet between plantto plant. With a smooth edgedvariety closer planting somewhat than this is advisable. (2) Whenever leaf assumes the horizontal position a cut it out for extraction of fibre. (3) The cuttingout of leaves generallycommences from the fourth year after plantingand it goes on until the flowers which Flowers it does in fifteen or to seven plant years. bulbils often appear in the fourth or fifth year after planting, in the plants of India. from suckers removed All should be (4) the bases of plantsas soon the main as they appear as they weaken more
easy
to work
"
"
wards separate nursery to be afterinto the field. (5)Planting of suckers between transplanted
plant. They the older
may
be
planted in
a
plantsfor renewing the plantationshould
commence
be leaves begin to be cut, that the plantationmay full in five Each after four or always bearing. (6) plant leaves years should be divested only of twenty-fiveto thirty-five as
soon
as
per annum,
About
a
quantitywhich will yieldlib. to IJlb.of clean fibre*
one-third of
is all that can be annum moist soilsshould not be chosen expectedper acre. (8)Kich, good for growingAgaves,as such soils are only wasted on this crop. The growth is luxuriant, but the fibre on such soils is weak, and if there is water-logging, the plantsperish. At the same time it must be supposed that poor rocky hillysoil is not suitable. A good lightor medium land will answer well, but cultivation between the plants is essential, and great care altogether in the early days of the plantation.A full account of the whole a
ton
of fibre per
and questionof plantingSisal-hempwill be found in Mann Hunter's 'Sisal '-hemp planting in the Indian tea districts, publishedby the Indian Tea Association,Calcutta.
248
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE,
plant grown in Mauritius is tivated culThis plantis now the green or foetid aloe (Furcreagigantea). East in many parts of Ceylon and India. In German machine Africa also the Mauritius hemp and hemp-extracting have been introduced. It grows on fairly poor land. Gravelly not rich lands are and soil producesthe best fibre. Moist suitable,and that probablyaccounts for this varietyproducing such a small proportion of fibre in East Bengal and Assam, 4 and 4" per cent, obtained against where 2 to 2J per cent, were obtained in Sambalpur. In fact the plant flourishes best where leaves are the land. The does not cover ordinaryvegetation the middle, four to seven feet long,four to six inches broad at black small with armedeither and bright green in colour, the when The pulp, marginal spines or altogethersmooth. The Mauritius hemp."
fibre
The
*
Planting leaves are crushed, givesoff a strong pungent odour. of in the rainy season of bulbils should be done in the open The plant reaching maturity,a flowerjustbefore the season. stalk fifteen to twenty feet in heightgrows out from its centre. The blossoms form into bulbils that developinto young plants which are plantedin nurseries six inches apart and transplanted when one or two years old. Thus it goes on propagatingitself. The Mauritius hemp has the tendency to send up flower-stalks, at least in Lower Bengal,from the fourth year and a plantation than twelve years. of this aloe would not last for more ting All these fibres can be extracted from the leaves either by ret-
by scutchingthe leaves. Though the former adoptedby the peoplefor their own use, yet it weakens or
and there seriously
is
no
export market
whatever
for
is
usually
the fibre such retted
plest the simis by scutching, fibre. Apart from this the only method number with fitted wheel a form of the machine used beinga of metal plates beaters on the circumference,which on rotation or the pulp leavingthe fibre beat againstthe leaf and scrape away of such machines is the so-called 'Raspador' behind. The simplest From this have developed used in Yucatan, and worked by hand. machines of all sizes up to the huge automatic apparatus capable of dealing with 100,000 leaves per day, and with the produce of say six hundred acres of sisal-hempor other agave plant.
CHAPTER OTHER
FIBRE
L. CROPS.
This is a perennialbush or augusta (Ulat-kambal)." of which yielda valuable silkyfibre, The small tree, the stems and the retting as stems can be cut three times in the year and extraction of fibre can be dona as in the case of jute,it is very desirable to introduce this crop rather than rhea as a high class Abroma
OTHER
perennial fibre ripens in the ulat-kambal
is
durable
more
FIBRE
in the
It flowers
crop.
cold
rainy says
part* stronger
than
the
and
season
Roxburgh
season.
one-tenth
249
CROPS.
that
the
fibre
of
much
and
sunn
seed
in water.
Hibiscus
(kasturi),
abelmoschus
"c.
all
Nearly
"
malvaceous
esculentus Hibiscus plants yield useful fibres. The common or finger,the Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa),the Hibiscus mutabilis (Sthal-padma),and Hibiscus ficulneus (Ban-dhenras or Belunpdt),have been all used for their valuable fibre. Indeed the last named plant is preferred to jute by the cultivators of Murshidabad for their own domestic In an use. experiment conducted abelmcschus by the Agri-HorticulturalSociety of India, Hibiscus yielded the best crop of all the fibre-yielding plants experimented with and the yield came of fibre per acre, with a Death to SOOlbs. and Ellwood's machine, while a largeryield (12| maunds per acre) also obtained the of The seed was by ordinary process retting. has a commercial and value it is known to perfumery makers in Europe by the name of The when seed grains d'ambrette. smell and the is used for of amber and it musk ground gives making sachet-powder and perfumery. Of other fibre-yielding ed be mentionplants the following may Ladies'
:
"
sativa.
Ananas Musa
paradisaica (plantain stalks). (Manila hemp).
textilis
Musa
Pandanus
utilissimus
segiptiaca(Jainti).
Seshania
aculeata
Passiflora
sp.
(Dhaincha). (Jhumkalata).
vahlii.
Bauhinia
reticulata
Anona
(bullock's heart). (Berela).
rhomboidea
Sida
Saccharum
ciliare
Ischoemum
largely used The one
(Keyaphul).
Sesbania
"
for
(munj). angustifolium(the Bhabur paper-making). "
Quaxima
fibre
coming rivals long and strong
of the
fibre is
plant may
"Sida and occupy
mentioned Babui land
the
it
can
Ibira"
also
mentioned
under
Of
sea.
fibre
of
the
cannot.
grass
being
resist the action
the
near "
be
may
growing ordinary crops
grass
which
Rio-de-Janeiro
of
jute
and
in low-lands
grows
be
of
Babui
or
is
considered here.
of water.
fine linen-like
Paraguay.
shade
which
The The fibres
Pineapple, they can
of trees,
250
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER PINEAPPLE
LI.
(ANANAS SATIVA).
PINEAPPLE plants should be guarded againstexcessive heat and cold ; that is why they are often grown under shade. They do best on low, rich land that will not overflow,and near water. and shaded is suitable. In Florida they are High land if irrigable t o under i.e., plantedeighteen twenty-fourinches apart in pineries, As many mdcMns. 1 ft. apart) 2 ft. X as 20,000 plants(planted crammed
into
an
acre
in the Bahamas
islands,whence
the fruits are largelyexported to the United States. The ground chosen in these islands is more less rocky. The owners of land share or with the cultivators in the produce. The proprietors of land make advances in cash or provisions to the cultivating labourers, until the reapingof a crop, and the cultivator is precludedunder are
his share agreement from selling
other than the landlord, the pricepaid for beingIs. to Is. Qd. per dozen according to the date of production.Eighteen months to two years must elapsebetween tbe plantingand the reapingof the first crop, each plantproducingone fruit. Sometimes a plantbears in twelve to fifteen months. When ripe,the pineapplesare cut and carried on and women the heads of men the plantation nearest to the beach whence they are shippedin largeAmerican vessels. The London Market is principally suppliedby the Azores and Canary Islands. the best pineapples But It i" in Englishhot-houses. are grown mistake in shade. to that the best fruits grow a Pineapple suppose does grow in shade, but it grows better in the open especially in moist climate is the lower districts of Bengal where and the equable. In districts where the soil is dry,or rocky and harsh, it better in shade. The Mauritius varietywhich we have in grows is a superiorvariety. The Sylhet and Assam the Sibpur Farm an
pineapplesgenerally,are
to
any
also famous.
Cotton-seed-meal and tobacco-dust at planting have Manure. been found to be the best preparatory manures for pineapples. A month before fruiting bone-dust givesthe best result. and fifty dollars fibre has been sold at one hundred Pineapple market for and New York, but there is no regular per ton in London it. Ten leaves weigh about a pound and 22,000 leaves a ton. A ton of leaves yields50 to 60 Ibs. of clean fibre obtained by scraping and beating, exposingthe fibre to steeping,washing and finally The the sun. steeping, washing and exposingto the sun are "
repeateduntil
the
If the fruits
fibre is white.
the juiceof the fruit, preservedor even would nerative. by our cultivators,pineapple-growing prove highlyremuthe The following for preserving recipeis recommended the fresh of allsoft fruits of Press the out fruit,sepa: juice juice rating it completelyfrom seeds and skin. Then submit the juice to heat of 180" F. (neverhigher than 190" F. nor lower than 176" F.) be
can
"
252
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OP
food. The Negroes prepare meal is a highlynutritious and light banana-meal in a primitivefashion. They dry the fruits and Placed in jarsor sacks,away from damp, pound them in a mortar. remains for it a long time. But a quick-drying apparatus good is to be introduced into a damp should be used ifthe meal-industry The
country like Bengal.
and placedon a desiccator. When the trays in
in rounds
strippedof
skin and cut perfectlycleaned and heat-disinfected
fruits
are
dry the chipsare perfectly
ground
gal", like that of Lower Benrefuse of obtained the after make is best banana-meal out it to the extraction of jelly.The refuse pulp is pressed(say with a dried in the sun, then powdered with the dhenki or cheese-press), janta. The meal so made keeps good. The produceof meal is 151bs. of fruits 20 to 25 per cent, of the weight of fruits used. and
passed througha
will
give 31bs.
sieve.
of meal.
In
a
climate
It contains
1*4 per cent, of Nitrogen or For making meal it is preferable
per cent, of albuminoids. fruits which are not altogether ripeand which contains more starch than ripefruits. The fruits on analysis give the following -9'01
to
use
results
average
:
"
Unripe bananas.
Eipe
bananas.
Water
70-92
6778
Starch
12-06
Trace
Grape-sugar Cane-Sugar
0-08
2047
1*34
050
Fat Albuminoids Crude fibre
021
0'58
304
472
..
Tannin
Ash Others
from
matters
0-36
0-17
6-53
034
1-04
095
4-62
0-79
Mr. R. Swaminathan, analysinga Kanch-kala sent to him from Madras
followingfigurescomparing the with those
of
sample of banana-meal to Cambridge givesthe feeding value of banana-meal
wheat, rice and potato : "
Banana*meal. Water
Proteid Fat
Carbohydrates Fibre Ash
"
The
Rice.
Potato.
13-70
11-3
11-0
3'78
7-3
7'4
075 77-17
1 "
07
77-6
74-0
1-50
1-6
2-5
3'10
10
3'5
lOO'O
Varieties.
Wheat.
varieties principal
lOO'O
that
100-0
are
100-0
vated cultiordinarily
in
Bengal, or have been introduced with success, are : Martdmdn, Chdmpd, Chini-champa, Kdnthdli, Sdbri, Anupan, "
Rim-rambhd,
puri
and
Kanai-bashi, *Agnishwar, Bombay, Kabuli, Singa-
Penang.
Kdnch-kald, which
is
used ordinarily
as
a
263.
PLANTAINS.
is also eaten in the ripestate by the poorer classes. table-vegetable, and Champa are the ordinarygood varieties. Banana Martamdn jellyis best made out of the Martamdn variety. to water-logging and Clay-loamsoil not subject
situated chosen. be The land a tank, ditch,jhil, should be ploughedup and while a crop of Aus paddy is growing, the suckers should be planted8 cubits apart in the beginningof The pit should be made cubit deep and the rainy season. a The with intervals manured should be ploughed cowdung. and cross-ploughed silt from the tank, canal, or once a year, and in round the base of each clump. In manure as jhil, applied April the bunch of fruits one year the tree should be in bearing. When Soil. "
close to
or
canal,should
the portionof the inflorescence hangingon, should be lime should be smeared at the cicaand a littlechunam cut away which would trix that the nourishment have been wasted on it might go to develop the plantains.The tree should be cut down has ripened. No clump should from the base as soon a bunch as than three suckers at its base when have more the older tree fruits. All suckers should be taken out after a year, i.e., in the next May, formed
has
It is intended July and plantedelsewhere,if necessary. old for the third a second, or a fourth plantaingarden keep up
June to
or
year,
the plantingsuckers at the old spots or letting there to the should already planting grow undisturbed, the second year between the two original lines and in on
instead of
suckers be done
subsequent years
also in
new
spots,that the whole
of the
soil of
of by the plantaincrop before it is be made use the garden may for abandoned a new garden. This is not the system prevalentat where the old clumps are kept up by manuring,"but Baidyabati,
system adopted
it is the be too
not as
they
have Dacca
are
been
in Dacca.
The
suckers
planted should be all should divested of they expanded leaves needed after the suckers planted. The onlyoperation is earth of the round each, if the heapingup planted
large,and
system
is followed.
The
leaves should
not
be cut
cept away exthat down after they have borne cut are about Ks. 150, fruits. 300 to 600 bunches of plantainsyielding from annum a be acre plantationof bananas. expectedper per may than the finer kind, the kinds beingmore The coarser prolific the difference makes little to profitunder ordinary variety
from
trees
treatment.
Jcdnthdli varietyproduces the best fibre. The The leaf sheaths may be passedthrough a sugarcane mill with smooth rollers with brass comb, which will bring sides both then combed a on The blunt edge of a sickle of the cellular substance. out most used for gettingmore of the cellular subafterwards stance The bundles of fibre are then to be washed in water out. and then rinsed well and afterwards boiled with ashes or soft-soap in plainwater, wrung and exposedin thin layersto dry in shade* They are then to be exposedto dew for three successive nights^ may
be
HANDBOOK
254
OF
AGRICULTURE.
.and in day time the dryingshould proceedin the shade. A of a largecurved knife worked machine consisting by a
simple spring
in use in many block of wood is now ern parts of southIndia for cleaningthe fibre out of leaf-sheaths. Plantain fibre but should be worth at least twice as much as is not in demand handle
a
over
jute. Manila
It is very trees. kdnthdli plantain to
allied produce of a plant (Musa textilis) much to the fibre obtained from superior
is the
hemp
banana.
CHAPTEE
LIII.
(SOLANUM TUBEROSUM).
POTATO
crops of potatoes in succession in the same ; Two year ; Potatoes grown land Dhaincha the in same excellent after an ; crop preparation; year year Liming after ploughingin dhaincha ; Soils suitable for the crop ; Cultivation for growing potatoes on the garden system and the field system ; Irrigation ; Manuring ; Lifting; Use of the Hunter hoe for lifting potatoes ; Preservation
1Rotation
of seed ; Varieties ; Cost.]
is
Potato
Rotation.
"
in
usuallygrown
Bengalafter
Aus
paddy,
the potato is the or, in tracts of country where iute, "or forms the of it often the In the only crop year. principal crop, in parts of Bihar, and in the Khasi district of Baghelkand, hills,
maize,
or
from the same land in crops of potatoesare taken notion both in this country and in There is a common two
one
year.
England
the same land year after year. The texture of the soilis no doubt rendered fitterand fitterfor the potato done for this crop, but insect crop by the cultivation operations that
potatoesdo well grown
and
prove fungus-pestspredominating
svstem
after
few
a
years.
aculeata) or {Sesbania and
ploughthe
crop
on
It is best
swnn-hemp, in, in
and fresh ashes used if green 'of the crop
is not
crop
June
and
August September. This green produce of potatoes. Lime per
acre,
the
prevent insect pests. Even when
ploughedin but sold
crop residue and
a
this of dhaincha
or
together, say fifteen maunds manuring is done, to hasten
and
manure
of injuriousness
to grow between
August
manuring adds considerablyto the
the
off, the land
should
be
decomposition the dhaincha
is enriched
by
the
the root-nodules.
soil should be a sandy loam, of a fine texture, but Such soil,if it contains a good deal of a not heavy clay loam. it retentive of moisture,is best suited which makes humus matter, Shallow, sandy or stony soils and heavy claysoils, for the crop. for potatoes. Sandy soil improved by the admixture suitable not are of jhil or pond siltanswers very well. Stagnantwater is very and if in Septemberor this sowingis done early, to crop injurious SoU.
The
October, the land chosen must be highand capableof easy draining. is very The site selectedmust also be close to water, as irrigation necessary
for this crop in most
districts.
255
POTATO.
cultivation and thorough essential. Two and two ploughings improved plough followed by one grubbing
Cultivation, cardansystem. of pulverizing the soil are "
with cross-ploughings
an
Deep
five-tined grubber and one should be cross-grubbing the rainyseason is over, the three series of operaas done as soon tions of one conducted intervals week between the at being for collecting operations.Then should follow one or two harrowings be necessary to hand-pickthe sunn It may weeds. dhaincha or with
a
commencing ploughing,if either of these crops is preparationfor the potato crop. The highestmanugrown as rial value is attained by these preparatory crops, when they are in flower, and they should be cut then, and if from August to decomposed by September the stalks do not get sufficiently under and water, ploughing liming should be done submergence after hand-picking.The cost of picking, however, will be more than realized by the sale of the dry stalks afterwards for fuel stakes for the pea or pan crop. The as or harrowing should be to a followed by bakharingor laddering bring the land to a The land should then be preparedfor irrigation level seed-bed. is channels after before sowing done, as the making of irrigation sowinguprootsa number of seed tubers. The fieldis firstdivided channel for irrigation, from its head, or main to its bottom, into six feet wide, separated of longstrips a number by water-channels from the foot main channel about a at the head wide, leading The strip of land six feet wide should of the field to the bottom. divided into ridges and furrows eighteeninches from one another. then^be six these feet and inches wide, ridges long Along eighteen four inches apart early, potatoes should be plantedin double rows another say in Septemberor earlyin October,four inches from one This is a very costly method of preparing and four inches deep. the which land for potato cultivation and one be practisedby can cultivators only on a small scale with the objectof bringingthe Earlysowingis however very risky. Heavy crop earlyto market. do a great deal of damage by rain takingplaceafter sowingmay seed t he the irrigation or rotting disturbing actually arrangements the ridges.Early sowing also very often and washing down of the crop. But in localresults in insects destroying ities a portion and Sonthal Perganas, such as parts of Burdwan, Birbhum sinks into the soil or flows out freely, rain water where early sisting sowing is advantageous.Picklingof seed in a mixture conof sulphateof copper, ashes and castor-cake and the use of lime or ashes to rot the dhaincha or sunn, are great preventives againstinsects. stalks before a
For Field-system."
large scale,the board, ridgingplough should follow the bakhar or the levelling field should The be a nd the ladder. beam, or as long as possible channel. ridgesshould be at rightanglesto the main irrigation the will be made The ridges not ridgingplough absolutely by cultivating potatoes
on
a
256
HANDBOOK
but if trained straight, for the straight sufficiently
OF
AGRICULTURE.
bullocks
employed they will be and they agriculturist, apart. The sowingin this case are
of
purpose
the
should be about twenty-fourinches should be done after allfear of late rain is over, say about the 20th later. The sowingshould be done in to the 31st of October or even, the b ut this case not along ridges alongthe furrows. A man should make a straightchannel four inches to five inches deep with a
Planet Jr. hoe simplyby runningthe implement along each furrow and between two adjacent ridges.Another man of in two should put rows pickledpotatoes six inches apart both
spade or
narrow
and
the channel
he goes on, following the man who is making channel, while a third man goes on putting the covered channels Instead of spreading manure along only. the this will field all over be found a more economical the manure of the in between manure. Plantingdeep using ridgesalso way The two the cost of irrigation. saves earthingsare to follow of in two the manuring. The practice applying the manure ways,
cover
up the
the
time
as
of the
two does not seem to be earthings, soluble such as are highly manures, saltpetre used. Castor-cake,bone-meal and cowdung, which are ordinarily for use, are not recommended highly soluble, and applying dose after planting the seed, is advisable. them in one In fact, be should of at an early period applied cowdung tion preparabone-meal should be first converted of soil, and into of the addition a cid before sulphuric superphosphateby ing applyBone-meal it to the trenches after plantingseed. being
doses,
at
unless justified,
a on
by
comparativelyinsoluble short-lived crop high manuring and a
for
use
does
manure
like the one
potato.
of the
have Potatoes not
much effect benefited are is
followingmanures
mended recom-
:
"
Maunds acre.
per
Ka.
(1) Bone-superphosphate with castor-cake (powdered)...
6 )
...
(2) Gotten
cowdung
400
......
with ashes or lime and Castor-cake (3) Eotten cowdung with bone-superphosphate ...
...
...
18 )
...
...
"4) Castor-cake
......
15 \ 600 ) 6 ) "
appliedimmediately j after planting.
|*V$*""
15 )
...
Ks.
appliedafter planting. appliedbefore planting.
I
15 1"
'
night the plants all come within a fortout Whether Irrigation." or not, first watering should take place within ten days to after plantingunless a good shower of rain makes fortnight The tardy sproutswill come this wateringsuperfluous. up after under in-doors a are the watering. If seed-potatoes heap of kept moist straw or over damp sand for a week or ten days before planting, will be quickerand more after the sprouting even planting.
a
POTATO.
257
the field or runningthe water alongthe chanInstead of flooding nels in which the seed-potatoes are imbedded, it is best to run the of potatoes,or to distriwater along channels between the rows bute the water from the channel by means of an irrigation spoon
thali. This prevents cakingof the soil. But if the water is channels in the which the run along ing potatoes are imbedded, hoeshould be done within a week after the irrigation to allow the sprouts to come up without resistance. The firstearthing up with the ridgeswith a double mould-board kodalis or by splitting plough the plants are six to nine inches should take place when high. Then should follow two wateringsat the interval of a fortnight and then the second earthing.If the soil looks dry, irrigation should take place before and after the two earthings at shorter or
intervals,say, But
potatoes
days. Three
ten
six
are irrigations and of the locality in some northern and eastern districts of Bengal, be grown without which is a irrigation, great
according
necessary, season.
in
once
can
to
the
to
of the
nature
advantage. Lifting,-Potatoes haulms
and
have
are
Another
quite dry.
not
withered way
ready for liftinguntil completely and the land
of
lifting potatoes
is
of largesized tubers instalments, the first lifting
the has
leaves
become
doing beingdone
it in two
plants are still green by carefully diggingunder each with the KJmrpi and puttingthe earth back, that growth may This is a costlier operation,but it where pays potatoes sell at a high price. Potatoes require about the
months
mature
to
from
the
time
of
sowing,and
when
plant tinue. con-
early three
February and
the
ordinary months for harvesting, though by sowing in be done September or October lifting in December early can and January. Liftingis best done with the Hunter hoe unless March
a
are
plough or potato-digging
a
is potato-digger
slightlylargerproportionof tubers gets cut when than when is iftsed 100 maunds spades are used. fair is a outturn, though as much as peilacre are
acre
sometimes
used.
Perhaps a
the Hunter to
300
150
hoe
maunds
maunds
per
obtained.
Preservation of seeds
It is difficult to the seed of preserve sized hill potatoes in the plains, large and one of the chief obstacles to the spread of the cultivation of the Naini Tal potatoes has been the high pricethat has to be for the "
superiorand
the
paid
seed at the time of Tal
Naini
own
inferior
the
dark
If each
potato-seedthere
Deshi
but
sowing.
varieties.
The
would
ed import-
cultivator could store his be no occasion to grow
followingplan
may
be
well
tried.
ventilated room erect shelves on which sand is to be spreadand the potatoes spread one deep on the shelves, covered by the sand. Ten or twelve shelves may be arranged above another one on All rotten potatoes must a machan. be weeded out and the seed-godown examined constantlyfor this purpose. Small sized potatoes keep better than large ones. In
a
M,
HA
17
Only the high and
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
258
dry districts of Bengal
suitable
are
for
of seed. preservation
Steepingof potatoesin a dilute solution of sulphuricacid (2%) for 10 hours and then wipingthem dry and storingon sand for food; for preserving potatoes meant has been recommended but this experimenthas failed both at Sibpurand at Berhampore, for this climate. New is probablyinapplicable and the method established in of are tries countemperate and vigorousraces potatoes from seed. Seed-tubers from the plants by propagating better climate from a give temperate hill-stationsor crops than As it is difficult to those grown from tubers raised in the plains. in varieties the plainsuntil these of seed superior preserve the the next sowing season, and as the exchange of seed with a hill country attempt The
to preserve seed may
is the
of seed
cost
potatoes. high-class Bengal, seed costs Rs.
of
do
potatoes
poor
been attended
or
the beneficial,
with
good
results.
extensive cultivation sowing is done in Lower of maund, and an acre
October, when
5
found
obstacle to
Rs. 6 a in seed alone.
As very
small
largeweight of
give good result,a
not
sized seed is
seed-potatoes (except succeeded in only partially
far all attempts to preserve
required.So of the Lower
great
In
be
not
Rs. 75
potatoes costs about
has
climate
temperate
a
or
varieties)has
country
Bengal. variety of
JPatna
Varieties. The "
with
potatoes
red
skin,
though wantingin flavour,givesa better yieldthan the Nairn Tal variety,and the seed of this varietycan be preservedin the plains of the like the seed of the Deshi variety,and the popularising Madras A is also be an Patna potatoeswould improvement. variety very
it does not
but prolific, Cost
Two
The
"
per
expense
ploughingsand
2
well
keepso acre
may
as
the Patna
or
be calculated thus
with cross-ploughings
improved
Rs.
plough Two grubbings Pickingdhaincka tnaunds Spreadingdo.
Twenty
Laddering
or
stalks of lime
or
2 harrow
ings
bakharing
Ridging with
double
mould-board
plough
Seed 10 maunds Picklingseed Planting seed
Castor-cake (30 maunds)
Spreading Two
earthings
irrigations Harvesting
Four Rent
Outturn Net
150
Total Rs, maunds at Rs.
profitabout
the Deshi.
Rs
50.
...
...
170 225
:
"
260
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
takes place the seed-bed of rain should be heavy shower If of water. drained insect standing carefully pests appear, ashes and lime should be dusted on the plants. field where
Transplanting.The "
December an
or
January.
improved
afterwards
transplanted
early in the season, very This 'should be done with kodali The
plough and a
once
are seedlings
prepared
also
be
should
the
in i.e., or
with
grubbershould
be passed grubber. until planting.By the middle of May levelled and got ready for planting.Drains
month
the land should be channels all round the field and a fewr water made are running of in the garden cultivation potatoes. Then throughthe field,as inches apart and the beyun julisor furrows are made thirty-six of the the after a heavy shower middle plantedalong julis seedlings is done earlyin the planting be done the seedling transplanting may If
of rain.
season, on
in Aprilor May, i.e.,
the level
plot thirty-six
inches apart instead of in furrows and the water channels are made and ashes and lime should be applied Mustard-cake afterwards.
finelypowdered under each plant at the time of transplanting. at the Cowdung and castor-cake encourage the growth of vegetation and and six maimds of of mustard-cake fruiting flowering expense and three maunds for application
one
of ashes
and
acre.
In
one
maund
of lime
are
a
sufficient
fortnightor ten days the kodali the rows of plants,thus levelling the a
should be passedbetween this time. After at field. Blanks noticed should be filled up the kodali should be passed once another fortnight between more into ridges. Irrigation of plantsconvertingthe furrows the rows not be necessary accordingto the character of the rnay or may time of is done after a heavy and the season planting. If planting shower
of
will rain,in June, irrigation
be
generally necessary will be April May, irrigation the crop from at least once to save drought. From necessary The fruits will begin November month. to March once a irrigate to bear in August. From August to October one more earthing when the land is somewhat is required dry. till November,
but
if it is clone in
not or
Kuli
in September and October begun seed is sown ; the and in October and a re November, seedlings transplanted they bear from From May to August the ordinary Februaryto June. bear fruits if trees that show to plantsmay be made brinjal with .signsof decay by February or March are pruned,manured
mustard-cake thrown
and
watered. Fresh ashes and shootg will be inferior qualitywill be borne. out, and fruits of a somewhat
the commonest are Dhashalaga and Tulshimara fungoid diseases of brinjal which the cultivators attribute to not cutting the tap-root at the time of transplanting and also to the roots cut the at time of These fictitious causes. are getting earthing. has somethingto do, no doubt, with the vigourof Root-cutting and plants cuttingof the roots when there is water-logging may
261
FATAL.
cause indirectly spores of fungito settle in the tissues of the plants* but the exciting of the diseases is the presence of the spores cause in the seed of a bacillus (Bacillus solanacearum). Water-logging
of the bacillus. Every plant affected with a disease be must fungoid uprootedand burnt. The s^ed used should alwavs avoided for be pickled,and the same locality from this to growing year crop year.
helps the spread
The
cost
per
might
acre
be estimated
as
below
: "
Rs.
January
A.
r.
with laddering Ploughing and cross-ploughing,
"
with harrowing February" drubbing and cross-grubbing, June-" Making irrigationchannels
Making furrows 3 ft. apart 3 ft apart Transplantingseedlings ^oat
of
manure
Manuring
seedlings
First
earthing July" Second earthing One August hand-weeding "
"
October December
"
Hoeing
to February hoeing Gathering fruits "
Three
-rigationsfollowed
by
Rent 74
The to about
outturn
of 150
Rs. 90, and
of brinjals maunds at a the net profit to only about
CHAPTER Fatal NEXT
pice a
seer
Rs.
15 per
1
0 comes
acre.
LV.
(TRICHOSANTHES DIOICA). and
brinjals,this is the favourite in use in Bengal. The leaves and tender shoots table-vegetable of the creeper (called eaten are valescents. cooked, specially Paltd) by conSandy loam is best suited for this crop as for most to
potatoes
cucurbitaceous vegetables.It grows well on river sides,even on of commbn the sides of rivers containing an excess salt,provided the soil is not heavy. The male and female vines are distinct, and as patalcultivators usually propagationtakes placefrom cuttings, cheat others desiring to cultivate this crop, by supplying them from male plantsonly. About five per cent, of male cuttings are quite sufficient for the purpose of fertilization. plants Four or five ploughings and harro wings at the end of the rainy, followed lines six feet apart, by making of holes in parallel season, and plantingof adventitious roots and joints cut up into lengths
with
three inches each, two in each hole, are the first operations and watered required.The holes are covered with straw other day to hasten every sprouting,except when there are of about
262
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Fatal being a dioecious plant, the cuttings seasonable showers. should be mainly chosen from female vines,though the presence When the plants have of a few male vines is also necessary. about all come i.e., one November, hoeing is giving,and up, is highlyinjurious to then raised beds are made, as water-logging of the and the creepers. Each bed should have one row plants, bed is made slopingtowards the channels. The earth dug up in
making the channels is utilised in raisingthe beds. If the field is channels are made across two water the field also, or one very long, channels other at the One rightangles. intersecting irrigation in March. done in February hastens the fruiting Fruitinggoes after which a light from March to September, followed on ploughing, in February by weeding in October, and one or two irrigations for second will the and March, a Usuallyno mankeep crop year. nringis or on
done
bonedust
silt being depended upon. for patal, Ashes and would be of benefit if the crop is kept on a second
lime year
high land. Cost" Us.
plougliings Planting,includingmaking of Spading or earthing(15 men) Watering
4
...
2
weedtngs (12
Cost
of
men
cuttingsor
each
A
.
p.
.300
..
beds
600 300
time)
roots
4
8
O
3
0
0
400
Kent
300 Total
26
...
Outturn.
"
100 maunds
and
at
4
at
1
annas
picea a
CHAPTEE CHILLIES
seer
seer,
Es.
comes
8
to about
Es.
60
1,000.'
LVL
(CAPSICUM FRUTESCENS).
LIKE
chillies are much brinjals, subjectto fungoid very diseases,but they are not so subjectto the attack of insects.
Dalbhanga rog and Kutelaga are
the commonest fungoid diseases. these overtake a crop it is not feasible to stop them. When In chilliecultivation be has to for two years successively fact, givenup affected with either of these diseases before it can in a locality mixture and invigorating "be taken again. The Bordeaux up have been used in vain. Besides the ordinaryCapsicum manures of Bengal may be mentioned the Capsicum, frutescens annuum or and the Capsicumminimum lanka which are or Dhani Nepal chillies,
highlyprizedfor their greater pungency. Cayenne made out of is Some coloured annuum. Capsicum bright pepper varieties of Capsicum annuum have, however, no pungency at all, and these are preferred for the feedingof birds as theyare supposed the colour of to heighten their feathersi varieties
more
263
CHILLIES.
Soil."
Sandy
loam
and
newly-formed
alluvium
the banks
on
of rivers do well for this crop, but dry rocky soils containingplenty of lime produce the best if they are loamy. sufficiently crops
The
finest crops
Chaibasa,
Patna
otation
chillies
and
and
brinjals.The shade
seed
in the
as
is of
case
of the
one
after
grown
pulsesor
seed oil-
lowed It is fol-
potatoes.
,
land
-
Bogra, Backergunge,
Gujarat.
it is sometimes
Cultivation The
in
grown
generallyfollows
paddy.
aus
are
in parts of
This crop
"
crops,
by
of
is to be in
sown
preparedexactlyas
May
June in
or
brinjals.When
six
or
a
in the
of
case
situated in inches highin the
nursery
seven
of rain seed-bed, the seedlings after a good shower are transplanted 27 x 18 inches apart. The time of transplanting is July and August. When the plants have beds in raised established themselves well protected from stagnant water, their roots should be partially
exposed A
lightand
to
month
air
is put at the at the same time.
earth
the
by removing
after this,mustard-cake
at
their
bottom.
of six maunds
the rate the
per
plant earthed
acre
bottom
hand-weedingsand
kept clean of weeds, two One or two wheel-hoeings being recommended. and be required after November a hoeing The
irrigations may
two
after each
of each
field should
to
"
February
ripechillies, though chillies are
and
up
be
irrigation.
Harvesting. December for
plant and
from
November
and sent fresh four times, five men
is the
also
proper
harvest
season
October be should
in
plucked green
Plucking being requiredper acre each time. The ripe chillies are spread out in the sun for about a fortnight. Night dew does them no harm and they may be left out day and be brought but if rain is feared they must night for a fortnight, done
about
market.
to
in doors. Yield
from
The
"
Rs.
4
yield per Rs.
to
Unless
7.
it adapted for chillies, cost
may
acre
per
The
cost
may
tract
is known
to
maund
Rs. be
25
to
Rs.
estimated
the
100.
below
as
:
"
of beds
Irrigation
Hocking with shades Plucking and drying 1
after irr gation
Rent
Total
R".
...
42
selling
particularly profit.The
be
is
Ploughing and making Transplanting 2 Earthings 2 Hand-hoeings 2 Wheel-hoeings 1
a
each
risky growing this crop for uniformly to about Rs. 50, while
comes
from
vary
mds.,
is 6 to 15
acre
0
outturn
264
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER ENGLISH [Origin ; Soaking of
LVII. VEGETABLES.
in water and delicate seed in camphor water tion ; PreparaTreatment of seed-bed ; Watering ; Transplanting ; Which vegetables need not be transplanted ; Distances apart ; Quantity of seed of seedlings after transplanting ; Previous required; Protection preparation of land thorough and protracted ; Soils suitable for different for vegetables ; Suitable manures manure vegetables ; ; Special mixed with hoeing or channel irrigation seed to be obtained ; Irrigation, ; ^hence how also in regular tested ; Sowing seed-bed in Germinating power, lines ; Growing of English vegetaJDles hot in in the trenches ; weather Site for market-gardening.]
of seed-bed
NEXT
seed ;
the English vegepotatoes, palvals,and brinjals, tables, viz.,cabbages,cauliflowers,tomatoes, knol-kohl, turnips and beet,have come to be regardedas the important cold weather table-
to
in Bengal towns. vegetables,specially
Origin. What "
are
known
in India
as
English vegetablesdid
of home from originallycome England. The original and s ea-kale cabbage,carrot, celery,parsnip,salsify, turnipis Persia from believed to be England. But beans came originally all
not
and
and peas beet, broccoli,cauliflower, lettuce,parsley, from Southern Europe or Asia ; Brussels sprouts originally
India
came as
the
;
originallycame implies,
name
from
Belgium
;
kohl-rabi
from
Germany ; leek from Switzerland ; endive from the East Indian Islands ; Jerusalem artichoke from Brazil ; potatoes from Africa ; from Peru ; tomatoes from America South ; onions Northern radish and rhubarb from from and China, spinach Asia, Climate.
"
should
Taking into consideration infer that
the
land
of
their
this
origin celery,
for climate cabbage, carrot, sea-kale,turnip,Brussels sprouts,kohl-rabi,leek, parsnip,salsify, and spinach are not suitable. But experience shows that nearly all the vegetables mentioned above can be 'successfully even grown in the climate of Lower Bengalspecially in the cold weather, though we
which are it is necessary to import the seeds of those varieties, natives of the temperate climate, from such climate. Cabbage Poona and and cauliflower seeds from onion seed from Patna, and from also Verawal, and carrot seed from any part of Bihar Verawal
(JunagadhState)give good results.
noted followingpointsmay be particularly in connection with the growing of Englishvegetables :" in cool water be soaked (1) Any seed with a tough coat should (at a temperature of about 60" F.) before sowing. The seed should stilldamp, and it should be covered with fine leafbe sown when to the size and strength mould one to three inches deep according "
Cultivation. The "
*
three of the seed. Pea and bean seeds,for instance,should be sown of less than a quarter inches deep,while only a very lightcovering lettuce or should be put on celery or inch of loam or mould
ENGLISH
265
VEGETABLES.
Delicate seed should be soaked in camphor water, the bottles in which they are kept soaked stopperedup for an hour, and the seed sown immediately afterwards. The percentage of is germination higherfrom seed thus treated. in a raised and well pulverised seedbed (2) The seed is to be sown with well-rotted manure and leaf-mould, the soil manured of friable sandy loam, clean and without gritor stones. consisting
Cabbage seed.
There should be a be done in boxes
cover
of mats
the seed-bed,or Seed should be
on
sowing should
towards in a verandah. sown After seed the the the close of the rainy reason. on scattering of leaf-mould should be put on it and on seed-bed a lightcover the that ashes are to be sprinkled.Ashes should be sprinkled on as they appear. seedlingsalso,as soon After germination,the coveringmats are to be taken off (3) every evening if no rainfail is apprehended at night,and the cover Some sunlightis needed for seedlings, put on again at 8 or 9 A.M. else they grow or up into sicklyplants. is the seedlings Water to be gently sprinkledon sion occaas (4) soil looks in if three the two days once or dry. say, requires, six four leaves the there are to on seedlingsthey (5) When are ready for transplanting. beet, mangel, tomatoes, salsify, (6) Carrots,turnips, spinach, but onions, peas and beans, are not transplantedfrom seed-beds, where Where to grow. meant sown they are plants grow too "
thicklythey seed-beds
(7) with
thinned
are
and
Before
afterwards
out.
Beet
and
tomatoes
may
be
sown
in
transplanted.
transplantingthe
seed-bed
is to
be
well
soaked
water.
take place in straightlines and at should (8) Transplanting channels be made such distances apart that water easily. may be In dull should a or chosen, (9) showery day transplanting, if possible, else the plantsthoroughlywatered, or transplanting or
and the soil round them available. The plants are mulching materials are in the seedbed, to be set a little deeper in the soil than,they were firm with the and the soil round the roots should be made the of necks hand the without, however, bruising plants. The be pulled always plantsshould never up from the seed-beds,but lifted up with a littlesoil adheringto the rootlets. Watering the after mulched if
done
a
heavy shower
of
rain
.seed-beds before lifting, helps this. Watering the be s hould three times a week done two or seedlings
transplanted earlyin the
late in the afternoon,until they are well established. mulching is done, savingin wateringand hoeingwill be effected. the spacing should be regulatedby (10) In transplanting, considerations that two two 1st, adjacent plants when fully not touch each other, and 2ndly,that there may grown up may
morning or If
"
be sufficientspace
of plants. channels between two rows for water When The plantsmay be thus set closer in lines than in rows. is in in the done the open as of radish,turnips, case carrots. sowing
266
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
onions,etc.,the plantsshould be thinned out, the strongestplants beingleft,wherever possible, proper regardbeinghad to regularity of the
lines and
the
of distance among
the plants. into deep and wide trenches,Englishvege(11) Transplanted tables be grown in the plains,up to June. can The irrigation evenness
should be done in the trenches,the plantsbeingset on two ridges at the bottom of the trench. The trenches should be made 2 or 2J feet deep and about the same in width at the bottom, where two of middle.
rows
plants should
be
plantedwith
a
channel
water
in the
(12) Dwarf beans, both broad and kidney,should be sown two feet apart and five inches in the lines from plantto plant. Tall beans should be sown 3 ft. x 5 inches apart ; peas 4 ft. x 2 inches ; and beet 18 inches x 9 inches apart. Broccoli and be should cabbages planted 2 ft. X 2| ft. apart ; Brussels sprouts (which are suited to poor soils and do well even without manuring) 2 feet
1| feet apart ;
10 inches x
6 inches apart ; celery before planted nursery-beds apart they are transfor the second time into trenches which should be 1 foot deep and 1" ft. wide, the trenches 4 ft. being apart. Endive salad should be planted 1 ft. x 1| feet apart; onion 15 inches 9 inches apart ; garlic X 1 foot 6 inches apart ; parsley1 foot x 1 foot apart ; kohl-rabi 18 inches x 15 inches apart parsnips 15 ; inches x 12 inches apart ; and turnips1 foot X 6 inches apart.
and
x
carrots
leek 6 inches
in
(13) Quantityof
seed
Brussels sprouts,
requiredper
acre
"
and parsley broccoli,
Cabbages Onion (sets) ...
Onions
and carrots
Kadish Leek and
(seeds)
...
celery
2
ounces.
4
ounces.
1
maund.
8
ounces.
8
ounces.
I
ounce.
Endive
1"
ounce.
Lettuce
3
ounces.
Turnips and parsnips
6
ounces.
Beet
2i
seers.
Peas
and
Country Jerusalem
beans
artichoke
maund.
1 ""15
peas
(bulbs)
seeis
to
4"
mds.
(iffor fodder), maunds.
5
(14) Castor leaf,arum leaf,bur leaf,plantain leaf or leaf sheath, or some such article must be used in the day-time for protecting the
seedling againstthe
sun
for
a
week
after
ing. transplant-
(15) Thorough previous preparationof land where the seedlings are is avoid transplanted necessary to insect pests. Also of the followingthings"mustard may be used of some cake, ashes,lime, salt,white arsenic, asafcetida and an aloes, as insecticidal mixture at the the mixture can be mixed is
planted.
A handful tinje of transplanting. up
with
the soil where
each
of
seedling
268
HANDBOOK
seeds
of soil
the
levelled
AGRICULTURE.
onion, carrots,radishes and turnipsin thoroughlytilled,pulverised,cleaned
open from
ground, have
and weeds These seeds should be sown in drills bullock-hoe may be used between the drills.
previousto sowing.
feet apart, so that
two
OP
a
(a) FIG, 65.
JERUSALEM
~
(a) BULBS
(23)
Near
:
(l")
AKTICHOKE.
(b) STEM
WITH
LEAVES.
ket-gardening) (calledalso marvegetable-gardening of the growing potatoes, brinjals, say,
largetowns that is to
palval,cabbages,cauliflower,turnips,beet, knol-kohl, carrots, artichoke, palam say, denc/osag artichoke, Jerusalem asparagus, (inthe rainyseason),chewing sugarcane and Englishpeas and beans, is necessary. Ample provisionfor manuring and irrigation pays well. Dairying and goat-farmingought also to prove highly remunerative
if carried
on
within
short
a
and dairyingmay Vegetable-gardening
vegetablesthat
farmingmay for
are
readilysold
not
also go well with
as
or
gdjrdis not
such
European carrot,and
country, the Red
ExperimentalFarm is a heavier carrot
combined,
any Goat-
ments arrange-
.
LVIII. AND
SWEET
POTATOES.
and a
has
fodder is the
of all the carrots to be the best.
but yielder,
a
carrot.
specialvalue Up-country
palatablefood as with in this experimented
nourishingand
Mediterraneanvariety grown seems
as
givento cattle.
Englishroot-crop which
nourishingfamine-food
a
carrot
the
The
be
towns.
be made.
can
CHAPTER
CARROT."
well be
from
if proper vegetable-farming
hurdlingthe goats in
CARROT, RADISH
can
distance
it is
more
The
at
Yellow
suited
as
the Cawnpore Mediterranean cattle food. a
RADISH
CARROT,
AND
SWEET
269
POTATOES.
yieldof the White Mediterranean carrot is almost equal to, or even higherthan that of country carrot, but the roots are hard, the country varietygives and insipid.Without manure coarse of than the European varieties. much a larger yield any not be directly manured. Carrots should if possible, The previous should be but the itself grown carrot manured, highly crop The
without
There should be
manure.
plentyof
lime in the soil where
is grown.
carrot
The proper time for sowingcarrot seed in the plainsis between the 15th September to 15th October, and if famine or scarcityis still earlier is in done the United Provinces. It feared, sowing made in drills is best to sow along the natural inclination of the drills after the
land, and ridgethe to thin
out
the
should
be
used
plants. before
plantshave appeared and then
hundred
Two
sowing,
maunds
better
or
of well
still before
dung sowing the
rotten
is the previousaus paddy crop. Eight to twelve ounces per acre which be used. of should seed The to 200 comes yield quantity if loose soil near site is chosen a village to 500 maunds good per acre,
or
well pulverised,weeded if the soil is deeply cultivated, two and five six three times times. The seed should irrigated or
be
mixed
and
wood-ashes
with
up
the soil is quitemoist drills
immediately after
the time
at
at the
time, water
of
sowing and
should
be
unless
poured
in the
sowing.
analysisof carrots givean following value of this vegetable : The
idea of the
ing highfeed-
"
Medtn.
White
Water
...
Crude
84'57
84-43
35
-48
)
-17
30
f
8'98
7'98
2'37
3'70 )
2'19
1^0
...
...
.
fibre
...
fibre
Woody
..
mineral
Soluble
1'09
matters
Insoluble mineral
*28
matters
TOTAL
Nitiogen
So
important is
...
the
Medtn.
carrots.
...
Soluble albuminoids do. Insoluble starch and Sugar
Eed
carrots.
carrot
English, carrots.
87'30 "bb
8'10 6'Z()
\
'99 I *32
\
^
100
100
100
'175
-230
-200
regarded in the United
Provinces
received were applications stay duringfamine, that numerous famine Collectors the District of 1896-97 for carrot by during seed, exhausted. when the local supply was Telegraphicorder was Carter " Co. for seed, and they sent to Messrs. sent off at once of seed. 100 tons It was not before December out over and that the seed in the was hands of however, cultivators, January, and the importedcarrot either failed to germinateor producedonly as
a
meagre
very
Radish-
it is
a
"
crops. This also
cold weather
belongsto
crop, the sag
the can
cabbage familyand although be grown nearlyall the year
270
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE,
OF
in the therefore grown for prisoners.In the hills the radish Bengal Jails as vegetables round. The the all be grown can year large and small pale pink radish is liked by Indians, while the small red and round
round.
It
the China
and
cabbage
are
radish is grown to a small extent for European consumers. localitiesin Midnapur,Birbhum, etc.,where are special but
the seeds
these
of
tried
in
There very huge the Sibptir
radishes are grown, sold in the ordinary small sized radishes that we Farm gave see soils certain There bazaar. rich in mineral are the Calcutta light therefore speciallysuitable for the crop. that are matters
sowingtime is June to December, though the September,and the crop takes only two months
The is
The
best
time
maturing,
seed
be in should sown which a great advantage. out lines nine inches apart and seedlingsshould be thinned so inches in the lines. three and have them to as Thorough apart in twelve and ten once cultivation or watering days are deep is for demand this there no essential. As very great crop, except is
in
largetowns, and
as
it is
carrot, any extension in the recommended, but as a fast by cultivators for domestic use
such
not '
nourishing
the crop as of this crop cannot be vegetable,it can be grown a
cultivation
growing on
homestead
lands.
also a Sweet-potatoes. Sweet potatoes, Batatus edulis, are the and in of famine common principalstay root-crop country, This crop is propagated from stem cuttings of the vine which times. are plantedon ridgesin August or on the flat in October in moist lines being made localities six inches apart, the ridgesor one "
further cultivation is necessary and the crop foot apart. No liftedin January or Februaryis 100 to 300 maunds Sank per acre. dlu is also called sweet-potato. It is a leguminouscrop, the seed in June or Jiily.The creepers are relished by of which is sown and not cooked as Batatus edulis cattle. The roots are eaten raw The roots are lifted in February. roots are.
CHAPTER
TUKMERIC THERE
are
LIX. AND
certain crops that grow
GlNGER. well in the shade.
Of these
tUrineric,ginger,arrowroot, pine-apple, pipul,groundnut,rhea, rhomboidea and babui grass may be mentioned As it is desirable to have trees at the outskirts of farm uncultivated and harbour would otherwise remain such land could be utilized with great advantageby
Sida
and
prominently. land, which
insect-pests, meric growingtur-
ginger. Trees (such as
jack, lichies, etc.) mangoes, if the land underneath is kept cultivated. themselves benefited, of the principal This is one preventive methods that should be
are
employed
in
Stiff clay soils combating orchard-pests.
are
not
271
GINGER.
AND
TUKMBRIC
soil which is not too stony, these growing grittyor crops. The cultivation down virgin soil under trees for both the crops is similar. In putting it is desirableto ploughup for the first time under turmeric or ginger,
suitable for any
root-crops,but
any
will do for gravelly
after the rainyseason is the land in October or November, i.e., land is still in fit for when the state and a over ploughing.One with an improved plough,or a ploughingand cross-ploughing followed by ladderingshould be a thorough spade-cultivation, for these crops. In April, sufficient coldweather preparation i.e.,
after the
first shower
of
rain
in
the
hot
weather, another
and will render laddering, ploughingfollowed by cross-ploughing the bulbs of ginger or turmeric. These the land fit for planting should be planted nine inches apart in the line,and the lines maunds two should be 25 or 30 inches apart. About of turmeric bulbs are When or requiredfor plantingan acre. ginger-seed the
plants have
come
up
and
before
the
approach
of the
earthingshould be done along exclude the land, to from water the of the plants. Water should be let out surroundings there is any field whenever accumulation, or such
regularrainy seasoa.
ridgingor
the natural inclination of
immediate the from land should
be
chosen,
whence
ever readily.Manuringis scarcely
three maunds
water
done
flows for
out
naturallyand
ginger turmeric,but or
a
of oil-cake per
would benefit rnaund of ashes and acre If manuring both these and the trees under which they are grown. the trees themselves are inunder trees is neglected, of crops grown jured under them. in the long run The by growingcrops manuring after plantingand before earthing.Two should be done soon
hand-weedingsor hoeingsare necessary, one in July and the other in September. The root should be lifted up after the leaves have and January. The small completelywithered, i.e.,in December outgrowthsof the roots should be set apart for seed. These before beingplantedin Aprilor May should be kept under a heap of damp straw to hasten sprouting.The rest of the turmeric roots should be cut into two, if too fat,dried and then boiled in water mixed As soon the water to as with the boiler boil, begins cowdung. up and the turmeric taken out afterfrom the fire, is to be taken down wards The heap should be stirred and and spreadout in the sun. turned two or three times a day,and when the smaller sections have become quitedry,they should be separated the fatter out, leaving two. another or sections to dry for day Daily,in the evening, the turmeric exposedto the sun should be rubbed,the rubbingmaking smooth. the roots clean and and dried)comes The outturn of turmeric (boiled to about 16 fresh about 50 maunds, but as much maunds per acre, and of ginger have been sometimes 150 maunds respectively per acre The gingercan be sold off in the undried state at about fetch as Rs, 4 per maund, while dry turmeric much as may The cost of cultivation comes Bs. 5 per maund. to about Rs. 50 per acre, in either case. 50 and obtained. as
272
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER-
LX.
(SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM).
SUGARCANE
plants ; Superior foreign varieties [Sugar-yielding
of sugarcane
;
Superior indigenous
varieties ; Yield of gar ; Acreage ; State of the Indian sugar industry of phosphates; Seedling-canes of success Conditions ; Use ; Preservation of cuttings; Topping ; Pitting; Planting ; Picklingof cuttings ; Rotation ;, Manuring ; Irrigation; Other operations ; Harvesting; Cost of cultivation and method of ; Pests ; Crushing mills ; Mr. Hadi's yur -making ; Chewing canes "
sugar-making.]
and
yur
THE
is
plant
sugarcane
indigenousto India,and
of siigar than any higherproportion it,and the date-palm after beet.
be
regardedas
fourth in
other The
it yieldsa
plant,beet coming next to maple-treeof America may
importance.
Though indigenousto India, the best varieties Foreigncanes. found in those countries where of sugarcane are now generally have been employed in its cultivation. planters European and American "
Even
the Chinese
Chinensis,is
rum
said to be
ordinaryvarietyof Indian and
better
a
by Dr. Roxburgh, Sacchctyielderand hardier than the
The
canes.
the Straits Settlements the Striped considered the best canes, though are the Otaheite is preferred For to all others.
In cane-sugar. and Yellow Mauritius
of proportion
Bourbon
chewing
weightand
purpose lengththe
may Demerara.
and
varietyexcels
Tanna
be mentioned
canes seedling
The
White
standard
cane
White cane Transparent; but a seedling this and all other good varieties of canes as
Bourbon,
the
White
best varieties of Mauritius
Big Tanna, Port Mackay, Lousier,Jscambine, Bamboo, Rouge. The best Queensland cane is the Rappoe or Rose the largest which is a very hardy variety, though yielding
Bois
Bamboo,
for
called
the
are
canes
cane,
the
Jamaica,
Transparentyieldsabout
cane-sugar
per
and
the
others.
Of
good
bon BourBamboo, Singapore, of the Barbadoes
is the
latelyestablished
excels
grown
in
Barbadoes,
the Queensland Creole.
5,400 Ibs. of
gur
and
such
The
4,500 Ibs. of
low-lyingblack soils. The Bourbon cane, red results Ibs. on soils, 1,000 high only good gives in
acre
which yields very black of gur and 840 Ibs. of cane-sugar per acre grown on low-lying which has been lately established in soils. Some seedlingcanes low suit both high and the West Indies soils,the average yield of The tained thousand six acre. pounds exceeding gur per average obsoils is stillhigher. A red Jamaica cane black on low-lying introduced in Bihar, and it promisesbetter has been successfully than the
Samsara. indigenous
Indigenousvarieties. The
the indigenousvarietiesdo not necessarily cate indithey sugarcane are very numerous, distinction. Their habits must be closely studied before they into classified distinct Here and there canes be can equal gfoups. of world the be to the and to the best found in many are parts seen, is from them also the best equalto yieldof raw sugar yieldobtained "
of
of
names
but
273
SUGARCANE.
for goingout of India for anywhere, so that there is no necessity good seed. There is,in fact,risk of importingdiseases with seed from Java, Mauritius or Wes* Indies. The following varieties canes Farm been at the have Samsara, Bombay, Sibpur grown Poona, Dhalasundar,Mongo, Khari, Chittagong-Patnai, Saharanpur, Malohi, Puri, Bagdia, and Baghi. Of .these, Chittagong-Patnai, "
and Khari sugarcanes have been found to be the and the last a very The first two are good chewingvarieties,
Samsara, Bombay best.
good varietyfor plantersto grow as it is thick-skinned,and not so and insects, and it is a free ratooner. subjectto the attack of jackals and as it is not safe to After four years the yieldfallsoff rapidly, land for more than three or growing on the same sugarcane the should be not carried four years, on beyond the fourth ratooning which insect and after the crop fungus predominating, pests year,
keep
becomes
a
is very
much
of infection
to the
gong-Patnai neighbourhood.The Chittavariety,though producingfatter and longer canes, more subjectto the rind fungusthan the Samsara or
source
other Bengal varieties. The Bombay canes, which were probably softer and richer in juice. The derived from Otaheite, are gur the from it is darker in colour than gur from Samsara canes, and of largersize. On the whole, therefore, it is best to grow crystals of if the attention and Dhalasundar the Samsara or care Dacca,
superiorvarietycan be bestowed, or else to low-lyingbil lands,which remain under for a month water or a varietyof canes more,
necessary for growing grow the Khari cane.
three
four feet of
or
known
Kulera
as
Assam
For
can Jali-dk,in Faridpur,
and
of Bombay, grass-cane also suitable for swampy lands.
the
and
cane
or
a
are
and
the
Chittagong-Patnai sugarcane,
are
the
white
or
which, owing to
red
canes
the climate
often irrigation, and of ft. 20 length
facilitiesfor a
grown of these grow a
be grown. The strawthe red sugarcane of
Besides the Samsara
other
superior chewing canes Bogra,Khulna and Dacca, of special districts or on account in
to remarkable
size,sometimes
girthof six inches.
The
taining at-
produceof
instances,7,000 to 8,000 Ibs. per acre, sugar has been, in some in the West Indies. The Madrasi the to obtained highest quiteequal and the Saharanpur Poona of the the United Provinces, Paunda of other good varieties. The Chinia or Chini cane sugarcane are is another Patna suitable for and good chewingvariety Bhagalpur districtsof Western Bihar districts. In some Bengala hardy variety and seeds very freely. known sends out of sugarcane arrows as Uri, suitable for agriculturists are Other hardy varieties, Kajli,Puri raw
The Puri varietygrown in Orissa Division produces Katari. slender than those produced by the Kajli somewhat more canes varietywhich is grown by cultivators all over Bengal. The canes of both these varieties are somewhat thicker than Khari canes, but they are not such free ratooners nor can they stand water-logging be grown well as the Khari, though like the Khari they can so make better jaggerythan The chewing canes without irrigation.
and
the hardier varieties. The HA ftf,
Samsara
or
Dhalasundar
cane
18
274
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
coloured jaggery,though the crystals the lightest somewhat are smaller than the crystals of the jaggeryor gur made from Bombay .Khari sugarcane. or YWd
of gur." The
yieldof gur under a proper system such is practicable as a largescale on manuring be can by planters, put down at 3,500 Ibs. per acre, though as much been often obtained have in Poona and Ibs. acre as 8,000 per From Samsara and other superiorvarieties, Burdwan. by very careful cultivation and high manuring 8,000 Ibs. per acre may be sometimes obtained,but from Khari and the hardy varieties 3,500 be obtained at a comparativelysmall cost. Ibs. of gur per acre can of The ted produce gur of the whole country has been estimaaverage at a ton (2,240Ibs.)per acre, and the maximum obtained yield average
of cultivation and
is
cultivators
by
three
is 60 matmds average cottah. per
in
of British
India has been
per acre,
have
we
estimated
at
7,00,000
cultivator's ideal
a i.e.,
acre,
under
area
Bengal,includingAssam,
1 ton
Bengal
4,800 Ibs. per
or
Sugar growing localities."The whole
The
tons.
maund
2,500,000
acres.
On
gur
the
in
sugarcane at
of
acres,
the
and
basis
of
maunds the annual as duce proof is great import sugar per annum and Java supplythe largest Mauritius proportion about
six
crore
of gur in India, while the and
yearly. increasing of sugar importedto
import of molasses. affected the Soil" A
mere
area
The
Besides sugar there is a large extension of jutecultivation has prejudicially
under
enumeration
India.
sugarcane. of
the
tricts principalsugar-growing dis-
Bengalwould lead one to infer,that allkinds of soils answer for growingsugarcane, includingas they do, the rough Archaean Chota of the soils Nagpur Division, the old alluvium of Bihar, alluvium of Eastern lands and the new low-lying Bengalincluding old The of the best canes and new in Faridpur. junction grow at in
and rivulets. These are red clayFor growing the mineral matters. considerations that superiorvarieties of cane, the two principal in the of selection should guideone a site are : (1) Is the land close ? be easily from which it can to water (2) Is the land irrigated and inundation and drained level above yet level ? Some easily 4redsoilsof Burdwan, Birbhum and Kandi Sub-divisions of Murshialluvia loam
on
soils
the
sides of streams
rich in specially
are dabad, thoughvery light, highlyvalued
for
growing sugarcane. contain of a they Probably highproportion phosphorus. Phosphates valued for manuring sugarcane wherever are European and greatly American plantershave taken to growingthis crop. A very large of the bones collected for export, in India,goes to the proportion If our cultivators will not use of Mauritius. sugarcane plantations their bones,they can at least prevont being collected and taken golgothas.They do some away from their fields and from village condition. good even when they lieabout in the fieldsin a neglected
276
HANDBOOK
OF
AGBICULTUBE.
and small After five to seven days the seeds will germinate, forth. justlike young grass, will come plants, of the young germs, it is good the growth In order to watch to find them back which enables one to placea mark near every one, ' c
' '
easily. "
If after
eightdays the
arrow
did not
it is yet germinate,
as beyond that time no more signthat the seed was not fertile, the young as plantshave germinationwill take place. As soon into reached a heightof three to four inches they are transplanted soil-mixture referred to the as filledwith same bigflower pots, stantly above. The pots are placedin the full sunshine and kept conmuch rich the a soil, water, and moist,as plantsrequire After a few weeks, when they are 1 to 1 J feet high much sunshine. theyare brought over into the field and treated justas ordinary a
sugarcane.
Accordingto Benecke's and Soltwedel's researches sugarcane six weeks. Therefore within seed loses its germinating power in order to allow the has to be preparedbeforehand everything sowingto be started immediately after the arrival of the seeds. that the only purpose of It ought to be well understood of a new varietywith possibly sugarcane sowing is the raising than the ordinary better qualities existingones and not the change from seed. of the old way of planting with tops into planting "
"
' '
thousands
From
of young
plantsraised
in the horticulturists'
pickedwhich look promising;the others of them are destroyed.The pickedplantsare tested,and if some in the of to be usual are propagated superiorqualitythey prove way by cuttings. in Java, who have their estates partlyor The few planters under seedling entirely canes, do not -,y heir estate, but plantit nurseries,only those
are
66
with from
cuttingsfrom
canes,
seed."
the ancesto
ne
which
t,
have
been raised
:al im "e
junction
Cuttings. Canes that are chosen for s'^ts. These for cuttings, should be the For topped when they are matters. growttds, bud should be cut away, that thipalconsiderations^ Jn~"w topmost to the lateral buds and developthem to ^: (1) Is the lar/lition. The sprouting is helpedin this country by keep!? (2) Is flngsin a "
'
'
cool pit, by puttinga layerof damp straw and t yet leveiiebottom the of of cuttings pitand then arrangingon this successive vi"j-erb "nd wet straw and ashes until the pitis filled, wlien over the last layerof ashes and straw, earth is put on, and the whole allowed to remain for a week. After this,the cuttings will be found to have and rootlets come out of the knots. The cultings, sprouted though for be for the month if ready a planting out, may yet kept covering of earth is removed from the pit,and the cuttings kept in a standing in the pitwith a covering of straw and ashes,which should position be two
of water as occasion arises. The top kept damp by sprinkling feetof canes make the best cuttings, but the topmost bud must
277
SUGARCANE.
foe rejected beforehand in most
portiononly
is
done, there is no for
alreadydirected. The practice prevalent for cuttings the very topmost utilising based on a false idea of economy. If toppingis in the most difficultyselecting promisingcuttings is done or not, that whether is, case, topping any as
parts of India of
planting.In
the healthiest and
best
should
canes
As the bud
top two feet of these used. a knot, and the nourishment
for seed, and the the upper side of
be chosen on
occurs
is derived
from the portionof cane above this knot and below the next knot above it,cuttings should be made be below the there lowest that so no cane superfluous may node and that a whole joint above the highest bud may be included. Each cutting need not have more than three buds, and if they are made
sproutinghas
after
taken
placesubsequentto topping,one buds going to every cutting.With
of three of lateral buds either in the cane while it is sprouting stillstanding th j whole cane it should be in the soil, or after planting noted that the topmost bud of the cane then the next first, sprouts can
be
almost
sure
regardto the
below if the cane
one
it,and is cut
so
towards
on
up
the lower
into sections and
end
of the
But
cane.
bud
planted,every
at the
and end of each cuttingwill come out first simultaneously, then the next ones towards the thicker end, and so on until the finishes third or fourth bud, i.e., lefton each section, as as are many the So of sprouting. although planting cuttingsalong a line is upper
almost
should
continuous, whole be
not
planted,as
make sure of at least it is best to have each
one
sections which parts of healthyand uninjuredbud canes
is done
or
in many
cuttingabout
nine inches
are
too
long
India,but to per
cutting
long.
planting Planting. Sugarcane harvesting and sugarcane from for months in the viz., Septemberto eight proceed year, April; but the best time for harvestingsugarcane is December is February. the cuttings for planting to February,and the best month "
"can
Harvestingand plantingin September and October, one duringthe Pujahs,and sprouting gets very high pricefor the canes the heat of the cuttings also takes placefreely at this season, as and moisture are both sufficientto helpthe growthof the young plant. But the cold weather that follows retards the growth,and makes to May November the nodes of the canes as very short. From twelve the have be to to as keep plants irrigations given many may in proper condition. From February the growth is againnormal, and
there
are
.and expense
no
from
short nodes
formed, but, on
Septemberto Februaryare
whole, the time wasted,and the only the
advantage in doing the plantingin September or October is the of a crop of chewingcanes obtaining duringthe Pujahs when they fetch a very high price in a like Calcutta. town Plantingin November is most tardy,and most of the to January,the sprouting cuttingsmay perishbefore they have time to sprout throughthe the attack of white ants or from the cakingof the soil preventing from from their forcing sprouts way upwards. Cuttingsplanted
278
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
January do not make any more progress than those ary and Januis done in December plantedin February. If harvesting which months are as well suited as Februaryfor making high be topped and left to sprout on the class gur, the seed-cane may in in stored into a nd be made or fields, pits the they may cuttings described before. The actual plantingshould be put off manner but tillFebruary. By planting in March one saves one irrigation, the growth from cuttings plantedin February is better. March in Bihar, Chota Nagpur, etc.,this month as a nswers where, planting in the delta is cool. The conditions as to temperature prevailing in the hills, of the Ganges are not the same or those prevailing as But the principle in the rocky western districtsof this Province. of planting in mild temperature and after the cold weather has well passedoff,but a good while before the rains set in,may be followed in every locality. Plantingin May or June is very risky,except in free and grittysoils, or even as heavy rainfall, water-logging to when the plantsare stillvery short,is injurious to sugarcane as most like maize or juar,is benefited by heavy Sugarcane, crops. rainfallif it commences after the plantsare about a foot high. Various modes of planting are adopted. In Mauritius where in holes, in deep trenches winds is done or high prevail, planting November
to
give the
to
been
canes
good support
a
ploughedup, holes
or
has about a
After the land
at the base.
continuous
trenches
are
made
foot deep and 4| to 5 ft. apart from centre to centre from line to line and the cuttingsare plantedin the lines with an interval of nine inches between two lots of three cuttings plantedin each spot in the form of an arrow. Three inches of loose soil are put in the holes or
trenches,and these
are
watered, and
then
the
arc planted cuttings
the plantsare When another three inches of earth put on. a filled foot high, the land is levelled, that is,the trenches are entirely the between second makes shallow trenches and a earthing up, and
of
plants. powdered manure
rows
of
and bone-meal
or
measured a quantity earthings human animal excreta o f or usually (consisting of each clump, is applied at the bottom oil-cake)
At
each of the two
about a quarter of a ft each time. i.e., In Bengal,the cuttings are plantedin shallow trenches (about 6 inches deep)made with kodalies, 1% to 2J ft. apart. This is much too
and
close planting, the involving
trenching.The
system FijiIslands,seems
use
of kodalies for
in prevalent
hoeing,earthing
Queensland,
New
South
worth adoptingin this country. double in are cuttings planted rows, 6 ft. apart,the two rows toclose togetherbeingonly 18 inches apart. This is equivalent ft.from 3 ft. distance of centre But 3 rows a planting single apart. to centre of lines of plants does not allow interculture by bullocks ; terculture while a distance of 6 ft. from centre to centre does allow such inment beingpractised.In workingon a largescale the employand of hand-tools should be 'avoided as much as possible,
Wales
and
The
substituted. bullock-power there may
be
some
The
injurydone
trenches may not be by bullock treadingon
so
straight,
but plants,
279
SUGARCANE.
these
not of much
consequence, as the savingof labour and time instead of employment of proper farm-implements is enormous. The 18-inch trenches can be made garden-tools, with the double mould-board the plough cuttings plantedlengthwise in two rows at the two sides of the trenches,say three cuttings beingplantedin every 4 ft.of lengthin each row, and the trenches after irrigation filledup by splitting in between of the ridges beijig are
effected by the
with mould-boards. The subsequent be can hoeingsand earthings done with the Hunter hoe, when the plantingis done in the above described manner. Planting in this way, nearly12,000
cuttingsare requiredper cultivators
about
acre
10,890),and (theoretically
as
Bengal
kahans (2 x 1,280) of cuttingsper bigha sacrificeof space not much (one-thirdof an acre),there is really made for effecting of in The the cost labour. saving growth of is also healthier under such a treatment, as canes the plants get air and sunlightthroughout the periodof growth and a more use
2
proper elaboration of sugar in cane-sugar crystals.
is the consequence,
a i.e.,
gur richer
is very much Pickling As subject to the attack sugarcane the cuttings of insect and funguspests,it is importantto sow or of a fter each after lot or i.e., cuttings pickling, seedlings smearing But of and with mixture insecticides as a fungicides. seedlings jurious inthese substances when used in a dilute form are generally even with it is best to dry up the substances to vegetable cells, "
which
the
or are seedlings cuttings
smeared have
immediatelyafterwards effect in
keeping out half a pound of powdered sulphateof copper of powdered and if 8 ounces is mixed up with 100 Ibs. of hot water added to the vat containing white arsenic with 1 Ib. of dme are be dipthe of the sulphate copper solution, can ped cuttings sugarcane in this insecticidal and fungicidal mixture, immediatelybefore but the cuttings after beingdippedin this liquidmixture planting, ashes (2 Ibs.) should have a coatingof powderedcastor-cake (100 Ibs.), and soot (1 Ib.), that the growth of the young plantmay be helped able by these manurial substances. If sulphateof copper is not availof be used in placeof | Ib. of sulphate copper 1 Ib. of alum may of asafoetida for making the fungicidal solution. Half an ounce be mixed with every 100 Ibs. of the fungicidal solution,as the may insects. The mixture strong smell of asafcetida keeps out most made. The quantities should be used up the same day that it is of for 1 acre mentioned will suffice for pickling cuttingsrequired
such manurial insects also. Thus
with
substances
as
some
land. Rotation Except in the case of a ratooned variety,sugarcane should not be grown on the same land more than once in four years. It is best to grow sugarcane after a preparatorycrop of Dhaincha Barbati or (Sesbania aculeata), Sunn-hemp (Crotolariajuncea), cut down when in flower,in August. A crop of (Vigna catiang), be from October to February,and the land potatoesmay grown "
280
HANDBOOK
immediately afterwards
OF
AGKIOULTUBB
,
got ready for planting sugarcane
February. After the sugarcane (Cajanusindicus)or of
is offthe land next
of arahar
paddy
aus
in
February,a crop
(ifthe land is not
too
should be taken. After the aus poor or exhausted by cropping) paddy,a crop of potatoesmay be taken again,and then sugarcane in also. After the arahar (which occupiesthe land for come may nine or ten months),sugarcane may follow immediatelyafterwards, if growingof sugarcane is the main
Otherwise, objectof the farm. be is to to prominence ordinary greater agricultural given crops, and in of the the chapteron rotation one systems of rotation described of crops, adopted,according of the soil. As indigoto the nature for sugarcane, it should be are planters proposingto go in largely noted here that indigoand sugarcane form an excellent rotation. The slack season is the busiest December for indigo, to April, viz., for sugarcane. From season May to November scarcely anything need be done to sugarcane. from the water fields, Lettingout needed during all the operations are tyingthe canes and one hoeing, these seven months when indigois being sown, cut, steepedand manufactured. The space between two lines of sugarcane is sometimes utilized of growing such crops as ground-nut, cow-pea, green maize, onions,carrots,cucumber, melons, etc. Manuring.
nures. Sugarcanerespondswell to a heavy outlayon ma350 300 Ibs. the of to suggests application in the form of oil-cakes. The following mixtures nitrogen chiefly "
Dr. Leather
of are
recommended
:
"
(1) Bone-meal"
10 maunds applied before sowing. per acre Castor- cake" 30 maunds acre applied after sowing, in two per doses (2) Cowdung" 600 maunds ploughed in before trenching, per acre Bone-meal" 10 maunds before sowing. per acre 350 maunds before sowing. (3) Poudrette" per acre (4) Powdered apatite"6 maunds acre applied before sowing. per Castor-cake 20 maunds appliedafter sowing in two doses, per acre and saltpetre 2 maunds doses after the acre applied in two per plantsare a foot high, but before June (5) Castor cake -35 maunds applied in two doses before the two per acre
earthings (6) Fish manure"
30 maunds
per
acre
(7) Safflower cake" 30 maunds per 50 maunds (8) Kape cake per acre "
after sowing. before and after sowing. before and after sowing
acre
*
.
Sulphate of potash-
i
,',
j
considered a most suitable manure for should rotted be for 4 5 or months, cowdung sugarcane. dried and powdered. In a powdery state dung has more invigorating state. Mixture No. (9)recommended above effectthan in the plastic used by European and American is largely sugar planters.Some of ammonia fpr sugarcane grown after a greenuse onlysulphate taining concrop (suchas cow-pea)is ploughedin. Sulphateof ammonia f Rs. be had 10 maund. 20 per cent, nitrogen can or over per Human
excreta
Even
are
281
SUGARCANE.
Sulphateof potash costs would
cost
about the about Rs. 4 per maund.
of Superphosphate
same.
lime
the land has been thoroughly Subsequent operations. When prepared by deep cultivation, and cuttings harrowingand rolling, planted after trenching and watering, and when manuringhas been done, the intervals between the should be plants givenone hoeing with the Hunter hoe after each gations watering.From March to June four irribe in needed In may Bengal. Bengalsugarcane is irrigated from one to eight times,but in the Bombay Presidency20 irrigations "
are
quite common
Mr. Mollison actuallyrecommends 34 irrigations 50 fall giving inches of water in addition to that derived from rain(p. 119 of Vol. Ill of the Text-Book on Indian
Agriculture).
But the need for irrigation dependsmainly on the varietyof sugarcane the time of If a coarse grown, sowing and the locality.
variety(suchas
Khari
or
Kajli)is grown,
and if the
sowingis done
in
April (afterirrigation), will be found one subsequentirrigation sufficient to bringthe plantson in most parts of Bengal. But even
in this case two or three hoeingsand one hand-weedingwill be found helpful duringMay and June, after which nothing need be done tillharvest time. To break up the surface pan it is important to do a hoeingafter each irrigation ; the first hoeingshould be with
hand-tools.
If
is practised no trench-irrigation caking takes place plantsand constant hoeingis not required.The superior varieties of canes fited benethat have soft skins are particularly from by tying. The tyingprotectsthe canes the attack of insect and fungus-pests and jackals, uniform and the growthis more and clean. The oppositepracticeof 'trashing,' or tearingaway the older leaves as the canes for the ravages grow, probablyaccounts of fungusdiseases in Europeanand American cane plantations. The scars formed by trashing offer excellent resting for spores places of fungi, while the enveloping of canes from below upwards with the leaves, as practised in this country, probablyoffers a great protection not only againstthe the canes, on spores of the fungiresting but also againstthe insects laying It is said that eggs on the canes. tyingincreases the yieldof gur, but this pointmust be established by repeatedcomparative experiments. But so far the results of experiments made at Sibpur and Burdwan confirm the current belief that tyingincreases the yieldof yur. The operationcosts at the foot of
about Ks. 6 per acre, but as 3 maunds of gur more obtained were in these experiments, the cost is more than made up by the outturn. From Julyto October,the canes should be tied twice, the tying being so done that the canes may also support one another,and not lodge in the soil.
Harvesting;When there is littlemoisture in the soil, and when the top leaves have begun to wither,the canes should be considered fitfor cutting.The practical farmer would also judgefrom the taste of the 6anes whether theyare sweet enough to be cut. If too much "
time is wasted in
whether judging
canes
are
quitereadyfor cutting
282
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OP
on not, the excessivelyhot and dry weather may come during and then the yieldof juice the progress of the harvest operations, and the qualityof the g ur turned out will be inferior. December to is for in the Lower Bengal; canes February harvesting proper season but if owing to late rains,or late sowing,the plants look quitevigorous and green in December, and if the canes do not taste sweet
or
or perhaps a month, before enough,one must wait for a fortnight the should be cut with koThe canes canes. commencing cutting dalies close to the ground,rather two or three inches underground. If stumps are allowed to be left on the ground,these send out in the case of ratooned canes, turn yielda poor repoor shoots which
next
stalks
Sometimes
year.
from
these
prominent stumps
flower-
of strength, the arrows out, but owing to their want and cannot out of them, come they become smutted and dried up. This smuttingof flower-stalks in the case of the Khari sugarcane is said to do no harm, as shoots coming afterwards from deep down the earth grow up vigorously and continue to grow side by side with the smutted flower-stalks, apparently unaffected by them. safe to allow a luxuriant growth of parasitic But it is never fungus, as a fungus thoughat other times may sometimes prove very injurious it does not seem to do any practical harm. Lodged canes contain a
come
large proportionof glucose. More
should
be avoided. of
the rind a
glucose,and
fungus.
pieceof
Immature
mat
also
than
0*5 per cent, of glucose also contain a higher proportion
canes
with which are diseased specially be cleaned with water and put on the crushingmill to avoid dirt.
near
canes
should
Canes
estimate Sugarcane. In the following have been made out calculated Bengal conditions,the wages and the most at the rate of 4 annas, approvedsystem only taken Cost of
growing
an
of
acre
"
for
into account.
Harrowing the field after lifting potatoes Rolling plough Trenching with double mould-board 12,000 cuttingsat Rs. 2 per 1,000 Cost of getting the cuttings sprouted in a pit (if previous topping is not done) Cost of picklingthe cuttings of apatite(i.e., in 5 years) 10 maunds 2 maunds once per acre ...
..
..
...
...
...
Castor-cake 15 maunds
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Es.
A.
0
6
0
6
0
0
12
0
24
0
0
1
8
("
5
0
0
0
0
0
...
0
0
600 30
15 2$ maunds Saltpetre, ...600 Cost of plantingcuttings(24 men) afterwards Cost of filling 0 up blanks, a month 4 before the two earthings Cost of applyingthe manure 9 Cost of three irrigation** (February,March and April) Cost of one in November 3 (ifnecessary) irrigation Coat of one 4 hand-weeding in March Cost of one hoeing with Hunter hoe it May 0120 180 Coat of two with Hunter more hoe, June hoeings(earthings) ...600 Twotyings ... ...
P.
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
('
8
0
284
HANDBOOK
crop of 20 tons of
OP
AGRICULTURE.
(whichis usuallyobtained out of an days'crushingwith the Behia mill. With the help of a shredder which divides up the canes longitudinally before theyare crushed,a higherpercentagestillthan 72 is obtained. Sugarcanecontains naturally85 to 91 per cent, of its weight of juice,which is the maximum possible yield,but no mechanical be whole the 91 per to of the maximum can applied get pressure cent. out. By the diffusion process, which consists in gettingthe shredded from extracted by means of very hot steam canes sugar forced throughcylinders the shredded canes, almost the containing whole of the sugar is got out of the canes. The percentage of juicethat is obtainable from the cane does not altogether depend on the A m ill. contains which 16 fibrous of cane cent, crushing matter, per and 18 per cent, of cane-sugar, would yieldonly 45 to 50 per cent, of juice, while one containing 10 per cent, of fibrous matter and 18 per cent, of cane-sugar, will yieldabout 70 per cent, with the same crushingappliance.The rind and other fibrous matters act like a the juice.By getting rid of the rind,one gets a sponge in retaining of termine debe There that may considerations higheryield juice. may lular to prefer a planter soft cela hardy fibrous varietyto a s uch the in the and Samsara Otaheite as or variety, cane, sugarcane
10 to 12 acre) requires
such
the use of a decorticator or at least a shredder before is crushing advisable. But as the horizontal mill, the shredder, the decorticator, or would cost more cultivator than our money could afford to spend,these improvementsare meant for planters and capitalists, who may wish to launch out into sugarcane planting. a
case
Usuallycanes out
as
are
passedtwice throughthe
mill to get as much
juice
possible.
Whether
buffalo-power is
or steam-power, bullock-power,
employed for crushingcanes, it should be borne in mind that too results in diminished great a speed or jerkymotion of the rollers, needed where steam-power is yield. This precautionis specially for employed working the mills. A roller of 30-inch diameter should make
only about four revolutions
Modern pliances apand boiling crushing sugarcanes, and for clarifying the juice, obtainable of Messrs. Pott, Cassels and Williamson are and Messrs. Watson Laidlaw " Co., both of Glasgow, of the SangerhauserEngineeringCo., Ld., of Berlin, and of Messrs. Krajewski" Pesant Co., 32-34, Broadway, New York. Mr. Hadi's method of gur and sugar-making.Most important per minute.
for
"
improvements have been recentlyintroduced in gur and sugartor making by Mr. S. M. Hadi, M.R.A.C., tillrecentlyAssistant Direcof Agriculture in the United Provinces. As these are capable of beingput into practiceby small capitalists, they are well worth and learning, the Agricultural Department of the United Provinces has made A suitable arrangements for teachingthe methods. short description of these methods
though without advantage.
be out of placehere, to learn them to any possible
will not
practiceit is not
285
SUGARCANE.
of cane crushed withih 24 are Clarifying.The clean bundles 4 at of the crushing hours commencing A.M., and the boiling cutting, the canes are The juice, afterwards. as crushed,falls through soon with iron handle,and as tin an provided a strainer into a kerosine "
to the boiling shed and put it is removed at once each tin getsfilled, is in the if clarifier the tank in the copper clarifier, or full, reserve with the flue runningup from the unabove it,which is in contact derground
chimney. The
tank may
be of galvanized tinfuls 10 kerosine is iron. full a (about maunds) Twenty in the heated the rises to clarifier, scum charge. As the juicegets the top, which is not to be touched until it splits.In the meantime one pound of pinksaji(crude carbonate of soda)should be boiled and one pound of bhindi (ladies' in water, cooled and strained, finger) in clean water, stalks should be washed, pounded and immersed and afterwards the mucilageinside the stalks rubbed out between becomes thick and mucilaginous. When the hands tillthe water half the feAincfo'-water should be in the clarifierhas split, the scum should then be removed. The put in the clarifierand the scum should be then the Wmwfo'-water and half of the in, put remaining The should be continualso put in afterwards. scum ously water sajiremoved, and if the liquordoes not become quitetransparent by this time, cold water should be sprinkledin the clarifier and more or sajiand Wmiafo-water both added, until the sa/i-water the more impure liquorbecomes quiteclear. Instead of pinksaji, be used, and better stillbicarbonate of soda,about dark sajimay 1 tola) of the soda beingsufficientfor 3 to 4 drams (a littleover oven
to the
reserve
full charge of juice(10 to 12 maunds). If the juice a clarifying obtained from stale cane, it is desirable to use is poor in quality or after the liquor about 3 pintsof limewater along with sa^'-water The limewater should be added graduhas become transparent. ally, does not the show as s o liquor continuing long any floating these particles As soon as particles. appear, the limingis to be stopped. has acquired as the juicein the clarifier Concentrating. As soon the tap should be opened and the the desired degreeof brilliancy, allowed concentrator the flow into to ket througha double blanliquor The liquorin the concenthe concentrator. filterplacedover trator is to be skimmed from time to time for removing the froth the liquor has acquired that rises on the liquor.When the requisite in is which the to be determined from consistency concentrator, it is to be run into the third vessel also situated on the experience, called the evaporator,which is divided up into several compartments. oven, Care should be taken that the sugar in the evaporator does not get burnt into caramel. A littleskimming will be necessary when the liquor is passingthroughthe different compartments of the evaporator. At the last compartment ebullition will be very a few dropsof violent,and if there is fear of the rob overflowing, "
castor-oil mixed
with
or sa/i-water
a
little ghi may
be
thrown
286
HANDBOOK
has
heat.
and
it must
Airing. thickened or
ndnd.
in
the
the
the
in its
put airing.
of
cool
This
height
operation ciently, crystallization will the crystals will be of small Separation
of
quite cool, the
days
be
rab
centrifugal hydro-extractor Broadbent
Thomas
other
and
of Calcutta
(half
molasses
turned
by
four
sugar
whiter,
mukossi)
is
machine be
should
is
pounded
boiled.
The
makes
factories.
It
wooden
warm
turning.
decoction
a
a
put
and use
for
is sufficiently
carryino-
sufl"
done
if it is
is
motion, the
over
overdone,
a
and
machine
and
or
to
time
over
of
the into
seers
of
perfectly white
like
in the
sun,
taken and
come
will
out
and
freight Before
the
out, To
soda sugar
through while
the
make
the
(Sapindus
rab 1
machine
go
soap-nut
of water
bicarbonate
then
at
Macbeth
the
the machine.
decoction about 8
the
425.
then
molasses
from
the
and,
after
liquor consisting of well (one dram)
rab,
ritha
thrown
and
"25,and for Rs.
soda
of
prepare
kalsies
Messrs.
of
The
speed.
time
in
extra.
decoction
the sugar, be should
roller,dried
40
sides
of
and
be
to
are
the
To
liquid
elsewhere,
machine
in
of the
gauze adhere to
sprinkled
;
put
removed
Rs.
put
at full
wire
will
sugar
place
is not
slow
then
bicarbonate
be
labourers
the
needed
centrifugalmachine
is
seer) and
a
the
and
rab
white
then
rab
together, should
mixed
the
the
be
of each
about
sell this
with
machine
its
emptied into a that as constructed by Messrs. Huddersfield, England, under Mr.
of
cost
are
gdmld
accumulated
first
airing
and
kalsies
such
Sons
The
charges
Brothers the
and
instructions.
Hadi's
be
may of the
contents
has
earthen
have
until is
If
is to
kalsies
the
feet,
imperfect
experience
evaporator
an
rab
the
get spoilt
of
the
in
size.
The
Sugar"
a
2
success.
of
subjected to ladle, by stirringand ting let-
Experience
with
also
may work
a
in the
with of
not
from
rab
Each
compartment
into
removed the
oven
get burnt.
liquor, and
in
of
The
once.
each
out
seers
be and
is done
a
let
30
or
touched.
be
to
20
place,
from
liquid
be
it should
vessel,
vessel
10
may and
boiling liquor
about
as
soon
this
least
at not
with
as
soon
earthen
when
rob
concentrator
sufficiently,it should
process fall the
out
the
subside
be
is to
As
"
As
another
liquidwill
constantly charged liquor, with water, that the vessels The boiling of the juice into rob is be learnt by practice.
of
with
AGRICULTURE.
carefully that
very
evaporator
absence
the
clarifier, the
the
vessel, the
fed
be
to
and
boiling mass
the
into
OP
seer
which and
from
while
the
of
ritha
should the
be
riiha-
European
ground lightlywith passed through a sieve.
DATE-SUGAR.
THE
LXI.
CHAPTER
DATE-SUGAR.
THE [Extracts from
Westland's
report
287
on
Khandwa
the
Date-sugar industryof experiments.]
Jcssore ; the
account of the date-palmand date-sugar, THE following taken will givesome from Westland's Report of the Jessore district, idea value the of of of the great date-palmas a source sugar supply.
There are forests of date trees in many parts of Central India, the Madras and and some Provinces Central Presidency, experiments are alreadyin progress. One of the most important industries in the district of of date-sugar.There Jessore is the cultivation and manufacture derive all who from that they have,above so many are people sugar be considered that the necessaries of life,that it may the mere is the root of all their prosperity.In a trade and cultivation sugar c '
preparedin 1791, we find it recorded that 20,000 annual produceof the sugar cultivation, the and that was of this about half was exportedto Calcutta. In these later years has almost entirely driven away the cane-sugar from the date-sugar the fieldsas well as from the market. Europeanfactories began to and it was these factories that gave such be set up in the district, impulseto the trade. The firstsugar factoryin the country was erected at Dhoba, in Burdwan, a littlebelow Nuddea, and it was began to diminish,he changed by a Mr. Blake. When his success table statistical maunds
from which he gradually withdrew. the business into that of a company, This Dhoba Sugar Company established a factory at Kotin chandpur, Jessore,getting up Englishmachineryand afterwards also. The history appliedthe Englishsystem to the Dhoba factory i s record of not The truth a success. of the Englishsugar refinery they gave a great impulse to the sugar cultivation was, that when all the trade which merchants native steppedin and appropriated The methods used by native merchants the factories had givenbirth to. all the which is the to purity requiredby the impart sugar Had the European market remained open, the European consumers. factories might have competed with the native with some But the duties levied in Europe appear to have chance of success. sufficient to been prevent the developmentof the export trade,and the factories established at Cossiporeand Bally,near Calcutta, favourable circumstances the in which more appear, through placed,to have monopolisedthe Europeanmarket in they were
Calcutta. The which that^
groundchosen for date cultivation is the higherground, high for rice to grow well,and the rent paid for suchrgroundis at least three times that for rice land.* The trees "
is too
In low land are, however, equallysuitable for date cultivation. the rain water in small hollows, where would be grown Plantingshould collect and play round them, but too much of it would killthem. Pits in which they are plantedshould be manured be done 3 yds.apart each way. *
High
and
factTdate trees should
288
are
OF
HANDBOOK
AGBIOULTURE.
each tree beingabout twelve feet from plantedand left for seven years before
in regular rows, planted
its neighbour. If
so
being
touched,goodhealthytrees may be expected. Those who cultivate in the cold season, perfectly dates keep the land, specially bare of the turf,so that the whole ploughing up vegetation, any strength
groundmay expend itselfin
the trees. Of course, there are peoplewho cultivate other crops upon the land where the date trees, who have not patience enough to grow, and there are very many of full seven such wait for the expiration years ; however, people, of the
by their
to give the same failing richness in trees obtained from is more that tended. When the carefully juice of the and it is continued each tree is ripe, tappingbegins, process in the date-palmtwo series, There are thereafter. stories or year of leaves ; the crown-leaves,which rise straight as it were, out from the top of the trunk, being,so to speak,a continuation of it ; and
lose in the end
trees
the lateral leaves,which springout of the side of the top part of the has completely the rainyseason When trunk. passed,and there is cultivator the off cuts the lateral leaves for one fear of rain, no more half of the circumference,and thus leaves bare a surface measuring This surface is at first about ten or twelve inches each way. brilliant white, but becomes by exposure quitebrown, and putsthe appearance of coarse matting. The surface thus laid bare is on not the woody fibre of the tree,but is a bark formed of thin many layers,and it is these layerswhich thus change their colour and a
texture.
After the tree has remained for a few days thus exposed, tappingis performedby making a cut into this exposed surface, in the shape of a very broad V, about 3 inches across and J or ^ inch deep. Then the surface inside the angleof the V is cut down, "
the
surface is cut into the tree. From this surfacethat a triangular and caughtby the sides of the V, exudation of the sap takes place, to the angle,where a bamboo down it runs of the size of a leadbamboo is inserted a narrow into the tree to channel) (i.e., pencil so
droppingsap and carry it out as by a spout. tappingis arrangedthroughoutthe season, by periods of six days each. On the firsteveninga cut is made as justdescribed is allowed to run and the juice duringthe night. The juiceso flowing is the strongestand best,and is called jiran juice. In collectedin a pot hangingbeneath the bamboothe morningthe juice the exudingjuice spout is removed and the heat of the sun causes catch the The "
"
and shut up the pores in the tree. So in the evening cut is made, not nearlyso deep as the last, the new but rather and for the second nightthe juice is allowed to run. mere paring,
to ferment
a
"
over
and the ground ploughed up before and after the season rainy well grown until they are fairly Each palm, before it enters into its up. full adult stage,throws up about 15 to 20 offshoots which be detached and may transplanted.One per cent, of male trees for fecundating would be purposes quite enough. But male and female trees should be grown indiscriminately^ where obtainingof juiceis the only object. at
the end of each
season
THE
289
BATE-SUGAR.
"
do-kat," and is not quiteso abundant or so juiceis termed jiran." The third nightno new good as the cuttingis made but the exudingsurface is merely made quiteclean,and the juice this third nightis called which runs jharna. It is lessabundant This
"
' '
* *
less rich than
and
and towards do-liat,
the
the end
of the season,
unfit for sugar manufacture, the hot, it is even when it is getting it (and also from day jharna)being sold simply as from made gur " droppings." These three nightsare the periodsof activityin .
the tree, and after these three,it is allowed to remain for three nights the same at rest, when process againbegins. Of course, every tree in the same in the same cycle. Some are at grove does not run their a nd second at their first, some night, so on ; and thus the owner is
always busy. cut is made every sixth day a new the that and more follows it tree gets more
' '
one,
Since
the end progresses, and towards and often surface may is,as much be, The
the
about
the
tree
during the
are
place,but
same
whole
in alternate
the
of
seasons,
used for the
are
above
thus
cuts
hewed
previous
into
as
the
of the season, the exuding inches below the as four
season
surface.
the
over
tapping; and previous season's,and
each
as on
the
one
made
season
alternate
sides of
season's
cuttingis oppositeside,the
if looked
at from the side,a curious zigzag of be at once tree a counted can, of course, age appearance. and the notches six or adding seven, the up by enumerating of years passed before the first year'snotch. When number they
of the tree The
stem
has,
trees. forty-six years old they are worth littleas produce-bearing bared surface previousto the notching first the size of the
are
At
is about
; but it
ten inches
square higher and
to the old trees where not seen It is somewhat found.
come
narrower
gets less and less,as the notches part of the trunk, and I have
than
more
four inches square could be the notches are almost
remarkable sides of the tree, and always very rarelyon also sides the north and south firstnotch the ; appears to be made, in by far the majorityof instances,on the east side. on
' '
tree
a
As
the east and
to the
that
west
produceof
one
of five seers
regularaverage
per
expect from
a good the quiescent night(excluding
tree, one
may
copiousand nights).The colder and clearer the weather,the more of November rich the produce. In the beginning gun. tappinghas beIn December and January the juiceflows best,beginning sometimes as March of days on
too
earlyas come.
3 P.M., and it dwindles away the warm as If the cultivator beginstoo early,or carries
and quantityas late,he will lose in quality
gain by extendingthe tappingseason. October, and there
are
not
many
who
can
much
as
he will
But high prices beginin resist the temptationof
runninginto market with their premature produce. a During the whole of the tappingseason good cultivator clean and free from jungle will keep his grove perfectly or even grass. So much then for tapping. The next process is the boiling, does for himself, and usually within the limits and this every raiyat * '
' '
M, HA
19
HANDBOOK
290
OP
AGRICULTURE.
ferments and becomes the juicespeedily Without boiling, of the grove. be kept for boiled down into gur, it may useless ; but once boiled therefore is at in large once very long periods.The juice dome, beneath which a strong woodpots placedon a perforated the paredleaves of the trees beginused among fireis kept burning, comes bewhich was at firstbrilliant and limpid, The juice, which half is called half solid viscid, a dark brown, mass, now is when itis still it and pouredfrom the easily warm, gur (molasses), boilingpan into the earthen pots (small gharras)in which it is
other fuel.
kept. ordinarily "
it takes from
As
seer one
ordinarily good tree
or
of juiceto produceone seers of gur which calculate the amount We may count producein a season. to ten
seven
molasses,we
of gur
can
can
for the tappingseason, or about a half months sixty-seven of 335 5 These at seers seers each, nights. produce tapping of A maund 1 will about 40 which seers or give gur. juice, 100 trees will therefore produceEs. 200 bighaof grove containing four and
to
Rs.
worth
225
of gur if all the trees
in
are
good bearing.
all sorts of pottery which will bear the continuous hard firing requiredfor boilingdown the juiceand some potters have obtained a special reputationof the excellence of their wares in this respect. The whole of the regionabout Chaugachha and * '
It is not
from Kotchandpur is suppliedprincipally
village, Bagdanga, a an clay seems unusually of the is district, supplied again, part
littlewest
a
to be of
the
of Jessore,where
good quality.The southern from Alaipur, Khulna. near a bazar chiefly after boiling down his juiceinto A raiyat, "
do
more
into
gur9 does by them
; it is then
sold to the refiners, and
Near
Keshabpur,however,
sugar.
dinarily or-
factured manu-
largenumber
sugar and sell it to the exporters There are also in almost all parts of the only after manufacture. class refiners of different from those who are refiners and district a refiners by profession.These are the largerraiyatsin the only
of
manufacture raiyats
a
not
their
own
of whom combine commercial dealingswith agriculture. villages, many in receive their the from the They vicinity raiyats gur and
sometimes what
exportingmart ' '
also
facturing purchaseit in adjacenthats,and aftet manutake their thus to some they they purchase, sugar and sell it there to the larger merchants.
We
is. But shall now what the process of manufacture see three sorts of and two of refining, or there are several methods and describe We firstthe will them take in order, produced. siigar of manufacturing dhulua sugar that soft,moist, nonmethod *
"
granular,powdery sugar, used chieflyby natives and specially of sweet-meats.' in the manufacture " The pots of gur received by the refiner are broken up and the out into baskets, each and which hold about a maund gur tumbled fifteen inches about beaten down surface is to as so are deep ; tfce be prettylevel and the baskets are placedover open pans. Left thus for
eightdays, the
molasses
passes
throughthe basket, dropping
292
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
rich. After this, the previousprocess is again gone and about 10 per cent, more weightin sugar is obtained. through, and darker in colour than the first. This sugar is,however, coarser is mediate imof finding The refiner not very honest and if he is sure sale,he will use a much more speedyprocess. Taking the
nearly so
' '
the mass cooled gur he will squeeze out the molasses by compressing in a sack, and then, dryingand breakingup the remainder, will different from that prepared sellit as sugar. It does not look much in the
elaborate
more
fashion,but
it will
likelysoon
ferment
and
immediate
of finding hence the necessity an purchaser. The remainder,after all this sugar has been squeezedout, is molasses, chitiya gur, as it is called. It forms a separate article "
of
commerce. "
The
sugar
producedby
the method
justdescribed
is called
be clean, because It can never sugar, a soft yellowishsugar. the clear from there it is impurity process used, that whatever be in the whatever or originally impuritymay creep into gur,
dhulua
may the sugar
duringits somewhat
always appear
rough process of in the finished article. Another
and to liquefaction, that it leads slightly for any considerable time. 4 '
'
'
The
is
cannot
manufacture, must objectionto it is, therefore be
kept
and more permanent the dhulua has not. of it is more The manufacture expensivethan of the other,and the it finished is about when Rs. 10, whereas dhulua costs only of price about Es. 6 per maund. In this process the gur is first cast upon and flat platforms, of the molasses as then flows off is collected as first droppings. as much and a great deal The rest is collected, put into sacks and squeezed,
pucca article. It has also
sugar
a
a
much
cleaner
granularstructure,which
' c
is thus separatedout. The sugar which remains behind is then boiled with water in largeopen pans, and as it boils, is taken off. It is then strained and boiled a second time all scum cool it is alreadysugar of a and left to cool in flat basins. When roughsort and now shyalaleaves are put over it, and it is left to
of the molasses
The
result is good white sugar, and should any remain at of the vessels still unrefined,it is againtreated with the bottom
drop.
shyala. " '
The firstdroppings, and the droppingsunder shyalaleaves, collected, are squeezed againin the sacks,and from the sugar left behind, a small quantity of refined sugar is preparedin exactly the
the sacks are not used for further sugar manufacture. chitiya gur, and are About 30 per cent, of the original weightof the gur is turned out in the form of pure pucca sugar. There remains to be described the Englishprocess of refinement used in the factories of Kotchandpur and Chaugachha. In of water and this,the raw material is mixed ^itha certain amount boiled in open cisterns, the boiling not by fire, beingaccomplished, but by the introduction of steam. floats to f ilth The lighter now same
' '
way
by
twice
boiling.The droppingsfrom
THE
DATE-SUGAR.
295
the surface and is skimmed solution is made off,while the boiling blanket flow strainers to into another cistern. After through away this it is boiled to drive offthe water. raised were Now, ifthe mass to boiling temperature, the result would be sugar, granularindeed in structure, but not differing in this respect from native pncca But if the water be driven off without raising the mass to sugar. the and which t hen we crisp boiling point, get sparkling appearance stances, always has. Whether there is any difference in the subloaf-sugar I do not know, but so longas peopleprefer what looks pleasant and nice, sugar of this sparkling command will a appearance in the market. higherprice The objectis attained by boiling in a vacuum pan, that is closed cistern from which a powerfulpump exhausts to say, a large the vapour as it rises. The lower the atmospheric pressure on the 66
the lower the temperature at which ebullition surface of any liquid, is therefore regulated diminish The takes place. to as so pump will boil the pressure on the surface to meet a pointthat the mass to this point, at about 160"F. and the apparatus beingkeptregulated all the water is driven off by boiling introduced of means steam, by without the temperature becominghigherthan 160". "It is out of placehere to describe the mechanical devices for
and keeping filledand employingand watching and filling
ing test-
within the closed cistern, the supply for regulating or liquid It of heat and the action of the pump, which is driven by steam. is sufficientto pass at once to the end of the vacuum pan stage,which in the pan is now run lasts eighthours, and to say, that the mass which off into sugar-loaf are moulds, placedupsidedown, having a the
hole in their vertex, placedabove a pot. The molasses by its own weightdropsout by this hole and is caughtin the earthenware pot beneath. ner. manThe last of the molasses is washed out in the following is scraped The uppermost inch of the sugar in the mould off moistened, and put back. The moisture sinks throughthe mass three times and carries with it in the molasses. This is done some and then the sugar havingnow been twelve days in the moulds, the c '
and the loaves may be turned to be finished, If the raw the gur as it of the moulds. material used was loaffrom the cultivator, the result is a yellowish, comes sparkling loaf if dhulua is the but the material then raw used, sugar sugar, white sugar. is of brilliantly The process used at Cossipore, near Calcutta,is similar to difference consists in this,that The principal that last described. the sugar is at one purified by being passed stage additionally and that the molasses, instead of being throughanimal-charcoal, allowed to drop out by its own gravityfrom the moulds, is whirled
isconsidered purification out
c c
out
and and
of centrifugal force." by the application is used for with tobacco,and Chitiyagur mixing molasses for preparing sweeter cheap native sweets
parchedrice and
pop-corn.
the cleaner out of fried There is considerable demand for
294
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
chitiya gur and molasses in India,as about 18,000 tons of molasses are
annually imported
this
into
Mauritius
from
country
or
Java. A most interesting experimenthas been undertaken by the Khandwa Sugar ManufacturingCompany in the manufacture of book in the Central Provinces,and as the author of this handdate-sugar has been associated with this experiment, he is able to furnish the
differ somewhat from those givenby Mr. Westland,but the conditions of the Jessore and the Central Provinces date plantations and the following are figures different, entirely latest
which figures,
by any means Westland,but rather
are
intended
not
In
suppliedby
to discredit those
Mr.
supplement them.
to
the Khandwa
for every circle of 5,000 trees experiments, and ten labourers are employed, professional juice-collectors the former beingpaidRs. 12 and the latter Rs. 6 per month. and the tappingand gw-making season lasts for four months
30 seolisor
The
expense
per circle of 5,000 trees, is,therefore,4
6)~Rs. 1,680.
Extra
expenses
about
to
come
(30x
x
12
x
10
x
220, making
Rs.
the total Rs. 1,900 per circle. The average produceof juiceper tree is three seers per day for the days in which they are experiment, tapped. In the Khandwa four days of rest are allowed after two of tapping and even days then the yieldof juiceper tree comes for six days to only six seers the quiescent (including days). Each seoli takes up a circle of 120 trees,40 goingto a mahal or section,and the 120 trees are thus divided into three sections. After takingthe jiranand do-kat juice on
each
mahal,he
goes
tree is tappedabout
of
juice per able to
8 maunds
juicego to make
which per circleis
four
duringthe
is therefore 120
30 seolisare
of
gather30
30 x 120
so
on
after giving it rest for four
40 times tree
mahal, and
to the next
on
to the firstmahal returning
x
120
x
x
1 maund
seers
to the
days.
third, Each
months, and the produce or 3 maunds, and the
3 maunds
of gur,
juice. As about the annual yieldof of
3 ^=
1,350 maunds, the money
value of
o
gur
is about
Rs. 4,000. The
nearlyRs. 2,000
per
net
profitper
circle is therefore
annum.
CHAPTER
LXI1.
SUGARS.
[Groupsof
sugar ; Sacoharometer riscope; the copper test ;
; action of dilute acids on sugar ; use of the polabeet -sugar ; generalprincipleunderlying sugar
manufacture.]
glucosesand of two stituents, consucroses. consisting Honey is a mixture of glucoses, solid isthe which dextrose (Cfl more portion, Hia Oe H8 0), and l"vulose (C6H1906) which is the more liquidportion. Canemaltose (Cta HM Otl) are sucroses. sugar (CiaH,a ()") and SUGARS
may
be
classified under
two
groups,
"
295
SUGARS.
Dextrose occurs also in grapes, and in many it is therefore called It reduces grape-sugar.
juicesof plantsand
alkaline solution an of precipitate cuprous oxide (Cu20), while cane-sugar does not do so unless it is first heated with a dilute acid. This reaction is made use of in estimating the amount of dextrose present in liquids. All soluble in water are sugars and less so in alcohol. Laevulose resembles dextrose except in its action on polarized light.Dextrose rotates the planeof polarized trose lightto the righthand and laevulose to the left hand. Dexand laevulose are not so readilycrystallized as cane-sugar is,and the molasses of cane-sugar and other raw sugars contain dextrose and laevulose. These glucosesbeing hygroscopicsubstances absorb moisture from for which accounts damp air, gur and dhulua sugar running in the rainy season and good Cossipore of
cuprichydrategivinga
red
Factorysugar remainingdry. Impurities in and or
ash
constituents less. One part of
of
the form
glucoses
of cane-sugar more prevent crystallization one glucoseprevents part of cane-sugar from part of ash prevents five parts of cane-sugar
and one crystallizing from crystallizing. Unripe cane,
maize-stalks and sorghum-stalks less cane-sugar and more glucose.A properlyripecane contains about 80 per cent, of water, 16 per cent, of cane-sugar, *3 per cent, of glucose, '75 per cent, of ash, and about 3 per cent, of albuminoid matter. contain
Baume's
Saccharometer
graduatedto indicate the amount each degreeon the scale represolution, senting 0*019 per cent, of sugar, so that a 10" registering liquor would contain *19 per cent, of .about hot when are Syrups sugar. 3 degreeslighter than when cold and the saccharometer is standardised
of sugar in
at as
In
a
84"F. The Brix hydrometer can meter, be used as a saccharoit givesthe percentage of solids in solution directly.
and clarifying
thermometer is the best to use. case
and the
is
saccharine
in boilingsugarcane juicethe use is essential. One registering from
of a copper0" to 300"F.
Dilute acids convert of dextrose cane-sugar into a mixture laevulose. Cane-sugar the plane of polarized rotates lightto
rightand
mixture
of equal parts and dextrose and leevulose Sugar is therefore said to be inverted by dilute acids. Sugarcanejuiceis naturally somewhat acid, and hence in the boiling process some cane-sugar is inverted into glucose.The only dilute acid which does not invert the sugar liquidis acid hence this acid is used alongwith milk of lime phosphoric ; in clarifying the liquid.The addition of slaked quicklime for to
the
left.
a
'
'
is of the highestimportance. neutralizing juicebefore boiling, But justsufficientlime should be added neutralize the acid to else colour the of the sugar producedwill be too dark. or Maltose is produced naturally minating in germinatingbarley. Gerbarleydried and digestedwith water at about 60"C. which can be obtained from the solution p"ts with its malt-sugar by boilingit down.
296
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
difference of action of polarized lighton different kinds factories for utilized in the purityof a principle testing
The
of sugar is
juice,with the help of an sugarcane consists of two polariscope.It prisms of sugar
called transparent calcite which the saccharine
or
instrument
(Icelandspar) enclosed in a tube, between solution is introduced. Light passingthrough the outer prism, the saccharine solution and the inner prism,traverses a layer of transparent quartz so adjustedthat the rotation caused by the be detected and measured. The rotatorypower can sugar-solution of cane-sugar is 73*8" to the right, and it may be found out by observing a
column
of saccharine
solution,1 decimetre
in
depth,
of pure cane-sugar in every cubic centimetre of fluid. To get the rotation of any sample from this observed rotation,divide the former by the depth of the column of fluid by the weightof the sugar in each cubic centimetre of multiplied liquid.Thus, if a solution of 0*25 gram of sugar in each cubic centimetre of fluid has an observed rotation of 25" in a column 2
containing1 gramme
^ 50". sample is2-J The percentage of cane-sugar in the sample would thus be (73'8 : If no 6'77. 100 :x) 10-^^ 50:: invert-sugaris present, the solution can be found by of sugar present in the juice or proportion the observed by the polarirotation of solution the as scope multiplying by 100 and dividingthe productby 73*8. decimetres
in
depth,the rotatory power
of the
~
=
is detected by the copper test. presence of invert-sugar Cane-sugar does not give the characteristic red precepitateof alkaline solution of cupric tarcuprous oxide (Cu2 0) from of glucose does. To the estimate while glucose proportion trate, is standard used. solution This is solution. Fehling's present, a The
of copper, 364 grainsof neutral It consists of 90| grainsof sulphate 4 fluid of caustic soda of specific ounces tartrate of potash, gravity 6 In this standard tion solu1'12 and water to make ounces. using up the is and known to it a brought boilingpoint weight and volume of solution of glucose dropped into it from a burette until which is known by the blue colour reduced the copper has been just dried and is then filtered, being destroyed.The precipitate difference between and that its weight of the sugar weighed,the The used in the solution gives,the percentage of cane-sugar. sugar lost in
the reducing the copper beingglucose, residue is sucrose. (180 parts) Fehlingfound that one equivalent of glucosedecomposed 10 equivalents (1246'8parts)of sulphate of copper. Sugaris made not only from date-palmjuice,sugarcane and beet. It is also obtained from maize-stalks,stalks of sorghum saccharatum, cocoanut and toddy-palmjuices,and other plants.
quantityof
maple-treeis largelytapped for a sugar-yielding fine dyes and other articles from which so many juice. Coal-tar, of a highly swe%et of economic value are obtained,is the source In
America
substance
the
called saccharine.
One
tabloid of saccharine
scarcely
297
SUGARS.
largeas
so
substance
But will sweeten of tea. a cup piece, Milk is value like genuinesugars. feeding
two-anna
a
has
no
this also
and cheese have been extracted of sugar. After cream of fresh out milk, the whey from the cheese- vat is forced into a into an evapois run whence after a time the liquid largeboiler, rating thick syrup is until where continued the boiling is a pan, formed. This syrup is left standingfor a time and againboiled when The sugar is pressedand the molasses the sugar forms. a
source
and rejected,
packed in barrels for the refinery. in Germany and Austria, largelymanufactured Good with cane-sugar. it is competing very successfully their of of beet yieldon an weightof one-eighth average then
Beet-sugaris and roots
The sugar, but one-sixth has been also obtained, of late years. increased by phosphaticmanures of sugar is materially proportion and by selection only of middle-sized roots for seeding. Middlefor sugar. sized roots which are white,are alone grown for crushing of beet (i.e., In 1876 the average produceof sugar from an acre while in 1896 estimated at 2,000 Ibs., from 10 tons of roots)was the average rose to 3,000 Ibs. per acre and the tendency is towards further amelioration. It should be noted, however, that 3,000 Ibs. of is considered a poor yield for 4,000 sugar per acre and often obtained. more are 8,000 Ibs. or even sugarcane, been between chemists difference have able find not to Though any do not consider them manufacturers cane-sugar and beet-sugar, has been identical. For the condensed milk trade beet-sugar found altogether unsuitable. The Superintendent of the SaharanpurBotanical Gardens has made ture an experiment on the cultivation and manufacinteresting of beet-sugar.He came to the conclusion that the white introduced as a cold weather crop in India. be easily can sugar-beet or
The tons
may
the
yieldper acre was 9J tons of roots, 6 tons of juice, and 13 cwts. of gur, of which about
of green leaves,4J half the quantity
be put down as pure cane-sugar. Mr. Proudlock, late of Ootacamund Botanical Garden, also reportsfavourably of
sugar-beetgrowing. With regard to the manufacture of sugar by a scientific the be remembered : followinggeneralsummary may process, (1) The first objectafter the juicehas been obtained in the fresh state either from beet, sugarcane, maple, or palm is to "
the
albuminoid
is favourable to the acid. Acidity inverts sugar and prevents proper crystallisation. The ash or noncane-sugar saccharine substances the also prevent crystallisation. Hence before boiling.The temperature great importanceof clarifying of the juiceat clarifying should be between 125" and 145". In it should not be allowed to go above 160"F. any case is done by adding to the hot cane-juice The (2) clarifying which other alkali, or some justenough of slaked by stirring, would neutralize the juice which is naturally acid. The albuminoid remove
substance,which
growth of the microbes which
June
turn
c
'
298
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
combining with
lime sinks. For clarifying, about half a gharaof juicewill be found ample. Thus clarifiedand neutralized, the juice should be filteredthroughdouble flannel bags and then boiled,the impurities as on scum floating the boiling taken off. When the brown thick, mass, being sugar is put in casks or earthen pots in which holes are afterwards made to get rid of the molasses. (3) To get rid of the molasses more quicklyand thoroughly it is advisable to use A a sugar-turbine. hand sugar-turbineof matter
tola of slaked lime per
machine centrifugal
is sold by Messrs. Mylne and Fox of Behea, for Us. 200.* When the molasses have run out, brown crystals left behind. These are mixed with warm are into a syrup, water lime is added to it,and the mixture is poured into bags made of thick woollen cloth and left to dripthrough into a vessel below. The liquid though clean is stillcoloured,and it is made colourless
by passingit through a bed of bone-charcoal.
This colourless is then in and boiled. When thick largecopper pans put syrup enough it is poured into moulds after which we get loaf-sugar. The moulds are placed with their small pointedend downwards. Here there are some small holes. Part of the syrup which does harden flows out into a vessel underneath. not This is called '
goldensyrup.' Evaporationin a and crystals, sparkling
apparatus, which
vacuum
results in
more
the
of molasses by a centrifugal separation the two the of guished are apparatus, factorysystem as distinspecialities from the cottage system of making sugar, but the Indian be improved. If the cottage system of making raw sugar may and of the sugarcane preliminaryneutralizing clarifying juice is very carefully vessels or earthen handies done, and aluminium used, the second filtering throughbone-charcoal will not be found of lime tends to make the sugar brownish excess Any necessary. in colour. add, that for Indian use; Mr. we Finally, grey may Hadi's method to be particularly seems adapted.
CHAPTER
LXTIT.
INDIGO. [Varieties ; Introduction Manures
;
The
of
the Java
crisis ; Different
process ; Indigo tests ;
Varieties. The
and soil suitable Natal variety ; Climate ; ing ; Oxidissystems of cultivation ; Manufacture
Synthetic indigo likelyto replacenatural
indigo.]
in Bengal (i.e., Intinctoria is known not diyofera as Indigofera sumatrana, ordinarily the richest in India, and the Madras varietyIndigofera anil is still The the richest i s the in Indigofera dye-stuff variety poorer. "
varietyof indigo grown
4
*
Tool
For large factories,the Western obtainable of the American Centrifugals and Machine Co., 109, Beach Street,Boston, Mass., are recommended.
300
HANDBOOK
OF
AGBICULTUBB.
in the United Provinces and the Punjab. Saran and Tirhut, Champaran, i.e.,in North Bihar, a very careful system of cultivation is practised, which includes digging the land deep immediately after harvest. The seed is drilled with a seed drill, land well preparedby ploughing next season, on and rolling with a wooden roller, and the fieldsare hoed and irrigated when necessary. elevated on High class cultivation is practised lands in some parts of Bengal also, e.g., in Jessore and Nadia.
grown
as also by irrigation,
In
Pruning or feedingthe crops in some localities. practised
for
day by sheep and goats is also
a
lands indigois producedin highcultivation. The spring-sown
The
best
under
careful system of a the best dye, but as cultivators are eager at this time crop yields to sow aus more remunerative, it is not paddy which is directly convenient to in spring. So far always get a large tract sown as our experimentshave gone at Sibpur,we find it is immaterial whether aus in Aprilor in May, or in June. In paddy is sown
fact,Aprilsowingof indigois far of aus When
paddy, as Falgunisowing is
more
the latter is
ing importantthan Aprilsow-
risky.
in February highlands(i.e., or be thoroughlypreparedby manuring must March) with nil-siti, and rolling and ploughing, deep ploughing,rolling is again land again. Sowing is done by a drill after which the done
on
the land
rolled.
In three
germinates. One or two weedings are high. The plantsare sufficiently for canal irrigation. Falguni indigois grown where there is facility In dry soil sowing goes on in July to September,and the crop is cut in Septemberor October. The second year'scrop from early then
or
four
days
the
seed
givenuntil the
sowings and late sown indigocrop are called Khuwti. October is done char lands after the water has subsided on (chhitani) sowing but later and when the land is quitesoft,without any preparation, in October, sowing is done in higherland after ploughingand on when there is stillsufficientmoisture in the soil. October laddering the two and April are usual seasons for sowing indigo. With in October is usuallygrown some oilseed which yields indigosown the raiyatan additional Rs. 6 or Rs. 7 per acre, and October sowing of indigo is,therefore, not so unpopular with the raiyatas the April Ten fifteen of seed are required to sowing. seers Thirty per acre. is the produce to fortybundles (a bundle weighingabout 300 Ibs.) In Lower and the yieldof dye about 12 Ibs. per acre. per acre Bengal the average yieldis 10 to 12 Ibs. per acre and in Bihar 20 Ibs. acre. Indigois ripefor cuttingwhen the flowers are just about June or July,if sowing is done in February i.e., appearing, to April. The arrangements for manufacturing beingcompleted, cuttingbegins. The lowest lying fields are chosen first. The crop is cut with sickles and tied into bundles, and as the crop is bought at so many bundles (say 4 or 5) per rupee, when it is cultivated by raiyats and sold to the factory,a chain of a definite different factories use is used in each factory.4But measure chains of different lengths.
INDIGO.
The
bundles
of
301
put in fresh in the and vat, wal^r they are pressedby poured upon them, steeping rods and heavy beams of timber. of bamboo The bundles means in this condition for one night. There are two sets of vats. remain The second set is at a lower level than these steepingvats, and when steepinghas been completedin the firstset, the yellowish the dye is drawn off from it into the second set. liquidcontaining of men the bundles Here, twice the number employed in pressing with the bamboos is employed inside the vats in stirring liquid up has from the liquid a to oxygenate it. When changed yellowish Manufacture.
"
plants are
is
is completed. From these indigocolour the stirring is off alonga channel into a troughor vats the liquid run stirring is whence it pumped up into the firstdrying house, where well, here the thickened liquid charged it is subjected to boiling.From is discloth spreadon a platform of bamboo stout laths. a on is pumped up again and out The water percolating againon the of soft dye until the water mass percolatesout, not indigo coloured but of a dark red tint. If it takes too long alum water is used, when the indigois readilydeposited. or palas gum and is then folded cloth The over pressed. The press is and for six five hours and afterwards now or tightened again every and gentlyloosened,and the cake, which is about 42 x gradually in dimension, exposed. This cake is then marked inches 24J 3| off into 3 or 3|-inchsquare blocks, and the slab on which it another where the cuttingand removal to rests removed room the slab are of the cakes from accomplished,the cakes being the drying or cake-house, which is a well- ventilated removed on room protectedfrom dry and hot winds. The cakes are arranged
colour
to
x
and turned from side to side that every side get equallydry. The cakes are removed when quitedry to may where walls of cakes are made and covered with a sweating room,
in bamboo
shelves
blankets and dry bran, and the doors closed,so that little air In about into the room. find access a fortnightthe may sweating process is completed when air is let in slowly and the walls of cakes uncovered by degrees,the blankets being removed in four to five days. The process of sweatingimproves of the dye, and it giyesa white skin to the cakes the brilliancy
highly appreciatedby buyers. The whole process the time the pressing of the fecula or pulp takes about three months. The cakes are brushed wher place,requires and for into of well-seasoned wood cases packing packed ready Improvements in the manufacture of indigo have been Jatel} Eawson and by Mr. B. Coventry broughtabout by Mr. Christopher have obtained an increased who, by proper method of oxidizing, of 25 With the help of Mr. Eawson '* cent, or more. yield per the liquid from the steeping vat 2i blower for oxidizing as it comes in cent, of to 30 per some more has, cases colouringmatter obtained. With Bihar factor! the ordinaryappliances, been 10 seers of indigo(60 per cent, obtain about purity)out o
which
is
of dryingfrom
302
OF
HANDBOOK
plant, and with the blower green in obtained. The indigotin is contained
maunds
100
every
of
sometimes
are
little
as
or
of leaf
weight
the
and
10
as
plants
on
per
*55
leaf
per
indigo out of 100 to seers 40 good plant to contain average 14'7 would yield of green plant be now As seers 12| may purity). otherwise
or
indigo
or
with
tests
:
(1)
acid
nitric a a
green mixture
in
of
and
cloth.
dye, three
Care
square. the water
dyed
is
oz.
of
boil
in
1
dye
the
must
the
not
solution
it for
used
15
is
minutes
pure
the
will
washing
common
cloth
always
into
a
indigo
with
to
of
remain
soda
in
1J
inches
water, be
to
and
tested, the
pour
acid.
the
lowing fol-
yellow spot with indigo. (2) Make
parts
of the
taken
water
A
pure nine
dyed
judged by the ordinary commercial
of
fabric.
dye
be
indigo, the
in pure
gently If
and
maunds
100
been
be
can
drops
the
if the
has
one
about
Dissolve
inferior
appears
leaf,
cent.
per
fabric
portion
some
two
of
of
obtained
it is
or
cent.,
per
indigo (60 per cent, with the help of the tion fermentapossible by proper
seers
a
two
60
as
leaf,
of
part sulphuric acid, and a piece quickly for ten minutes of
into
been
water
Put
inches
1| gently
say
has
some
much
as
seers
the
the
cent,
per
another
Whether
"
quickly
rim
it boil
on
that
obtain
to
Indigo Tests.
Pure
pure
inferred
be
it may
blo'wer,
of
12"
Indigofera sumatrana is equivalent indigotin,which maunds of leaf. Taking an
of
cent,
of
36
be
may
The
cent.
yields about
of Bihar
AGRICULTURE.
If the
acid
cloth
colourless. half
a
liquid
of
piece
square will
(3)
pint remain
colourless.
artificialindigo of in Germany, large factories The
no
these
indigo red,
when
indigo the
no
have
substances
artificial run,
and
is
likely
defects
is
almost
indigo brown, some
to
of
manufactured
commerce,
pure
which
beneficial
supplant the
by several indigotin, containing
is
effects
a
disadvantage, in
dyeing.
as
But
natural
indigo in the long been product will have fabrics dyed with natural those artificial dyed with
artificial
Woollen means. supplied by be distinguished from indigo may fabrics The over steaming water. one indigo by holding the two emit will with while the an agreeable odour, vegetable indigo dyed smell. For out will the natural silk, chemical a give tarry indigo results than the better still synthetic product, produces indigo this will be maintained for cannot but we advantage hope that artificial
ever.
303
TOBACCO.
LXIV.
CHAPTEK
TOBACCO. [Soiland climate suitable ; Differences in quality; Proximity to sea unsuitable tobacco ; Chemical composition useful ; for cigarette ; Inference as to manures Rotation
Seed-bed
;
;
Preparation
of land ; After-treatment
;
Harvesting ;
of cultivation and fermenting; Different methods curing Tirhut Petlad ; Seeding; Outturn and in Nadia, Jalpaiguri, Rangpur, vogue at Pusa.] Injuries ; Suggestionfor improvement ; Arrangements made
Drying
and
Soiland climate. "
A
lightsoil
or
of
sandy loam, organic matter
well
in
;
drained,
and rich in containing average mineral matters is considered to be best suited for tobacco tion. cultivathe leaf becomes too coarse Grown on claysoils, and inferiorin but claysoils usually give heavier yields. Sandy loams, quality, amount
an
organicmatter, producea better sort of tobacco of the kind districts fit for making cigars.The principal tobacco-growing of in order their Cooch of Bengal, importance,are, Eangpur, Behar, Purnea, Darbhanga,Myrnensingh, Nadia, Muzaffarpur, Jalpaiguri, Murshidabad, Dinajpur,Chittagong, Jessore, Manbhum, Dacca, gong Tippera,Bhagalpur,Pabna, Monghyr, and Cuttack. The ChittaHill Tracts produce the best tobacco in Bengal. This is There are generallyused for making cigarsby the Burmese. Mri three varieties : (1) Khao Doung, (2) Kheoung, and (3) rich in
The
excellence
of these varieties of tobacco of speciality the soil rather than to any mode of cultivation or of curing. The leaves are cured peculiar in the way in vogue in Rangpur and Jalpaiguri. The Chittagong tobacco sells for Rs. 20 or more per maund, while the Rangpur tobacco sells from Rs. 6 to Rs. 12 per maund. The tobacco above is sold at Rs. 3 to Rs. 7 per of other districtsenumerated of cultivation and of curing the method of maund. Ignorance
Bigre Kheoung. is said to be due
to the
in the quality in many of leaves, but the placesinferiority difference in flavour is no doubt also due to differencein the kind of tobacco grown, to influences of the soils, and to climate. The tobacco cannot be grown best cigar-making too close to the sea, causes
for such tobaccos,i.e., chlorides are injurious they interfere with the burningqualityof the leaf.
as
Composition. Tobacco requires particularlygood soil and heavy manuring,as it is richer in nitrogen and in mineral other constituents than almost any The compositionof the crop. leaves varies very much in both nitrogenous and ash constituents the richness the of soil or the amount to of soluble plant according food contained in it. The amount of nitrates in leaves may be 10 much cent, of the as The ash of Indian as dry matter. per tobaccos varies between 16 and 28 per cent.,the greaterpart of which consists of carbonate of lime. The soluble portionof the consists of potashsalts, ash chiefly the proportionvarying from Chemical
five to
thirty-five per
"
cent.
304
HANDBOOK
OF
table givesthe following Virginiantobacco : The
of
AOBIOULTUBB.
chemical
compositionof
a
sample
"
Moisture Nicotiu Ammonia Nitric acid Malic
9-44 452
"53 '83 ...
acid
12-05
...
2'81
Citric acid
...
Oxalic
acid
Acetic
acid
3'18
...
"55
acid
Tannic
1-80 ...
Petic
acid
718 ...
and
bodies
Pectose
3'61
gums
11-92
Albuminoids Total
Nitrogen
Amid
Nitrogen
Other
insoluble Cellulose
Oils, fats and
2-75 "61
organic matters
6'87 1022
chlorophyll
5-90
Resins
4-51
Starch
"64
ash
Total
1364
pure Silica and sand
3'78
Phosphoric acid
"38
acid
Sulphuric
"56
"74
Chlorine Lime
3-94 1-04
Magnesia of iron
Oxide Potash
"
alumina..
"46 2-60
...
Soda
"13
Potash
ash) in the
should
to the abundant as
carbonate
chieflyas
occur
the richness of
soil,and
presence
of
a
crop and
are
that
ashes
the most (or crude
superphosphate.But
is
chieflydue
nitrogen,potash and phosphoricacid
nitrates, carbonates, sulphatesand
will appear
(or ordinarywood
soil for tobacco
phosphates. From
for the tobacco appropriatemanures potassiumcarbonate),saltpetre, gypsum as ally manuring is expensive, soils natur-
nitrogenousand ash constituents,that is, very soils,should be chosen for growing this crop. rich in
Rotation
this it
fertile
is sometimes
Tobacco
after jute or maize grown it the often forms only crop of the very it for be three four years can or manured, Properly grown year. and the it be on same can successively ground, nearly grown all the year round. has been
"
harvested
Sort-bed
The
but
soil of the seed-bed
is
dug
with then
a spade and with rotten raised about cowdung and ashes the ground has been well pulverised and levelled, six inches. When have about one inch of seed is drilled thin,so that the seedling may is the seed around After it. covered up with sowing, lightly space The seed-bed is kept covered with mats until germination earth. also to keep the seedlings takes place. It is necessary protected
manured
"
up and
305
TOBACCO.
from rain and heat of the sun. to be watered at They may require intervals of two or three days. Seed is generally in the first sown week of Septemberor earlierin Bihar and Chota Nagpur. In dry about the second lateritesoil it is best to do the sowingearly,i.e., week of third or (1Jtola)of seed is to be August. Half an ounce to produceplantsrequiredfor one acre sown ; but loss invariably of occurs owing to patches seedlingsgrowing too thick. It is therefore advisable to grow seedlings of seed for one from one ounce of land. Sometimes do considerable damage to seed ants acre and seedlings, when ashes sprinkled the seed-bed round and over soil of efficacious. seed-bed the between the Loosening prove lines i s of the seedlings important.
The soil for tobacco-planting should be Preparationof land the of and months October. September preparedduring Eight to "
ploughingsare necessary. Deep cultivation and thorough of the soil are most pulverisation important. The soil should be manured with well-rotted liberally cowdung and ashes. It is then ten
to be levelled with
a
be made
poor soil can
lightharrow. to
It is needless to say that
produce good crop by a
proper
even
and tillage
Soils destitute of potash, unmanured or soils soils, flesh,bones, calcium chloride,magnesium chloride, potassiumchloride,produce a bad burning tobacco which is
heavy manuring. with
manured or
unsuitable for making cigars. The use of cowdung also should be avoided in raising tobacco for the manufacture of cigars.Potassium carbonate, saltpetre, potassium sulphate,and calcium for tobacco the best intended are manures sulphate(gypsum) for cigars. They give to the leaves a sweet flavour and burning and its use is parquality. Gypsum is excellent as a top-dressing ticularly recommended Indian cultivators. Crops manured to with it suffer less from the effects of drought and require less in the manufacture of aerated Gypsum is a bye-product irrigation. and can be obtained very cheapfrom these factories at four waters to eightannas equal per maund, but it should be used with an of is liable to with it, as the bye-product quantity lime mixed be acid. The mineral used generally from 2J to 4| are manures also maunds ashes household an are Ordinary per acre. excellent manure for tobacco. They contain a largeamount recommended of potash and lime, and for clay are particularly and humus soils. Transplanting When about three inches the seedlingsare in the four after have shown three or high they nursery, that is, leaves,which takes placewithin six weeks from sowing time, they fit for [transplantation. The transplantation are beginsin the and extends beginningfof Aswm (the third week of September), late as the end of Kartik (middleof November). Earlyplantas ing is-preferable, The seedlings should for dry climates. especially another. be planted in the evening,three feet apart from one Smaller varieties, be as conveniently Hingli,Motihari,etc., may "
M,
HA
20
306
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
feet apart. The transplanted to are young seedlings few for first until w atered the strike root. days carefully they be afterwards necessary at intervals of about ten Irrigation may of the soil. In Eangpur to twenty days accordingto the nature
plantedtwo be
is repeatedly nately a hand-plough draggedby a man alterJalpaiguri tobacco the and which the across serves fields, along the soil. This is done until the purpose of hoeingand stirring In is flower buds are seen. places where artificial irrigation after each irrigation or required,regularhoeing is wanted once and
twice
month.
a
After-treatment. A
days before the plants run to flower, their buds and lower leaves should be nippedoff,and theyshould be than so pruned that only eightleaves,and on no account more finely ten, may be left to each plantfrom the top. In Jalpaiguri is earth used to of sap from or powdered stop bleeding overflowing the broken parts immediatelyafter pruning. This mode should be followed in other districts. Plants reserved for seedingshould The plants not be toppedin this way, but left to flower and seed. forth shoots of the side the stalks of leaves pruned, always bring by "
and
care
should be taken to prune off the shoots every now and the leaves are and The longer these buds mature. is done to the leaves requiredto kept the more injury
again
until
shoots
are
be
few
gathered.
and the leaves feel thick and gummy begin to turn yellowwith brown spots,they are considered mature and they should be cut off. Tobacco should not be cut over-ripe. Harvestingof a plotshould not be done at once : the mature plants is morning, to be gatheredfirst. The best time for harvesting are time the dew is off the plants. They should liefor some as soon as in the sun, say for two them wilted, sufficiently hours, to make that they can be handled without breaking. Care should be 90 Harvesting. When "
taken
It is better sun-burnt. whole plants (closeto the roots) than gatherthe leaves to cut singly.Harvestingshould be delayed for two or three days if there be heavy rainfall, the gummy which washes away matter the of leaves. not
to
let them
become
too
much
Drying and fermenting
veyed Immediately after the plants are conbeneath house, they should be hung up on strings "
to
the roof of
the
well-ventilated house, six inches apart. Cowsheds are used comtaonly by the raiyatsfor this purpose, but this gives bad flavour to the tobacco. The plantsshould remain hanging a than two months, or until they are quite dry. When for more and doors of the house very hot or strongwinds blow, the windows should be closed. In very dry weather,the floor of the shed should be occasionally sprinkedwith water, in order to keep the air of the room
the
a
moist. In June,*when the rains commence sufficiently again, plantsare taken down, strippedand handled. Best, medium
308
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
to the alternate action of sun's ray" up into bundles and subjected dews at night."* by day and of the
nrhut"'' Plants
allowed to be on thethen carried to some ; they are groundas cut, for a day or catch the and laid out to the day, and sun during grassy spot this turned After has the dew at night,being daily. gone on for fourth the third or ten or day plantsare stacked days,every eight Moth od offcuringIn
are
two
togethertillthey get heated, when cool.
to
If at this time
the dew
they are again spread out thoughtnot sufficient to cool
is scattered over the leaves this for The lie or on more. as they twenty days plantsare ; goes and stacked ; they are then brought into cover changed every third or fourth day, the top goingto the bottom, and so on. It i" to prevent them gettingover-heated : if the leaves important now the leaves are covered with plantain show a tendencyto get crisp, is put a blanket to make which leaves or damp grass, over the The leaves then sweat. huswa are or separatedby khurpi heap from the stem. They are then tied five or six togetherwith strips the
plant,at eveningtime
is
a
littlewater
of date leaves and piledtogether.These pilesare again watched tillit is evident that the leaves will not heat any more. carefully then tied up in bundles of four maunds each,wrapped round are They with a straw, and are then fit for the market ; if not immediately stowed
in
dry place. If the leaves are before openingthem for not of a good colour,the cultivator may, little and boil it a sale,get good tobacco, sprinklethe juiceover them after the last process of drying; but this is more trick of a of curing which the trade than a method being reallynothing sold,they are
more
matter
away
some
than careful alternative of heat and moisture, is introduced, "f
no
extraneous
The tobacco cultivation Method of cultivation and curingin Petlad. State is perhaps the most famous of Petlad in the Baroda in India and a of this may be of interest. Western description tobacco introduced here about The varietygrown is the Havana For 1 bigha (100 cubits x 100 cubits)" Ib. a hundred years ago. is in the seed-bed,thoughJ Ib. is sufficient. seed of sown generally "
is kept to allow for any contingencies. of seedlings ing Sowis done in July. If there is no rain at the time, every third day Too much rain is injurious for seedlings. the seed-bed is watered. when have five six leaves The seedlings are or transplanted they is done each, i.e.,when about 4 inches high. The transplanting A
reserve
in cloudyor showeryweather,1 " ft. nakshatra) and manured soil. Four or five ploughapart in well-ploughed-up 30 in and cart-loa4s(perlocal bigha)of dung. ingsare given May level state by the use of the Then the land is broughtto a perfectly After board. interculture with bullock-hoes transplanting, levelling
in
August(inMagM
*
Vide
Collector
of Nadia's
Report,*1874.
t Vide Collector of Tirhut's Report, 1874
309
TOBACCO.
inch of the surface soil is dry, after is resorted to when one there is rainfall againanother bullockWhen the rains are over. October or November mences, comirrigation hoeing is given. From which goes on twice every month ing Pickup to February. have of tipsand side-shoots beginsin December, when plants at intervals of leaves ten days,each plant each, fifteen or sixteen five The times. four thus or picked cuttingof leaves,or being
beginsin March. For five days theyare leftin the field, harvesting, after which, earlyin the morning when there is stilldew on them, leaves. If the leaves in bundles of fortyor fifty the is sprinkled too dry and there is no dew on them, water on are One hundred bundles of fortyto fifty leaves leaves before removal. "ach are put in each stack, and the bundles are dailytransferred
they are removed
thirtydays,from top and bottom
to middle and from middle to this for another month, or half a month, i.e., until of in three they are sold,the position the bundles is changed once should be stack there of leaves In each one put only day's days. described here The the to of only applies system curing cutting.
for
outside.
After
For bin or cigarettetobacco, chilim tobacco or snuff-tobacco. the cut leaves are used for chewing raw, left on the tobacco or after fifteen field on for which, a misty day,they are whole days, must be sprinkled before reIf there is no mist,water removed. moval. stacked togetherand their The whole of the leaves are
changed only once position transfers,the tobacco maunds per local maund Baroda a Ibs. 41 i.e., Seeding "
The
in 15 to 20
bigha,which being about
best
plantsare
days.
After two or three obtained is 32 to 40 yield sellsfor Rs. 5 to Rs. 8 per maund, half a maund of standard weight,
is sold off.
The
set
aside
for
seeding.They
are
moved topped like others, but the side shoots and suckers are reheads the or from the stems, only tops of the plantsbeing tied heads The to sticks to keep them seed. are for preserved straight.As soon as the seed is ripethe heads of plantsare cut
not
off and hung in a dry and safe place. After a few days the seed The seed should be is rubbed out of the .podsby hand and stored. and is it and therefore from insects, damp usuallyhung preserved of the seed can The the be tested by in cook-room. vitality up hot iron. If of sound a on a piece some sharpspattering scattering be considered to be sound. is givenout, the seed may A well-growncrop is expected to of cured leaves per acre, the money 24 maunds estimated at Es. 100 to Ks. 120, Rs. 5 be may tobacco. priceper maund of country-cured Outturn.
"
yield from value
20 to
of which
beingthe average
of the tobacco Injuries The chief enemy crop is a kind leaves which the at night and of Noctuid eats caterpillar away takes shelter in the soil by day. This caterpillar or cutworm causes It be the should serious damage to looked carefully youngjplants. "
310
HANDBOOK
killed when
for and is
injuryfrom
any
to this crop.
Hailstorms the of country.
often
"
a
takingits cigarettes For
be altered.
curingmust
be cut, and the that the colour
should
mature
lightmanner
Small-sized leaves with
green.
and
may
remain
largeareas
is untobacco fortunately the method place,
yellow and
goldencolour make The
brittle.
over
leaves not fully cigarette-making in fermenting heaps done in such
ordinary native tobacco
The tobacco. and is too dark
does great damage
crop
chilim
native
There-
is noticed.
source
destroythe
As
Suggestionfor improvement going out and of
this
causingcurlingof leaves which
aphid also
an
AGRICULTURE.
OP
is too
in
parts
the best cigarette much fermented
following paragraphsare
taken
' '
It would be well worth considering : Englishman newspaper famous and of the Dubec possibility growing Yenidge for cigarettes and for which such high in demand tobacco so much pricesare paid. This is grown extensivelyin the Bulgarianand All the so-called other principalities, well as in Turkey proper. as made from tobacco outside of are Egyptian cigarettes grown are Egypt, better known as Turkish tobacco. The best cigarettes and this is ascribed to made in Egypt and not in Turkey itself, the dry equable climate of Egypt preventingthe deterioration the
from
"
the
climatic conditions are not assured. We have in Aden the same conditions,a rainless region,and on a time been scale carried on small cigarette-makinghas for some there which, with certain conditions assured,might rapidlyexpand, from India. if such tobacco could be supplied specially that
*
ensues
such
when
European method
of
curing. "
"
When
the
leaves
and
ready for harvest, they are plant are mature first laid on the ground to wilt,that is, to wither
of the tobacco
gathered and ajid lose their
brittleness. This done, they are collected into bundles and packed, top upwards,into moderate size heapsto sweat. Mattingis placed and of rise the a over heaps gradual temperature begins. The increase in temperature is due to certain processes which are taking plex placewithin the leaves,whereby,as the leaves die,their more combecome contents broken down into simpler ones, with an evolution of heat and water. The water thus given off is in vapour and form, but it condenses again on the cooler mattingcovering, it is the presence of this water which givesrise to the idea of the is needed at this time toand Care attention heaps sweating.' for did the temperature rise unduly,there prevent over-heating, *
would be darkeningof the leaves and the sweating is completed, the leaves '
'
simpleexposure Mouldiness and
to
currents
consequent
then,if all the conditions leaves will have turned at
this
process
a
of air,or
rottingmust
injuriousdrying. When are dried,either slowlyby rapidlyby artificial heat. be
guarded against,and
favourable,in six or eightweeks the brown colour,thoughtobacco* brightwarm are
and flavour. The chief result of this stage lacks aroma has been to effect a further alteration in the constituents-
PAN
OR
BETEL
311
LEAF.
of the tissues of the leaves.
After it is completed,moist air is soften the leaves and render them play tillthen that they are ready for the process
again brought into pliant,and it is not of fermentation.
to
Fermentation has
alwaysbeen looked upon as a very important preparationof tobacco ; but if bacteriologists are right,eyen greater stress must be laid upon it,for it is the keystone of the whole and of paramount importance. As a preliminary stage in the
it,the brown
leaves
sorted and made up into hands, bundles,containing, perhaps,from six to ten leaves apiece. All these separate bundles are collected and piledup into great heaps or solid stacks a stack containingsometimes as much as fifty tons of tobacco. the stacks are Directly completed, to
or
are
small
"
fermentation
within, and
begins,encouragedby the warmth too, beginsthe productionof aroma now,
and moisture and flavour
accompanied by a considerable rise in temperature. But heating carefullychecked before it has gone very far by a continuous
is
turningof the stack higherthan
*
inside out and side into middle,' no 90 degreesFahr. being allowed."
CHAPTER PAN
OR
BETEL
perature tem-
LXV.
LEAF
(PIPER BETLE).
[Profitablenessof the crop: Varieties;Midnapur, the district where the best pan* are of cultivation ; Setting grown ; Soil ; General principles up a pan garden ; Subsidiarycrops; Repair; Diseases; Picking of leaves; Calculation of cost; Outturn.]
Varieties. The pan crop is probablythe most importantgarden of the most of all crops, and as crop in India and is one profitable the knowledgeof the cultivation of this crop is almost confined to the baruis, and is considered a secret by ordinarycultivators, a few notes the method on adoptedby the baruis in Bengal be of interest. The three main varieties are may Deshi,Sanchi, and Mitha, but there are such as some special sub-varieties, "
A^nta'a-Bantul,Ujani (Backergunge), Maghai,Karpurkath, which are
specially appreciatedby the
grown
connoisseur. is The finest pan between Ulubaria and Midnapur and in half-way subdivision of the Midnapur District.
at Bantul
the Contai Soil. "
stagnant
High
land
is most
above
inundation
level is necessary,
as
Black friable clay to this crop. injurious loam tank resembling earth, containinga largeproportionof organicmatter, is the soil ordinarily chosen, but the best pans are at Bantul loam on reddish in colour, ^e grown light slightly soil should be rather moist thoughhigh,and some of the best pan of gardens Backergungeactually get about six inches of water at high tides duringthe rainyseason. But when the flood is higher the damage done is very serious. water
312
HANDBOOK
Cultivation in the hence the proverbBina
Being a manure,
OF
AGRICULTURE.
ordinary sense
is not
requiredfor
pan,
chashe pan, i.e., cultivation for pan. no moist in soils with plentyof perennialcreeper grown under shade, and the plantingbeing done in the rainy
wateringafter plantingbeing done when necessary, it naturallyrequiresno irrigation except in dry regions.A garden established will go on yielding when once crop after crop for ten season,
to
thirtyyears.
the site for the barojor garden, Preparation.After selecting and trees growingon it are uprooted, burnt down, and or trench is dug round it,the earth dug out beingspread on the a land chosen to raise it a few inches above the surrounding land. "
shrubs
At
Bantul
they believe in spadingthe
soil to
a
depth
of
eighteen
the soil very fine,and levelling inches,pulverizing it,before putting the roof. The frail roofingand fencinghave the objectof on of temperature and securityfrom high securingshade, evenness winds, which are essential conditions for the successful cultivation of this crop. Rows of bamboo or other substantial posts are planted, feet remainingabove ground. Over these are placed about seven dhaincha or jute stalks and sometimes thatch of ulu-gra,ss a light is fenced all is also put above the dhaincha or jutestalks. The baroj materials. Each row, of cuttingsis planted round with the same at intervals of six inches between the between two lines of uprights taken from plantstwo are cuttings.The cuttings
years
or
more
old.
of twelve to eighteen cut into lengths inches containing are of which buried in two the five or six joints are each, earth,and the portionsleft above ground are made to recline on the surface. These are then covered with date leaves and watered if necessary, every morning and eveninguntil they strike root and put forth time extends from May to November. buds. The planting Planting
They
cuttingsin
nurseries
and
then
are transplanting
also
practised.
two the vines grow, one or jute or dhaincha sticks are stuck into the ground close to each other, the upper ends reachingthe tied to these supports with ulu straw roof. The vines are or the plants reach the roof they are dhaincha fibre. When bent and when sufficiently down long a lump of earth is put on the which is thus secured to the ground,and the bud end bent stem upwards and tied to another support. This process is repeated,
As
in the year. and there are usuallythree bendingdownwards Every trained this in two is three leaves mature time a plant or are way and upwards takes from where the bendingdownwards cut away place. In puttingearth alongthe base of the creepers from the and furrows,the plants two sides the land gets divided into ridges
while the walks alongsidethem are in furrows. growingon ridges, Dried and pulverized pond mud, dried and powdered cowdung used each time earthing and powderedoil-cake, is done. Castorare alone to pan pknts,and mustard-cake cake is said to be injurious is used in Bengal. Brick-dust is also as a manure. During the
PAN
dry
OB
BETEL
313
LEAF.
but stagnant wateringhas to be done constantly, should be avoided at all seasons. in barojes Gourds and pumpkins are usuallyplantedround barojesto additional shelter and give profit.The roofs and fences have to be changed every third year. This is the method in vogue in Bengal : that adopted in the drier regionsof India is very different,and an of this account Mr. R. S. latter by Hioremath will be found in the Agricultural Journal of India (1908). months
water
Fungus and insect pests and snails do great damage in pan of insects and snails plantations.Fumigationand hand-picking alone be suggested,Sulphuror chlorine fumigationcan be can of fungus pests, but to keep off moths, etc., done in the case cowdung cake smoke is sufficient. When plantingis done in July,in Bengal,pluckingcommences in October and when plantingis done in October, pluckingcommences in May. After pluckinghas once two commenced, pluckTwo to four leaves are received ings are made every month. each time from each plantand in the rains four to six leaves. All the leaves from an old stem after a new bent has cut away are One acre taken root. of land yieldsabout 80 lakh pern-leaves per besides inferior leaves from side shoots which are, as a annum, rule,nipped off,except those kept for making cuttings. For five after which there is a tendency years the plantsare in full bearing, for the yieldto fall off. The leaves,after beingbroughthome in
baskets,
are
sorted
arrangedin bundles Cost per 1st year
acre
and of puns
counted by the female hundreds. or
members
and
"
"
Rs. of 500 bamboo (Jiwol)posts 7 posts and wooden length,for the support of roof and for fence Purchase of cane fibre rope for tying or cocoanut Bamboo slips(longstrips) Dkaincha stalks Ulu for thatching Purchase of cuttings @ Rs. 2-8 per 1,000 of mustard-cake 12 maunds Purchase
cubits
A.
P.
0
0
in
Baskets Dhenki for crushingoil-cake Cost of cutting channels and spreadingearth soil Ploughingand pulverising Coolies for planting, thatching,roofing,and fencing Coolies for pluckingleaves,earthingand manuring Rent 2nd year of bamboos, betel-nut posts and "
Purchase Cane
or
dhaincha
stalks
coir-rope
of mustard-cake 36 maunds Ulu Wages of the permanent labourers for
pluckingleaves, earthing
manuring Rent
Carried
over
...
1,018
314
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
Rs.
Brought
1,018
forward
P.
A.
0
O
O
3rd Purchase of 150 bamboo posts,7 cubits long Slipsof bamboo and betel-nut trees Cane
or
6
0
50
0
0
3
0
O
rope
300 0 45 0 288 0 10
Ulu 36 maunds of mustard-cake Wages of the permanent labourers Rent
..1,423
Total of three years, Rs.
0 0
0 0-
0
Every fifth year the expense is increased as the thorough in of the barojis required.The total expenditure overhauling is about
ten
years Rs. 460.
Out-turn."
Rs.
4,600, and
the average
about
annum
per
the average price may be estimated for damages due
Taking3,000 leaves
per rupee as leaves at 80 lakh per annum Rs. 2,500. Allowinghalf this amount
of pan, the out-turn
about to insect and fungus pests and accidents,the gross income be safelyput down at Rs. 1,200 or Rs. 1,300 per annum.
at
LXVJ.
CHAPTER BETEL-NUT grown principally
LWhore
of nuts
THIS
;
The
(ARECA CATECHU). mandar
; Magnitude of the
is grown
as
a
may
grove
;
Seedlings
industry; The
regularcrop
;
Planting ; Gathering
betel-nut
plague.]
in the districts of Backer-
and young plants Noakhali and Tippera. The seedlings tree districts under a in these papilionaceous called are grown the mandar (ErythrinaIndica). It enriches the soil and gives from high the necessary trees protection and young 'seedlings of mandar The plantation of the sun. winds and gunge,
scorchingrays
planted in fifteen feet highlands,and four
about 6 ft. long are in this way : Branches twelve to February or in April(not March),in rows is made
After two or three ye^rs, is six years inflow lands,the plantation
apart each to
way.
on
ready for
the betel-nut
seedling. in October or November, the seeds betel-nuts are sown four to five inches apart. The seed-nurseries are beingdeposited if conveniently or either close to the homestead in shady places, The they are made in the mandar groves themselves. situafed, three or is usuallydone after two years, sometimes transplanting is done in July and lands the transplanting In four
The
years. in low lands in
high
the February or April. In the firsttransplanting,
from the mandar trees, are plantedequi-distant seedlings takes i.e.,twelve to fifteenfeet apart. But another transplanting into bearing.Before this placewhen the first trees have come
betel-nut
is done
around
down or cut trees are the mandar The the circumference of the grove. *
only
a
fringe left
betel-nut trees
in
a
.316
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
It is an ever-green tree, which rainfall is abundant in summer. to to the laurel tribe, is not able very well to stand frost,belonging It attains a height trees. which also belongcinnamon and tejpdtd of twenty diameter attains trunk ft. a 60 and and the of more, acuminate The leaves are to fortyinches. broadlylanceolate and introduced into been successfully has both base The tree and apex. at Madagascar, South America, Egypt, Italyand France. The soil this tree is sandy or loamy soil which for best
adapted
growing
it grows rapidly Manured is not inclined to be wet. properly, of the tree berries The ft.in 30 ten years. and attains a heightof eaten are by chickens and other fowls,and the wood of the tree is works. .affords a valuable timber for ornamental Irrigation where needed to keep the seedlings and young trees alive in places i nches. exceed doe" not fifty months the rainfallduringthe summer The seeds It is easily propagatedfrom seed, also from cuttings. should be collected in October and November, dried and kept June. sand until sowing time in May or packed up in dry coarse usual the i.e., character, be of The soil of the seed-bed should
one-third leaf-mould. The loam mixed up with about seed-bed should be kept covered up with mats in the usual way, and it should not be allowed to get too dry. The soil-temperature though the 75"F. at the time of germination, should not be over conditions The be as high as 85"F. external temperature may be secured of camphor trees can favourable for the
sandy
propagation some Bengal,in Assam, and in the lower hills generallythroughoutNorthern India and in Mysore (where will trees are growingin a healthy manner). The seedlings some in that case grow at a highertemperature than 85", but the plants be grown in pots in vigour. The seedlings will be lacking may to fields for for one to two years until they are ready transplanting when they have hill-sides. They are ready for transplanting or be planted should attained a heightof 20 to 40 inches. They
in
placesof Northern
be ft. apart, and after 5 years another lot of seedlingsmay begins plantedin between the rows, so that when the plantation lot to be used for the distillationof camphor after 10 years, one when down cut older lot. Trees may be of plantsmay replace an their growth and 15 20 they are 10, 12, or years old, accordingto allowed for a be If space can "he thickness of the plantation. for 20 years, it is best to use it after to grow uninterruptedly ree be lopped if the growth is ;his period; but younger trees may :hick. The largestproportionof camphor being contained in 20
olderand largerroots
in the trunk, proportion diminishing to dig out the entire branches and leaves,it is necessary finally to get the maximum ;ree yieldof camphor. Even leaves and in China and Japan, Swigs,the distillationof which is neglected yieldfor every 80 Ibs. about 1 Ib. of crude camphor. The trees are felled with the axe and the largerroots duly ahd the fresh chipsput in a cut. They are then cut into chips, 40 inches deep and 20 inches in diameter oonical wooden trough, uhe
and
CAMPHOR,
at the broader
base.
The
TEJPATA,
bottom
AND
CINNAMON.
317
of the
and. troughis perforated iron pan of water set on a masonry furnace. The but movable which is removed, cover, troughhas a tight-fitting for emptying the troughof chipsand puttingin a fresh quantity
fitted on
to
an
troughis surrounded by a layerof earth six inches thick to keep the temperature inside it as uniform as possible.A tube,, usuallymade of a bamboo, extends from the top of the trough wooden to a condenser,which consists of one troughbeingplaced wat^r, and the upper one, on another, the lower one containing sort of cover which is placedin an inverted position, a as to the clean rice straw on which the camlower one usuallycontaining phor The lower is than the trough larger crystallizes. upper trough,so that when the former is two-thirds full of water, the A continuous flow of edges of the latter are justbelow water. is kept up from the upper part of the coveringtrough,the water excess runningout from a hole at the top part of the side of the lower trough. The camphor oil floats on the water inside the in the rice straw lower trough,and the camphor crystallizes with which the upper troughis filledor floats in the water at the lower troughalongwith the oil. After the stream has carried away the The
'
in contact essential oil with it,it must not come with metal of any in lid of which the the the kind, so trough chipsare put, the tube and the whole of the condenser must the to condenser, be leading other material but of made of wood or metal. One tub never 20 to 40 Ibs. of chips fullof chipsrequirestwelve hours distilling, about 1 Ib. of crude camphor. yielding "
distillationof refined camphor out of the crude Japanese in Europe. The Europeanmethods or Chinese camphor takes place of refining too delicate and are complicatedfor description in a handbook of agriculture. and Cinnamonum Tejpdtd(Cinnamonumtamala obtusifolium). Though a native of the Himalayas,growing at an altitude of The
"
3,000 to 7,000 ft.,this plantgrows very well at Sibpur,in shady and the tree is worth growingin moist and well-shaded localities,
placesas the use coupleof small The
tree should
is almost universal in India. Aas a spice tejpdtd needed for one family. trees supplyall the tejpdtd be propagatedfrom seed imported from Sylhet.
of
and in two or three years should be grown in seed-beds, Seedlings The 10 fields ft. leaves can into be plucked apart. transplanted for fifty after the fifthyear and the tree goes on yielding or a hundred leaves But shed as if are as just aromatic, not more so years. of green leaves which weakens than the green leaves, stripping ~
the trees, is not necessary. tree from the inner bark of the The true Cinnamon twigsof which the valuable spiceis obtained,is the Cinnamonum ZeylaThis also grows at Sibpur. The bark of the twigs and nicum. be scrapedand dried and used the Indian varieties may of roots
instead of Ceylon cinnamon, which, of course, is the richest in The oilobtained by distillation aromatic properties. cinnamon 1 frojn
318
HANDBOOK
of
OP
all kinds
AGRICULTURE.
is almost
identical with cloveeugenol eugenic acid. The roots of also of Cinnamonum tamala and CinnaGinnamonum monum Zeylanicum, the some true camphor camphor, though yield obtusifolium, is different. tree (Cinnamonum camphora) leaves and
roots
chieflyof oil,consisting
or
LXVIII.
CHAPTER
SPICES.
OTHER [Round BLACK
or
pepper
;
Jird ; Juan
Pepper
Round
or
;
Rdndhuni
;
El"chi.]
gol-marich(Piper nigrum).
grows pipul (Piperlongum) gol-marich
"
Like creeper and the similar. vines are As two very habits of the pipul is under Lower of the shade of Bengal parts mango, grown in many under similar and betel-nut trees, the growingof gol-marioh moist districts of be attemptedalso in low-lying conditions may in Bengal. It grows in Assam, in Mysore, Malabar,in Burmah, in China and in the Straits Settlements,and the attempt to grow it in to succeed. the deltaic districts of Bengal is therefore likely as
a
fack
g| The propagationof the gol-marichand pipul vines takes of mature of pan, by means branches or suckers. as in the case place, suckers are layered,i.e., bent down into ground,and when they take root they are severed from the parent vine and plantedout in shade, and trailed on to trees. This of the rainyseason. The base of every is done at the beginning and well clean manured with cowdung vine is kept scrupulously The the
branches, shoots
or
mulch. Three four years after a or cake which acts also as in the bear cold to weather. vines the begin planting The berries are brought down from the climbingvines with berries are boiled and dried the help of a ladder. Black-pepper sent to the market. No preparation before they are in the sun Mr. Assistant the Basu, Director for long pepper. is necessary Assam, estimates the average yieldfrom each vine of
Agriculture,
of round pepper at one seer, valued at eightannas, Jira (Cuminum cyminum). Though this spiceis in daily household,its cultivation is like round pepper, in every use, in Bengal. The Jira seed of the bazar does not gerunknown minate, in the Punjab and Afghanistan, but as the plantis grown it in November be made to obtain fresh seed and sow "
attempt
may
sandy loam soil,viz.,such as is ordinarily preferred and wild coriander, juan celery(Rdndhuni). for growinganise, cultivated in Baroda, where after The crop has been successfully seed is sown in December. of the land and irrigation, preparation wild The o f celery Bengalneeds no such careful Rdndhuni, etc. the as attention European celerydoes. It occupiesthe or tillage juan and other garden herbs ; field longer than coriander,anises, in the former is not ready latter March, ripen that is,while the or
December
in
"
OTHER
before
Five
July. according to
the size of the
of
and
coriander
to
seers
half
a
maund
of seed
per
is used,
acre
being required in the case of juan and rdndhuni. case
seed, more in the
anise, than
319
SPICES.
A handmanuring and cultivation the seed is broad-casted. after follows the plants are weeding, accompanied by thinning, further notice is taken of the plants ^bout six inches high. No the plants are cut, and when until harvest time, when thoroughly dry, the seed is separated out by beating and winnowing. Five of seed are obtained to fifteen maunds per acre, the latter figure coriander heavier anise which apd are yieldersthan applying to and rdndhuni. Sulpa (Fumaria parviflora) juan (Carum copticum) is eaten also as a pot-herb. Like the is a semi-wild spice which but other garden herbs mentioned, this also is occasionally sown, it is oftener found coming up spontaneouslyalong with the other which of seeds usually contain a mixture of sulpa seed. spices, After
Eldchi. common
There
"
use
"
of
Bara-eldchi
the
spice,
as
kinds
two
are
eldchis the
or
cardamoms
or
in
greater cardamom
is grown in the lower subulatum), which valleys of Bhotan and mom Sikkim, and the Chhota-eldchi,or the lesser cardawhich is moist in soils in cardamomum), (Elettaria grown
(Amomum
Western
and
Southern
older
they
sent
stems
with
The
plants
the
lesser
unlike
ginger on perennial. The rhizomes growing go and The from them. to new come plants year, year up the rhizome of floweringand fruiting is,the largerthe number
plants, and from
India.
are
fruit of
The
out.
and
water soap-nut (ritha)
has
been
not
are
introduced
then
with
cardamom
starched.
is bleached
The
mom largercarda-
in the district of
success
Bogra.
zomes, of bits of rhiplace either by means manured seed-beds and fields are seed. or Highly the is needed needed. Protection from sun by plants,and from and rain by the seed and seedlings. The soil of the cardamom sun
Propagation
take
may
from
field should In the
be
valleysof
mountain
alongsideof This
water streams, whence the cardamom which secures
shade
water-logging. The be
utilized for
water
can.
dry
season,
never
on
round, but beds
made
along narrow
plants
are
moisture
of betel-nut
or
water-logged.
are
is taken
constant
in October, long and flat
not
fields
or
seed
the rhizomes
ridgesthrough
side alongchannels
on grown and freedom
gardens,easy
growing eldchis. The
raised seed-beds
September
year
Bhotan
and
Sikkim
arrangement
might
all the
moist
of
may
middle
from
irrigation,
be
planted the
ridges.
sown
in June
on or
of which
throughout the keeping the ridges alongside constantly moist but
be made
to
water-logged.
flow
down
in
a
slow
current
320
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER OPIUM [Soil; Maruires
Rotation
;
(PAPAVER SOMNIFERUM). Seasons
for cultivation ;
Tillage; Sowing
Weeding ; Harvesting; After-treatment Seed and Oil.]
;
Thinning
;
Trash
;
;
LXIX.
;
;
Cost
;
;
tion Irriga-
ture Manufac-
site,rich in Heavy loam or sandy loam near a village for The this land is should be close to a preferred crop. saltpetre, Soil. "
well,the
of which
water
Manures.
to be
is known
Nitrogenousmanures,
"
with impregnated such
as
nitre.
well-rotted
cow-
maunds (40 seers) per acre) and crude saltpetre dung (150 this for use in general are crop. Cowdung cake (20 maunds), ashes (4 maunds), oil-cake (6 maunds), or lime (160 seers)per acre, are to 200
also used
top-dressing.
for
usuallyfollows maize or millet,the preparation commencing immediately after maize or millet harvest. It
Rotation.
"
In the hills the opium Season. June and in the plainsfrom October "
is from
season
to
The land should be cultivated Tillage." and
broughtto
a
fine tilth before
Sowing. The seed
is
Februaryto
March. as
often
as
possible
sowing.
mixed
with
ruary dry earth in Febcase be, usuallybroadcast, at the or October, as may Camphor-watersteep should be used for rate of 3 Ibs. per acre. this (as for all small and delicate seeds)before sowing,as a preventive for and hastening germination. againstblights the seed beginsto germinate,i.e., As as soon Irrigation. in about a week after sowing,the field is divided by ridgesinto the alternate ridges compartments, 8 ft. X 4 ft., rectangular being made broader, as alongthem water is carried down into the fields. Wateringshould be done as soon as germinationhas taken place has failed. Irrigation where germination is carried and re-sowing the until intervals at regular on crop matures. the plantsare two or three inches high Thinning. When The out. out of sickly thinned thinning plantsis repeated, theyare to eightinches apart. until healthyplantsare left seven Weeding. This takes placealong with thinning. Flowering.Seventy-fiveto eighty days after germination the plantsflower. The petals(four in number) are carefully when fullyexpanded and matured, i.e., about the third removed flower leaves are employed day after the flower opens. These of the opium cakes. In another in the formation of the outer casing for eight or ten days tha capsulesare sufficient developed the of middle From nd sometimes to Marc? incision. January tilllater,extraction of the juicegoes on in the is. "
sown
up
the
"
"
"
"
"
"
-
is off / After the poppy After-treatment. rainy weather y "
ia Allowed to lie fallow tillthe
', the sown.
land
OPIUM.
Cost
of cultivation per
:
acre
321
"
Eight ploughings Clod-crushing .
.
Seed..
Sowing
Making water-beds Watering six times Four weedinga with thinning Harvesting (8 coolies
at
2
as.
a
day for
Manure Rent TOTAL
Products.
4
0
productsand by-productsof the poppy are : inspissated sap of the unripecapsules. (2)Pasewa,
The
"
the
(1)Opium, or
48
which drain from the ingredients of. Trash or already spoken (4) petals, opium. (3) Poppy and the dried from leaves. stems (5) Poppy powder prepared heads or capsules. (6) Seed and oil. Opium. The capsulesare lanced in the afternoon by the of his family. Three small lancetcultivator and the members shaped piecesof iron are bound togetherwith cotton, about ^th
i.e., the
soluble
and
moisture
"
"
"
of
to the
operator as
incision
pod.
discretion may be left, to be inflicted. The to the depth of the wound of the from the top of the stalk to the summit so protruding,
alone
inch
an
is made
capsuleis lanced
Each
times
three before
that
or
no
four times
all the milk
and
sometimes
is drawn
out
as
of it.
eightor drug is collected early in the followingmorning into small trowel-shapedscoops of thin iron. The opium is transferred to a many The
as
metal
or
further
ten
earthen
vessel,and it is taken
cultivator's house for
drains off and is kept in a pasewa hand from time is turned over by opium
manipulation.The
separate vessel,and to
to the
time
at
the
intervals of not
more
than
a
week.
collected,it is tied up in double
been
Ibs. have cloth. One
When
bags
25
of
to
50
sheeting
75 grains of as healthy plant may yield as much opium with five to eightscarifications and an acre 24 to 50 Ibs. will yield200 to 600 rupees worth of opium, the cultivator An acre gettingUs. 2-8 per Ib.
This is the dark coffee-coloured fluid which collects the freshly-collected of the vessels in which juice at the bottom it is when the cultivators is brought of the capsules placedby The shallow vessels are filled to such a degreethat the home. for off and be collected and sent in separately pasewa can drain the soluble of of principles weighment. It consists of the most It contains meconic in moisture. dew in or dissolved opium is not present in acid, resin,morphia,and narcotine. Pasewa collected during strong westerlywinds or in the absence Pasewa.
"
opium
of dew. in
a
Leaves." The
mature
handful
time
M,
HA
at
a
petalsafter being collected are earthen plateplacedover an -over 21
spreatf a
slow
322
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
covered with a moist cloth above, which is pressed, from the cloth,actingupon the resinous matter them to adhere together. The thin in the cause contained petals, in the earthen plate, cake of petalsthus formed is turned over the and the process of pressingand consolidation repeated on side. These thin sheets pasted together with lewd or reverse inferioropium and pasewa, form the shell or outer casingof the fire. They are until the steam
opium exportedto China. The pounded Trash. "
when
dry
at
and
stems
of the
end
the
leaves of the poppy plant used for packing the are
season
cakes. Factories the opium brought in by cultithe Government vators is examined accordingto consistence,colour,texture and into cakes and packed. The mixed up, moulded classified, aroma, cake exported to China are : constituents of an average In
Standard Lewa Leaves
..
..
.
turns
man
..
..
out
.
.
about
1
..
sr.
.
0'50
.
seventy cakes
attention and constant is removed The mildew by
require much
,"
5'43
..
.
7*50 chtks. 3-75
..
..
..
..
trash
Poppy One
opium ..
day.
a
turning
The
cakes:
else thev get
or
mildewed. rubbing in dry poppy also are extra leaves. Bv trash. Weak strenghenedby places touch and fairly dry to the October the cakes are solid when with chests in furnished double a tier of wooden they are packed tier
each partitions, 120
catties
(160 Ibs.).This
for internal
is the
cakes.
Each
case
Chinese opium.
consumption is made to the direct rays
by exposure
hardened
holdingtwenty
in
of the
What
this way sun
contains is intended It
is tillit contains :
of moisture. It is then moulded into square per bricks weighingone seer each, which are wrapped in oiled Nepaul in boxes furnished with compartments for paper and packed their reception.This opium has not the powerful aroma of the * for China, but it is more cake 'drug meant concentrated and cent,
only ten
more
easilypacked.
Seed and oil. After extraction of opium from poppy capsules, the ripeseed loses its bitter and narcotic principles, and it is then article of diet. Poppy-seed is largelyconsumed wholesome a cooked as an article of food. Even after the extraction of oil,the "
residue
or
in
oil-cake is eaten by poor people. phosphatesthan other cakes. The
richer when the seed is
simply by
fresh,with
an
in shallow for making
is Poppy-seed-cake
oil is
ordinaryghani,and
pressed out it is clarified
vessels,to the sun. Poppy-oil in Europe candles,soap, paint and artists' delicate machinery.The colours,also for cleaning average produce of seed per acre is three maunds, and the yieldof oil,when the seed is fresh,is thirteen seers One and-a-half per maund. The of seed is sown seed in acre. Malwa seer is imported sqwn per from Persia. is used
exposure
324
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and the questionof true hybridisation sxperienceof planters, of the tea plantsmay be pregnant with importantconsequences the present crisis at the planterneeds most what But is the which industry tea-making passing,is not the through but the renovation of the soil. jat, discoveryof a disease-resisting and (2) The two factors to the problemare : (1)exhaustion of soil, both and animal, which are fungoid parasites, growth of special of suitable T the a constant host-plant.he presence encouragedby be best met by the application of suitable exhaustion of soil can "
by deep hoeing once
and
manures
a
year
or
oftener,supplemented
The manures especially hoeingsduringthe season. by several light leaves of the which should be partiare used, to cularly applicable a crop and rich in potash nitrogen,also lime. A practiceof (Sesbania growing mati-kalai (Phaseolus mungo) or Dhaincha between tea plantshas sprung aculeata) up of late years, and its effect is said to be excellent
the
bushes. Castor-cake is excellent manure. Rape or mustard-cake may also be applied an The soil should be kept stirred deep and soil. the for renovating to February, viz.,December period, well,once during the dormant on
tea
other manure of rape-cake follow or application may of plants, and then when any pests are noticed, rows with of copper bushes the and mixture of sulphate of a spraying lime (1 : 10 with 200 parts of water), then dustingwith soot and of leaf coming after such alum, may be resorted to. The flushing of insecticides and cultivation and manuring and application free be of all sorts. and from should healthy blights fungicides, Picking of spottedand crumpled up leaves during the dormant period,and burning them, should be also practised. be gatheredfrom gardenswhere leaf The seed should nev"r from seed from wild but is picked, special gardensor plants. It in should be kept in almost dry earth throughoutwinter and sown When the seed-beds. in a year March old, seedlingsare planted
after which, the between
five feet
apart accordingto circumstances.
On of be the two tea races account same no plantedon plot for the purpose of blending."For the firsttwo years no plucking The is done, but the plantsare keptpruned in the cold weather. for difficult details is and tea of a matter, regarding pruning young out
from
four
to
should
"
be made
to the specialauthorities quoted later. The first plucking of leaves takes placein the third year, after which the plucking goes on many times in the year as longas the The first pickingis usuallydone in April. This alive. are bushes makes almost as good tea as that made out of October-November so as not to bruise picking. The pickingshould be done carefully,
it reference must
the leaves, nor injuretender shoots. The monsoon pickingsgo About coarsest tea. to the make an 2,000 plantsgo to acre, and the yieldfrom a mature plantation may vary from 200 to 1,000 Ibs. conditions. The to according average in India is 450 to 500 Ibs. bushes go on years at least. The
the fulKquantity for twenty yielding
to
thirty
325
TEA.
exposedto air in the shade for about constructed after pluckingin specially houses, after which they have become limp and flabbyand capable of beingrolled. The changeswhich take placeduringthis operation are profound. The essential oil increases rapidly,as also the which acts upon the tannin at a later stage of oxidising enzyme If the leaves are the process. bruised or injured, they do not wither properlyand are littlegood. In sound leaf,the commencement of fermentative end of the the observed be at can change Withering.The eighteento twenty "
leaves
are
hours
oxidised of the sap become and and gradually pass through stages of colour from coppery be should dark-brown The of moisture which to black. amount allowed varies considerably,according to the jat to evaporate broken
stem, where
the
constituents
of leaf, the time of year, yieldsthe best results. as rolling,
The the
wilted leaves
colour
The
the
weather, but about
33 per cent, the leaves fit for
objectis to make ing. keep a good twist without break-
take and
during the oxidation
witheringis allowed
moist, it may
and
process
becomes
uneven
If the atmosphere to go too far. to employ artificialheat and
be necessary
if
is very a
forced
draft in the
witheringprocess, but the temperature should never 100"F., and the heat should be graduallyreduced to 85"F. less,when the leaf is nearly ready. The leaves gatheredon that wet day should be allowed to get a little over-withered
exceed or a
the weaker and
sap
should
may be
be concentrated
to the standard
also
to
hard
and
proportion, prolonged
they subjected with than the usual to break all the cells (charged more rolling the and of the distribute moisture) juices all over proportion Leaves leaves. gathered in fine weather requireless withering a
When concentrated. properly withered, the leaves give out a fresh and pleasantaroma, different from the vegetablesmell of badly withered leaf. When the atmosphere is saturated with moisture, natural withering in very hot weather take does not even place readily, and and
the rolling,
sap
being more
artificial arrangements then and
the conditions time
be
can
100"F.
as
for
withering
are
always desirable, as
and regardshygroscopicity
regulatedto be employed
exactness.
for
temperature
Temperatures higher
time if the leaves the external has disappearedthe moisture are wet, but when 90"F. and reduced should be to retained at 90"F. temperature The leaves in the baskets should is concluded. until the operation but remain be never loose,and they must be brought presseddown, in as fresh a condition as possible. to the witheringroom The the leaves is to distribute e tc. Rolling, objectof rolling contained inside the cells over the juices the surface of the leaves than
can
a
short
"
thus brought to the surface by breakingthe cells up. The juices are easilyobtained in the tea infusion. In the process of rolling a a great deal of oxygen is also absorbed,and the tannin assumes dark colour and becomes partlyinsoluble and partlyit combines with the albuminoids of the leaf forming an insoluble leather-like
326
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
The substance. should be situated in the rollingmachine coolest part of the factory. After rolling and re-rolling, the leaves should be passed through a revolving sieve to break up any lumps and immediatelyafterwards placedin the fermentingroom. The fermentation room from the engineroom, should be well removed and it should have an even temperature which is secured by a. There should double roof. be a drain in the middle of the that the be washed and cleaned daily room fermentingroom may after the day's operation is over. In cool weather the rolled six is leaf of inches tea inches thick,and in hot mass or eight kept weather two to four inches thick and turned every half hour to prevent overheating. About 80"F. is the best temperature, and when the surrounding atmosphereis 90" or 95"F. and rather dry, the atmosphere should be cooled and moistened by hanging wet cloths in the room. Properlytreated the leaves should be of a
brightgreen tint half leaves
an
and
rollingoperation,and of a reddish change continues until the younger
colour after the hour later. This stems
are
colour, while
brightcoppery
a
the
older
and
less perfectly rolled leaves are partly reddish and partly normal Under for two conditions fermentation green. goes on to four hours, after which the leaf is re-rolled and dried, in
specialmachines, 200"
270"F.
to
leaf and
in A
a
current
more
temperature
a
of
is obtained
gradesin
operation,whereby rolling longerperiod without injuryto
air at
hot
colour
even
placingthe different
after the a
of
by sortingthe separate heaps to ferment
the older leaf
the other.
can
Should
remain
for
the
leaf
have been over-withered and the sap reduced to too great a degree of concentration, the colour obtained in the fermentation will be dull and dark instead of brightcoppery ; this can be partially remedied the
first
by moistening the
leaf with
cleanwater,
either
during
the leaf is put to ferment, by which rolling, the leaves. the concentrated sap is better diffused over means In all cases the leaf and the atmosphere of the fermenting be kept damp by sprinkling with cold water, and it is must room advisable to protect the leaf from draughtsof dry air. If this is not done, the surface of the heaps will assume a blaqkened appearance, and oxidation the leaf the to too rapid dryingup, owing A perfectly of the tannin and colouring moist draught matter. or
when
Direct rays of the be of any harm. be avoided. must Experimentshave that a certain moist condition of the atmosphere and of shown is necessary to obtain the desired colour,and also the leaf itself, that the best results as regards flavour,pungency, etc.,are obtained of air would probablynot in the fermentation room sun
when
the temperature of the
leaf does
not
rise
spontaneously
If the leaf is placedon a cement above 82" to 8i"F. floor,where it can be thicker absorbed as it is developed, the heat is partially than when placedon boards or cloth raised above the floor ; and a as generalrule,the cooler the May the thicker can the leaf be placed to obtain the necessary colour in a uniform time.
327
TEA.
usually takes placein two or three stages. The firing 270"F., about temperature employed for the firstfiring averages but duringthe second firing, when the leaf is partlydried,although the temperature employed in the machine is not so high as in the perature firstinstance, the leaf itselfattains within a few degreesthe temThe
the machine, since evaporation is not great. The become when the leaf has once temperature towards the end, i.e., below 212"F., say dry and crisp,should be reduced to somewhat 180" to 200"F.,and the draught employed should not be very rapidly.If great, so that the moisture will not be driven away of
the
hurried
firing operationis
too
much, the
"
tea
loses in
aroma.
280"F., the
260"
"
to in a Victoria at By ten minutes' firing Sirocco If the oxidized tea loses fiftyper cent, of moisture. is afterwards employed,as is usuallydone, the remainder of the moisture is evaporated at a slower rate. When fired and oxidized,it is ready for the leaf has been packing,which is done with lead in well-seasoned wooden boxes. "
"
CostManufacturing charges Establishment, including field labour Manuring .
.
.
.
Rs.
.
.
.
.
.
.
12
,,65
.
.
"
.
.
,,
18
per
acre.
"
"
"
"
05 of Rs.
Profit
5 per
maund
on
six maunds Total
If Rs.
125
are
30 125
cost .
.
"
"
realized
obtained per acre, and six maunds be worked with profit. can
as
the outturn per acre, tea The principal the so-called pests of tea plantationsare Mosquitoblightand the Red Spider. Againstthe former, pruning and and been found also have useful, hoeing burning sprayingof Kerosene emulsion, and against the latter dusting full account of tea-blights, of sulphur. For students are a the subjectby Drs. Watt referred to the work and Mann. on The chemical changes that take place during manufacture of the most
increase the flavour of tea is so of volatile fatty acids is also largelydue. A certain amount the of from a portion of the albuminoid splitting developed up in the leaf,and the sap developsan acid reaction. Some matter flavour and to of these on isolation have a sweet aroma, nutty smell of properly If the which the peculiar oxidized leaf is due. of is oxidation for the prolonged many hours, acidityof process of tea
are
numerous
in the amount
;
one
of essential
oil,to
important beingan
which
the sap rapidly increases and the leaf becomes sour and rancid, acids similar to those in rancid butter being developed. These be got rid of, up to a certain extent, by firing, can by exposing the leaf to a high temperature for a lengthened period,but only of the volatile oil which is dissipated with them. at the expense due The reduced to also tannin is astringency during greatly
328
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
this process of oxidation, the tannin being partlyoxidized into an insoluble brown substance known as Phlobaphene and partly of the albuminoid matter, and which gives combiningwith some the leaves a tough,leathery able and elastic character easilynotice-
handling. The albuminoid matter of the leaf is also partly coagulated by the acidity developed during the fermentation. on
The
followingis
analysisof fresh
an
tea
leaf,by Bamber
Essential oil Fixed oil Thein Volatile alkaloid Tannin Boheic acid Gallic acid
"
"05% .
..
"50 4-10
"
Trace 18-15
2-34 "83 24-00
Legumin
1-00
Albumin and Globulin Waxes and Gums .
2-88
.
12-60
Pectin,Pectoses,etc.
Trace
Amides
21-20
etc. Cellulose,fibre, Phlobaphene,resins,etc.
Mineral
:
7-85 4-60
matter
100
The seed of tea-bushes contains over 20 per cent, of fixed oil, which may be used either as lamp-oil for soap-making. The or oil-cake is less than half the value of castor-cake so far as Nitrogen is concerned, and of very little value so far as phosphatesare concerned. The cake being poisonousis useless as cattle-food. The decoction of the cake may possiblybe found useful as an insecticide. The growing and manufacture of tea is a very technical Bald's treatise to consult process, and the reader is recommended Indian Tea (Thacker,Spinkand Co.),or the various publications on
by Mann, mostly issued by the Indian Tea Association, Calcutta.
LXXI.
CHAPTER COFFEE
(COFFEA
[Situationssuitable ;
'and
ARABIC
A).
for the crop ; Varieties Planting ; Seed ; Drying ; Peeling or ; Fermentation Packing ; Prices ; Machinery.! .
Manufacture
Airing ;
THIS
crop
ing ; Pruning ; HarvestMilling; Winnowing
requiresa hilly,well drained, rich, ferruginous
rich clay soil,e.g., forest land, particularly altitudes varyingfrom prefers
in
Nitrogen. Coffee
1,000to 5,000 ft. The temperature
best suited for this crop is 60" to 80"F. It grows best in a humid rain every month, but the total where there is some climate,i.e., Frost is fatal rainfall should not exceed 150 inches per annum. also objecto coffee plants. Heavy clouds and strong winds are tionable. cessfully In hot and dry placesalso,coffee has been grown sucin shade.
The Arabian coffee can
stand
droughtbetter
329
COFFEE.
than
the Liberian coffee,which is preferred for moist localities. the confined cultivation of coffee is at present practically Though to Ceylonand the Lower slopesof the Nilghiris, the experimentof coffee elsewhere In is worth repeating. Ranchi, Mourgrowing and parts of bhanj,Chittagong, Darjeeling
the coffee
gardens shade.
planthas been grown also berries have been
One
and Bombay, Burmah Calcutta in and some successfully, coffee plantsgrowing in on seen
experiment conducted
in
Chittagong
gave
nine
of berries per acre. maunds In most of these places,however, the cultivation can be considered a curiosity. only should Planting. Having selected a suitable site,the juitgles be cleared and burnt, belts of trees giving protection from high winds being left. The roads are then to be laid out and the coffeehouse furnished with a good water-supply.Then a spot should "
be selected for on
slope of
a
nursery which should be well drained soil (situated be but close to water, that irrigation hill), may
a a
easilydone when
soil should be rich and retentive After spading and ploughmatter. ing to a depth of about twenty inches, exterminatingall the weeds, of farm yard manure manuring the soil with about 200 maunds and raising the beds six inches above the surrounding per acre inches be seeds should six to nine inches apart, and two soil, sown of
required.The
full of humus moisture,i.e.,
deep,and only one
inch apart from
one
The lines should then be covered branches thrown the seed-beds. over
earlyin the
morning
or
alongthe
another
lines.
and mats lightly Watering should
furrows
or
or
palm
be
done
after sunset.
bushel of seed will give 10,000 plants, sufficientfor covering the plantshave two to four leaves they should When ten acres. bed the seedbe carefullv transplanted, in damp cloudy weather, from and placed nine to twelve inches apart. The to the nursery for the reception lined out grounds of the plantationare of the plants. A rope is furnished with bits of scarlet rag at the feet. is usuallyseven distance fixed upon between the plantswhich A
"
"
the plotand stakes are inserted at each rag. It is stretched across The rope is then moved forward a stage at a time, gauged by laid base-line is down rods 7 ft. long. Or, a straight measuring and down cross-line at and off set the a right exactly slope, up the at On stakes into driven the this line are ground angles. of the plants. To each distance determined upon for the position and is stretched parallel with the base-line and fixed stake a rope as
providedalong these A rope held across them at succeedingstages of equal and the small stakes is guidedby measuringpoles7 ft. long,
straightas
lines.
width
possible.Small
stakes
are
each the fixed ones, the moveable rope crosses the site for a plant. The sowingand transplantstake indicating ing The seedlings done in the rainyseason. are are plantedout when a year old,and sometimes when two years old,in their pei" manent placesin the plantation.Seven feet each way is the usual are
put
in where
distance apart at which
theyare planted,about 1,000 plantsgoing
330
HANDBOOK
the
to
Holes
acre.
the
then
and
are
AGRICULTURE.
OF
first made
seedlingsremoved,
where
the stakes
planted
are
being taken
ball of earth
a
up
the possible with each seedling, plantingdone as soon wards and the earth made quitefirm after planting.Weeding is afteralso to has done as occasion requires.Stakingwith canes Filling be done for supportingthe plantsagainst heavy winds. be to also in blanks when any seedlings die or get sicklyhas vided profor and carried out. A fast growing small tree is usually as
the seedlings to give them alongside
grown
shade.
is
Maize
a
it is rather an exhausting crop, and an upright leguminous crop, such as arahar, or jainti these would go to should be preferred, as (Sesbania "wjyptiaca),
good
very
enrich
to
crop
but
grow,
soil. Trenching and the former as a means
the
these trenches
as
a
of
source
manuring have also of draining. Weeds
manure.
an
depth of
a
ganised, or-
put
are
in
The trenches open into off into drainage channels.
water catch-drains,whence runs Manuring with lime, oil-cake,cowdung, etc.,
coffee is
be
to
is
also
exhaustingcrop. Forkingor spadingonce a twelve to eighteen inches is also essential in
done,
as
year
to
the
dry
season.
After another
twelve
eighteenmonths,
or
the
when
plantsase
done, i.e., nippingoff the central bud to check further growth in height. Topped in this way, the berries more are easilygathered and the yieldis also heavier. Pruning is also done in such a manner remain 5 ft. that the plants may intervals of at and branches high develophorizontally primary 3 to 5 ft.in
about
throughoutthe height of the stem ; and to form boughs a constant supply of secondary fruit-bearing
6 inches
alongthese twigs. once
height, topping is
All
ascending and
removed,
so
as
spreadingbranches
cross-
to force the
which
has
wise
branches
or
the
advantage
twigs
are
at
type of horizontal
plantinto the
of
exposing to
sun
be with ease lighta All secondary fruiting removed. twigsare pruned off after each be finished each time before is removed. should Pruning crop and
largesurface
from
which
the crop
can
The lateral or priflower buds beginto form. mary than allowed to grow more 2| feet, boughs should not be otherwise they will droop and exclude the lightfrom those below. All broken, diseased and dead branches should be cut off. of the second or the third blossoms appear- in March The October year and they go on appearingevery year after. About begins collection of the crop and preparationof berries. The collection of ripe fruits goes on from October to January. The but deep red collected, are ripefruits) brightblood-red fruits (i.e., should be or cherry coloured fruits which are not quite mature the next
season's
also collected at the
same
time to
save
labour. of the '
'
berry from the in the following is accomplished cherry/as the ripefruit is called* stages: (1) Pulping,(2) Fermenting,(3) Drying,(4) Peeling, and (5)Winnowing and sizing. or hulling, milling Manufacture. The "
'
manufacture
332
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
from Winnowing and Sizing. The peeled coffee as it comes off which the drives to subjected fanning parchment skin, leavingthe clean coffee behind. Then the coffee seeds into different sizes that roasting separatedby mechanical means "
the
mill is
and are
afterwards
be
may
Packing. not spoilthe
will
Coffee,like
constantlyin by fungi and are
In
a
is incurred
beans
put in
are
and
or
poppy
any
of in connection
well-cultivated
with
estate
an
and superintendence
on
per
is
acre
As
poorer. total
But
3 ewts., the
in
an
heavy manuring
Ceylon. expenditureof Rs. 50
acre
per
estates
incurred,but half, the
at
a
estate
110
leaves
a
50
per
in
acre
coming margin to
small not
is spent
acre
rupees per to 4 cwts. every year, the average comes of leguminous crops and application of bones
per
pay
at
a
*2i of
all.
manuring
on acre.
ing Grow-
the manurial
are
recommended.
FlO.
The
is portionately proannually,the
outturn
coffee-growingdoes
cwt.
where
Rs.
and
obtained
is manured
area
peeling
expenditureof
total
alternate
treatment
is
acre
per
manures
on
the result
sold at 60s. per cwt.
crop 40,s. per
80
inclusive of field-labour,
annual
while profit,
is grown diseases caused
cultivation,which
coffee
to about expenditurecomes and the well-keptgarden, annuaj average
to
which
crop
in localities, especially
some
80
other
many of soil and
Exhaustion
and an additional Rs. freight, their application.In some coffee Rs.
of which
timber
is subjectto locality,
same
insects.
and
only
the
cases,
of the coffee.
aroma
tea
the
also talked
failingin
uniform.
The
"
C6.--THE
Engell)en"Huller Company
machinery required for Huller and Separator
the No.
HULLKR.
COFFEB
York
of New
manufacture
5, suitable
of
supply
all the
Their
Coffee
coffee.
for
small
plantations,
separates 1,500 to 2,000 Ibs. of cleaned coffee in 10 hours, separating is 200 The priceof the machine the parchment from the coffee. the before for dollars. A screen used dirt,sticks,etc.,
separating
333
VANILLA.
put in the pulperis sold
for 90
dollars. A hand-power pulperis sold for 100 dollars. The Coffee washer is made in two sizes,the smaller size being priced 150 dollars. Coffee graders sold for 225 to 275 dollars each, accordingto size. A Coffee are berries are
is also polisher
made
of two
sizes,the smaller size beingpriced250
only advantage of using this machine is,all foreign material,dust,etc.,mixed with the coffee is rejected by an exhaustliant brila more fan,keepingthe coffee clean and cool and permitting Coffee Hullers unlike not Rice Hullers (Fig.66) are polish. their principle in o f and in general construction. appearance
dollars.
The
CHAPTER VANILLA
LXXII.
(VANILLA PLANIFOLIA).
cultivation has been undertaken by a few European substance Mysore, etc. Vanilla is an essence or flavouring obtained from the fruits of a climbing orchid found growing wild in the hot, humid forests of Central and South America,and of the vanilla of commerce is gathered from a considerable portion wild plantsfound growingin the forests of Mexico. Soil and Climate. A lich loamy vegetablesoil is the best vanilla. An undrained water-logged soil causes the for the roots to the cultivationof the to rot, and it is therefore quiteunsuited VANILLA
of planters
"
should
be hot, and moist and sheltered but the plantsmust not be too much situations are indispensable, shaded, or the fruits will not ripen. Propagation.Cuttingsfour or five feet long are planted at the foot of trees, or other supports used for the vine to grow on, orchid.
climate
The
"
take root. and in showery weather they soon Cultivation. The fertilizationof the flowers has to be done and it is necessary for the plantsto be trained, so as^ artificially, The distances at to bringthe flowers within reach of the hand. which the supportson which the vines are to climb are planted, "
than six feet. The holes should be filledin more with sand and decayedleaves ; and ifthe plantamixed with rich loam tion the rich humus of the forest, found on the be in the vicinity surface of the ground is sufficientfor filling up the holes. The-
should
not
be
be heaped up, so as to prevent water-logging at the base soil must lower of the three leaves The of the cutting. are removed, cuttings of the stem plantedthree or four inches below the and that portion surface. The remainder of the stem is then tied to the post or
-
leaflet. flat band of plantainfibre,or by a cocoanut cord must not be Used, as it is liableto cut into and injure Round the the green, succulent stem of the vanilla. The ground over with leaves or light buried part of the cuttingis then mulched
tree
by
a
,
brush-wood
;
and if dry weather
comes
on,
.will: frequent waterings
334
be be
OF
HANDBOOK
necessary,
kept
until the
free from
AGRICULTURE.
cuttinghas taken
weeds, and, unless
root.
The
ground must
it be
shaded by growlightly ing weather roots to keep the
trees, it will be advisable in dry constantlymulched. the vines have reached the tops of the trees When
supports, bamboos
may
be fixed
from horizontally
tree
or
to
other tree
or
The trees from post to post,and the vines trained along them. be kept down low, so that the vines do not get out of reach, must be judiciously and the branches must lopped,in order to prevent No animal or artificial shade. should be used, too much manures soil leaves and be but rotten vegetable appliedto the roots may is
after each crop
gathered.
Fertilization of the Flowers. flower in the second year after
expectedin
the fourth
The
"
plants will
and planting, the Sibpur
In year. in flower in March
to
commence
full crops
may
be
Garden and Apriland artificial the vanilla creepers are fertilization is regularly practised,though in the wild state, in America, fertilizationno doubt takes place through the agency of insects or small birds. The parts of the flower are so arranged
that
is impossible, and therefore self-pollination If
the
flower of the
Botanical
it must
be effected
orchid be foreignagency. it will be seen that the outer floral envelope examined carefully, and the inner one consists of three sepals, consists of three petals. is very different from the others ; it is called The lowest of the petals and it envelopes the column or continuation of the labellum or lip, which are set the curious anther and the axis of the plant on
by
some
vanilla
This continuation is called the column. At the top of is a hood which covers the and anther the column pollenmasses, up and below this is the viscid stigmatic surface,protectedand hidden called the lamellune. Thus we lipsometimes see by a projecting is in shut the hood and the stigmais shut in by that the pollen by obstacles prevent self-pollination. the lamellune,so that two The
stigma.
and these obstacles, objectof artificialfertilization is to remove to approach the stigma. This is easily masses to permitthe pollen effected firstly, by detaching the hood, which is accomplished with a piece of sharpened wood ; seeasilyby touchingit lightly condly, the lamellune under the anther ; and thirdly, by slipping by of the a nd contact between ensuring pollen stigmaby gentle pressure The operationis performed in a few and thumb. the fore-finger "
seconds after
littlepractice, and the thumb between
be facilitated by holding and middle the column of the left finger is it whilst the back at hand, supported by the fore-finger ; the instrument, which righthand is then free to use the fertilising should be rather blunt and flattened at the end. A tooth broken from an old comb and fixed into a piqpe of thin bamboo a few inches a
it may
lengthmay be used. If the fertilising operationproves successful,the flower will whilst the pod will grow rapidly.If unsuccessful, wither, gradually the flower will fall off before the second day, and the ovary will
in
335
VANILLA
remain
yellow,shrivel
turn undeveloped,
up, and drop off the stalk. The flowers come out in March in clusters of from 10 to 12, than half a dozen of the clusters should be fertilised but not more and in this way fine largepods will be secured. Fertilization 9 or should commence 10 o'clock in the at morning, for if it be
done
late,pollination may
too
altogether.The
fruit goes
least five
take at
months
on
growing
longer to
be for
incomplete,or a
month, but
fail
it will
for ripen sufficiently
harvesting. Harvesting. The pods are to be gathered whfcn they begin to turn yellow at their ends, or when they producea crackling sensation on being pressed lightlybetween the fingers.Each be should gatheredseparatelyby being bent to one side,when pod "
it will
off the
come
in
curing,and if too littleor
will have
minute
green,
It is very
importantto gatherthe ripe,theywill splitopen dried with difficulty, and they
they are
too
perfume.
no
Curing. After "
for half
stem.
righttime, for,if they be
pods at the
the in
beans
gathered, they
are
hot, almost
are
plunged
water. boiling
They are then them afterwards they are spread put on mats and blankets to the out on sun. exposed Every eveningthey rolled up in the blankets and shut up in light boxes to ferment. are The sunning process is continued for a week, or until the pods and pliable, brown when they are squeezed between the become and t o the seeds and oilysubstance them, so cause fingers straighten a
to drain
dry, and
inside to be evenly distributed. Should they should be closed up and bound round split, thread
or
narrow
any
of the
with tightly
pods silk
the thread should dry and shrivel, tape. As they,
be unwound, and the pods tied up again. When the pods are brown, the drying process should be finished in shade, which may weeks. take many
Packing. The dried beans are to be sorted accordingto the long thin ones their length, beingthe most valuable. Beans "
lengthare to be tied in bundles of 25 or 50, the ligatures usuallybeingappliedclose to each end of the bundle. The latter tin boxes, which are enclosed in then packed in closely fitting are rough wooden cases. The Vanilla plantsflower very irregularly, and, in consequence, all the pods are not in fitcondition to be gatheredat one is requiredat the first gatherings not to touch time, and care if t he beans too will which are or unripe; gathered early, pods pods mostly shrivel duringthe process of drying,and lean shrivelled At the same beans do not realise so good a pricein the markets. after theyhave ripened, time the pods must not be left on the plants valves will sometimes nearlyan inch, and splitbeans or the open, of inferior value. 7 to 33 shillings obtained are per pound are the and London size market in the accordingto qualityof the
of the
same
beans.
CHAPTER
heavy yielding fruit and
a
PAPAYA).
(CARICA
PAPAYA As
LXXIII.
"hardlyits equal,and it deserves to be cultivated The fruit grows during the monsoon, plentifully The best papayas round. are yieldingall the year and Sylhet. week,
in
sown
plants are
and
a
as
regularcrop it goes 01 in Ceylo]
but grown
and
sun,
after
should
high they
be
transplantedto
be three feet high they should and when two or nursery, which and in of holes few i n a manure plenty out in fields,
high
feet
six
put.
fruits from
bud
this
by trees
from
of
done
size and
which
go
(which
are
the great value
form
Whei
10
quantity
fruits.
of
growtl
fruits
often
trees
From
large size( by their pendulou be taken, as then the tendency trees to yield fruits.
to
best
known
of the papaya
as
drought
a
of
reactions
pepsin,but
in energetically
more
neutral
it is different from
some
No
extent say
two
digests fibrin hundred
action,however,
this
reason
milk
of
(the its
times
takes
principalalbuminoid weight "
sourci
givei
pepsin, ai
alkaline substances
or
It curdles milk like pepsin. of acids. in the presence twenty-eighttimes its weight of coagulated albumen. some
resist
the fruit;
of the
it acts
ar
contaii
crop
some
anc
open
ft. apart. nipped off and
be
i
plantec pieces o
yieldinga highly nourishing vegetable (when green) and ripe fruit,the crop is of great value as the Papain or Papayotin. The filtered juiceof the papaya
ing are
be
operation. Male
flowering branches) seed should and female will be for both male Apart
planted in the
be
should The
encouraged.
hermaphrodite flowers male
should
trees
central
the
of side branches enhanced both
The
planting should
The
shade.
in
not
be
should
bones
ha
being kept \ in rich but light soil. Th" Whei two-year-old manure.
cover
sand
inches
few
a
in the
under
or
of
consist
soil should the
box
a
dried
be
should
seeds
The
the papaya
vegetablecrop
as
well
as
thai
It dissolve! It
also
t"
of
meat),"
white
of eggs It is fo
there is much acid. place when in so readily softeningfresh meat, if th"
acts papaya the fruit is added
such
to
the
meat
a
few
minutes
befor"
ready alimentary digestivein th" cooking. which is highly acid. Papain is presen presence of gastric juice of the but less in all parts or plant, chieflyin young fruits moife be obtainfed from In preparingPapain, the juice should un Moisture the ferment and heat fruits. spoils great ripe destroy its activity. The juiceshould therefore be dried as soon as possi The fresh but low dried juice should tx ble at a temperature. It
is
not
a
of rectified spirit,and the mixed with twice its volume The insoluble matter allowed to stand for a few hours.
then be filtered off.
The
atmospheric temperature, bottles.
residue Should
powdered
and
be dried
kept
in the in well
mixtur" shouk
ordinary stoppere"
CASSAVA
AS
FAMINE
337
FOOD.
of alkali, Papain is not only a valuable aid presence also but solvent it is of the gum to digestion, of tusser and other a which reeled with difficulty. The use of Papain as cocoons are In
an
the
reelingof
the
aid to
tusser
is recommended
cocoons
CHAPTER CASSAVA [Dron "ht-resistin#
crops
of
Advantages
;
LXXIV. FAMINE
AS
Objections
introducing
the
FOOD.
famine-foods
to
the
DURING who
persons notice
famines
series of about
went
Cassava,
;
where
used
;
high lands ; Varieties ; An experiment flour ; Yeddi arrowroot ; Tapioca ; CassaVa for keeping the bushes for Seasons low; on
crop
Tapioca meal or Brazilian ;^ Nipping of buds of Cassava planting and lifting; Dishes made for famine root- crops Other times.] ;
cultivation
for trial.
in rural
;
Liable
India
in
to
the
from
placescould
attack
1896
1901,
to
have
not
of rate ;
failed to
certain crops fared better than others,how suffer at all from the drought,and how poor people crops foods which they had formerlylooked on took to livingvery largely accessories to their dietary. It was noticed, for upon as mere had and failed wheat where that rice, barley completely, instance, certain
how
did not
of the millets did common arahar, kalai,gram, maize and some such and sweet as pahals, potatoes, vegetables, fairlywell, yams, and sweet did remarkand mash-melons melons ably sapia, country figs well. During the famine of 1897 these articles of food were largelyused as a substitute for rice. Throughout June, 1897, in the day-time and ate only mash-melons day-labourers many littlerice at night. A pice worth of melons or palvalsgave them when Avorth of rice was two full day's meal at a time annas
a a
hunger. It i$ singularthat the prices appease a man's articles as milk, fish,etc., did not increase, and that food of palval, kalai,dumbur, nourishingthan rice,consisting
requiredto of such far
more
fish and
sour
milk
was
famine, indeed, had
to be
the
had
effect
at
smaller
a
cost
than
educating peoplehow
of
The
rice. not
to
and teachingagriculturists the depend on rice alone for sustenance of their to of having several strings value bow, i.e., growing not rice alone, but also maize, millets, kalai,arahar,61,and bfiadai,
other
crops require the and
which
less paying ordinarily same
do
not
of
amount
fail
when
duration. The food-stuffs mentioned
water
there above
rice, but
which for their successful
than
is
a
either
one
not
growth,
of
monsoon
labour under
do
or
short other little
yield disadvantages First, they too or are thirdly, they indigestible, produce, secondly,they do not too coarse keep long. The or they are insipid, or, fourthly, Cassava (calledSimul-alu in Eastern Bengal and Sarkar-kanda in Midnapur),stands drought at least as well as any of those crops, it equallywell in the open or in shade, it yieldsa nourishing grows of
the
four
too
.
or
and
food,.which palatable M,
HA
can
be utilized either in the fresh state,
22
out of it a flour which keeps much better than by extracting much a largerquantityof dry food per acre wheat-flour,it yields
or
than
it
be grown
can
with
little
high lands,in the plainsof Bengal,
trouble,
on
The
crop, and
other
probablyany
Madras, and
Cassava
of the
roots
they
taste
sold boiled in the streets of nice. In Darjeeling, Bancoorah,
are
very
Bengal and Assam it is eaten cooked do Fresh roots not keep long; in the case of potatoes into curries. of Cassava roots, they become like the in and case they rot away, and in Eastern
Midnapur
it is not easy extracting the "farina. sava Casmanufactured from the fresh roots, and as flour is easily of this and it can the be utilized produce such, crop keeps long, to Indian taste. for food agreeable which
from
bits of wood
great advantage of growing the Cassava plantas
One
againstfamine, lies in the fact that the
dug up annually. If a
cultivator has
roots
need
a
not
protection be
hedge of Cassava
all round his he can his fields, ordinary crops fail. notice of In the interval he need not take them. any Properly the tuft of leaves of each tree gets beyond after a few months grown, in number and in the reach of cattle. The roots go on increasing
liftthe
size,and they need
roots
be utilized until
not
ordinarycrops
failure of the
a
only when
a
year
round.
of
partialor total
It should
be mentioned, Cassava that is not suitable a however, hedge plant,as cattle are very fond of its leaves. It should be also noted that the
root-development goes down
to
a
far
on
heightof
two
comes
more
when freely
to three feet
the
plantsare kept
only,by the nippingof
time to time. the roots is to liftthem The most economical way of utilizing months and twelve to them as an annual treat in ten to once crop. of starch falls off after the first year, that is,does The deposition in old trees as in one-year-old not go on quiteso rapidly plants. In
terminal buds
from
the introducing them
to grow
that there may
pursuits.In indirection
to
crop among
it
cultivators, however, it is best
alonghedgesand
be
no
odd
to tell of their homesteads,
comers
interference with their
ordinary agricultural
dealingwith find
cultivators it is often by necessary direction out," to introduce improvements
and slowly. Poverty makes tentatively
"
them
and if suspicious, apart some considerable portionof their you were for growingrice,or kalai,or jute,for the land which they now use Cassava plants, they will jump to the conclusion that you have of your own motive to serve and you are merely ulterior some them a as catspaw. using to tellthem
to set
It should be noted that there are two varieties of Cassava, both used in America for extracting tapioca, thoughone of them, The Manihot t he i s. Utilissima, Manihot Aipi or poisonous. viz., the sweet Cassava, the roots of which can be eaten raw, is the
varietyto grow. There ia a considerable proportionof prussicacid in the bitter Cassava,which, however, is dissipated the action of heat in the process of manufacture of tapioca. t"y safest
340
HANDBOOK
OF
spreadout thin, exposedto the same day, if possible.If the tank overnight, say, from 9 P.M.
AGRICULTURE.
to allow of its
sun
crude
roots
are
gettingdry the
left in the wash-
to 5 A.M., and the decorticating and by 8 A.M., the sliced roots left in the soakingtub slicing got over by 10 A.M., and extraction from 8 to 9 A.M., the pulpinggot over
by midday, all the afternoon will be available for the pulp to get dry. As the manufacturingshould be done at pressed of the year, viz.,February to April,there should the driest season in be no difficulty gettingthe pulp thoroughlydry and ready for At Sibpur,the grindingwas done with grindingby 5 or 6 P.M. and stone-mill hand the flour afterwards was separated an ordinary fully beautiwith an ordinary hand-sieve. The resultingflour was out for and it and than sweet sweet white more a tear. kept of the farina
The
farina
or
which
starch
settles down
the bottom
at
the troughsis collected quiteeasilyby pouringout the water starch occurringin a compact and heavy mass The them.
of from does
starch is allowed to settle again,and the water not flow out. A fresh quantity of filtered water then poured off with the water. The
being poured out, the starch is exposed to the sun and collected The moist starch of some in a dry state. verted troughs may be conor tapioca-meal
into
Brazilian
by
arrowroot
dryingin
the
above, and of others into tapioca. The tapioca-meal as sun, in London, can Brazilian arrowroot be used which is sold as cornflour. for arrowroot substitute or ordinary as a and made into The moist starch is simply exposed to the sun "
"
.
tapioca-meal.But or
aluminium
with
constant
pan
it into
to convert
in the
with stirring
moist a
state
brass
tapiocait and
khwnti.
is put into
heated As
over
soon
a as
a
brass
slow the
fire meal,
of tapioca,it should be taken granular appearance down from the fire and left to dry more perfectlyin the sun. the actual quantitiesobtained at Sibpur out These were of 220 Ibs. crude of Ibs. of Cassava : nine roots, 149| plants pressed but moist pulp,33f Ibs. of Cassava flour,5| Ibs. of tapioca-meal, and 6f Ibs. of tapioca,or a total quantity 45| Ibs. of dry food, with avidityby cattle, eaten were also 107 Ibs. of leaves which 937 and cuttings. Planted five feet apart, an acre would hold about 1,700 plants. is If the Sibpur experience repeatedon a largescale,we ought to assumes
the
"
of crude roots and over maunds 210 maunds of greeni it When is recollected how difficultit is,to get fod4er per acre. of India in fodder some duringthe driest months, the parts green
get
over
450
fodder for cattle,which is a mere sufficiently inviting.If the value of the bye-product, is estimated at two annas have an outa maund, we turn fodder alone Then there is another bye-product in the of Us. 30 per acre. shape of cuttingsor fuel,which would be 175 to 200 maunds per represents another Us. 50. acre, which in Calcutta. The priceof tapiocais six annas a seer Putting Cassava of whole and tapiocaat the flour,tapioca-meal, produce
produceof
240
maunds
seems
of green
CASSAVA
value
,the lowest
produceof Rs. nothing but in
500
annas
Rs. i.e.,
seer,
5
a
maund,
we
Sibpur experiment, expect the flour and meal.
a gross In practice,
probably be obtained on a largoscale, in Lower be very profitable crop should
the
case
341
FOOD.
a
from
acre
per like this would
any
two
basis of the
the
on
may,
of, say,
FAMINE
AS
Bengal. Working on a large scale,the produce of flour will come, The instead of 100 maunds. perhaps, to 50 maunds per acre of produceof Cassava account flour givenin Dr. Watt's Dictionary but as this is the only authoritywe could lay is rather conflicting, hold ""
The
would
we
on,
quote
acre.
per
dried roots gave This means Ibs." times
as
much
Though
his
here from
passage
Dictionary
;
estimated in Ceylon at 10 tons of green This weighs one-fourth when dried,and if the half their weight of flour it would amount to 2,800 is three 34 maunds of course, per acre, which,
produce has
roots
a
been
gets out
one
as
Cassava
be
can
of
an
of wheat.*
acre
plantedat
any
and harvested
season,
which is a great advantagelookingat the question at any season, from the point of view of famine only,the best season prevention for harvesting, and consequently of replantingof cuttings,is strike which may yield50 maunds one viz.,that Cassava very forcibly, meal ing of flour and besides leaves,etc.,must be an exhaustper acre after the first fall off very much crop, and the produce must
February and
If
year. jf one
to
Rs. 20
or
expect a
Rs. 30 per
of ashes is the
acre
only and
acre
per
plantingshould When on
be is
one
is
now
pointwhich
one
used, the produceis bound
must
to falloff.
But
crop of Rs. 300 per acre, one oughtto spend A handful after the first year on manures. that
manure
cuttings,but twenty added
There
is
manure
no
were
March.
cart-loads worked
done
need of
into
be used while
farmyard
plantingthe should
manure
the soil six weeks
later.
be
The
three inches deep. horizontally,
working on
a
large
scale
one
cannot
depend
the dried pulp slicing roots, and quirnsfor grinding But cultivators need not work on a largescale. They
for
knives
into flour.
the plantsin small patchesand utilize the roots either eatingthem fresh,or convertingthem into flour by such simple described. nave If a capitalist is to launch out processes as we extensive he scale, must use machinery for slicing, an on pulping, and moderate If Cassava to a grinding. one were on pressing grow can
grow
for
^cale, say,
five
on
or
ten
acres
of land,one
must
use
such
simple
a"d a turnip-slicer, a cheese-press a turnip-pulper, grindingmill to cope with the work of harvesting. The
machinery
as
a
small cultivator will need
nothing that he
cannot
easilyprocure
in his
in his own or even own village, cottage ; gamlas,and dao and dhenki,and a couple of big stones, are all the special appliances
required. "
For
India."
later information,see
Booth
Tucker
in
the
"'
of AgriculturalJournal
342
OF
HANDBOOK
The next
AGRICULTURE.
would be interested in is,how to make is when has got it. Tapioca-pudding use one produce used as a nourishingfood by Europeans,but this would not probably be relished by Indians. be used in But tapioca-mealcan Jt is more sava Casplace of arrowroot. nourishingthan arrowroot. flour is still better as an article of food suited to Indian taste
questionone
"
of the
it
be
making various articles of food which we flour may eating. Out of Cassava be made biscuits. chapatis, puris,malpoas,halua, puddings,and Et does not make very first-class chapatis, and biscuits,but puris,
as
are
caji
utilized in
in the ordinarily
it makes tastes
habit of
excellent
malpoas,and halua, and Cassava-pudding The chapatisare tapioca-pudding. able, palatvery
nicer than
but
little too elastic,though quite soft. For should be used ; otherwise Cassava flour and wheat flour are used exactly in the same In making way. halua out of Cassava flour the syrup has to be made first over a with sugar and water. When the syrup is somewhat fire, sticky, a proportionatequantityof Cassava flour mixed up with water is put in. The flour should be mixed up with the syrup by prompt When the colour of the flour changes,a little ghee and stirring. almonds and pistachio to be added and the mixture nuts are kept stirred for another few minutes. The halua thus made keeps long and it tastes very much like Muscat halua. In making 100 tolas of halua 13 tolas of Cassava flour mixed with 40 tolas of water should be used. The syrup is'made with 40 tolas of sugar and 20
they are making dough, hot
tolas of water.
a
water
Ten tolas of
and
ghee and an anna's worth of almonds for givingthe halua a rich taste. It
pistachionuts are used is a cheap and delicious sweetmeat. Frozen with ice it is further In Cassava flour and three-fourths biscuits, making improved. one-fourth
The
wheat
Cassava
flour should roots
could
be used. be
thus
variouslyused,
arid the
the most epicureancan make use of them either in into flour. The well developed their fresh state or manufactured be eaten either raw roots weigh 2 to 5 Ibs. each, and they can or cooked (i.e., either boiled, or fried in chips or curried). As a as a nourishingfood drought-resisting crop, as a heavy yielder,
poorest and
stuffwhich is easilymanufactured, which comes up to Cassava. The roots tastingquitenice
we
when
do
know
not
raw,
anything
liable to very for poisonmade ing
are
be Some arrangement must the attack of rats. be secured undamaged and undiminished. Tats if the crop is to be mentioned Of other drought-resisting root-crops, may the 61,yams and a bulbous vine grown at Kalimpong called Ishand Geonkhali are famous. kosh. The 61 of Bolepur,Santragachi Of yams may be mentioned an African yam which is grown at the phant's SibpurFarm and which is almost gs good as potatoes. The eleThe leaves of Ishfoot yam of Malabar is also famous.
kosh oue
are
eaten
to two
the edible roots from under each vine.
by cattle,while
maunds
sometimes
weigh
343
ARROWROOT.
CHAPTER
LXXV.
ARROWROOT. THE
is extracted
the bulbs of various plants:" Bermuda from is obtained Maranta arrowroot common arundinacea. have This is the common which arrowroot we and in seen Jail gardens. The plantgrows some growing at Alipur 2 to 3 ft.in height; the flowers and the tubers are white. (2)The Brazilian arrowroot have extracted which from cassava roots we arrowroot
from
(1) The
already described. (3) There is another variety of arrowroot in Queensland from a Canna, the flowers of which chiefly grown beautiful bright are The not unlike Indian shot flower. scarlet, of Canna edulis from 9 in and 8 ft. to plants a single height grow stool 15 to 20 stalks
eightypounds
to
up, each
come
of bulb
are
stalk
bearinga big bulb.
often extracted from
a
Sixty
singlestool.
The starch or arrowroot extracted from this plantis known as tous-les-mois. Rich alluvial jungleland, or river or creek banks suit this plantbest. It is also grown rich countries in open on
deep soils.
It
Maranta
prefersa
more
soil than the
root, ordinaryarrow-
sold in Queensland are extracted from it sells at about prefersshade, and the bulbs of this are plantedabout a foot apart in the lines and l" ft. from line to line. In growingCanna edulis, make holes burn the jungle, for "2
arundinacea.
sandy The
bulbs
lOs. per ton and the arrowroot Qd. a Ib. Ordinaryarrowroot
and 4| ft. from each other in the lines. If apart in rows be used, ploughingand pulverising and trenchingsix a ploughcan inches deep and planting ft. of bulbs,should be done, 4| single apart the rows being made 7 ft. to 8 ft. apart. As the land gets poorer closer than but never by cropping,the rows should be made closer, 6 ft. apart,the hilling or earthingonce is all the subsequentoperation 6
or
7 ft.
needed.
The roots are dug up from December to nine months after planting, the planting i.e., beingdone or
April.
June. A
Ordinary arrowroot
does
better
February,
plantedin
in March
May
or
good test for ascertainingwhen the ordinary arrowro'ot are readyfor harvest is to observe at the outer leaf of the slit pointingdownwards a triangular ; if the slit is white
bulbs bulb the bulb is still immature it turns purpleit is ready as ; as soon for harvest. It can be left for two seasons as times sugarcane is someleft. Each day's diggingmust be operatedon the same on day. effect Every day of exposure to sun and weather has an injurious the colour of the manufactured starch. Twelve to forty upon obtained if the plantsare tons of tous-les-mois bulbs per acre are 5 ft. by 6 ft. apart. 15 to 30 cwts. of starch per acre is the average root produce. Up to 4 tons have been obtained. The priceof arrowin the London market varies,but an average may be taken as can
"15 per ton. If machinery is used 10 to 30 cwts. of arrowroot be extracted per day. For a mill capable of turningout 30
344
HANDBOOK
of
cwts. :
OF
AGRICULTURE.
sary day, the followingappliances are necesroot-washingtank, one elevator,one grater or grinding
arrowroot
one
per
mill, rotary sieves, shaker
centrifugalpump calico for drying the
for
sieves,one
chute,
drainingwater
roots
raised
are
from to
the
agitator,one
one
and
Tables
vats.
highest part
of the
mill is about building.The cost of erecting an arrowroot Rs. 18,000,plus Rs. 3,000 for a drying and storingshed.
CHAPTER
LXXVI.
BAMBOO, GREWTA, MAT-GRASS Bamboo.
growth
Alluvial
"
loam
and
clay
AND
RUTSA-GRASS.
are
the
soils for
best
the
of the thicker
kinds of bamboo, and gritty soils for the There are various classes of bamboo, varieties.
thinner mountain the four commonest
ones
growing in Bengal being the B/idlki-bins,
the
Ber-bdns,the Kdntd-bdns, and the Taltd-bdns, beingthe strongest, longest and thickest of the
the
Bhdlki-bdns The two
four.
which cornmonlv in Bihar are the Chap bamboo bamboos is grown which hard and solid and the Kdyji bamboo is soft and hollow, though thicker. For making mats, baskets,etc.,the Taltd-bdns and the Kdyjibamboo the best. The Kdntd-bdns is also very strong are and long,but it is full of spinneybranches, and it is very inconvenient
of clumps and stripping. On the whole, the Bhdlki and the TaUd-bdns are the best to cultivate. Forty or fiftyyears after sowing (ifseed is used) bamboo die. The trees seed and
cuttingout
bamboos
propagated
time
from
older bamboos
root-cuttingsand from
seed, and
sterns, seed at
where
the
takes
as seeding placein a particularvarietyof bamboo, all the clumps of that varietyin a particularlocalitydie off simultaneously. The seed and (which is eaten like rice)should be collected at this season
same
sown carefully
the and
stock.
in
of the
Naturallymanv
producea
fresh
propagated from that break
preparedseed-beds
and
seed
to transplanted
take
stocks
or
culms
dug
root
Bamboos
growth of bamboos. out
with
renovate
in forest-lands are
roots.
ordinarily Bamboos
and bend down the ground and throw on young out roots, are the best to choose for propagation. Bamboos may bent down on the ground while in the clump, say in be artificially September,and the followingJune it will be found they have sent fit for making cuttings. down roots into the ground and become planted uprootedand transThey may be then cut into sections,carefully In moist localitiesthe plantingof bamboos in June. should take placein May, and in dry regionsof Chhota Nagpur and South Bihar in July. Plantingtwenty feet apart is advisable. months beforehand should The holes made in the field two or when
^hree
be filled with rotten dung, before the cuttingsare planted. In to June, the first year in the dry season, i.e.,from November afterwards will be but occasional only an required, watering
of application
From
MAT-GRASS
GREWIA,
BAMBOO,
silt one
the fifth year
AND
345
RTIISA-GRASS.
year, and of ashes the next, in be cut, two or the ripeculms can
Aprilor May.
three being cut out of every clump in the fifth year, and the number gradually November t o to ten or increasing eight February year. every is the proper season A clump of bamboo for cuttingthe bamboo. will go on yieldingfor 40 or 50 years (unlessseeding takes place in the meantime in bamboos if the clumps from cuttings), grown
kept yield Rs. are
tenth
manured 100 A
year.
\n described above. and Rs. 200
as
clump
yieldup
may
and the average after ten Burma solid bamboos more
Young shoots In
acre
in the fifth year
Orissa and
the
than
of bamboo
Central
may
years
even are
Provinces
per annum bamboos
20
to
be the
eaten
the
of bamboo
put down BJtalki-ldns as
a
wood
may
after the per at are
delicate
annum, ten.
In
able. obtain-
vegetable.
of Grewia
restrict
(Dhdmin
for making or Kulita)is used as a substitute for bamboo is remarkable of this wood banqis. The toughness and elasticity and its propagation is recommended also. For making bows, shafts of carriages and other similar purposes, the wood of Grewia vestria is likelyto prove useful. most in This the most is of Mat-grass. one crops grown paying and in Bengal,chieflyin ihe districts of Midnapur, Burdwan of the districts of E. Bengal and Assam. In Midnapur, it some has taken the place of mulberry in the Sabong thana, the .soil which which this crop is grown being the same on sort of soil on mulberry does best,riz.,clay-loam above inundation level. If the silkworm crop is a success, then only an acre of mulberry yields of about Rs. 300, and the cost of mulberry cultivation return a is rather high. The cultivation of mat-grass costs about Rs. 45 "
per
Rs. 300, and the but the gross outturn to about comes is certain. The are root-cuttings planted in May and
acre,
return
June. of land commences in the previousNovember Preparation when the land is dug up with a spade, and weeds carefully picked As soon out. there is good rain in May or June, the land as levelled with the ladder, and the be made six inches deep and one foot apart. The trenches should are toot-cuttings plantedalong these trenches nine inches apart in In July the trenches are levelled up. regularlines and in planting November In and October and August two weedingsare needed. should
be
ploughed
up
and
the flower-stalks appear and attain a heightof about four feet, After when they are sold off as a standing crop to mat-weavers. with silt the stalks have been cut away, the land is manured the from the bed of tanks or nullahs. In February or March and siltis heaped up on when the sides of the land, and dry aerified sufficiently it is spreadout in April, after givingthe land a
superficial scrapingwith kodalis. November the flower-stalks are cut from onwards, heads left three the flower are land the for four on or they are days, into two and the stalks are each split then rejected, longitudinally four with knife. The is of thick stalks or a scoopedout pith parts When
346
and
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTUEE.
making highclass fine mats, the splitpieces afterwards further split. put If the scrapingof the land and puttingon of siltis continued for ten annually,the crop will continue to yieldthe same profit to fifteen vears. also. rejected in water
are
For
and
Ruisa-yrass.Andropogon schcenanthus,known Gandha-bend in Bengal and in as Ruisa-grass
or
Central India,is of various aromatic
exportedto
that
the
extracted
where Constantinople
the manufacture
of attar
known
arid
Southern
kinds,all aromatic, but
oil
of
from
it is said to
The
Agyd ghas
as
"
and
fully beautiso is seed-heads the basis for
some
the form
Ruisa grasses are It is collected best. the being from jungles in Khandesh, Baroda, Malabar and Hyderabad, and the oil is distilledfrom the seed, 1,000 seed-heads being put into the retort at a time, the retort being an iron vessel with a wooden lid,whence the essential oil is distilled out into a bottle. An experimentconducted with 373 Ibs. of the grass yielded1 Ib. 5| oz, as
Motia
of oil. In Western It
roses.
best
Sophia,Motia
India
the oil is sold
is
considered a medicine extracted for export. It is
for
for locally
rheumatism,
Rs.
but
10
it
a
is
pound. chiefly
and a cultivating, grass well worth IB Bengal. The grass experimentshave been recentlyundertaken is eaten by cattle also, and it imparts a fragrance to the meat and milk of cattle livingon this grass.
CHAPTER
LXXV1I.
ORANGES.
and four principal localitiesin which oranges are largely cultivated in plantations, are Sylhet,Sikkim, Delhi and regularly undertaken has been also successfully Nagpur. Orange cultivation THE
in the Bamra some
of
hills oranges
State,in the district of Sambalpur,where in found wild. We get five different varieties are the differences being, no the five localities,
from A moderate conditions. doubt, due to difference in climatic of ber Novemfrom cold a degree during fairlyprolongedperiod, say to April, is needed for the proper growth of the trees and the formation of fruits. We have known of persons taking proper oranges
the trouble of importingalongwith from Sylhet seedlings orange much soil as practicable to givethe seedlings, as as theythought, and soil of Calcutta. But it is the climate a good start in the the difference. A plantationof orange not the soil that makes from any strong breeze, specially trees should be protected strong breezes. Screens of living forest are the best. The soil should be well drained and above inundation level, and fairly rich, that is, richer than soils chosen for growingtimber trees. If chemical it should be ascertained if the soil chosen analysisis possible, is particularly rich in lime and phosphates.Nepal cultivators sea
348
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
CHAPTER
LXXVEII.
INDIA-RUBBER [Profitablenessof tho rubber
GUTTA-PERCHA.
AND
industry; Experiments
growing
and rubber Difference between rubber ; Ceara rubber in carbon-bisulphide ; Para Method rubber ; Coagulation with alum water;
Principalsources
all
India
over
;
gutta-percha ; Solubility
;
;
Uie-tree rubber
of
;
propig-itionof
Indiaeach
variety.]
output and
THE
by increasing be
mav
bounds,
brisklyall
acre
about India
over
of India-rubber
and
priceof
the
usuallyexpectedas
productionper on
consumption
leaps and
maund
200
the
product,and the annual Experiments are going in Ceylon and Mysore
maunds.
two
Ceylon, and
and
annually
are
Rs.
250
to
per
largetracts of land have been put down under rubber. The of India-rubber are Africa, Central and South principalsources hardened Rubber and Burma. is the America, Ceylon, Assam latex of several families of tropical plants,and any plant which of white latex on the leaves or stems exudes largequantities being rubber looked of be to a possiblesource as injured,ought upon and other supply. The common (Euphorbianerifolia) sij-manasa of latex abundant which quantities Euphorbiaceousplants yield be readilyconverted into rubber can by addition of alum water. latex from is large trees belonging Gutta-percha the hardened does soften to one not family onlv. viz.* Sapotacese. Rubber
very
in moderate
like
heat
gutta-perchadoes. and
Rubber
it retains for
is
impervious
long periodits gases and strength,while gutta-perchabecomes soft originalelasticity and it in hot to on given plastic water, retaining any shape and it becomes hard is soluble cooling when rigid. Rubber used for in carbon solution is and the repairing bisulphide,
to water,
most
acids and
a
cracks. Para
rubber.
"
The
rubber is the South American hraziliensis, a valuable
most
obtained from Hevea is thriving very well in Cevlon Settlements
in low
elevations.
Para tree*,
In
rubber which
tho Straits
and In the Madras is flourishing. India the tree is not growing Bombay Presidencies and in Northern the well. In five years after planting in suitable conditions Para rubber is fit-for tapping. The tree may attain a height of 60 ft. and of is poor, soft and The wood 6 8 ft. to a girth also Para
rubber
perishable.The
seed is very oilyand on this account easily gets rancid and spoilt. It was, however, despatched from Ceylon to the Kew Gardens all right,packed in canvas bags only, and it travels better,packed in moderatelydry soil or cocoanut fibre. It
is propagated also from cuttings and stools or green shoots. The tree grows in well-drained soils,beyond the reach of floods,
althoughin
South
believed at one time to grow on This is, however, a mistake. The rubber is brought swamps. down malarious and a regionfrom high and dry through swampy and merchants had mistaken idea it in the coast a localities, America
it
was
INDIA-RUBBEA
GUTTA-PERCHA.
ANt"
349
The latex is alkaline,and the addition of a grew in swamps. solution of ammonia it f rom indefinitely preserves ^spontaneous coagulation.In favourable localities120 to 140 Ibs. of Para after the seventh rubber are obtained per acre per annum year. The sometimes the sixth on when tapping commences year, each
yields about
tree
10
If
ounces.
Ibs.
as per acre, as much from six-year-old trees, but
188
can
300
300
trees
be obtained per
acre
planted
are
of
out
(i.e.,when
an
the
acre
trees
ft. apart) are too many, when the trees are older, At 5$. a lb.,the yield and they have to be thinned out. per acre (130 Ibs.)would be about Rs. 500, and the margin*of profitmay are
planted12
half
to
come
this
amount.
rubber is the
Ceara
product of Manihot
a plantwhich glaziovii, it attains resembles the cassava, of 30 ft a though height over this where the rainfallwas in Ceylon, The experimentof growing too
great,failed,but in the seventh per The
The
tree.
bushes
staich
at
the
well in South
Ule
tree
the
Mysore
year
experimentis succeeding very well,
live Ibs. of rubber much as than a littleless valuable
as
rubber
is
be also grown
can
like the
in
for their roots which
Ceara rubber
ordinary
cassava.
Rajnagur Garden
in
Darbhanga
is
and
a
to (belonging
the
Para
rubber
yielda valuable fully growing successit is
Behar, Chhota Nagpur and Orissa. rubber,which is almost as good as Para
product of Castilloa Elastic
beingobtained
to likely
do
rubber, is the
a Central Moracea?),
growingtree, allied to the bread-fruit tree. It is easilypropagatedfrom seed or cuttings. Seven or eight-yearold trees yield1 to 2 Ibs. of milk per annum, 25 per cent, of the milk being pure rubber, separatedby centrifugal machines. This India and Ceylon,but tree has been also introduced into Southern far have not given very encouragingresults, experiments so Castilloa milk flows more freelyand does not coagulatereadily, machine is used. ISo which is a great advantagewhen a centrifugal be expected within eightyears after planting.The return can Castilloa successfully introduced inW Ceylon in 1876,isthe Castilloa from Darien Markhamiana, (Panama). They flowered in 1881. The growth since 1886 has been slight.It does well in warm, American
steamy,
fast
does not do well in elevated fall below temperature should never
alluvial localitiesand
tracts
The in swamps. CO"F., nor the rainfall should not be below 70 inches,and it should be well distributed. It should be plantedin sheltered placesnear streams, The seeds should be sown in but where the land is well drained. a well prepared nursery, one inch deep and eightinches apart, and The nursery should be kept covered mould. with lightly vegetable lightlyshaded and watered, and in ten or twelve months, when
high,they are plantedout. Cuttings should also take. Planting from main sljoots(not lateral branches) be done twelve inches apart and the plantsleft in shade for two or three years. Weeding and watering have to be done until the When take of themselves. trees have attained a care plantscan the
are seedlings
two
feet
350
girthof
2 ft.
tapped. Cuts should be
in Para rubber
1 ft. apart as
4 ft. apart and not
be obtained, and
tapping may
per
be
2" ft.,they can
or
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
three
four
or
3 ft. or
Five
trees.
ounces
tappingsper
year.
product of Ficus Elastica,Artocarpus and Alstonia Scholaris. The ArtocarpusIntegrifolia, "Chaplasha, 60 ft. high in the dry forests of last is .a largetree which grows and "Ceylon,Singapur Penang. 35 years old,the average yield In a Ficus Elastica plantation, per in
India-rubber
is the
tree
is 600
per year
is
yield, however, another
grammes,
in the
rubber is 200
of solid rubber.
grammes
great.
very
tree
variation
yield
may
100
yieldof Castilloa
plantation(theplantsbeing eightyears old)
same
of solid rubber
grammes be about
One
kilogrammes. The average
12
The
per
tree
per
year.
But
as
there
Castilloa trees planted in the as many the difference in favour of the Castilloa area as same trees, Castilloa rubber is also more is decidedlyconsiderable. valuable could
times
four
Ficus
.and it
gatheredfrom
be
can
much
younger
trees.
Forests of Ficus
the Government
Elastica in Assam India-rubber that (not Ceylonrubber) is derived. The latex is collected during the dry months. Eight obliquecuts with downwards made the dao, sloping at a little distance from are It is from
of the
much
another,
one one
bark. tree
as
should four
be
not
can
be tied round
the
tree
as
only on the main ground.
be made
feet from An
eightmud-pots These
remain on the whole day. The cuts is secreted just below the milk the outer deep, number incisions should of A great not be made each on and weaken kill the tree. The incisions ultimately they
below
should
that
so
the other.
ounce
and
stem, the lowest
being made
one
the of
powdered alum
mixed
A
well.
few
should be taken in
a
tea-cupful
of this solution spoonfuls
should be put into each vessel containingabout 3 pints of the milk after The milk will coagumatter. strainingthe milk from extraneous late
"of water
immediately,the rubber^is then exposed to air on sticks and After a month it is ready for the .allowed to drain for a week. market. The price has varied from Rs. 20 to Rs. 250 per maund within A full grown India-rubber tree fiftyyears the last 20 years. old yields,at the very lowest/ five seers of rubber each time, if and this tapped, quantitymay be expected about very carefully in successive 16 is a safe estimate for 16 times years, which At of the rate of ten trees t he rubber tree. a calculating yield maunds of rubber per acre in of while timber Rs. 10 at an acre 4,000, would Rs. 500 or 600. It is only Government tree only bring per landlords afford rich who wait to for 30 years before can or very but the propagationof India-rubber^ trees the return comes, per acre, the yieldcomes 16 years, valued at Rs.
should Court
be of
always kept in Wards
to
view
estates,
20
by Managers of Government
where
immediate
return
need
and not
351
SERICULTURE,
be or
of
The
for.
looktd
epiphytes propagationis
be
seedlingsmay other
on
as
also
either on mounds, grown (jootior "jnlknltim system
The
trees.
practised. largely
CHAPTER
LXXIX.
SERICULTURE. [Various fW
classes
feeding J^I Larva,
of
under
silkworms
silkworms
;
The
tusser
Attacid;c worms
;
Bombyeichx' ;"'The mulberry
and
Three
main
of
classes
tusser,
"
the
rearing; The reeling of tusser of mulberry from seed of varieties Propagation The mulberry ; cocoons ; of leaf; Tree- mulberry ; and cuttings; cost of planting mulberry ; Out turn of mulberry cocoons; The Silk Keeling Rearing of mulberry silkworms; Muscardine, Klacherie, (Jatine, of "silkworms ; Pe brine, fibre; Diseases Dennestt-s The fl\-pest ; The Double-cocoons; (Jrasserie, (Vmrt, vnlpinus ; The
Eri silkworm
Various some
on
Daba
Bujjui and
trees
and
classes
;
the
The
spinningof
of silkworms
in the open,
of
method
which
Eri
are
i
cocoons,
reared,
indoors
some
spin cocoons,
of which
out
obtained
of various
Silkworms main The
and
reelable
the
ones,
latter
and
into
spun The
cotton.
un-
have combed like
yarn,
mulberry
silkworms silkworms
reelabie
which
carded
and
Bom-
A ftadder.
make
and
cocoons
two
the the
former
to be
silk is classes.
fall under
groups"
hyudw
and
ing feed-
and the tusser
of
all
commerce
under the Bombyn"la\ come while the Eri silkworms long be-
the Attacidaj. The
to
Aliaats which
Atlas
is the
(Fig. 67), largestcocoon
of all,out of the most moths,
are
which
ccme
magnificent
unreehiblo
wild
cocoons.
mulberry feediny
The
silkworms, most are
which
are
of allto profitable
the rear,
ing divided into the follow-
mori
"(1) the Bombyx the (Fig. 68), or
annual
silkworms
groups:
FIG.
67.-ATTACU8
ATLAS
COCOON.
Europe,
China,
reared in
Japan,
352
Kashmir
OF
HANDBOOK
and
of
some
the
AGRICULTURE.
Asiatic
Western
countries ; (2)
Barapalu, the annual Bombyx textor, the of which are flossyand not Bengal,the cocoons
silkworm]of
the
Bombyx
mori
FIG.
and
cocoons,
63." BOMBYX
MORI
the eggs
COCOONS
(The vessel underneath the
of which
^IIUNG is for
do
VP
maggots
parasiticflyto drop in ace una nl ate.)
and
FOR
of
hard
not
like the
requiresuch
SEEDING.
SERICULTURE.
cold
the
of
353
Bombyx
mori
for
their hibernation ; and the Barapdtof Assam (3)the Bombyx Arracanensis of Burmah closely allied to the Bombyx textor ; (4) the Bombyx Meri-* are which dionalis of Mysore and Kollegal, yieldsseven or eightcrops in the year instead of one, the cocoons of cocoons beinggreenish-
intense
as
almost
white
and
Crcesi breed
(Madrasi eighttimes
as
good
Barapalu
as
cocoons
;
(5) the
Bombyx
Nistari),the golden yellow
or
in the year
soft silk ;
fine and
eggs
in
which cocoons, which produce very fortunatus(theDeshi or Chhoto-
Bengal
(6)the Bombyx
and
of Bengal containinga larger portion proof -stronger silk than the Bombyx Crcesi silk ;*and (7) the Sinensis or the China the which smallest are cocoons,
palu),a brighteryellow cocoon Bombyx
of all,reared in Sinensis also reared
Midnapur. There is a white variety in Midnapur, .which is called the of Bombyx found the mulberry trees in Bulu ; (8)the Theophilacocoons on 69 wild and are the Himalayas (Figs. 70). yellow cocoons
FIG.
70."
MOTH
THEOPHILA
OF
HUTTONI.
FIG. 69." WILD HUTTHEOPHILA SILKWORM. TONI
The
which a
tusser
the
cocoons
are
also
Anther ia Yamamai
silk,somewhat greenish-white
divided
of
into
and
of China
Japan
groups,
Japan (Fig.71), which rougher and
Bombyx mori or Bombyx Pernyi(Fig.72) or the China tusser, comes is just as good Assama or Mug a of Assam The Antheria mylittaor the Bengal tusser textor
several
silk,is the
is reared
coarser
best. next. as
the
of
yields
than
white Anther ia The Antheria China tusser.
The
proper,
comes
oak-trees.
last.
The Muga on the Sualu (Machilusodoratissima), t he monopetala), Mejankuri (Tetranthera (Tetranthera polyantha), The
tusser
of Assam
M,
is reared
HA
on
the Sum
?3
354
O*
HANDBOOK
the
AUKlCULTURE.
Champaka (Micheliachampaka)and other trees. The Bengal the Asan or Sdj tree (Terminalia tomenis reared chiefly on
tusser
be
also on sal,arjuna,sidka, freelypollarded, and other The moths trees. from tusser dhau, baer,country-almond out very irregularly, the cocoons when come cocoons are especially and within out three weeks their some of coming strong, large tree which
tosa),a
can
others
formation, while for
accounts
seed, hard from one
for two
out
come
choosing thin and from
of moths
eclosion
as
not
may
rearers
experiment conducted
An
is
tusser
by
such
is
cocoons
the
years.
This
cocoons
for
small
regular.
more
author, largeand if seed, the chrysalidsare extracted can cocoons and kept exposed or buried in saw-dust. the cocoons This which be can taken in amelioratingthe important step be used
FIG.
of
condition
the
that
for
COCOON.
YAMAMAI
71. -ANTHKRIA
which silk-industry, of genuine wild The use
tusser
of disease.
ascount
showed
is
going down
cocoons
on
for seed is
another step. classes of Bengal tusser, the Narya,the There are three main Doha and the Bugui. (I) The Narya (Pig.73) is obtained out of
72." ANTHERIA
FIG.
the
small
or
generallywild, though domesticated sold as wild cocoons. Prom the fraudulently
cocoons,
often
are
cocoons
wild
sized
Dhuria
domesticated an
Ampatia
August,and
from
COCOON.
PERNYI
or
this
or
summer
flimsycrop of
Ampatia
crop
cocoons
cocoons
of June
are
tained, ob-
(Fig.74) in July and the regularcrop
is obtained
of the year, the Barsati crop, in October (Fig.75). A Jaddui or taken ; but cold weather crop (Fig. 76) of Narya is also sometimes it takes nearly three months takinga Jaddui crop. (2) The Doha is now always taken from the domesticated stock and not from
356
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
is the The method of rearingof all the three classes of cocoons about 4 P.M. At The moths begincuttingout of cocoons same. those About 3 A.M. or fly away. 9 or 10 P.M. the male moths To facilitatethe visit to the female moths. other male moths come females out of doors his must keep of the male moths, the rearer bow-like sticks)and watch on are kept perched
they (usually them againstthe
75." BARSATI (Small-sized,Hard
FIG.
up
attack
LARVTA
etc. of bats, birds,lizards,
COCOON
Cocoon).
FIG.
76." JADDUI
The
LARYA
moths
COCOON
(Light-coloured,Long Small-sized
Peduncled, Cocoon).
remain paired till about 4 P.M., when they either separate themselves or are separated by the rearer, the females beingkept and the males given to domestic pinneddown in leaf receptacles, fowls. The eggs are collected after three days,and keptin smaller leaf
the eggs of two or three moths (about 500 eggs) receptacles, each receptacle.On the ninth day the eggs hatch,
beingkept in and
as soon as they hatch, they are gut out on trees in which they secured by pinningthem on to leaves. The trunks of trees should be brushed clean of ants and other insects and afterwards are
SERICULTURE.
Fro.
TS.-AMPATIA
DABA
77." MUD-A-MUOA
COCOON.
357
COCOON.
FIG.
TQ.-BARSATI
DABA
COCOON.
358
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
each given a circle of Bhela oil to protect the worms are To each tree about half a dozen to from the attack of ants, etc. of seed-receptacles a dozen are pinnedon at different places,that the whole of the tree may and not get covered with the worms have to be kept low for any particularpart of it only. The trees
they
of watching the facility
insects
againstants,
birds,squirrels,
wasps,
bug called
a
chdn-
a yd, mantis, pedes, scorpions, centia large
led carabid beetle cal-
chhabundia, and
other
vermin.
In
this
matter
great
is
care
The
necessary.
principal epidemic from tusser
which the silkworm
suffers, serie FIG.
SO." Buoui
COCOON.
readily,both
is
gras-
(Fig. 82),
which
is
a
which
is
produced
disease
and
tusser
among
mulberrysilkworms by feedingthem with
than leaf,thinner, i.e., sappier,
leaf
that
the
have
worms
eatinghitherto. the ground, a heavy As
makes
sap rises from shower of rain
the greatest difference of in the leaf in
short
trees.
kept
on
five
feet
No
from
annual
done,
FIG.
81."
BAK-RA
mustard
COCOON.
oil and
the
the
sistency con-
of
case
should
worm
branches
branches should be the very first. For the
been
within
be
four
ground, or
or
such
lopped off from tusser
pollardingshould
rearing be
so
that all the
be branches may above five feet and below ten feet from the ground, that grasserie be avoided, while the worms may be kept under close supervision. may A stick with bird-lime mixed (peepultree gum up with
kept covered
with
bamboo
tube when not in use) ought to be alwaysin the hand of the rearer, that he may and birds. A bow of and pellets scare effectively away wasps mud are also of great help. In tusser rearinglocalities, one scarcely the watch the a sees bird, rearers kept by being so strict. When warm
a
359
SERICULTURE.
the leaf of
tree is eaten
away, the branches are loppedoff with and transferred to another tree,or several trees, this continued until the cocoons the formed. When are all formed, they are broughtdown with the adhering cocoons are branches of trees, carefully separatedfrom the branches and sold
the and
one
in them
worms
off in hats. killed. For
pot),and
When
they cannot be sold so readily, they must be the cocoons, they are put inside a kulsi (earthen killing
inside the mouth
of the pot a few sticks are inserted,so the pot is upset with its mouth of the downwards, none The fall is cocoons then in out. this condition reverse may pot put another in which is boiling over fire. In about water over a half an hour all the cocoons killed with the steam from are rising the one pot and going into the other. They are then dried in the and sun kept for reeling. The effect of domestication of tusser
that when
(i)the cocoons get smaller,(2) they
cocoons
are
tend
to
:
"
get lighterand lighterin colour,(3)the silk gets finer, (4)the peduticle gets longer and longer, (5)the worms get and
more
subject
more
disease. Domesticated
preferredby weavers, they produce the whitest
is done the
Bengal, soda
or
the chief solvent A
use.
off the
to
"
"0
0 "
0
c
"
O
"
as
and
cocoons
factories
O 0
o
Q in
O
in o
0
0
potash being in ingredient
singleperson silk
" gT
O
"3 tusser
by patent processes
European
G
cocoons
are
finest cloths. The reeling of
"
from
250
can
Pl0t
reel
OF
82.-MicRoscopic APPEARANCE GRASSERIE CRYSTALS (x 600).
tusser
native process factories. The of Asan, which ashes to cocoons Kenja,or other tree or plant (such as linseed plant ashes), about half a seer are added, or saji. For five hundred cocoons of ashes are used, or half a chhitak of saji. A refined method
cocoons
a
consists in
day
in
boilingthe
European
in water
be the using of lye instead of the crude ashes. The lye be obtained out of the ashes by repeatedly passingthe water may throughthe ashes kept over a pieceof calico,until the water looks The cocoons be boiled in this lye for oily in appearance. may ing, not softened equallyby the boilabout an hour. All cocoons are would
off easilywhile they are being those that do not work reeled,are kept separate and boiled the next day with a fresh lot of cocoons. requirestronger alkali and Large and hard cocoons and
longerboiling.When kept in a pot between
been some
boiled, they are ashes,and reeling
boiled in the morning, One day'scocoons are from a reel to t o able fifty one hundred cocoons person being
commenced one
have the cocoons folds of a cloth over
at
once.
360
HANDBOOK
day. the
The
OP
reelingis done with
a
AGRICULTURE.
latai on
the
righthand,
with
and
twisted on the three to five cocoons are with the round wound righthand. being twisted reeled and cocoons are by the be this method cannot operationper day, primitive regarded
left hand
fibres from
thigh,while the latai is As fiftyto one hundred same
a
as
method the
ineffective very of preparing material
raw
the
Usually spinning of tusser
the
is done
cocoons
weavers' it
is
the
(
for
loom.
families,and done
never
of
bv
kuhnv
\
rearers.
1,280)
=
in the
cocoons
produces from
three
quarters of a seer of silk two seers
to cording ac-
qualityof
to
used.
cocoons
The
mulberry wild
tree
all
along Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam,
grows
the
and
the
worm mulberry silk-
known is phila,
found
abundantly these trees.
on
The
Theo-
as
variety
of
found
Himalayas
in is
From large. Moms gigantic
berry mul-
the very the
serrata
the Morus dwarf indicti, the gradation
to
is slow. soft
Some
have
succulent
others leaf ;
leaf,
rough, spiney have
some
a
large and abundant others supplyof fruits, their blossoms drop Fiu.
83." MULBERRY STRIPPED
FOR
and TREE
PRUNED
AND
TRANSPLANTING.
hardly
are
known
with leaves
gummy
close to one another and littleor bearing sap,
set
The Moms for silk worms. best varieties to choose.
on
ever
ties to fruit.Varie-
stems, smooth
and
large-sized thick with
the best to choose are fruits, Is one of the alba,varietyIcevigata,
The
no
mulberries
in
common
use
in
361
SERICULTURE.
alba, varieties indica and Bengal and Mysore are the Morns sinensis. The former known as Pheti or Sultani tunt is the better of the leaf being thicker. It ha" varietyof the two, the gum tion and it more planate leaves, requiresmore manuring and cultivato keep it in condition. sinensis (the Kajli or The Moms Chini tunt)has thinner and sappier but it is hardier. It is leaves,
quite suitable
for
worms
wards, their fourth moult, but afterand moult of well the out are quite given the stronger Morns indica leaf. of into very largetrees, and one grow that could be introduced into the Indian up
to
i.e.,when the worms strong, they should be These two varieties do not the chief
improvements
industryis the introduction of Morns
other similar onlyfor rearingthe poor
or some Icevigata
superiorvarietyof mulberry,suitable not but also the superiorBombyx mori Bengal cocoons, The tree system of propagation of the mulberry is natural and once healthy. Trees when up grown
cocoons.
also
more
little keepingup, while the shrub-mulberryplanted eighteeninches totwo feet apart costs about Rs. 75 an acre to maintain. Propagationof mulberry may be either from seed, or from seed produce leaf from cuttings,or from grafts. Trees grown which like Morus indica is not quitesuitable for rearingworms the last stage. Morus the Morus at Icvvigata, Philippinensis, cost
superiorvarieties of mulberry can is done usually and propagation readilygrown cuttings, from cuttingsonly. The Japanesemulberry, however, does not from cuttings,and it is grafted.Though the Japanese grow to all the requirements of a first-classmulberry mulberry answers
European Morus
be
alba and
other
from
r
it is
better than
no
of the best Indian
some
mulberries,and there
the Japanesevarieties in India, For from seed one growing any mulberry precautionis necessary. in a Before sowing the seed it should be put in camphor water bottle is for an Germination hour, and then sown. stoppered otherwise very partial. Mulberry seed is smaller than grainsof is
no
occasion
mustard,
to
introduce
and seed for
post from
a
largetract
of land
can
be
easilysent through
the seedlings are country grown the first cost from cuttings, and thus up, propagationmay go on of setting saved When cuttingsare up a plantation very much. available, propagationshould be from cuttings.When trees are be there should be a nursery on high irrigto able sought propagated, and cultivated and protected land, well dug up, manured with ditches and fences. The cuttingsor seedlings should be
plantedin
When
to nine inches apart, and transplanted on feet* distance of feet at a eight high, twenty all the full formed-leaves should be nipped transplanting,
fields,when While
to another.
one
the nursery or
ten
off and all branches within 5 feet of the Leaf from seedlingtrees should not be last stage.
83). (Fig. groundrejected in their given to worms
of the shrub-kind The cost of starting a mulberry plantation is abotit the same for trees. In as starting a mulberry nursery
362
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OP
ihe
former case, the cuttings are plantedabout eighteeninches instead of nine inches apart and four or five cuttings apart planted At each spot instead of one. The cost of establishing a mulberry nursery,
in area, for the firsttwo
acre
one
years, is givenbelow Rs.
(1) Wages of 90
men
employed
in digging the
September, at
4
as.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
..
to
or
"
December
.
..
213 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
180
180 300 15
0
0
0
0
12
0
0
141
3
0
240 .
.
.
15 300
..
.
180
.
180 780
..
.
0
870
.
..
..
.
..
Expenditurein connection with be incurred annually, about i.e., Outturn.
.
..
..
0 0
780 2130
...
..
..
14 0
900
.
.
.
.
16 30
.
.
.
(5) Wages of 15 men making cuttingsat 3 as. making hollows in regular lines (6) Wages of 15 men planting cuttings (7) Wages of 45 men (8) Hand-hoeing in October by piece-work (9) Cutting away the first shoots in December (10) Ploughing afterwards in April (11) Cost of putting tank-earth as manure (12) Ploughing in May (13) Irrigation(ifnecessary) in May ". (14) Weeding in July (15) Cutting away of stumps in August or September (16) Ploughing in September lund (17) Digging with spades after the November (18) Two years'rent .
p.
"
field with
spades in the cold weather, at 3 as. (2) Ditcningand fencing (by piece-work) (3) Cost of 12 ploughings,the plough-man with bullocks and ploughs being hired,at 4 as. a day (4) Cost of getting 30 loads (about 30 mds.) of mulberry stalks in
A.
:
(10) to (18) has
items Nos. Rs. 75.
The first crop of leaf which when plantingis done in
ready in November September,or in April is
is done in February,is cut away, as the leaf is very when planting thin and sappy and not very suitable for silk-rearing. The crops bund by bund that are obtained afterwards are : "
A alue.
24 maunds 36
48 60 45 45
Total
258 maunds
of leaf (with stalks)in
January
Rs.
24
March June
30
August
30 90 45
24
November December Total value Rs.
.
.
249
An "cre of
lished, mulberryfrom the third year, when it is well estab300 is maunds which of with leaf yields usually stalks, sold as a standingcrop, cocoon-rearers buying it up and cutting it away from day to day. The purchaseat the above pricesis usuallyon credit,and often the buyers,when they lose their crop of Silkworms from diseases, berry. unable to pay the priceof mulare The mulberry grower aijd the silk rearer therefore are
both'interested in the eradication of diseases. From 300 maunds of leaf 600 seers (l,2001b.) obtainable as the of fresh cocoons are maximum result per acre. The value of this quantityof cocoons
364
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
vigorous growth of leaves,can be readilybent, and the leaver picked with the help of a crook without climbing. The rearingof mulberry silkworms (Fig. 84), and of Endi bamboo Eri silkworms indoors on or dalas, proceeds on much the
Fio.
Leaves
method.
same
85."
FECUNDATION
AND
(castor leaves
OVIPOSITION
OF
in the
ENDI
case
OR
ERI
of the Eri
MOTHS.
the newly-hatched worms, cut up very fine; the worms with the leaves separatedfrom the eggs after three or four hours,,and put separatelyat the lowest shelf of a machan (called The eggs hatchingthe next day are put gharain the silk districts).
silkworm) are
higherup
put
in the
on
machan, and the third day'sworms
stillhigher
365
SERICULTURE.
notice is taken of the eggs, except more no up, after which usually in the case of the Barapalu eggs, in which the hatchingis much fed five more tardy. The worms up to the last moult are usually times a day at regularintervals. At the last stage the worms moult or change fed three or four times a day. The worms are their skin four times during this interval,i.e.,from hatchingto the worm Inside the cocoons moults twice, spinningof cocoons. and the second time in changing in changinginto chrysalis and as moths Inside the cocoons into a moth. they eat nothing. and after and moths As a few days die theypair layeggs (Fig.85), after laying off. Strong and healthy moths may live for a fortnight once
FIG.
86. "THREAD-NET
FOE
CLEANING
AND
THINNING
SILKWORMS.
eggs ; but a moth dyingwithin a day or two after layingeggs may be healthyand their eggs fit for rearing.As leaves are heaped up to dalas by repeatedfeeding,cleaningbecomes necessary. Native rearers neglectcleaningat least in the earlystages. But neglectin this matter and in the matter of keeping the worms thin in numbers, and the room well ventilated (thoughthe worms themselves be from a current of air), must always kept away result in worms at the last stage. dyingin largenumbers specially and clean and the room thin in numbers well Keeping the worms
ventilated
(thoughin
even
temperature)and
free from
dust, is
from the first. Cleaningand thinningof the worms are facilitatedby thread nets (Fig.86) of meshes of about half an fresh inch. A net is spreadover the worms on dirtyleaves, resting leaves (cut up fine at the two earlystagesand whole leaves with stalks beingput from the third stage)scattered over the net, and after half a minute the net may be removed to another dala. This has the effectof separating the worms evenly into two lots. Nets for be used w hether the need thinning to are worms or cleaning necessary
366
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
have to be divided up into three dalas after the firstmoult, into nine dalas after the second not.
A dala of
worms newly-hatched
FIG. 87." CHANDRAKI
OR
SPINNING
SCREEN.
moult, into 27 dalas after the third moult, into 81 dalas after the fourth moult, and at the last stage the worms occupy twice as
367
SERICULTURE.
much
162 dalas)before they make (i.e.,
space
from
net
dala with the
a
and
worms
mid-day feed, removed
Dailythe
cocoons.
litter are
to be lifted at
the
fresh dala, and
to a on the older dala removed outside and thoroughlycleaned. If, however, worms are be assumed found underneath the net, they must to be moulting. They should not then be disturbed,but kept on a lower shelf on a separate machan where no feedingshould be done for about 24 The worms hours. the net removed to a fresh dala are to be on and without food for then left about 24 hours. Great given a feed is necessary at moultingperiods.The care to remember point
is,it does them
for
is known
the worms of moult. dull and
givingfood
harm
more
hours
few
a
until the
to
moultingworms
worms
well out
are
than of
fasting
moult, which
and hungry look. If on blowingover by their agility knows they are properlyout move they very fast,one If,on the contrary, the movement they exhibit is of a listlesskind, they are not quiteout of their sickness,and be stillleft without
they should when
the
harm
; but
food.
An extra feed at the time does not do them moult much going Experienceis needed feedingtoo early does harm.
worms
off to
are
in this matter.
Worms much
as
in the
possible.That
machans, and the late
room,
is
early ones If
moultingtimes.
should
room
same
worms
be
why tardy
all of the
worms
are
lower down, both of different ages
suffer
at are
same
age,
as
kept high upon hatchingand at kept in the same
Worms from disease. when they translucent and they constantly At this time in the case of Indian and transferred to a spinning quicklypicked
worms
more
are ready spinning become spitout silk from their mouth.
for
silkworms
they
are
(or-Chandraki,
screen
for bearings
vide
Fig. 87) where In the
making cocoons.
case
they get
of the
convenient
Bombyx mori, dry
and make their the worms ripe worms hot from these In in arches. the weather, cocoons hatchingta spinning,only about 20 days are spent in the plainsof Bengal,and in the coldest weather about 40 days. But cocoon-rearing is best uniform. done when That the temperature is about 75" and fairly is March is why the November the best crop and the bund or crop
twigs
bund two
are
arched
the next best. If largemulberry leaves are But when the shrub crops would be taken.
rearingmust too
over
be
done
on
other
seasons
are great heat,or cold,or damp, rearings
Two
ones
at
used, only these mulberryis used, of also,when, on account
of
less unsuccessful. eightindifferent
or
more
better than
good crops (eventhe two good crops beingsubjectto infection).Indeed, of the parasitic account flypest (Fig.84) it is not feasible to cocoons
are
take a take all the eightcrops in the year, and this is why rearers for distant and the then seed next and omit to some place, go crop is three or four. and the actual number of crops taken in a village When the cocoons are formed, they are gatheredfrom chandrakia cribed the third day and sold off at once, or killed in a kalsi as deson in connection
with tusser cocoons,
or
in
a
basket
put over
a
368
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
of water, the basket beingcovered there is hot sun the rays of the sun are
boiling pan When
in two
cocoons
or
three
with a blanket. sufficientto killthe
over
days.
Reeling. Except in the
rainyseason,
however killed, be steamed must immediatelybefore reeling.Steamed cocoons should be reeled off in three or four days. Steamed cocoons should not be spreadout in the sun to get dry, but should be kept spread out indoors in machans and reeled off as fast as possible. "
cocoons,
the steaming can be done itia cocoons of fire in the of blank basket over a pan as a case killing, space being left in the middle of the basket, so that cocoons about six inches For
thick way
of quantities
small
rest
may
all sides and
on
through the
from the bottom
When "cocoons
the steam
minutes
for ten
top, and
the steam
and out
cocoons
is
be considered to be
may
the
coming
out
of cocoons large quantities for steaming. In the rainyseason
its
of the blanket.
of the
properlysteamed.
blanket,the
When
specialerections
with
work
dealing
anfu
necessary the air is naturally steamy and beneficial effect the the it exercises ficially artisame on cocoons as an of But the steam. in atmosphere cocoons produced spun unravel in weather do and basins not properly they are a rainy source
water
in two cocoons
silk is reof great loss to European factories where even quired made. be Steamed reeled off in to cocoons are a .basin of (Fig.88) which is kept boiled with fire or steam, and passed lots to
a
reel,which
get worked
as
it is wound
off. As each
round
and
gets worked
cocoon
round, the
off,its place
suppliedby another, the end of which is kept ready for the by the reeler,and an expert reeler can reel off as many purpose he has to make the best four Jcahans of cocoons as per day when kind of silk,and ten kahans a day when he has to make native khangru silk. Silk Fibre. There is no fibre so long,so strong, so fine,so
is
"
When talk about the we fibre of that it is 1| or If cotton we mean staple beinglong, only talk of jute fibre beinglong,we inches in length; when we only but it is 13 that 12 the ft. has tusser or cocoon an interrupted unmean long,
soft,and
smooth,
so
as
the
silk fibre.
.
800 yards long,and fibre,
some
varieties of
mulberry
fibre of 900 yards,and yet the fibre uninterrupted is so fine that in the case of the tusser this single fibre from a cocoon and in the case of the mulberry silk it is 250 is 700 milligrammes milligrammesin weight. So fine is the thread, that although cocoons
one
of its strength there is no difficulty, account to draw out the on in practicenever fewer than three thread out of single cocoons, and in the of the fewer than four or five tusser case cocoons never for in the case of the mulberrycocoons, used simultaneously are thread silk-muslins finest from. for out the It is the or drawing
that thread silk-gauze five or mulberrycocoons cocoons
reel without
a
is made
by drawing out the fibre of four berry together. So4 strong is the fibre of multhat it is quiteeasy to draw out the fibre on to a singlebreak, though this fibre is so fine that for
369
SERICULTURE.
FIG.
88." A
REELING
NEW
MACHINE
WITH
PEDAL
B"
feet diameter). Reel (*2$ Pulleyat right-handend of the reel (weighted).
C
Pin
A
"
"
screw
or
on
B.
wire.
T)
String
or
E"
Plank
(pedal).
"
ARRANGEMENT.
end of E for tyingstringor wire. Hole at the other end of E for tyingthe pedalto a pin fixed into the ground with wire rope. H- Pin fixed to the ground for keepingthe pedal in position. the temperatureof water in the basin for boiling J for testing Thermometer F
Hole
"
0
at one
"
"
"
and
reelingthe
*
cocoons.
" L-"Two
K M N
croisures.
Stringgivingmotion to the eccentric. Pulley on which the eccentric rests.
"
"
Steam-cock.
()
"
used for making fabrics in these practical purposes it is never of the Koan vests days, though perhapsin olden times the And silkfibre. out of such single Roman yet empirewere woven fibreof silk is made of two ultimate fibresagglutinated each single "
with together M
HA
a
natural gum
which
givesthe
"
fibreitsbrilliancy.
24
HANDBOOK
370
OF
AGRICULTURE,
out of the spinarette ultimate fibres or haves come at of the silkworm, and ultimatelyderived from two These glands situated on two sides of the interior of the worm. taken* of out the of sometimes the body silkworm, two glandsare
These two the mouth
put in vinegarand afterwards drawn out in the form of silkworm hooks to the line. For its weight gut which is used for tyingfishing such is no there and pliancy strong substance as the silkworm gut. But though the fibre is the strongest,finest and softest fibre silk fibre differsfrom another so much that one is valued of all one a at Rs. 10 a seer, while another at Rs. 30 a seer, and country
which* habituallydeals
with
Rs.
fibre can illcompete 10-per-seer which Rs. a habitually fibre. produces with a country 30-per-seer of India called Kliangru or Ghangru silkThe native-made silk Rs. and 10 Rs. 12 per seer at sell be only sometimes per seer, may of taken as the average price Khangru silk. The European filature It sometimes sells for only Rs. 16 or reeled silk is much better. Rs.
17
per
seer,
but
a
its average
priceis
about
Rs.
20.
Italian,
French, and Japanese silks are stillbetter and they sell for about Rs. 30 a seer. Why is there this difference in pricei Let us first see the of difference between European filature reeled silk and cause much be reeled by a one seer a as As silk. day may Khangru
coupleof
on
men
is nine chhitaks.
the As
Khangru system, thoughthe average quantity much as 4| chhitaks per day is sometimes
in European filatures, but the pairof operatives chhitaks. This at difference taken be 3| comes of may average and the Indians chiefly to quantity. the Europeans lookingto quality which combine to make the Europeanfilature There are three causes superiorto the country Khangru silk:" reeled silk so much the number of cocoons factories reeled regulate /I) The European
turned
out
by
a
smaller number, five or six cocoons (2) The European'factories insist on instead of twenty cocoons. knot being put whenever there is a break. (3)The European a factories cross two adjacentlots of fibre twice on themselves to while the country reelers not giving of fibres, effect an agglutination knots reel away very fast and get and puttingno can any croisure largerabsolute and relative produce. Is it worth while for our country reelers to follow the European system, and produce a smaller quantityof superiorfibre ? Not for silk at Rs. 12 a seer in India is the demand at present,when There is practically and very keen. demand for no more
exactlyand usuallyuse
very
large'
a
Ask the large silk-mill20 silk in the Indian market. silk what want. of they Bombay They will tell you silk owners of the value of Rs. 5 or Rs. 6 per pound ; and as for handloom the cheaper silk. A few skeins of what as a rule, use, they prefer, the Us.
"
silk/'that is,European I^atin is called by our country weavers used are reeled silk, always by exceptionally filature good weavers demand, but it is the Ktumgru silk that they special some to meet from Benares, Lahore. accustomed to handle. The demand are
372
OP
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
therefore contain about four times fewer joinings than the Crcesi or Bombyx fortunatus silkmade out of Bombyx of cocoons fibre o f on The a Mysore length is cocoon about average Bengal. and the Bombyx meridionaliscocoons of Madras there300 yards, fore must
littlebetter silk than the silk producedby the out of Bengal machine in Bengalfilatures cocoons. into India is thereHow to introducethe Bombyx mori cocoons fore
producea
same
I have worked the Bombyx mori for a number of years in Bengal, and theyhave successfully cocoons The Kashmir also. in with regardto the been worked difficulty
problembefore
the
FIG.
us.
90."MICROSCOPIC
with spores (a) Hyphae
OF
MUSOARDINK.
old branch which is producing spores by with spores, the youngest of which are terminal ; (c)two sporogenous branches from which allthe spores have fallen except the youngest and uppermost (enlarged500 diameters) ; (d) young 700 diameters). eporiferous hypha (enlarged and abjnnction
of rearing
is
;
(6)End of
APPEARANCE
an
covered thickly
this class of
is in the matter of conservation of cocoons of intense dry cold,and The a period eggs. eggs require from hot winds at other times. In every theymust be protected of India the be reared (andin many can Bombyxmori worms part at some time or other successfully partstheyhave been reared), from February But the conservation of the eggs from to June.
seed
or
likeKashmir, few places where but the cold is in winter Dtlkcwsie, severe etc., dry. There with regard to the Bombyxmori. The epidemic 10 aoofcber difficulty be must by annual examination of keptsuppressed to April
next
Januaryis possible onlyin a
373
SERICULTURE.
the seed with between
lished is estab-
microscope.If railwaycommunication
a
Kashmir
and
the
rest
"
of India, and
"
Kashmir Pasteur, she if
establishes the system of grainage as devised by can supplythe rest of India with seed. This will giveone good Rs. 30-per-seer silk. But a crop in the year ; which will make a
separate organisationof having a
grainageand
hibernating
be also tried, station at Dalhousie may Diseases silkworms. The greatest obstacle to sericulture of In Bengal is the prevalenceof certain diseases among silkworms. the flyand Pebrine (Fig.89), Muscardine (Fig.90), Grasserie, of damage ; pest (Tricolygabombycis),do the greatest amount and the while other diseases, such as Flacker ie, Court, Gatine "
.-./
FIG.
Denmstes
91," MICROBES
OF
FLACHERIR.
valpinusalso
do some of harm. In Mysore amount the does most (Fig.91) harm, while other diseases are scarcelyknown. Pebrine (Bengalikata)is caused by a microscopic organism Flacherie
looks like grainsof mung magnified600 diameters, seed. a slow-acting disease, takingthirtydays for complete the development, so that, when the seed is badly pebrinized, die off at the last stage. If rearingis completed worms suddenly in less than thirty days, pebrinized worms spin poor cocoons. the seed is not very badly pebrinized, When i.e., some worms, those producedfrom pebrinized die thirtieth off the day, on eggs,
which,
when
It is
,
while
others which catch the infection from the pebrinized worms die later oa, or make cocoons and come out as moths, which show and then die. Some worms from eggs foee pebrinecorpuscles, from pebrinehappen to escape infection. These spin cocoons,
37't
HANmiOOK
out
some
moths, and
as
AGRICULTURE.
OK
show
pebrine corpuscle*.The
no
eggs
moth to Kach is made from. these moths are safe to rear and after at lay eggs under a separate cover, on sheets of paper, under a microscope. The eggs of least five dayse^ehis examined
from
blood of which show
those moths, the
retained,the
rest
being
an1 pebrinocorpuscles,
no
The
burnt.
selected out
eggs
then
are
sulphateof copper
from diseases, by a dip in a purified superficially cool but airy placeto get dry in bath (|% solution), a hung up which with its rearingapand then taken inside a rearingroom, pliances has been alreadydisinfected (Fig. 92) witJi sulphateof and sulphur fumes. The rearing from eggs thus copper wash fail from pebrine. thus disinfected cannot selected and in room Where a rearingtakes place once year, disinfection of appliances for protecting the worms is not necessary againstpebrine.provided loses its vitality the seed itself is selected. The germ of pe.brine in
months
seven
and
local infection thus dies out
Natural
is taken.
annusyt rtsjp
freedom
by
is naturallyfree* iiysore
of
microscopic-
-iM'Jnrmc. and
from
selection is not
this
is
giving good
results
A
lot
selected
to """V
!% ."
I.' KB KOU
selection
from
OK
per
in the seed, a sort
of
a
pebrinenot gettingtime ft onlyweakens the worms,
to
and
'20%,
and
on,
until
so
or
30%
crop to
to
be
is obtained
with SO in the
developso fullyas
i
pchrmizetl. copic micros-
therefore, secure
or
"
i
,
,
seed
of pebrinc left without even
moth
""vorv '"
,
pebrine in the
of
less,though
or
c
generation to
every
cent,
affectthe result,but 20, 30 more
50%,
again is found In this case, at
free
out
l .
-TITION.
is needed
5
generations
few
a
Krr.Aiu
DISIM
variety Bengal.
in
from pebrinized
more
from
'20 to
,,
pebrine. Five
thu result spoils
and
more
from "
seed
ing rear-
pebrinealways tends againto
from
get
of
in
necessary
this variety,and
92. Fi". IV" VAPOIITSKK
more
secured freedom microscopic selection. Thus, worm Kombji'.fHtjeridinualw silk-
the
,,
is
jwhriw
from than
desirable
in
the. next
before
exemption does
not
selection,
90% of pebrine
hot weather, the to kill the worms.
that they either make so poor cocoons, thus lot of succumb A worms other to diseases. or pebrinized and Grmtacrir falls an easier victim to Flacherie* Muscardinc. which is free*from /W"'/w. 11 is essential Court*than a lot of worms number of nurseries in each silk-districtin Bengal,where the system of microscopic selection will he rigorouslyfollowed obtained from selected eggs sold for seed-purposes, and the cocoons stock where free from* yWw/'w is reared. The few a or naturally to have
a
nurseries that, have are
been
doing very good
established
work.
by
cocoon-rearers
in
Bengal
375
SERICULTURE.
Mascardine is another epidemic of the silkworm which is due to a higherfungus,quitevisible to the naked eye in its fully developedform when it partakesof the nature of a white mould, which have this mould The worms on the bodies of dead worms. Chunakati. Thja get like sticks of lime, hence the Bengaliname disinfection is of eggs and epidemic also readilycontrolled,by "
in a clean manner. all the appliancesused, and rearingthe worms If through neglectof disinfection of the rearinghouse and the
the eggs at the commencement, mu^cardine doe$ with nets, break out, it can be stopped,by cleaningthe worms for a few hours and by burningsuipliur keepingthe worms fasting The cleaning afterwards in the room, thoroughlyshutting it up. will have to be done dailyafter this and a littlesulphurburnt after of appliances,
with smeared sulphate of copper solution. muscardine thus saved from was in,connection Many a rearing with the experiments with which the author was, entrusted for
the
ten
has
room
been
years.
berry Flcwherie is an epidemiccaused by the fermentation of mulSuch fermentation leaf inside the stomach of silkworms. mdy be caused by various microbes, but the microbe which is mainly instrumental in settingup the gastricfermentation is the disease is known Bacillus magaterium bombycis.The in Bengal black. Kalsira because the dorsal vessel of the worm trefaction Puas gets
however, black and in
putrid Mysore, because nine
to
seven
sets
times
in very
rapidlyand
after death.
soon
there the custom a
day instead
the whole This disease is
or
be either in the spoilt, dusty or may in the intestine of the silkworm. Weak
organism leaf,
or
to take greater proclivity
the
common
of feedingthe prevails of three
so epidemic,
that
a
gets
worm so
worms
The four times. heated mulberry, worms
haye
feed of the
a
same
to mulberry may give Flacherie to one rearingand none also another. The state of the rearingroom has a considerable effect on the disease. A stuffy, would give Flacherie close room while a well-ventilated room to silkworms, gives comparative d ust raised at immunity. Dust, specially delitage, aggravates the epidemic. The remedies are : (1) disinfection of eggs, rearing house and appliances with sulphate of copper solution. (2)Feeding of the worms than five times duringthe earlystages and not more than four times a day duringthe last stage. (3)Using of not more
lot of
fresh unfermented ture, leaf,without dust, without dew or other moisand of leaf that has not been submerged under water OF otherwise got under the control of microbes in the field while
well-ventilated. (5) growing. (4) Keeping the rearing room no dailyand yet raising dust, by takingthe Cleaningthe worms and for the floor instead of sweepingit. leeping dusting, trays out Gatine (BengaliSalpJia) is a form which i? of indigestion caused by excess of heat or excess of cold, which takes away the. and though they are given leaf they do uot of the worms, appetite The worms look elongatedand eat, or eat only occasionally.
376
HANDBOOK
white. and
not
In
OF
pebrinealso the worms elongated.The ultimate
AGRTCULTUBE.
look white, but they look short which gatinetakes is the They become black and putrid. form
of Flacherie. is not so Gatine,however, fatal,and it does not spreadso rapidly from the cold place, removed if the worms as Flacherie ; and are same
as
in the
case
heat can be lessened,the worms punkha or other means and the epidemicis arrested. It is best to avoid recommence eating rearingin Aprilor May, and in December and January, when the be easilycontrolled. temperature cannot ^Grasserie(BengaliRasd) is a disease which is not associated with any microbe. It is caused by a sudden changein the character or
if by
a
from a less sappy to a more sappy condition. Worms ought to be givenstronger and stronger leaf as they get older and older ; but if owing to a heavy shower of rain following protracted drought,or change of field,the consistencyof leaf changesinto a The remedy breaks out. more sappy condition,Grasserie at once is to use leaf gatheredfrom trees and eschew the use of shrub leaf of food
much as possible.The recommendation to grow largemulberry is very importantfor this among In Europe other reasons. and in Kashmir where leaf from trees is used, Grasserie is never in the epidemic form, while in Bengal more loss takes known place from Grasserie than from Flacherie. In fact, Grasserie is looked upon sign,as an by the French peasant as an auspicious indication of a full harvest. Court,called in BengaliLdli, Rangi or Kurkutte, is more an affected with Court, turns abnormalitythan a disease. A worm into the chrysalis without making a cocoon or making a very flimsy The chrysalis turns into a moth which may one. lay eggs, and as
trees
examined But
the
under
the
microscopeit may not show from such seed givesCourt in reproduction
any a
more
disease. gerated exag-
form in the next generation, and it'is, mality therefore,an abnorbe avoided. that must If worms fed on naicha leaf, are that is,on leaf from a new from or or shady places, plantation, mality given an insufficient supply of leaf at the last stage, this abnoris noticed, and it seems to be hereditary. Double-cocoon (Beng.Genthe-koa) two worms or one
common
forming jointly
in abnormalitywhich is not very common in Japan and China, and fairly common in Europe. The tendency is hereditary, and as double be reeled,they are cannot used for often fraudulently
cocoon,
Bengal,but cocoons
is
an
it is very
seed obtaining
for sale. The use of such seed has resulted in breeds that show the abnormal tendencyto an exaggerated degree. In Bengal,cocoons beingalwaysbought for seed, there is no fear of this abnormalityassumingalarmingproportions. The
does very great harm fly-pest
to the silk crop in Bengal: which is tachinid fly,laysits eggs only a bombycis Tricolyga silkworms. The eggs hatch into maggots which penetrate into on the body of the silkworms, and in time kill the silkworms either before or after they have made cocoons. If a silkworm dies after
The
377
8ERICULTUBE.
making
its cocoon,
of
out
the
instead
cocoon.
every
cocoons,
the are
jtime go to
however, a
and village,
(1)For
:
moth,
of flies come rearingroom, and it
a
number
rear
some
few
some
all the
a
infest the silkworms at the next generation. giveup rearing every other generation, distant placefor seed. With the seed-
becomes impossibleto That is why Bengalrearers and
of
These
of the
damage
is always done.
to seed villagers
into
alwayscome parasite
maggots
their cocoons
The
remedies
in the distant
only eggs. they go bringhome succession allow in to take two crops (2)Never to any villager but to make all to stick to the three or four regular crops. (3) If
where village
to
buy them,
and
be are to adopt and if the flymast precautions impossible dealt with, the rearingroom be built in a special must manner, these
the
windows
away
from
the entrance
FIG.
being fitted up with
wire
93." FLY-TRAP.
gauze, and outside the windows vessels of water with a few drops of kerosine oilto each being of five or six feet from keptat a height while before the entrance,which should be kept shut the ground,
in
a cow-dungfireshould be always daytimeas much as possible kept,which should evolve smoke. This has the result of the parasitic dows winthe outside the entrance, congregating fly avoiding and rushing and againinto the troughs of water every now and drowningthemselves, be them entrances to the to believing In Fig.93 a parasitic rearingroom. flyis shown ready to drown itselfin a troughof water outside a ventilator or fly-trap. The Dermestes vulpinus is a beetle which eats up silkworms, and both in the larval and imagostages. These chrysalids moths,
also
come
with the seed-cocoons. Thev
also harbour
in
cocoon
378
HANDBOOK
It
godowns. rearing rooms
seedingis done outside rearingrooms, and if the aud appliances clean, there are kept scrupulously loss in an epidemicform from this pest. Once only
fear of has the author is
no
AKIUCU/ITRK.
OK
villagesnear
ruiningthe roaringsin
Dermc-xtM
the
seen
a
few
Berhamporo.
The Kri silkworm is reared in the
same
way
as
other
Polyvoltiue
be reeled, however, cannot of Bengal. The cocoons, and the method should therefore he of dealingwith the cocoons from the should be allowed bo escape described. The moths in the and the insects should not be allowed to remain melons, The in tusser uocoons or cocoons. as rearing reelingmulberry silkworms
and
of spinning,therefore,of the Kri silkworm involves no killing is popularamong and lor this reason alone AV/ silk-rearing
animals,
.
in this
amateurs
Kndi Eri
cloth is
on
silkworm,
The
country.
is
not
escapedfrom them,
cocoons,
have
ashes
better stillwith
lye,
when
as
cool, well kneaded
kneadingin clean water,
and
spun
with
and
spinning must
But
Eri
wool in
cocoons
lye.and
wrung
are
for years to carded and combed
scale anywhere, large,
a
when
ranfaric
the on
out
wheel
a
remain
are
En
or
and
and
then washed dried in the
sun
at leisure.
come
and
a
boiled with cocoons,
of tusser
case
warm
spindle(Fig.94) or
European mills,and
established.
in the
in thr
constant
a
fibre also is strong, and
of the very popular,and the roaring of than that mulberry or profitable altogetherwithout advantages. The
after the moths
or
PIKR"!KI"
OK
this account though less
silkworm,
tusser
94." SPINNING
by
Eri
rearing cottage industry.
spun
like cotton
industryis established,on
European principles may
or a
be*
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
ing succulent branches and graduallythrowover spreading incrustations. of One foot of seed-stick is sufficient for ten feet or more tender branches. A bundle of seed-sticks containing o ne-foot fifty When 1-8. be usuallypurchasedfor Re. 1 to Re. sticks, can
sticks and out
throughheat
cold seed becomes
or
scarce,
Rs.
5 per bundle
has to
be paid for seed. A fortnight after inoculating a newly pruned tree, the empty sticks are to be taken down and used for the extraction of lac. If insects are seen the coming out even after a fortnight, all seed-sticks should be taken down and tied to fresh trees. When the fresh branches have got insects uniformly distributed over them, the inoculation has been done fully and properly. If the branches show
be expected. insects in many places,a full crop cannot tion be Cultivation. For lac-culture the trees must kept in condiand free from ants and other insects as possible.The as cultivation of the soil under the trees is of great help,and crops and ginger, suitable for growing under shade, speciallyturmeric The trees remain should be grown of manure. by application vigorousowing to the cultivation of the soil under them, and they no
"
largerquantity of lac. Pruning. To obtain vigorous growth
produce
a
"
of
branches, pruning
of the trees is essential. Trees should be pruned in February, that in June it may become full of longand tender branches, when For inoculation is done. November inoculation,the pruning of full of long So pruned, the trees become trees is done in June. and
tender
in November. insect. The the Developmentof branches
insects remain stillafter they have once spreadout and theysimplysuck the juiceof the branches. thus While them engaged, the lac covers up from all sides. As the insects develop,the incrustation round each also develops. Male insects The insects are eithtr male or female, mostly female. have their lac-incrustationsomewhat longerthan the incrustation round almost The females females. round are incrustations "
spherical.The proportionof male to female is about as 1 to 5,000. The male insects when fullydeveloped become winged and they flyaway.
The
female insects continue
to
inside their cells, the incrustation which
grow
and they get completelycovered up with thicker and thicker. In this state the female becomes and makes round each egg a separate coveringof lac.
lays eggs, When
the is its within of t he female finished, body a laying eggs develops At this stage red liquidwhich is to act as milk for her young. the seed-sticks are gathered. The eggs after becoming insects eat throughthe substance of the mother and then spreadout into the The seed-sticks branches of trees into which they are inoculated.
kept in cool and dark rooms, and when they begin to tached out, they should be exposed to the sun for a day and then atto trees by tyingor by being hung up on mosquit6-net bags. Kusumb trees Quality." produce the best lac. Phalsa tree is also good. Raer and yhut-baerlac is only slightly inferior,
should come
lac
be
LAC
Palas
and
Palas
the
though
lac, which
tree
Manufacture.
twigs, they
then
is
dust
the
is
into
in
to
with
water
with
cotton
while fire
out,
is
as
of the
cent,
dust
wool
dyeing
The
a
up mercial com-
feet red, etc.
The
In the washed
Resin resin
of the
is
up
ground
and
used, cloth
long
a
end
a
state
mixed
seed-lac
post and the other the bag. As the under
to
taken
(dltd)has
within
is inserted
helps
colouring matter.
sometimes
is
weight
is washed
cane-baskets
appearance.
shell-lac.
light
baskets, which
seed-lac.
in
golden
bag is tied kept between
gathered
for
dust
woven
red
the
cotton
purposes,
the
proceeds,the dust and
the
state
make
to
goes
fire is
a
from
sifted
the
is
the
sides of the
*
be
which
close
in
and
eliminate
When
gradually red colouring matter
the
should
of
end
the
on
free
sifted, and fifteen per added, and the mixed One
water
dye is placed
it
strained to
of
out
heavy. The by repeated change of containing the lac dye
and
settles.
other.
any
scraped
are
then
of lac
The
out.
the
for domestic
seed-lac
with
water,
after it is dried is sold
dust
seed-lac
the
clean
wool, in which
value washed
in
water,
dust
the
The
fine dust
it is rubbed
(dhamas) and make
the
where
vats,
querns,
from
separated
of clean
vats
in
and
poorest of all,
than
incrustrations
fanning whicji helps
with
put
lac is
water run
and
matter
extraneous
the
After
"
red, is the
frequentlyused
more
ground
are
chalnies
with
is the darkest
is
tree
381
CULTURE.
are
bag.
twisted,
twisting over
into a liquidform and gets converted the surface of the long bag, with from
comes
brass
plates or plantain leaf-sheaths, in the form of shell-lac. The long bag is only about 6 inches in circumference, but the length may be 15, 30 or 300 ft., according to the quantity of the dust treated. The
shell-lac
should
The
shell-lac
can
quantity
further
taken
of
manufacture and
is beaten is
evenly distributed
on
slab
a
in the
red-lead Yield.
inaimd
buy
of
form
of
"
red-lead about
According
to
on
in the
form
red-lead, yellow arsenic,,
soft the
lac, in which
For are
Rs. the
lac is obtained
the lac, either
moulded
colouring matter, for the lac, with the colouring matter,, state, until the colouringmatter
slate smeared
or
be
can
other
some
The
in the
sealingwax.
costs
crude
or
through
marble
of Chinese
papers
The
or
it
is inserted
sealingwax.
kneaded
black.
or
with in pots, and a stick, a the rolled on stick until it gets
state
which
bone-black, prussian blue,
red
not
melted and
out,
cylinder,into
hollow
a
light golden colour,
solidified in which
somewhat of
be
be
can
of*
be
with
over
of
seer
one
sufficient 4-8
per
size
of
from
lac is put lard, and moulded the
state
shell-lac,one
to
give
tree
from
it
a
or
two
rich colour.
seer. a a
twigs,or scraped
tree.
from
ten
The the
seers
to
manufacturers
twigs.
a
382
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER
LXXXI.
APICULTURE. is carried
APICULTURE
is carried
wax
as
an
on
as
on
in boxes
as
entirelyartificial
an
Even the breeding of queens In India gatheringof honey and industry. and no attempt at domestication forest industry,
and in America.
in Europe industry, is carried
on
a
As except in the Khasia hills and in Kashmir. flavour the to has different nature a according England honey is made,
in of
a region,so has certain Indian honey a and quality. The honey which is prized medicine for ophthalmic is the as a diseases) the highest(chiefly lotus The is Kashmir. of lotus honey honey gathered purest
flowers that
prevailin
fine peculiarly
flavour
the best is gathered of lakes full of lotus, and from the vicinity flowers themselves. the found on from littlehives Orange honey honey is gathered in Sylhet and is very rich,and thick orange But largequantities of Khasia hills where orange trees abound. from forests allover the country,and apiculture, honey are gathered of honey, is a profession carried on systemrather the gathering atically or
by
certain
Murshidabad
and
that it plentiful
castes, the
in
can
be
usuallyby State
of
bought for
fowlers.
In
the
Mourbhanj,wild four
annas
a
seer,
district of
honey
is
so
it i.e.,
is
as
why the artificialmethods of sugar. This is one reason in Europe and America, which involve that are practised apiculture not as yet suited to this country. The a greatdeal of trouble,are varieties of bees in India are also different and various,and they domestication which to that study and have not been subjected The Italian bee has not thriven European varieties have been. the honey it produced. In the than in India. It ate more sugar cheap
as
bees had to be fed the artificial system of rearing, lib. of of loz. o f common salt,and with a syrup consisting sugar, mixed with of of 6" vinegar, pints water, and up a tablespoonful with the hills. In warm on quilts they had to be kept artificially
winter, under
givenwater to drink,which was kept close after this method is carried out, the If apiculture to the hive. honey is either taken out and sold in the comb, or the honey is machine. extracted from the comb by a littlecentrifugal they had
summer
to be
Among all bees the queen is the
sole
producerof eggs, and she
producingeggs for five years at the rate of 150 eggs a bee has a short lifewhen itis workingin summer. worker day. Th" It lives and works only for about six weeks then, though out of The wonderful fertility the worker bee lives for six months. season of the queen therefore results in a continuous supply of young bar frame," workers readyto supplythe placeof dead insects. A may
go
on
"
or a fortythousand workers,may queen and thirty in and 30s. 5s. for The a cjueen for about England, be bought straw-hives of the Khasia hills are an approachto domestication, pean and they are bought and sold like European hives. In the Eurowax foundation and American box hive, there is an artificial
stocked with
PROPAGATION
OF
383
TREES.
hexagonalcells which
the bees make use of in forming the combs withdrawn from under the When are restored be their to artificialfoundations, they can original places machine. after the honey has been extracted with a centrifugal and not needingto The bees readilymake use of their old comb double the quantity elaborate wax, they are able to accumulate foundations 85. The cost of honey. wax a lb.,and a Ib. of pure bees-wax is sufficientfor making 75 foundations for 75 pound combs, moulded in their comb.
of largecombs. smaller number The whole operationof managing an artificialhive is practiceand confidence. Nervous people seldom succeed or
a
gloves and
with
does practice
and
nerves
veil and
smoking tin
not
requireto
;
but
of
even
with
good person any of these protections. of trees, with the passage
use
should be kept under the shade for for bees to the south, and the means
The
one
boxes
a
opening the combs in the througha glassthe operator can watch the He gentlyopens out the frame, takes out the
direction,where opposite bees and the combs.
them after extracting the honey, where the replaces i n whore the comb is requiredfor honey is not required combs, or they are removed one by one for good, leavingthe top parts, wax,
combs, and
When it is i.e.,the foundations, only for the bees to hang on. remembered that the bees use up 201bs. of honey to make lib. of wax,
to
be
it may the
hive.
A
the combs readilyseen, it alwayspays returning hive may or yieldas little as SOlbs. per season
America is the country where an average of has been obtained in the season, and much 250 Ibs. per hive as in accumulated of hive. The best are 121bs. a as honey per day The art of rearingqueens Englishaverage is 1201bs. per season. as
and
much
of
as
2501bs.
managing
hives
be
must
CHAPTER
learnt
by practice.
LXXX1J.
PROPAGATION
OF
TREES.
[Utilityof growing trees ; Trees helpfulto agricultureand the agricultural popuTrees ; Trees yieldingTans, Dyes and Drugs lation ; Slow-growing Timber Trees yielding Soap ; Propagationof trees suited for capitalists best ; The to utilize Fruits if they cannot be sold fresh ; Some nottrees to grow able ; How
,
examples of profitableFruit-culture ; Gabions and their substitutes ; of Seedlings, Why some crops do not grow under shade of trees ; Prop*igation Transplantation,Grafting, layering, budding, inarching; Cuttings ; Gulkalam trees
Grafting War ; Pruning; Hoot-pruning ; Cultivation of land under and Cross-fertilization.] Watering of trees ; Hybridization
; ;
of growing trees. The propagationof trees which Utility and fibres, is of vast importance yieldstarch,oil,sugar, vegetables to a country where failure of ordinaryagricultural crops through drought or inundation is of frequentoccurrence. Apart from "
their uses
for
food,fodder,and timber,trees
breakwinds in localitieswhere exercise a beneficial effect on
high winds
are
are
an
beneficialas highly objection..They
the climate and temperature, when
384
OF
HANDBOOK
there are much as
too
not
AGBICULTUBE.
of them.
many
A
moderate
fortygallonsof water
sized tree
day, which
transpires reduce
the per goes while radiation is hindered at night temperature of the atmosphere, the exercise influence of Thus trees perature. trees. equalisingtemby food materials from the depth of Trees bringingup in leaves which are afterwards shed, are a soils and storingthem as
for fertilizing agency rich layer of humus a
to
surface
soils. Beneath the which keeps the in winter, besides absorbing and and warm roots of It is in this way water. that trees retaininga great quantity the even on poorest soils and change the character grow luxuriantly Trees also have a binding of the soil permanentlyfor the better. them would be liable to be washed effect on the land, which without rain. believed to induce Trees denuded are a heavier or by away rainfall. In the delta of the Nile there used to be on the average only six rainydays in the year ; but since the plantingof millions of eucalyptustrees there,during the last fiftyyears, there are now most
valuable
shade
of trees cool in summer
the average caused millions on
fortyrainy days of trees
to
be
per
planted,which There
rainy days in that country. through Australia, Africa, etc., but The a
as
side of the
eastern
of
largenumber The
and
W.
has doubled
distribution
the
over
propagationof trees fodder
of the
is
it maintains
ought
to
of
also results in
highestvalue, and
arid
rainfall a
when
the
belt
forests
Australia, there
using up wood-fuel, may
been
an
wherever
Himalayas which
big rivers and
Algiers, Napoleon
is
destruction of forests in Western
of mills have influence
Wales
South
in New
In
annum.
of
belt
is formed
ber num-
running
cross
that
is a fair rainfall.
heavily timbered, has immense an tion. populaIndia where have in
is cut
hundreds
deteriorating
a
those
parts.
perennialsupply of tree
FII
down
The
fuel and its
place suppliedby fresh planting as is done in Germany. Trees act as a barrier againstepidemics,and such aromatic trees valuable cis the eucalyptusand the coniferae are considered especially The wwarina tree yieldinga good fuel for this purpose. is a very fast-growing tree, and its propagationis recommended on a
be
propagationof the babul for fodder and timber is also highly recommended. purposes, requiredfor agricultural valuable but such as mahogany, tun, timber-trees, Slow-growing sal,teak, sissoo,should not be.grown in agricultural tracts, but in which considered unsuitable tracts arid for ordinary are poor and pursuits.Trees or shrubs producing tans and dyes, Agricultioral such as myrabolan,divi-divi (Ccssalpina coriarea),CcBsalyrina digyna, kamela cheli, lodh, (Mallotus Philippinensis), annatto, rtsan, arjun, poor
soils. The
with specialeconomic localitieswhich are also not special
and other trees in
purposes,
Trees from
e.g., in
various
value should be grown only quitesuitable for agricultural parts of the Chhota Nagpur Division.
shrubs. of Jaypal (Croton Tiglium),which yield a nut valuable purgativemedicine is tl^eseed, of which the most or
obtained ; andffrom
trees, of
the swd
kusvm wjiich yield lac, (Schleichera trijuga), of which oil which is the basis of Macassar oil
PROPAGATION
is obtained, are
also
OF
valuable
very
385
TREES.
trees
to
grow.
The
ritha
or
(SapindusMukorossi) should be grown more largely and the soap-barktree (Quilloja Saponaria)should be introduced from Chili more it has been introduced with success as in largely, Ootacamund and it is likelyto do well in elevations rangingfrom 3,000 to 4,000 ft. For agricultural tracts,the trees that should be and fodder should or food, they should be so fastyield grown that fuel in and without much abundance they may yield growing waiting,relievingcattle-dung for manurial Lastly, purposes. with regardto trees, it should be mentioned that they cpst scarcely anythingkeepingup after they are once grown up, and a plantation of mangoes, cocoannt, guava, lime-trees, bamboos, date, plantains, and fruit other some trees, though expensiveand troublejack,papaya valuable property for a capitalist who can to set up, is a most afford to wait for the return. it is much Indeed, for a capitalist safer investment takingup poor land for such a plantationthan in for ordinaryagricultural going pursuits. soap-nut
tree
Best trees to grow.
yielders
are
a
: "
"
The
starch which is used for
have
been
trees
pounded
and
which
making bread, washed
with
best to grow as foodof the mango fruit yield i.e.,after the kernels
are
Stone-kernels
(1) Mango.
hot
water. (2) Jack. (3) Bael Babul (5) (6) (7) which is a moderate (Prosopisspicigera), sized, of the Punjab, deciduous, thorny tree, found in the arid dry zones and the Deccan. This tree Sind,Rajputana,Gujarat,Bundelkhand valuable carob-beans in times of scarcity. The pods, is as as which ripen before and during the rains, contain a considerable quantityof a sweetish farinaceous substance. The pods are eaten onions and green or dry and raw, by themselves,or boiled with salt, ghee,with bread or mixed with dahi. The bark ground into flour of into cakes is also edible. This tree was and made the means saving thousands of lives during the Rajputanafamine of 1868-69. As a food and fodder-yielding that can be tree, there are not many and (8) Sajna compared to this one. najna (which is a variety of of Sajna which two yields legumes in the year) i"ay be crops tree. also mentioned as a (9) The mulberry. (10) food-yielding The bamboo. (12) The palms (toddy palm, (11) The mahua. and the date palm). (13) The cocoanut areca-nut palm palm, locust or carob-bean tree of the Mediterranean region has been is and there introduced into no Gwalior, reason why successfully flourish elsewhere. this valuable fodder tree should not (14) of Plantains and dates beinggrown as crops in some Bengal parts have been (Schleichera trijuga) separatelydealt with. Kusum Its timber is used for making oil has been already mentioned.
Breadfruit tree. Jhand or Shami
(4) Cashew-nuts.
mills (Kalus or Ghanis). Preservation of fruits.Fruits can be variouslyutilized if and be sold The fresh. strained juiceof mangoes they cannot in the form jack fruits is spreadout thin iu the sun and preserved the juiceof fresh fruit of thin cake. A method of preserving "
M, HA
25
386
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
it into wine, has been described 'converting maybe bottled up fresh pineapples.Lime-juice
without on
in the chapter with the addition
of powdered charcoal for an indefinite period. Rapid of desiccation of fruits and vegetables by the action of a current hot air is now largelyresorted to in many countries. Fruits are also preserved Jams by convertingthem into jams and jellies. fresh and whole fruits in syrup. The sugar made are by boiling and water are firstboiled into syrup and the fruits put in afterwards of jellyfrom the pulp or the and boiled. The preparation of addition the fruits of by juice sugar, has been described in fresh chapteron plantains.For transporting
fruits to great devices have been made use of with more less or in Calcutta In the Municipal Market the fruits that success. small cork of with best. The come come particles packed up be also sealed with sealingwax broken end of the fruit may and in tissue paper and despatched. each fruit packed up separately varieties of certain fruits keep longer fruits and Some some the Khatmabil than others. Of superiorBengal mangoes Khoer of Dumraon perhapskeeps the longestand is safer to export to than Europe any other superiormango. Profitsof fruitculture. Lord Sudeley'sfruit plantationin England (inconnection with which Beech's Jam Factory is worked), which a capitalist attain by fruit is an example of the success can of be calculation No initial can outlay,annual given farming. the
distances,various
"
and outturn, which will apply to fruit trees generally, expenditure trees such as plantains, as some palms, etc., may be planted six cubits apart, while others such as mangoes or or seven jackshould 25 30 the ft. But above estimate of income be planted or apart. from
mixed Under approximation.
orchard
be taken as a reasonable favourable stances, circumexceptionally of over Rs. 2,000 per acre however, a net profit may be There suitable fruit from is trees. obtained tree in one mango Malda, for instance, which is leased out annuallyfor Rs. 30, paid be the number of fruits finally obtained in advance, whatever of Rs. 25 per
acre
a
may
this tree. Seventytrees grown on one acre might thus give of Rs. 2,000 per annum. But one must not base his a net income and exceptional calculations on very extraordinary circumstances, of the country. but on the average experience For the first three or four years trees must Gabions. be with gabions. There are various devices used for saving protedted A circle of useful thorny plants, the expense under this item. such as agaves, is often plantedround a tree. At other times a coil of rough and spineygrass (e.g. Sacchwram spontaneum or Kans grass)is put round the trunk of a tree, which is made further from
"
with cowdung paste, or repulsive
castor-oil.
Crops that grow under shade at trees. A questionof some theoretical importance with regardto the utilizationof the land underneath trees, in connection with the difficulty in growing under whether the roots of trees suck up too much trees, is, crops "
388
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
the stock and the scion must be tied together firmlybefore grafting, One recipe consists of the earth is brought round the union. a slow fire, over equalparts of bee's wax, resin meltingtogether, tallow till dissolved and thoroughlymixed, when to apply. Another good recipeis the following
it is
and
ready
"
"
Bee's wax Tallow Resin .
1 Ib.
i Ib. 1
Ib.
2
oz.
.
Turpentine
add the wax" Melt the resin and tallow over a slow fire ; then and when melted, mix well together.Then add the turpentine and stir well,when it is ready for use.
FIG. A." B-"
95." GRAFTING.
Root-grafting. Saddle-grafting, E."
Crown
C."- Cleft
p." Whip or
or or
Wedge-grafting. Splice-grafting.
Rind-grafting.
is appliedhot with a brush to the graftwhen Graftingwax tied iriposition, care beingtaken to cover the wound completely, exclude air. A simpleand convenient to as so of using the way in the case of nursery stocks,is to dip a sheet of thin calico wax and when sufficiently into the boiling wax cold,tearingthe waxed calico into narrow o f suitable strips length. The graftbeingplaced in position the waxed tie is wound round it so as to completely the the union heat of cover the hand being sufficientto soften ;
that it sticks well and is air-tight. so The principle of grafting is to so underlying every method unite the scion or graftwith the stock as to bringthe cambium the
wax,
OF
PROPAGATION
389
TREES.
layeror wood-producinglayerof each, together.When the two layersare broughttogetherand kept togetherwithout air,they each throw
out
cells which
new
jointogetherand
form
one
layer
of wood. known of grafting, various modes Cleft or Wedge-grafting(Fig.95 Bark-grafting,
There
are
variouslyas
C), Crown or (Fig.95 B), Whip, Rind-grafting (Fig.95 E), Saddle-grafting 95 the o r D), (Fig. principle underlying Splice, Tongue-grafting in all cases. Root-grafting(Fig.95 A) is also being the same practisedby gardeners.A small pieceof root is either graftedon the scion is graftedon to the to a scion of the desired variety, or the ground where the stock is. root-stock just below The \Bark-grafting.
bark taken from bud several buds on it. When one is called budding; when several buds
the
have scion may the is used, only operation used the operation are is called bark-grafting, or multiplebudding. Either old or new but old bark does better. The lengthof bark taken bark answers, in the case of should be twice that of the breadth (circumference "
one
or
should be no wood adheringto the bark. the bark from the scion tree, cut out a corresponding portionof bark of the from a branch the thickness on same
There bark-grafting).
Having
secured
stock scion
FIG.
FIG.
96." BUDDING.
97."
LAYERING.
and bark
make take
the the bark of the position thus cut out, then bind it with cotton, but not tightly.No clay
need graftingwax be used. Six or eightinches above this graftthe stem should be ring-barked, but leaves above the ring-bark left for shade for two or three weeks, after which the branches above the ring-barking should be cut or sawn off,and all shoots appearingexcept those the bark on graftedon, should be rubbed out, that all the of the buds on the ascendingsap may go to the nourishment or
bark. a simplebut delicate operation.It consists in removinga bud (Fig. 96) from one plantand making it grow on be of the same another which must related, familyand closely fruit flowers of It inferior it character. or an although may yield to bud an orange on a lime tree and a peachon an is possible English
Budding proper
plum tree, but
is
binations very curious comachieved by budding. A singlebud is are being now removed from the tree to be propagatedby inserting the carefully budding knife about half-an-inch above the bud, and cutting inwards and downwards, bringing the knife out about slightly half-an-inch below the bud. If there is a leaf under the bud it is
not
a
rose
on
an
orange.
But
The littlebit;of wood firstto be cut off carefully.
that will come
390
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
alongwith the bud and the bark will be found in the middle of the scion immediatelybehind the bud. This bit of wood is carefully removed with the knife without cutting into the bud from behind. A T-shaped cut is then to be made into the stock not deeperthan the bark, that is only the bark is to be slit.open, and the scion introduced
into the longitudinal carefully portionof the slit,the operation beinghelpedwith the insertion of the thin ivory handle
of the budding knife between the bark and the cambium of the stock on both sides of the slit. When the scion has got rightin, of the bud the t he out cut edgesare to be closed slit, only peeping of the and tied with plantain tree fibre. From the beginning over November and to for is the monsoon December, proper season
budding. Layering. This
is another
method (Fig.97) of propagation. If the branches to be layeredcan be broughtdown to the ground, be made to touch a slitshould be cut at the firmest part that can the ground by inserting the knife at the lower side near to and bud and of the the centre branch, beyond a cuttingnearlyto about the end of the branch drawing the knife towards inch the in A small should stone be placed or an more. slit and the cut portioncovered with sand or powdered brick. A good sized stone should then be put on the bend, so as to keep the layersteady, and water supplied the soil gets dry. When a as be broughtdown branch cannot the to ground, arrangement may be. made for takingpots of soil to the branch and keeping the layersmoist high up. "
method commonest It this in consists in bringing a second practised year's country. or a plantfrom cuttingobtained from an easilypropaseedling, gated and wild or inferior plant, in a pot, properly rooted, to the it in such tree from which the scion is to be obtained,and placing within the embrace of a bamboo or a position (on a platform, split that the portionof the tree of the superior at the top, for instance), kind which it is desired to propagate, can be broughtinto direct ling contact with it. A thin sliceis then taken oil one side of the seedwild stock,about two or three inches in length, and a coror responding slice is taken off the branch of the tree that is to be
Inarching,or grafting by approach,is the
used
scion,the
branches
The diameter. beingof the same barks it is that the inner seen beingplacedtogether, the two beingfirmlytied with soft both sides of the cuts join, on cloth. The graftis not waxed but is kept moist stantly by water condroppingon to it. When union has taken place(which it does completely after several months)the scion issevered very carefully from the parent tree and the young plantis readyfor removing. It is not easy to obtain successful grafts method. this by is possible in the case of some from cuttings Propagation plants and trees. Well ripenedbranches ta"en from near the ground,at where one branch joins another,make the best cuttings. i.e., a joint, There should be about three joints in length cut close beneath a bud as
out surfaces
two
PROPAGATION
OP
391
TREES.
and inserted about
one-third of their length in fine sandy soil or Lower in venient dry season, Bengal,when it is inconknown the cuttings to keepthe soilwatered, and when are rhea and the of to send out shoots freely, case sugar-cane, e.g., in three or four inches cassava, plantingmay be done horizontally under the surface of the soil. Cuttings should be plantedas fresh those of mulberry,cassava as possible, though some cuttings(e.g., and sugar-cane)are known for more than a retain their to vitality
brick-dust. In the
month
kept in
tainty, shady place. Where there is uncerfresh the cuttings precautionof dipping should "be taken. immediatelybefore planting,
damp
a
and
the additional in
camphor water which is commonly Ring-barkcutting.This is another method employed in this country for propagatingorange trees, "
india-rubber
trees
gul-kalamsmay much
harm.
Hundreds of gootees or tree without doing the tree of the rainyseason, healthy a ring of bark, one to three
etc. (Ficus Elastica),
be formed on At the commencement
one
and mature stems are chosen, and inches in lengthaccording to the thickness of the stem chosen, cut The bark should be cut out immediately below a leaf-bud. out. A ball of clay made sufficiently by working it well between plastic the palms, is then put round the ring-barked portion,so as to it This of secured by an then ball earth is over. completelycover and the whole tied up with envelopeof coir,or a pieceof sacking, fish mixed up with of Fish rotten a manure (i.e., piece string. used in placeof the ball of clay. The roots will be earth)is largely found
protrudingfrom
the ball of earth and its enveloping rials, mateand then the new plant may be regardedas beingready for severingand for plantingout in the field. Small fruit trees must be protectedby gabions,and watering i"ust be resorted to if the does not persist.In the Darjeeling hillsand in Assam, rainyseason where the gootee or gul-kalam system is largelyemployed in propagating the orange and the india-rubber tree, the rainfall is so while the gooteesor gul-kalams are copiousthat artificial watering, is the trees and after they are plantedout, on scarcelyever found necessary.
Pruning. Experiencealone "
trees,
whether
annual
can
of
pruning best root-pruning,
alternate year, or growth of fruits. In the case useful than branch found more
branch-pruninganswers
decide for each class of fruit
branches, answers
pruning every encouragingthe has been root-pruning or
for
of mangoes, pruning,while in the case of lichies better. In the case of mulberry trees
for leaves for silkworms, pruningof branches every alternate has been found economical of dealing with the most year way well as manuring and wateringof trees them. as Root-pruning, should be done, not at the immediate base of the trees, but at the limit of the shade caused by the branches and leaves. A circular feet wide should be dug out at the proper trench about two grown
distance from Bones done.
the or
and manuring are to be trunk,if root-pruning into this trench make a good and put
bone-meal
392
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
All trees are benefited by the for fruit trees. cultivation of land underneath them, and the growing of crops with manure The cultivation of land in October and if possible. action of the soil and the conseNovember breaks the capillary quent from this In certain moisture loss of cause. dry localities in the dry season watered to keep them trees have in to be is resorted to, condition. But if cultivation of land underneath for at least large trees. The this will be found unnecessary the mulch soil to underneath, helping ploughed up soil acts as a
lastingmanure
it to retain moisture.
CHAPTER AGRICULTURAL
LXXXIII.
CALENDAR
FOR
LOWER
BENGAL.
January. Sugar-cane harvesting and gw-making. Sowing of kulibegunand deshi onion seeds. Plantingof 61 for the August of potatoes, cabbages and Final irrigation to September crop. other English vegetables.Picking of cotton bolls. Pittingof cuttings, or 'topping' of seed-canes. Harvesting sugar-cane "
and Kaldi. bitaceous crops.
Preparationof land for sugar-cane of deshi onion. Sale Transplanting vegetables. Threshingof paddy. Arrowroot and cassava peas
and
of
cucur-
English ing. harvest-
February. Harvestinglinseed,mustard, mung and til. Sugarcane harvest and gw-making. Plantingof sugar-cane and sowing of cucurbitaceous crop seeds (ucche,jhingd,water-melon, mashmelon, gourd, pumpkin, etc.). Transplantingof kulibegun. for Sale of o f land kharifcrops. Preparation Englishvegetables. Pickingof cotton. March. Harvesting of barley, oats, wheat, gram, musur, of khesari and other pulses. Plantingand irrigating sugar-cane. and ashes ceous on) cucurbitamanuring (chieflysprinkling Watering vines. Pickingof cotton. Sowing cotton seed and maize if "
"
there is
heavy shower
a
of rain.
Preparationof land
for
kharif
crops.
April. Watering
and cucurbitaceous of sugar-cane vines. Plantingof yams and 61 for the December crop. Sowing of maize, juar9Reana, jute,and mestd pdt seeds,after a good shower of rain. and other perennial Manuring of mulberry,plantain,bamboo with tank with cattleAus fields canal silt. or Manuring plants dung, villagesweepings,tank-silt,weeds or compost. Sale of cucurbitaceous vegetables.Preparationof land for brinjaland sowing of seed. "
May. Sowing of Aus paddy, maize, juar,dhaincha,arahar9 Reana, jute. Sale of cucurbitaceous^ vegetables.Transplanting "
brinjaland cotton plants,if heavy showers of rain obtained. Earthing of maize, juar,and Reana if sowing done in March ot showers not obtained in April,or sowingof seed of these,if Ireavy of
AGRICULTURAL
March
or
Sowing of
CALENDAR
FOR
393
BENGAL.
LOWER
April. Final preparationsfor kharif crops generally. cucumber, gourd and pumpkin seeds. Final manuring,
Sowing of chillie seed in sugar-cane. in be done June also). Sowing of Aman paddy
of earthingand irrigation seed-bed
(thismay
in
seed-bed. June. Sowing of Aman paddy. Sowing of seeds of trees. of brinjals and cotton, if not done before. Planting Transplanting of plantainand other trees in Aus paddy fields. Weeding of Aus paddy, arahar, juteand mestd pat. Sale of green cobs of maize. forward. Sowing Earthingof brinjalsand cotton, if sufficiently of edible hibiscus,arahar, turmeric, ginger,kachu, yams, sweet "
potatoes, sankalu, sags (amaranths, etc.),and ground-nut,may take placein May or in June. Gourds, pumpkins, jhingdand cucumber seeds may be sown Bhadai in this month also. kaldi, kurthi,arharia sim, popat beans and country beans may bhringi, be
also
this month. Guinea be plantedor grass may of aman if possible. plantationextended. Transplanting sown
the
of July. Transplanting aman paddy. Transplantingof chillies (may be done in August and September also). Planting "
of trees,
and bamboos. cocoanut especially Weeding of cotton, turmeric, ginger,etc. Sale of green cobs of earthingof brinjals, of maize. ting Weeding jute,arahar,etc. Tying of sugar-cane. Letof water from out arahar, cotton, sugar-cane, juar, Reana 61,yams, etc.,and keepingwater in aman jute,kharifpulses, paddy fields.
August. Transplantingof aman during the first half the month. Harvesting of Aus paddy, leguminousand other "
of
fodder
shim, sags and country generally.Sale of brinjals, vegetables. Earthingof chillies, cuttingof dhaincha,jute,mestd of the of fibres also commence the two latter may pat. Washing this month. in verandahs. Sowing of seed of English vegetables crops
September. Preparationof land "
circumstances.
Bhadai Pdlam
pulses. Tying
for rabi crops
Harvesting of maize,
A
us
under
tional excep-
paddy
"
and
of sugar-cane.
Country beans and peas, Chukd Kanak note pdlam, sag, sag, radishes, pumpkin, Patna and cauliflower nip (from early gourd, seed),also mustard, turand til may be sown, cauliflower alone beingsown in seed-bed under
the rest in well drained fields. Palval and sweet be also sown. Land to be got ready for the potato cuttings may and seed-beds prepared. regularEnglishvegetables Transplanting of trees and seedlings of juteand Sale (Papaya,plantains, etc.). cover,
vegetables. October.
of Englishvegetablesgenerally, cabbages, cauliflower, knol-kohl,artichoke (on sandy loam),Brussels sprouts, "
Sowing
turnips,celery,lettuce,tomatoes, radishes, carrots, onions,French .and palvals, beans, peas, potatoes,sweet potatoes (Batatasedulis) to
be
from
sown.
the
Last month's Early cauliflower
sun.
and Brinjal
logging. sowingsto be protectedfrom waterto be transplantedand protected
cotton
fieldsto be
dug,also
sugar-cane
394
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
t
fields.
Bulbils
other
trees
water
made
land
for
of
Rabi
month,
be
agaves loosened
round
newly
to
sowings in
as
is
end
month
of
this
or
raised,
gram,
linseed, til, khesari, musuri, the
may
of
this
kaldi
should
November. loosened
be
to
potatoes
cucumber
pulses, including Hoeing of early and
if of
and
sweet
Irrigation
of
may this
of
61
if of
for
hill
to
and
month.
this
cabbages
potatoes,
vested, har-
be
Hoeing kachu
of
Harvesting
necessary.
the
of
English
early
districts, time
be
may
also
cane sugar-
be harvested
may
month
this
palval
ol, of
Cutting
sown
of
Sale
ing Harvest-
and
radishes
sag
and
trees
chillies.
and
cotton,
vegetables.
round
Hoeing
etc.
turmeric,
note
operations the
of
ground-nut, August-September crop. and Kaldi mustard if early.
brinjals
Bengal districts
Sale
irrigation available.
The
NOTE."
the
if
Picking
Champa
sale
Eastern
chillies
gourd,
onion
paddy may be picked.
Winter
cabbages,
plants.
commence,
January,
in
irrigation of
and
harvest.
ginger,
month.
while
irrigation
during
and
oats
melons,
coriander,
sown
be
may
vegetables
English
cotton,
be
may
necessary.
bolls
potatoes,
yams,
sowing
be
Aman
"
perennial of
mustard
crops,
potatoes.
December
other
the
bolls
cotton
Barley,
of
crops,
and
plots
Cotton
early.
Radishes,
catiang,
sown
also.
Sowing
wheat.
cucurbitaceous
may
sugar-cane
and
then
Vigna
cauliflowers
of
brinjal plants,
month
this
continue.
may other
and
in
Sowing of got through
be
to
mung
and
cotton
trees,
during
and
sown,
October.
of
this
first. of
cleaned
for
vigorously during preparation Bengal usually continuing to
possible. Picking ordinary agricultural rabi
sown
Bases
"
and
pulses and
be
and
holding of Preparation
a
trees.
middle and
plantain
basin
if
month, all
Of
commence.
and
Lower
the
to
even
on
go
rains
the
before
end
and
transplanted
feasible,
not
of
Bases
sown.
and
generally to places in
most
September
be
to
or
in
commence,
may
continues. for and for
ktuirif crops a
month
different
generally
later
in
operations
take
Bihar varies
place
and
a
month
earlier
Chhota
Nagpur.
the
elevation,
with
In and
in
bo grown kharif the in the high elevation only rabi crops can sowing season, the March October. and to and being February time, August harvesting In the hills and lower is applicable. In the Bengal valleys, the Eastern system Sonthai and rabi the take Bihar, Chhota districts, Pergana Nagpur, operations time
place
a
month
earlier
and
in
the
Eastern
Bengal
districts
a
month
later.
396
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
to studied yet as to enable one crops have not been so minutely requirementsfor each variety givea tabular statement of minimum of Chemical of every crop. analysis may prove certain amounts ally in an available form, which are theoreticplant-food present,even in But maximum the for even sufficient yield. obtaining such cases, manuring has given good results. Chemical analysis of a soil for also does not take into consideration the potentiality
due to the growth of microbes under proper accumulatingnitrogen, conditions of moisture, porosity,heat and presence of lime. As from be accumulated Ibs. of nitrogenper acre may and the this during the the air, in particularly year way, during minous preparationof soil and growth of the crop. The growingof leguland in which is another inexpensiveway crops in rotation ized is enriched. Dr. H. H. Mann, the Indian tea expert,has popular-
much
as
100
growing of Dhaincha and other leguminouscrops in tea of enriching method and the same gardens,with excellent results, the
.soilsis recommended
ordinary cultivators.
to
the Notwithstanding
device
growing leguminous crops does cropping without manure of
and again,continuous every now result in the gradualdeterioration
soil. The cultivators of Bali and Uttarparahave noticed,for instance,that of late years, they are unable to grow pulsecrops, and their mango and cocoanut be due to the fruits. This may trees have ceased bearing possibly of the
and lime being requirementsof these crops for phosphates but also to now wanting,owing not only to continuous cropping, a to the local bone-mills without the systematicsale of bones countries In some of bones being used here for manure. particle minimum
of a by the application crop is grown in course the yieldof crops instead of diminishing, of special increases. The application manures, every
In these,
manure.
of time time
gradually
after time,
tends to impoverish beneficial effects, General manures, of time. being less soluble the land in course nourishment, are, therefore often, and supplyingall the requisite
in immediate thoughresulting
though not always,preferable. Manures
are
divided into several classes
:
"
dissolved manures (1) Phosphatic e.g., bone-meal, bone-ashes, of This class manures "tc. of lime,apatite, bones, superphosphate "
possesses the
: properties special following "
the fruits and roots sweeter. tendencies and fruiting (6)They tend to increase the flowering roots. and and also increase the absolute yieldof seed of plants, of crops to take placeearlier. (o)They make ripening (d)Young plantscan resist the attack of insect and fungus in them if they are grown they have more vitality better,i.e.,
(a) They tend
to
make
pests
on
soil manured
with be can
phosphates.
Indian merchants in of many had now Bone-dust Calcutta and Bombay. Oil-cakes and ashes also contain large horsedung ashes are of phosphates.Cowdung and proportions of manuring rich in phosphates.The indirect method specially
with oil-cake by feedingcattle liberally as
is better,in many Once to the land.
manure
397
SUMMARY.
GENERAL
and
their excrements utilizing oil-cake cases, applying in five or six years every plot than
direct as manure of land might well be left fallow,and on it cattle should be tethered in and given oil-cake to eat, so that their excrements, or huddled enrich the soil. Liquid manure solid and liquid, is better may than solid manure. The principal nitrogenousmanures (2)Nitrogenousmanures. "
are
sulphateof ammonia, saltpetre,
hair, horns, hoofs consists
manures or
leaf
and
The
soot.
nitrate,blood, flesh,
specialvalue
of this class of
the vegetative capacityfor increasing
in their
producingpower
sodium
of
plants. Those
crops
that
are
valued
only,such as cabbages,potherbs,mulberry, tobacco,pan, benefited by nitrogenous For allother specially manures. tea, crops, except leguminouscrops, the applicationof nitrogenous at an manures earlyperiod of growth after germinationgivesa good start. Saltpetreis speciallybeneficial for cereal crops*
for leaves are
maunds the rate of one to two Ifas been per acre should be used on found to double the yield. Saltpetre fertile soils only or used in conjunctionwith a phosphatic it as manure, at Application
the constituents of soil soluble and liable to be washed The best result is obtained by the application of boneaway. rich in phosdus,t with saltpetre.Oil-cakes are generalmanures phorus, and lime. Bones about potash, nitrogen, containing 23% acid and 3'5% of nitrogenmay of phosphoric be regarded either makes
phosphaticmanure. Being a general tendency to impoverishthe soil by continuous of Superphosphateof lime contains 20 or 30 % or more use. acid but hardly any nitrogen. Oil-cakes contain 5 to phosphoric acid. Urine contains a 6% of nitrogen and 2 or 3% of phosphoric than dung. Solid manure of nitrogen also,e.g., dung, largerportion and than therefore be contains more acid, phosphoric nitrogen may regardedas a nitrogenousmanure, while it is also a generalmanure.
as
a
generalmanure it has
manure,
or
a
no
cowdung contains about 5 to 7 seers of phosphoric acid and 5 seers 2 to 4 seers of nitrogen, of potash. of nitrate soda and ammonia of are genous quicklyactingnitroSulphate leave the land but they comparatively manures, poor after of the raised of been them. by application one a crop has Blood, solidor liquid excrements of animals,aquatic flesh, bones,oil-cakes, weeds and black earth dug out df old tanks, in renovating them, the commonest Though not quick acting are generalmanures. and though they may be all called nitrogenous manures manures, the all the to do contain a s more soil, good they they permanent a nd have the plantrequires as no they special ingredients power the soil and renderingits constituents too readily of dissolving leaf productionis sought,the available as plant-food.Where should be resorted to without any hesitaof saltpetre tion. application and even It should be noted, however, that saltpetre cakes oilbe applied should never at the time of germination or brought A ton
or
about
27$ maunds
of
OF
HANDBOOK
398
AGRICULTURE,
or sprink They are to be mixed up with soil, in contact with roots. to the soil in led diluted with water, ashes or earth,or applied afterwards irrigated. of plantsthat are between rows
(3) Potash manures. ashes derived from soft (a) Ashes of all kinds, especially parts of plantsand from seeds,as for instance,cowdung ashes. (6) Animal excreta, vegetablemoulds, rotten leaves,tank earth, indigorefuse,etc. "
is also
helpfulto certain vegetative of leaves, elaboration of acid functions, i.e.,to the production o f juicesof fruits,deposition starch,formation of roots and also of cow-dung containing to floweringagd fruiting.A maund of nitrogen," seer of phosphoric acid, about J seer of potash,J seer of cowdung are applied if 20 maunds per bigha,the soil receives an of nitrogen, 3 to 4 seers of potash addition of about 3 to 4 seers of oil-cake contains and 2" seers of phosphoricacid. A maund of phosphoric 1 seer of nitrogen, acid,and a littleover about 2 seers This
class of
manures
other words, oil-cakes
12 times richer than a nd phosphorus, 3 times richer than cowdung As potashis more manure. or less abundantly cowdung as a potassic of 1 the maund of oil-cake is application present in every soil, of cowdung ; in other words, to that of 8 to 12 maunds equivalent
"
of
seer
in potash,
8 times in nitrogen,
2 to 3 maunds
all
per
ordinary crops
are
in
of oil-cake for bighais an adequateapplication rice,jute,etc.). Crops valued for their (i.e., benefited
of ashes by the application valued their for benefited oil-cakes. pods,though than Crops by damaged by nitrogenous manures. manures, may be actually potassic of animals are Saltpetre,oil-cake,solid and liquidexcrements Ashes contain therefore often unsuitable for leguminouscrops. as a rule 5 to 10% of potash. leaves
or
for
pods are
(4) Calcareous
more
manures.
snails,kankar, gypsum,
"
E.g., lime, shells of cockles and
etc.
is best suited for leguminouscrops, This class of manures make the other constituents of soils to function chief being their available. Like phosphorusand potash,lime also increases readily tendencies of plants. Whenever fore therethe floweringand fruiting it is noticed that leaves, but backward
plantsor or
trees
reluctant
in
vigorousin producing puttingforth flowers and are
of lime, ashes, and bones should be fruits,the application
xesorted
at once
to.
of any value as a manure except for (5) Salt. This is scarcely such as cabbages,mangold,asparagus, cocoacertain special crops "
Impure salt and Khari nimak are better manures of saltpetre contain an admixture and pure salt,as they sulphate. Salt strengthensfibres of jute, cotton, etc. checks exuberant growth of leaf. nut,
etc.
than sodium It also
advice of Lawes and Gilbert, the greatestagricultural practical should of be chemists always borne in mind in England, for special Use phosphates manures choosingspecial crops :" The
"
GENERAL
for and
399
SUMMARY.
like root-crops,potashfor active nitrogenfor grain." this head may Indirect manuring. Under
turnipsand such
leguminousplants be
"
included the
following (a) Feedingof cattle with oil-cake on fallow land. (6)Growing of leguminouscrops, for pulse,for fibre dhaincha and sunn fodder, specially hemp which are very : "
for rich in or
root-nodules. but not too free irrigation. (c) Growing crops by irrigation wells every two or three (d) Cleaningof sewers, tanks, foils,
includingvegetableand cleaningthem oi all impurities remains or growthsand applyingthem as manure to fields. of weeds when they are in flower and pitting (e)Gathering
years, animal them
manure.
as
\
round a farm, and of large (/)Growing of trees, generally in for sericulture trees and utilising the silkparticular, worm mulberry
droppings,etc., as manure. (g)Burning weeds and junglesand be
then
done
rich forest
rainy season,
when
the cultivating
land. This should hill tracts. It or only on of the soil being corrected, insect and other results in the acidity removed, ashes pests destroyed,weeds beingeasilyand effectually from burnt weeds gettingmixed up with soil and thus addingto its fertility directly,and indirectly by the manurial constituents soluble as plant-food. of the soil beingrendered more (h) Cultivation of land as long before the sowing season as
except possible,
in the
land should not
be left
tilled without
a crop. of certain insecticidal and fungicidal substances that time. have a manurial value at sowing or transplanting These substances are castor-cake and rape-cakedust, soot, salt,ashes of lime) which can and lime. Spent lime of gas works (sulphide
(i)Use
be had a
month
as
or
bye-productfrom gas works, may be appliedto land two before sowing,and the land worked thoroughly in
a
It acts as a poison both for weeds and insects, the meantime. but by aerificationit becomes converted into sulphateof lime and to the crop that follows. acts as a manure of manure to a previous (j)Application crop, say to the aus benefit the the for of succeedingsugar-cane or potato crop, crop. In this matter of applying manure. the most Instead of applyingthe proficient. the land,they put it at the base of each plant. over manure dung, etc.,in a very finely Applyingcowdung, dried human powdered immediate benefit than applying condition,one derives more in a more natural condition. In Mauritius this these manures
Economical
the
,
Chinese all
manner
"
are
for sugar-cane cultivation,a measure of powdered dung each For of set o ver more cuttings. beingapplied forcing manures, such as nitre,oil-cakes, blood, etc.,manuring at the base of each plantis riskyand should not be done.
is done
400
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
,
Covered
pit. Every cultivator should have a covered pit for refuse matter as sweepings of all kinds,weeds, lichi stones), or hair,feathers,useless seeds and stones (likemango "
throwingin such
bones,flesh, blood,shells, nails,ashes,besides dung and
urine. Over
time to time gypsum or sulphate refuse of all kinds treated with lime or is called compost." The addition of copper sulphate gypsum is recommended iron of or only when there is any sanitary sulphate need for it. Urine givesbetter results when it is applied Liquidmanure. But being in the fresh state than when it is allowed to ferment. this pitshould be of iron or copper.
from sprinkled Mixed
"
"
rich it should be diluted with 10 or 20 times as much water, or appliedbefore preparingthe land for a crop. If it has to be stored for some time before use, the addition of one part of sulphate of iron to 2,000 parts of urine stored, is recommended, both for version sanitaryreasons, and for preventingfermentation and the contoo
of
urea
into
ammonium
carbonate
CHAPTER
LXXXV.
(which
is
a
volatile
substance).
EXHAUSTION,
RECUPERATION
AND
ABSORPTION.
[Whether soils getting graduallyexhausted, or if there is a permanent minimum of recuperation ; Amount of exhaustion means fertility ; Natural by ordinary cropping; Recuperationof phosphates and potash ; Value of manuring undoubted experience ; Available phosphoricacid and potash ; planters' ; Tea Available lime and magnesia ; These as affectingthe question of utilization of soil ; Chieflywith reference to phosof phosphates; Absorptive power phoric silicates ; Physicalabsorption; Absorption acid and potash ; Double without exchange of bases and with exchange of bases].
cropping without sufficient manuring has been exhaustingIndian soils or not, has been usuallyanswered, steadily affirmative. Professor until lately,by experts in undoubted Wallace of Edinburgh University, however, says : Temporary the qualities accumulation fertility, possessedin virtue of some but when this is be dissipated, of material useful to plant,may reduce the land to a lower point. gone, no system of croppingcan in The greaterportionof the land India,which is not newly broken fertility in, annually producesits minimum yield. Where declining WHETHER
"
has been recorded,it was which had accumulated fertility
no
doubt due
to loss of
temporary
fessor during periodof rest." ProWallace assumes without any a as agriculturist, practical natural and that the of soils that this can differs, proof, fertility dismiss from consideration, We be exhausted. can never silica, and lime alumina, soda, even iron, potash,as being magnesia, a
But the every soilfor thousands of crops. is different with phosphoricacid and nitrogen.That soils may become poor in these constituents and may be benefited by well known a nd facts. At are manures phosphatic nitrogenous
abundantly present in case
EXHAUSTION,
AND
RECUPERATION
401
ABSORPTION,
that there are three natural of nitrogenwhich is the most important of recuperation
time,it should
the same methods
be remembered
: (1) by rainfall, (2) by the return determiningfertility in form the of excrements, of the produce of the soil to the soil bodies of dead animals,straw, etc.,and (3)by the action of bacteria, in connection with the roots of leguminous crops. The especially in India has been estimated at eighty total produce of food-grains at 2,500,000tons. million tons and the total export of food-grains
factor
in
aif about i.e.,
3 per cent.
So
we
may
assume
that 3 per
cent,
of this
lost to the country the soil is absolutely There loss due is also another of the to burning of some annually. excrements as fuel,the nitrogenousportion of plant-foodbeing the proportion of such entirelydispersedby burning. What that are burnt, is,cannot be determined. excrements Now, one from takes soil the of about 15 Ibs. an acre graincrop up per average of nitrogen and 7" Ibs. of phosphoricacid. The grain is only 3 and not So it is of an amount the straw. cent, only exported per Ibs. of and Ibs. of acid per acre, less than 15 1\ nitrogen phosphoric that is iost by export,and we can add the nitrogenwhich is lost by the total loss of nitrogen burningof cowdungto this: Most likely derived from plant-food
and 3 or 4 Ibs. by croppingis less than 3 or 4 Ibs. per annum, per acre down by rain alone in the form of of nitrogenper annum comes Then there is the accumulation nitric acid and ammonia. by
So,
leguminouscrops. far
Wallace
what
Wallace's
nitrogenis concerned.
as correct, as of phosphoricacid
manures, phosphatic
Professor
by
conservation
of
opinion is probably questionof supply bones or applicationof The
is therefore of the utmost
calls the
permanent
value
for maintaining
of soils,as fertility
it is
far as phosthe permanent fertility so phoric of where the proportion this constituent
perhapspossibleto exhaust acid is concerned
in the soil is only '05 or less per cent. of phosphoricacid,on In the case
the other hand, we should take into consideration silt depositwhere this takes place and meteoric dust. Permanent or the settlingof cosmic fertility where there is annual movement be exhausted in the case cannot rainfall. For of silt from higherto lower ground by the monsoon remark that the permanent certain localitiestherefore Wallace's is But correct. that such minibe mum exhausted, never can fertility be added to by manuring and more of fertility can grain of doubt. The fuller admits no utilisation of producedper acre, first the is human of and and then consideration, animal, excreta, also be considered. of manure other sources can It has been said, that chemical analysisis not a sufficient guidefor judgingthe actual value of soils but only its potential value ; in other words, that it does not giveany idea of the amounts available form, but only the total in an of plant-food existing of present. This is probablytrue in most quantities plant-food in cribed spiteof the fact that an empiricalmethod has been descases, in of and successfully certain London cases by Dyer applied M,
HA
26
402
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
of phosphoricacid and potash existing find out the quantities in an available form for the immediate use of plants. With regard has yet been satisfactorymethod to nitrogen,however, no discovered of findingout the proportionof available nitrates, of nitrogen,etc.,present in the soil. Indeed, and other sources as nitrates it is difficultto find this out with reference to any soil, there time be At much w ashed out. one as as are so easily may 0-25 per cent, of available nitrates, etc.,in the soil,but if the soil to
is left ploughed up
and bare for a few days and if 0*05 soil may show less than
heavy
ifcinfall
of cent, takes placethe same per Loss to much nitrates. available by drainagemay come as up but this is not what 80 or 100 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre, as lands in with takes water such swamped place even ordinarily chief protectionagainst The the rice fields of Bengal are. as all indeed of soluble and nitrates of loss the plant-foodis the generationof vegetableand animal life,visible and microscopic, When the rainy season at the beginningof the rainy season. under fields which not are actuallycommences, crops, have a of weeds and minute vegetation and also of animals, largeand small. The animal and vegetablelife growing rapidlyin the soil throughout the rains, prevent to a great of fertility. The the washing away extent question of loss food-materials soluble other and of nitrates by drainageis very luxuriant
growth
so very great in the tropics owing and animal life of all sorts of to the rapid propagation vegetable before the advent of the regular vert rainyseason, which helpsto coninto insoluble soluble nitrates,etc., comparatively plasmic proto-
but complicated,
the loss is not
bodies. of plant-foods Availability depends upon four conditions soil of size the of particles ; (2)on the degreeof solubility (1) with which soil particles the soil in water ; (3) on the readiness "
on
acted upon by the carbonic acid gas which is the main active ingredientfor roots being able to utilizefood-substances in the them out of soil particles soil by dissolving ; and (4)on the extent of the to which root developmenttakes place. While the question of phosphoricacid and potash is of the first available quantities have proved that the relative importance,Japaneseinvestigators of lime and proportions magnesia,and the compounds in which are
they are present are of great importancein retaining fertility. have of lime that the and These investigators proved proportion magnesia most favourable for the growth of cereals is as 1 : 1 ; abundant foliage 2 or 3 : 1 ; and for tobacco for crops with more as of lime and magnesia is different 4: 1. But the availability as the As sulphateof state in which they occur. according to available to plants than as magnesia, magnesium is more burnt available pulverizedand magnesia,and.the latter is more varies with than the carbonate of magnesia; but the proportion character of the soil and to the proportionof humus the physical matter
present, less harm
beingdone
when
there is
excess
of
404
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
whole and partlydecomposed. Cut off of a largebottle and placethe bottle vertically with the bottom the mouth its mouth downwards, being secured with a plug of Fill the bottle with clay loam slightly wool. moistened cotton dilute ammonia Then pour water in small quantities with water. It will be until the liquidbegins to drop from the lower end. little than mere In this more water. found that this liquidis
absorbed by the soil
as
a
of ammonia absorbed by clay. are quantities tion If you repeatthe above experimentwith sulphateof potashsoluinstead of ammonia will be out water, the water percolating of found to contain only traces of sulphateof potash, but more of of soda. If of and lime, sulphate magnesia sulphate sulphate out will be percolating you use sulphateof magnesia,the water found to contain littlesulphateof magnesia,but more sulphateof and soda, sulphateof lime sulphateof potash. If you use sulphate of soda, the filtratewill contain littlesulphateof soda, but more of magnesia, of sulphate sulphateof lime and sulphateof potash. nitrate If you use solution,the filtrate will be found potassium nitrate but more of calciurr.. nitrate, to contain littleor no potassium In nitrate. and sodium of nitrate each these cases magnesium retained by the soil by chemical agents the bases suppliedare way,
considerable
.
lurkingin it,while lime, magnesia or
some
other base
is removed
Ammonia water with the acid radicle,if any. not containing an while in the other out acid radicle,the water comes cases pure, nitric acid combines with the bases of the soil. the sulphuric or If similar experiments be tried with phosphate of potash and silicateof potashit will be found that both phosphoricacid and silicic acid and and potash in the one case potash in the sorbed other are retained by the soil. Alkaline carbonates are also absoil without the hardly any decomposition.Speaking by nitrates and sulphatesare chlorides, decomposed,while generally,
carbonates and phosphatesare silicates,
absorbed without position. decomSoil has also the power of absorbing minute quantities of In and nitric acid. each the acid, case chlorine,sulphuric absorptive time the a fter filtrate the is a water limited, i.e., or ing percolatpower of the cotton wool end of the bottle will be found to out contain the salt poured in without decompositionor absorption. Soils do not absorb all the bases with equalreadiness. They have for ammonia, then for potash,then the greatestabsorptive power then soda and for lime. When for the material for magnesia, lastly is readyat hand the maximum of for absorption degree absorption is reached within a few hours, except in the case of phosphates. there is phosphoric acid readyfor absorption, the maximum degreeof absorptionis reached after several days. Relatively is absorbed out of a dilute solution, more though from a strong When
solution absolutely is absorbed. a larger The quantityof quantity4 bases (and acid radicles in the case of phosphates,silicates and tive carbonates)absorbed,dependson various conditions : (1) the relamasses
of soiland the solution ;
(2) temperature, less being "
RECUPERATION
EXHAUSTION,
AND
ABSORPTION.
405
absorbed at a hightemperature ; and (3)the state of the combination For instance,more of the substance to be absorbed. potash is the soil form Absorbed when it is givento the in of phosphatethan as
chloride
or
The
nitrate.
againslightly by water,
bases absorbed
by
more
water
are
only dissolved
out
carbon dioxide, containing
When base has been a completely by or absorbed,it may be partially wholly replaced by another base, absorbed is if soil saturated with a potash given a dose of e.g.,
and
hydrochloricacid.
of soda solution in the above described manner, sulphate part of the potash will be removed, (i.e., much more than if the soil had been washed only with water) and its placetaken by soda. If now the soil is washed with a solution of lime, more of the potashand part of the soda will be washed out and their placetaken by lime. The absorptive of soilsis diminished by ignition and entirely power with A soil,the destroyed by treatment hydrochloric acid. is of which diminished or absorptivepower destroyedby either of back these ways, may get its power if it is treated with carbonate of lime. of soda or carbonate All soils have not equalabsorptive of the greater the absorptivepower Speakinggenerally, power. All good soils decompose to a the soil the greater is its fertility. certain limit salts of potash,magnesia,soda and lime in such a that the bases, and the phosphoric, silicic and carbonic manner acicte,if they are present, are retained in the soil,and nitric, dissolved in the form of hydrochloricand sulphuricacids become compounds of lime,soda, magnesia,etc., taken from the soil,and of plants or then either taken up by roots washed or away, depositedin the dry weather as an incrustation or inflorescence on the surface. Though clay-loamspossess the power of absorption in a very marked degree,absorptivepower has been noticed even in compact rocks,such as basalt,shale,or marl zeolites. The Soils with double silicateshave high absorptive power. double silicates in the soilresemble w hich contain zeolites, hydrated
lime, magnesia,potash and acid. hydrochloric
soda
and
decomposed easilyby
are
Some
of the natural double silicatesof the soil have been actually identified as zeolites, and those containingsuch of have the highabsorptive zeolites. An artificialpreparapower tion of silicateof alumina and soda possesses an absorptive power that of clay-loams.The artificially resembling prepared hydrated double
silicatewhich
shows
the
highestabsorptive power,
contains 46 per cent, of silica, 26 per cent, of alumina, 16 per cent, of soda When this artificially and 12 per cent, of water. prepareddouble silicate is treated with a lime salt,most of the soda is replaced and when afterwards is it treated with potash,lime is lime, by
by potash. In partlyreplaced can
be made
to
enter
the same way, magnesia and ammonia into the compositionof this artificialmixture be called soil. That natural soils contain
which may now similar double silicatesto those of this artifically preparedsoil, is rendered certain by the following facts : (1) Soils which after "
treatment
with
acid yield to hydrochloric
a
solution of carbonate
406
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
ment of soda a much larger quantityof soluble silicathan before treathave with hydrochloric a acid, generally high absorptive which a cid lose their with treated Soils hydrochloric (2) power. of carbonate of addition this on absorptive regain power power
silica to carbonate of lime which enables the precipitated or re-form hydrated silicates. (3) Hydrates of iron and aluminium of ammonia, have the power of absorbingsmall quantities potash, when or carbonates, phosphates; but etc., presentedas hydrates, they have very littlepower of absorbingbases when presented in
soda
the form of chlorides, or sulphates
They have the power absorbing small quantitiesof
nitrates.
of
acid and also fixingphosphoric acid and acid, fixingthem as highlybasic hydrochloric sulphuric compounds. (4) Hydrated silicicacid has an absorptive power
of also has the power for free bases or carbonates. (5) Humus absorbingbases when they are in a free state, or as carbonates or silicates. When phosphoricacid is presentedin a soluble form of lime),it first acts acid phosphateof lime (Superphosphate as the in carbonate the of soil lime to form a less acid phosphate on and afterwards (DicalciumPhosphate)
neutral
phosphate(Tricalcium
Phosphate); possiblysome phosphateof magnesia also is formed. These combiningwith the iron and alumina of the soil become fixed as phosphatesof iron and alumina. The reactions that take place be expressedby the following equations: may "
'
(1) 3CaH.P208
+
2Fea03
(2) 3CaH,PA-t-2Al203
=
-
2Fe,Pa08+ CasP8Ot+ 6H2O.
2AI.P.O.
The absorption of phosphoricacid is more rapidin calcareous soils than in clays or sands. sands and Clays absorbing go on ate phosphoricacid for several days. One of the functions of carbonacids of lime in soilsis to supply lime with which of certain salts may The combine, so as to enable the bases to be absorbed. calcium carbonate of the soil naturally added as manure, present or
helps to keep compound
up proper silicates.
between equilibrium
the
bases
of
the
The three kinds of absorption be shortlyillustrated thus : may (1) Physicalabsorption, colouringorganicmatter e.g., when is removed from buffalo-dung such as the dung of buffaloes fed on
absorbed by the soil. without (2) Absorption exchangeof bases, as
mango
leaves, and
in the
case
of
hydrates,carbonates, phosphatesand
silicates. Hydrates of iron and humus take an active part in this absorption. (3) Absorptionwith exchangeof bases,in which the hydrated compound silicates are the active agents. For ordinary fertile soils this kind of absorption playsthe most importantpart. Those ash constituents of plantswhich are most valuable and least abundant those which aj:e fixed in largequantities in the soil are ; acid and in when liberated the These potash. e.g., phosphoric soil by the action of weatheringof rocks or soil particles, mediately imare and aluminium
fixed
by this absorptive power.
Those
saline matters
NITROGENOUS
407
MANURES.
which
and nitrates, are easily washed away, e.g.,chlorides, sulphates either requiredby plantsin (with the exceptionof nitrates) or are very insignificant quantities, abundantlypresent in the soil,or suppliedto it without human aid. are
CHAPTER NITROGENOUS
LXXXVI. MANURES.
highest value ; Bacteria utilizingfree nitrogen of the air albuminoid in foot-nodules ; Nitrites useless as matter accumulating sodium, Nitrates in nature, as plant-food; Sewage-water for irrigation; potassium and calcium nitrates ; Nitrogenin relation to bases ; Ammonium sulphatea product of gas works ; Crude gas liquorto be diluted if applied; than be more Urea also utilised by plants ; Loss of nitrates by drainage may earth N itrous ;* made Conditions ; suitable for nitrification ; up by nitrification of saltpetre JVitre-beds ; Manufacture of nitrates ; Bhadoi and ; Application
LNitrogenas nitrates
of
and
benefited ; Leguminous crops sometimes injured; early Rabi crops chiefly and putrefactionretard nitrification in farm-yard Compost heaps ; Antiseptics vation to be used, not caustic lime ; Consergypsum of nitrates into nitrites and free nitrogen in ; ; Originof nitrates in soil ; Nitrificationof urine ; Export of saltpetre swamps Value of nitrogenas compared to those of phosphoricand potash; Causes of of composition of dung ; Nitrogenin urine"its variation proportionand the torms which of different animals ; it occurs urine and m of dung Composition ; Litter; Urine earth; Box-manure; Value of Indian cow-dung and urine about in one ton the same of plant-food as of English cow-dung and urine ; Amounts ; Calcium of manure
manure
ot
farm-yard
carbonate
manure
;
Poudrette
;
or
Reduction
;
;
determined ments by experirefuse ; Ammonia ; nitrogen; Albuminoids; Green
Practical value of cow-dung
as
; Silt ; Vegetable Town-sweepings
acid; Conditions affectingloss of ; Aquatic weeds ; Straw ; Saw-dust ; Leaves ; Seeds ; Oil-cakes ; silk,indigoand glue factories, particularly Megass ; Refuse of sugar-refineries, Nitric
^
manuring
Blood ; Flesh ; Skin ; Horn ; Hair ; Feather ; Carcasses of fish ; Guanos ; Utilization of sewage ; Deodorizing and sewage processes ; Practical value of sewage grass ; Crops suitable for refuse of Animal than value more irrigation vegetable refuse.] ; sewage
rich of
;
; Soot ^Coal
animals
;
;
Refuse
tuents constiOt the four principal manurial of Nitrogen." requiredby plants"nitrogen, potassium,and phosphorus,
Sources
calcium" nitrogenis the most important,and, on the whole, it may be said,the richer a substance is in nitrogenthe greater is its value as a manure. Green plantsare not able to make any use of the free nitrogen of the air,but alga3, and possibly some fungi called in this form. make some of nitrogen can use Minute fungi,
bacteria,having a tendencyto accumulate nitrogenous organic of the leguminous order, compounds at the roots of plants, chiefly air these plantsderive benefitfrom the free nitrogen of the through the to
help of
these bacteria. As nitrites also,plantsare of nitrogen.The nitrates contained in use coming in contact with sewage, may become more
make
water
reduced
in which form the nitrogenis of nitrites, with sewage water is therefore not plants.Irrigation of effective means manure applyingnitrogenous very to
Nitrogen
is
absorbed
by
in the form plantschiefly
not
able
irrigation or no
use
less to
always a
to land. of nitrates
408
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and ammonia salts. Nitrates occur (KNOS), in nature as saltpetre Chili saltpetre walls, inflorescence and on saline also as (JfaNO.) which is largely nitrate calcium nitrate (Ca)(N08)a. Ammonium Chili and also occurs in air and in rain water. Saltpetre Of nitrate are largelyused for manure. is ammonium used for manure salts the substance most largely and ammonium of gas-liquor, out sulphatewhich is manufactured is therefore a bye-product crude gas liquor of gas-works. The wheat diluted with water is also sometimes used for application on
saltpetreor
and
sodium
other cereal crops. Nitrates. In connection
with the questionof recuperation of nitrogen in the soil,the agency of bacteria is to be considered the most important. Loss by drainageis generally made entirely "
In fact,while by this natural recuperation. of nitrogenper acre by croppingis only about under an treatment drainage come injudicious may up
the 15
expenditure Ibs.,loss by
up to as much to been also known
80 or 100 Ibs. per acre, but bacteria have accumulate in a singleseason. 80 or 100 Ibs. of nitrogenper acre On the one to this fixation hand, a free and moist soil is helpful of nitrogen, while on the other, such soil is also liable to loss by drainage in wet weather. A free and open soil kept moist, but time protected at the same from rain,is therefore most helpful The of nitrates. to the fixation of nitrogen and the production The also essential. of is in the soil some presence organicmatter from the productionof nitrates (whichmust be clearly distinguished bacteria] fixation of nitrogen, determined by althoughit is also
as
in conditions which naturallyprevail used manure and and old homesteads as village sites, dug up known to give good results. But artificialnitre-beds under are used shade may be formed on every farm, and the earth regularly Further refined and purified, as this nitrous earth,or manure. lona mati, so extensively the United Provinces in used as manure
agency) is produced under
and
of the saltpetre parts of Bihar, yields
commerce.
and to a certain extent in several districtsof the United Provinces, and the Punjab. More than two-thirds of the saltpetreexportedfrom Calcutta from Tirhut, Saran and Champaran. The climate best comes suited for the productionof nitre is where dry weather follows the the rains and thus by evaporation allows the salt to effloresceon is manufacturedlargelyin Bihar Saltpetre
is helpful of carbonate of lime in abundance for the districtof Tirhut to the generation of nitre, and this accounts being so fruitful in the productionof nitre,for almost half of its in Bihar is in the hands of a soil is calcareous. The manufacture sites and mud caste called the Nuniahs, who revel in old village
surface. Presence
walls. They make pilesof loose earth after the rains are over stuff may not and build mud walls round them, that the precious be washed away. This earth is obtained by scrapingoff an inch into conical heaps 2 to 4 ft. two of the bed chosen and made or high. By March or April,when a largenumber of these heaps
409
MANURES.
NITROGENOUS
have been collected, the processes of solution and filtrationbegin. The best temperature for nitrification is 98"F.,and if this and of moisture could be given artificially in presence of carbonate lime and organicmatter, nitre-beds and heaps would give the best results. Kalsies are placedon tripods, each kalsi having a hole it at its bottom. A layerof straw is put at the bottom, over ashes from indigorefuse,and then the vessel is nearly filled with the saline earth, in a loose manner. Under each kalsi filledwith saline earth is placed an empty kalsi and above it one filledwith water in which an having an orificeat the bottom, in the manner ordinarykalsi filter is arranged. A series of these stands are kalsies is erected side by side,and the liquidfrom the bottom removed from time to time and boiled until the liquorcomes out from obtained free is worth salt that The so it not liquor boiling. contains two to five per cent, of saltpetre. Oval iron pans from to two feet in diameter and six to nine inches in depth are one used for boiling the liquor. The diminishingliquidis from time to
that rise replenishedby fresh supplies.The impurities skimmed off. On attaininga certain degree of concentration, carefully
time
are
shallow vessel and the is copiously This impure precipitate impure saltpetre precipitated. is scooped out from the bottom of the pan at intervals. After 30 to 36 hours of continuous labour,8 to 16 Ibs. of crude saltpetre made Solar heat is are ; the larger pans yieldingup to fortyIbs. is realso used for evaporatingthe liquor. This crude saltpetre crystallisedand then exported to Europe,where it is further refined. the
The
is set apart to liquid
cool in
a
chlorides of potassiumand sodium. than potasnitrate is a richer manure sium it contains seven nitric cent, more per
principalimpuritiesare
Weight
for
weightsodium
nitrate,inasmuch acid.
In
the
as
manufacture
of
gunpowder, however, potassium
nitrate is in use, but for the manufacture of nitric acid, sodium nitrate. In India,potassiumnitrate being much cheaper,it is the
best
manure nitrogenous
to
use,
the
potassiumalso beinga
able valu-
plant-food. Utilization of
Nitrogen by plants. Nitrogenis absorbed "
by
of nitrates than
other in any In water-culture experimentsnitrates are relied upon as the form. best source salts are less certain. Nitrates of nitrogen.Ammonia the of and impart to them a rich leaves chiefly growth promote
plantsmore
readilyin
the form
colour. In Peru, crude nitrate of soda is found incrusting the soil of a desert. Hence this article rather than saltpetre is chieflyused for manurial purpose in America and Europe. Scrapings from pucca walls or damp and dirtylimestone buildings are rich in nitrate of lime which is also a good manure. Action of nitrates in plants. Nitrogenis principally assimilated of nitrates in combination with inorganic as bases. The liability nitrates gettinglost by washing when there is a crop growingin the field,is not, therefore, great. The change of nitrates into amides and finally takes placefairly into proteidsusually rapidly green
"
410
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
in very immature the nitrogen grass or fodder is it is therefore not of and indicative albuminoids, necessarily advisable to use fodder plantsbefore they flower. Manner manure. of application of nitrates as Saltpetre,
in the
plant,but
not
"
nitrate and Calcium nitrate should be Sodium or Chili-saltpetre other substance, diluted with mixed and some as applied manure, such as water, loam or dung,at the rate of 100 to 150 Ibs. per acre. It should not be mixed with dung, as the latter contains many organismswhich reduce the nitrogenin the nitrates to the free The application the when state. should be only as top-dressing plantsare six to nine inches high,as germinationand growing of young is in
seedlingsare
much benefited by the of that the application
not
showery
application.It
nitrates weather proves beneficial. It is,therefore,applicable to earlyBhadoi crops or benefited,also those earlyRabi crops. Grain crops are chiefly which are valued for their leaves,such as pot-herbs cabbages, (sags), most
mulberry, etc. are
Onions,
also benefited
by
table
and vegetables
nitrates.
Leguminous
root-cropsgenerally be
may
crops
actually
injuredby
the application. Nitre-bed. Each farmer can
easilyhave
"
and enclosed nitre-bed as fields. It is important to 98"F. as is possibleunder
a
perpetualsource
his of
own
manure
covered for his
uniform temperature as near Below 40" the climatic conditions. 45"F. and above 130"F. nitrification ceases. The earth should or be kept loose. There should be enough of moisture, lime and secure
a
Warington organicmatter in it,but not too much of the first two. could not ordinarily discover nitrifyingbacteria below a depth of eighteen inches and the looseness of soil in the nitre-bed need therefore extend beyond this depth. Darkness not also favours nitrification. This is one dark cellars and sheds. trees
sheds.
or
should be kept in why manures Compost heaps should be also kept under reason
Salt,coal-tar,spent lime of gas works, ferrous
sulphate and process
the disinfectants or germicidesgenerally,retard of nitrification. Rapid putrefactionalso hinders nitrification,
and remain
it is therefore
sweet.
A
heaps should necessary that manure and puddly pen or cow house is not so of nitrificationas a stallin which the dung
wet
suitable for the process is
spreadabout
and
and only occasionally kept moderatelywarm with urine. The lime used for nitre-beds should never be in the form of caustic lime which sets free ammonia and hinders but in the form of carbonate. nitrification, Warington has pointed that out if gypsum is mixed with strong solutions of urine so that moistened
the carbonate
is converted to sulphate of ammonia and the excessive of the liquid annulled,they could be nitrified more alkalinity Excessive fication. is inimical to the process of nitrieasily. alkalinity * ^
Conditions suitable for
The nitrification. practicallessons to be deduced from these principles : are (1) Cattle (except,of in be should when they are not course, dairy cattle) kept stalls, "
"
412
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
More
than three-fourths of the value of nitrogenit contains.
dung depends upon
the
Trade in saltpetre. The quantityof saltpetreannually exported 40 valued at over from India is nearly 600,000 maunds Jakhs of rupees. Most of this goes to Great Britain and the United States of America for the manufacture of gunpowder. It is more "
form in a comparatively pure than five or six per cent, of impurities (say,containingnot more which in Calcutta about Us. 6 per maund), than crude costs of foreign cent, which contain 30 to 50 .saltpetre per may to satisfactory
use
this
manure
matter.
withstanding Relative values of nitrogen, acid, and potash. Notphosphoric the potentiality of soils for accumulatingnitrates "
under
circumstances, the
speciallyfavourable
applicationof
to soils has for its chief objectthe addition of nitrogen in a of manures In estimatingthe value available form. ammonia, phosphoricacid and potash may be practicalmanner, manures
in
an
valued valued
Gas.,3as.
at
in
and
2as.
England even in
poor
at
8d.
nitrogenand
Ammonia lb., respectively.
a a
lb. Indian
nitrogen being the
plant-food,the proportions of nitrogen that
are
or
be
can
soils
used to enrich the
in
being particularly
most
various
soil, should
is
be
valuable substances
carefully
studied. is
which easilyavailable manure into the soil used for bringing and indirectly nitrogendirectly
is
farm-yardmanure.
Farm-yard
manure.
"
The
most
It consists of solid and
liquidexcrements much in composition.
of all farm animals and litter. It varies very the variation of The conditions that determine
compositionare
: "
of the animal producingit; (2) condition of the animal, whether lean or fat ; (3) the speciesof the animal ; (4)food of the animal ; (5)temperature ; (6)accommodation generally ; (7)quantity and kind of litterused, and (8) management during accumulation and its after-treatment. Loss in digestion.During the passage of food through the
{!) age
"
.alimentarycanal of and
the mineral
an
matter
animal, nearlythe whole of the nitrogen are got back either in the solid or the
with adult and fattening This is the case chiefly animals. In the case of young animals and milkingcows, the is e xcreted than half the quantity much less. A little more nitrogen
liquidexcrements.
of
nitrogentaken in as food is givenoff in urine,which shows what urine is. The remaininghalf (or manure nitrogenous and partlystored less)is partlyvoided with the solid excrement the the of in animal. body up Adult animals void a larger of nutritive matter than amount animals The animals milk. in latter or a use growing good up "deal of phosphates, nitrogenand mineralsalts requiredfor the formation of bones,blood,and muscles,or milk. Pregnantanimals and lean animals also absorb a good deal of nutriment, and their Animals excrements are poorly poorer than those of fat animals. a
valuable
NITROGENOUS
MANURES.
Animals ripegrass)yieldpoor manure. fed on carrots, oats, pulses, chaff,bran, fresh green herbageand richer manure. oil-cake,yield specially voided by cattle. The average amount Quantityof excrements be put down at about 50 of dung voided by cattle in Bengal may fed
(onlyon
straw
and
"
of urine at 10 maunds and the average amount obtained at The actual averages Sibpur in 1894 were
maunds
per annunu 46 maunds
of urine,and in 1896, 73 maunds of dung dung and 11 maunds The for urine. of urine is and 5J maunds European average would be expected, viz.,, third much largerin proportion oneas of
weightof dung. The followingtable of animals. Compositionof excrements and Johnston Cameron's Elements of Agricultural compiledfrom of and the idea an gives Geology, Chemistry composition animals of dung and urine of the various classes of farm in
or
more
of the
"
1,000 parts :"
Pig'surine and human urine are very similar in composition, in the highpercentage of phosphoric especially acid. The excrements of sheep are the most concentrated,then of the horse then of the ox, and last of all of pigsand of men. Cow-dungcontains of water and is poorest in the largest proportion nitrogenof all the dungs. Horse-dung is drier and richer, sheep'sdung is the richest. Bird's dung and insect droppingsare still richer in and acid. In potash, phosphoric order of value,insect nitrogen, first,then bird's dung and bat's dung, then droppingscome sheep'sdung and goat'sdung, then horse's dung,pig'sdung and human dung, and last of all dung of oxen and buffaloes. The d ifferences in principal composition between dung and urine, besides the difference in the proportion of water, are : (1)Urine is richer in nitrogen (exceptin the case of pig-urine) and in alkaline salts (potashand soda),while dung is richer in the earthy salts (lime and magnesia),and phosphates.(2) Silica "
AGRICULTUKE.
OF
HANDBOOK
abundantlypresent in dung of animals
is
because chiefly
lot of earth with their food. Human of other animals,differ very much excrements
eat
they
excrements,
a
accordingto
like the
food eaten. As the watery portionof urine and Gain by evaporation. evaporates, urine gets richer and richer in nitrogenthan
dung dung, 75% of
"
90% of
over
In
moisture.
being water, while dung contains 70 to allowingurine to get evaporatedand concentrated,
urine
kept in check by adoptinga quick method substance. or by using an antiseptic evaporation,
fermentation of
be
must
used straw Litter. Buck-wheat and so does the straw of the manure, used value of cereal straws manurial "
the
proportionof nitrogen they
and young
litter,as
leaves of all kinds used contain
they
in
of the straw contains straw
return as
rice straw
*5%
per
the value
leguminouscrops. The depends on
litter mainly
as
contain.
Dried
litter have
ferns, rushes,
as
a
other to the land is very essential of nitrogen,1% of potash and *3% of of land acre an as yieldsabout 2,000 Ibs. form
some
phosphoricacid, and of
of
to
specialvalue as high proportionof potash. The
very
a
litter adds
as
or
the restoration
annum,
of the straw
is
a
great
that the total quantityof nitrogen, matter, considering phosphoric acid and potashtaken out by a crop of rice (grainand straw) is about no
10
bedding
cattle. Use
Ibs.,
Ibs.,and
5
material
or
of dry earth.
51bs.,respectively. Practically
litteris used in India for the comfort
of
a Cawnpore Experimental Farm the floor of the cattle stall, of on dry system of scattering it and and in the it for it sun using drying again removing daily doubt, mattering on the floor,has been introduced. This, no "
the earth
In
more cakes,the urine-earth getsgradually
and
concentrated in nitrogenuntil as much as 1% of nitrogenis accumulated when But the extreme the earth is used as a nitrogenousmanure. of the earth and the exposure to sunlightboth alkalinity go nitrification. Nitrification, however, proceedsafter this against The use of dried leaves, urine-earth has been used as manure. crushed f or litteris advisable, (i.e., sugar-cane) or straw, or megass the floor of which should of cattle in covered stalls, also the feeding more
inches below the level of the surrounding be about eighteen ground. of dung and urine and litter may until The accumulation on go it when reaches the level of the ground, be removed can the manure to the
pitor appliedto
fields.
Gypsum should be scattered
on
the
and again, if this system is adopted,to prevent now of carbonate of ammonia. Gypsum is also a mild The system of converting urine into urine-earth by antiseptic. in it the also be sun adopted. drying may which gives such good The stall-fed manure Box-manure. has found in been to givegood results in the Nagpur results England manure
every
formation
"
ExperimentalFarm Indian
also,and this system therefore is to be and urine cattle-dung
the (specially
mended. recom-
are latter)
415
MANURES.
NITROGENOUS
and
poorer than Englishcattle-dung results of analysesgiven by Dr. Voelcker not
urine, as will show
the
following
:
"
character of dung-manure. In one ton of farmyard Different 9 Ibs. 15 of there to 4 are Ibs. 10 to of phosphoric manure nitrogen, acid and 5 to 13 Ibs. of potash. Manure made in boxes contains 30 Ibs. to twice as much nitrogen(18 dung is per ton). Rotten "
soluble and is a better manure than fresh dung, but it contains which is combined with vegetable acids. During fermentation, dung loses water, carbon dioxide, marsh gas which evolved and in the process, are (methane),hydrogen nitrogen concentrated. About one-third of the and thus it becomes more if it is not allowed to wash is lost even ammonia Dung, away. which is not pittedbut kept spread out, loses two-thirds of its nitrogen. Voelcker gave it as his opinionthat on the whole it was better to use dung and urine fresh on fallow land and use the land afterwards. for cropping In manure four or five months pits the value of dung is reached in a temperate climate in about maximum that the older the four months, and it is a mistake to suppose old dung may contain a very the better it is. Three-years manure
more
littlefree ammonia
small quantityof nitrogenremaining. Practical results. Experiments conducted in the different farms in India have led to the conclusion that the Government of about six tons of cow-dung per acre results in an application "
increased
of 300
400
Ibs. of wheat
(Cawnpore and f or increase of 200 to an Nagpur give figures the of maize 300 Ibs. case average increase at Cawnpore has been 400 to 500 Ibs. per acre. or Poudrette, night-soil-manure pittedwith ashes and town much in varies refuse, naturally composition.The poudrette very outturn
to
The In the
Dumraon).
in deep municipaltrenches gives rise to an and the Meagher system of utilising smell, night-soil by
formed
offensive
depositing
416
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
sive, coveringthese with three inches of soil is lessoffenin the latter as in the dry decomposition case, especially weather, is very rapid. The poudrettemade by dryingonly,on the continent of Europe,contains about 25 per cent, of moisture, 3 per cent, of phosphoric acid and 3 per cent, of nitrogen, 1 J per Mixed with of of cent, sulphate lime,earth,etc.,the poupotash. drette is less valuable,containing only 2 per cent, of nitrogen or less. made at Poona was found to contain about 1 per cent, The poudrette and J to 1 \ per cent, of phosphoric acid. The poudrette of nitrogen made at Cawnpore was found to contain *4 to -7 per cent, of nitrogen. from poudretteat Cawnpore from the appliThe increased outturn cation it
on
beds and the
has been 500 to 1,000 Ibs. of maize and of six tons per acre in excess of the unmanured 400 to 600 Ibs. of wheat per acre plots. has been for found better manure a weight,poudrette Weight Grass Farm, the amount than cow-dung. At the Allahabad of the appliedper acre (on Meagher system) is 168 tons night-soil The 10 in of green grass obtained at once acre weight years. per varies 10 30 from farm to tons this which is per acre per annum, from of three A to ten tons to more extended of hay. use equivalent is and for urine manure highlydesirable. It is in this night-soil of Chinese is in advance of the the that agriculture system respect Town less valuable Indian. as sweepings are as manure, they
contain about *3 or '4 per cent, of nitrogen, but as they have no be should used for manure. offensive odour, they At readily Poona such sweepingsare used for sugar-cane and at Allahabad for results. The sullagewater of grass land with very satisfactory into the nearest run town drains, which is usually river,is also Mr. a valuable manure. Wyer, a Collector of Meerut,utilized his its value to cultivators. small farm for the purpose of illustrating it with doubled Two the outturn of cotton, maize, irrigations that and with obtained well oats over water. There is, juar,
indeed, which
a
is may
largesupply
of
usuallyallowed be made
conducted, and under
to
a source
proper
in cities and
manure
go of
to
waste.
mofussil towns
Conservancyarrangements
if municipalities profit are properly
management
the utilization of sewage
for
would better sanitary a agriculture secure other of than mode o f disposing the materials. any improvement of value The canal and tank silt as Silt. river, is manure difficult to ascertain than the value of dung, urine or stillmore refuse. Silt is a very importantsource of plant-foodand town In Eastern land. of recuperation Bengal,largetracts of country silt The results of analysesmade by only for manure. depend pp. Dr. Leather with the Upper Eastern Jumna Canal silt show that the the silt depositduring monsoon than sufficient periodis more and 41 Ibs. of phosphoric for the rice crop (32 Ibs. of nitrogen acid and
sweepings "
havingbeen accounted for from this source),while during per acre the cold weather when the canal water is clear,the amounts of nitrogenand phosphoricacid suppliedby silt depositare very aftd 1 Ib. of phosphoric (only| a Ib. of nitrogen acid insignificant
NITROGENOUS
417
MANURES.
however, per acre). All silts,
not
valuable.
Sandy silt may the soil. in soilis of littledirect use to plants. Humus or have even Some suggestedthat humus is poisonous experimenters of balance but evidence the shows that indirectly to plants it is a ; lower and valuable source of plant-food, to the forms of vegetable of food. life it is a direct source Ammonia and nitrates, which are forms in which the principal is taken nitrogen up by plants,are the greaterproportionof present only in very minute proportions, and non-available nitrogenremainingin the soil in a non-mineralised be
depositedon
good soil and vegetablerefuse
Peat
form.
contains
from
are
cause
damage
to
to four per cent.,
one
usuallyabout
of nitrogenin soils per cent, of nitrogen. The usual proportion -01 -5 from soil When contains more to than -5 per is a per cent. two
cent,
it should nitrogen,
of
Humus
constituent. form
of
ammonia.
is lost
The
very
rich in this
important
in the alkalies, givesoff nitrogen
nitrogen in and
unavailable
by the
be considered
boiled with
humus
exists
in
various
combinations, of alkalies, Part of the nitrogen by fermentation. free nitrogenin course of fermentation,but the greater it is only
slowlyrendered
available
action as
less or organic combinations which are more decompose, and, without decomposition, they are probably useless to plants. Nitrates are undoubtedly valuable of all plant-foods the most and these are slowly formed out of the ammonium formed position humate, ulmate, etc., by the decominto
portion enters and
insoluble
of
Urea.
"
difficult to
humus.
Ammonia, urea, uric acid, hippuric acid and guanin in urine)are also easilydecomposed givingammonia
(which occur ultimatelynitrates,and
and
so
are
very
valuable
sources
of nitrogenous
plant-food. soil under The Ammonia. ordinary circumstances absorb o f from the atmosphere, and condense minute quantities ammonia of the soil is also beingcontinually but the ammonia diffused into the air. If a soil contains of deal ammonia and is in a a good in plant-food,but on moist state, it is rich drying such soil with its ammonia. On soil again and this readilyparts moistening ammonia is given out and so on. The constituents dryingit,more of soil which have the greatest attraction for ammonia are clay, ferric hydrate and aluminum hydrate. With acids of the humus and with compound silicates, ammonia forms compounds group which are soluble. Ammonia in the air very sparingly escapes and If sulphateof lime probably as carbonate of ammonia. smells mixture carbonate of ammonia mixed are together,the of ammonia, but ifthe mixture be thoroughlymoistened strongly with water, the odour of ammonia nium ammois no longerperceived, If the mixture sulphateand carbonate of lime beingformed. of is dried, carbonate of ammonia is againgiven off and sulphate formed. The latter is,therefore, lime is called a ^ixer of ammonia, but itis onlyin the damp state that itis a fixer. Potassium chloride, Of these,gypsum kainit,clayand peat are also fixers of ammonia. "
M,
HA
27
418
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
dung-heapsand stables,but kainit and then gypsum. then peat,then clay,
be used in
may
is the best substance
It is difficult It is manure. to estimate the amount into acid and nitric of also is it changed part being continually i nto If air. a quantityof soil is boiled constantlybeing dispersed is ammonia the not only caustic-alkali, with actuallypresent to use,
of ammonia
but also obtained in the distillate, the
from
in soil and
additional
an
present. If
organicmatter
magnesia is used instead of
quantitiesof ammonia
potash,much smaller of ammonia actual proportion is
There
a
in soil is
the
sea
to
per
air,more
air of hot countries
and
percolation.But than
in the hot weather of towns
contains
than of temperate climates and The subsoil contains less ammonia respectively.
proportionof ammonia country
The cent.
between water, air the final reservoir for much
givesoff ammonia The
-0005
interchangeof ammonia
constant
in the cold.
obtained.
are
only about
and soil,and the sea appears to act as washed of the ammonia by drainageand away also
quantityliberated
a
larger of
the than
below a depth of about the surface soil,and there is no ammonia six feet. and in some Nitric acid is formed in the air by electricity cases and then down rain and of and the action brought dew, by ozone, by with ammonia other meteoric waters, nearlyalways combined as first noticed the formation of nitric nitrate. ammonium Priestley Nitrates acid in the atmosphere and Liebigfound it in rain water. and nitrites are formed in the soil also and in manure heaps,and and removal and their formation by plants drainageare questions
of very of are
science. great importance to agricultural
Some
chemists
nitrates are formed nitrogenof of soil is intervention but there certain the no proof only, by formed of this ; but that they are by the intervention of bacteria
opinionthat
from
the
free
air
also
by
that
of
algaehas
been
proved. Nitrates are very in combination soluble and theyare washed away out of soils chiefly with lime as calcium nitrate. Soils containing much ferric hydrate (FeaOa 3HaO) are better able to retain nitrates as basic ferric much air has to which nitrate. Soils containing organic matter have their nitric acid reduced to ammonia not free access partly nitrous In a nd last forms oxide. free the two to nitrogen, nitrogen is useless to vegetation.This is one reason why humous soils should
and
cultivated whether there are crops on them or not. When a soil is in good condition as much as 80 Ibs. of nitrogenmay into nitrates per acre be converted to annum a depth of per twenty-seven inches, the largestquantity being formed in the top nine inches. The ratio has been found in England between the first nine inches,the next nine inches and the third nine inches to be 100 : 60 : 30. residues Crop being easilynitrifiable, those crops which leave behind a largequantityof organicmatter of any consideration as regards go to improve soils irrespective root-nodules,etc. Again, old nitrogenous qrganicmatter in the be
kept well
soil nitrifies much
more
slowly than
recent
organic
matters.
420
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
first stage of putrefactionwith excess of the evolution of some is which H9S gas, cultivation from poisonousto plants. Aerification by constant the end of August to the end of October or middle of November into sulphateswhich are valuable as plantconverts the sulphides food. Destruction of weeds and luxuriant plantsgrowing by the that the
remembered
moisture
givesrise to
edges of fields when they are serves using them as manure,
in
flower
also the
before seeding)and (i.e., purpose
of
destroyinga
pests and
natural harbour parasites.Other crops used in other countries for green manuring are, mustard, turnips,rape, tares, lucerne, lupin,spurry, and clover. Residues of many crops and be considered as a kind of greenshed leaves after harvest may In and roots stubbles, manure. usually half of the quantity of but in the case harvested is left, leguminous crops, the residues of
are
equalvalue
of
point
to the crop
Root behind
littleresidue
very
harvested,from
a
chemical
or
manurial
(potatoes,cabbages,"c.), leave crops and are therefore more exhausting than
Barley leaving little residue should be considered exhausting crop for the surface soil. Lucerne, a perennial
other an
of
view.
crops.
four tons of crop residue as crop, leaves as much therefore fyeregardedas a in the top ten inches of soil and it may for soils. The useful residue of four tons of fertilizing crop very
leguminousfodder
vegetablematter contains over 100 Ibs. of nitrogen. Aquaticweeds. Of other easily available nitrogenousmanures "
may be
be mentioned
appliedat
weeds and
sea-
which aquaticweeds generally
of ten to
the rate
tons
may
In fresh
twenty per and 10 to 14 per cent, 70 to 80 per cent, of water The true ash is only 3 or 4 per cent. of ash which includes sand. The nitrogenvaries from -15 to -5 per cent., usuallyabout a quarter state
per
and
acre.
they contain
They
valuable
taining confarmyard manure, of weeds, seaonly nitrogen. The value "c., is,however, greatlyenhanced by the presence of shells
cent.
animals
are
not
half
the
and
animal
so
as
proportionof
remains, which
raise
the percentage of
acid and nitrogen. Where weeds are available in large phosphoric it is advisable to use them fuel and inexhaustible quantities, as collect the ashes for manure. and then carefully Straw is another readily available manure. pending deThe value of the proportionof nitrogenand of ash. Straws on than *4 per cent, of nitrogenand 4 cereals rarelycontain more of ash. Straws of leguminous crops, however, often per cent, contain as much two as more per cent, of nitrogen. Straws are valuable as cattle food than as manures, except barleystraw, which
has a tendency to produce colic. Perfectly ripestraw is not so fodder nor When wholesome valuable as manure. too ripe, as so fectly Perstraws in than straws. cereal are leguminous nitrogen poorer in nutritive value as fodder by being ripe straw gains stacked. Saw-dust is a poor manure if there is much resinous especially in the wood. The saw-dust Irom gas-worksabsorbinga matter of ammonium large proportion sulphateis a good manure.
NITROGENOUS
Sawdust
improvesthe
421
MANURES.
mechanical
of
texture
and it should soils,
be utilized wherever available. Leaves of trees either ploughed in or firstused as litter and then applied to fields as manure are a fairlygood fertilizer. Their
composition varies, but usuallyleaf-mould contains *5 to -1 per cent, of nitrogen,*1 to *3 per cent, of potash,and '1 to -4 of
phosphoricacid.
Sedges,rushes, and
ferns
richer in
are
potash.
Peat is sometimes
rich in nitrogen used to fertilizesoils, as it is fairly often very rich in ash constituents (5 to 20 per cent.),especially Peat may be used in cow-houses and in phosphoricacid.
and
stables
it absorbs
as
scarcelyany per cent,
liquidmanures
manurial
nitrogenand
of
also, decomposing very burnt and oil-cakes
the ash
used
well.
When
value. when
dry slowly,is a as
fibre has
Cocoanut
fresh,it contains -2 per poor
It should
manure.
Of all
manure.
only *06 Tannery refuse
cent.
be
vegetablemanures,
richest in nitrogen. Rape-cake, earth-nut-cake, cotton-cake, linseed-cake and cocoanut-cake should be first used are
cattle-food and
the excrements rancid, and neem-seed-cake,castor-cake and as
getting mouldy
as
or
but cattle-food,
as
appliedas
Oil-cakes
manure.
such
oil-cakes as mustard-cake, ma^wa-cake, should not be used in
generalmanures,
preferenceto dung.
richer in manurial Seeds of all plants are constituents than flowers richer than leaves, and leaves richer than steins. Rape-cake used alone for turnipsand potatoes encourage It should be used along with too luxuriant growth of leaves.
flowers,and
phosphates. Two farmyard
Oil-cake is
dry
soil and
castor-cake some
more
are
cwt.
and
manure
of oil-cake is
the two
manures
may
one
be used mixed
ton
of
together.
weather than in in dry weather. neew-seed-cake and Rape-cake, valuable,as they prevent the attack of specially
insects.
effective in moist
substitute for
a
Rape-cake contains
soil and
3"
to
in wet
5 per
cent,
of
nitrogen,
per cent, of phosphoricacid,and two-thirds of this latter Castor quantity of potash,the total ash being4| to 7J per cent. and maAwa-cake are oil-cake,European mustard-cake poisonous
1J to 3J
to
cattle.
Sugar refuse. Sugar-canerefuse "
fairlygood
"
(called
megass
")
is
a
as nitrogen.Refuse from sugar-refineries, bone-charcoal containingalbuminoid and i.e., other impurities, if it is used is a very good manure, especially manure
it contains
*5 per cent,
of
mixed powdered first in closets and the night-soil up with this of bonecharcoal The utilisation used as manure. powdered charcoal refuse of sugar-refineries palities in a powdered state by municiand its subsequent use for croppingin trenching-grounds would be a great agricultural and sanitaryimprovement in places where such bone-charcoal is available. Coal contains one per cent, of nitrogen which occurs in a form distillation of too inert to be of much In process manurial use. in gas works, however, about one-third of this is converted into into*cyanogen, into organicbases such as ammonia, some some
'
422
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
aniline,a considerable portionbeingleft in the coke, and
a
little
acid is givenoff as free nitrogen. With the addition of sulphuric the ammoniacal is evaporated and the residue is sulphateof liquor ammonia. This crude ammonium sulphateof gas works contains ammonium chloride and ammonium thio-cyanate.This last named and the crude ammonium constituent is poisonousto plants before it is sold. and purified sulphateis,therefore,re-crystallised The ammonium 24 of to 25 per cent, contains sulphate commerce When
of ammonia. cent,
The
of ammonia.
about
2J per
pure
cent, of
sulphateof ammonia ammoniacal liquorof
about ammonia, i.e.,
gallon.Each ton of liquor.Besides ammonia,
per
coal
four
contains 25*5 per gas works contains ounces
of ammonia
distilled produces 10
gallonsof
this liquor contains ammonium ammonium carbonate, ammonium sulphide,
ammonium
compounds, hydrocarbons, and
cyanogen liquoris used for
irrigating crops
it must
chloride,
sulphate,
If gaswith four be diluted or
organicbases.
five times its weight of water. it should be If Ammonium Sulphateis purchasedfor manure, that it is fairly seen or ninety-six containingninety-five pure, i.e., sulphate.The puritycan be judged per cent, of pure ammonium the tests : by (l)Ifa small quantityis heated, it should following leave no residue ; (2)it should be dry ; and (3) it should be crystalline in appearance. for lands naturally It is an excellent manure and it is profitably rich in .phosphates applied to cereals and It sodium does act not or as so potassium quickly quite grasses. Ammonium phate SulLike sodium and potassium nitrates, nitrate. "
should not usually be appliedto leguminous crops. it is a favorite manure. sugar-cane, Sodium nitrate,imported from Chili and hence called
For
Chili
contains 15 to 16 per cent, of nitrogen. Three parts Saltpetre, of ammonium sulphate are equal to four parts of sodium
Sodium nitrate contains nitrogen is concerned. than It nitrate. nitrogen potassium giveslargerincrease of crops than either potassium nitrate or ammonium sulphateand it is an excellent top-dressing but it for cereals and grasses, and the sulphate should not be used too freelywithout of ammonia nitrate
as
far
as
more
phosphaticand potassicmanures.
When
cereals show
a
tendency
much to straw, common salt should be applied mixed of soda. is the usual dose both with nitrate One cwt. per acre up for ammonium sulphateand 'sodium nitrate. In England the values of ammonium sulphateand sodium nitrate are about the than Rs. 5 per maund. "11 per ton, which is rather more i.e., same, of We cannot for less than Rs. 7 either these articles expect to get in this country,and as potassiumnitrate is on the whole per maund for this better economical this is generallymore a manure, into country. The conversion of each municipaltrenching-ground to
a
too
for agricultural use regularnitre-bed where crude saltpetre
may would afford for sale to cultivators, unions and to village object-lesson great sanitaryand agricultural
be a
run
manufactured systematically
423
MANURES.
NITKOGENOUS
other rural and local bodies,and the
subjectis earnestly put agriculture.
forth
for the consideration of students of Indian
Other
Of other easily available be mentioned blood, which contains 3*7 nitrogenousmanures may fresh,and from five to fifteen per cent, per cent, nitrogenwhen in the state of dried blood/ as blood is dried usuallywith contains the addition of gypsum and sulphuricacid. Blood as twenty-three per cent, of dry matter, i.e.,almost as much and flesh,which contains twenty -five per cent, of dry matter four per cent, of nitrogen.Flesh after boiling and dryingcontains manures. nitrogenous
common
' '
"
'
12 per cent, of water, 9 to 9| per cent, of phosphates. Boiling is done to
nitrogenand
of
get rid
4
per cent,
Skins,
the fat.
of
their natural state 4 to 8 and in the dry condition about 15 percent. per cent, of nitrogen Woollen rags and refuse called shoddy also a good manure are
hair, horn, and
featherscontain
in
*
'
containing5 cent,
to 6 to 10J per of nitrogenequivalent and jute refuse are, however, almost as Leather though it contains as much 5| to
9 per cent,
to
of ammonia.
useless
as
Cotton
manure.
6 per 'cent,of
is also nitrogen
useless
tanningrenders the nitrogen of tallow-makingfactories,rum
as
as
and silk factories, are fish,frogs, snails,"c., are
in
largequantities.When
the process of Refuses from glue as
value. and spiritfactories,indigo,
no
and
sugar
manure,
a
also valuable
valuable
as
manures.
manure
dry, they contain
All
when
animals, available
5 to 7 per cent,
of
phosphoricacid. Refuse of per fishes,"c., contain about 5 per cent, of nitrogenand 5 to 30 per cent, of phosphates, and is called fish-guano."Soot is topdressed as an insecticidal manure cereals. Its manurial on chiefly value depends on the proportionof ammonia it contains,which nitrogenand
12
to
18
of
cent,
"
varies from 1 to 4 per cent., the average being about 2 per cent. Soot consists mainly of finely divided carbon with from 16 to 40 per cent, of mineral matters. Guano used is another nitrogenousmanure which was largely in use
England and America, of, as the supplyhas
at the rate
of 2 to 3 cwts.
but which now
per
we
are
not
likelyever
to make
entirelyfailed. It is applied and (=50 to 60 Ibs. of ammonia
almost acre
phosphoric acid).Two classesof guanos are distinguished. Of these,the nitrogenous obtained from the dry regionsof guanos contain much 12 as Peru, as per cent, of nitrogenand 12 per cent, 100 Ibs. of
of
acid,and the phosphatic phosphoric guano *9 per cent, of nitrogen, acid,and 3 to 4 of potash. Being very phosphoric variable in compositionit is usuallypurchasedon analysis. Bird's moisture (about25 per cent.) more dung and bat's dung containing But dried,they are of equal less valuable. are, weightfor weight, 32-5 per cent, of
value to guano
(1J to
and 6 to 30 per cent, ammonia than birds fish yield richer manure
10 per cent,
phosphates).Birds livingon livingon grains,"c. While on this subjectof nitrogenous manures, more
revert
to the
questionof utilization of sewage
we
and
may
once
study the
424
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
been devised for
that have
methods
OF
making town-sewage
sive inoffen-
We have already for use as manure. and less objectionable the use of dry earth,powderedcharcoal and trenching recommended of lime and the employment of the Meagher addition with the in system. Green vitriol (FeSO,, 7 H,0), alum and lime are inoffensive. In the human excreta in Europe for rendering use of urine, calcium and case magnesium phosphates are used. and filtrationin India to purify by precipitation t
Attempts
sewage
be said to have passed the experimental stage. that of deodorising Another cultivating process appliedis, from sunlight bacteria in tanks protected throughwhich the sewage is covered In of the is made to run. going out passage which to be without odour, with kankar, the filtrateis perceived strewn for This, the septic to and fit application gardensas manure.
cannot
in India. system, has been adopted largely
tank
40 to 60 tons
absolutelywasted These
estimated that for every head of population This is not of sewage is formed per annum. nourished by it. the fish and sea- weeds are crements exconsist mainly of water, solid and liquid
Englandit has
In
as
40 to 60 tons
been
forming only a small quantity contains only about The
conclusion
proportionof 10
drawn
as
ammonia.
in
sewage-farmsin England is, that by
sewage
per
acre
30 tons
of grass
may
This
nitrogen calculated
Ibs. of from
the sewage.
experimentsconducted
of 5,000 tons of and the value be expected, the
use
Id. per ton. Leguminous with manured a sewage water. pasture plantsare killed out Weight for weight unsewaged grass is better fodder than sewage the se waged grass which grass, but for equalweightsof dry matter contains more nitrogenhas a better nutritive value. Milk increases with sewagedgrass, but cows in quantity but is reduced in quality
of sewage
has been
calculated at
%d.to
in
oil-cake every day sewaged grass, if they are given some From of and give good quantities rich milk. thrive beautifully
kept on
to 1 judiciously 5,000 tons of sewage applied
acre,
about 75 maunds
of green grass tons be expected per annum, as of milk may each cow for one would keep three cows being allowed year, of oil-cake per day and the 30 seers of green grass and one seer (ifa select class is kept) may be taken at average yieldper cow The rent of the land 5 seers per day for 200 days per annum. being calculated at Rs. 10 and the value of the oil-cake (3 srs. with sewage at the cost of irrigation X 365 days)at Rs. 60, and Rs. 144 (2 men employedfor pumping out the sewage with a don the total the same and also tendingthe cattle), and distributing of of 75 maunds expense may be put down at Rs. 214. The value calculation This to Rs. 250. milk at 12 srs. to the rupee comes of sewage and ton of value small idea the per givessome practical 30
would of utilising it in placeswhere a largecapital the difficulty milk does not where make of be required to use sewage, or command a ready sale,or where land Js dear. But it also shows be made to yield in favourable that localitiesgrass farms can
PHOSPHATIC
425
MANURES.
of sewage, and the Government grass farm at Allahabad is a case in point. Cabbages,mangolds and strawberries have been also grown with sewage. Lightsoil,restingon sandy or gravelly successfully subsoil is the best for sewage Sewage water should irrigation. the
large profits by
use
to be sprayedor sprinkled a over crop, but alwaysapplied be used It should furrows. not the land put up in ridges, along at the last stage of the growth of a crop.
never
LXXXV1I.
CHAPTER PHOSPHATIC
MANURES.
minerals ; Trichinopolynodules ; Bones bones ; Animal ; Boiled charcoal ; Slag ; Christmas Island phosphate; Tests for phosphates; Available phosphates; Grinding of bones without mill ; Superphosphateits manufacture valued ; Why Composition of superphosphates; How ; tion manufacture of superphosphate of no great importancefor India ; Estimaof monocalcium and dicalcium phosphates; Dr. Dyer's method.]
[Phosphatic
"
Mineral
rocks in soil and Phosphates.Phosphates occur of tri-calcium phosphate,mixed with various "
chieflyin the form impurities.If
it is mixed
fluoride it is termed mineral
was
bagh,
and
"
made
and apatite, some
years
the mineral
uncrushed
or
combined
or
Rs.
was
in
3
a
ago
very in the
with
find interesting
Koderma
the market
put
on
the
crushed
chloride
calcium
or
this forest,Hazari-
at Rs.
condition.
of
2 per maund It contained
of tri-calcium
phosphate. Tri-calcium phosphate more mixed carbonate and silicates of with calcium frequentlyoccurs rock phosphate. iron and aluminium, and in this form it is termed 61 per. cent
Large depositsof
rock
phosphate do
not
appear
to
occur
in
India,
found near are thoughconsiderable quantities Trichinopoly.These are, however, of low grade,and are littleuse for manurial purposes. The Christmas Island phosphate is the richest found near India, 80 and 85 per cent, of tri-calcium it does, between has It been phosphate. suggestedmany times that this should be imported and used in India, but no action has been taken in the matter.
as containing,
"
Bones, bone-dust, bone-shavingsand ivory-shavings are rich in
contain
phosphates.They very of phosphateschiefly tri-calcium as the form
4| per
per
of
cent,
of
cent,
lightof
from
45
to
55
per
also cent,
phosphate^and partlyalso in also 3| to magnesium phosphate. Bones containing of nitrogen, 3 per cent, of calcium carbonate, and 4 other ash (including be regardedin the silica), may
generalmanure. (whole or dust) are richer in phosphates(45 to alkaline per cent.),calcium carbonate (3 to 9 per cent.),and a
Boiled bones
60
salts including silica(4"to 13 per cent.)than fresh bones, but they bone-meal are poorer in nitrogen(1| to 3 per cent.)..Steamed is used for the manufacture of bone-superphosphate.
426
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
Animal
charcoal is stillricher in phosphates(64to 87 per cent.) Bone-ash contains as much but poorer in the other substances. and 4 to 6 per cent, of calcium 77 to 88 per cent, of phosphates as carbonate, but it contains no nitrogen. The basic slag producedin the manufacture of steel by the is of phosphatic basic Bessemer another important source process of as much 78 sometimes as containingthe equivalent per cent, of tri-calcium phosphate. The detection of phosphoricacid in rocks and minerals is of be done by finelypulverising considerable importance. It can it in nitric acidy a tolerably largesample of the substance,digesting off the solution and treating it with ammonium molybdate. filtering will follow,and If phosphoric acid be present,a yellowprecipitate manure,
the precipitation which usuallytakes accelerated by frequentstirring with When
substance
a
phosphoricacid,its the flame
contains
presence
a
glassrod. than
more
three
be detected
may
be
place very slowly,may
in
per dark
a
of
cent,
by
room
little of the mineral, or substance to be tested^ is powdered and made Then into a stiff paste with water. a heated loop of platinum wire is to be dipped into this paste and returned to the flame of the spiritlamp (or blow-pipe). If phosphates are present,a characteristic dull green flame will be given A
test.
in a dark room cannot reaction is obtained if the mineral hydrochloricacid.
be mistaken.
out, which
Export of
importance
as
Bones.
"
has been
more
certain
previouslytreated
with
of very great soils in Indian are phosphates
Phosphatic
though the available
A
manures
are
and though there is no immediate probably not deficient, lity possibiof phosphates,yet the of Indian soils gettingbarren for want soils is relatively small of phosphates in Indian total amount so and the denudation of phosphates by the export of bones, grains is so and oil-seeds, that the question of supplying persistent,
phosphatesto
soils
by
of fertilizersmust
way
serious importance. the most The Bones for fruit trees. "
most
sooner
or
later assume
readilyavailable
source
of
far as phosphatesare concerned, is bone. The be is should effect of bones used in large but they applied pieces slow, in this state, when fruit trees are planted. It is curious that the of bones in each of puttinga number Nepalesehave the custom pitmade for plantingfruit trees and they say this makes the fruit soil fertilizationso
sweeter
for all time.
It is
a
rightnotion, and
if this custom
of
bones under fruit trees had been widely followed, have lain would bones not neglectedand been carried away from of manure India to other countries for purposes to anythinglike the present extent. Of the phosphatesin bones, two per cent, occurs as magnesium phosphate. Bones are phosphateand the remainder as calcium steamed or boiled for making glue and gelatine. The greater part and of the organic matter in this process. Steamed is removed
stowingaway
428
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
go to form of lime. superphosphate
phosphatespowdered and treated with sulphuricacid the The
known
manure same
as
'
'
superphosphateor be
process may of all kinds into
converting
for
used
phates phos-
superphosphate. of superphosphateare million tons
More
than half a annually in England alone for manurial purposes. that takes place be expressed by the formula may
S04~CaH4P1108+ 2CaS04. the calcium carbonate like the presence of used. The
mineral
The
present. much
The
reaction
Ca^Pa08+2H9 decomposes
sulphuric acid
first
Manufacturers
therefore
calcium
carbonate
made
do
not
minerals
in the
of superphosphate used in the manufacture of commercial kind the is which acid,' cheapest of 69 per cent, about contains sulphuric acid. Chamber acid
is
'
sulphuricacid
chamber
H,SOA.
100 parts of pure acid to act on
tri-calcium
of chamber
requireas much 262
parts
it,while
phosphate require91 parts parts of
100
calcium
carbonate
140 parts ; 100 parts of oxide of iron 100 require as much parts of alumina as
and
require as
405
acid. The freer therefore the mineral is from parts of chamber calcium carbonate, oxide of iron and alumina the better it is.
followingway : The steamed bones or mineral raw phosphates are finely powdered with a powerful mill. This powder is placed in a closed vessel or chamber which is called a mixer, the necessary quantityof sulphuric acid being dripped into the chamber by slow degrees from a tank above it. The gases given off pass out througha long tube where As some of the gases are they graduallycondense. dangerous to health,this condensingof the gases or vapours passingout is very The dioxide, but necessary. given off is chieflycarbon gas also hydrofluoricacid, silicon fluoride and iodine vapour are given off. As the acid is graduallylet into the powdered mineral, a strong shaft provided with rakes keeps the powder continually agitated. When the proportionalquantity of acid has been used and the of the chamber up mixing completed, the contents (which is usuallyJ a ton to 1 ton) is allowed to fall into a brick
Superphosphateis manufactured in
chamber
known
the
"
the 'den,' which, when full,is there until its temperature is reduced, the rise of temperature being due to the mixing of* the phosphates with the acid. The contents of the den afterwards dug out and passed are
or
stone-ware
closed.
The
mass
allowed
to
'
'
as
remain
'
which througha disintegrator, powdery condition,in which state superphosphatein this country '
renders the it is sold. The is beyond the
if sulphuricacid has to agriculture, But a sulphuric acid manufactory can
manure
into
a
questionof using pale of practical be purchased from abroad. make superphosphate profitably
be created, in any as well,if a market for this manure can the of part country. Superphosphatemanufacturinghas been in one of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, actuallycommenced where phosphaticdepositsof great purity have been discovered.
PHOSPHATIC
MANURES.
sulphateof ammonia, Superphosphate, are manures alreadymanufactured by Calcutta ; and
429
and other concentrated Messrs. Waldie " Co. of
by Messrs. T. Stanes " Co., of Coimbatore. Superphosphateis usuallymixed with blood, soot and refuse, also
of all kinds, or with vegetableand animal matter nitrate of ammonia of soda or sulphate it into a generalmanure. to convert of superphosphate The composition varies very much according to the mineral used in its manufacture. Ordinarily superphosphate contains 25 to 28 per cent, of soluble phosphates, but it is possible to have a product with as much as 45 per cent, of soluble phosphates calculated as tri-calcium phosphate. The soluble phosphate of the manufacturer is,on the Englishsystem, always expressedin the terms of tri-calcium phosphatewhich has been rendered soluble. 20 per cent, of soluble phosphates 20 per cent, of tri-calcium mean which soluble made is actually15 per cent, of monocalcic phosphate phosphate(CaH4PaOe). Superphosphateis also sold at so much per unit," unit soluble phosphate" per ton. meaning 1 per cent, of The valued in insoluble phosphates are not purchasing mineral but in purchasing bone superphosphateafter analysis, phosphate superthe insoluble phosphatesare also valued. The following table gives the percentage compositionsof the tfc
"
principalvarieties
of
superphosphate: "
soluble phosphatescost 3s. per unit (i.e., for 1 per cent, 4 0 of ton of soluble cent, containing per superphosphate per ton), would be valued phosphatemade soluble) phosphate (tri-calcium When
a
at 40 X 3s.
"
"6.
kept for a longtime is reduced in its solubility Superphosphate of the total phosphates.This five in water by per cent, or more in superphosphates reduction takes placechiefly alumina containing The aluminic ferric and of iron. oxide and phosphatesand the
430
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
formed are insoluble in water. Dicalciuin phosphates is x not phosphate(CatPf08 CaH4P208 2CaJIH4P900) altogether In the precipitated insoluble in water. phosphatesof gluemanufactures, the dicalcium w orks, phosphatesoccur as gelatine phate. phosin some This form of phosphateoccurs also. It guanos is more soluble in water chargedwith carbon dioxide and in saline solutions. Dicalcium phosphatetherefore is found to be of equal manurial value with monocalcium phosphatesin certain soils. In sandy soils and soils containinglittlelime, dicalcium phosphate also reduced or retrograde phosphate)givesa better (called and even tri-calcium phosphate result than monocalcium phosphate, tri-calcium
"
'
'
in
a
finelydivided
state
*
'
is sometimes
found to
in such soilsthan the soluble monocalcium
or
phosphate. The
phosphatecomes (but not phosphateis immediatelyprecipitated
for this the
soluble
is,that when
give a better
in soils deficient in
lime)in
in contact
a
in
result reason
with soil,
sandy
gelatinous form, in which
state
soils it is
though extremely soluble,,
not easilywashed out, and it gets and quickly. It gets gradually diffused throughthe soil very easily reduced and converted into dicalcium phosphate, afterwards into tri-calcium phosphateand eventually into phosphatesof iron and But in sandy soils and those containing aluminum. little lime, does take not and at the gelatinous soluble place once, precipitation phosphatesare apt to get washed away before completeprecipitation takes place. In such soils therefore it is best to apply phosphatesin a less soluble form. Soils poor in lime treated with
superphosphatemay get too acid, and lose in absorptive power of superphosphate and capacityfor nitrification. Five maunds for root-crops and two is the best quantityto use to per acre for cereals. A crop of 150 maunds three maunds of potatoes takes up only about 10 Ibs. of phosphoricacid while 5 maunds of bone-dust adds about 90 Ibs. of phosphoric acid to the soil. manures. hasten the of phosphatic Phosphaticmanures Effect developmentof young plants,make them so healthythat they resistthe attack of insect pestswhich thrive better on weaklyplants. and fruiting They also hasten maturity,increase the flowering and assist in the elaboration of sugar and tendencies of plants, "
starch. Available
phosphates.According to
Dr. Dyer of London, there should be at least 300 to 400 Ibs. of available phosphoric acid within of nine -01 per cent, of phosa depth inches,i.e., phoric, per acre acid soluble in a 1 per cent, solution of citricacid. Most than this. Total phosphoricacid Indian soils have more may be determined by the use of strong hydrochloric acid which dissolves the whole of lime and phosphoricacid,though only a portion 700 or 800 of the potash, A soil containing Ibs. of available phosphoricacid per acre within the first nine inches would "
3,000 Ibs. of total phosphoricacid. Of the 700 Ibs. of available phosphoric "acid a crop of 1,000 Ibs. of
probablyshow wheat
or
2,700
rice per
acre
to
removes
from the soilonly 7 Ibs.of
phosphoric
POTASH
431
MANURES.
The straw in each case another 3 Ibs. removes of phosphoricacid which is returned to the soil in one form or another. In the case of paddy 3 Ibs. per acre go to the husk, 4 Ibs. and 3 Ibs. to the straw, the total quantitybeingthe same to the rice, of wheat, though the outgoings, if the husk and in the case as less in the case the straw are returned to the soil are of paddy.
acid in either
case.
and irrigation is a gain of phosphoricacid by silt deposition the than where deal and is it more siltno only good outgoings takes place that the questionof recoupment depositor irrigation considered. soils need be of phosphoric acid in Indian So have given no decisive results in some far, phosphaticmanures farms of and should be of manures the value India, experimental from the proportionof nitrogen judged principally they contain. used for irrigation much is Well-water richer both in purposes water phosphoricacid and nitrogenthan rain or canal-water. Rainacid and only four parts of nitrogen contains no phosphoric The
in two
million parts. Clear canal- water parts of nitrogen and ten parts of
ten
usuallycontains only phosphoricacid in ten parts of nitrogen and
million parts,and muddy canal-water,four twenty parts of phosphoricacid in ten million parts, while wellcontain one hundred and fiftyparts of nitrogen water and may of hundred in acid ten million one phosphoric parts parts.
CHAPTER
LXXXVIII.
POTASH
MANURES.
mica ; Zeolites ; Admixture of lime and felspar ; Test for potash ; Kainit ; Ashes ; Sugar-refuse ; to root-crops and Adaptabilityof potash manures pulses; Silt ; Irrigationof poorly fed cattle ; Ashes water ; Saltpetre should be specially ; Urine, Reclamation of saline soils ; Potash over in different sprinkled compost ; actions of potash ; Dr. of parts of plants; Physiological Dyer's method of available potash; Available nitrogen ; Percentagecomposition estimation substances of principal removed manures ; Manurial by different crops.]
orthoclase, and chiefly [Felspars, Other
potassic minerals
;
"
Mineral
potash. Potash
in
nature in felspars and into the compositionof every soil. The pink which is so common coloured orthoclase felspar in Indian granites, is is the richestin potash. In felspars, in a more contained potash and its solubility soluble form than in mica, is enhanced mixture by adwith lime. Zeolites also contain potash and beingmore
mica, which
"
occurs
enter
position) ordinaryfelspar(with which they resemble in comand fertilisers, are they are abundantly present good soils. Potassium some sulphate (KflS04), potassium chloride a nd kainit also occur in sylvine(KC1),potassium nitrate,
soluble than in or
nature.
In
Europe,potashmanures
kainit which
is obtained from
are
used
in chiefly
Prussia,where it occurs
the form as
a
of natural
432
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
The
compositionof kainit is represented salt often by the formula K,S04 MgS04, MgCla-6H,0. Common kainit in kainit as impurity. Ordinary contains 13 to 15 occurs 17 and kainit calcined of to 18 per cent. cent, potash per of made this. out Other sources Concentrated potashsalts are of the from water after are sea the manure mother-liquor potash depositat
Stassfurt.
salt,and vegetable ashes. common The commonest is ashes of potash manure potash. Organic distillationof obtained beet and extraction all kinds. by Liquors of sugar from beet or sugar-cane, are rich in potash. Crude gur
extraction of
"
nitrate and the refuse of sugar contains a great deal of potassium contain five to factories is therefore rich in potash. Wood-ashes seven per cent, of potash; straw-ashes less. Wool and hair are particularly rich in potash. Ashes obtained from alltender and green
parts of plantsare, as a rule,rich in potash,e.g., ashes of sun-flower stalks,of plantainand other tender leaves, of maize-stalks,of All such refuse, of tobacco leaves and midribs,"c. sugar-cane ashes
substances
should
be
stored carefully
in the
manure-pit. growth of leguminous root 61, kachu,potatoes, crops, e.g.,yams, crops, leafycrops, " c. finedark coloured Silt, e specially c abbages, groundnuts, gram, in available much that state an so no silt, brings potash potashneed be appliedto any land which is occasionallyrenomanure vated Potash
or
are
manures
helpfulto particularly
water with silt. Irrigation potash,as it contains about ten
also to
the
bringsa
certain amount
of
twenty parts of potash in
a
contains million parts. Rain-water, of no course, potash. nitrate and cattle urine are the best potash manures Potassium ordinarilyavailable. The urine of poorly-fedcattle is richer in potash than the urine of well-fed cattle, because the former feed contains a on largeproporprincipally grass and straw, which tion of potash than better food- materials. Compost. In making compost it is better to use ashes than lime and salt. The object of adding alkaline substance to the As its is hasten to decomposition. potash is in itself a manure valuable food-substance than lime or soda, ashes containing more some potashin addition to lime and soda are to be preferred. The make the nitrogenof the soil available for power of potash to well and also the application of potash manures is known, plants, "
Ashes also increase the is therefore of great indirect value. of the soil,and Lorain observed that the ground where capillarity had moister than the surroundingsoil. been burned was log-heaps of alkali is often outwardlyrecognizable Indeed excess by the of which is drain. difficult to character clay puddly Hilgard.says, * soils impregnatedwith alkaline carbonates may generallybe *
recognised by their extreme compactness and refractorinessunder and by the fact tjiat low spots in they are apt to form tillage, non-alkaline of surface the general kmd, i.e., placeswhere turbid '
clay water, dark with dissolved humus higherland appears dry."
will lie for weeks
'
after the
POTASH
433
MANURES.
The potashin the soil occurs in the form of hydrated chiefly of potash and alumina. double silicatesor hydrated double humates Had it not been for the double silicates, the potash in the soil would have been washed out and carried into the sea. It is because soda is less readilyretained than potash by these double silicates, that the sea water is charged chiefly with sodium chloride washed out from soils instead of potassium chloride. Sodium chloride is dissolved out from the soil and carried away to the sea by the water of percolation more freelythan any other salt. This fact makes it so easy to reclaim saline soilslike those of the Sunderbans. In of rocks,soda salts are most the decompositionand disintegration readilyparted with and washed away into the sea, potash being or less retained by the soil by absorptive action at the expense more the first to be washed of soda salts,which are In the away.
condition,for instance, a piece of basalt cent, of potash and 7| per cent, of soda, but
natural per after and
decompositionas
soil may
show
may the
contain same
1J
basalt
equalproportionsof potash
soda.
in fruits and seeds as in Potash does not accumulate so much which returned leaves the soil in one and to are straw form or In a well managed farm, therefore,whence another. and grain will not be found of much animals only are sold,potassicmanures But that certain crops, such as root-crops,especially use. beet, and tobacco benefited is are matter a by potash manure, potatoes the crops sold are of universal experience. It is only where of a soft kind, such
fodder
crops, beet, mangold, carrots, cabbages, turnips,onions, potatoes, tobacco,or where straw is systematically as
sold, that the need of potash manures time, and these are best appliedin the
becomes form
felt in
of ashes.
of course Sun-flower
bean stalks and maize and juar stalks beingparticularly be should but these not neglected potash, carefully heaps in their bulky state or converted into ashes, put in manure and the ashes appliedto land mixed up with dung and other vegetable manure as compost. Seventeen to twenty pounds of potash
stalks,pea and
rich in
can
be obtained
from
1,000 Ibs. of dry sun-flower, pea bean, juar
stalks. or in the extremities of plants,i.e., Potash accumulates more elsewhere. than leaves and 1,000 Ibs. of wood contains twigs, green and a half pounds of potash. only from half a pound to one rich in cereal straw, though potash, contains it chiefly Ordinary in the form of silicate of potashwhich is not readily soluble in The ashes of ordinarycereal straws are therefore not such water. ashes of maize stalks, sun-flower stalks as good potash manures Tobacco of divested leaves and straws. stems leguminouscrop desiccated stalks contain are extremely rich in potash. The about 5 per cent, of potash,0'7 per cent, of phosphoricacid and small quantityis in the 3*5 per cent, of nitrogen,of which a form of nitrate. The refuse tobacco stalks and midribs are therefore be looked upon as a special a high class fertilizerand potash may maize
M, HA
28
434
HANDBOOK
and also
manure
Ashes
generalmanure. potashmanure.
a
as
AGRICULTURE.
OF
from
cotton
seed
husk are a They contain 18 to 30 also 5 to 10 per cent, per cent, of potashin a very soluble condition, acid of which 1J to 2 per cent, is soluble in water. of phosphoric Lime-kiln ashes contain only 2 per cent, of potashand less than 1 per cent, of phosphoricacid. Brick-kiln ashea contain only 1| firstclass
also
per cent, of not
These and ordinarywood-ashes are therefore valuable as ashes derived from burningtwigs, leaves soft parts of plants, In applying or from cattle-dung.
potash.
nearly
so
and green or ashes as manure
to crops, this very
importantdifference must be The greater alkalinity is desirable,not from a borne in mind. of but from the linity fact that it is the alkamanurial mere point view, enables the ashes to rot weeds and to ferment peat. be noted that the Stassfurt salts of potash,so largely It should inferior to ordinary woodused in Europe as potashmanure, are ashes for manurial purposes, and there is littleoccasion for us in India to look for kainit,and other Stassfurt salts. The explanation that the and chloride of be of furt Stassto seems potash sulphate devoid of the alkaline qualityof carbonate of potash are which is the effective agent in ashes obtained from wood, branches, which
But
merely as a potash manure and beet, nitrate of potash is leaves, "c.
manure
potashis the best America, and
nitrogenousand
priceat which
should
we as
a
to now
all the
potashmanure,
or use.
nitrate plant-food, For
of
potatoes, tobacco,
largelyused in Europe and it both as a use more readily for the as it is a cheap manure
be had in India. action of potash. Potash portant plays certain very imphysiological be in and these may mentioned vegetable physiology parts here : of enabling starch to (1) It has been found to be a means from one reason move* part of the plant to another. This is one found are adapted for yams, 61, particularly why potashmanures other and which valued for their starch. are root-crops potatoes it can
"
"
helpsthe
freer
circulation of starch from leaves to roots. to fruit formation, especially are (2) Potash manures helpful formation of fruits containing sour viz.,fruits containing juices, The
potash manure
malic,tartaric or oxalic acid. -citric,
In most cases these acids are combined with potash. Jails in Bengal are requiredto At lime trees. hundreds of Berhampore jailthere were grow lime trees that had never borne fruits, several althoughthey were The advised old. ashes and bones. to As w as jailor apply years the there was of the of the t o on objection jailor part using bones,
found
ashes and
mustard-cake were The result was
after applied,
the plantswere dug luxuriant of fruit a at growth up the next season. Phosphateshave the power of intensifying tendencies of plants. Hence the advice floweringand fruiting of applyingbones also. A mango faee in Malda that had never all round.
fruited
was
dug
all round
and
bones
put into the ditch and the
436
HANDBOOK
OP
AGBICULTUEE.
The percentage of nitrogen(N), and and potash(KaO)in different manures table : following
phosphoricacid (Pa04) be judged from the can
"
Sulphate
(1) Ammonium
(2) Sodium
Nitrate J
(3) Potassium
(Crude) (Pure) (4) Street Sweepings .
.
'
(5) Fresh
Cattle
(ordinary tors')
c
.
.
(6) Well-fed oattk ._-p.(7) Rotten " partlydried
farmyard manure (8) Cattle urine (9) Horse dung do. (10) Do. and hand
wi
litter,
dry
(11) Horse urine (12) Poudrette (Poona) (13) Poudrette (Cawnpur) (14) Sheep dung (15) Sheep urine (16) Fish manure (17) Droppings of domestic fowls
.
.
(18) Bones (19) Dissolved bones .
.
(20) Castor-cake
(Bengal) (21) Til cake
..
(23) Safflowercake cake
(24) Earthnut
(25) Cocoanut cake (26) Poppy cake (27) Decorticated cake
(28) Rape cake (29) Linseed cake
(30) Kankar (31) Silkworm
.
.
droppings dry chrysa (32) Powdered lids (Filature leaves (33) Bamboo (34) Paddy straw (35) Wheat straw (26) Barleystraw (37) Maize straw (38) Fresh grass .
"
(39) Nil aiti (Indigc (Ohuntia) (40) Dung cake (41) Dry and rotten tank "
weeds
The
removed below.
1'64
..
amounts
from
one
of acre
"42
"
1'77 "
Phosphoricacid, Nitrogen and Potash by various crops (bumpercrops)are shown 4
CALCAREOUS
CHAPTER
LXXXIX.
CALCAREOUS Mineral
sources
;
Occurrence
437
MANURES.
MANURES.
in India ; Effects of this
manure
; Dangers
of using it ;
Application; Marling ; Silicate of Calcium ; Lime in farmyard manure lime charged with carbon dioxide ; Unslaked Solubilitygreater in water Magnesia waters.]
and
soda
;
Occurrence
of
manurial
constituents
in
; ;
irrigation
kankar Marble, chalk, dolomite and (or minerals lime. Limestone the commonest containing ghuting)are rocks are rarelypure calcium carbonate (CaC03). They usually have some magnesium carbonate (MgC03),and also clay,silica, with them. When stone iron and organicsubstances,combined a limecontains more than twenty-threeper cent, of magnesium When it contains fossil remains carbonate it is called dolomite. Mineral
Sources.
"
of animals, it has a certain proportion of calcium phosphate with it. Tt occasionally in a pure crystalline combined occurs state, as calcite or calcspar.As stalactite and stalagmiteit is found depositedby springs.Marble and chalk are also Limestones contain fossils more nearly pure calcium carbonate. often than dolomites, and and they effervesce more found all in Limestones are limestones
and
marbles
they are more easily scratched, readily with hydrochloricacid. formations,as crystalline geological
in
old
formations,
as
chalk
in the
438
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
kankar limestone middle age of the geological or as era, and often assonodules in alluvial regions. Limestone rocks are ciated with gypsum, the former undergoinga local conversion in contact with decomposingiron pyrites(FeSa). Where gypsum rock-salt may Marble, dolomite
occurs,
also occur. and kankar
in almost all the districts occur of the Madras Presidency in Jaintia hillsin Assam Khasia and the ; ; in the Sambalpur, Raipur, Jubbulpore,Nagpur and Wardha in the Bombay districtsof the Central Provinces ; in Kathiawar Presidency; and in Baroda, Hyderabad, Mysore, and Burma. Kathiawar marble is used even in Calcutta for building purposes. The best limestones are found in the north of Jubbulporeand ih the Vindhyan range. The Makrana marble quarriesof Rajputana are
famous.
very
the Sonthal Parganas is about 7,000 tons per annum ; in Monghyr,about 28,000 tons ; in Mozufferalso about tons. Cuttack, Balasore and Manbhum 13,000 pore, produce some. Singhbhum, Ranchi and a few other western there districts also contain limestone rocks. In Mozufiferpore kankar quarriesalso,the annual outturn of which is about are some mated In Monghyr the annual outturn of kankar is esti13,000 tons. The
production of marble
at
lime
28,000
tons
is also
Burdwan, Lime
and
in
in Manbhum
at
40,000
tons.
Kankar
Cuttack, Balasore, Birbhum,
produced Midnapur and Murshidabad. is not a as mere plant-food largelyin
of much as consequence, sands be used up by thoulime than can every soil contains far more of crops. As plant-food, shells and limestones rich in animal the remains and containing calcium phosphate and nitrogen are best manures In the district of Pertabgarhin Oudh, the to use.
cultivators
As plant-food kankar use as manure. an argillaceous this is a better substance to use than pure lime. If a soil to the depth of 1 ft. weighs 3,250,000 Ibs. per acre and if it contains only 1 pet cent, of lime, it will have as much as 3,250 Ibs. of this constituent. But a crop of 1,200 Ibs. of wheat and 2,000 Ibs, of straw contains only 6 or 7 Ibs. of lime, arid of
Ibs. of peas and 1,200 Ibs. of pea straw only 28 and 29 Ibs. The to the soil,if proreturned respectively. farmyard manure perly 2 per cent, of lime, i.e., as rotten, may contain as much if only one ton of rotten manure it would add is appliedper acre 40 Ibs. of lime to the soil,which is more than sufficient for the o f meal contains Ibs. of bone 100 requirements one singlecrop. refuse of soda about 27 Ibs. of lime,and 100 Ibs. of crude gypsum sufficient for water much 30 factories,as as Ibs., quantities supplyinglime to almost any crop. Action of lime. It is not, however, by way of direct supply of food to plantsthat limingproves of benefit to the soil. Liming alters the texture of the soil either for good or for evil. In some soils it acts as a mortar if slaked and renders jt hard, especially condition. is soil hard smooth in lime appliedas a thick, paste on 600
"
"
CALCAREOUS
439
MANURES.
In other soils,e.g., in peat, constant limingmay interfere with action by making the soiltoo open. however, capillary Ordinarily, better capillary and a a soil rich in lime maintains action, liming Lime improves the texture of soils by making them more porous. action which may be called floccuexerts another kind of physical
lation,finer particles beingconverted into coarser ones. Schlcesing discovered that two parts of lime in the form of chloride,nitrate or sulphateof calcium, immediatelycaused flocculation in 10,000 parts of a turbid liquorthat contained a good deal of clay,that .
when the proportion reduced to was was perceptible that half but this the effect had of lime on 10,000, no quantity of six weeks. Another experi* liquorin questioneven in the course be exerted tried to the of ment out influence nature the bring may soils. Let a quantityof toughclaysoilbe worked by lime on plastic with water and let a portionbe then dried,the into a plastic mass of stony hardness. result will be a mass To another portionof
flocculation 1 in
the paste add
half per cent,
will plasticity
be obvious
of caustic lime and
a
diminution
of On
is wet. at once when the mass even will fallinto crumb's at a mere touch. By liming, mellower, and of better tilth. This clay soils are made warmer, effect lasts for years and is never lost. lightening entirely Another effect of lime is to set free for the use of crops, potash, ammonia and magnesia from hydrateddouble silicates. Experiments that gypsum have shown does this better than lime. Lime in a caustic condition has a highlybeneficial effect on soils rich in humus) and on compost peaty and boggy soils (i.e.,
dryingthis
heaps.
mass
It hastens into
substances
putrefactiveprocesses
vegetable
reduces
'mould.'
green-manuringis done,
When
and
limingis advisable
to hasten
say,
with dhaincha
decay before the
next
in
crop,
August, potatoes
sugar-cane, is sown. in the form of carbonate promotes the formation of Lime nitrates in the soil. Slaked and hot lime destroyinsects,and other vermin and also funguspests. Limingof seed grainfor preventing is practised rust and smut by European and American farmers. When any crop shows any fungoiddisease lime should be scattered or
over
it.
sandy soilsare also benefited by limingifit is done before of farmyard manure, inasmuch it cements their as application togetheras mortar, making them stiffer and charging particles them with hydrous silicates and thus adding to their absorptive Poor
the
power.
An
its power
admixture
to absorb
of carbonate of lime with soil increases and fix potash, soda, ammonia, etc.,from their
solutions. the
land by neutralizing sour any of free humic acid. Liming reduces the proportionof rushes and sedgesand en* courages the growth of good grasses and leguminousweeds in pasture lands.
Liming
excess
corrects
acidityof
440
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
soils limingshould not be done without very of plant-food, fact,lime sets free such an amount greatcare. that it givesan immediate good return at the expense of the There is a proverb which says, of the soil. permanent fertility But
on
poor
In
beggarsthe son." It is better to when it is intended to "use ashes, bone-dust, apatiteor gypsum lime soil. the to supply Seeds and young plantsshould not be broughtin close contact Lime
enriches the father but
be with lime, as the caustic action burns up seedlings.Grass can with lime water. actually killed by wateringit has been The action of lime in decomposingorthoclase felspar in mentioned connection with potash manures. Soils already stone fragmentsof felspathic containing of by the application lime.
therefore
benefited
are
Liming of the soil makes the crop earlier. Phosphateshave effect of hasteningmaturityof crops. similar a One or two tons per acre in every seven once years is the best has method of applyinglime on lands suitable for liming. Lime into soil; hence the necessity of repeatto sink gradually a tendency ing reous the application from time to time. Generallyspeaking,calcafertile specially for pulse crops. regionsare particularly in lime is rich fertilefor most Clay-soil crops. Soils are sometimes marled,i.e., given a dose of claycontaining of marl to The application 80 per cent, of lime. 5 to 50 or even sandy soils alters their texture for good. But marl must be found the spot ifit is to be economically 70.000 or 80,000 Ibs. on applied. per
acre
every
10
or
12
years
is the rate
which
at
marl
is
applied. the important exists in most soilsin sufficientproportion, The presence of in the form of calcium carbonate. part occurring of over be calcium carbonate in proportions one per cent, can detected by the addition *of any dilute acid which results in Lime
yard effervescence. Calcium silicate is much insoluble. Farmmore in the soluble forms of contains calcium chiefly manure in minute also occurs a nd but calcium silicate carbonate, sulphate Lime, slaked lime and gypsum are proportions. readilysoluble also soluble in water ; but ghuting and limestones (CaC03) are in water chargedwith carbon dioxide. Rain water contains no well-water and muddy canal or tank water but lime, usually less. contains much and clear canal and tank water, somewhat Unslaked lime (CaO) hastens the decompositionof organic
spores of fungiand decomposes double free the bases, potash,etc. In poor soils,the silicates, setting free of bases is not desirable, and, on the whole, slaked lime setting
matter, kills'grubs and
to hot lime,even when it is used preferred fungicide.Lime renders clays lighterand
is to be
and The
as
an
insecticide
sands less dry. of lime soil in is also useful for phoric storingup phospresence acid in seeds where it occurs as calcitfm or other phosphates. oxalic acid in It also neutralizes acids generally and precipitates
GYPSUM
AND
441
SALT.
particularas oxalate of lime,which exercises useful functions in leaves and
stems.
contains about four parts of nitrogenin every ten million parts,but no other manurial constituent of importance. "lear canal water contains in ten million partsabout two parts of 10 parts of phosphoric nitrogen, acid,100 parts of potash,900 parts of lime, 700 of soda ; while in a of and 200
Rain
water
parts
muddy
the
state
magnesia proportionsin
parts
ten
million parts
mightbe above,
follows
as
"
Nitrogen Phosphoricacid
4
parts.
20 parts. 200 parts.
Potash Lime
1,100 parts.
Magnesia
1,000 parts.
Soda
220
parts.
Well-water which is known contains
parts. is
to vegetation, to be helpful usually million deal of 10 in about good lime, i.e., 1,000 parts The result of an actual analysisof a sample of well-water a
given
below
: "
Nitrogen
150
Phosphoricacid
100
Potash Lime
parts in 10 million parts.
100
1,000 1,000 3,000
Magnesia Soda
Well and
harmful to vegetation, water Canal a larger rarely contains such excess, but well-water often does. Hence the belief of some and the well-waters for irrigation unsuitability of current Bengal cultivators of the generalunsuitability among canal water
contain
for
well-water
which
are
known
to be
magnesiaand soda.
of
excess
irrigation.
CHAPTER GYPSUM
AND
XC. SALT.
soil ; Other effects of gypsum Effect of gypsum usar on ; benefited by gypsum ; Sources of salt ; Crops Application; Crops particularly tions particularlybenefited by salt ; Disintegratingeffect of lime and salt ; Objecwheat to salt as manure rust, etc. ; Mechanical ; Gerraicidal effect on within fiftymiles of the sea-coast ; Caution action ; Applicationunnecessary
{Occurrence
of gypsum
against free
of
lime
and
salt.]
in the natural state in the following localities: and Nellore in in the latter Madras Trichinopoly, Chingleput ;
Gypsum
-at
use
;
occurs
of Selenite placesas crystals-
; in Cutch and the Kirtha range in Bombay ; near Nagore the Jodhpur State in Rajpu tana ; at Bijawarand Baraundha in Central India ; at Bannu and Kohat and the Salt Range in the Punjab ; and in Kumaun and Garhwal in the United Provinces. Burnt gypsum is used as a cement. It two
of Sind in
is
a
valuable
manure
for leguminousplants, chiefly though it
is
442
HANDBOOK
OF
AGBIOULTURE.
The Salt Range in the Punjab is overlaid by a of ing deposit gypsum fifteento twenty feet thick,enough for supplythe needs of the whole world. The refuse from aerated water It should be used mixed up manufactories is artificialgypsum. Calcined of acid. with lime as it is liable to contain an excess and models for of pariswhich is used is plaster making gypsum not used in India.
casts.
Usar soil is very characteristic. If of water and the a considerable volume a be then poured over the water extract will a filter, muddy liquid come throughrapidly.This,however, is not the case with Usar extract of Usar soil takes several hours or even soil. An aqueous of gypsum days to pass through. The effect of small quantities Usar soil of mixture other salts,added to the muddy and some The
effect of gypsum good soil be mixed with
on
and the water, is the curdling togetherof the soil particles, sodium carbonate, The renderingof the soil more permeable. is also which is the most harmful substance presentin Usar soil, by sodium sulphate,which is less harmful. replaced Gypsum also exerts a powerfulaction in settingfree potash which has been absorbed and fixed by the earth, that is to say, is fixed double silicates in the earth. The lime of the gypsum
and
by
in the soil,while solution.
a
quantityof potash corresponding
goes into
manner in the same Gypsum sets free magnesia and ammonia as potash,for the use of the crop. Gypsum scattered on moist placesin cow-houses and stables does excellent service by checkingthe fermentation of urine and nium of the odours which arise from it. The ammoby absorbingsome is volatile nonof more a addition the gypsum sulphateproducedby
carbonate which is evolved substance than the ammonium urine. The reaction is expressed from putrefying by the following formula : (NH4)aC03+ CaS04-CaC03 "
+
(NH4)2S04.
known to the Greeks and of gypsum was as a manure used in Europe and America for manuring It is largely Romans. potatoes and clover. It is very desirable to extend the use of this for claysoils. It benefits in India especially substance for manure arahar, gram and other pulse crops, tobacco, rhea and potatoes. in three or four years on but once It should not be used annually, The
use
It is a soil at the rate of five to ten maunds per acre. than lime,the sulphur of calcium sulphate useful manure more being also 'an essential constituent of plant-food. salt in India are, of common Salt. The chief native sources (1)the salt lakes and pitsof Rajputana; (2)the salt mines of the Salt Range of the Punjab, and (3) the sea and the estuaries. the from The evaporationsalt of Rajputana is derived Sambhar Lake, the Didwana Lake and the Pachbadra Pits. The
the
same
"
Lake is the most importantof these three. It is situated Sambhar the borders of the Jaipurand Jodhpur States. It is a shallow on
444
HANDBOOK
second
and
from
OP
AGRICULTURE.
the second
into the pans, beinggraduallyconcentrated The it flows from one basin to another. as from water the sea is admitted througha sluice and is thus exposed to evaporation tillit forms brine. With this brine the pans are charged to a depth of an inch and a half,and within a few hours, in favourable shallow pans, a layer of crystalsis on weather, especially
formed, generallyabout one-quarter salt is then racked re-charged. Salt
of
The inch in thickness. dry and the pans are the town of Madras
an
ridgesand left to manufactured near
to
on
is
also.
The
total
productionof
salt in India is about million one Less than half this quantityis imported chiefly tons per annum. from Great Britain, Germany and Arabia. As an article of food for man and beast, the value of salt is As a manure, well known. at the rate of 2 cwts. per acre, salt has been found useful for the following plants: Cabbages,cauliflowers, "
beet, mangold, tomatoes, celery, horse-radish,onions, asparagus, and cocoanut, date-palm,cashew-nuts, radishes,arums, mangoes In reclaimed in the Sunderbans and lands bread-fruit tree. of sea-salt is too much elsewhere where the excess for the healthy be successfully those of mentioned just growth ordinarycrops, may
providedadequate provisionis made for grown from the field during the growth of the crops.
keepingout water Paddy seedlings
free front salt can be successfully highland comparatively lands and of salt. In containingan excess transplanted grown on grown
on
cereals,tobacco and soils,
benefited cotton are considerably is Salt should be when seed not by applied germinating, and seed the appliare as plants injured by cation. germinating young It may be ploughedin longbefore sowing or mixed with soil after the plantshave grown a bit. It should not be used as a top-dressing.The inferior kinds of salt are better for manurial chlorine is essential for plantlife, Neither sodium nor purposes. of soda is therefore of more value as and salt containingsulphate
certain
salt.
a
Impure
manure..
salt
often
contains
also
sodium
carbonate,
other substances which are direct inSodium chloride itself has however also useful as manure. an soil in lime. rich manurial action on the soil,especially on in the hydrous As gypsum replaces potash,magnesiaand ammonia
sodium
double
nitrate,potassiumnitrate and
also silicates, so
common
salt
replaceslime
first and
then
Wolff grew a quantityof manured which half of field was one heavily upon a On with common salt,while the other half was left unmanured. he the buckwheat that ashes the found of the straw, analysing portion of the crop which had received the salt contained less of common soda but more potash,than the other. An application salt to the land might thus exert a decided fertilizing action,by
magnesia,potashand phosphoricacid. buckwheat
lime and potash in the surface layersof the soil merelyreplacing The and sendingthem down to where the root^of the crop are. rocks soil of and and salt lime effect on particles disintegrating
GYPSUM
is of
the
in
great importance
AND
445
SALT.
formation
soils
of
and
the
growth
vegetation. Salt is injurious to leguminous crops generally. To cereal does there often is any when it good, especially tendency crops and for a crop running to straw producing a small proportion of of magnesium of cereals. Chloride grain. It toughens the straw of potassium have chloride and the same effect of reducing the of Tobacco with salt as a tendency crop running to straw. grown flexible leaves. manure produces tougher and more Hemp produces
of
larger
a
better
of
amount
have
Potatoes
tendency
a
fibre
become
to
with
used
salt when
waxy
as
manure.
is used
salt
as
manure.
For
It makes
lime.
soils
cotton
and
It increases
better.
useful manure a on very bear longer in the season, the quantity and improves
salt
is
germicide other and fungoid
As
a
rust
to
salt is
cotton,
a
very diseases.
useful
is an excellent used per acre gypsum other vermin. Salt kills leeches, snails and of
soda
which
can
dissolve
to soils rich in lime
rich
soils
on
in
producing
in
a
account.
salt
when
rendered
with is
more
in
against
Ibs. rust.
of
salt
phosphate
extent
of the
of
use
it to or
flocculated
held
minute
a
to
saline also
are
in
other
clay soils, should
salt,
long
or
into
together and
from
sprays
less salt washed a
taken
the
with
soil
i"
friable.
distances
As
substances,
be
proportion, and
water
of salt in soils.
source
one
with
get
we
appreciable
an
subject 200
addition
effect fertilising
of salt, like most
clay
occurs
permeable
more
rain
tilth of
it
carries
Air
action
good
Granules
even
by the
and
lime.
mechanical
The
indirect
is another
This
of iron.
of salt
preventive
is formed to
lands
for
Ibs.
of
Carbonate
the
manure
300
fairlyrich in droughtquality of lint. stand
down
the
and
sea
into the soil.
general rule, the
This
of salt
use
as
is unnecessary, speciallywhen the land is situated within a and hundred fiftymiles of the sea-coast, and crops which are one need benefited be manured not with salt by salt manure specially fertiliser
fiftymiles of The application
within
be done
at all,should to
part with
at
once
by
matter
be
such
are
also.
of lime, with
gypsum" and
care.
application. the
It is rich
salt soils
plant-food that Where
applicationof
a
gypsum
if done
manure,
only that are
soil is poor
lime,
hesitation.
as
made in
and
can
afford
available
potash
and
salt should
Clay soils rich in organic great the cally application both mechaniparticularly benefited by rich are not in salt chemically, provided they already
done
and
sea-coast.
large quantities of
phosphoric acid, only
the
with
PART
V.
OF
METHODS
CHAPTER GENERAL
ANALYSIS.
XCL REMARKS.
nics, to agriculture are Geology,Mechamainly helpful and riology. BacteBotany, Chemistry,VeterinaryScience,Zoology scientific or agriculturist It is not expected that an sciences
THE
farmer
be
should
an
expert
in all these sciences.
In
treatingthe
it is impossibleto in a systematicmanner subjectof agriculture mechanical, botanical,zoological, gical, physioloignorethe geological, of chemical various or questionswith aspects bacteriological, has to do, and in the preceding which the agriculturist parts of this related book facts culled from these sciences which are intimately of in explaining made the use have been freely with agriculture, have those We and principles underlying questions. reasons of soils,crops, manures, deal will only with the methods etc.,and in this part,therefore,we follow for himself,without goingto that an educated farmer may and food-stuffs. chemist, in analysingsoils,manures a The main purpose of a knowledge of agricultural chemistry enable is him to to the of analysesoils, the agriculturist, on
alreadydealt with the chemical
aspect
part
crops, manures,
purchasedfood-stuffs,milk,
and
industrial products, In fact, the tans.
indigo,tea, sugar, dyes and much. There so chemist is not expectedto do even agricultural of indigo, tea, sugar, dyes, employed for the analysis -are specialists chemist is ordinarily expectedto do etc.,and all that an agricultural such
is A
to
as
analyse, with
chemist
who
cannot
sqils, manures do this much, but who
accuracy,
food-stuffs. and has a great deal of of chemistry,is of
the different branches chemist. Chemistry is a vast subject, an agricultural as use no work one's is to produce if one to specialise and it is necessary reliable results. Accuracy of manipulation,purity and sound the chemicals used, and a systematizedarrangement helpful or tions the essential condia largequantityof work, are for getting over work. The student of agricultural in analytical of success
generalacquaintanceof
wor" chemistry should begin quantitative him
to methods
of accuracy.
at
once.
This
plines disci-
One year of preparatorywork
GENERAL
in
quantitative analysiswill enable
result in the second do
work
the
He
year.
in the
447
REMARKS.
the student
should
required for
manner
produce
to
accurate
from
aim
a
the very first to commercial analysis.
analysingsoils,for instance, he should aim only at getting the proportionsof soluble matter, sand and other insoluble matters, lime. In nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and analysinga sample of nitrate of potash,however, the proportions of sand, sodium chloride should sulphate,calcium sulphate and sodium be ascertained,as these are impurities commonly present, and which have been actuallyused by way of adulteration. In fact, may
In
adulteration are
is
so
universallypractisedin
largelypurchased,that it is
countries
where
considered
never
manures
safe to
purchase
without
and the time of the agricultural chemist in analysis, is those countries occupied,therefore,in analysingmanures. largely In analysingcrops, the agricultural should chemist also bear in the object,which is in most mind the ascertainingof their cases manure
Another
nourishingvalue.
the proper manurial of the tobacco
objectof analysinga
substances
needed
leaf, for instance, leaves
manurial
ingredientsrequired by lime, sulphur,and potash and one saltpetreand
that
for its
this crop
crop is to ascertain lysis growth. The anadoubt
no
gypsum
the
chieflynitrogen,
are
naturally arrives would
that the
at
clusion con-
materially benefit ihis
crop.
The
chemist agricultural
should
well
acquainted with
aims, needs and difficulties of the farmer, that his analyses be aimless, but directed to the elucidation of only those not
the may
pointsthat would be of help to chemist be an must agricultural chemist. an as agricultural The
farmer
chemical
sell off
to
also should
rather
or
of his farm
out
be
be
the farmer.
who agriculturist
have
the manurial
and
he
those
of the substances
value
as
words, an specialised
has
general acquaintance of the
a
buys for the farm.
articles
only such
In other
have
His
he
aim
little manurial
sells
should
value, such
fibres,India-rubber,sugar, and rice,maize, oil (not oil-cake), butter, and he should buy such food-stuffs only as are particularly
as,
rich in the manurial would he
constituents
quicker,but
his animals
fatten
which
purchase cotton-cake, as
should
the
he
needs.
Linseed-cake
it is sometimes
latter
better that
brings in
far
more
to his soil. fertility
The
of
can
be
14, Cross
best
agricultural
for all the
chemist do
chemicals
and
required by an work he is likelyto be analytical procured for about "200. Messrs. Baird
apparatus
English firms
however, Darmstadt
Garden, London, E. C.,
Street, Hatton
the are
firms
to go
of
the most
to
for these.
Kahlbaum famous.
of
For
and
and
are
purity
Berlin
called
on
Tatlock
among
of E.
to
the
chemicals, Merck
of
448
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER STANDARD
THE THE
XCII.
of strength
ACID
the dilute
ALKALI.
AND
acid sulphuric
estimation of nitrogenshould be determined
to
once
be used for the for all and noted
jarsor bottles. This is done in the following way : Twenty cubic centimetres of the sulphuricacid should of a pipette into a clean beaker ; then another taken by means on
c.c.
the
; and much
into another beaker
beaker.
Ten
times
each, i.e.,about
200
should then be added
as
A
c.c.
to
third quantityof 20 distilledwater should
a
few
each.
dropsof
The when
dilute
contents
c.c.
in
a
be 20
third
be added
to
hydrochloricacid
of the
beakers are then successively boiled,and boilingjust commences, a state should be gradually solution of barium chloride in a boiling added, and the contents of the beaker stirred with a glassrodr The liquidis to be kept near until all precipitation ceases. the
boiling pointfor
some
time,
and
then
covered
up
and
left in
a
sand-bath. should then be brought to the boiling The liquid point and filtered the next day through Swedish filter-paper ; the precipitate the paper being washed several times with hot water, on in the beaker. also*the residue of the precipitate When all the into has transferred been the t he filter, funnel with precipitate is to be covered up with a pieceof paper and left on the precipitate to dry. One precautionshould be always taken the water-oven of a beaker into a filter, the contents before transferring etc. : the be and should beaker of the a greased edge glassrod should be
pouringthe contents of the beaker into the filter. The should be moistened with water blown out from a washfilter-paper is pouredon to it. bottle before the liquid is to be carefully Next day, the precipitate scraped out into the burnt crucible, filter-paper rolled up in a a white, weighed and ash added wire the to the coil, platinum precipitate.The crucible is to be placedon a pieceof black glazedpaper, while and the paper ash are beingput into it. The cruthe precipitate cible is then to be placed on a Bunsen flame or spirit lamp and the substance thoroughly ignited.The crucible should then be left ten minutes and then weighed. The inside a desiccator for over in the three beakers is treated exactlyin the same precipitate way, of the sulphuric the estimation of the strength acid beingmade in to ensure accuracy. triplicate chloride in the presence The addition of barium of hydrochloric acid results in the whole of the sulphuric acid in the beaker beingconverted into barium sulphate; barium sulphateis nearly insolublein water, but in dilute acid itis altogther insoluble. Hence the addition of a few dropsof hydrochloric acid. The weight of the barium sulphate4 being ascertained,the be acid of can deduced. easily weight pure sulphuric used while
STANDARD
THE
AND
ACID
'449
ALKALI.
ash of Suppose the weight of the crucible 4- precipitate + the 31 and -921 of the crucible weight filter-paper grammes, 29*336 grammes, alone the weightof the barium sulphate, precipitate ,
the
=s
"
ash of paper 2*585. A deduction of -002 is usually of made on account the ash of the paper ; but this point may be separatelydetermined by actual weighment of the ash from a of the size and quality used. The remainder, pieceof filter-paper is the weight of the precipitate. 2*583 grammes, The weight of all the three beakers beingthus ascertained, of the precipitate If the weights come of the three weightsis taken. the average and
=
2-583, 2*584 and 2-583 + 2*584+2*6
ro_ 0 =2*589
-
----
the respectively,
2*6 grammes
to
is
average
a
grammes.
o
BaSO.
Now
:
S04
H
+ 32-06+4x16
i.e.,173
(
:
:
2 +32-06
:
x:
has
--
be
to
-4- 4x16
=
used
233-06
=
followingway
x
.
m
20
c.c.
"
the
sulphuricacid, the This is done
in the
:
"
of HaS04 i.e., 20 pipetteful
A
:
1-089 grammes
of neutralised by 20 c.c. of the standard exactly strengthof which has been just determined. made
be
should
2'589
:
Hydrate. The alkaline solution that determination of nitrogenin all analyses such a strengththat 100 c.c. of it should b6
Sodium for
:
98-06)
(
-
253-87734
233W"
standard
The
: x
233-06)
=
98-06x2-589 "'
2-589
c.c., is
taken
in a white porcelain of distilledwater and
It is diluted with about 200 c.c. A buretteful with methyl orange.
basin.
of
the alkaline solution is then taken, and it is found, say, that the whole of the 50 burette is taken up without of the alkaline solution in the c.c. buretteful is then taken and the acid. Another neutralising now,
coloured
is requiredto neutralise only 2-44 c.c., i.e.,52-4 c.c. altogether, the acid (when the colour justturns pink). The whole of the alkali
say,
in the bottle is then transferred to another bottle. back into the former measured
solution much
water
requires47*6 of
must
be added
to make
water
to the
bottle,and say, 1,100 c.c. line Now, as 52-4 of the alka-
1,100
it into 100 c.c., how
c.c. to make
it of the proper
strength? 52-4 ..
:
1100
:
:
47*8
:
x
^=999-237.
x
has to be added to the solution in the So 999*2 c.c. of water solution,and the probottle ; and the burette filledwith the new cess with methyl the 20 c.c. of H"S04 coloured of neutralising orange,
repeated.After
attained. Now, we have seen of pure 1-089 grammes
can
two
or
three
trials the
exact
strength
be
is neutralised by 100 M, HA
acid contains pipetteof sulphuric acid. But one pipetteof this acid sulphuric that
c.c.
one
of the standardized alkali. 29
450
*~~;DBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
^
= -01089 of HfS04. But of the alkali represents acid neutralises two molecules of ammonia molecule of sulphuric 98-06 parts by weight of sulphuric 2+3206+4x61 H8) i.e.,
.". 1 c.c.
one
{N
=
acid is equivalent (14+3) x2 to
x 14
and 2
"
28
parts by weightof ammonia
parts by weight of nitrogen.
by weightof Ht S04
'01089 grammes
,\
34
=
'01089
x
alkali represents
34
of
grammes
,
or
1
c.c.
of
NH8
98'06
-01089x28
and
98-06 Every 1
grammes
of N.
of alkaliused represents-00377586 of ammonia grammes of nitrogen. and -00310952 grammes .*.
c.c.
CHAPTER
XCI1I.
ANALYSIS
OF
SOIL.
analysinga sample of soil,for all ordinaryagricultural constituents alone are quantitatively purposes, the following IN
determined
: "
(1)Moisture,(2)Organicmatter, (3)Matters soluble in water, (4)Nitrogen,(5)Potassium, (6)PhosphorusPentoxide,and (7)Lime. be taken from different parts of the field, It should mixed up well,and must be thoroughlyrepresentative. in out to before it is bottled divided,spread be finely dry shade, used for analysis.A steel box nine inches deep and six up or down and then dug out for getting inches square is hammered samples of the top soil. In Bengal for ordinary representative 6* x 6" x 6* would answer. crops, a steel box of the soil should be weighed (1) Moisture. Three grammes and left in a water-oven out in a watch glass, over-night.It is when cool the in next and desiccator, day weighedagain, weighed The
sampleshould
"
having been again left in
after
then
and found
the water-oven for a few hours, cooled in the desiccator. The weight should then be
The loss of weightis due to moisture of the soil. Ten grammes of the soilshould be weighed (2) Organicmatter. and out in a platinumdish, graduallyheated to a low redness. The heat is maintained tillall blackness disappears.It is then and afterwards weighed. The loss left to cool.in the desiccator, water matter and combined of weightis due to organic as also to ten of the soil. the moisture in grammes soluble in Matters of the soil Ten grammes water. more (3) to remain
constant.
in the three grammes
"
"
200 c.c. of distilledwater should be weighedout, placedin a flask, whole the boiledfor hour with occasional and of an a quarter added" shaking. The mixture is then kept aside;for about 10 minutes, decanted off into a beaker. The proand the supernatantliquid
452
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
ignitedand weighed. Lime, phosphatesand other besides things, e.g., alumina, oxide of iron, etc.,are potash, dissolved in the filtrate and washings. These are precipitated left and for of uncovered hour ammonia, an excess with a slight Aluminium to get rid of the ammonia. two hydrate is soluble or the Therefore of ammonia solution. should ammonia excess in be got rid of by leavingthe beaker uncovered in the sand-bath out, washed, dried,
reddish brown jelly-like littlewhile. The abundant tate precipicontains all the phosphoruspentoxidewith oxide of iron the potashand the lime. The alumina, etc. ; and the filtrate, washed with hot water. is thoroughly the filter-paper on precipitate The L ime. filtrateand are boiled,and treated '(6) washings is produced. The oxalate as longas a precipitate with ammonium for
a
"
whole
is filtered and
washed, tillthe washing
shows
no
trace
of
with a platinum wire on the flame. The residue the water-oven to dry, to be afterwards ignited in left is gently The proportion of lime may be and weighedas calcium carbonate. from carbonate calcium The found of filtrate that out/ inferred in the sand-bath left uncovered to dry. The and washingsare is clean transferred residue to a porcelainbasin, and gently dry ignitedin it. The fragmentsadhering to the sides of the beaker basin when it is cool after the washed out into the porcelain are to dry. When dry, it is ignition.This is left on the steamer tested potassium,
drive off all ammoniumsalts. Pure water is then added to the basin when cool,to dissolve the potassiumand sodium chlorides and the solution filtered. The treated with hydrochloric acid clear filtrateand washings are one-third in slight of a basin, excess, transferred to the porcelain test-tubefulof platinumtetrachloride solution added,and the whole lefton the steamer to dry. The moist residue is washed out into a
again,in ignited
the
same
way,
gentlyto
crucible with 80% porcelain
alcohol. It should,of course, be washed colourless. The filter first until the filtrate comes out a on crucible is left on the steamer to dry, and afterwards in the waterWhen oven. cool,it is weighedbeingpotassiumplatinumchloride. The jelly-like obtained (7) Phosphorus-Pentoxide. precipitate with ammonia and alreadymentioned is transferred into a beaker with the helpof the wash-bottle. Some nitric acid is poured on The filtrate is to the filterto dissolve the adheringprecipitate. collected in the same The beaker containingthe precipitate. "
filledwith nitric acid when it is empty. more and half of acidifiedsolution of ammonium a test-tufye an molybdate is then added. The mixture is left uncovered in the sandThe bright iscollected bath, to get concentrated. yellowprecipitate of a The filtrate is treated with a little more on filter-paper.
is once filter-paper A
ammonium form, The
would molybdateto see if any more yellowprecipitate with ammonium the filteris washed on precipitate nitrate. It is then treated on the filterwith justenough of dilute aiumonia solution to dissolve the precipitate. A few drops of citricacid should be added to the filtrate and some magnesia
453
SOIL.
OF
ANALYSIS
It should be then left covered up in a cold placefoi and a is collectedon twelve hours. The precipitate filter-paper, is dried, ignited, washed with ammonia The precipitate water. firstgently,then before the blow-pipe, cooled, and weighed. acid and potash The determination of available phosphoric mixture.
alreadydescribed in Chapter LXXXVIIL actually obtained followingweights, etc., were analysisof a sample of soil : has
been The
in
an
"
Moisture
"
Watch-glasses and clipand raw soil Watch-glasses and clip Watch-glasses and clipand dried soil .
Loss
in 3 grammes '0249 gramme
:.
Moisture
:.
In 1 gramme-"
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"27*3707 24*3707 27*2960 '0747
grammes. "
,,
"
2*49%
"
Crucible and soil Crucible alone After ignition Loss on ignition '0732 gramme Tn 1 gramme"
Silicates and
.
"39-328 ..
..
"29*328
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
other insoluble
"38*596
'732
" .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
7*32%
"
matter
Crucible and insoluble residue Crucible alone Insoluble residue in 10 grammes Deducting "002 for paper ash
"
37*724 "29*328 -"
.
.
..
:.
.
"
.
.
..
:.
.
ignition"?
on
:.
.
,
""
.
.
.
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
8*396
"
8*394
grammes.
"83*94% Soluble Salts" Beaker and soluble salts Beaker alone Soluble salts in 10 grammes .
20*3080
" .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,,
-0615
" ..
grammes.
20*2465
"
..
Nitrogen "
solution of NaHO 97*2 c.c. of the standard were required neutralize of the H S04 solution at the 20 standard c.c. trtration. 2*8 c.c. of the NaHO was replacedby NH3 from the soil. 1 c.c. of the alkali represents "0051095 But of N. grammes 2*8 c.c. represents '0087066 of N. in 5 grammes. grammes 47*2
50"
"
to
;.
;.
-
Lime
-174%
"
Crucible and Ca C03 ppt. and paper ash Crucible
.
.
."
.
.
29*433 29*327
"
.
.
alone .
"
-106 -002
fl
Deducting *002
CaC03 in
for filterpaper
10 grammes
.
ash .
.
.
.
*104
"
.
.
.
"
Phosphates "
Crucible and Mg2P207 and ash Crucible and paper ash ..
Mg2P,07PP"":.
In 1 gramme
..
..
..
paper ..
.
.
"29-392 29*329 "
"
..
" .
.
-063 -0063
"
-
*63%
1-04%
454
HANDBOOK
Potash
AGRICULTURE.
OF
"
Crucible
12*7645 and ppt. (K, Pt. C16.) 12-6370 alone *1275 :. the ppt. in 10 grammes -01275 1 gramme .-. In "1-28% K, Pt. C16 : K2O : : 1*28 : K"O in 100 parts of the sample. 485*5 K-O in 100 parts of the : 94 : : 1'28 or : x:.x, "
Crucible
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
.
.
.
.
"
"
sample (1) Moisture being The percentage of dry But loss on ignition of which
(2) .*.
:.
In 100
Organic matter, of dry matter the 100
:
.
.
.
.
97*51
" .
.
.
7*32%
"
2*49%
"
"c.
:
..
.
-
moisture
97-51
2-49%
"
..
matter
,
in 97-51%
4'83
"
of org.
amount
4*83
:
.
'25%
"
of
dry
matter.
"c."
matter,
"
: x
483X100
4-95%
... x
97-51
(3) Si O2. Silicates, "kc. :.
In
of
100 97-51
:
100
:
83'94
:
in 97*51
83'94
"
dry soil, the
of
amount
of
soil.
dry
Silicates, "c."
"
: x
83*94 ...
100
x
86-08%
x
97-51
(4) Ca
CO3"
in
wet
1'04
: x
1-04%
97-51
100
:
: :
soil, i.e., 97*51
of
dry.
l*04x /.
100
"1-07%
x
97-51
(5) K*O
*25%
"
97-51
:
in the wet 100 : : *25 :
sample
"
x
"25
x
100
"26% 97*51
(6) P%O5.
Mg2PaO7
"
:.
222
142
:.
PaO, in the
:.
P2O5
:
97-51
:
: :
parts of the
from 100 *63 : amount
sample
wet
in the dry soil 100 : : 403 : x
sample
"
-403 :.
wet
of P2O5 in the wet "63 x 142 '403 222
100
x
*41%
x
97-51
(7) Nitrogen in the
sample
wet
In the dry soil. 97-51 : 100 : : -174
"174%
"
/.
:
x
:.
x
"174
100
x
.178% 97*51
or
calculated N.
:
NH3
14
:
17
(8).Soluble ;.
In
97*51
as
NHs
178 '178 :
: :
: :
:
NHs
In the salts the dry soil : 100 : : : *615
in the :.
x
wet
"
x
sample "
sample
-23% "615%
"
x
"615x100 ... x
97-51
*"
*63
sample.
ANALYSIS
The
sample
OF
is therefore, following,
455
SOIL.
the result of the
of analysis
the
of soil :
"
Moisture
Organic matter, "c. Sand, "c. Calcium carbonate f
.*.*
Potash
Phosphoricanhydride Undetermined .
,
100*00 Soluble salts
.
.
* Containing Nitrogen f Calculated as Lime (CaO)
"18%
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
OF
XCIV.
BONE-MEAL,
analyse a sample of bone-meal, the followingmethod
To
ents, constituseverally the following adoptedfor determining viz.,moisture, organic matter, sand, phosphates,calcium,
is to be
carbonate, and
ammonia (1) Moisture. Three should be weighedout in The loss of water-oven.
or
nitrogen. of
grammes
"
a
the
powdered bone-meal
watch-glass.This should be left in
weight (when
the
weighingis
found
a
to
day), is due to moisture. of the bone-meal One gramme should (2) Organic matter. in low heat. be weighedout in a platinumcrucible. This is ignited and the residue in the When all the black particles disappear, and when crucible appears white, it is put aside in the desiccator, remain
constant
next
"
loss of moisture cool,weighed. The loss of weightis due to the joint of the the amount but in one and organicmatter meal, gramme The remainder should of moisture has been alreadydetermined. due to organicmatter. The residue in the crucible should then be with out beaker, the crucible beingalso washed
be calculated (3) Sand. into
a
as
"
emptied
chloric hydro-
acid is then added little more to hydrochloric in in the beaker left the beaker and the sand-bath the substance ; for that day. Next day, the contents of the beaker are filtered the filter-paper is on through ordinary filter-paper ; the sand washed a few times, dried in the water-oven, ignitedin the crucible and weighed,when cool. The increase of weightof the acid.
A
givesthe weightof sand in
of bone-meal. (4) Phosphates.The filtrate and washings from the sand then diluted to about 300 c.c. ; ammonium hydrate is gradually added ; the liquidbeing stirred with a glassrod. When
crucible
a
gramme
"
are
the precipitate settles,it is filteredthroughordinaryfilter-paper The and washed on the filterseveral times with ammonia water. then rinsed the into is out a beaker, being filter-paper precipitate
456
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE,
OP
afterwards
acid, thoroughlywashed with a littledilute hydrochloric the acid being allowed to collect in the same beaker containing the precipitate. This The acid redissolves the precipitate. is necessary to free the phosphatesfrom lime still redissolving further. It is again diluted to about 300 c.c., ammonium hydrate is
again added
in the
same
in the on
way,
same
the
again collected precipitate
and the
way,
It is dried filter-paper.
in the water-oven
collected in the crucible, the filter-paper being burnt white and added to the crucible. It is ignited, put inside the desiccator and when cool,weighed. This givesthe weightof a portion of the of bone-meal. in 1 gramme But as calcium phosphate phosphates is not quite insoluble in water, all the filtratesand washingsare collected togetherin one beaker, and concentrated by boilingto about 150 c.c. A littleacid is added to dissolve the calcium bonate carcarbon dioride the is boiled It drive to deposited. again away and when cool,ammonium and when hydrateis added gradually, the phosphatesare deposited, collected a filter-paper, on they are
washed
dried in the water-oven, thoroughly, ignitedin a crucible, When added. burnt and white cool, it is filter-paper being weighed,and the weight obtained givesthe additional quantity of phosphatesin the one gramme of bone-meal. (5) Calcium Carbonate. The filtrate from the phosphatesis boiled with ammonium is collected on The precipitate oxalate. Swedish dried the in water-oven, filter-paper, gently ignitedto
the
"
the calcium oxalate into calcium carbonate. The paper is of ash also in added. crucible a Weighed porcelain known weight,the increase of weight should be calculated as of beingdue to the weightof calcium carbonate in one gramme
convert
bone-meal. is determined by the described. previously The following obtained in the course figures
Kjeldahl method
(6) Nitrogen. This "
a
sample of bone-meal
worked
out
.
of analysis is actually analysis an
: "
Moisture
.
the
will illustrate how
of
and
organicmatter
"
Weight of Weight of
crucible -f-raw crucible alone
bone-meal
Weight of Weight of
bone-meal raw crucible + raw
taken bone-meal
Weight of
crucible + ignitedresidue
Weight Weight Weight
of of
glass+ clip+ raw glass+ clipalone
Weight
of
of organic matter
raw
30*336
" .
.
moisture
+
bone taken
bone
" .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
"
"
.
.
"
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
-377 grammes. 28'428
25*428
3 grammes. 28*428
"
28*110
"
t
raw
"
1 gramme. 30*336 grammes. 29*958 "
"
""
.
bone Weight of glass-4- clip4- dry bone
Weight of glass-I-clip+
grammes.
29*336
"
..
..
Moisture and organic matter Weight of moisture lost in 1 gramme the loss is .*. the weight of organic matter
457
BONE-MEAL.
OF
ANALYSIS
contd.
"
"318 in 3 grammes. "106 grammes (I). "377" -106
:.
:.
alone
"271
Sand
grammes
(II).
grammes
(III).
"
Weight, of crucible 4- sand Weight of crucible alone
.
29-396 29-335
.
Difference
Deducting weight
Weight
"060 "002
"
ash
of paper
of sand
"058
Phosphates "
Weight
of
phosphates
crucible
+
29-694 99-335
Weight of crucible alone
Difference
Deducting weight of
"
"359 "002
"
ash
paper
Weight of phosphates
'357
Weight of crucible + of phosphates Weight of crucible alone
2nd
"
"
of paper
Deducting weight
Difference ash
29-396
29-335
'061 -002
"
"
of the 2nd precipitate weight of the two phosphateprecipitates
Weight Total
.
" .
.
.
.
.
+ -*4J6
Calcium
Carbonate
"
.
.
.
Difference
Weight
Carbonate
of Calcium
H, SO4
solution.
=
c.c.
of
/.
NH3=3*4
bulb
the
NHS
alkali,which
"0279855
grammes per
grammes. "
"135 "002
in "
Nitrogen."The
*"
29'335
"
.
- "
1 gramme
9
29*47
"
ash
paper
-357 -058
(IV).
grammes
Weight of crucible 4- CaCO., precipitate Weight of crucible alone
Deducting
grammes.
-058
"
.
.
grammes,
precipitate
cent.
took in
'133
exactly91 1 gramme
is
N"
is
'-03398
of NaHO
c.c.
equivalentto
of
(V).
grammes
equivalentto 9
-0031095 of grammes x
458
HANDBOOK
The percentage therefore :
AGRICULTURE.
OF
compositionof the sample of bone-meal
is
"
Moisture .
.
.
Organicmatter*
.
.
(III) Sand
10*62 27*15" 5'85
(IV) Phosphates (V) Calcium carbonate (VI) Saline matter (undetermined)
41-60 13-27
100-0
*
Containing 3'4%
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
OF
of NH3
XCV. SUPERPHOSPHATE.
IN
lowing analysinga sample of Superphosphateof lime, the folshould be determined : points (1) Moisture ; (2) Loss on ignition ; (3) Sand ; (4) Lime ; Soluble Monocalcic (5) ; (6) Phosphate (Ca4P808) Phosphate or Insoluble Phosphate or Tricalcic Phosphate (CaH3Pa08). bluish grey in The sample taken should be well ground and "
colour. of the sample are weighed grammes and the left in water-oven over-night. watch-glass ; Next morning it is covered up and secured with the cover-glass and the clip,put inside the desiccator,and when cool, weighed. for another hour and treated in the same It is leftin the oven way ; until the weightis found to be exactlythe same before. The as
(1) Moisture.
out
on
"
Three
a
loss of
weightis due to the escape of the superphosphate.
(2) Loss
of moisture
from
the three grammes
of the sample is weighed on Ignition. One gramme crucible of known weight,very slowlyignitedat a low red heat, for about a quarter of an hour, until the colour of the whole mass becomes much lighter.It is then laid aside in the desiccator,and afterwards, when quitecool, weighed. The loss and other readily of weightis due to the escape of moisture,organic volatile matter. out
in
"
a
residue in the crucible of the one gramme in the justignitedis emptied into a clean beaker, every particle A crucible being carefully washed out with hydrochloricacid. acid is added, altogether about 50 c.c., little more hydrochloric When the conand the beaker left uncovered in the sand-bath. tents of the beaker become dry,it is taken out, and strong hydrochloric of the beaker, added. acid,enough to moisten the contents
(3) Sand.
"
The
and Alter a quarter of an hour, about 200 c.c. of water are added beaker left covered the sand-bath The the in siliceous wer-night. residue in the beaker is filtered out, thoroughlywashed, and left to dry. Next morning the siliceous over-nightin the water-oven
460
a
HANDBOOK
litreor
500
AGRICULTURE,
OF
is measured
of distilled water
c.c.
out into the wash-
is used for the with water. *The mixing process of mixing up the superphosphate is done in the following five way : The grammes of superphosphate into a clean and are transferred,with the help of a feather finally,
bottle,previously completelyemptied. This
water
"
dry
is rubbed with a of all the water from the
outside of the
The
mortar.
lipof the
mortar
little grease to ensure the running out mortar is then rubbed to the green bottle. The superphosphate smooth added with the pestle, littlewater being to it from the a of the water in should be taken that none Great care the wash-bottle might be wasted or spilt The outside the mortar. mixture is then leftundisturbed for a few minutes, and the supernatant
wash-bottle.
is drained off carefully from the mortar alonga clean liquid As a bottle. dry glassrod into a clean and dry stoppered further security againstloss of water, a funnel is placedon the bottle,and the water drained down on the funnel. The operation is of rubbingthe superphosphate and a further quantityof water continued, several times, and each time the supernatant liquid
and
is drained
off into the
bottle, until the residue in the
mortar
is then cleaned out perfectly appears with the remainingquantityof water in the wash-bottle, and the of the mortar contents wholly transferred to the bottle. The bottle is then stoppered, and and shaken every now again for three hours together. It is then left to settle for over twelve
quitesiliceous. The
hours.
100
c.c.
mortar
through into a clean measured containingthe soluble phosphatein 1 gram
then
are
filtered
cylinder.This 100 c.c. of superphosphate transferred into a beaker ; and the calcium are carbonate and the magnesium phosphate are separatedout in exactlythe same way as in the case of the total lime and phosphate in
one
already described. Only in this case the calcium after being thoroughly washed, is thrown precipitate,
gram
oxalate
as
and the filtratetreated with described.
away,
The
sample
followingcalculations refer of super
(1) Moisture
"
"
raw
super "28-4287
..
3 grams
..
" .
.
.
.
" .
Moisture in 1 gram
.
" .
.
.
27'9350 "4937 "1645
.
ignition
on
"
Crucible -I- lid + Crucible
lid .
actual
"
..
(2) Loss
an
"
Watch-glass x clipx dry super-
Moisturein
to
:
Watch-glass and clipand (3 grams)
:.
magnesiamixture
.
.
raw .
"
super
ignitedsuper
"
(1 grm.)-30-3280 "30-0375 .
.
"2905
as
previously
analysisof
a
ANALYSIS
OF
461
SUPERPHOSPHATE.
(3) Sand" Crucible Crucible
+ .
.
lid + lid .
sand
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
.
alone
.
ash
Less paper
.
29'3955 29*3290
"0665 "0020
.
"0645
6-45%
"
(4)
Total
Crucible
Lime +
(Calcium Carbonate) "
and precipitate
paper alone
Crucible
ash.
" .
" .
.
29'7662 29*3280 "4382
paper
ash
.
*0020
.
"4362
--43*63%
(5) Total Crucible Crucible
phosphates "
+
pyrophosphate
Magnesium
ash
paper
29%""45
..
..
Magnesium pyrophosphate Deduct
"
"29*328
alone
.
ash
"
*217 .,
.
.
'002
.
"215
"21-5%
(6) Precipitated phosphatesin the soluble portion "
Crucible Crucible
+
pyrophosphate
Magnesium
alone
"
..
..
29*520
"29*328 "192
ash
Deduct
.
'002
.
"19
(7) To
the
calculate
!9""/0
"
Monocalcium
phosphate (NH4)SC,04 CaCftOA+ 2(NH4). "
CaH4P,08 + 4NH4HO + PO4. 2 (N.H4)8P04+2MgSO.-2MgNH4P04+2(NH4),S04 MgNHJ"O,(on ignition) Mg,P9O7 + 2NH8 + H,0 Mg9P.O7 : CaH4P9O8 : : 19% : percentage of CaH4P2Oa in the soluble portion. ^
=
i.e., 222
:
234
:
:
19
percentage
:
of
monocalcium
phosphate present. /.
The
percentage of monocalcium 19
of
(8) To
superphosphate
calculate
=-
the
The
Taking 19
from
the Tricalcium
x ^^
1 gram
234 "
Tricalcium
total Mg2P,O7 came the Tricalcium from
.".
"
phosphate in 20*03%
"
phosphate partlyfrom the "
mono
and
21'5, 2'5% is left as the
amount
partly
phosphate.
phosphate.
from
462
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
(NHJ8 CaO,"3CaC2 0^+2 (NH4)" S04. (NH4)8PO,+2MgS04=2NH4MgPOt+2(NH4) 2 NH MgP04 (On ignition)MgaP"07 +2NH3+H20. Mg2Pa07 : Ca8P908 : : 2'5 : percentage of CasPa08 Now, CaaP 08 +
3
2
-
(=222)
Organic matter"
"
The
total loss
goingoff at phosphateloses on
water
^
"
(i.e. 29*05%) is made ignition of 100"C, partly the water that and the rest is the water ignition on
of sulphateof lime which real organicmatter.
the
of super.
in 1 gram
310)
=
Ca8P20" present
/.
(9)
(
Now, CaH4P 08 ( 234)
cannot
be
up
partly of
monocalcium of crystallization
calculated,togetherwith
=CaP206 (on ignition)
+
2HaO
(
=
36)
=
CaH,P908 : 2Ha
0
CaH,P,08 present : % of H80 lost phosphate present on ignition.
: :
by the monocalcic lost by the monocalcium ". HaO
.*.
H,0
the loss of
But
at
100"C
16*46+3*08,
Taking away loss on ignition,
"
or
phosphateon
16*46% 19*54%
from
ignition
the
total
"
organic 29*05%, we get 9*51% as the proportionof i.e., matter, "c.," present in the superphosphate. of the sample of superphosphate The percentage composition of
lime analysed
was
: "
Moisture "
"
Organic
matter,
"c."
"
Sand
"
CaH4P208
"
16'46% 9'51% 6-45 20*03
of
(=26-6%
4t
soluble
phosphate
"
)
CaSO4 Alkalies,"c. 100-00
XCVI.
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
OF
NITRATE
OF
SODA
AND
SALTPETRE.
of nitrate of potash, a sampleof nitrate of soda, or analysing and to estimate method employedis to find out the impurities
IN
the
potash by difference. These are generally(1)Moisture,(2)"Sand and other insoluble impurities (4)Sodium and Calcium sulphate. matter, (3)Sodium chloride, the amount
of pure nitrate of soda, or "
ANALYSIS
OF
NITRATE
OF
SODA
AND
463
SALTPETRE,
of a sampleof sodium nitrateor potassium Thirty-five grammes nitrate should be weighedout, and put in a clean beaker,and dissolved in about 300 c.c. of distilled water. A filter-paper is at the time put inside a tube and left in the water-oven same to dry. Next day, the tube is stopperedand put aside to cool, weighed after an hour, and weighed again after two or three hours, and the weightis constant, the filter-paper is brought out of the tube, fitted into a funnel,wetted, and the solution of the nitrate to be analysedpassedthrough into a clean beaker. The residue is thoroughlywashed, covered the filter-paper on with a clean up pieceof paper, and the funnel left in the water-oven to dry. Next is taken out with the insoluble residue on it, day the filter-paper put inside the tube again,left in the water-oven, after an hour and weighed. It is weighedagainafter a few taken out, stoppered, the hours until more weight is found to remain constant. The difference of weight gives the amount of insoluble matter in when
of
the nitrate analysed. This is therefore the total insoluble matter, includingsand. The filter-paper is ignited in a white, and put weighedplatinum crucible. The increase of and other siliceous matter is sand due to weight alone, the usual allowance ash. being made for the filter-paper
thiry-five grams
(2) The
"
moisture
is determined
the usual Three way. in out a watch-glass, left in are the weighed grammes water-oven, weighednext day, and weighed again,both times when cool, until The loss of weightis due to the amount the weightis constant. of in
in the three grammes
of the sample of the nitrate. (3) Sodium Chloride. The filtrate containingthe remainder after the insoluble matter has been separated, of the 35 grammes, is made exactlyinto half a litre or 500 c.c. Of this,100 c.c. should
moisture
"
be sucked
of the nitrate analysed, containingseven grammes and placedon a clean porcelainbasin. of a largepipette, by means This is treated with two dropsof potassiumchromate which is used out
indicator. The
standard solution of silver nitrate is taken the surface of the solution inside the burette a stands exactlyat zero, it is gradually poured into the nitrate solution. mixture the basin The is kept continually on stirred Potassium chromate gives a reddish brown precipitate with silver of silver chromate. citrate with the formation But this is not the chlorine sodium as as chloride purity impresent permanent, as an as
in
an
burette.
When
is immediatelyattacked by silver in the nitrate-solution, When chromate to form silver chloride. sufficientof the silver nitrate solution has been used, all the chlorine gets justused up. This is indicated by the formation of a slightly permanent reddish brown colour due to silver chromate. (4) Lime is determined in the usual way : 100 c.c. of the remainder of the nitrate solution is sucked up with a pipette, in clean beaker, heated nearly to boiling, a placed ammonium added in excess oxalate and ammonia until all precipitation are ceases,
and
the
liquidsmell stronglyammoniacal.
It is
left
464
AGRICULTURE,
OF
HANDBOOK
over-nightin the sand-bath,then filtered, washed, and usual in the The weight dried,gentlyignited, weighed way. covered
up
of calcium
carbonate
determined
is due to the amount of
sulphatepresentin
the
of
calcium
seven sample grammes 100 c.c. of the solution). (i.e., 500 c.c. of the nitrate (5) Sulphates.100 c.c. of the original
of the nitrate
"
solution should be taken and made. into 300 c.c. with distilled and barium with chloride,after addition precipitated water, boiled, acid. The precipitate of a few dropsof hydrochloric is allowed It is next day filtered, to settle in the sand-bath. and dried,ignited of barium weighed in the usual way, and the amount sulphate of lime predetermined, taken in connection with the amount viously of calcium sulphate determined, givesthe amount present as
impurity.
Silver Nitrate The Standard Solution. For estimation of it is have chlorine in substances to analysed, a standard necessary solution of silver nitrate always ready. The decinormal solution "
is in
It is made
generaluse.
16-97 by dissolving
grammes
of pure
The solution must silver nitrate in 1000 c.c. of distilled water. the molecular weight of silver nitrate is 169*7, be neutral. Now contains 16'97 grammes and as the solution made of the salt,it of silver contains TVth of the molecular nitrate in grammes weight per litre. 1 c.c. of this solution therefore represents 10000 of the molecular weight of chlorine,or of sodium chloride,i.e.,-00355 of chlorine,or '00585 grammes of sodium chloride. grammes The solution in which the chlorine or sodium chloride has to either be neutral,or slightly be determined must alkaline with a acidulated with acetic acid. The potassium fixed alkali, or slightly used for titration must be also neutral and free from chromate
chlorides. calculations The following sodium of nitrate : sample
refer
to
an
actual
analysisof
"
Porcelain Porcelain
crucible 4* sodium crucible alone .
nitrate .
.
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
."
.
60*65 grammes. 25*65
35 grammes.
(1) Moisture Watch-glass-f clip-f-nitrate of Watch-glass + clip4- dry salt "
;.
Moisture Moisture
(2) Insoluble
in 3 grammes in 1 gramme
matter
.
.
soda
27*3725 27*2245
."
.
.
.
.
.
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
'148
.
*04933--4'93
per cent.
"
Glass tube + stopper + paper Tube + stopper -I-paper
-f
Insoluble matter in 35 grammes in 1 gramme :. Insoluble matter
insoluble matter .
.
" .
.
.
"
.
'00137
13*832
*048
"
.
.'.
13*180
"
.
"
*14 per cent.
a
ANALYSIS
OP
465
OIL-CAKE.
After ignition." Cruoible 4- ash Crucible alone
:,
Insoluble
.
.
.
.
.
29*3620 29*3315
"
.
^ " .
.
.
siliceous matter
"
.
.
.
"0305 '09 per cent.
t3) Sulphates." Crucible -I- Barium Crucible alone
Sulphate -f
ash
paper
29*3650 "29*3315 "
.
.
..
..
..
-0335 Less
ash
paper
.
.
Barium sulphate in 7 grammes :. Barium Sulphate
(4) Lime.-
'0020
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
'0315
"
.
.
'45 per
"
.
.
w
cent.
"
Crucible 4- Calcium Crucible alone
Less paper
Carbonate
+
paper
ash
29'3425 "29*3305 "
"
..
.
.
.
..
..
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
"0120 *002
"01 :.
Calcium
carbonate
.
to Calcium
Equal
sulphate
.
'14 per cent. '19 per cent.
.
.
(5) Chhride.-76*3 :.
But :.
c.c.
10 '9 1
The
c.c.
Silver nitrate solution
of
were
requiredfor
7 grammes
for 1 gramme
c.c.
of sodium chloride '00589 grammes chloride present ""00585 T 10*9 '06376" 6'38 per cent.
(standard)
AgNO.
"
of sodium
amount
"
compositionof the
The
percentage analysed is, therefore
sample
of nitrate
of soda
:
"
lOO'O *
Containing Sand"
XCVII.
CHAPTER ANALYSIS FODDER.
FOR
the
"
In
'09%_
OF
OIL-CAKE.
analysing a sample of oil-cake for fodder, six in number be determined are : (3)Fibre ; (4)Oil ; (5)Albuminoid matter ;
proximateconstituents
to
"
(1) Moisture ; (2)Ash ; and (6) Soluble organic matter. of moisture present (1) Moisture. To determine the amount of three the in the sample, powdered cake should be rneagrammes "
M,
HA
30
466
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and leftin the water-oven to dry. After sured out on a watch-glass hour it is weighed a few hours it is weighedagain. After another found to remain constant in weight third time, and when it is a the difference from the original since the last weighing, weight is calculated as beingdue to loss of moisture in three grammes. of coolingthe At the two last weighingsthe usual precautions substance inside the desiccator, coveringit up with another watchthem together by glassand fastening
means
of the
clipshould
be
taken. mineral matter. Two grammes of the cake should be weighedout in the platinumcrucible,alreadycleaned,ignited and cooled in the desiccator. The cake is ignited the Bunsen on rendered quitewhite, i.e., after about half an hour, flame. When it is set aside in the desiccator to cool. When cool,it is weighed,
(2) Ash
or
"
and the difference between this weight and the weightof the crucible in the two grammes. alone is due to the ash ingredients and insoluble organicmatter. (3) Fibre, or indigestible of the sample should be weighedout in a beaker. Three grammes Two scratches should be made on the side of the beaker, one at 150 c.c. and the other at 200 c.c., 150 c.c. of distilledwater should be Added to the cake, and the beaker placed on the wire gauze over the flame. The whole is broughtto boiling with continual stirring acid solution to prevent burning. At this stage 50 c.c. of sulphuric of f ive cent, acid added to the are containing per pure sulphuric mixture ; and the boiling continued exactly for half an hour after that. The normal value of 200 c.c. is maintained throughoutby "
The the addition of hot water at intervals duringthe half hour. residue from this acid-digestion is collectedover a filteron a piece of linen cloth. It is washed several times with hot water while the cloth and then when it ceases to turn litmus paper on red, it 150 c.c. of water is transferred to a beaker. added again, are and the mixture broughtagain to boiling, and at this stage 50 c.c. of a five per cent, solution of caustic potash are The added. mixture should be boiled exactlyfor half an hour again. It is againfiltered throughlinen,washed, and transferred to a weighed crucible. The crucible is left on the steam-bath over-night and in the
morning transferred to is weighed,the increase
the water-oven. When dry perfectly of weightbeing due to the insoluble it fibrous matter contained in three grammes. From this is subtracted the weightof the ash which is determined by igniting the fibrous matter iA the crucible,coolingit in the desiccator and weighingit again. (4) Oil." Two grammes of the finely powdered cake are folded and inserted in a tube between plugs up in a pieceof filter-paper, "of card ed cotton-wool ; above the upper cotton phig is placeda coiled brass spiral. It is then placedin a Soxhlet fat extractor, loosely the lower end of the extractor attached to a wide mouthed ether by a cork, and ^the flask containing upper end to a long inserted^condenser. The ether is then keptboiling for three hours
468
OF
HANDBOOK
The
AGRICULTURE.
of the sample of oil-cake analysed percentagecomposition
therefore
was
"
(1) Moisture
(2)
10-24 6*91
Ash
(3) Fibre (4) Oil (5) Albuminoids (6) SoJuble organicmatters
6-46 11-85
40*74 23-78
100-00
While sugar. should noted it be fodder,
Starch and
analysinga sample
of linseed cake if there is for any starch or sugar in the cake, which are indicative of adulteration. Two of grammes taken in small be 100 cake may of water a beaker, c.c. added, boiled for five minutes, and then allowed to cool. the mixture is to be decanted off (not filtered), One portion when quite cold, into a If any
"
basin porcelain blue colour
and
tincture of iodine ad,ded drop by drop. the presence of starch stirring,
is noticed while
is to be inferred. If an oil-cake for manure. oil-cake is used besides moisture, ash, fibre,oil, both as a fodder and manure, found which oil-cake which and albuminoids, out in analysing are of sand, lime, phosphoric is used as fodder alone, the amounts acid and potash,present in the ash, should be determined. If,
Analysis of
"
of castor-cake and ma/ma-cake, the substance is not to find alone,it is unnecessary requiredfor fodder but for manure of oil,fibre and albuminoids in the sample, out the proportions to find out the proportions of lime, phosbut it is very necessary phoric acid and potash besides nitrogen,and foreignsubstances in the
as
case
sand. as After determiningthe percentage of ash in the usual way, the ash is dissolved in half a litre of distilledwater ; each 100 c.c. three grammes of cake in the example given below, representing of cake being ignitedfor obtainingthe ash for fifteen grammes
such
analysis. 200
c.c.
of the solution
six 'grammes (representing
should
of the added
then be taken. Chloride is then Ferric ammonia to take down the jelly-like precipitate.The is washed with ammonia The precipitate is water. precipitate collected ii^ beaker, and dissolved in nitric acid ; ammonium a and estimated molybdate is added, the phosphoricacid precipitated the in of o f soil. case as analysis
cake)
and
The ammonium
filtrateand oaalate
washings are concentrated added the to precipitate
filtrate and
washingsfrom
by boiling,and lime
as
calcium
oxalate. The in
a
the
sand-bath, ignitedon case
of soil in
a
the last
taken to dryness porcelainbasin, and treated as in
estimatingpotash.
are
ANALYSIS
The
OF
followingexample
of oil-cake for
shows is worked
manure
469
OIL-CAKE.
how out
analysisof
an
sample
a
:
"
(1) For moisture." cake -f clip -J-raw Watch-glasses Watch-glasses -f clip + clip -f dry cake Watch-glasses :.
Moisture
in 1 gramme
25 '743 "24*743 25*659 '0835 8*35 % "
..
..
..
..
..
"
..
..
"
.
.
.
.
(2) Organicmatter, "kc.
"
Crucible + ignited cake (1 gramme) Crucible alone :. Loss on ignition
30*3280 29*4785 '8495
" .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
"
"84*95% Deducting 8*35 (3) Sand,
cent, for moisture
per
.
.
..
..
.
.
...
.
..
..
(4) Nitrogen calculated
.
"
ash
.
.
.
"
J c.c.=89^
6*7855 "6*1866 "
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
..
.
.
the
of the cake, the ammonia In 1 gram of albuminoids.
replacedby
would
c.c."
..
.
In 1 gramme
(6) Phosphoricacid.
"
6'61%
.
"29*402 "29*326 *076
..
..
..
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
ash ""
.
.
*0123=
.
"074
1 *23%
"
Crucible Mg2 Pa 07 paper ash Crucible alone 6 grammes :. Mg2 Pa 07 from Deducting *002 for ash ;. Mgj R, 02 in 1 gramme Mg2 R" 07 : P205 : : 2'33 : P 0$ in the cake. :. P205 in the sample "
be '066 grammes
ash
paper
"
.
..
.
..
.
.
"
.
.
"
142
"
14
.
.
.
*0233=2'33%
"
.
.
.
..
.
.
29*4675 29*3255
"
.
..
.
.
=
.
1 '49%
(7) Potash." Crucible -fppt. Crucible alone ;. 2K Cl. Pt C14in 6 grammes :. In 1 gramme of K20 PtCl42KC1 : K20 : : 5-96 : amount of KaO present ;. amount ..
..
,.
..
..
..
26'015 "25*6575 "'3575 "
..
.
ammonia
of ammonia. in '5989 grammes
-
Crucible +CaC03 from 200 Crucible alone ash :. CaCO3" paper Deducting *002 for paper CaC03 in 6 grammes :.
grm.
.
caustic standard requiredto neutralize the of
"
carbonate.-
'5989
"
c.c.
.
.
.
soda solution was acid taken sulphuric 89i = 10Jc.c. of standard caustic soda was :. 100 of the cake. coming from the *5989 grammes of the alkali represents '0037716 grammes But 1 c.c. of ammonia :. 10 \ c.c. represents '0396018 grammes the cake.
(5) Calcium
7*07%
"
"
50 4- 39
1*061
" .
.
'0707"
Ammonias
as
Watch-glass -cake Watch-glassalone :. The quantitytaken
"30*390 29'327 1*063 "
.
:.
"
cfcc."
Crucible* sand, "c. Crucible alone :. Sand, "c., in 15 grammes Deducting *002 for paper :. In 1 gramme
=4*43%
76*60
" .
.
.
.
-0596=5-96%
"
.
present. *"
=1*15%
of
"
470
OP
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
the
.-
...
Organic matter,
f
:
"
"8*35
Moisture *
analysisof
of the
results
therefore are the following for manure oil-cake of the sample The
Ash
"c.
76*60
"
...
...
...
"
"15-05
...
...
...
per cent.
.-
...
...
"
100*00 *
of
Containing34*43%
nitrogenous matter
calculated
as
albuminoids,
f Containing" Silicates,dec. Lime
" .
Phosphoricacid Potash
...
...
...
...
ANALYSIS
OF
per cent.
'69
,f
.
1'49 "1-15 "
...
...
..
...
CHAPTER
IN
70*7
"
...
...
...
,, "
XOVIII. SILAGE,
GKASS,
analysingleaves, hay, silageand
"c.
roots, some
difference
in the estimation of albuminoids from the method has to be made recommended for oil-cake for fodder,though the moisture, oil, in the case of oil-cakes. Leaves, fibre and ash are determined as contain nitrates, amides and amines, which have littleor no etc., feedingvalue. True albuminoids should be separatedfrom other and the nitrogenin these alone estimated nitrogen-compounds of the two with the by one processes described in connection of o f The albuminoids soils. is done in separation true analysis the following way : acid is put on the lid of a platinum crucible Orthophosphoric Bunsen flame. Spurting and gentlyheated on a triangle over a flame. When it becomes is avoided by moving about the Bunsen "
quite glassy,orthophosphoricacid changes
into
metaphosphoric
In this state it is put inside a beaker along with the lid of acid. the crucible and a little distilledwater to dissolve the metaphosphoric acid. Two of hay, or any other food-stuff silage, grammes of this class that is analysed, are put in a beaker, moistened with and solution few drops of the metaphosa a warm phoric phenol (4%),
acid .solution are
added. After a quarter of an hour 100 c.c. solution in a boilingstate, are of the same added, the phenol mixture stirred, and then left to cool. The whole is then transferred to a the washing being done with the help of a filter, wash-bottle containing the same phenol solution in a cold state. The albuminoids getting coagulated by the phenol solution remain
on
compounds
filter,while the non-albuminoid pass off with the filtrate. Tite contents the
dried and method as Kjeldahl's are
then
nitrogentherein alreadydescribed. the
nitrogenous
of the filter either by estimated
ANALYSIS
refer to figures following
The of
471
OIL-CAKE.
OF
an
actual
of analysis
sample
a
silage: "
Moisture.
"
Crucible -f powdered Crucible alone
silage
"
...
...
30-860 "29-327 "533
Crucible" dry silage /. Loss in 1*533 grammes
taken.
grammes
"30-755 ""105
...
-6-84% Dry silagetaken
"
1"533
"
-105"
1-428
grammes.
Fibre." Glass + stopper+ silage Glass + stopper
"37-446 "34-446 3
crucible 4-dry fibre of porcelain Wt" of porcelaincrucible alone
Wt.
taken.
grammes
12-0995
"
"10-9665 "1-1330
-37-76% Axh." Crucible" Crucible"
"30-7550
dry silage ignitedresidue
"29-4445
1-3105 org. matter, alone ash in 1'428 grammes
Crucible .-. 1175"
"29-3270 of
"8-22%
dry silage
Oil." Glass + stopper + silage
"37*446
Glass+stopper
"34-446
taken
3 grammes
"31-708
Flask + oil Flask alone
-31-922
"2-86% Albuminoids." Wt.
"36*446
of glass+ stopper -f silage
"34-446
G lass -f stopper
taken.
2 grammes of standard NaHO 50"43-5=93-5 c.c. up for neutralising20 c.c. of standard
of alkali represents of albuminoids" 1908 grammes
6-5
c.c.
6*5
x
.*.
solution
taken sulphuricacid.
"1279 gr. in 2 gr,
In 1 gramme
"064
grammes=6-4%
percentage composition of the sample of silagewa"
The therefore
; "
Moisture 37-76
Fibre Ash (includingsand) Oil ...
Albuminoids Soluble
8
6-40 ...
Ac. carbohydrates,
..
.
.
.
..
.
...
"
'29,,
37 92
'/, v
100-00
472
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTUBB.
OF
XCIX.
CHAPTER WATER THE
ANALYSIS.
farmer should be careful about the for irrigation or drinkingpurposes.
qualityof
the water
he uses of The presence nitrates is helpfulfor vegetation, but that of nitrates and of chlorine indicates sewage contamination, and nitrites are also
injuriousto
crops.
Distillation is the only means Even water. rain-water, which traces waters, contains other solid bodies. For
of
is
gettingchemicallypure
the
of all natural of chlorides, ammonium nitrate and obtainingeight gallons of distilled
purest
This ten should used. be water gallonsof ordinary water should be distilled from a copper still connected with block a The first half gallonof distilled water tin worm. is to be jected reand the next eight gallons kept. of water, the followIn testing the purityor adaptability ing
pointsshould
be noted : (1) Total Hardness nent ; (2) PermaHardness and Nitrites ; (4) Nitrates ; (3) Chlorine ; Ammonia Free Ammonia Albuminoid (5) (7) Total ; (6) ; and Residue after distillation. The points which a farmer should nitrates and the chlorine, note nitrites. are specially Total hardness the whole of lime and amount (1) represents other
salts which
"
render
water
Clarke's
hard.
soap-test
is
total hardness ; 50 c.c. of water taken are determining in a stopperedbottle of about 200 c.c. capacity. A burette is filledwith the standard soap solution,and 1 c.c. added each time When lather remains and the bottle shaken. a permanently five minutes further addition of the solution should be stopped or and the number of c.c. of the solution used read off. Then from Table of Hardness the proportion of Lime the of Carbonate
appliedfor
"
n
"
100,000 parts of water, determined. (2) Permanent hardness indicates the
of calcium and The calcium carbonate. amount
magnesium salts in a state other than and magnesium carbonates are held in solution in water by the dioxide dissolved in the water. On this gas carbon boiling, the carbonates other off and while all are precipitated, passes A high-degreeof permanent hardness salts remain unaffected. of indicate sewage contamination, showing the presence may derived from and which be both of chlorides, might sulphates is it matter. to render such water Moreover, impossible sewage In potable by boiling. estimating permanent hardness, the the water, and the result noted soap-test is appliedafter boiling hardness." as permanent "
also indicate sewage (3) Chlorine,as chlorides,may the for accounts to tamination, though nearness seacalso of the chlorine in water. placed in a beaker over
70 a
con* some
of the water to be tested are sheet of white paper and brought c.c.
.under
473
ANALYSIS.
WATER
charged with the standard solution of silver drops of the solution of potassiumchromate are
burette
a
Two
nitrate.
then added, and the silver solution carefully run
in with
constant
the solution in the beaker justchangesfrom yellow This indicates that all the chlorides have been precipitated
until stirring, red.
to
The
silver chromate will not form until all the chlorides have been removed, but whenever of silver golutioncauses this is attained,the least excess the red chromate to be produced. Each cubic centimetre of silver solution silver chloride.
as
will
indicate
silver nitrate and
red
coloured
of chlorine per litre. The grammes chromate solutions must be both potassium "00355
neutral. perfectly
(4) Nitrates and Nitrites. The
sample of water piece of sheet-aluminium
"
with in.
sodium The
hydrate
and
nitrates and
a
nitrites
reduced
are
is treated
dropped
ammonia
to
in
with the nascent applied. As nitrates
hydrogen produced and then Nessler's beneficial to plantlife and nitrites are and indicative of sewage contamination, it is important injurious if there are any nitrates and nitrites in to ascertain qualitatively the water used for irrigation and for drinking purposes. Water containingnitrates, coming in contact with sewage, the nitrates reduced become nitrites the metaphenylene to nitrites. For This reagent is dissolved diamine hydrochloride test is the best. in sulphuric acid,and a drop of it added to water supposedto be contaminated If a yellowcolour is gradually by sewage. formed, contact test
the presence of nitritesis to be inferred. the presence of nitrates,an For ascertaining
equal volume
of strong sulphuric acid should be added to a volume of the water tested,and then a few drops of indigosulphatesolution. The solution should be
that the
heated,and if nitrates
indigosolution
(5) The
are
present,it will be
seen
is decolorized.
free ammonia
is determined
in water
by
Nessler's
test.
(6) Albuminoid in the water.
is due to
ammonia
bodies nitrogenous organic
After
the free ammonia has been estimated,by distillationwith sodium carbonate, the residue remainingin the retort is heated with a stronglyalkaline solution of potassium
permanganate, sufficient being added about 500 and is
c.c.
The
to make
matters nitrogenous
the solution up to tion undergoa limited oxida-
Then Nessler's test obtained as ammonia. the distilled liquorwhich is collected in portions The alkaline solution of potassiumpermanganate is
is nitrogen
appliedto
of 50
c.c.
4 preparedby dissolving
and
100
grammes
of
of
potassium permanganate potassiumhydrate in 550 c.c. of distilled grammes
water.
(7) Total residue is what water
has been
evaporated.
remains
behind
after
a
sample of
PART
VI.
CATTLE.
CHAPTER
C.
BUFFALOES. [Division of cattle
wild buffalo ; The domesticated buffalo ; the advantage of ; The buffaloes for draught and milk purposes ; Feeding of buffaloes ; Points of a milking and a working buffalo termination for work ; De; Breeding ; Period of age ; Diseases of buffaloes.]
keeping
THE sub-family Bovinae belongingto the tribe Ruminants is divided into three main (1)the Bisontine to which belongs groups : the yak of Central Asia ; (2) the Taurine or oxen divided proper, subagaininto (a)the Zebus (Bos Indicus)or humped oxen of India,(6)the Taurus (Bos Longifrons), the humpless cylindrical "
horned cattle of Europe,and (c)the Gavceus, humpless,somewhat flattened horned cattle of India and South- Eastern Asia and
(3) the Bubaline
buffaloes. Wild
These
are
;
comprisingthe wild and the domesticated the animals ordinarily cattle. known as
The buffaloes. "
milk
of the buffalo
beingmuch
richer in
butter than the milk of cows, buffaloes should be considered as very valuable farm animals. useful In dry heat buffaloes are not so for draught purposes whole but the as on they are superior oxen, cart and plough animals. Buffaloes are found in the wild state in the Himalayan Terai from Oudh and in the plains to Bhutan of
Bengalas
and
in
Central and the
the
far west
as
Tirhut,but chiefly along the Brahmaputra,
Sundarbans.
India
as
They
far south
as
also inhabit the the Godavery, also
table-lands of
Ceylon,Burma
Malay Peninsula.
They live in the marginsof forests rather but and they never ascend the mountains interior, adhere to the swampy portionsof the localitiesthey inhabit. The wild buffalo is somewhat cated largerand plumper than the domestiIn the wild b buffalo. state they are very powerful,ut they not savage nor are unapproachableexcept where they are much
than
in the
hunted. and
They
come
to
produce their young in herds.
heat in autumn, gestatefor ten months in the hot weather. They usuallylive
The
domesticated buffalo is also semi-aquatic in its habits. female buffaloes breed first when they are three years old
The and then once in every two or three years only and produceabout six calves in all. Occasionally theycalve annually. They continue
476
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
This mixture is dividedinto two doses,one beinggivenin the morning and the other in the evening, and its administration should be repeatedfor three or four days, if necessary. While made under treatment be and animal should the given littlewater to live on dry bhusa as much as possible.
CHAPTER
CI.
OXEN. be kept distinct ; The Bankipore cross-bred cattle ; Nell ore cross-bred cows Hansi and Darbhanga ; The and Gir cows sing ; The Nagpur bullock ; The Jerseyand Kerry valuable for croswith cows should not be from cross-bred animals, but from ; Bullocks local breeds ; The heavy Mysore and Hissar breeds and Gujrat breeds best for draught purposes and Kosi breeds best ; ; For Bengal the little Mariana Points of a good cow and bullock : Breeding ; Gestation ; Pregnancy ; Food
'[Three classes
of
oxen
to
Montgomery, Meerut,
calves and bullocks at different stages ; Changes of food ; Relative of cows, value of food -stuffs ; Relation of food to weight ; Housing ; Age ; Castration ;
Dehorning.]
THERE
three types of bovine cattle, (a)draughtanimals, and "(b)milkers, (c)beef-producers. Draught animals may also be ing to have milkgood milkers or beef -producers,and it is possible of and beef-producing the in the case combined, as qualities are
"
to keep the three it is more satisfactory each of and choose the best types quitedistinct type for breeding purposes, the rest beingsold by the breeder or used after castration. This system of breedingonly from one type tends to exaggerate
Jersey
cattle.
But
the
qualitysought,which is either power of work and endurance, or qualityand quantity of milk, or qualityand quantity of beef. The Bankiporecross-bred cattle established by Mr. Taylerabout the time of the Mutiny from the local breed crossed with English of from eightto twenty seers bulls,is a superiormilker,yielding be made milk per diem. of these may A number the basis for the milking strain. Other superiormilkingbreeds are the Montgomery and the Meerut breeds ; the Hansi ; and a cross-bred race established in the Darbhanga Raj State by crossinggood country with a Jerseybull. For power of muscle and bones and -cows of action,the trotting bullocks of-Nagpur come first,and a number of animals of this class may be made the basis of the draught
strain. In? There are no
fine trotting there are bulls. very Indian cattle which producethe tasty beef which is obtained from the Highland Kylo, or the Dexter Kerry, and to "establish both beef and milk producingstrains, it is best to import bulls of the Kerry and the Jerseybreeds from England and rear them free from contamination hill with native cows, on some station.
Rajputana also
The
from Jerseybreed is specially mentionedas it comes and is an excellent is not very largein size, a, fairly warm locality, breed. and The Shorthorn breeds, though milking Ayrshire
477
OXEN.
heavier milkers,are not so suited for crossing with the smaller sized Bengalcattle,nor are they so adaptedfor the Indian climate the Jersey cattle. Of the South Indian breeds, may be menas tioned the Mysore cattle as a superiordraught animal and the Nellore cattle as a superior milk-producing cattle. Butt they and feeders sized animals and are are not therefore heavy large in the same the Bankiporecross-bred cattlerecommended as way and the Nagpur cattle as theJbasis of improvement for Bengal. The Kathiawar Gir cattle are good both for draughtand milk or and they are not so largeas Mysore or Nellore cattle, purposes,
and
form the basis of selection for both types in Western His Highnessthe Gaekwar of Baroda has broughtto the notice of the Englishpublicthe excellence of this breed. The small hill cattle are generally in size, with undevelopedhumps, may
India.
and the Burmese cattle are the Of North Indian cattle,the Hissar, Mewat and Gujrat breeds are the best for draughtpurposes, and the Hariana and Kosi breeds the best for milk. Mr. S. M. Hadi, Assistant of Agriculture Director of the United Provinces, recommends
but,
as
rule, powerful. These
a
milkers.
worst
Kosi bulls for improving both draught and milking breeds. Kosi cows small-sized animals, but they yieldas are much as seven or eightseers of milk per day. Some of the best of milkingcattle of Calcutta belong to this breed. Hundreds the Kosi fair cattle find their way from to Calcutta. annually of Calcutta belong to the The animals excellent commissariat Of Bengal cattle,the Sitamari breed alone may Hissar breed. worth keepingup. be mentioned as with the Jersey lias proved very beneficial Cross-breeding the
use
of
obtaininggood milkers, but. as as foreigncattle should be deprecated,
with a rule, cross-breeding the native breeds are hardier and less subjectto disease than cross-bred animals. As cows are certain of housed and amount treated, a delicacyof carefully do much constitution may not harm, but for draught animals, for
of constitution necessarily get rough treatment, delicacy is most undesirable. Draught animals should not be crossed with European cattle for another reason : the hump of the bullock and as European is of great service in ploughingand in carting, animals cross-bred either with cattle are without humps, the are without humps, or with ill-developed or humps. We can leave in a book on Indian out of consideration altogether beef-producing agriculture. which
must
Indian cattle of Northern India Points. Of all pure-bred which are easilyavailable for breedingpurposes for the other two types of animals, the Kosi is the best to select for Bengal. It in the United Provinces. A good Kosi is a native of Mathura should be characterized by the following marks, which should cow "
less all milch
It should have
a heavy dew-lap; a prominent forehead ; badcmi (almond-shaped) eyes ;, hair ; the hairypart of the tail should be fine,glossyand polished
characterize more
or
cows
: "
478
HANDBOOK
bushy, tapery,
OF
AGRICULTURE.
touching the ground
and
; the
belly,large
but
the size of the animal ; the horns, elegant and well proportioned larger ; the udder, large,and front teats all four well and from hind another. the The than one ones, apart The milk .veinsshould be well developedand tortuous. temper should be docile,and the animal should be slow and lazy of a cow should be assumed rather than sprightly.A bad tempered cow well
to
proportionedto
be
a
milker.
poor
tempered animal, the and
cow
the
the
more
she
more
Though a^good milker
it should
be also borne
in mind
likelyshe is to. be of a is apt to be affected by If the
is
usually a good that
temperament
nervous a
milker
the better
change in handling, lacks
the new milking or surroundings. experience, result usuallyis a permanent shrinkageof the milk yieldand early Heifers their first calf should be with drying oil of the cow. for ten or eleven months in the year, so that the habit of end of the periodof gestation almost milk the to giving very may If it is necessary be established. to introduce a stranger,let him begin milkingand let the older attendant finish off. This should be continued for two three days before the older attendant is or allowed to be replacedaltogetherby the stranger. Black and The skin of Indian white are the best colours for these cows. the colour of the hair may cattle,whatever be, is usuallyblack. A cow should be thin at its neck and slight at fore-quarters and and The is here behind. of a Meerut heavy figuregiven deep milked
-cow
belongingto
Calcutta, in which
Bholanath Babu the pointsof a
Chatter
good
cow
jee of Bhowanipur, can
be
prominent^
noticed.
FIG.
98." AN
IDEAL
INDIAN
cow
(MBKRUT
BREEDS).
A
characteristic marks good Kosi bullock has the following of which should characterize more all bullocks : The less or hoofs should be dark, round and comp"ct, i.e.,the toes not too far separated from each other. The eyes should be dark and
most
"
479
OXEN.
unlike the eyes of a deer. The forehead should be The muscles on the top of the neck should be well prominent. ing givinga greater width to the upper surface and formdeveloped, down. when bent the neck is Animals channel which show a
prominentnot
neck and no channel should be considered weak. thin upper The chest should be broad, the tail thin and the sheath not too prominent. Grey is the best colour for bullocks as it denotes strength.If a bullock is white, its hump should be black. A
a
bullock should be well proportioned, heavier,in fact,at the neck behind. Both than and bullocks should be and fore-quarter cows
good
eaters.
in breeding. Breeding. Cattle should not be allowed full liberty Bulls should be prevented from breedingfor the first three "
and heifers for the first two years of their life, Calves should be givenplentyto eat if they are
breeding animals.
Neglectingcalves in once annuallyand some
is
a
years
and
to turn
a
out
great mistake.
half.
good Some
calve two years, and occasionally calve Those that in three years. once a year should have once the after calving.Those calvingonce bull put to them two months in two years should have the bull eightmonths after calving.If cows
after
givingbirth
to its firstcalf does not
show a desire for after calving, the bull by coming to heat within four months it which will not calve every year. should be taken as one Those calvingannuallygive the normal quantityof milk for the first in two years for the first eight and those calving four months once a
cow
the quantityof milk decreases gradually, After this period months but the qualityimprovesuntil shortlybefore they go dry when somewhat saline in taste. A cow the milk becomes which gives The Ek-barsi such milk is called khero (i.e., saline). (or one-year cow) goes dry in eightmonths and the Do-barsi (ortwo-year cow) after calving.There are some in twelve to fourteen months cows, however, which givemilk for a longerperiod. The milkingperiod .
the breed, also on feedingand milking. on depends chiefly The period of a cow is 283 to 300 days, of a buffalo ofgestation 350 of 148 315 to to 156 days and of a sow days, sheep or goat 120 to 127 days. A cow calvingfrom the third to the goes on
twentieth year of her age.
Cows come in three weeks to heat once until they get jpregnant. To ascertain whether a cow is pregnant or not, it is milked of the and milk is taken out of the pail with a drop separately and dropped in a glassof clean water. If the drop a bit of straw sinks to the bottom, without much the cow dispersion, in the water, the cow is pregnant ; if it disperses is not readily Our Qowalas usuallyjudge pregnancy by the following pregnant. animal if the stands with its tail removed on one habitually : sign of milk
the vulva, it is pregnant ; if it habitually rests its tail it is not absence vulva, the of o r on pregnant. Bellowing bellowing, oestral sign, walking quietly,and the tri-weekly jumping or side from
are
other
indications.
480
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
food producesthe effectof exciting the desire of following ration of Juar fodder with two to four for the bull : a daily the cow Ibs. of boiled cotton seed. This food givenfor three or four weeks producesthe effect. A heifer which refuses to take the bull may be converted into a Kamdhenu (or virginmilker)if she is milked will At first yieldvery littlemilk, but if the milking regularly. is persisted two to three in, she givesconsiderable quantities, i.e., be done at any time of the day. seers a day, and the milkingcan Cows in calf which have got dry are usuallygiven no special food, but simply left to graze and drink what water they can get. But some nourishingfood and plenty of good drinking-water in calf,though fatteninga should always be providedfor cows of oil-cake,or Half a seer in calf is highly undesirable. cow The
cotton-seed mixed fodder should be
grass
or
up with
basketful of bhusa
a
leaves, e.g.,
or
(i.e., straw,
etc.)
baer
(Zizyphusjujuba)leaves addition to grazing. A few
given as sani every night,in days before delivery,they should be given half a seer of boiled barleymixed with 1 pow (5 to 6 ounces) of gur and half a pow of linseed oil and half a chittack (one ounce) of common day. This mixture is a mild laxative but strengthening food, and it is also beneficial in helpingon the flow of milk.
mustard
or
salt every
food should After deliveryliquid for four or five days and the cow
be avoided
as
much
as
possible
kept on such dry food as wheatginger,and oil. After four straw, wheat-bran, gur, fenugreek, five days the colostrum givesplaceto the flow of true milk. or and it is has useful in The colostrum an aperient property, relieving accumulated foetal dung. After the or the calf of the moeconium should of has the cow passed, period colostrum get for a month rice and Jcalai) mixed with 1 pow 1 seer of boiled wheat (or mixed of gur and the milk left by the calf which is drawn, besides grazing is very helpful in inducingthe flow of milk. ad lib. This mixture weeks' milk The first three inducingdiarrhoea among children, is usuallyrejected, i.e.,givento calves and cows, or pigs, or utilized For the firstthree weeks after calving, for making butter. a cow is called kechute (orgreen). There is usuallya new accession to the flow of milk about
the twenty-first day after calving.If at is sold to a new this time or soon afterwards,the cow owner or removed from one placeto another, there is a serious interruption in the flow. This should therefore be regardedas the critical periodas far as the yieldof milk is concerned, and very careful
feedingand
be
resorted to, and on no account should the attendant be changedat this period. If it is necessary the animal,this should be done before the twentieth to sellor remove three or four months after calving. or day after calving, The followingfoods are in helpful enhancingthe quantity and qualityof milk : treatment
must
"
(1) 2
seers
of boiled mash
kalai,1
of ghol(buttermilk churned or in addition to grazing.
5
seers
seer
of crushed
curd) made
into
juar and a
gruel,
481
OXEN.
(2) Husked
dal of gram
well
steepedin water,
in addition to
grazing. (3) Cyamopsispsoralioides tion (juar)cut green before the formaof seed, in addition to ordinary grazing. from 2 A.M. when there (4) Grazingearlyin the morning, i.e., is
plentyof dew
the grass, in addition to ordinarygrazing. or green twigsof wild plum (baer)chopped seed, in addition to ordinary up into small bits given with cotton
(5) Dried
on
leaves
grazing. (6) Kanta-notea, bael fruit and mash
given in addition
water
to
kalai boiled
togetherin
grazing.
(7) Silageand bran (say 20 Ibs. + 4 Ibs.) cow (8) For a large-sized yielding12 to 15 seers of milk a economical is for each feed, 5 seers mixture of chaff, day. a very of water, given twice a day. The of molasses and 24 seers is also 1 seer of oil-cake soaked mixture following very good : of chaff and a handful of salt,twice in hot water, with 5 seers 1
seer
"
a
day.
is necessary if a good liberal supply of good drinking-water do not drink the same flow of milk is desired. Cows quantity of If they are water at all seasons. given watery or sloppy food, A middle-sized cow should be provided they requireless water. with 10 gallonsof water per day, though she may not drink it all. is the proportionin England, One part of dry food to four of water but they requiremore in India. water The flow of milk is also enhanced by rubbing the udder with castor-oil after each milking, supplemented,of course, by proper the milk-glands excites than slow also more feeding.Quick milking A
milking,and
an
expert
who
milker
can
do
the
work
quickly
can
milker. always get of twice increases the quanMilkingfour times a day instead tity of the milk, but the qualityis somewhat inferior. It is always desirable,however, to milk cattle thoroughlyand not to spare any more
milk out
of
a
cow
than
a
slow
Thorough milking not only givesone the last which are richer,but it tends to increase the flow of milk strippings and enlarge the size of the mammary glands. The septum of the median line and milkingshould be is the glands along mammary done first at one side and then at the other and not, as is sometimes done, at the front teats firstand hind teats afterwards. month to suck as much milk The calves are allowed for one But while they learn to pick up a few blades of grass. as they can after a month restriction should be put on the calf and it should be hand-fed with a mixture of ghol and barley,or with wheatmeal and linseed-meal,and allowed to pick up grass and other fodder plants. They should be kept as much apart from their when dams be the should as possible. Hand-feeding practised colostrum after the calf is only a week old, i.e.,immediately period. In three months the calf learns to live on grass chiefly, of sani in the evening, a littlebhusa and oil-cakein the form getting milk
for calves.
M, HA
31
482
OP
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
a day, up to the age of six months, after which, say two seers is if there is good pasture, no special feeding required. Working bullocks should get, as sani, straw and bhusa (" a and " a seer to maund to 30 seers per day, accordingto size), of cotton seed per day ; but if 1'seer of oil-cake or 1J to 2 seers
5 to 10 seers of straw and 1 seer of oilcake there is plentyof herbage, seed are sufficient. or cotton for all classes of animals. Sudden changesof food are injurious Boiled food, linseed and carrots are recommended for debilitated
animals. Relative value
One of food-stuffs.
equal to
hay (8th)are
"
hundred
pounds
of
good
"
(1st) 28 (2nd) 37 (3rd) 43
(4th) 44| (5th) 59 (6th) 62 (7th) 90 (9th) 317 (10th)350 (llth)360 (12th)370 (13th)370 (14th)469 (15th)670
Ibs. of beans. Ibs. of peas. Ibs. of linseed cake. Ibs. of wheat. Ibs. of oats.
Ibs. of Ibs. of Ibs. of Ibs. of Ibs. of
maize. lucerne. oat-straw.
potatoes,
guinea-grass.
Ibs. of carrots. Ibs. of mangolds.
Ibs. of
turnips.
Ibs. of beet.
Preparation.Crushingof gram, etc. ; boilingin the case of Vrd (Phaseolus mungo) and Kulthi (Dolichos uniflorus) ; parching of barley and wheat, and grindingof maize, bean, etc., are the "
Bran
should form part of the food of all it has a tendency to animals, but used in largequantities, calculi. For straw should be cut long and not cattle, produce short,as is done for horses.
necessary. preparations
of food Relation of foodto weight. The amount bullock dependsvery largely its size. A on or "
cow
only300 Ibs. as our Bengalcows same quantityof food as a cow
requiredby a cow weighing not be giventhe
often do, should weighing1,500 Ibs. or 1,700 Ibs., the Dutch The of world's champion cow of the like some cows. Holstein the time is Eosa Bonheur animal V, an cow, present Weighing1,750 Ibs. and eatingdaily174 Ibs. of food (of actually 12 Ibs. which 52*43 Ibs.is dry matter),consisting of 114 Ibs.of silage, 9 Ibs. of maize meal, oat-meal, 3 Ibs. of bran, 9 Ibs. of oil-cake, and 27 Ibs. of roots. She actuallygave duringa show-test,106'75
day, and 726*25 Ibs. in one week. Although 21 a to eat cow maunds, expect Bengal weigh over maunds of food every day,and gjve 50 seers of milk a day, can judgefrom this case what the proportionsshould be in
Ibs. of milk in we over
can
2
yet we the
case
one
never
of
a
firstclass
cow
receivingfirstclass
treatment.
The
484
OF
HANDBOOK
openingthe method
is
scrotum
is,however,
AGRICULTURE.
in usuallypractised
not
this
and always successful,
country. This
it is better to open
the testicles completelywith a knife or and remove the scrotum which grindsthe spermatic better stillwith Kendall's Emasculator of instead It is said that cord and blood vessels, cuttingthem. of testicles the salt to of mothers calves, inducing dailyapplication loss of to lick the part hard, results in gradual genitalfunctions. confirmation needs by repeated experiments. This, however, Boiled ghee and carbolic acid (20 : 1) should be rubbed dailyat has been castrated. and constant treatment handlingby persons best of the means are from early age, making animals docile. to bring about docility. As an important Castration is practised methods of rational of cattle, to securingdocility accessory animal
after an Docility.Good
the wound
"
may
be also
dehorning.
mentioned
the horns are just budding in the calf, from the skin all round and the little the hair should be clipped which with few moistened water to a horn drops of ammonia have been added to dissolve the secretion of the skin, that the potashsubsequentlyappliedmay adhere to the surface of the
Dehorning. When "
The skin is not to be moistened except on the horn where horn. the potashis to be applied. A stick of caustic potash is then held and one end of it dippedin water until it is slightly softened. The the horn. rubbed is then on It is operation to be repeated five to eighttimes until the surface of the horn becomes little a sensitive.
Only
scale
will be
formed, but
inflammation no or the part, if the operationis carefullyperformed. There are hornless or wise polled breeds of cattle which,if otheruseful,may be selected for breeding. a
suppurationof
"
Summary.
"
In
"
rearing cattle,speciallyfor dairy
purposes,
three things should be constantlykept in mind ; viz., Breed, Feed and Trouble. undoubted By breed is meant pedigree,i.e., both the sire and the dam should be known for two or three generations for the past to have been of the desired type. In arranging feed of cattle,paddockswith shady trees are a necessity. Juar, khesari and other cheap grains, kurti,millets, bran, oil-cakes and
groundnutplantsare
the
besides straw, that food-stuffs, principal vehicle to be depended upon. should be The oil-cake should be grown, if possible, should be bought,but the other things is of firstconsideration. the premises. Good water on the main
the head of trouble,comes ding, changingof Utter or bedkeepingthe house clean, avoidingall ailments by watching the progress of the cattle day by day. If they go off their feed or to ruminate, disease should be inferred. Negligent cease milking and neglectof sanitaryconditions generally, in the dairy,may result not only in diseases of animals, but the diseases be may Unddr
communicated
to human
beings. Tuberculosis, scarlatina, typhoid subject infected milk. Scrupulous cleanliness in every
cholera,and other diseases in the human fever,diphtheria, have been traced to
CALCULATION
OP
WEIGHT
OP
485
LIVESTOCK.
detail is needed, be employed for
should in dairymanagement. One man especially lookingafter and milkingonlyeightto ten cows. Mismanagementmust take placeif one man has to look after a largenumber of dairy cows.
CHAPTER
CII.
GOAT-KEEPING. crops need be one?s disposal. grown It is easy to maintain ten or twelve goats on the pasture which is requiredfor one cow. Jungleor hill land is best cleaned by having three goats per acre two maintained on it. They should be kept or within a barbed wire hurdle fence,four feet high,to keep them from doing mischief to plantations. They can be kept day and night GOATS
will eat almost for them if there is
anythingand no fodder enough of jungleland at
when shelter should be provided. out, except in the rainy season, Goat's milk being richer than cow's milk and beingmore easily -digested by invalids and children, goat-farmingshould not be despisedas an accessory to dairy-farming.Cow's milk contains about 4 per cent, of fat,4 cent, of casein and 4 per cent, of per
per cent, of fat,5 per cent, of casein and 5 per cent, of sugar, and about 4 per cent, less water. be Cream cheeses from goat'smilk are excellent. A goat mar
milk-sugar ;
bought for say, 4
a
while
rupee
goat's milk, 7|
in
mofussil
some
Ibs.)afterwards
can
places,and
be sold for
a
rupee
the or
skin even
(weighing, more.
All
or pulseto eat, say | a milkinggoats should be givensome gram the most Ib. 1 besides are Ib. to coarse herbage. Aiigoras daily, famous milkinggoats, and their wool is almost as soft as silk. The fleece 6f each Angora goat (about 3 pounds per annum) would bringenough of income to pay for the keep of the animal. But they do not thrive in the plains of India. For the plains,the Jumna-pari goat of Bihar is as good as any.
CHAPTER CALCULATION
by
WEIGHT
OF
LIVESTOCK.
ASCERTAIN the girthin inches at the back of the shoulders, the lengthin inches from the square of the buttock to a point with the point of the shoulder bfades. Multiplythe girth the lengthand divide the product by 144, which gives the
measure
in
the number
productof or
OF
GUI.
feet by feet. Then multiplythe superficial superficial of pounds per foot for cattle of different girths,the which will be the number of pounds of beef,veal,pork,
mutton, in the four quartersof the animal. For cattle of a girthof from 5 to 7 feet,23 Ibs. may be calculated of for each superficial 7 9 ft., from and to for a girth foot,
486
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Ibs. to the superficial foot. For sheep,goat and calves,of a of 3 to 5 feet,the yieldshould be taken to be 16 Ibs. girth from of a nd ft., of less than 3 feet,11 Ibs. to the square a girth persqr. foot. When animal is but half fattened,a deduction of 14 in an 31
every 280 Ibs. or
should be made ; but if the is very fat, 1 stone for every 20 should be added. Suppose it is desired to ascertain the weight of the meat whose girthis 6 feet 4 inches and length5 feet 3 inches. ox 76 inches + 63 inches 4788 square inches. 1 stone
in 20 stones
animal of
an
=
Multiplythis
by
4788 -f 144 =33-25 feet. square 764-75 Ibs. or 54| stone get
23 and you
as
The deduction or addition, the case as weightof meat. may should then be made, if the animal is too lean or too fat.
CHAPTER
the
be,
CIV.
POULTRY-KEEPING. THOUGH
this subjectcannot be included under agriculture fanners should keep poultryfor hurdlingin in their fields, proper, as they are excellent scratchers of ploughed-upland from which and other insects. A few short they pick up grubs of injurious notes will not, therefore,be out of place. on poultry-keeping
*
(1) Keep one variety only of fowls or ducks. For fowla the real Chittagongis the best for Bengal,as foreignvarieties do not stand the climate well. The full grown Chittagongfowls 2 the 8 and the to on seers ozs. each, if the weigh average eggs 1| covies fowls are Aylesbury ducks and Muskept in a healthymanner. ducks do well in Bengal, and either of thq^e varieties or Musk be selected. Their average weightis also about 8 seers. may (2) A breed that produces the largestnumber of eggs is not the best. The eggs of such a breed are small, necessarily and a very small proportion of them hatch out. Some hens would 200 eggs in the year, while others would lay only as Hens 10 eggs before becoming that lay only about -incubate broody and breed only three times in the year, generally and hatch into life every chicken out of their eggs. These
lay as many 30 '
or
40. '
the best hens for breedingand for use as foster-mothers. be and bringing up eggs artificially can (3) Incubation Tamlin's Nonand Foster-mothers. pareil done in patent Incubatqrs 200 Tamlin's Incubator, for "7-5, and eggs size, costs
are
NonpareilFoster-mother, 100 chick size,costs
"3-12 (W. Tamlin,
Richmond,
Surrey,England). never (4)Poultry-keepingcan
Personal
attention
essential. (5) The be
of the
owner
be or
entrusted member
a
to
of his
servants.
family is
*
fowl-house
where and weather-proof perfectly
hens
roost and. lay eggs must well ventilated. It must be yet
POULTRY-KEEPING.
487
dailyand ashes (and occasionally lime)spreadon it afterwards. If a wooden house is specially the construction constructed, be of too largea house where a great many fowls may kept, should be avoided. It is best to keep half a dozen birds cleaned out
(sayfive hens and
cock) in each house
or coop 5 feet square 6 8 feet to in from There should be a perch height. sloping 18 inches from the ground and 4 inches in diameter for all the A pole of garan wood six birds to roost on. answers very well. in the front This should be placed part of the house, that the hena of nests the back of the house. There straw at on lay eggs may window should be a large-sized in each house. one
and
(6) The yard in front of the fowl-house should be covered in is most wet the rainy season, as to fowls. At other injurious is not needed, and it is good to let the fowls much as as possible,and scratch the loose go about earth of the yard and pick up and swallow bits of gritor bones, which is their natural habit. As the yard gets polluted in time with the dung of the fowls,it is necessary to clean it from time to time, say once ashes over a week, and sprinkle it,and a layer of dry earth 2 inches deep twice a year. (7) A shed open in front should be providedfor the sitting
seasons
a
covered run in the open
hens.
the roostingand laying houses, the (8) The whole, i.e.', and the shed for sittinghens should be covered and open runs fenced in to a heightof 6 feet with wire nettingof 2-inch mesh. (9) The pointsof a good bird are : (1)it should be young, smooth and not rough and horny shanks ; (2) be of a good size ; (3)it should be plump and sprightly looking; (4) the legsshould be short ; (5) the breasts should be and on no healthier than town-stock full. Village-stock prove birds be chosen as should Calcutta Municipal Market account of stock. the basis a breeding (10) The stock should be always kept young, and all birds it should show i.e.,
it should
old should be used up or sold. If be recommended. (11) No fixed scale of feeding can and in in of fallow land ploughed poultryby rotation hurdling will be land little be feeding systematically practised, very up is fowls to give needed. But the rule to be observed in feeding them as much paddy, buck-wheat, oats, or barley,as they will eagerlyeat, but no more, so that very soop. after the feedingis should be seen on the ground,and yet there should over, no grains than two
more
years
eagerness noticeable on the part of the fowls to have more grain. Birds kept enclosed in fowl-houses and yards should have three meals two a day ; others, one or accordingto the f owls circumstances. pick up all their food Very healthyvillage themselves and they are not fed. The morning feed should be of be
no
rice-dust (kunra) and water, or cooked eveningmeal should consist only,of dry A seasoning of salt and pepper to the morning meal of
soft nature, such as rice and dal,and the
a
grain.
488
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
mash-kalai,or
rice and dal, keeps the fowls in very good condition. The rejections the kitchen or the table make from excellent morning feed for fowls. The best grainto use for the eveningmeal is buck-wheat, which has the effect of stimulating the egg-laying There should be plenty power of hens and ducks. of grass in the yard where birds have their run, as they are
benefited by liberalgrazing. But if the supplyof grass is scanty, the fowls and ducks must be suppliedwith green food, such as
cabbage or
carrot
leaves,etc.
(12) Fowls
must be left without a constant never supplyof water which they may drink at their pleasure. good drinking When epidemicsuch as fowl-cholera (Guti)is raging,the any vessel of water should have a few grainsof powdered sulphate of iron mixed with it,enough to give a very slightmetallic to the water.
taste
This is
an
of
excellent way
preventing the
disease.
(13) The twice
a
eggs
should
be
collected from
fowl-house
day.
(14) Not countingthe chickens that each
each
are
hatched
out
of eggs,
fowl-house
with five hens in it should produce500 eggs per If these can be sold for 100 annas Rs. 6-4, the birds or should pay for their keeping. But if they have to be fed altogether with purchasedfood, three times a day, it does not pay keeping fowls,unless one goes in for breedinghighclass fowls,which should be the aim of the owner from the very first.
annum.
(15) Eggs should
be brooded in as fresh a state as possible ; be and collected week before for are a they they kept put without any harm to brooding, occurring.Eggs which are very when than a week stale,i.e.,set more after they are laid,even they do hatch, produce sicklybirds. earthenware (16) Shallow vessels,make gamlas, or open but
can
good broodingnests. broodinghens kept in
sufficient for such gamlas are with a small shed five feet a square yard in front,situated in a damp place. Coolness of shed and dampness of atmosphereare helpfulto the chickens hatchingout Over the more easily; but draughtsand rain must be avoided. should be then fresh cut some ashes, gamlas some damp grass, put and on the top a layerof straw cut up in lengths of about 2 inches. 10 to 12 fowl's eggs and 6 to 8 duck's eggs, are quitesufficient for each hen. very three
Three
be fed once a day, and it may be necessary to lift them up by their wings and bringthem down from their gamlasto the food and water supplied Should to them. be found broken accident, they must by some any eggs be fresh soiled must found and straw removed, put on, any eggs be cleaned with salt water, and dried immediately afterwards and replaced in the nest. The breast gf the hen should be also cleaned,if it is found soiled in any way, before she is allowed to go back to her gamla.
(17) Brooding hens
must
POULTRY-KEEPING.
(18) In the broodingshed there
be a heap of sand and ashes where the hens may have their dailydust-bath which keeps them free from lice. Half an hour should be quiteenoughfor the and
must
be must with does usually of the hen from or even her nest does not interfere with the hatchingof the eggs. after twenty-one days' incubation. out (19) Chickens come For a whole day after hatching they requireno food,and as some it is best to let "eggs are a few hours later than others in hatching, recreation feeding, encouragedto go alacrity.But one
back
the mother
out
made
come
(20) The
the hen
her nest, which she hours' absence two
to
all her chicks before any
with
them. best food for
feed
to
dust-bath,after which
attempt
is
newly hatched chickens is hard-boiled
This up with stale bread moistened with milk. with and for be given the hen, that the water some barley may hen and the chickens may eat together. The hen with the newly should be kept in a separate coop. hatched chickens A big basket
yolk of
with
eggs mixed
answers
well,as
very
time
from
which
lattice work
open
to
time.
it
is
placed on After the first day can
in this country
used ordinarily
be
grass and or
two,
ground oats be givento
minced meat, should buck-wheat, also some finely be given the same while the hen food ohickens, may
in
a
or
the
coarser
Hourly feedingof chickens is necessary for one week, after feedingshould be done less often ; but the secret of in poultry-keeping consists in feedingthe chickens often
state.
which
about
moved
the
success
fresh food.
with
Potatoes
with bran and finely mashed chopped up green grass is a very good food for chickens after the have a supplyof good water also. After first week. They must four months, the best birds beingreserved for breeding, the rest substantial for table use. More converted should be sold or and
or
pens
month
coops
should
be
provided for chickens
when
they are
a
old.
be preservedin a fresh state for can of of Silicate Soda (called solution also water-glass). a One volume of the semi-fluid silicate should be mixed up with of and the fresh in this solution water twenty volumes eggs pickled will last several months. Before cookinga puncture is to be made in each egg to avoid spurting and bursting.To preserve 600 cient. dissolved in 8 gallonsof water are suffieggs, 61bs. of water-glass
Preserving eggs." Eggs
eating in
The 25
30
exact
fresh and
procedureto
be followed is this
uncracked
: "
Each
time
taken, placedin a sieve, eggs and drippedwith warm melted lard. The eggs are then removed from the sieve and when the coatingof lard has cooled they are submerged in the above solution of water-glass. Another method of preservingeggs has been also successfully to
are
followed. solution of
Eggs are placedfor five minutes in a 20 sulphateof iron to which is added 1| per cent,
soluble in water.
The
kept as ordinaryeggs
eggs are
are
then
kept.
per cent, of tannin rinsed in water, dried and
490
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER DISEASES
CV. OF
CATTLE.
Foot-and-mouth Inoculation ; Preparationof Serum Anthrax ; ; Disease ; Hoven Impac; Cyst disease ; ; Pleuro- Pneumonia ; Quarter-ill tion tion of rumen Water or bloody urine ; Diarrhoea ; Mammitis ; Abor; Red galls and sores ; Apthse.] ; Warts ; Yoke
[First-aid ;
THE
Anthrax, Disease, Pleuro-Pneumonia, Hoven,
diseases
commonest
Foot-and-Mouth Quarter-ill,
of
the
cattle in India
Dyspepsia,Debility, Water, Apthse,and Bye, has been alreadydealt with. In the reader should connection with this subject 475.) in Part VII of this chapteron Agricultural Bacteriology Impaction of
or Constipation
rumen,
in the Catarrh, Jaundice, Worm Abortion. Worms in the stomach
(Seepage
studythe
are
Red
the cattle diseases mentioned, the first four are due to pathogenicorganisms,and certain generalideas regardingthe in which such diseases spread and are arrested both in manner animals and in plantsshould enable the reader to apply remedies book.
Of
in particular cases. intelligently All that the agriculturist is expectedto
do is to render first aid in the case of serious ailments,and treat all ordinaryailments of cattle. For specialdiseases specialremedies have been found and some of these are given below. beneficial, Anthrax (yuti).Preventive inoculation should be resorted "
disease has appeared,careful treatment to, if possible. When does good in some When the purgingand passingof blood cases.and mucus continues for more than twenty-four hours, the following mixture is said to give beneficial results : "
Camphor Saltpetre Dhatura Chiretta
J kanehha. f tolah.
seeds .
.
2
Country Spirit When
;Jtolah.
.
diarrhoea has gone
chit tacky.
for much longerthan 24 hours, f tolah Gallnuts,finely powdered,should be added to the above mixture. The diet should consist of rice and kalai gruelwell boiled and of thick consistency,to which should be added some gur and salt. Water should be givenat the first stage of the disease on
of
when
there is costiveness,heat and dischargeof mucus from mouth ahd nostrils, but when diarrhoea sets in,the animal should be allowed to drink any water. not No straw other fibrous or food should be given. If the animal lives for eightor nine days and
gets littlepustuleson
the
Small-poxproper herd. It occurs as on pustules
recovers. body, it generally known as guti,but
in cattle is not
as
Bes-
less the teats and udder. It is a harminconvenience is felt at the time of milking but that is all. Application of carbolic oil (1 : 40) or butter, is all that is requiredby way of treatment. disease.
Some
492
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
that it will last for a much longertime, if for the life of the animals. On the other hand, the animals not showing no temperature reaction or symptoms of the disease, off their used, may wear partlydue to the largedoses of serum simultaneous immunity earlier than those which reacted to the those be got over by re-inoculating can method, and this difficulty is
no
reason
to doubt
which have not reacted within a week or ten days of the simultaneous injection, with a second dose of from 1 to 10 c. c. of
-animals
-virulent blood. " Results in
fieldinoculations. The inoculations carried out in Bareilly, manufactured at this laboratory Aligarh, by the serum successful results, Dehra districts and Bulandshahr, gave eminently "
'
Out of 339 states : .and Mr. Holmes in his report from Madras attributed to bullocks inoculated,nine died,but these deaths were old age and^ebilitated conditions,and to the fact that the animals from rinderpest were previousto inoculation. I do not suffering oculation. consider that any of the deaths occurred as a direct result of in"
lations, 1 think it is safe to say that, as a result of these inocuchecked and a heavy loss averted at once was rinderpest
among
the cattle.
to Table C. of the Assistant to the InspectorBy referring General, Civil VeterinaryDepartment'sAnnual Report for the "
find that out of 1,730 animals inoculated by the above method, only three died after inoculation. Hill cattle. There is a great difference in the dose of serum as compared with that requiredfor the inoculation of hill cattle, which is safe in plainanimals. Notwithstandingthat the serum simultaneous method by itselfhas not been found to be reliable these animals with in this particular breed, yet on re-inoculating
1899-1900,
year
we
"
"
or of virulent blood duringthe seven eightdays the method, simultaneous the protection injection by following has been brought about and an active immunity conferred. " alone causes no reactionary Serum alone. The use of serum is and full immunity fever and it affords immediate very useful in the case of dairyanimals and pregnant cows, where it is desirable
from
1 to 10
c.
c.
"
supplyshould not be interfered with, and no cases of place. The temporary immunity givenby injecting alone is sufficientto protect the animals throughout with serum The experimentscarried out at Mukhtesar proved .an outbreak. 150 and c. per c. with 10, 20, 50, 100, that the animals injected the 43rd, 76th, 103rd found immune on 600 Ibs. body weight,were and in each after serum and 164th days,respectively, injections, when tested by the introduction of virulent blood subcutanecase showing ously,only a slighttemperature reaction followed,clearly that the animals submitted to the above test were perfectly protectedand would remain so for a much longerperiodthan that the milk abortion take
.those stated above/' Foot-and-mouth disease
4
(kkura).Keep the partsclean and One part of carbolic acid mixed applications. xepeat disinfecting "
DISEASES
OF
493-
CATTLE.
other oil is the best thingto apply of the feet. In the absence of carbolic acid,camphor to the sores mixed with a pintof oil may be used. Solution of alum (1 ounce) the best of is an to ounce water) ing grains (10 thingto use for washwith
fortyparts of
cocoanut
or
Bran-mash, rice gruel and
the mouth.
salt are the best substances to use. Hoven. Starved cattle suddenly pasturing on luxuriant hoven or t hove, tympanites. Puncturinghe rumen herbage,get and it is the handiest remedy givesinstant relief. Murshidabad food
"
in hoven. If gowalasactuallypractise puncturingof the rumen and canula are available,it is of course trocar an much eight-inch better to use these than a knife. The puncture should be made in the left side at a point equallydistant from the point of the hip and the last rib. The canula is left until allthe gas has escaped. Linseed oil with a few drops of carbolic acid or oil of turpentine with it may be given afterwards. mixed Rubbing the and dashing cold water stomach it and walking the animal on beneficial if the puncturingthe stomach. or Quarter-ill galaphula. When also
constantlyare
"
in
herd, the pasture
does not
owner
a
of this
case
be
venture
on
deadly disease
changed
at once. The short fatal course, within proving generally very of the neck is practised hours. Blistering twenty-four by gowalas, but it does not seem to do any good. Preventive inoculation is but it has not been introduced effective, as yet into India.
occurs
disease
Horses
runs
must
a
subjectto
more
are
it than cattle.
This disease is
usually
anthrax, in this country. Setoningthe fewer part needle and letting the tongue with $ coarse out blood some for
mistaken of
a
from
the
country Simla or all food
congestedveins
is
practisedmost
in successfully
this disease
it is known
this
early stage (when as Siuli)when salivation,groaningand disinclination for
at
the
of
is first noticed.
The
blood
poisoningevidentlytakes of the tongue first and afterwards spreadsto the glandsof the neck and the whole system. Pleuro-Pneumonia. ed ContagiousPleuro-Pneumonia, so dreadis and to in Europe in the Punjab so fatal, supposed occur and Sind. Slaughteringthe affected animals and segregating those free from disease are the only remedies that are in use.
place at the
root
"
Cyst disease caused by
the immature Tcenia which in its mature condition is harboured a worm achinococcus, is the liver, affecting by dogs, pretty common, lungsand spleen is caused by this parasite. Exin man of cattle. Tape-worm clusion of dogs from the cattle-shed, with clean food together and that best be drink, are the preventivemeasures can
Cyst disease. "
adopted. Impaction of the Rumen. animal eatinggreedily too much "
when
it
This is usually caused by the of a palatable but dry food,e.g.,
gets very littlewater
grainor bran,
and
strong dose of
purgativemedicine
and
a
to drink. A stiffdose of country^
494
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OP
should be given. The bellyshould be handwater The animal made and the animal should to walk. be rubbed will much it water swallow. as or as gruel tepid given This usuallyoccurs Red Water or Bloody Urine. after parturition. in warm spirit
"
food is supposedto cause this disease. Poor and coarse but ushered in sets in afterwards It is constipation by diarrhoea, claret coloured and the animal when the urine becomes evinces also urine is The it. offensive in odour. The pain in voiding weak and debilitated. Death becomes animal may take place in from five to twenty-five days. Purgativemedicine,rice gruel, soft green grass, country spirit, pure air and clean surroundings prove beneficial. Diarrhcea. Calves often suffer from diarrhoea. Lime water, beneficial. Powdered and catechu are chalk and country spirit "
cinnamon
highlybeneficial both
are
in
dysenteryand
in diarrhoea
Cattle and goats suffering also to calves. to biggeranimals, as be kept on from diarrhoea should, where possible, green bamboo leaves only. Be^n meal is also a bindingfood. Mammitis caused by cold, injuryto teats, over-distention of udder, or earlyweaning of the calf,is to be treated by fomentation, gentlydrawing out of milk and gentlyrubbingthe udder, after oil or cocoanut oil. A purgative each fomentation, with salad oil or sulphateof magnesia) also helps. Bran medicine (linseed If an abscess forms, lancing should always form part of the food. w ill be and poulticing necessary. Abortion is due either to disease,or to external Abortion. Abortion is contagious to abortion. injury, oi^to predisposition The animal should be segregatedfrom other in some cases. "
animals
in
calf,and kept in perfectrest, the loins and haunches
and with cloth dipped in cold water out. wrung be given,but the animal kept on light Hot drinks should not and green food. When and sores. fresh, use brine, and give the Yoke-galls If after five or six days' application animals rest from work.
being covered
"
benefit is derived, use the Sapheda (crude carbonate oil and with | Ib. of cocoanut
followingointment
no
: "
of lead of the bazaar)J Ib. boiled well mixed togetherby stirring. and When from the add of turpentine fire, remove boiling, J ounce oil. Keep the ointment corkeid up in a bottle and apply daily is healed. Another mixture which has been found until the sore with powdered turmeric, unboiled highlybeneficial is hog's-lard turmeric being used. Apthce(chhdru).Sores on the tongue and lipsmay be treated "
with
honey and
borax.
Powdered
be also rubbed on the tongue, goes off feed from this cause
round
and when possible,
salt may animal an salivate. Another
pepper
deep beginsto appliedby gowalas is lettingthe affected remedy successfully animal salt.
lick
a
basket rubbed
as
as
and
over
with4a mixture
of turmeric
and
THEORY
OF
HEALTH
IN
RELATION
TO
CHAPTER THE
THEORY
OF
HEALTH
IN
food or fodder in their proper Animal tissues
AND
FODDERS.
495
CVI.
RELATION
TO
FOODS
AND
FODDERS.
animal
should contain all the constituents f or proportions the building up of animal tissues. againare all built or formed out of blood, and blood is therefore the lifeor vital fluid, which it should be the objectof food to keep in proper condition. Blood is not a formed, but it is the ultimate formative, tissue of all animals including It is a highlycomplex fluid and it is greatly influenced by man. circulates It conditions. through a perfectly surrounding germthere unless and the skin or in the alichannel are sores on mentary proof doors of canal which serve as of pathogenic access open to get diseased as one is not it so susceptible might think, germs, propertiesof the lookingonly to the fact of the highlynourishing in the healthiest fluid for those germs which surround us even THE
of
FOODS
an
climates. Blood
consists of fluids and solids which should be kept at ifhealth is to be maintained. Some departure a definite proportion from this proportionis constantlyoccurringand must occur ; and excessive departurefrom this proportion but a persistent of most whether they are due is the predisposing cause diseases, Even not. anthrax and anthracoid certain vitiated character of the blood as their the same as risk of cause, every animal does not run predisposing the when risk of and attacked, same victim a to attack, falling
to
pathogenicorganismsor
diseases need
them. The
a
of water proportion
parts in 1,000 parts.
owing
to its thickness
in blood
If the water is
is also necessary fluidity lime and magnesia,in
should vary
is less in
800 to 900
proportion,the blood
in its flow. sluggish to
from
A
certain
state of
keep those salts,e.g., phosphatesof
soluble condition, which are required and assimilated into the system. Besides water, to be absorbed to the blood all the materials by which food supplies the fatty tissues of the body are nourished and by which also materials of heat are supplied. and production for respiration The solid portionof blood consists of white corpuscles (leucocytes) a
and red blood corpuscles.White blood corpuscles are larger, with endowed in shape, amoeboid movements irregular ; while smaller and devoid of the power of movement. the red corpuscles are have a special connection with health. The white blood corpuscles
foreignsubstances,such as bacteria,that may invade the blood and destroy them by digesting them and ejecting wound the undigestedresidue into the blood. Wherever a rush up, preserve the tissue from the white corpuscles occurs, the accuthe attack of injurious mulated organisms,break up and remove and graduallyhelp to fillup the breach. red corpuscles have also an importantfunction to perform, The red corpuscles They attack
any
496
HANDBOOK
it is
AGRICULTURE.
OP
is conveyed to the various that oxygen of and the excess hydro-carbons up animal heat and thus simultaneously carbo-hydrates, keepingup gettingrid to $ largeextent of useless substances. The actual to which also the agent which conveys the oxygen is haemoglobin red colour of the corpuscles contains iron, is due. As haemoglobin as
by
their
means
there assisting to burn tissues,
adequatesupplyof iron with keep the blood in health. Where an
food,the blood becomes
venous
the food is therefore necessary to of iron in the there is deficiency dark in character and loses its or
brightscarlet appearance. stances subThe serum fluid portionof the blood contains two or called respectively When a nd fibrinoplastin. fibrinogen blood is taken from the body, it coagulates, the coagulation being due
to
a
ferment
which fibrinogenand fibrinoplastin,
acting on
them from a fluid to Water in food. An excess
convert
solid state.
a
colouringmatter
of the
red
in the food results in the
of water
"
being partlywashed corpuscles
out
The and the white corpusclesalso gettingweakened. turgidity of the capillaries from excessive absorptionof water, resulting leads to their walls gettingweakened lowered. and their vitality Serum which are so weakened, into escapes from the capillaries,
the tissues and
cavities
follow"a protractedcourse food.
Repletionand caused by an
of the
of
body.
and
Anaemia
feedingwith
an
dropsy
may
of succulent quently freorgans are
excess
congestion of important
when excessive draught of water, specially of horses heated a condition. Giving water to system and other animals after work the blood when by perspiration has become thick, is the rightplan,but when the heatingof the is excessive and circulation very rapid, a draught of water system in other organ. often results congestionof the lungsor of some A middle course, therefore,is advisable,i.e., in too heated a condition the
is in too
animal
be allowed
to cool down a littleby gentle is it ; but if the before to Water by wisping, walking given work has not been of a violent but of a lightcharacter,giving of water immediatelyafter work relieves the blood of excessive an
must
or
thickening and harm. Proteids in definite
consequent
while sluggishness,
it
food. Proteids should also be given proportionsto different animals. They are "
does
no
in certain
necessary is the vehicle by of muscles, and blood-serum of food find their way into the various tissues. which the proteids Febrile diseases result in excessive using up or combustion of the Hence of foods rich in proteid need proteids. matter, such as
for the
formation
milk, soup, carrots, grass, bran-mashes
gruels, during and on
the
other
of
and An
linseed and other of proteids, excess
hand, producescongestionwhich
inflammation, and bacteria find
after febrile attacks.
a
proteids.
results in local
to pathogenicdiseases susceptibility an containing
suitable nutrient soil in blood
as
the
excess
OF
THEORY
Fat in
HEALTH
IN
FOODS
497
FODDERS.
AND
in food. Pat is carbohydrates
and
also burnt up largely fat is necessary in the respiratory process heat and animal vitality, its repairby "
wasting diseases,and as for the productionof
carbonaceous All the muscular food, is necessary. less associated with fat which makes more or
of proper tissues are
means
TO
RELATION
them
is necessary to prevent concussion pliant,and joint-oil between of bony surfaces. Where fat is present,the combustion muscular tissue does not take place to the same in its extent as absence. from
the
Hence
oxidation
of fat
presence
burning.
or
On
the
muscular
the
saves
other hand,
tissues of
excess
an
car-
fattyfood, results in debilityand interference with the vital activityof the cells of the body, and comparativestagnation of the circulatory in, system. If such food is persisted infiltration of fat takes placeinside the tissues of importantorgans, and finally fattydegenerationor actual conversion of these tissues into lumps of fat. Salts in food. What has been said about due proportion a being observed in the various constituents of food, such as water, food, holds equally true as regards proteids,and carbonaceous salts the various requiredfor the buildingup of the animal tissues. Sodium for instance, is absolutely chloride (common salt), sary necesbonaceous
or
"
for the
tion It is needed for the formapreservationof health. blood, of gastricjuiceand of bile,and for the digestion
of
of albumen.
The
salt taste
of
of its presence in the blood. cow-house and stable. every the
and perspiration A
be
salt lick should
But
of
excess
is
tears
in
scurvy
man
a certain Similarly,
and the favourite
herbs, is
rich in
part,due
is,in
amount
of
to the
proof
salt is very skin diseases.
common
animal
injuriousto system, producing various Dogs fed on highlysalted food are particularly subjectto and
a
provided in
eczema
;
cause.
same
potashis needed
by
food of farm-animals,viz.,grass and
the
animal,
other
potash. Deficiencyof potash means
green
impaired
tissue nutrition.
Phosphates bones
and
absolutelynecessary
are
teeth,and
if they are
or quantities, bone-softening
of bones.
The
decay. Decayed
teeth
fracture
on
poor
supplyof Iron
pastures.
are
the
with supplied
formation
follow, and a tendency developslowlyand they tend
very common brain and
of
food in sufficient
rickets
teeth also
Nerve
for
animals
among
substances
to to
reared
also
requirea
the
blood and
phosphorusfor their proper nutriment. compounds
the liver in to
not
a
which
are
hypersemia,a condition which
Inflammations
necessary
to
keep
ingestedin excess, giverise is opposite of anaemia. to that
healthycondition,when
result from may in proteids the blood.
hypersemia,as
from
excess
of
Carbon the blood dark and -displaces dioxide gas renders But is as oxygen easilyreplacedwhen it is again supplied, oxygen. But carbon it has no permanent ill-effecton the blood. the colour of blood iixto brightred, monoxide, while it heightens M, HA
32
498
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
bringsabout such a changein the tuallyto prevent re-oxidation.
condition of the iron
effect-
as
Hence the poisoningeffect of urine we sometimes the blood-stained carbon monoxide gas see passedby animals which have been exposed to the influence of this gas in burning stables and cowsheds. and
To illustrate the effect of certain substances on urine it may additional examples: (1) If be sufficient to cite the following one puts his feet into a solution of potashor soda, these salts can bed be detected in a short time in the urine. (2) If turpentineis rubinto the skin,it is detected in the urine in a very short time by the odour of the sweet scented violet which it impartsto that "
fluid.
Diabetes in horse and sheep has been noticed (3")
as
being
connected with the use of mouldy bad foods, of hay and grass, with an excessive quantity burnt in the stack, or of hay grown of nitrate of soda. The class of diseases produced by food containingtoo much etc., are those in which lowered vitality moisture,such as foT-grass, with and debility dropsiesoccur, such as, water-braxy,shell sickness,and trembles. Low temperature and exposure to cold ture rain aggravate these diseases. Moisture within, moisdilute without, moisture above, below and around, must and soften the tissues, and impoverishthe blood and macerate the cell elements and render them incapableof perdisintegrate forming the functions of organiclife,and affect the blood cells and
winds
Hence the necesthe walls of the blood-vessels injuriously. sity of givingplentyof straw and other dry and also nourishing food in the rains and in the earlypart of the cold weather. Foods too rich in carbohydrates orders and fat produce liver disand diarrhoea. The blood becomes overladen with their from imperfectoxidation,congestionbeingthe result. products of blood Foods too rich in proteidsproduce extravasation in inflammations into the tissues resulting and red-braxy.Milk of proteidmatter is a suitable food containinga largeamount but when is for young it animals, excessively poor or excessively rich,calves and other young animals suffer from different forms of disease. In the artificialrearingof calves, skim-milk mixed with lime-water is occasionally found a suitable nourishmore than the rich from milk cow's udder. ment as it comes Innutritious food results (1)in indigeston, animals require as of it to get the requisite of nourishment amount a larger quantity and
"
or, in
other words,
quantitywhich taxes for want of (2)in debility a
digestive organs ; Dirty foods, such
the
strengthof
the
sufficientnutrition. full of as sand, etc.,are injurious, grass dirt has the tendencyto collect in the various pouches the sand or in the digestive canal,producingirritation, inflammation, ulceracolic. tion and often become seriously Horses, particularly, ill, die as the result of eatingdijrty and even food. as
Decomposing,mouldy, and decayed foods are the most of all, liable to cause as they are septicinflammation
injurious of
500
certain fodder crops, such
are
kharifand rdbi
in the
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
th"t guinea-grass,
as
; others
seasons
are
both Pani-
will grow
perennial(such
as
fodder crops are more grasses ; and a portionof the be should of a leguminouskind, so that todder, say one-fourth, ratio (1 : 12 or 1 : 13) may albuminoid be secured the proper for of Of oil-cakes. fields without the addition course, enriching the purchaseof oil-cakes is always advisable,as the dung is richer of feeding when the cattle are fed on oil-cakes. But for the purpose cattle alone the purchaseof oil-cakes is not necessary, if three parts of the fodder used consist of gramineouskinds and one part of leguminouskinds. and lucerne). cereal straw than nourishing muticum
cum
if to feed
four
of
acres
is onlyfive
or
do
with cattle altogether, away natural pasture, the cultivator must of land, when the average holdingof a cultivator "
yoke
a
apart
set
said, why
be
It may
Leguminous
on
oxen
?
acres
not
It is justpossible for theoretically
"c
every
for one tain of land to mainrood of land to maintain its man," i.e., acre with the help a familyof four or five members, also for a man, wife and two of his one or children,to cultivate fairlygrown-up of land with such hand-tools as spade, hand-hoe, etc. acre one
only by dint
of hard
and
steady labour, distributed over cient with hand-labour the whole year, that a man only,get suffican, food for himself and his familyout of one of land. A acre be regardedas consisting of family of four or five members may for each s ix of food tenance, susrequiring maunds 2| adult units grains in all. An acre of land producesordinarily 15 maunds or it is
But
about
15 to 20 maunds
of
grain, partlycereals "
and
partlypulses.
happens,that cultivators are compelled,owing to death of cattle caused by famine or rinderpest, to the wholesale to spade cultivation. have recourse They are then able, by dint of hard labour, distributed throughoutthe year, to cultivate only At
times, it
about
so
acre
one
per
family and justkeep
themselves
alive.
But
happens in this
country (Bengal)that each familyhas an of of land,and it is possible five to six acres with quantity average of the labour (with assistance cattle)for the familyto earn lighter deal than bare more a good living.By the help of fodder crops it
so
only grow crops for home consumptionand sale,but his cattle in good condition, in which case they can render keep efficient help to his cultivation than they could otherwise more The importanceof growing fodder crops on one-fifth or onedo. sixth of "hisholding,should be impressedupon each cultivator through educational and other means. one
can
not
also
GROWING
dairymen,
CHAPTER
CVIII.
FODDER
GROINS.
of fodder but
there is
crops no
is not
unknown
among
arrangement anywherefor
Indian
growing
FODDER
501
CROPS.
all the year round, and cultivators generally leave their what few There cattle to pick up are plantsthat they can get. would not be eaten by cattle. Where grass is scarce they are fed of the leaves bur, peepul,baer,figs, on pakur,mango-, jack,sajna, fodder
datebael,simul a,nd other trees. In times of great scarcityeven cattle leaves are given chopped up to cattle. Ordinarily, palm
and sorguja eat neem leaves,but they have been seen to when these "eat even theycan get nothingelse. But because they will eat almost any kind of plant it is not to be supposed that all plants afford an equallynourishingfodder, or that no special arrangement is necessary for growingfood for cattle. Plants that would
not
fodder will be yieldspecially nourishing
now
described. In Bengal
there is littlepasfor fodder. When turage their milch available,dairymen give cows country peas, leaves and pods of babul trees, pods of the sirisha tree (Mimosa and Sorghum vulgare bhringi (Phaseolusaconitifolius), sirissa), (gama). To stimulate the flow of milk gowdldsgivetheir cattle a food made by boiling bael fruits,mashtogetherslices of unripe" also kalai and kanta-notia (Amaranthus spinosus). Gowdlds are
there
are
some
crops
grown
milk if they get to eat the fact that cows yieldmore simul flower (Bombax heptophylla), seed and or plants of cotton. It is also well known in this country that skins and rinds of sweet strained out after boiling fruits, e.g., mangoes, jack,etc.,the water and rice-dust bran h.usk rice, (khud), (bhusa),also mahua flower of
aware
food for {Bassialatifolia), salt,are stimulating gur and common cattle. So specialarrangements for feedingcattle are not unknown in this
country.
Introduction of
new
fodder crops is however desirable. The fodder has been alreadyreferred to. Field-
value of sun-flower as a beans form a principal as they yield stapleof Englishagriculture, a most nourishingfood for animals. The dwarf shrub of fieldbeans produces an abundance is a favourite of pods. Bean-meal than food for horses, cattle and sheep. It is more strengthening wheat and barleyand yet it does not caus.e diarrhoea. In fact,in diarrhoea bean-meal is freely On p. 482 used as a binding food. have beans first the in the listin we placed considering relative value of food-stuffs. If field-beans are popat-bean and cow-peas more grow
not
we
grown,
can
at
least
largely.In some parts of Bengal,field-beans, though an exotic,used to be grown as a crop in former years, and there is no reason why its cultivation should In the districtof Murshidabad field-bean plants not be revived. the old garden. in wild met with state in nearly every are Gardeners
remember commissariat
of
call the plants bakld, and they the be for this days grown crop used to stationed in that department,when soldiers were
Murshidabad
the
when
district. A is much as
a
sweet
root, called the
largerin
size than beet but
fodder crop in
which mangel-wurzel, alliedto it,is used extensively
mangold
or
England. Largervarieties
of
carrot, turnip,
502
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OP
Salt is used also used as fodder. and for these crops. In the Sunderbans
cabbagesare manure
as
a
stimulating
other
parts of of salt,waste land the soil contains an excess in be profitably utilized stock growingthese crops for rearinglive-
country where
the can
in Reana
systematic manner.
a
luxurians Euchlcena luxurians or (buffalo-grass) all kinds. It of cattle of kind eaten huge by grass eagerly than and it tillersmuch better,but it must sorghum grows taller be facility be grown on rich soil, for irrigation and there must if it
is
a
Nine or ten is to be successfully cultivated all the year round. months after sowing,the plantscome to seed. to maturityand run when It should be cut as fodder before seeding, it is stilltender. i.e., each clump will send rich soil and constantly Grown on irrigated, 12 cubits
high,capableof being cut from 50 to in the year, each cuttingyielding of green food per acre. 60 maunds It grows most luxuriantlyat the SibpurFarm, at least as well as juar,and cattle eat the stalks of Reana with greater relish than they do those of juar. Sown in May, one heavy crop of fodder can be had in September without 80
out
to
to
eighttimes
to
seven
shoots, 10
90
irrigation. Sorghum and Reana, may be mentioned another along with grass, which is actuallygrown
Besides
growing paddy in
annual
districts of
some
Bengal,where
(Ischamum rugosum). Of rank-growinggrasses, which i.e., practically perennial, as
a
weed,
be
may
mentioned
which once
are
grown
the
it is known
either occupy
followingwhich
as
rankaman
Era-kali
perennial,or the soil are
always by
liked
cattle : Guinea-grass(Panicum jumentorum), Para or grass Laid grass (Panicum muticum) and Sorghum halipense.Laid grass grows equallywell on dry land and in shallow water. Guinea-grass.The specialexcellence of this grass consists in its being perennial.The stumps can be removed with the "
and extended. roots
plantedelsewhere, and
the
plantationthus indefinitely
For this crop, however, rich soil and facility for irrigation The land should be also well drained,that water If the plantsare not lodgein it even in the rainy season. may the land should from be seed, prepared when the rainy grown is not quiteover ; but if they are grown from root-cuttings, season after the the land should be cultivated in March or April,soon essential.
are
sary, harvested, irrigation being done, if necesAfter soil for convenience of cultivation. ploughing,the land should be cleaned of weeds and straw by passingthe ladder or harrow over it. Before June the land should be got thoroughlyclean and readyby seven or eightploughings followed by as many or ladderings harrowings. Manure should the the land and ploughedin, and as soon then be spreadover as rains have commenced, the plantingof stumps should begin. If
winter
crop
to
the
has
been
soften the
plantsare
should be made
Holes grown from seed, a seecMbed is necessary. hole in each the seed-bed and two seeds in in put
FODDER
503
CROPS.
regular lines and
the bed again levelled up. Two days after the beds should be watered and the watering should be sowing, continued every third day until the plantscome After the up. have done plants appeared,wateringshould be every second day when
there is rain. When the plants are about nine .should be transplanted,leaf stalks beingcut high,they The field to which they are removed should be got ready in
except inches off.
the
meantime, ridgesbeing put up three feet apart and the plantingdone on the ridges. If the stumps are planted,the plantingshould always be done on ridgesthree feet apart. If seven or eightstalks with roots are plantedin each spot, they will form fine big clump. The stalks of the stumps planted a stick out seven should or eight inches above ground. The
clumps the
occupy
plantsget
the shoots
a
wider and wider
cut
away.
In
area
as
time
extendingthe
goes
and
on
as
of plantation, planted,or be dug can some
be taken up with roots and the roots after the shoots have been all cut away, the stumps up,
can
leavinga quarter
at each
spot.
Unless
the
stumps
are
ned thin-
either in one in the other way, the shoots become or and less palatableto horses and cattle. After every second of with 100 to 150 maunds cuttingthe land should be manured out
hard
tank earth or jhil earth per bighaper annum. or farmyardmanure Solid and liquid of horses,men, sheepand goats have excrements been found the best manure for guinea grass. After transplanting the seedlings to fields,wateringshould or on root-cuttings be done daily,unless there is rain,until the plantsare well established.
Afterwards
in the dry season should be continued irrigation month. In the rainyseason, of course, no irrigation once a is required. After the shoots are cut off,the land should be dug troyed, the plants,the weeds collected and desup at intervals between and manure spread over and ploughedin and the ridges formed again. The shoots should be cut off before they run to seed,that they may be gatheredquitetender. If seed is wanted, the shoots should be allowed to mature, but clumps that are constantly seeds that do not germinate. Any cut, produce weak seed stalks showing smut should not be touched but burnt off with fire. The guinea-grassis not suffer from any known to other malady. Lucerne (Medicayo sativa). The leguminous crop that is "
it called lucerne or alfalfa is also perennial. In its own home if it will stand on the same field for ten or twelve years running, In many is not allowed to seed and if it is properlyattended to. in of there has often been difficulty India,however, parts great maintaininga stand of plantfor so long. It is a most nutritious fodder for horses ; cattle should not be given too much lucerne, it producesdiarrhoea. The stomach paratively of the horse,being comas than food nutritious of a small capacity, more requires
fodder that of cattle. Lucerne, therefore, is a most appropriate for horses though not for cattle. This crop should be grown near
504
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
is There largetowns where good class horses are maintained. another special advantage in growingthis crop. The roots of this crop penetrate several yards deep into the soil. It does not, therefore,suffer from droughtwhen it has been once established, while it yieldsheavy cuttingsfive or six times in the year where facilitiesexist for irrigation. Fairlyheavy soil,rich in lime and well drained,and a dry climate,should be chosen for this crop. Lime
and tank earth have been found very good manures for this crop. Cultivation of Lucerne. In Aprilor May, after the firstshower of rain, the land should be givenone ploughing.At the end of the rainyseason about one hundred maunds of tank earth should be spreadper bigha,and the land ploughedand harrowed four or five of times. After the cultivation is finished, three or four maunds "
lime per acre of bone-dust should be sprinkled over or six maunds the land. Trenches should then be made, so as to form ridges about two feet apart,unless the land is hilly with a natural slope. The seed should be sown the top of the ridges.Little holes on be made with sickle and seed put in them and the earth a may tattered down. cient Thus sown, four seers of seed will be found suffiIf the plantsdo not come days up within ten after sowing, and ifthe soil appears to be too dry,one or two waterings be requiredbefore the plantscome The plantsbeing may up. the ridges rain is not able to spoil on or them, on hillsides, grown and the trenches between the rows be utilized both of plantscan for irrigating and for hoeing the land. After each cutting,the per
acre.
plough should be passed throughthe trenches and weeds cleared After every two or three cuttings in this way. should be manure of rotten maunds appliedin the trenches ; in other words, if thirty another and at at a maund manure are one season farmyard applied of bone-meal or two maunds of castor-cake or rape-cakeper bigha, five to six cuttings of plantsmay be had from the land during be obtained one can year, and an average crop of 50 maunds per acre 300 maunds at each cutting, of green food in all,during or With specialfacility the year. obtain 600 for irrigation can one of green stuff per acre. liar Europeansare quitefamiwith the value of lucerne as a fodder for horses, and there should be no difficulty in disposing of the crop in largetowns, The fodder is specially valued for racehorses. say, at Re. 1 per maund. If plantsare not cut, they run to seed after a year, i.e., at the next cold season, and the plantswither away afterwards.
or
700 maunds
Plants reserved for seed should not be cut but left untouched in a of a field. These should not be irrigated often as the corner so used fodder. for Plants requiredfor seed should not be plants than three years old. Any time within the firstthree years, more be set apart for seeding. The seed is usually can any of the plants sold at about Rs. 3 per seer. A whether it be in the firstyear,
afterwards.
plantwhich is allowed to seed, dies immediately afterwards, or
505
SILOS.
Lucerne in flower has the
: following average composition "
Water Albuminoids .
Crude
74 4-5
.
fibre
9-5
Carbohydrates
9'4
Ash
2
Albuminoid
ratio
1
:2
Khari sugar-cane
cut up small is an excellent fodder for cattle. of the Opuntia (Phanimanasd) class,divested of thorns and by burning given chopped up to cattle,and the leaves and tops of cassava, are also eaten by cattle. Of annual and rank-growing leguminousfodder crops, Barbati
The
cactus
or (Vigna catiang)and Arharia Sim (Cyamopsis Psoracow-pea called kurti in Oudh, lioides), nuts the first place. Groundoccupy be fodder as a as land, on they may grown heavy crop grow
in such soils like a weed for ever and they after beingonce sown, thus practically are a perennialleguminouscrop. Albizzu procera or the rain-tree of Bengal,beinga very fastgrowing tree, and doing well in the plainsof Bengal, might be largelygrown for fuel. The fruits of this tree are very sweet, cattle are very fond of eatingthem. They are probablyas good for lodder as the carob-beans of the Mediterranean regions.
Prosopisspicigeraand valuable
mulberry have
been
also
mentioned
as
trees. fodder-yielding
CHAPTER
CIX.
SILOS. SILOS are built either above above or partlybelow, or on a modified A
or
ground or below ground or partly ings slope. They are either old build-
unmodified, or they are
fourteen-inch brick
new
ones
structed. conspecially
wall carefully lined with cement is all that is required. The internal of cement coating should be as smooth as possible.If an old room be converted into a silo, the doorway requires special arrangements for closing before for and filling, the up to use openingbefore or
concrete
commencing
silage.This is by a double door
sometimes done by brick-work and sometimes of wood with saw-dust in the intervening space. The cost of silos should not exceed Ks. 10 per ton of capacity,a cubic foot of silage weighing45 or 50 Ibs. Fiftycubic feet should hold a ton. Stack-silos are also common. A stack 30 ft.
long
by
15 ft. wide (16 ft. at the base)and 14 ft. high would weigh about 100 tons. A pitat the side of a hillis the most convenient situation for a silo, be filled from the top and the fodder as it can be taken out from the bottom. can As the gieatest amount of mouldiness occurs just behind the doorway, or justbeneath the is boards, care
covering
great
506
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
in the construction of a silo. Small silos are better time the each be should as done within a filling largeones, The best size is 10 ft. x 10 ft.X 5 ft. two. or The best materials to pitare green maize stalks,arahar plants
necessary
than
day
flower, juar,Sorghum saccharatum, buck-wheat, barley straw
in
The materials should be filled chopped up, grasses. For if possible. a 10 ft. square silo,4 or 5 cwts. of material should be put in, and 1 Ib. of salt sprinkledover the mass for every cwt. and
coarse
of material used, and the sides and corners. of the pitis filledup. the
at
top,
quantityof
extra
beingused
A per square foot. 5 tons of materials
a
An
the whole
and
earth
darma-mats,
the whole well trodden down, specially at This process is repeated until the whole of the
salt should
pit covered
with
for
be
weighingthe boards at ft.x 10 ft. pit will hold
10 ft. x 10
led sprink-
boards 100
or
Ibs.
about
As the boards will gradat the first filling. ually in earth crevices be the must filled After sink, carefully up. week or ten days the silo should be opened again and filledin the
alreadydescribed, and be repeated four or filling may
again. The opening and six times, i.e.,so long as there is sinking. Properlyfilled,a pit 10 ft. x 10 ft. x 10 ft. which is equivalentto 2 or 3 tons of tons of silage,
manner
considerable
will hold 10
closed
be used six weeks after the can dry hay. If necessary, the silage has been But will cease. fermentation filling completed, when for least it will remain In 10 at two tons good England, years. of green fodder produce9| tons of silage 3 tons of dry hay. In or has generallycome to India, the loss of weight in silage-maldng a
per
21,781
1892-93,
maunds
of
at
Allahabad, 33,652
which silage,
means
a
maunds
of
loss of 35
cent.
If or
In
more.
made
grass
3
deal
great
thermometer
a
that the top available,it should be seen the materials attain the temperature of about 125" F. second is done. The maximum filling temperature reached in about six weeks, after which the normal
4 ft. of
before
the
(160"F.) is
is
is attained
in a few days. A siloshould not be opened until it has reached the ordinary temperature. About 5 per cent, is wasted of the silage at the sides and the top or at the door when
temperature
there is
a
door, on
properlyexcluded. of green
fodder
Heavy considered
are
pressure
of mouldiness ; and more, if air is not To make 60 Ibs.of silage in India,90 or 100 Ibs.
account
required. and
essential for
.
are no longer tramplingand quickfilling in the results the best making of getting
be allowed to settle of itself. When filling, may be and into made the level well pressed mass corners. It should be tightat the sides. Even a wooden the top cover over is not needed. wooden A simplecovering A of cut straw answers. silo above ground is far better than any stone or brick building under or above ground. Stackingof silage recommended is not for this country. is The waste from in decay stack-silage
silage.The the
great.
mass
should
508
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
Amountingtogetherto 215 Ibs. Allowingthese to have the same food was value as the carbohydrates, the net loss of carbonaceous Of 1,009 Ibs. or 12-3 per 100 parts of carbonaceous principles. loss the total Nitrogen in the grass employed there was no ; 151 Ibs. Nitrogenwas found in the grass and 155 Ibs. Nitrogen in the silage.There was, however, a loss of albuminoids,a portion The of these being converted substance. into non-albuminoid albuminoids in the grass amounted 449 Ibs. "
to 780
Ibs.,in the silageto only
it will be sufficient to say that qualityof the silage, the silagewas employed in a comparative feedingexperiment bullocks on lot of beasts being fed on cotton seed-cake,maize ; one and the other on cotton silage, seed-cake,maize and hay, the result of which was to show the feedingvalue of silage to be slightly superiorto that of hay. It is economical tto store the early grass as silagein those Of the
"
districts which is therefore
months, and
a
are
too
process
it may of in fodder scarcity
wet
by
admit of hay-making,and ensilage which fodder may be stored for many to
be
regarded dry years."
as
a
means
of
providingfor
is the grass to cattle and horses Next to that should be preferredgivingof silageto cattle, but as horses requiremore food richer in albuminoids, concentrated is better for horses than silage.Milch-cattle thrive better hay on silagethan on hay, althoughthey requiretheir food to have
Pasturingor givinggreen
best.
higherproteidratio than horses. They must, however, get some bran or oil-cake alongwith the silage, bulkier food is required as ruminants than by horses. by a
The
Allahabad Grass Farm.
is worked
"
As
a
Government
which
farm
details
with profit, it will be interesting to give a few of this farm taken from the report of 1890-91, i.e.,the year farm
mediately imand
precedingthe establishment of the dairy cattle and pig breedingin connection with it. The year was rather droughty, and the average yieldof grass was only126 maunds as compared to 155 maunds per acre obtained in 1889-90. per acre The extent of the farm was The rent paidwas high, 2,590 acres. Rs. total The Es. 6 16,999-6-5,i.e.,over yield i.e., per acre. of green grass came to 325,821 maunds. 250 acres were cropped with sorghum, oats, barley, 15,984 wheat and gram, which yielded of grain. maunds issued in Of the green grass obtained, 153,102 maunds were the green state, 120,739 maunds into made hay, 55,749 were
siloed, were hay beingobtained,while 51,981 maunds 34,723 maunds of silage beingobtained from 35 silos. varied The loss by dryageand mouldiness in the case of silage from 16-12 per cent, to 52-62 per cent., the average coming to
maunds
28
of
per c"nt. 4 Rs. 8,886-10-6 was the amount spent during the year on while total the to Rs. 79,797-10-8. manuring, expenditurecame
The
producewas and an Department, (1) (2) (3) (4)
Green grass
..
Kay Silage
50$
RATIO.
PROTEID
sold but
the Commissariat estimate only of its value can be given. not
suppliedto 3
@
1,53,102 mds.
8
""
51,749
..
34,732
"
,,8
..
15,984
"
"
Grain
"
"
a
as.
mnd.
"
"
PROTEID DIFFERENT even
have
the same under The the
differ in
animals
have
28705
23,'s74
"
17 361
" " "
saving to Govt.
CHAPTER
= -
"
1 Re.
Total gross outturn Deduct Total Expenditure
Net
Rs.
=
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
Rs. "
R?.
15^4 87,924 79J97
8,127
CX. RATIO.
different power
of digestion
and
animal digests differentproportionsof food-constituents different circumstances.
carbohydrates are digestible usuallyall assumed to but as a matter of heat-producing fact power, they this respectin their action in differentanimals, ruminants same
making better use of them than other animals. Differentanimals requirefoods of different proteidratios to sustain them in proper ratio is meant the ratio of the digestible health. By proteid procarbohydrates, teids to the digestible plus2-3 times the digestible '
"
fat or oil. But as the proportions of proteidsand carbonaceous food-constituents digestedare different under differentcircumstances, is ratio more the term proteid commonly appliedsimplv the proteid and the carbonaceous foodto the ratio between fat latter the which is including constituents, by 2-3 the to carbohydratefood-constituents. and then added The '
'
ffiultiplied
difference between
the true
ordinarilyunderstood ascertainingthe value the
proteidratio and
is not
very
of
food
a
the proteid ratio as great, and for the purpose of under ordinary circumstances
of its different constituents may digestibility
be left out
of
account.
different constituents of all crops are not equally ible digestin all conditions and and all crops are not equallydigestible deteriorate towards maturity crops stages of growth. Fodder in nourishment when too young. and they are wanting In the value* nutritive and the manurial of is highest Juar, diately immecase but potatoes and mangoldsimprove with before flowering, at the latest maturity,starch and sugar beingformed more freely stage of their growth. High manuring, in many crops but not in all,increases not only the bulk of a crop, but als the relative The
510
HANDBOOK
In
hay,
AGRICULTURE.
ash
and nitrogen, bijt there is a in manured carbohydrates highly crops. and root-crops, the straw, green-fodder
of proportions
proportionof
OF
water,
very safe
smaller
nitrogen
the amount of proteids. The a substances also contains a good proportion of of and the some carbohydratesalso portions wax, indigestible value. have no feeding Weight for weightthese constituents in
present is not fat in these
guide to
than in fodders. digested No experimentshave been conducted on Indian animals of the constitutents of the various foodthe stuffs, to test digestibility must at present relyon and we European and American in the matter. experience has been found affected by the following circumstances Digestibility better
grainsare
:
"
(1)Kind
of
animal, whether ruminant not ; (2) or (3) mixture adopted; (4) age of the plantused
food ; (5)the state
qualityof
properly washed,
or
the food is
in which
for fodder ;
cooked,
or
given,in the rough,
dried
or
as
hay
;
and
(6)
health. is not usuallyaffected by Digestibility
not
the following stances circumof the animal; (2) quantitygiven,(i.e., ing : (1)age by starvof the small quantitygiven is animal a higherproportion an bullocks at rest and at work digest ; (3)labour (i.e., digested)
the
same
"
The
of proportions addition
of
the
the
different
constituents).
followingsubstances
: digestion (1) Highly nitrogenousfood,
to
food
helps
"
bean-meal, etc. (2) Oil,at the
The of
such
\ Ib. per day
of
as
bran, oil-cake, wheat,
per 1,000 Ibs. of live
weight. or foods, Starchy (3) sugary e.g., potatoes, mangolds, provided ratio of the whole food does not fallbelow 1 : 8. the proteid reduces the digestibility addition of starch or sugar ordinarily
food,but
when
rate
the
proteidratio
is increased
by the addition
of the food oil-cake,bean-meal, etc.,then the digestibility
by the addition
of sugar
or
of
is increased
starch.
(4) Salt. hence (5) Agreeableflavour is also helpfulto digestion, of such materials with flavour. a advisability mixing
the
is of great value in helping proper proportionof water of cattle In the the of water best proportion case to digestion. dry food.hasbeen found in European countries to be as 4 : 1, and of sheep as 2 : 1 ; but in the Indian climate a higher in the case proportionof water is probably necessary.
The
Grains, potatoes,
and
root-crops generallyare
nearly
pletely com-
of nitrogenous matter digested.The higherthe proportion Of 100 contained in hay or straw the greater is its digestibility. and fibres, in various foodstuffs, carbohydrates parts of fat,proteids, the proportions the digested-are givenbelow,though figures in connection be understood that with the reservation animals of different d ifferent have different condigesting power must
511
PROTEIDJRATIO. in differentmixtures, and the generalidea
stituents of food
give only a
therefore figures
"
Fibre,
Carbo
Proteids.
Fat.
hydrate. Cereal grains Pulse grains Cereal straw
"
.
(not too ripe)
Pulse straw
85%
75%
80,,
85,,
85% 90,,
20
45
""
Oil-cake Potatoes
Let of
find out the
now
us
Bengal
..
..
Mineral
fibre
4*4%
or
nutritive relation
.
.
.
1
.
.
.
Jb'roin the table of
(which is equivalentto ot starch].
ia to
4'4x2'3
'5%
57%
.
6'3% 2*7%
..
..
value of which be neglected).
(thenutritive
17'1%
..
matter
..
matter
10*6%
..
..
Nitrogenous Carbohydrates
Woody
"
Very variable.
93,,
proteidratio
..
,.
Other
72,,
"
50
"
..
Proteids
"
"
40
(Cicerarietinum).Its average compositionis
gram
Moisture
Oil
"
90,,
..
"
80
90 ..
60 " 60 " 50 to 80
"
50
Hay
55
"
"
45
-"
Very yariable. 60%
.
(which may be reckoned to starch).
as
(the nutrient value of which be neglected).
digestibility given above
equal
is to
conclude
we
thai/ "
80 per cent, of the fat which has been 4/4 x 2'3 is digestible, as also,that 90
reduced
to
drates carbohy-
per cent, of the carbo-
iiydratesthe
proportionof which is 57 per cent, is digestible, that 60 and 90 per cent, also, per cent, of the fibre (6*3per cent.), of tJie other nitrogenousmatter is equal in which (1*5per cent.) value
starch, are
to
cent, ot the
We digestible.
albuminoids,the
also
conclude,that "5 per is 17*1,is ible. digest-
proportionof which
-Now the proportion between the digestible albuminoids and the digestible of reckoned the food starch is the as portions ratio of gram. In workingthe proportion out true albuminoid the have result :" we following "
171
(57
X
X
85
90) -t-(i'5 + UO)
+
(6'3 X 60) X (4'4
X
2*3 X
80)
14*535
14-536
:4'4 513
1'35 +
-t
The
3-78 +
8 '096
"
64 '256
bullock
should have a proteid milk i : 7|. ratio of 1 ; 13 ; of a horse i : 11 ; and ot a cow in Cow's milk which is .highlynutritious food has the proteid ratio of 1 : 5 and of goat'smilk 1 : 4". Food of young and growing animals should, therefore,have the proteid ratio of 1
:
food of
a
working
5.
In
mixing different foods
for farm animals the for be suitable each should borne in mind as much as
proteidratio that possible
512
HANDBOOK
OP
AQRIOULTUKE.
be attended in feedingmay economy the proteid ratio is too high it is waste
with the best of results. If of good food,if it is too low flesh-former.
the food is too poor as a ratio table of proteid The following animals : of different foods for
givesan
idea of the value
"
PROTEID
RATIO.
(Nominal) Indian "
wheat wheat wheat
(True)
Digestible proteids.
grain
7
bran
7
straw
"6
,,
barley grain oat grain Rice grain
6
"
3-5
"
5
Rice husk Rice straw Jwtr grain J
2-4 "4
6-6
straw
uar
'5
Hay
2
Linseed cake cake Earth-nut Til cake cotton-oake Decorticated Indian cotton seed-cake
72
Peas
16
26
36 38 13
Bengal gram Mangolds
14
1-2
Potatoes Maize
21 "8
the proteidratio of a mixed ration con 6 Ibs. of gram, is. We and find fronr can hay of hay, as we found in the case of the table of composition gram, 2 100 Ibs. Ibs. of digestible in contains it that every proteids food. Therefore,17 Ibs. carbonaceous and 46 Ibs. of digestible Let
us
now
see
what
of 17 Ibs. of sisting
of
hay contains
34 Ibs. of
and digestible proteids
7*82 Ibs. of
ible digest-
food or foods, calculated as starch. We carbonaceous also 14 contains Ibs. of Ibs. of know 100 that digestible gram proteids food calculated as starch. and 61-6 Ibs. (14x4-4) of carbonaceous would thus contain *84 Ibs. of digestible 6 Ibs. of gram proteids and 3-69 Ibs. of starch. In the mixed ration therefore there is and 11-51 Ibs. of starch. The albuminoid 1-18 Ibs. of digestible proteids ratio of the mixed food is thus 1*18 : 11-51 or nearly 1 : 10. The food is thus a littletoo rich for horses and bullocks,though in milk nor for young rich enough for a cow not growing animals. In mixing foods the ash constituents cannot altogetherbe and for Maize rice, instance, left out of account. beingextremely for young and growinganimals. Straw unsuitable lime in are poor acid,and as bran and and hay are particularly poor in phosphoric rich in this constituent one of these suboil-cake are particularly to should be stances given young and growinganimals and,animals So the scientificfanner should in milk alongwith hay or straw. 1ook not onlyto the proteid ratio,but also to the mineral requisites
MANURIAL
513
FOOD-STUFFS.
OF
VALUE
livestock,and he should consider cleanliness,flavour,etc., which are
of food he chooses for his various such
other circumstances as valuable aids to digestion.
calculatingthe total nutriment contained in a food-stuff, contained in the proportions of fibre, ash, and moisture it are ignored,though,as we have justsaid, they are not without The value. values of proteidsand of carbohydrates are lated assumed to be equal. The fat contained in the food-stuff is calcuthe either carbohydratesor as being 2-3 times as valuable as For
albuminoids. To ascertain,for instance, the nutrient value, relative to other fodders similarlycalculated,of paddy-straw,
the
which
contains
of albuminoids
T78 per cent, per cent, of carbohydrates, has simplyto add 2-19 per cent, of fat, one
40*65 and
together,40-65,
and
1-78
(2-19 x
2-3), the result coming
to
47-467.
Although chemical analysisgives no exact idea as to the and other practical value of fodders, yet the following digestible table will be fodders
found
of
some
in
use
determiningthe merits
of
"
"
CXI.
CHAPTER MANURIAL
VALUE
OF
FOOD-STUFFS.
Relation of food to growth and excrements. Generallyspeaking, animal requires, sustenance an diet, four Ibs. of food to as food and every 100 Ibs. of live weight and the relation between dry should be about 1 : 4. Ruminants water largerquantities require such as the horse,' of coarse animals with and stomachs, small food, pf the food cent, requiresmaller quantities.Four to eightper "
Mf
HA
33
514
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
is retained in the body and the rest is voided. consumed One in food voided is faeces of the and two nitrogenous part parts in about in 1 Ib. urine. A growing animal increases weight for every above the sustenance diet. The pro8 Ibs. of food consumed portion
i.e., weight in pigsis larger, they increase 4 5 Ibs. of to food above the weightby consuming only Sustenance diet is what diet. will keep an sustenance mere animal from starvingor decreasingin weight. The increase in of water to the accumulation and fat and weight is due chiefly of The matters. mineral proportion development between is fattening is and animal fat, while an proteids,water of increase of
1 Ib. in
as
1
3:7. Cattle-foods :
manurial
value
in their much vary very of food-stuffs depends almost
value. The the entirelyon portions promanure
of nitrogen, phosphoricacid and potash they contain. of these constituents From these must be deducted the proportions utilized by the animals in the building Except up of their bodies. of growing animals, pregnant animals and of milchin the case
cattle,the proportionsof manurial
substances lost to the land food-substances utilization of the as food first, are by insignificant. of nitrogen In the case alone,Lawes and Gilbert deduced 10 to 15 wasted of nitrogenthan of phosphoric per cent, of loss,as there is more acid and potash ; though it was also recognisedthat in the like oil-cake,beanof highlynitrogenous case food-substances, meal, etc.,the manurial value of the dung is specially great. As linseed-cake is best of all the that tening fatcattle-food, foods, is,more than other food-stuffs, but the manurial value of decorticated cotton-cake is much greater,as the proportions of nitrogen,
phosphoricacid,and potashcontained
in decorticated cotton-cake than much in linseed-cake. It is, therefore,from are greater of food-stuffs in these three constituents the chemical composition that we are to infer their manurial value, making a slight deduction in the case of phosphoricacid and potash and 10 to 15 per in the case cent, deduction of nitrogen.If the farmer considers the manurial value of such food-stuffs as oil-cakes or leguminous seeds, he would not grudge givinga liberal allowance of these to his cattle,as by so doinghe would his land also in good condition. All the organicmanures act
not
only have
his
animals,but
slowlyon the land, i.e.,even is taken it is assumed after a crop that half the dung applied stillremains unexhausted,and after two years, a third to the jiand is stillunexhausted. If annuallycattle are hurdled on a pieceof land and given oil-cake, or gram, to eat, while so hurdled, the land will get richer and richer,and the accumulated of fertility eightor ten years will bringit to a highcondition,after which careful croppingand manuring may help to keep the land always in condition.
this
The of
some
will give ah idea of the manurial following figures food-stuffs to be purchased: principal likely
of the
"
value
516
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
of milk differs very much The composition accordingto the food and the yield. The largerquantitygivenby a particular cow beyond a certain point,the poorer it is in fat. Watery from the udder food also results in poor milk. The last strippings The of milk out of a the richest in fat. are average composition uniform. herd of twenty cattle is fairly The butter-fat which Milk is not a homogeneous substance. has the specific gravityof *91 beingsuspendedin a solution of the specific and proteids gravityof which is 1*03, (lactose) distributed the whole through evenly quantityof milk. the therefore differs from same One sample of milk from cow another sample,and a representative sample from a particular milk of a largedairy is is difficultto get, though the mixed cow in composition. fairlyeven Buffalo butter, having a highermeltingpoint than cow's from the latter. Ghee contains butter, can be easilydistinguished and casein than butter, and it has a slightly less water gravity. Butter-fat consists higher meltingpoint and specific chieflyof the glycerinsalts of palmiticand oleic acids. The of stearic,myristic, lauric,capric,capryllic, caproic glycerides also present in small quantities. The and butyricacids, are of acids and oleic, are capric, capryllic, caproic butyric glycerides fluid at ordinarytemperatures,the remainingglycerides being
sugar is not
the solid. In summer Food also has winter.
proportionof fluid fats is greater than
in
great effect on
the fats of butter. Rapeand wheatrbran cake, cotton-cake, oats, produce harder butter, while linseed-cake, peas, and barleyproducesoft butter. When butter or ghee becomes rancid, the glycerinecompounds are decomposed and the acids set free. The butyric, and capricacids having a strong smell,produce capryllic caproic, the characteristicsmell of rancid butter and ghee. Since these soluble in water and more in milk, the acids are also slightly so smell of rancid butter can be got rid of by several disagreeable with water, or better with milk. Lard and vegetable washings a
deficient in these volatile acids,and this fact helpsthe detection of adulteration of butter and ghee. The proteidsof milk consists of casein and albumin. The is separatedout former by rennet but not the latter,while the latter is separatedout by boiling.In shar we have butter oils
and
are
albumin, while in cheese
colostrum albumin
we
have
butter
and
casein.
In
so that it coagulates OB greatlypreponderates, boiling.In ordinarycow's milk, one-ninth of the proteidsi" is casein. albumin and eight-ninths The souringof milk is caused by several microbes or bacteria. and preservation If these bacteria can be excluded by sterilization in air-tight vessels,the milk can b*ekept sweet for an indefinite is a future for the sterilized There milk trade in India. period. it into lactic The bacteria act on the lactose of the milk converting acid. This acid acts on the casein and precipitates it, which
517
MILK.
the
causes
acts
curdlingof
the milk.
Eennet
ferment a and moderatelyhigh temperature pitates precithe coagulatedcasein,but its curdlingaction is entirely the casein at
on
which
is also
a
different from that produced in the souringof milk, and in its similar acid is produced. The addition of rennet, however, case no the milk sour, other acids being generated.Any turns acid except carbonic acid,will coagulate the casein cause milk,i.e., and the fat entangledin it to precipitate. There is more than one rapidprocess in use for determination of the richness of milk. The lactometer test is largely useless,as
skimmingthe
buttet increases the specific gravityof milk and addition of water lowers this specific gravity. A dishonest dealer with the help of a lactometer can easily the fat by remove the rapidcentrifugal water of and addition then bring by process gravityto 1*031 or 1-030. up the specific The idea in all the newer rapid methods (e.g., Babcock's an
method) is to dissolve the casein by a strong acid,say, sulphuric' acid of sp. gr. T82. their action goes on, there is a great When rise in temperature, the fat liquefies, and when submitted to centrifugal the in it all the and measured surface is to force, comes graduatedneck of the test bottle. The fault in this system lies in the fact that owing to the great rise in temperature due to a of the fat, with strong acid being mixed with the milk, some
milk-sugar, gets charred to a black substance which consequently interferes with the obtainingof accurate results. Gerber's method overcomes this difficulty by the addition of amyl alcohol,and it is at present considered the best and quickest volumetric test for milk-fat. The firststage in the process is samplingof the milk by tilting is well distributed throughout it from pailto pailuntil the cream the milk is still the whole. The samplingshould be done when Irom the cow. warm of pipettes A number then got ready,i.e., 10 c. c. pipettes are for amyl for milk, and 1 c. c. pipettes for acid, 11 c. c. pipettes corks and chemical alcohol ; also test bottles fitted with rubber for
the test. The sulphuricacid used
should be of the
littlemore less does not matter. or 10 c. c. of the sulphuric acid First of all, Then the test bottle is inverted in a stand 1*82 ;
specific gravity
a
taken in a pipette. the acid is run and into it. The dropor two of acid remainingin the tip of the pipette is not to be blown in. Next is put in 1 c. c. of amyl alcohol (on which will slightly discolour when the top of the acid), coming in contact
with the acid.
The
are
care greatest possible
must
be
observed in measuringthe amyl alcohol,as an extra drop or two affects the result most remarkably. Next, the milk is to be let?in from the pipette drop by drop. all in o f the measured the ingredients, Having put proportions the test bottles are corked and well shaken and then they ate
518
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
The test bottles are now submitted to the rotary machine. machine after which in for three minutes force the centrifugal they may be taken out. The fat will be noticed to have collected on the top of the have been properly that is, if the operations performed, liquid, To colour. off the perof a palish read and it is generally yellow centage, the fat must be brought on the graduatedscale on the neck of the bottle. This is done by pushingin the India-rubber
put
on
"
The bottom of the layerof fat is to be got even with one of where the of the long graduations, sees one or one numbers, and then it is a simplematter to read off the percentage. Each divided representsone per cent, which is subspace between the numbers into 10 small divisions,each equal to -1 per cent. So cork.
and five small ones, this would represent 3 -5 per cent, of fat, which is the compositionof good In reading, it is necessary that the bottom of the fat should milk. of the largemarks, and in readingoff the decimal be exactly on one that if we
have three
percentage read up present at the top
largedivisions
of the meniscus, which
to the bottom
is always
of the fat. ash settles at the The mineral matter in the milk generally or the cork in the form of a greyish bottom of the test bottle near
white powder. The test bottle is to be cleaned
with hot water after use, and if any fat is leftin the neck, it should with a fine brush, or else it will affect the accuracy out
immediately removed
be
of the
next
test.
The test of butter in milk is
no
criterion
by
which
one
could
be so rich adulteration. One sample of milk may judgefraudulent that it contains 7J per cent, of butter and another may contain It is .very hard to say whether a only 1" per cent. sample of milk has been watered, or the cow the mjlk has producing been fed injudiciously. Ordinarygood cow's milk should give 9 to 10 per cent, of cream and about 3J per cent, of butter fat. One good Indian cow giving5 or 6 seers of milk per day should produce annually 100 Ibs. of butter or 250 Ibs. of cheese. An average One poupd of cheese Englishdairycow producestwice as much. is obtained from about ten pounds of whole milk or fifteen pounds of skim-milk. The produce of cheese is a more reliable test of the purityof milk than the produce of butter.
CHAPTER CREAM
CXII1. AND
BUTTER.
of milk which are consists mainly of the fat-globules when the the fresbstate. In the hot weather, is milk in separated
CREAM
even cream
with
a
cream centrifugal
separator,it is not
from milk, except with the
helpof ice.
easy
separating
In the cold
weather,
early in the morning or the
milk, in the cold
being
four inches
about
pans in the morning with
and
the top is cut
on resting
in shallow
weather,
through clean cloth is
strained
shallow
night,this separationcan be effected separatedfrom fresh milk by setting
at
is also
easily. Cream
very
519
BUTTER.
AND
CREAM
The
pans.
milk
after
placed in the evening
in
clean
in
ventilated house, a deep fine holes the cream containing scoop
a
If
out.
a
second
skimming is done,
of the two skimmings should be mixed up with is used, the stirrer. If a cream-separatingmachine creams
a
the
wooden
separation morning or at night in a few minutes. the separationis effected by the use of shallow pans or Whether by a centrifugal cream-separator, the fat-globules separated out be
can
effected
the
in
will be found to be stillmixed up with the casein and sugar of the milk ; the cream obtained is thus not butter. It is not even butter with diluted little milk, as fermentation a plays a part in the formation of what we generally call butter. from Although the fat-globules
be
can
churned
into
out
butter it is not
butter proper of time. length
for any
keep
There
kinds
various
are
machines
in
(Fig.99) : the being the same thrown out through a the
of
column
the middle,
separate hole separate vessel.
of
hole into
a
vessel
in collecting fat-globules
and
separators
power
tasty very that will
centrifugal principleof heavier liquid is
works gradually
a
cream
; the
use
all
and
fresh
a
a
For are
its way
through
separate spout
into
a
this country, steamwell adapted,nor not
very expensivehand separatorseither,Avhich ' The ' Lilliput Rs. 500. cost Ks. 300 to
FIG.
inches high separator which is only eighteen
CREAM-
THE
SEPARATOR.
of our needs whom of be induced some to invest dairymen (gowdlds), may if the benefit of obtaininga larger this machine Rs. 100 on quantity of cleaner butter from fresh milk throughout the cold In one be pointedout to them. of months hour a maund can best
seems
milk
suited
for
99."
the
treated with this machine, the average tained yield obof milk. being about four seers of cream per maund butter method The English is not suitable out of cream of making under ordinary conditions in the climate of Bengal,as the be
may
proper
62"
temperature 64"F.
for
Though
churning is 55"F., going graduallyup
centrifugal depend in this separator makes the best butter, we must from of butter curd on or sour-milk,or from shar making country the Devonshire of making butter. which is practically method The making of cheese is also not suited to the climate of Lower to
or
Bengal. The
sweet
temperature
by the addition of rennet
at
cream
which
is of great
got by
the milk
means
of
should
importance. 74"
a
be
curdled
to
84"F. is
520
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
the suitable temperature, the lower temperature (74" to 80"F.) for thin cheeses and the higher(80"to 84"F.)for thick. For the subsequentripeningof cheese a fairlyuniform temperature of It is difficultto secure these conditions in 70"F. is also needed. the
plains.
ing necessary for a small dairyof 25 cows, yieldappliances of 50 of milk seers are a an daily, quantity Lilliput average churn (Fig.100), two pailsfor milking, separator, a ten-gallon The
100." THE CHURN.
a
hair-sieve for
two
BUTTER
FIG.
the passing
milk into the
101." THE
BUTTER-WORKER.
of the separator, receptacle
glazed earthenware
cream,
wooden
two
cream-crocks, each holding10 seers of butter tub, two stirrers, a wooden platters,
butter-worker (Fig.101), butter prints,a marble-slab and butter scales. All the utensils should be washed with boiling and kept scrupulously water clean. The cream should be kept in the cream-crock,and the fresh skim-milk may be either converted into cheese,or given to animals, or sold as 'inferior milk. After each separationof cream an addition may be made to the same cream-crock, but at each addition the stirrer should be used for mixingup the different lots of cream, and the churningmay take place on the second or third day. The cream-crock should be placedin a cool place. The churning should be done in the a
early
morning at
a
temperature of about 60"F.
The chum
is
only half
filledwith cream. Duringthe firstfew minutes the ventilator of the churn should be opened out. The churning should continue for about three-quarters of an hour, at a uniform rate of about
forty
strokes per minute.
When
the butter has come, a difference of sound is noticed. Then the butter-milkis withdrawn from the churn, the flowingout of granulesoi butter being avoided by the use of the hair-sieve. Any granules accumulatingin the sieve are to be returned to the churn. Then the churn is to
521
CHEESE-MAKING.
be half filledwith cold water, and after a few turns of the churn the water is to be withdrawn the buttermilk. in the same as way The washing is to be repeateduntil the water comes out clean. Then the butter is to be taken out, but it should not be touched with the hand. Either the hair-sieve or the two wooden
butter has been from the churn, it is dealt by the worker, is a which and rolls the kneads which corrugated cylinder butter be also done with against a table. The kneading may wooden tub. Salt hands, well washed with salt-water,in a is added and also to now to remove the water more effectually enhance the keepingqualityof the butter. About three ounces of salt should be used for every two seers The mass of butter. is then made into rolls half or pound prints. up Further information on butter-making will be found in the
patters
to
are
be
used.
When
removed
next
part of the book, in the chapterdevoted
CHAPTER
the with
to
dairybacteriology.
CXIV.
CHEESE-MAKING. in a glazed Cream-Cheese. Take one gallon of fresh cream earthenware it heat cool to or a vessel, temperature of 68" to If the cream 70"F. has been obtained by a separator,allow it for stand four to fifteen to twenty to six hours to ripen. Add Stir this drops of Hansen's rennet diluted with a little water. in for ten minutes, afterwards coveringthe vessel,and allow it in a temperature of to stand for twenty-fourhours undisturbed 60"F. It will be now found to have coagulated,and then it should be turned into a cloth and hung inside a vessel to drain in a circulating atmosphereof about 60"F. The cloth should be "
material which should be thick enough to retain the curd tinue allowingthe whey to drain out. The drainingshould confor eighteen to twenty hours, and duringthis time the cream should be scrapedtwo or three times from the sides of the cloth of moisture. to facilitate the separation After this it should be turned into a fresh cloth and placedunder a weightof from eight to twelve Ibs. until dry enough for moulding,i.e.,for a periodof from eightto ten hours. Before moulding salt should be added at the rate of 1| oz. to 2 ozs., to the quantity. Ordinary Cheese. Strain the fresh milk through a thick piece of cloth into a vat. Eaise the temperature of the vat very a
coarse
while
"
in steam into the jacketof the vat, while graduallyby letting t he milk with a slowly stirring stirrer,until the temperature reaches 85"F. should not be attempted therefore, Cheese-making, in very hot weather,when it does not need any heatingto arrive
522
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
If the cheese has to be coloured* the temperature of 85"P. add the colour at this stage,say, 1 oz. of annatto-fluid for every fluid is to be mixed up The colouring of milk used. ten maunds with a quantityof the milk in the vat and the mixture put in so at
distribution of colour. Then add, gradually with water to the 10 of rennet mixed up one seer by stirring, Sufficient rennet is to be used milk in the vat. maunds of warm The in less than a quarter of an hour. to show some coagulation In time. this should be shut off from draughtsof air at room and then with two curdabout, half an hour the curd will solidify, cuttingcompound knives, cleaned, sharpened,and washed with
as
to
get
a
uniform
water, the curd is to be boiling and then with knife lengthwise
cut
clean, firstwith the horizontal
until the vertical knife vertically, of curd are formed in the whey. Continue littlecubical masses creased while the temperature is slowly into stir these cubical masses to 98" or 100"F., two degreesbeing raised every five this temperature is reached, graduallydraw and taking off the briskly, whey, and continue stirring whey. Then spreadthe curd over a cloth to run out all the wheyr curd the and afterwards through a grindingmill. Then
When
minutes. off the
pass
of milk mix salt evenly at the rate of 1 Ib. for every five maunds used. Then weigh out the salted curd into the hoops or moulds fitted with cheese-cloth. The cloth should be taken out from hot water, rinsed before puttingit on the hoop and lettingcurd into at the time the hoops of cheese it. The temperature of the room The pressure should are put under press, should be about 80"F. Then the cheese is be slow and repeatedat intervals of an hour. ing taken out of the mould, the cheese-cloth sewn on, and after smearthe surface with hot water , pressure is appliedagain. The next day it is taken out and left on a shelf to ripenfor two or three
months. Rennet
than a week be made out of calves not more inside out, wiped is cut out, turned old. The fourth stomach It of form the blown in a bladder. out and dry, turned back should be kept hung up for two weeks in a cool and dark room. about J:inch wide and put in a stone Then it is cut up into strips boiled of water which has been previously seer one jarcontaining Sufficient salt is to be added to supersaturatethe and cooled. should
of the stomach against rub the strips three In or four days the rennet the water and the sides of the jar. is sufficient for curdling10 will be teady. 1 seer of this rennet sary Strict cleanlinessis necesmaunds of milk in less than an hour. stirand Occasionally
water.
at *
Mr.
every
Subba has been
stage. Rao, late of the
Madras
ment, DepartAgricultural
successful in making cheese,without the addition of rennet, by addingto the milk the juiceof Epicarpwus orienleaves two stalks of thirtytalis. The milky juiceof the petiole connection this In of this tree was used for four poundsof milk. the that use juiceof sheord mentioned it may be Bengal gowdlds
524 "
of
OF
HANDBOOK
the principle force, as described above. of centrifugal have to desired capacity. The largerones
All the modern
separationby
They
cream
means
be of any
may
AGRICULTURE.
separatorsare
based
on
150 gallons as be driven by steam-power, and can separateas many of of milk per hour, while the Baby has a capacity 12 gallons Windsor and the of 35 gallonsper hour. end churn, and The churn shown is an end over Victoria unlike most churns, has no beaters inside. The absence of beaters inside is said to be an advantage,as it allows the churn to be easily washed and cleaned. It may be remarked here that in all dairy portance. imcleanliness of utensils is a matter of the utmost -operations, '
*
"
'
*
f
'
at the Metdemonstrations Mr. Howman gave a series of described in the The chief among these are briefly calfe Hall. "
followingparagraphs: "
intended to be a competitive first demonstration was of butter-makingand the trial between the Englishmethod native. For this purpose native dairyman carryingon a large a the field with induced to enter milk trade at Kidderporewas The proceedings Mr. Howman. opened by making over 136 " Ibs. of milk of the same qualityto each of the two parties. Mr. K. Societyof India, Blechynden,Secretaryto the Agri-Horticultural "
'
The
and Company the firm of Messrs. T. B. Thomson -of Calcutta, and Mr. B. C. Basu, Assistant to the Director of Mr. Howman the proceedings. Agriculture, Bengal,superintended separator, passedhis portionof the milk throughthe Windsor it make ripen and the cream was put aside in a safe place to The native next the butter on for day. and get ready churning earthen in dahi into heated his milk and set it to curdle Mr.
Irvingof
*
*
*
'
dairyman
also put aside for the night. On the next day Mr. whom were at 12 o'clock several other gentlemen,among Bengal, Dr. Greenhill, Mr. Finucane, Director of Agriculture, Tremearne, Managing Director of the Great Eastern Hotel, and the competitive to see of the Sailors' Home, came the Superintendent the made on vious pretrial. Mr, Keventer placedthe cream half than an and in less the 'Victoria' into churn, evening and hour the churningwas complete,and the butter pressed four this made. gowdldswere put to work to churn the
pots which
were
Against
Although no the butter in the native way. idea of the time attempt was made to arrive at a comparative ings occupiedby each process, the gentlemenwho watched the proceedof butter-making, that the mere to be of opinion came process full thrice the time as take would native followed dairymen, by as
dahi
and
get
out
The native from cream. of butter-making the trial seemed to be much interested in the that, apart from other compelledto own method, and were new had a decided the Englishmethod of butter-making -advantages, On of the saving of labour. in their own
English process dairymenpresentat
the
.advantageover
weighingthe two
respect
lots of butter, the
of the English superiority
BACON
method
became
AND
525
CUEING.
HAM
itsoutturn being6 apparent,*
Ibs. 6 ozs., native method. the The native butter ozs. by to contain a larger also looked thinner and appeared percentage of water in it than the machine-turned butter. To ascertain this, it was the proposedto carry the trialfurther by converting point, at once
against4 Ibs. 13
from either process into ghee,but duringthe boiling an far as accident occurred which put an end to the proceedings so The butter from the machine concerned. the native butter was butter
gave 4 Ibs. 4 of only 1 oz.
u
was
of
ghee(67 per
cent,
on
the
and butter),
a
residue
12 drs. of curd and
skimmings. of the two lots of butter,Mr. Howregardsthe quality for his own claimed superiority this pointthe gentle; but on men in unanimous not decided were giving opinion. present any '
"
man
ozs.
As
demonstration with The second buffalo milk. was It but the cream which also intended to be a competitive trial, *
Mr. Howman in
of whom native
separatedwas not small quantities to
the pronounced
dairyman
obtained
made
l\ Ibs. of
cream
butter
butter
from
tributed but diskept for butter-making several
European gentlemen,all
to be of very good quality.The out of his lot of buffalo milk and
22
\ Ibs.
of
milk, which
butter to 15 Ibs. of milk. This shows tta very buffalo's milk as compared with the cow's.'1'
CHAPTER BACON
AND
rich
is 1 Ib. of
qualityof
CXV. HAM
CURING.
in Europe and America FARMERS usuallypractisethe art consists in addingpreThe of ham and bacon curing. principle serving and allowingtime for these to substances to the meat the tissues. This inhibits the growth of bacteria and saturate for an indefinite period. to keep the meat renders it possible animal rolled is inside a vat filledwith of the The carcass
180"F. until the hair comes easilyin the hand. away Then it is put on a table and the hair removed by scrapers, after furnace in which it is singed which it is hung up above a singeing Then the carcass is lowered into about a quarter of a minute. taken and for burnt surface bath the cold second, a a up again, The intestines and offal are scrapedoff with hand scrapers.
water
at
and sorted, and the carcass after being again down the back, the vertebral column removed, cleansed,is spilt the vertebral column, the head, the and the two sides including
then
removed
weight weighed. This is called the deadThe dead-weight of an animal weighing of the animal. sixteen stone is about twelve stone ; from this is deducted 2 Ibs.
feet,and the kidney fat,are
It should be noted here that the native dairymen would have got a larger if yield they churned the dahi earlyin the morning (as they always do) instead of the afternoon. m *
526
HANDBOOK
for
etc., and evaporation,
AGRICULTURE.
OF
priceis fixed on the net weightcompletelysevered,the kidney,fat
the
the head and feet are removed, and the sides are disconnected and vertebral column and allowed to cool, hung up for six to twelve hours,according They are then placedin a refrigerator to the time of the year.
Then
a temperature of hours until the meat 40"F. registers 38"F. for the to be meat be cooled down must The refrigerator and the sides trimmed The blade bones are then removed 40"F. to laid cellar where bench and on a and taken to the they are uniform of various 40 at a Ibs. per at points pressure pumped
for twelve
square
picklemade
of
petre salt,50 parts, granulatedsaltwinter 5 i.e., (in only) parts. 5, dry antiseptic, cane-sugar
inch with
a
of water are added and stirred till To these substances 20 gallons The strengthdetermined -all the material is dissolved. by the it indicates less,add more salt salinometer should be 95". If until it indicates 95". The sides are wiped with a portionof the pickleused for pumping and are then laid on the cellar floor. A mixture
of
and dry antiseptic of saltpetre is equalquantities
then
the whole of the inside or cut surfaces,with a sieve. over sprinkled the same over Salt finelyground is then sprinkled surface,and lie in that condition for seven the sides are now or permittedto and then be cured it be washed will and when baled may eightdays be washed and dried as the sides may pale sold be smoked and smoked as bacon. they may tilated paledried state,the sides are hung up in a ven80" F. of with heated a to a steam temperature dryingroom Smoked bacon is until there and dry. quite produced kept pipe, by hanging the sides in a smoke store for about three days and fumes where it is exposed to the smoke given off by The smoke sawdust. wood store be well must smoulderinghard
for transport, or dried bacon," or If wanted in the
"
ventilated. of 5 Ibs. of simplermethod is to make a pickleconsisting 2 and of of cold Ib. gallons saltpetre salt, water, to J common added. Into this bfc which \ Ib. of sugar may picklethe whole for three at uniform is a fairly days dipped cut kept or up carcass is temperature of 50"F., and then dry salting done for nine days in the cttse of big animals up to twelve days. or The most importantpointsin the curingof bacon and ham of temperature (2) uniformity are (1) cleanliness of all the operations, of densityof the pickle of the cellar,and (3) evenness A
used.
'
is cut up into sides or smaller carcass ham. called is it Ham-curing is easier than piecesand cured, is the same. After the sides though the principle bacon-curing, into cut have been chilled, largepieceswhich are they are up
Ham-curing. If the "
in the preparation of bacon. They the until next morningwhen they are allowed to remain there are be entirely so that the blood may taken out and pressed squeezed then laid alternatelybetween They are from the sinews. out
flunginto
the
used pickling
SHEEP
CURING
layers of salt. Pumping
AND
OTHER
be done
v
527
SKINS.
a
low
a
week
pressure with and saltpetre antiseptic surface and the whole is covered the cut is sprinkled over with salt. After three days the hams are pressed again so as blood remainingin the sinews. They are then out to squeeze and covered with fine salt and leftin this positionfor laid down fifteen days if pieces weigh about 15 Ibs. They requirea day
an
pickle. The antiseptic
may
mixture
same
at
of
for every pound weightto cure, but left for if the weight is less than 7 Ibs. Then the
at least
piecesare
even
dried and
stored. is another
recipefor curinghani
gallonsof
water boiling
sides of bacon : or bushel of salt and } Ib. |a dissolves. When of saltpetre.Stir till the mixture cold, add in Put the this treacle. sides of brine and 1 Ib. keep it tinder Turn it every two days and let it remain with heavy stones. Here
Pour
four
"
to
for ten days or a fortnightaccording to thickness. Large pickle month to five weeks curing. Then simply rub hams requireone each piecewell with dry salt. Place pieceupon pieceon charcoal. in
for six weeks. Then rub a little more Leave them in this way treacle For hams salt and hang up. use or petre saltsugar and some with the salt and rub well ; for bacon salt alone does. Drip brine. After six or eightweeks take occasionallywith their own when in and to to out vermin. dry put up bags keep dry up hams the following For curingmutton recipehas been found very
reliable Water Black
:
"
.
.
horse-salt
Saltpetre
1
gallon
3
Ibs.
1 Ib. 14 Ibs.
Our Mixed
spices Juniper berries
i
Pearl ash
1
.
1
ounce "
.
"
in this picklefor three weeks, being which after they can be smoked. agitateddaily, .slightly The
hams
should
remain
CHAPTER CURING
SHEEP
CXVI. AND
OTHER
SKINS.
IF the skin is dry,soak it in water until it is quitesoft. Scrape off any fat that is present,placingthe skin on a scrapingboard handles for the purpose, and using a scrapingknife with two Then wash the skin well in warm soap and water ; wring out, but skin the for two days in the following Then leave do not rinse. To five gallonsof soft water add 3J Ibs. of common mixture. well until the salt dissolves completely. salt and stir the mixture Then add 1} Ibs. of commercial sulphuricacid and stir again. the hand to smart, but do no harm. This mixture will cause Put
528
the as
HANDBOOK
dry
the
drying,
hard
Any
scraping
part with
whitening
During out
and
Curing and
sugar
preliminary are
clothes,
washing
when
made.
knife
a
stretching left may laid
scraping, till
unkempt also
thick
scraping
be over
and
done
the with
the
fleshy
washing.
a
a
all
wool
skin
has
as
scraped. though
stone, dust
with
pumice
a
little stone.
be
should
combed
dried. of
mixture
of
portion This
and
finish,
over
the
knuckles
way
pumice As
this
rub
the
out
During
dry.
to
every
with
wring
water,
shade
in
in
answers.
and
and
cold
in
between
stretched
reduced
also
skin
the
over
not
be
it
rubbed
pulled,
smay
it
hang
be
should
skin
rinse
then
and
possible,
as
AGRICULTURE.
then
mixture,
this
in
skin
OF
is
alum, the
how
eggs,
flour
skin
after
soft
kid-skins
the
VII.
INSECT
CXVIL
CHAPTER GENERAL
REMEDIES
APPLIANCES. and
various A
pests.
"
In
there
all sorts
of insecticides
102."
NORTON'S DUSTER.
of bellows
forms
vaporizing,and
or
Fio,
are
the
illustrated third
:
ASON'S
one
for
AND
BELLOWS. FLUID.
or
spraying kerosene of the many forms of knapsack pumps presents Fig. 105 re(Fig.104), may be used. in which the general manner these and other spraying machines are The Eclair Vaporizer represented used. is provided with in Fig. 104 handle a which the man distributingthe liquid the liquid are and Air keeps working. orifice by this of the same forced out action, and of over
the a
30 Ibs. be
the result is the
enough M,
liquidcan be charged,and over a solution sprinkling
for HA
for
fungicides. mixture,
one
distribution
liquidin extremely fine particles time about Each large space. of
dusting
spraying,another
dusting insecticides emulsion Bordeaux or
for
For
for
three. different
Fig. 103
POWDER
insect-
patent bellows,
be used
may
103." WOOD FOR
againstall
of the
one
or
fungicides.In
PLANT
dry Pyrethrum leaves
of
the market
on
PARASITES.
AND
largelyused
are
(Fig. 102),
several
of which
FIG.
dust
the
patent powders are
PESTS
AGAINST
America
hand-duster
PESTS.
FUNGUS
AND
FIG.
three a
104. "THE VAPORIZER.
such
whole
ECLAIR
charges acre
of
34
will
land
530
HANDBOOK
in the
ola
course
AGRICULTURE.
OF
The
few hours.
vaporizershould be thoroughly used" and
cleaned and dried after it has been
before it is
Very largespraying machines mounted for
and
spraying orchards
away. rizers vapo-
and
carts
on
put and
intended
large plantations,
constructed, but
these will suitable for the needs of cultivators. best The knapsack
are
hardly be found Indian
Bros.,
obtainable
now
sprayers ' Success
'
of
sold
in India
Messrs.
by Bombay, and the
obtainable
are
the
Macdougall '
Spramotor
'
from
Messrs. Williamson, Magor and Co., of Calcutta. An appliancewhich is very useful for
singeinginsects
trees
on
and
shrubs, is
asbestos torch FIG. 105." MANNER (Fig. 106), The SPRAYING USING asbestos ball is saturated with kerosene MACHINES. oil and arid the lighted, lightedtorch infested branches and leaves. passed over in The followinggeneraldirections should be borne in mind used should be close, (b) The bin storinggrain: (a)The buildings OF
the
"
used
should be
allowingaccess tight-fitting, light, nor (c) The
yet granary
should be be should
of neither of air, nor of weevils and moths, and
kept clean,
its
surroundings grains
(d) Kefuse
destroyedand
not left about. be dried should Grain \e) thoroughly be before it is stored. (/) Storingcan done between thick layers of well-dried pletely leaves,or in tarred vats lined comwith dry straw, (g)Naphthalene
neem
powder, half cubic 10 of
feet
a
of
teaspoonfulfor space
once
every 15 every
10 or
100 bushels to every days, or 1 ounce also bon-bisulphi out insects, grain, (h)Carkeeps
is the best for use protectinggrains stored in godowns. The gas of carbon-
however,
substance FIG.
106." ASBESTOS TORCH.
can liquid
be thrust
to
bisulphide,being heavy, sinks and into the grain-store from the top. The use
the of
bin is recommended
a Quarantine by Mr. L. 0. Howard, of the United States Department of Agriculture. Into this,allseeds and
in, and are disinfected by grainsare put in bags as they come before they are stowed away. The quantityof carbon-bisulphide, used for carbon-bisulphide being1| Ibs. every ton of seed or grain. insects to (i)Hyrnenopterous belonging the order Chalcididae prey and their presence to grains,and destroy insects injurious upon
godowns should be encouraged, (j)Salted sacks, i.e.,sacks dipped in a ten per cent, solution of common salt,and afterwards in
532
HANDBOOK
OF
AGEICULTUBE.
Fungicides.Bordeaux
mixture is the standard fungicide, and with combines well arsenical it combined as a as poisons, with an arsenical poison, such as mixture spray of Bordeaux Paris Green, acts both as an insecticide and as a fungicide. 1 Ib. of one of the arsenical poisonsshould be mixed up finely powdered "
but
mixture. The Bordeaux mixture with 160 gallonsof Bordeaux is preparedby adding to 40 gallonsof water, 6 Ibs. of powdered mixed sulphateof copper, and 4 Ibs. of unslaked lime previously If there is an excess of sulphateof copper to a paste with water. it is apt to injurethe foliage.To see if the mixture has been
properlymade
of a knife is to be dipped or not, the clean blade minute. If the knife is untarnished, the mixture but if the knife is stained a coppery is all right, milk colour,more of lime should be added. As an all-round combined be fungicideand insecticide, may Take 40 Ibs. the sulphur,lime and salt wash. also mentioned 15 Ibs. of salt,and 50 gallons of unslaked lime, 20 Ibs. of sulphur, Boil the sulphur with the water and 10 Ibs. of lime of water. and a half hours, or until the sulphuris for not less than one in a dissolved, thoroughly strong iron (not a thin copper) boiler, when the mixture will be a lightamber colour. The remaining 30 Ibs. of lime is to be slaked with hot water, and when thoroughly When slaked but stillboiling, 15 Ibs. of salt are to be added. this is dissolved,the whole should be added to the lime and sulphur in the boiler,and the combined substances boiled for half an hour when make whole up to 50 gallons, should be the to water, longer, added. Then straining should be done through a wire sieve and the mixture should be well stirred before use. After using this with be thoroughlywashed mixture, the sprayingmachine must hot Water. Another standard fungicidal solution is the Eau Celeste. This into
it for
is made
a
of hot copper with 2 gallons When ammonia water. cool, 1| pints of commercial (strength, 22" Baume) are to be added. The solution is to be kept tightly it should when it is requiredfor be corked, and use, diluted with 20 gallons of water. Eclair Vaporizer may The be used in sprayingboth the Eau Celeste and the Bordeaux mixture.
by mixing 1
Ib. of
sulphateof
'
natural enemies, such as Insect-pests generallyhave many ichneumon-flies,lady-birds,spiders,ants, bats, dragon-flies, frogs,lizards,and certain birds, such as starlings, king-crows, domestic fowls, thrushes,shrikes,drongos,rollers, wood-peckers, tit-mice,jays, lapwings, nut-hatchers, bee-eaters and plovers. Crows destructive to unripe grainsof maize, though are very also. eat Of all the birds mentioned, starlings they (shdlik) grubs the best friend of the farmer, are 4s a rule,birds that are good to eat (such as pigeons, doves, bagariesand sparrows) or have parrots), very fine and attractive plumage (suchas linnets and destructive of grain.As these are constantly hunted by man, are
GENERAL
REMEDIES
PEST
AGAINST
AND
PARASITES.
533
they are naturallykept down. Sparrows and linnets (bdbui) do the of perhaps damage. greatest amount at night or hanging up lanterns in plantations Lightingfires with troughsof water (to which a littlekerosene oil may be added) and destroying of attracting underneath, is a good means some kinds
of insects.
Umbelliferous spices (sulpa,coriander, etc.),repel insects, and these may
be grown
here and there in the midst of and around crops that are subjectto the attack of insects,such particularly has not as cabbages,cauliflowers, etc.,but this method brinjals,
proved generally
satisfactory. fliesare largelyattracted by
Ichneumon and a
sim
country
very
(Dolichoslablab).These
plantationof
destroy
sugar-cane, borers. sugar-cane
Free irrigation is white ants, crickets and
as
ichneumon
flowers of arahar round be grown may known flies are to
great preventive against cut-worms, of their out grasshoppers.They come holes and hop away is field as as a soon thoroughlyirrigated. of land and hurdling in of fowls (scratchers) Thorough preparation in ploughed up fields before sowing, are also good preventives. a
CHAPTER
CXVIII.
ZOOLOGY.
AGRICULTURAL BEFORE
the reader to the principalinsects-pests introducing to agricultural damage crops, it is desirable that a v iew of the different orders of animals should be given, bird's-eye which may enable him to distinguish in a systematic manner,
that
cause
insects
from
known on
the various
among as
worms
and vermin. drawn up with
p. 534 has been of each A short description
of animals
that are popularly shown scheme zoological reference to insects. special
groups
The
of the above groups of animals mainly bringingout the meaning of the various terms used in the above scheme, will be of some in gettingan idea of the use classification of the animal kingdom given in the scheme. The characteristic features of this class of animals Protozoa. "
of protoplasm, without definite simplylittlemasses have no body cavity. They nervous, tive digesorgans or circulatorysystems. The protoplasmis not surrounded by a cell-wall as in the case of vegetablecells,and the protozoa of the therefore able to throw out pseudopods, are i.e., prolongations when their which of is mass they composed, body protoplasmic notice any food substance before them. Thus theypossess volition which characterizes even the lowest member of the animal kingdom. the microscope,these lowest animals Looked at under ated characteristics: (1)they are nuclepresentat least three common of protoplasm; (2)besides the nucleus they have a masses heart ; (3) the masses contractile vesicle, sort of rudimentary a are,
they are or
a
definite
534
of are
in
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTUBE.
OF
and Rhizopoda protoplasm are full of granules. The Gregarinidse the Foraminifera nucleus. fission encased at reproduced by are shells of caclium carbonate, a particleof chalk being a mass "
of such
shells.
have
distinct
but
a
Radiolaria mouth.
are
encased
Infusoria
also
in shells of silica. have
a
distinct
fission but
They
mouth,
by only by They multiply Infusoria in conjugation and gemmation. abundantly grow either of water. in presence rotting animal matter They are ciliated or flagellated. stomach.
no
not
also
r
s
s o
3-8
S
I *"* .S 2
-35.
a "
a
S 5
Tseniad worms wo
d 43
round
or o ed .
"D
s o
"8fi*
.
or
s.
AGKIOULTTJKAL
535
ZOOLOGY.
SUB-KINGDOM
IV
ARTHROPODA.
Hymenoptera
A.
bees, wasps, (c.y.%
A.
ants,
Hemiptera or Rhynchota Hemiptera heteroptera
a
ichneumons).
Lepidoptera and (butterflies
C.
B.
moths). D.
bugs.
/;. Hemiptera
f
homoptera
cicadas, plant (e.g., lice,scale insects). Orthoptera (cockroaches, ear-wigs, crickets and
Diptera
and (flies
e.g.,
^
Coleoptera (e.g beetles).
B.
Thysanura (fishinsects, springtails, etc.)
grass-hoppers). Neuroptera (dragon flies ;
U.
mos-
quitoes).
white D.
ants).
Thysanoptera (thrips).
Ccelenterata. These
have
both
mouth
and
a body cavity; circulatoryorgan, no blood. They often have distinct stingingorgans. Reproductiontakes place live in colonies both sexuallyand by segmentation.They usually "
but
no
system,
nervous
no
and sometimes corals). They are (e.g.,sponges polymorphic than one in character,i.e.,possessing more form, and the same form repeats itself at regularsuccession by a process which is
alternation of generations. known as the body cavity is distinct In this group Echinodermata. The body cavityis circulatory, from the alimentarycanal. ing belongto the water- vascular system of circulation. There is a distinct radiate nervous symmetrical. system. The body is bilaterally sea-urchins. and star-fishes Examples are The bodies of these animals are Annulosa. in segments. but less worm-like. Locomotor more or radiate, They are never "
"
which are bilaterally symmetricalare presentin the arthrotrue in but worms not (Vermes).Reproductionof worms poda, is either hermaphrodite, or or conjugal,or parthenogenetic, by* have true water-vascular no blood, a simplegemmation. They have ventral a nervous They system being present. system of Echinodermata. which is not radiate as in the case Many of
organs
Domestic the true worms animals and birds often are parasitic. suffer from tape-worms. These throw out a chain of segments is providedwith (proglottids), finishing up with a head which hooks and four cup-shapedsuckers attached to the stomach o t intestinesof the host. This may be as long as 90ft. Each prehas both male and female eggs, so that if one of these is glottis
656
OP
HANDBOOK
swallowed
by parasite.The
an
AGRICULTURE.
of the animal, it is enough for the reproduction
in the dog and onlya cystic adult form usuallyoccurs form in man, or sheep,or ox, and the superstition common among that is unclean animal is a very a dog Hindus and Mahomedans an inasmuch as it helpsto reduce the possibility useful superstition In the nematodes of tape-worm round worms the or in man. male and female are separate and the body is unsegmented. Like tape-worms they are providedalso with spinesand suckers at the anterior end. earth-worms or OligochcBtcB
have
ber segmentedbodies,the numand hundred have or four more, they segments being of false feet or pads. They have no suckers to their mouth, rows but the alimentarycanal is divided into distinct portions,such as gizzard,intestine and pharynx, oesophagus,proventiculis, and united in heart The blood vessels are two in number anus. that flows like sacs, but it is not true blood throughthese vessels, The fluid. is it a nervous corpusculated though system consists
of
one
-
of are
a
set of two
above ganglia of testes. pairs
two
the
and oesophagus
two
below.
There
leeches have a double chain of ganglia united and forminga collar round the gullet. The cords by longitudinal of a leech is triradiate, mouth i.e.,it has three jaws. In some speciesthe jaws are providedwith teeth. There are two suckers, end. The at the anterior end and the other at the posterior one There are is providedwith lateral sacs. stomach nine pairs of HirudincB
or
and a protrusible penis. The female the females but have distinct ovaries two inconspicuous, organ and oviduct. an the lobster class,spiderclass,centipede Arthropodaincluding
testes,
one
deferens
vas
is
class and insect class of animals, have a definite series of rings, the integumentbeinghard and often chitinous. The ringsdispose distinct sections,the head and the thorax themselves into two and the abdoform men to one section,called the cephalothorax, going another section. The appendagesare bilateral. The blood is true blood,but there are no red corpuscles.The heart is situated There is a double chain of ganglia the back. on longitudinally at the ventral side,the foremost pair of ganglia beingabove the gulletand they may be assumed to correspondwith the brain of ing. higheranimals. Metamorphosistakes placeby ecdysisor moult-
Crustacea.This
than eight class of arthropodahave more is aquatic The respiration of which are abdominal. of of the whole surface the body. or means by gills "
feet, some either
by
There
are
twenty pairsof
antentfse.
characterized are by having eight feet. The bers. is aerial,by means of tracheae or of pulmonary chamrespiration The head and thorax are There are no amalgamated. and no abdominal *all the eightlegsproceeding antennae legs, from the cephalothorax. Arachnida
Myriapodahswsa largernumber The
head
537
ZOOLOGY.
AGRICULTURAL
of feet than
even
the Crustacea.
quitedistinct,the thorax and the abdomen beingamalgamated into one uniform chain of rings. There is a of tracheae ending in is by means pairof antennae. Respiration distinct spiracles. is
This order will be
Insecta. "
more
fullydescribed
in the next
Chapter. Mollusca. with
These
"
coveringshell.
are
The
soft-bodied animals,
usuallyprovided
is without any distinct segmentation. The nervous consists either of a singleganglion or system scattered pairsof ganglia. Heart and breathingorgan are sometimes absent. The Mollusca are classified under two divisions, have The Molluscoida viz.,Mulluscoida and Mollusca proper. their heart either entirelyabsent or quiterudimentary. The a
body
one ganglionor a pairof ganglia. Brathe bodies of which are enclosed in a bivalve shell,and chiopoda, Polyzoa are examplesof this division. The Mollusca proper have heart with two chambers. This division consists a well-developed of univalve and bivalve animals. To the former belongthe Cephalopoda (e.g.,ammonites) and Gastropoda (e.g.,whelks). To the latter (e.g.,oysters and belong Lamellibranche nervous
system consists of
mussels). Vertebrate, These are characterized by the possession of an internal skeleton The centres nervous definitely segmented. dorsal and shut off from the generalbody-cavity.The limbs are "
.
from
than four. the nervous and never centres more the adult has a vertebral column. Pisces. Fishes are characterized by possessing a gill ; their heart consists of only one auricle and one ventricle ; their blood
are
away In most
cases "
is
cold, and
the
only limbs they
have
fins. are breathe newts toads water-lizards and or Amphibia. Progs, first by gills and afterwards by lungs or by both lungsand gills. The skull has two condyles; the heart has two auricles but one ventricle ; their limbs are fins. never These include the tortoise,vipers, lizards, and Reptilia. Ichthioalso the extinct saurians, such as Pterodactyle, crocodiles, is cold ; blood the i s etc. never by gills Eespiration saurus, ; "
"
skull has only one condyle; the integumentary covering of feathers. but never consists either of scales or plates, Aves. Birds have their lungsconnected \yith air-sacs ; the in the highervertebrata ; the blood heart is four-chambered as which facilitatesbrooding; their bodies are covered is very warm with feathers ; the forelimbs are modified in the form of wings; the skull has only one condyle. Birds are classified as : (a) the
"
"
ducks, penguins, (e.g.,ostrich) (e.g., ; (6) Waders herons, (e.gr., egrets, snipes, gulls,petrels) ; (c) cranes, fowl, pigeon,pheasant, curlews, plovers) ; (d) Scratchers (e.g., Climbers cuckoo, ; (/) (e.g.,parrot, wood-pecker) grouse); (e) Perchers (e.g., finches,linnets,larks,thrushes,swallows, crows, Runners
Swimmers
538
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
kites, kingfishers) owls,hawks, eagles, ; and (g)Birds of prey, (e.g., vultures). The Mammalia. lungs are without air-sacs ; the bodies covered with hair or wool ; the skull has two condyles; the are animals have mammary classifiedunder are glands. Mammalia two heads, viz.,Non-placental(e.g., Kangaroos),and PlacentaL Of Placental animals the following groups may be mentioned : (a) Cetacea (e.g.,whale and dolphin) ; (6)Ungulata (e.g., horse, ass and hog); (c)Kuminantia (e.g., deer, sheep and goats); oxen, (d)Pachydermata (elephantand rhinoceros) ; (e) Carnivora (e.g., seal,walrus, jackal, dog, bear, wolf, foxr ; tiger) "
"
(/)Eodentia and
hare,rabbit,porcupine,beaver, rat, mouse, (e.g.,
squirrel) ; mole and hedgehog); (g) Insectivora (e.g., (h)Edentata (e.g., ant-eater) ; (i)Cheiroptera(e.g.,bat); (/)Primates (e.g., monkey and man).
CHAPTER
CXIX.
INSECTS.* THE on
Insecta
the thorax. There is
of six legs characterized by the possession The head, thorax and abdomen are able. distinguishare
pair of
one
antennao.
The
thorax
is
able distinguish-
into three distinct segments, called respectively the prothe is the meso-thorax the and there and thorax, as meta-thorax, sternal and
the dorsal
segment, the wingsare as meso-notary or meta-notary, as the case distinguished may be. The heart, as in spiders, consists of eightchambers, and there
or
notal side to each
The spiracles are oppositecurrents distinguishable. segments only. i.e.,a sucking Hymenopetera. These have a. long proboscis, the is of the female or lappingorgan ; ing usuallya stingovipositor The well. veins. few as There four with are wings organ with naked clothed but short, wings are apparently frequently scattered bristles. The larvae are active. footless ; pupae ingenerally There are some remain speciesof Hymenoptera which and without wingsin one or both sexes. Neuter ants are wingless, the male and female ants get wings for a littlewhile only. even There is one class of Hymenoptera, of which instead the ovipositors of beingadaptedas stinging adaptedas boring organs, are specially on
are
two
the abdominal
"
instruments.
*
Insect
The
Tenthredinidse or
should be
Indian
consulted.
come
under
this
of Indian insect*the works of H. M. Lefroy (Indian Insect Life)published by Thacker, Spink " Co., Calcutta,
For excellent accounts
Pests,and
saw-flies
540
as
HANDBOOK
a
animal
rule.
Some
are
OF
AGRICULTURE.
carnivorous, such
as
Dermestes,livingon
flesh. Others feed on dung and other refuse matters others again such as the larvae of cockchafers live on ; roots of plants live in longgalleries in the solid wood ; and some of trees, feedingon the substance of the wood. Of carnivorous beetles may be mentioned the following : Oicindela in called {!) BengaliDhdmsd-poka, sexpunctata (Fig.108a) which is a tiger-beetle. Cicindela devours both the rice hispa and the rice sapper The of the principal two pests of this crop. head of this insect is large; eyes very largeand prominent ; mandibles matter
or
on
"
'
*
c
teeth. insect
*
largeand sharplypointedand armed with several prominent The elytra (or forewings)are spotted and long. The is about orientals is half an inch in -length.(2) Calosoma
black, about the size of a small cockroach ; it feeds on other insects,and has been reported locusts. as (3) very useful in the Punjab in* destroying young a
active ground-beetle(Carabidw),
and
Trogositamauritanica is a small brown beetle which feeds on some of the smaller moths which are granary pests. But in its larval stage the Trogositadoes some (4) Derinjury to stored wheat.
vulpinus(Fig.108"),called in BengaliKdn-kutur, the larvae is a dark coloured beetle,about J in. being called Shore-pokd, length with hairy larvae,which preys on silk-worms and spoils cocoons by feedingon the chrysalids.(5)Lady-birds(Coccinelidce) called in BengaliPadma-kit, are liantly beetles often brilhemispherical coloured, which are helpfulin devouring scale-insects mestes
(Coccidce), plant-lice(Aphidce)and other insects, There is one member of this family of beetles,however, viz.,Epilacfina vigintiocto-punctata(Fig.I08c)which defoliates pumpkin vines and brinjal the plants. Of ScarabidcB or dung-beetles, be mentioned here. (gubre-pokd) may
Catharseus
sabwus
Of warehouse the following: be mentioned beetles,may is a (1) Silvanus surinamensis belongingto the family Cucujidce, littlebrown beetle,with active white grubs,which has been found destroyingstored sorghum seed and biscuits. It is also to be in date fruits boughtin the Calcutta bazaars. seen (2)Mthriostoma "
to the family Dermestidce, is also a littlebrown undulata,belonging beetle with white hairy grubs,which are said to be destructive to wheat stored in godowns. (3) Rhizopertha pusilla, belongingto the familyPtinidce,a minute brown beetle,commonly found in
warehouses, attackingwheat, sorghum seed Calandra oryzce,
and
biscuits.
(4)
the weevil (Curculionidce) family,is the most destructive of all warehouse pests. It is a and jointedanbeetle with a long snout tennae. very small dark brown The larvae live inside the grainsof rice,wheat, maize, sorghum, etc. (5) Bruchus chinensis,belongingto the family Bruchidce is a small brown beetle which is very destructive to stored gram, arahar and other pulses. The larvae are littlewhite
Chele-pokd, belongingto
grubs which live in the pulse seeds. (6) Bruchus a largegrey weevil which destroysstored peas.
is
emarginatus
541
INSECTS.
beetles may be mentioned the following boringand tunnelling : (1) Oryctesrhinoceros belongingto the family Dynastinw (Goliathbeetle or mdl-pokd)is a very largeblack beetle with a protuberanceon the upper part of its head somethinglike the the head oi a rhinoceros, which on protuberance damages cocoanut trees by cuttinglargeholes in them through the young leaf Of
"
shoots.
or (2) Rhynchophorus siynaticollis, (Chinre-kota)and weevils which also bore two are (3) Sphcenophorusplanipennis and date palms. (4) The flattened into the trunks of cocoanut
larvse of various speciesof beetles belonging to the family legless into and tunnel timber of various plants. (5) stems Buprestidoe, Bamboo ghun (Dinoderus sp.) and other ghun insects are also minute beetles belonging to the familyPtinidw. Dinoderus minuof is the commonest tans perforator ripesugarcane. (G) The fruit weevil, Cryptorhynchus mangifera (Fig.66 d) is also mango tunneller.* (7) Platydactylus a sexspinosus, belongingto the is a small brown beetle,which tunnels into the family Scolytidse, stalks of paddy plants. (8) The XyJoborus perforansor Berupoka of sugar-cane is a boringbeetle. (9)The sweet-potatoweevil (Cylasfonmcarius)may be also mentioned among this class.
(*"
FIG.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Epilachna2S-punctata Cryptorhynchusmangifera.
Hispa
anescens.
Aulacophora abdominalis.
Opabrum depressum. Chcetocnemis
basalts.
Melonthini.
cockchafers brown
be mentioned leaves may The curved fleshy kord-pokd(Melolonthini). the and the black of roots destroying plants
beetles destructive to
grubs may or
(/) (q) (h) (i)
Sexpunctata. Vulpinus.
Cincindela Dermestes
Of the
108.--COLEOPTERA.
be
or seen
imagoes
may
* An interestingaccount Pests," Calcutta, 1906.
be
roots
seen
at
and
leaves from
nightfeedingon
of this insect is given in
Lefroy's "
Indian
.Insect
542
March
OP
HANDBOOK
to
AGRICULTURE.
There
June.
neighbourhoodof
two speciesof this group found in the are Calcutta,called respectively, Apogonia Blan-
and Schizonychafuscescens(Fig.108 e). The former is The larvae live for about latter brown. the four years black, in the ground,during the whole of which time they live on the fine there are roots of plants. Where largetracts of uncultivated land, the grubs can thrive unmolested and the beetles can destroy cultivated crops in the neighbourhood. But though cockchafers of damage in Russia and Southern do a great amount Europe, chardi
well as in they have so as
Upper India, to agricultural crops, been noticed as a far principally
in Lower very
rose-bush and other the pest can cultivation,
every garden pest, defoliating
Bengal
destructive
plantsin the
be kept off hot weather. By proper from uncultivated tracts in but if they come from plantations, it is very difficultto deal with the neighbourhoodof a plantation, them. Cockchafer larvae have been reported from Chittagong be said that as paddy and maize crops, and it cannot destroying in localitieswhere uncultivated there is no dangerfrom this source The fungus (Botrytis which tracts abound. tenella) causes one of the diseases of silkworms known as muscardine, or chunar-kete, is said to be destructive to the larvae of Melolonthini also. Silkworms be dried in the shade, powaffected with this disease may dered be appliedto roots and leaves of rose and the powder may
other bushes attacked by cockchafers. Of beetles which destroycrops proper, very few have been the besides noticed, Chrysomelidbeetles,Hispa cenescens (Fig. 108 /),and Aulacophoraabdominalis (Fig.108 g), which will be Canseparatelydealt with in the next chapter. A large-sized and
is destructive to the Mylabrispustulata, (kdnch-pokd), arahar and other leguminous flowers some gourd,groundnut, beetle A is said (Haltica nigrofusca) Chrysomelid plants. in of the Himalayas. to attack the leaves garden vegetables It has been also noticed defoliating indigoplantsin Rungpur. is there 108 Besides Hispa cenescens i) another of the Chry(Fig. which is said to destroypaddy somelidae (Chcetocnemis basalis), seedlings.A little flat beetle (Opatrum depressum) belonging to the family Tenebrionidce attacks linseed and wheat plants (Fig.108 h). The Lepidoptera.These include butterflies and moths. insect are covered with scales. The four wings of the mature often developedto an mouth* parts are extraordinary degree the insect sucks or tube with which proboscis forming a long-coiled insects are up honey from plants. The larvae as well as the mature coloured. The larvae eat up a great quantityof often brilliantly distinction between butterflies and The matter. green vegetable of convenience. moths is onlyjustified as a matter True butterflies have their antennae terminatingin a club and theygenerally flyabout in day-time. Of these the following of agricultural mentioned be interest : (1) Virachola as may
tharid-beetle of
"
"
543
INSECTS.
the larvae of which bore a isocrates, graceful purplishbutterfly, pium into the fruits of guava, pomegranate, loquat, etc. (2)Manci109 a),a white butterfly, or Mancipium rapce (Fig. nepalensis, the larvae of which have been known to attack gram, linseed, This may
sugar-cane. destructive
be looked upon
(3)Papilioerithoniusis a of which
as
an
Indian form of the
Mancipium brassicw. the caterswallow-tailed butterfly, pillars large
Pieris English butterfly,
defoliate orange
and
or
lemon
trees, in different
parts of India.
FIG. 109." LEPIDOPTERA.
(a) Mancipium Nepalensis*
(e) Leiicania loreyi.
(b) Alope ricini.
(/) Lapliygmaexigua. (g) Chilo simplex (larva,pupa and imago). orbonalis (larvae, (/?)Lwcinodes pupae .nnd imago).
(c) Heliothes armigera (larva, pupa and imago). (larvaand (d) Agrotissuftusa
imago). Most the moths. : "
interest belongto of the lepidoptera of agricultural be of special The following mentioned importance as may (1) The Spilosoma(sudn pokd or bhud)defoliates
jute,sunn-hemp,sesamum,
castor-oiland
other crops.
Other
544
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
like the Spilosomahave been known hairy caterpillars
to defoliate rabi and trees, tea, coffee,paddy, crops generally, mango rape in as particular.The Alope ricini (Fig.109 b) may be mentioned The Indian a common (2) Noctues,which defoliating caterpillar. thick-bodied moths with thread-like antennae, are tructive are very desin the larval stage. The larvae,usuallyknown worms cutas or
are caterpillars,
surface
pro-legsand
pairsof
their work in the earth. do
one
of destruction
The
smooth
with four caterpillars and claspers, they usually night,livingin day-time hidden
pair of anal at
followingNoctues
moths
are
of
specialagricultural
interest : (a) Achcea melicerte, a greyishmoth, with marked with hinddark-brown wings, greyishwhite streaks. The defoliate brinjals, paddy, sugarcane, Cajanus indicus, caterpillars Heliothes castor-oil plant, etc. (b) armigem called variously "
kajza,lurka,is a small greyishmoth, with dusky -brown leda-pokd, hind- wings (Fig.109 c). The caterpillars tive to be destrucare known Dolichos to paddy, hemp (Cannabissativa), khesari, poppy, and rabi crops generally, and to immature lablab and other pulses, bolls of cotton,
extrania and other Leucanidce, the destructive to young paddy plants^oats
(c)Leucania
of which caterpillars
are
Leucania
tructive loreyi(Fig.109 e) has been found very des109 /)attacks to paddy plants, (d)Laphygma exigua (Fig. lentil plants, (e) Agrotissuffusa(Fig.109 d) and (Ochrapleura flammatra both attack opium plantsin the same (3)G-eoway. smooth which metres are slender, or long, loopers caterpillars and
peas.
up the middle of the body into a loopin progressing.Their with largewings and comb-like slender-built creatures are Some of these are known to be destructive to tea and antennae. is Chilo the moth-borer coffee bushes. of sugarsimplex (4) cane.
hump moths
*
'
the caterpillars of which are aquatic (5)Paraponyx oryzalis, and attack paddy plants. (6) The Majra-pokd
in their habits
tunnels into the (Chilo Oryzceellus)
stalks of
and the a wheat. caterpillars plume moth, of which tunnel into the ponds of popat bean (Dolichos is the caterpillar of a lablab)in Nagpur. (8) Gelechia gossypiella bolls. (9)Gelechia cereaminute moth which tunnels into cotton of a minute moth which is destructive to lella is the caterpillar Tinea is the of the comstored maize. mon pellionella (10) caterpillar is (7)Sphenarchescaffer
green
paddy
minute
clothes moth, and is a minute that protects itself creature destructive woollen Other It is materials. to case. a very attack paddy, spinningthe grainstogether Tineid caterpillars into a web. (12)Pyralidmoths may be also mentioned as injurious to stored meal (hencecalled meal-worms),also to leaves and These minute moths have longwings which flowers of mustard. in
folded up slender,abdomen are
not
The antennae and legsare long and in repose. and pointed, beyond long extendingconsiderably
the hind- wings. The commonest exampleis the Lincinodes orbonfruits by tunnelling alis (Fig.109 h) which spoils holes in brinjal them.
545
INSECTS.
Diptera. The
insects of this order have only two wings with few veins, not clothed with scales or hair. The hind-wings are replacedby rudimentary halteres or poisers. The mouth is furnished with a proboscis. The female is stingless, but the last "
joint
is
often
prolonged into a process which helps it in making holes for the deposition beak-like
The larvae are footless inactive. maggots ; the pupae all the Nearly dipterous larva* IIO.-DIPTBRA (MOSQUITO). live in fluid or in semi-fluid substances the imagoes (e.g.,ordinary (e.g.,putrid meat) and even of
FIG.
flies)have
house hour
the
eggs.
of
power
living under
for
water
an
The
spiraclesare situated close to the anus or extremity of the body and they push up this end posterior of the body occasionally to get fresh air. The slender wriggling in dirtywater are chiefly larvae we the larvae of mosquitoes. see The principal families of dipterousinsects are : (1) Pulicidce fleas (pishu); (2)Muscidce or flesh and house flies ; (3) (Estridce or bot-flies ; (4) Hippoboscidce or or sheep ticks ; (5) Tabanidce or horse-flies; (6)Culicidce or mosquitoes; (7)Chironomidte or gnats ; crane-flies also or (8) Cecidomyiidceor gall-midges ; (9) Tipulidce called Daddy-longlegs; (10) Syrphidce or aphis-eaters. Of the Muscidae insects may be mentioned (1)Dacus ferrugiof which found the in and (2) are grubs ripe mangoes, neus, which is very destructive to gourds,melons^ Carpomyia parctalina more.
or
cucumbers, Of minute
etc.
be mentioned Cecidomyiidaemay Cecidomyia oryzoe, attacks which aus paddy, chiefly paddy. fly
do Bot-flies
a
great deal
of
damage
the larval state either in stomachs in their
and
to ox-hides.
of animals, or frontal sinuses.
They
in tumours
a
live in under
The
class of the their skin, or nose bot-fliescalled Hypoderma or Warbles spoilthe hides of oxen. holes made the doctor Tanners but hides can by the bot-flies, up holes are classed as second class hides. bing Rubwith such minute when cattle are troubled with these flies is the with kerosene best
treatment.
domestic fowls, dogs, be looked cats, etc., pass their larval stage in dust, and they must animals u ncleanness of the the of house and as a sign general upon Their Pulicidte fleas The without bite affected. or are wings. producesblisters in man, but they do not thrive on human skin. The best preventionof fleas for domestic fowls is the dust bath. If the dust consists partlyof ashes and lime,fleas get littlechance. We may Trycolyga justmention here theTachinid parasites, the silkworm and blow bombycisand Masicera grandis which silkworm the tusser respectively. Fleas
(pishu)which
parasiticon
are
'
Hemiptera (Rhynchota).The "
divided
into M, HA
two
groups,
the
'
Hemiptera or and Heteroptera
true
the
bugs are Homoptera. 35
546
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
(1)The Heteropterahave their fore-wingshorny and the hind- wings ; they (as also the tipsof the fore-wings,as a rule),membranous are
usually providedwith
scutellum
a
shield-like
or
protection
are the back, the antennae long,four or five jointed; the head is on This group includes the plant-bugsand the parafree. sitic generally and chair bed Cimex the lectularius, bug, ordinary bugs (e.g., head have The their completely Homoptera or chhar-poka). (2) short ; the wings when The antennae are fixed to the thorax. includes the True Lice membranous. This group present are
(e.g.,the hair-louse,Pediculus and plant-lice,
the
Coccidce
or ukun), capitis,
or (bark-lice
(") FIG
the
concinna, a It
HETEROPTBKA
thorax.
a
Aphides
or
insects).
(BUGS).
(b) Lohita grandis.
insects heteropterous pentatomid bug which has
the
(b)
111." HEMIPTERA
acuta. (a) Lsptocorisa
Of
scale
be mentioned may attacks rabi crops
prominent beak,
oval
body,
and
(1) Apinis and
tables. vege-
largemeso-
The
scutellum shield is very large,coveringnearly or the whole of the wings and abdomen. acuta (2) Leptocorisa (Fig. Ill a), the rice-sapper (Gandhi or BJwma) has a small
triangular
scutellum,longand slender body,and is yellowishbrown in colour. which has a very short scutellum, is a (3) Dysdercuscingulatus, red-coloured conspicuous It insect,about the size of a wasp. attacks
cotton,
bottle-gourds, musk-melon,
cabbages, etc. (4) Oxycarenus lugubris (verylike the chinch-bugof America, Blissus is a small,black,fly-like leucopterus], insect with a short scutellum, which Lohita
commonly attacks cotton plants and grandis(Pig.Ill 6) which attacks cotton
kapasi-poMin Nadia)is short
scutellum.
(6)
cotton
bolls.
plants(known
(5) as
also a slender insect with hard wings and Another bug (Physopeltaschlaubuschii),
548
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Tukrd.
Icerya JEgyptiacum (Fig.112
seen
of trees in Egypt some years ago, and this insect has been Calcutta and in Madras. different trees in Aspidiotus
on
b)
caused
flavescens (Fig.112 r) occasionallyattacks insects of this
Orthoptera.The "
being
a
order, to which locusts,grasshoppers
belong,have wings,the anterior ones which ones are posterior usuallyfolded than leatheryrather The horny in their texture. the
than
up, and they are larvae and pupae in
in
four
crickets
and
tea-bushes,as do,
of scale-insects.
fact,a multitude
narrower
truction wholesale des-
both active.
The
enclosed eggs are generally The hind legsare usuallyfashioned for leaping. The example of this order will be found in the Periplaneta
case.
commonest
are
the ordinary cockroach, belongingto the familyBlatorientalis,
(2) To the family Phasmidce belong the stick-insectsand with long slender bodies and legs, of which are leaf-insects, some of this insects Some are family wingless. very destructive to cocoanut trees in the South Sea Islands,and when alarmed, they blindness if it reached squirtout a highlyacrid fluid,which causes
tidce.
the eyes. is the best
(3) Mantidce, of which the well-known preyingmantis known, are not agricultural pests. They devour insects
helpfulto agriculture.They also have slender stick-like They deposittheir eggs in spongy ball-shaped nests. (4) short horned grasshoppers the Acrididce Next or come to which belong the followingIndian varieties of migratoryand invading
and
are
bodies.
Acridium, peregrinum, Acridium succinctum,Acridium Acridium melanocorne, ceruginosum,Caloptenus erubescens, Caloplocusts tenus
:
"
Cyrtacanthacris caliginosus, ranacea, To
Oxyd furcifera, Pachy-
Acrididce belong also non-migratory of which many locusts and grasshoppers destructive to crops. are small b rown is destructive thick-set, Crotogonussp., a grasshopper, of all kinds as above to young as soon they crops appear ground,such
tyluscinerescens.
the
kalai,barbati,opium, wheat, barley, linseed,rape-seed, indigo, etc. a xillaris arahar, til, castor, Catantops and bdjrd, (Kat-pharing),
as
Euprepocnemis bramina marmoratus
The
most
attack young paddy plants, (Edalus and Pcecilocera hieroglyphica defoliate sugarcane. destructive of all the grasshoppers is the Hieroglyphus
which furcifer
attacks
or Gryllidce,
the
the
paddy crickets
and
maize
plants. (4) Then
(Ui-chingri, usrang, abdomens furnished
of with
An
'Cricket
come
jhingun),the which
are
long ovipositors.
enormous
mole-
mon(Schizodactylus
struosus]is injuriousto young tobacco on
FIG.
113.-UOGRYLLUS
where
other crops growing high land in Bihar, ft is known as Bherwa.
Gryllotalpa cricket sp. is a injureopium plantsby cuttingthem off when they in growth. Acheta advanced considerably sp. is also said to
which is said are
BIMACULATUS.
and
to
549
INSECTS.
injure young young
opium. Liogryllusbimacufatus
potato,cabbage and other rdbi crops.
(Fig.113) spoils (5)The long-horned
grasshoppers(Locustidce), which, however, do not include the locusts and grasshoppers, somewhat are rare. Neuroptera.In this order of insects the four wings are of similar texture and with numerous veins. The wings are sometimes or hairy. The dragon-flies (jhinji-pokd, jhinji-pharing) the commonest are example of this order. They can be seen in Lower Bengal in the month of October specially in large numbers, chasingtheir insect prey wherever they fly,and they are to be common
"
looked
of the best friends the farmer has. Their upon as one larvae live in water, and the larvae of the few species that do live on feed The white-ant is the other commonest etc. on plants aphides, of
this order, but they are exactlyof the opposite and character,from a cultivator's point of view, to dragon-flies,
example
they have been dealt with in a separate chapter. Thysanoptera.Only the Thrips belong to this order. The wingsare long,narrow, straight, equaland veinless. These minute insects either flyor hop very vigorously.Many flowers are attacked by thripswhich with their bitingmouth keep chewingthe delicate leaves and pollen grains. The female is apterous, i.e.,without wings. The males are scarce, and propagationprobably takes The males are different in appearance placeby parthenogenesis. from females. A minute black winged thripshas been altogether noticed spoiling the turmeric Another thrips crop in Madras. has been reported the poppy in Behar where the insect as injuring while another injuresseriously at is called Ihi or lehi, tea grown in elevations Darjeeling. high mandibulate insects,with Thysanura. These are wingless, of abdomen ten composed segments, long,many-jointedantennae, which do not undergo metamorphosis. Not being parasitic on for of students have interest no though agriculture, plantsthey covered scales curious with animals. or most are are They they The caudal three long two hair. They have or appendages. tructive deswhich Fish-insects Silver-fish are so or (Lepisma), the commonest to books, are example of this order. cription detailed deswill In the succeedingchapterswe give more ject of the commonest agricultural pests and treat each subfrom the farmer's pointof view. "
"
"
"
"
"
CHAPTEK LOCUST
(ACRIDIUM PEREGRINUM,
CXX. ACRIDIUM
SUCCINCTUM,
ETC.).
importanttypes of Indian locust that found in the in Rajputana (Acridiumperegrinum)and that occurring Deccan (Acridium succinctum).The Rajputana locust usually The locust only once. breeds twice in the year, while the Deccan THERE
are
two
"
550
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
the Bajputana locust are the sand-hills of the Punjab, Jeypore and Ajmere. The chief Rajputana,Sind, homes of the Deccan locust are the Western Ghauts. They are also found to breed in the Konkan and the adjoining part of the
groundsof breeding
Deccan.
From
these two centres both varieties of locusts migrate sometimes even to Bengal. The Acrtdium the invasion of moister tracts,while the Acrisuccinctum prefers dium peregrinumchooses drier climates. Besides these two ary migratorylocusts there are others,and some varieties of stationlocusts are found in Bengaland other provinces of India. These also do some little amount of damage. The life-history of the Bombay locust has been very completely to all partsof India and
worked out by Mr. Lefroy, the Entomologist ment to the Governhis description, it appears of India. From that the flying locust emerges from the grass lands,in which it has come rity, to matuin September,October, or November, and enters the crops. In ordinaryyears, it is then observed for the firsttime. During the night,it usuallyremains motionless in the plantsor on trees and feeding,
with cold. If the nights apparentlynumb active is and the it all turbed. time, warm, hops away on beingdisDuring October and earlyNovember, it fliesduring the night,migratingfrom placeto place. As the sun rises,the locust becomes At midday, it is flying active and commences to feed. a bout the turbed, disin the air,feedingon aimlessly crops, and when The practiceof cultivators at this settlingoverhead. the locusts, time is to go into the fields and beat tins to frighten but, as a rule,this has no good effect, unless the whole field be driven by a largeforce of men in the earlymorning or not are
evening. From
November the winged locust is torpidat to March With the first night,and can then be killed in largenumbers. fall of rain the coupling periodbegins,and the locusts may at this and time be caughtby hand duringthe day, for they are sluggish The in little. females lay the eggs in a hole the ground,a move hole which they take an hour and a half to make, while the actual of deposition
eggs is completein half laid in dry soil,alwaysin that more or land fairly free from jungle. They seem
surface,and
a
of
soil not
too
an
.clayey.Many
fields. low-lying
More
hour.
These
are
never
less damp, and usually in uncultivated to prefer an were
still were
found
in the
placed on
bankments em-
grass
land.*
Within five
six weeks of the layingof the eggs, the hopor pers lands locusts come the in and live out. They grass
or young feed upon some grass and other vegetation.Their life occupies six weeks, duringwhich time they are unable to flyand can only
leap. They are active almost from the moment they hatch, and dant within this hour. commence an feeding stage,when, very abunJn they can be brushed in huge numbers into bags draggedover the surface of the groundand so destroyed.
551
INSECTS.
the locusts become and November mature, collect to in and and together swarms wings, begin migrate. In Bombay, this migrationtakes them to the highland of the Western Ghats. During the cold weather they remain About
October
acquiretheir
in these
and about the second half of March districts,
the beginor ning the the from outward movement mences, April, ghat regioncomthe North-East, East, and South-East to especially. break up, and the locusts are the end of May the swarms
of About
of country. A little later scattered singlyover enormous areas of first the fall cribed. on as rain,reproduction commences already desThe stated Winged
whole
by Mr.
historyof the Bombay Lefroyto be as follows
locusts emerged and
entered
crops
migrated remained
in forests
migrated scattered
reproduced and There
died
locusts
duringthe
year
is
: "
October 1st to 20th. October 20th November to 30th. December 1st to March 20th. March 20th to May 20th. May 20th to June 10th. June 10th to August 10th.
several points in this life-history, it is at which attack the insect. We have alreadyindicated one,
are
possibleto namely,the young hopper stage before wings are acquiredand when be brushed the hoppers can up off the ground into bags, attached to bamboo frames to keep the mouths open, which are the ground. In addition to this,it is often well dragged over worth while to giverewards to children or even in a locality, to men for locusts collected duringthe cold say of \ to | anna, per seer weather the Insecticides have only or during couplingseason. been effective when mixed with food, and then have only been The spreading of fodder dipped in a small scale. applied on a mixture of lib. lead arsenate, 51bs. jaggeryand 100 gallonsof have effective been the in to water, seems killing locusts,and not The egg masses, animals. to have been injurious to cattle or large in the ground,can be found and collected for payment of rewards, '
'
described above, at the proper season. Locusts at various stages have quite a number of enemies. all very fond of them. The larvae are Crows, monkeys, squirrels in of certain flies(large the abdomen and feed upon maggots) live the tissues. A largered mite (Trombidium grandissimum)lives tinct the lower wings. The eggs are attacked by at least three dison The beetle which the firstis eats a grub organisms. -eggs. The second is a worm which is found in great numbers in the as
egg clusters. The third is one
an
indicus)which lays, (Scelis
icheneumon
egg in each locust egg. We have hitherto spoken of the
Bombay locust. The NorthWest or true migratorylocust is Acridium peregrinum.In recent years it has done much damage, and is liable to visit any part of Central common
Others Northern India. and Central Southern over
or
are
Acridium
India.
These
ceruginosum, are
probably
552
HANDBOOK
Acridium most
AGRICULTURE.
periodsfor reproduction. special is a largesolitarygrasshopperoccurring melanocorne of India,and there are quitea number of others parts
gregarious,and have
never
over
OP
no
well known districts. in their own It may catch locusts be mentioned here that Mahommedans for food, and even for this purpose, as theyregard preserve them them in the light Desiccated locusts of a holy food from Mecca. might be tinned and exported to Europe, where they are prized food for insectivorous as cage-birdsand also for game-birds.
CHAPTER GRASSHOPPERS
CXXL CRICKETS.
AND
furcifer).This acrid paddy grasshopper(Hieroglyphus and does extensive damage to Jhitka) Pharing (called very maize and jura. It attains full the paddy crop and also to young size when the paddy crop is nearlyripefor cuttingand when cracks The females can in paddy fields are be seen numerous. laying cracks in a bout end ber Novemof the the of in masses fortyor fifty eggs THE
"
insect
are beginningof December ; five or six of such masses in crevices different female. Throughout by a single deposited or
is noticed of the pest,and hidden in the dry season nothing more the crevices a certain proportionof the eggs hatch at the beginning of the rainy season. Where cold weather cultivation is practised, where
heavy showers of paddy fields submerged under hatchingof the eggs commences, or
very
rain
occur
in
Aprilor May keeping
for some days before the the few chance of hatching. get very When the grasshoppersare small in July and August, they hop about in the water of the paddy fields and live on the young paddy plants,hardlynoticed by cultivators. They begin to be in September,but it is only when the plantsare in ear in seen October and November, that the cultivators begin to recognize that the grasshoppers are doingmischief. They are non-migratory. In one instance the author noticed whole fields of paddy side of a road in the district of Midnapore,ruined by these on one while on the other side of the road scarcelyany .grasshoppers, damage could be noticed,and while on one side myriadsof grasshoppers and about the other side there o n were hopping flying, were
only stray
water
ones.
Besides locusts and Hieroglyphus there are several furcifer, and crickets which are injurious other grasshoppers Often to crops. several speciesof grasshoppers attack a crop all at once. The main difference between and a grasshopper cricket (Gryllidce) a is that the cricket is furnished with a longovipositor, while the grasshopperhas only a rudimentaryovipositor.A cricket which called spoilsindigoplants by biting 'throughthe roots, is locally Bherwa It has been identified as Schizodactylus in Bihar. monstruosus.
There
are
other
crickets
injuriousto potato crops,
to
GRANARY
553
PESTS.
to cotton, cabbage and other juarplants,to tea seedlings, seedlings.In 1893 serious damage to jute and rice crops was reportedfrom Comilla as caused by a cricket,which turned out to be the very common achatinus. form, Brachytrypes The only suggestionthat can be offered regardingremedial when crickets and grasshoppersare tructive measures found very desto an cribed ordinaryagricultural crop, is to try the bags desfor locust in the previous chapter. They are likelyto efficacious in many cases. prove Hopperdozers have proved efficacious in similar cases in America. A Hopperdozeris a long
young
"
"
and shallow trough mounted and wheels and containingwater on kerosene oil,or a quantity of tar only, and dragged or driven ed alongan infested field. The grasshoppers jump up and get drownin the kerosene and water, or get entangledand killed in the The least touch of kerosene oil kills insects. tar. To avoid spilling, the trough should have partitions of tin. The trough itself may be made of tin,say, 9 ft. long,1 ft. wide, 2 inches deep in front and 1 ft. behind. This trough may wooden be mounted a on frame having two wheels at the two ends. Two men drag may it
along with ropes attached
A
canvas
screen
trough,which the the
trough or
to the two
frame.
be added to the hinder part of the or apron may will further help in bringingthe grasshoppers into kill them
by
contact
with the kerosene
with which
is saturated.
canvas
CHAPTER
CXXII.
GRANARY THE
good
of the wooden
ends
grain
deal
of
weevil
damage
PESTS.
(Calandra oryzece).This insect 'does a stored rice,wheat, barley,maize, juar, "
to
etc., three to four seers per maund of a year. weevil in course Each female lays about 150
being eggs,
often
eaten
generallyone
up
by the
being
egg
the grain,laysthe egg in it,covers up the crevice with dust, etc., and then goes on to lay other eggs. Throughout the cold weather and hot weather this goes on, the weevils having come out during the preceding stored from in the same rainyseason godown grains vessel and remaininghidden all this time in cracks and crannies or of the godown or the vessel. The egg is almost too minute to be laid
on
one
grain of cereal.
She
cuts
a
minute
crevice
on
ing with the naked eye. It hatches and the grub goes on burrowinside the grainand eatinginto its substance, leavinga minute In a few weeks the aperture behind it,to enable it to breathe. until it and into for while dormant remains a pupa, a grub changes becomes a fullformed weevil when it bites its way out of the grain. The breedinggoes on all the year round and onlyquickerin the rains when the grainsare softer and more readilyeaten through the laid before the commences by grubs. Every egg rainyseason seen
554
HANDBOOK
gets the chance
of
OF
AGRICULTURE.
weevil ; so althoughwe may find a weevils in the cold and the hot weather, we find the godown The swarming with them towards the end of the rainyseason. time taken for the egg to developinto the perfect insect is about
becoming a
few
two on
months, though the time requiredfor development depends the temperature. The
godown or the vat where the grainis stored must be thoroughlycleaned, white-washed or tarred in the dry season, and then the grain stored and kept well covered up. The surroundings of the godown should be also clean,for the weevils crawl out of old stray and rejected grainand attack the new grainstored in the godown. The grain should be spread out very thin in the hot sun, if weevils are subsequentlynoticed in it ; but under ness ordinarycircumstances weevils can be only kept down by cleanliand care, but not altogether side inIn tarred prevented. jalas and out and kept hermetically sealed up in the dry season after storing the grain, there is almost no fear of loss from weevils. But carbon bisulphide In shops givesthe most absolute protection. and godowns where such arrangements are not feasible, a mixture of lime use
are
and of lead (Sapheda)is used, but the crude carbonate of this mixture should be deprecated. Paddy is seldom attacked by this weevil, and hard wheats The weevils are not so subjectto its attack soft wheats. as
able to penetrate a thick layerof chopped straw of dry or first of in cleaned leaves. Hence, bags neem grainstored open vats and tarred inside, and covered up simply with chopped straw or leaves, are found almost entirelyfree from weevils. dry neem At Demerara the peopleare accustomed ants into rice to attract not
godowns
with sugar, and then the ants attack the weevils. The plan adopted in this country for protectingcobs of maize kept for seed,is to hang them up in bunches at the end of bamboos and keep them exposed to lightand air and smoke inside ordinary destructive in town dwellinghouses. Indeed, the weevils are more where sweepingand leping are practised godowns than in villages, difficult. more daily,making quiet inroads of pests somewhat The weevils themselves attacked in the granaries' by are certain Hymenopterous parasitesbelongingto the order Chalcididae. Three such insects destroyingthe weevils have been noticed. The vernacular and h#na pokd. The
Grain
names
moth
of the granary
weevil
(Tinea granella).Another
are
chele
poka
pest granary of rice,and somewhat resembling spoilingclothes and furniture,is the wolf moth (Tinea granella).The larvae of this moth collect grainsof rice around them into lumps and eat them through into shells. In the chrysalis nies stage the insect remains hidden in cracks and cranthose similar to of the godown. The remedies applicable are
which may be the tiny moth
recommended
seen
"
in old stores
in the
case
of the weevil.
556
HANDBOOK
great as it appears
OF
AGRICULTURE.
first. The full developmentof the beetles But a to three weeks. eggs takes placewithin a fortnight second generationis not known to succeed duringthe same season, and it is not known how the beetles in such and swarms appear which appears at the time "disappear.Probablythe largeswarm of transplanting is the second from hispaswhich have generation bred in waste lands and jungleand come from there to attack the plantsafter they are transplanted.Closer observation can alone of the pest. Their sudden completelyclear up the life-history at
from
and disappearance are appearance in of the a" light upon mystery.
at present looked by cultivators Several remedies were tried at Sibpur. Dusting of ashes mixed with lime and arsenic,of soot, of turmeric powder, bellowing and Cyanide of Carbon-bisulphide Potassium sprayingtobacco decoction,kerosene emulsion vapour, and a solution of asafoetida and aloes,were tried in different plots with no marked effect at the time of application.But the beetles the ^disappeared next day. Another swarm, however, appeared in a few jla,ys and they were similarlytreated. At this second
attack
punctata
help
noticed
were
feedingon
than
the
largenumbers of tigerbeetles Cincidela sexof greater the hispa,and probablythey were
applications.The preventionof the carried out at the same time by dipping pest was successfully -each bunch of seedlingsimmediately before transplanting in a solution of asafoetida. Probably the stink kept the insects off, of the plotsalreadyattacked-were also treated with though some insecticidal
asafoetida solution with no immediate result. In the vernacular the hispa is variouslyknown pokd, SuJcho pokd,Senko pokd, Pdmari pokd,Pdruli The
as
MorcM
poM*
Rice-Midge (Cecidomyia oryzete).Serious injury to the paddy crop done by this dipterouspest was in first reported October 1880 in Monghyr, and since then it has been recognized and very destructive pest of the aus paddy as a pretty common "
in the Bihar districts, mechhia. where itis known as crop, specially The Hessian and of America, destructor, Cecidomyia fly Europe
which
the sap of green stalks of wheat, and the wheatwhich renders wheat midge (Cecidomyiatritici) plantsabortive allied species.The ricetwo are t"ydevouringthe pollengrains, midge is known to devour pollengrainsin the same way as the wheat-midge. The maggots which are probablydepositedon the but of rice in the living ears stage are at firstsemi-transparent, resemble linseed they get darker with age, and, when full-grown, feeds upon
The destruction of the ear-head. in the substance the wheat-midgeand the Hessian flyis so considerable
imbedded
caused by that it would be wise to guard againstthe rice-midge. The Pattanai (Suastus gremius). Occasionally butterfly belong-' green paddy plants"re attacked by the larvse of a butterfly '
'
"
and
* A chrysomelidbeetle Phtedo brassicce is known to attack the mustard another Liptispapygmcea to attack young plants. sugarcane
crop
ing one
(NOCTUIDS).
WORMS
CUT-
557
The butterfly(Fig.114) from family Hesperiidae. when of the the to other, wing extremity fullyexpanded,is the
to
If
about
it is of
and
inches
side of the
wings, with
larvae when
full-grownare both
taperingat line
The
remain shelters
they
of
somewhat
insect
in
as
a
upper
colour, with On
a
from sunny
deep green extremity pillars day the catera
one
threads
the
in
styleof
the
though
FIG.
114."
zed recogni-
SUASTUS IMAUO
(LARVA,
GREMIPS AND
PUPA).
destructive
very
and
are
This
way.
to be
pest
wash
they
this
of
tinuous Con-
rains
and
seems
the
fore-wings.The and length, cylindrical
of the back
black.
on
selves them-
for
heavy killed
in
lightgreen
are spiracles
silken
down
inch in
an
the middle
leaf-rollinginsects. them
about
colour
at the
in hidden leaves which
construct
with
pale yellow spots
ends,
extending down
to the other.
glossybrown
a
the
rice-plant by has
it
done
cultivators
of
Balasore,
serious
damage elsewhere when hitherto,it is justas well as to pick and kill the caterpillars and to depend on the hibernating they are noticed in rice fields, and long-continued killed of the constant by stirring pupae being soil before sowing, as recommended in the case of the Leptocorisu The
acuta.
not
paleyellowish-green pupae
are
formed
in the
rolls ot
but leaves made by the caterpillars, and hibernate in the soil. The down the upper side of leaves earlyin the on The larvae are known are quiteyoung. leaves
but
also
tender leaves Leucania extranea,
Leucania
on
of
they probably also crawl butterfly lays eggs singly when the rice-plants season to live not only on paddy the date-palm.
loreyiand
other
do
cut-worms
to young considerable injury sometimes paddy plants; but, as for other paddy pests of the field, has been suggested these would do littledamage if long-continued were preparation systematically the cultivators. practisedby
CHAPTER CUT-
THE
Noctuid
ledd-pokd, or
time
and
the
CXX1V.
(NOCTUIDS).
WORMS
larvae known
kdtree pokd, kdjrd,kumwah, hidden in the earth in the day*
as
remain chord-pokd,
moths
speciesventure down take them hidden in leaves
out
into
and
flyonly at night, or in the dusk. day-time,cut tender piecesof stems
in
their stems
burrows on
a
for
consumption, or brightday. They attack
Some
and
remain younj
rice,wheat, poppy, khesari,cabbage,turnip,mustard and potatoes,and perhap: linseed,tomato, tobacco, cotton, indigo,
plantsof
"558
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and they destroy far more than they can seedlings plants, Potato and remainplants possiblyconsume. poppy subjectto the attack of the pest to the last,as their stems are always very other
is often tender and the damage done to these crops by cut-worms The pupal stage is passedaltogether underground, very considerable. and thorough preparationfor a longperiodseems fore thereNovember to be the best preventive. From to February in the evening, when the moths are to be commonly seen the eggs laid on leaves in small batches, often two or three layersdeep are
and
lightlycovered with Probably there is a
then
the down
of the
parent
moth's
second generationin the rainy when active they first come season. out, like looper caterpillars, but soon become fat and in progressing like stumpy silkworms. somewhat It is at this stage .appearance is insect voracious and most of its lifethat the wantonly destructive. abdomen.
The
larvae
are
more
been known to cut down fiftyto a hundred and one night. The pupation goes plants of potatoes poppy an under the surface,and the moth in the soil three to eightincjies on month. Kerosene emulsion in about a syringed under emerges tried successfully in the jailgarden some each plantwas years ago Each
has caterpillar
againstAgrotissuffusa.At the jailgarden of Berhamproved most destructive to the potato crop sowing seed of potatoes along with a mixture ashes,salt,lime and a littlewhite arsenic consistingof rape-cake, resorted to. No loss has taken place since then from this was of Khulna
pore also this insect of until the method
and
cause, ,a
the
use
of this insecticidal
manure
is recommended
as
preventive.
there, are Besides Agrotissuffusa, other Noctuidmoths many One of these is etc. which are destructive to vegetables, poppy, the Heliothis armigera called Kujrain in Monghyr and boll-worm in America. pillars Young bolls of cotton are eaten into by these caterand they also feed on maize, poppy, tomatoes, peas, beans and khesari and other pulsesin the cold weather, and also in the to favour their growth and even Bain seems in the rainy season. "3old weather after a heavy shower of rain they carry on their work of destruction with renewed vigour. There are three generations The caterpillar feeds on the lower of these insects in the year. leaves also seeds and of the seed-podsor on surface on poppy is over 1 \ inch in length. caterpillar opium capsules.A full-grown A earth. the female of the boll-worm in moth It pupates single five hundred as .isable to lay as many eggs, laid at dusk, chiefly The cotion larvae live on leaves,but later on chiefly on plants. and bolls. buds Sometimes bore into after devouringthe they contents
boll.
of
one
boll,the larvae will
The holes made
by
the
come
out
and
attract caterpillars
attack another the chrysomelid
which beetle, Aulacophoraabdominalis, of the bolls.
It is the third
continues the destruction generationfrom January that is
the on usuallyfound parasitic August.
cottdn
plantsin about July^and
THE
SUGARCANE
SOBER
(OHILO SIMPLEX).
559
The is also a common cabbage moth (Mamestra brassicte) with transverse moth Noctuid. It is a brown black markings the centre of which is marked with white. the fore-wings, on The Ach"a melicerte (called which feeds Phulgunain Orissa), the leaves of the castor-oil plantand the arahar plant,the on attacks the gram, Plucia the Leucania nigrisigma which extmnea (calledLedapoka in Eastern Bengal),which attacks which destroys and paddy paddy plants pea, the Leucania loreyi Leucania also all Noctuids. are fragelisis another Noctuid wheat and millet plants. Prodetoia attacks which young
also belongingto the Noctuids, did a littoralis caterpillars, deal of to in the district of mulberry plantations damage great few Murshidabad, a years ago, and a serious attack on tea is likewise on record. They are also known to attack potato and tobacco plants. Jute is subjectto the attack of another Noctuid. that does most harm The Noctuid parasite duringthe hot is Agrotissegetis.It is most destructive to the indigo The moths lay eggs at night on young indigoplants in crop. In and week the eggs hatch a March or April. the larvae keep three weeks for until the leaves on they pupate, when they eating in the soil. The pupal stage lasts for more than a go down deep and formidable second of more and a a month, caterpillars crop
weather
and does far more sometimes occurs damage in the indigodistricts in July,than the first crop in May. to prove a practical remedy for Noctuids. Sprayingis not likely of and the and the use of an insoil, thoroughpreparation Long of secticidal and manurial mixture along with seed consisting is t o efficacious. ashes, etc., soot, more lime, likely prove arjenic, fliesare parasitic tuid NocSome tachinid,chalcid and ichneumon on tachinid flies worms.* silkas larvae in the same are on parasitic way also very fond of ferreting Crows and starlings are out of and cutthe larvae In and worms. cloudy devouring pupae the the to when weather come surface, caterpillars they are rainy is The the birds. same devoured after case by tion, irrigareadily and
is a very good remedy againstthis and thoroughirrigation of the grubsmay be practised. fields hand-picking pest. In poppy Dusting the plantsin the evening with a mixture of quicklime the Noctuid moths in lantern and ashes and the method of catching mixture of molasses and a traps and also in basins containing tried. vinegarhave been successfully
CHAPTER THE THE
SUGARCANE
larvae of this moth
CXXV.
BORER
(CHILO SIMPLEX).
bore into the stalks of
sugarcane,
maize, juar,and probablyalso the kashia grass (Saccharum spon*
Vide Handbook
of Sericulture
by
the author
(p.112, etc.).
560
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
stalk borer taneum). A brinjal
is also a Chile. The borer 'attacking in results often the sugarcane, that the whole so putrefaction, Often the borer is followed by a fungus stalk becomes worthless. in in the work of destruction,and the wholesale loss occurring districts to soft varieties of sugarcane is caused some by jointly the borer and the fungus,the latter in fact doing far more harm than the borer in givingrise to an epidemic. It is curious the borer
and
the
fungus have
of sugarcane
also gone
hand-in-hand
in the destruction
plantations wrought in Barbadoes, in Jamaica,
and in the United States. in "Mauritius,in British Guiana The the itself of the firstshows middle of the and by drying cane pest and the the cane thus disease is known rottingaway afterwards, The former name in Bengal both as Ma jera and Dhasha. should, confined the be caused to however, damage by the borer alone, of the borer insect being Majera-poka. The name the name be similarly Dhasha may properlyconfined to the damage caused is name fungus as the same by the agency of the Trichosphceria diseases. other Hard-rinded canes, which are fungoid appliedto comparativelyfree from the attack of the borer, are also comparatively free from the attack of the fungus. The parent moth laysher eggs upon the leaves of the young the axils,and the cane near borer, hatching in the young and days, penetratesthe stalk at or near the joint, soft tunnel the to through commences pith. The growth of the and the full size is reached in a month. larva is very rapid, The larva inch is about an full grown long,rather slender,nearlycylindrical; white in colour, usually speckledwith black and cream On attainingtits spots,with a yellowhead and black mandibles. course
of
a
few
full size,it bores a hole on the side of the cane for its future exit into its tunnel and pupates. The slender and then goes back is about brown three-quartersof an inch long. In a few pupa out of the hole already days the pupa becomes a moth, and comes made in its larval stage. The moth is light greyishbrown in colour than an inch from "vingto wing when the wings and a littlemore The hind wings of the male are are expanded. silverywhite. several broods in the course of the same and the season, ensconced in the the are plentifully or tops or cuttings sown, rejectedand left neglectedin fields. The portionsof the cane hibernation takes placein winter in the larval and pupal stages, out againin Aprilor May. and the moths come of keeping down the pest suggestedby the The methods There
are
larvae
all refuse leaves, tops, etc., : (1)collecting above description are and burningthem in a heap,and (2)pickling the tops or cuttings with an aqueous and poisonousmixture of soot, sown consisting arsenic and made ashes into a thin mixture, and lime, leaving up the canes dippedin it for a few hours before planting.If sulphate
of copper
solution instead of
plainwater is used as a simultaneous preventiveagainstTrichosphwriafungus,the seed-canes should be kept dipped in the mixture only for a minute.
(TERM1S TAPROBANES)
WHITE-ANTS
AND
OTHER
ANTS,
561
cultivation of soil is useful ; also burningof the sod, after the harvestingof canes, the stumps and leaves being Even the ratoons after the firing, will come set fire to. up if it is intended to keep the canes a second year. Certain specialmethods been effective in fire said to have the borer. These are : (a)Collecting keeping down sugar cane the eggs of the borer are all leaves on which and burning seen brownish in colour The and them. are eggs are depositedin
Thorough
"
groups
of about
twenty, and
children
can
be
taughtto recognize
afterwards employed in pickingthem from plantations. (b)Cuttingout and burningall shoots or stems that appear withered
them
and
wanting in life. Children may be taught to do this also,and they may be employed in plantationsfor this purpose, (c)Keeping lightedlanterns hanging in sugarcane plantationsat night and kerosene under with shallow vessels of water them.. By adopting this last device, one can get rid of Noctuid moths and of Kartic (October other insects in largequantities.In the month in this and prevails November) a custom country of hangingup It be not in at the night. lights may very difficultto inauce open of hanging up lights cultivators to adopt the modified custom in or
vessels of water underneath, duringthe month of Kartic, as it is during this month, as also in June and July, that moths, etc., lay eggs and do the greatestamount of damage noticed later on in the season. to crops, though the damage is most their fields with
CHAPTER WHITE-
CXXVI.
(TERMES TAPROBANES)
ANTS
AND
OTHER
ANTS.
white-ants THE social insects (Neuroptera) are well-known homesteads and in and fields, tunnels which make and galleries thus do a great deal of mischief. They destroymost of the ordinary attack roots of living timbers except teak. They sometimes plantsand mango-trees, graplants and trees, such as sugarcane dually their upwards. The males and females are working way furnished with four large wings of equal size,but the workers have no wings. Their bodies are oblongand depressed. neuters or The queen will lay 80,000 eggs in a day for a long time, and the enormous growtha colonymay undergoin a short time may thus be imagined. As in the case of ordinaryants, the white-ants leave their nest for their Carriageflightat the beginningor end of the "
"
rainy season, lose their wings, and a survivingpair after losing their wings have been said to be led into the nest by the neuters certain)when
of the female becomes the abdomen inches in length with three two or enormously distended eggs, i.e., and more than half an inch in thickness (Fig. 115 a). She goes on larvae minute. The from these eggs about sixtyeggs per laying performthe greaterpart of the work of the nest,in making tunnels The pupae differfrom larvae in possessing rudiments and galleries.
(thoughthis
M,
HA
is not
36
562
HANDBOOK
"
AGRICULTURE.
OF
"
soldier white-ants are wings. The by their distinguished and head powerfulmandibles. They are probably neuters. larger When white-ants attack the roots of ordinary agricultural rice,jute,arahar and ^vegetables, a crops such as sugarcane, heavy the shower of rain or thorough irrigation best remedy. proves of trees it is difficult When, however, they attack the roots to get rid of them. Vigorouslygrowing trees, however, are seldom attacked by white-ants. Liberal applicationof castorcake is the best remedy againstthis pest, as the insects dislike castor-cake,and the vigour imparted to the plantsaffords perhaps further remedy. a of
Dr.
Watt
recommends
"
Gondal mixture," the first preparedby the Thakore Saheb of Gondal and used by him is as a white-ant mixture of It Dekamali destroyer. a (Gardenia lucida)gum, asafcetida,bazaar aloes and castor-cake. (See The Pests and Blightsof the Tea Plant by G. Watt and H. H. Mann, the
use
of
1903, p. 343.)
FIG.
(a) Queen
white-ant
THE
115."
WHITE-ANT.
ready to
(c) Soldier neuter. (d) Male pupa. (e) Female pupa.
depositeggs. (6) Working
neuter.
,
(/) Winged white-ant.
Ordinaryants
(theFormicidte
"
Hymenoptera). Against the following several species,
order
"
with
ants, of which there are been have found useful : (1) Attracting them kernels mixed up with sugar and then destroying cocoanut
them
by drowning
ordinary remedies
them
with them
"
a
sponge
or
otherwise
dippedin
in hot water.
a
to time. fctime (2)Attracting ing of solution strong sugar, and drown-
from
(3) Stringsdipped in corrosive sublimate
HANDBOOK
564
OP
AGRICULTURE.
well in shade.
will grow
(2)Letting poultryin of servants after cultivationbut before sowing seed. (3)Allowing under the cook affected to trees. fully and others habitually (4)Careplantthat
matic
removing and destroyingall stray fruits,stones,
rind and (5) Keeping crevices and holes refuse of mango-treesgenerally. of the over or otherwise obliterated. in the trunk mango-treesplastered In Europe trunks of valuable trees are paintedor tarred insect pests. It is probablethe weevils hibernate in the crevices of the trunk, and the effectof painting Eastern Bengal the trunks on a largescale may be watched in some to
from
protectthem
districts. The larva of
a
insect (Dacusferrugineus) late dipterous spoils
in certain localities. The Malda mangoes growing are in the Katgola gardenin Murshidabad annuallyspoilt by recommended The for remedies this the these maggots. pest are the weevil. the in the case for of Probably oviposition as same mangoes ripening
the trees are bearing small fruits, the weevil takes place when before the the of fruits the in and case maggot, just ripen. Spraying with kerosene emulsion or asafoetidawater, for the purpose of
producinga
trees
that may be sprayingshould be
is a treatment the flies,
from
of the are
of vicinity
stink in the
maggot.
The
stillgreen but
wishes
to
protect
suggestedin the done
when
the
case
fruits
developed, properly
CHAPTER THE
one
INDIAN
CXXVIII.
GOLDEN-APPLE-BEETLE*.
(Aulacophoraabdominalis.) insect belonging to the familyChryColeopterous destroysvarious Indian crops and in its turn it is usuallydestroyedby a coccinellid beetle known as Palceopeda
THIS is a somelidse. It
We
both these insects in the Sibpur Farm cotton, gourd, melon, and cucumber plants. Wateron melons, and palval fieldare jhingas creepers growing in the same the In attacked. SaharanpurBotanical Garden it was hardly sex-maculata.
found
,to be
have
noticed
destructive generally
to all
Cucurbitaceous
plants. plants(Trapabispinosa) inch in length,brilliant reddish yellowin colour,the wings are yellowand do not entirely The legs reddish yellow. The underthe abdomen. are cover surface is partly yellowand partlyblack. Heavy dustingwith ashes is the remedyordinarily adopted. water-nut It is said to attack the floating is little under half an a also. The beetle
PLANT-LICE
AND
CHAPTER PLANT-LICE THESE
SCALE-INSECTS
AND
565 COCCID^S).
CXXIX.
hemipterousinsects
are (aphides)
(APHIDESAND
SCALE-INSECTS
are
(APHIDESAND very
COCCID^E).
destructive.
destructive
Plant-lice than scale-
to agricultural crops aphisof Bengal is the jdb-pokd(Aphis of the mustard crop. Aphidesare also known brassicce) to attack potatoes, cabbages,cauliflowers, tobacco, arahar, turnip,radish, etc. An aphid which produced curling of leaves of and twisting the tobacco plants fied identigrown at the SibpurFarm in 1892-93 was as scabiosa. beetles The coccinellid Siphonophora birds) (lady-
insects.
The
more
commonest
that preyed upon these were identified as Chilomenes sexmaculata. Another aphid which causes injuryto the mustard and identified by the authorities of the Indian rape crops was Museum dianthi. The females which are generas Rhopalosiphum
rallywinglessare
their viviparous,
the
yellow young
embryos
are
also brown.
abdomen
being transparent ;
be seen through the green skin of the abdomen. The colour of the insect,however, is not always it is but sometimes red, brown, yellow, or black. The green, The wing-cases pupae and the larvae can hardlybe distinguished. of the pupae are tippedwith brown and the pointsof the antennae
The
may
larvae
Males voracious. their help is not of generations
are
the most
are
quired revery rare, and for a number for fertilization. The asexual larvae usuallydevelopinto winglessfemales. The fullymature sexual forms have prominent wings, but they also are propagated asexually.The blackish
has tea-aphis
been alreadyspoken of. belief that blights, that is, the appearance coccidae insects,are due to fog or east wind, is
The and
of common
aphides not
only in this country but also in England,but it is a mere stitious superof the aphides belief. The extraordinary multiplication givesone the idea that theyappear all of a sudden, and their apparent fanciful way. sudden appearance is accounted for in some last Suppose one little aphisproduced from an egg deposited it is should appear in springon a bean creeper when autumn each of justbudding. She givesbirth,say, to ten young aphides without females few days these ten male will each produce another ten any the weather is fine and the aphides females. If agamogenetic other insects,and if the beanstalk not tracked by ants are or continues this flourishing, agamogenetic propagationwill go
which
is
female. In with a connection a
a
the twelve generations, every four or five days for about calculation of increase being, If in a say, ten every case. months is made, it will be found two that in less than the from one if rate of aphisone billionmay be produced,and
on
rate
increase be
to something hundred instead of ten, the number comes The last generations enormous. are partlymale and partly the intermediate and imperfect female, generations beingwingless one
566
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
females. The male and female pair and lay eggs in the autumn and from these eggs come males and females or in the cold weather of the following spring. The Scale-insects. The Aleurodes which invade rose bushes, the which plants; Icerya spoilvarious orange trees, sugarcane the fruit trees, etc. ; of which causes one the Dactylopius, species disease known as tukrd to mulberry trees,and other coccid insects beetles. are preyedupon in their turn by lady-birds(Coccinellidae) But the latter are unable to cope with the insects when they become when kerosene emulsion and other special too numerous, remedies described be tried with success. already may Scale-insects do considerable damage to fruit trees and other "
but they do not do such damage to ordinary perennials, agricultural have just we crops as the other hemipterousinsects (aphides) There are described. several scale-insects, the other on hand^ economic which manufacture chineal some important products. Coand lac are producedrespectively cacti and Coccus Coccus by lacca. Manna is the gummy secretion of the tamarisk tree which of comare merce punctured by Coccus manniparus. The white wax is produced by Eriocerus pela,a Chinese scale-insect. There is an Indian scale-insect also (Ceroplastes which yields ceriferus) The females of scale-insects and are a white wax. always wingless,
theyare scale-like. The their presence aphides, of the embryo.
in
male is not
is
providedwith
always necessary
two
wings,but, as
for the formation
Coccinellid beetles are very useful in devouring scale-insects an"J aphides. It should be remembered, however, that they are friends to the cultivator. The larvae of Epilachna not invariably others of the same and dodeca-stigma genus attack the leaves of
brinjal plantsand sometimes do a great deal of damage. ment For aphides and scale-insects the kerosene emulsion treatgenerallyproves most efficacious. One part of kerosene should The be used. oil to eightyor one hundred part of water oil should be mixed up with equal quantityof fresh-milk or buttermilk shaken with and worked or a (ghol) syringe thoroughly up the oil,before it is mixed up with water up in a bottle to emulsify and appliedwith a spray-pump.
CXXX.
CHAPTER INSECTS
INJURIOUS
TO
INDIAN
CROPS.
Paddy. order Coleoptera). (Melolonthini,
1.
COCKCHAFER
2.
Lasioderma testaceum, or the cheroot weevil (Ptinidae, order Coleoptera). order Coleoptera). Calandra oryzce (Curculioniftse, order Coleoptera}. sexspinosus(ScolytidaB, Platydactylus
3. 4.
LARVAE
INJURIOUS
INSECTS
TO
INDIAN
567
CROPS.
order Coleoptera). Hispa aenescens (Chrysomelidse, order tera). ColeopAulacophora afydominalis (Chrysomelidse,
5. 6.
order Coleoptera). (Chrysomelidae, o r gremius (Hesperidee, skippers,Lepidoptera). Limacodid tera). Lepidop(Nettle-grub-defoliator, caterpillars
7.
Chcetocnemis
8.
Suastus
9.
basalis
(Noctues, Lepidoptera). armigera (Noctues, Lepidoptera). extrania (Noctues, Lepidoptera). Do. Do.) (Do. loreyi oryzalis Paraponyx (Hydrocampidse, Micro-lepidoptera). Chilo (Crambidse, Micro-lepidoptera). oryzceellus
10.
Achaea
11.
Heliothis Leucania
12. 13. 14. 15.
melicerte
Cecidomyia onjzce (Cecidomyidae,Diptera). (Rhynchota, Hemiptera). Leptocorisaacuta schlaubuschii (Rhynchota, Do.) Physopelta Catantops axillaris (Acrididae,Orthoptera). Hieroglyplmsfurcifer(Acrididse, Do.) Euprepocnemis bramina (Acridida3,Do.)
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
Wheat.
3.
Coleoptera). Trogositamauritanica(Trogositidse, Do. undulata, (Dermestidae, ) Do. ) Rhizoperthapusilla(Ptinidse,
4.
Opatrum depressum (Tenebrionidsc,
1. 2.
Arthriostoma
Oryzce(Curculionidse,
Do. Do.
5.
Calandra
6.
Agrotis suffusa(Noctues, Lepidoptera), Chilo oryzceellus (Crambidae, Do.) Ortlioptera). Crotogonussp. (Acrididae,
7. 8.
)" )
Barley. 1
.
2.
Agrotissuffusa. Crotogonussp. Oats.
1.
Leucania
2.
Agrotissuffusa.
extrania.
Juar. 1.
2. 3.. 4.
Coleoptera). (Cucujidae, Do. ) Rhizoperthapusilla(Ptinidse, Do. rouxi ) (Cantharidee, Epicauta Do. ) Epicautatenuicollis(Cantharidse,
Silvanus
surinamensis
568
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Maize*
2.
Chilo Simplex(Crambidee,Lepidoptera). Gelechia cerealella(Plutellidae, Microlepidoptera).
3.
furcifer. Hieroglyphus
1.
Panicum
miliare.
Euprepocnemisbramina.
1.
Bajra. Crotogonussp.
1.
Sugarcane.
6.
beru pokd (Scolytidae, Xyleborusperforans, Coleoptera). (Pierinae, Mancipium nepalensis Lepidoptera). Achcea melicerte (Noctues, Lepidoptera). Scirpophagaauriftua(Microlepidoptera, Lepidoptera;, Chilo simpkx, majera-pokd. Dragana pansalis(Deltoides, Lepidoptera).
7.
(Edalus
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
(Acrididee, Orthoptera). Pceiilocera hieroglyphica (Acrididae,Do.) Termes taprobanes (Termitidae, Neuroptera). driver ant (Formicidae, Dorylusorientalis, Hymenoptera).
8. 9. 10.
marmoratus
gibbus(Chinch-bug, Hemiptera). Ripersiasacchari (Scale-insect,Do.) Blissus
11. 12.
Gram.
2.
Aulacophoraabdominalis. Mancipium nepalensis.
3.
Parasa
4.
Agrotissuffusa. Plusia nigrisigna(Plusidae, Noctues, Lepidoptera).
1.
5.
sp.
(Limacodidse,Lepidoptera).
Arahar. Bruchus
Achcea melicerte. Eriochiton cajani(Coccidae, Hemiptera).
t *
3.
Chinensis
(Bruchidae, Coleoptera),
1. 2.
Brinjal. 1.
Epilachnaviginti-octo-punrtata.
2.
AchcBa
3.
Chilo sp, Lencinodes orbonalis
4.
melicerte.
(Microlepidoptera).
INSECTS
INJURIOUS
TO
INDIAN
569
CHOPS.
Cucurbitaceous crops generally. i.
"2. 3.
Aulacophora abdominalis. Epilachna viginti-octo-punctata. Carpomyiaparctalina(Muscidae,Diptera). Jute.
1.
Spilosoma
2.
Noctuids.
sp.
(Arctiidae, Lepidoptera).
Cotton. 1.
Coleoptera). Sphonoptera gossypii (Ruprestidae,
"2.
Aulacophora abdominalis.
3.
Helioihis
armigera.
6.
Microlepidoptera). (Plutellidse, Dipressariagossypiella Dysdercuscingulatus(Khynchota, Hemiptera). Do.) (Do. Oxycarenuslugubris
7.
Lohita
I. 5.
(Do.
grandis
Do.)
Mustard. Noctuids.
1.
Agrotis suffusa and
2.
Aphis brassicce (Aphidae,Hemiptera).
other
Linseed. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Opatrum depressum. Mancipium nepalensis. Agrotis suffusa. Crotogonussp. Indigo.
Coleoptera). nigrofusca (Chrysomelid09,
1.
Haltica
2.
Agrotis segetum.
3.
Hemiptera). Psylla isitis (Psyllidse, Crotogonus sp.
4.
Kabi 1. 2.
3.
crops
generally.
armigera. (Rhynchota, Hemiptera). Apinis concinna flies, Do.) (Lantern FulgoridcB Helioihis
Kharif crops generally. 1. 2.
Epacromia dorsalis
Orthoptera). (Acrididae,
Heteropternis sp.
( Do.
Do.)
570
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Standing crops generally. Lepidoptera).
1.
Aloalactinea
2.
Spilosomasp.
(Arctidse, (Arctiidae,
3.
Spaliriaminor
(Lasiocampidse,
4.
Heliothis
Agrotis segetum Agrotissuffusa.
Do.
(Do.
armigera
Do. Do. Do.
(Noctuidse,
Do. (Do. (Acrididse Orthoptera).
peregrinum
Do.
Do.
9.
Acridium Acridium Acridium
melanocorne
Do.
Do.
10.
Acridium
ceruginosum
Do.
11.
erubescens Caloptenus caliginosus Caloptenus ranacea Cyrtacanihacris
Do. Do. Do.
7. 8.
12. 13. 14.
succintum
rcifera cinerascens Pachytylus
Crotogonus sp.
18.
Pcrcilocera picta
19.
furcifer. Hieroglyphus t urrita ( Tryxalis crenulata ( Atractomorpka ( Mecopoda sp. ( Euprocnemisbramina
23.
(
WHEN
an
DISEASES
Do.
Do.
Do.
)
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
) ) )
Do.
Do.
)
CXXXI.
CHAPTER ZYMOTIC
Do.
Do.
17.
22.
Do.
Do.
16.
21.
Do.
Do.
15.
20.
Do.
Do. Do.
) ) } ) ) ) ) )
AND
agricultural crop
REMEDIES or
FOR
THEM.
herd of animals dies out in the loss may be supposed
abundance without any apparent cause to be due to some microscopic organism. Potato-rot,wheat-rust, animals dyingsuddenlyafter a swelling in the neck cattle-plague, loss due tg micro-organisms. When notices one from animals some mysterious cause, one dying any crops should take some dead plantor animal from fluid out of a recently an organ that appears to have undergonespecialdecay. If the diseased organ or tissue is too dry to yieldany fluid,it should be are
examples of or
littleclean water and the fluid thus made taken slide. The fluid should be spreadout thin on a cover* to a glass on and mounted The specimensmay then be in the usual way. glass examined for identification of the epidemic. For certain leisurely epidemicsprotectiveinoculation has been found beneficial in
macerated
with
a
other countries,as for instance,(1)for anthrax, (2)for fowl-cholera, black (3) for charbon symptomatique (calledalso quarter-ill, quarter, braxy of sheep and gloss-anthraxthe disease of horsea Protective and cattle called Gala phula),and (4) rabies. "
572
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
(c)When removing the healthyanimals,their bodies should be washed with a J% solution of sulphateof copper and they should be made to swallow a littleof ferrous sulphatewith ginger -and treacle (" ounce of the sulphate beinggivento an ox). (d) When an epidemicbreaks out in potato, wheat or any other agricultural be removed after crop, the crop should not harvest,but
arrangement should be made
some
to store
it in the
field in which the plantshave grown. (e)Seeds of all kinds should be pickledbefore sowing. For -delicate seeds steepingin camphor water is recommended for two and such for as seeds, wheat, hours, ordinaryagricultural paddy,sorghum,potatoes, the sulphateof copper dip is the best.
Immediatelyafter
the
dip,the
and
seed should be got
dry with and germicidalproperties,
lime
ashes which then have also from is There little of chance a a sown. crop suffering very fungoiddisease which can be caused by the need if the latter has been pickledin this way before sowing,and the sowing is done in a field in or near which this particular disease has not been noticed for about two years. of immunity and plants enjoy some amount (/)Animals from epidemics if they are kept in a vigorous condition. For vegetables, water
bran,
and manure,
salt,fenugreekand
and for animals,oil-cakes, wheatpulses, sugar
and stimulating invigorating is,generally speaking,unsuitable are
foods. A vigorousconstitution for the growth of parasites.It has been noticed that even wheatunaerified condition of the rust, which is favoured by a damp, i.e., soil,is corrected after a good shower of rain where the crop had showed not only rust but also need for water. A list of germicides, the proportion which usually including suffices to kill the germs or prevent their growth,is given below.
The
is not applicable in the case of every germ, same proportion and it is safest to use a stronger solution in every case. Some of these have been experimentedwith only in the case of cholera bacillus. Others have not been experimented with on any pathogenic but the ferment of of witie or on only sugar-water germ, or (Bacillusaceti)
harmless germs. So the following table will only give a rough idea as to the proportionin which different germicidesshould be used. Sugar has the effect of preventingthe growth of Bacillus anthracis. The use of sugar or molasses should therefore be freely resorted to in the treatment of anthrax and in feedingof animals when this epidemicis raging. Salt also has germicidal properties and the use of salt which is in vogue in Bengal in the treatment of anthrax (gobasanta) is to be considered quiterational. some
Iodide of mercury Bichloride of mercury Nitrate of Silver
Hydrogen peroxide Iodine
..
such
.
.
.
1
.
(corrosive sublimate) .
..
..
.
.
..
..
.
to
1 to 1 to
4
1 to 1 to
200,000 100,000 50,000 8,000 6,000
DISEASES
ZYMOTIC
AND
REMEDIES
[Koch has ascertained that 1 to 100 killthe to germs of cholera.]
FOB
THEil.
of iodine is
required
Sulphateof Quinine lodof
orm
Naphthalene Sulphateof copper Mustard oil (English) acid Salicylic Cinnamon
oil
Permanganate of potash
Eucalyptusoil Hydrochloricacid Borax
Camphor Arsenic Chloride of zinc Lactic acid of sodium Carbonate .
.
Alcohol
CHAPTER AGRICULTURAL PROFESSOR
CXXXIT. BACTERIOLOGY.
HANKIN, of the Agra Bacteriological Laboratory,
few years ago that the water of the Ganges and the contained Juinna metre, nearlya thousand microbes to the cubic centithat is,in about a quarter of a teaspoonful. In European laboratories they usually find one to two hundred bacteriological thousand microbes per cubic centimetre of water. Even ordinary
reporteda
about one hundred microbes As is the water, so is the air and the the cubic centimetre. earth teemingwith microbes. Generally speaking, theyare harmless ; but occasionally the air,or the water, or milk,or even the earth,teems with germs which are capableof producingepidemics. A cubic yard of country air contains from fifty to three hundred and fifty two germs, while a cubic yard of cityair contains over thousand germs, and the air inside a house contains over five thousand where there is carpet or mat germs per cubic yard,specially of street dust may used in the rooms. An ounce contain over
contains water usually good drinking to
thirtymillion living germs.
The superficial of soil also teem layers There may be hundreds of thousands in a single soil,but at a depth of ten to twenty feet there grainof superficial On the top of highmountains and in mid-ocean microbes. are no the air is free from microbes,and springwater is also nearlyfree. fermentation and putreDuring the changes called respectively faction microbes multiplyenormously,and in this sense, these of microbes. be called the usual source When processes may juicesof fruits are fermented for making wine, when cooked or uncooked meat or vegetables when milk gets sour, when get spoilt, curd of milk is ready for churning, when cheese is getting ripe,
with bacteria.
specialmicrobes
multiplyenormously. These
are
either
useful
574
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
harmless microbes. During the processes of disease, which classed be in as fermentation,there is,however, senses, many may, of disease organismswhich are afterwards a similar multiplication
or
disseminated. All the effects which microbes are able to produce are not, however, the results of their direct action. During their growth,and in fact, during life of any kind, there are a group of soluble ferments producedwhich carry on part of the work of
Enzymes. "
troyed. the microbes or other living organismslong after the life is desFor instance,they are able to render soluble many foods which would otherwise be too insoluble to be of any use. tion Absorpof food substances in the alimentarycanal of animals takes placeafter decompositioneffected by such soluble or unorganized which termed ferments are Enzymes are insoluble in enzymes.
alcohol, but
soluble in water, and they must be in solution In be able to do their work of decomposingfood substances. the saliva,for instance,there is an enzyme which dissolves starch into it In seeds also there Ris an converting sugar. enzyme, called diastase,which is capable of converting starch into sugar. called pepsin,in the stomachs of higher There is another enzyme in the presence meat animals, which has the power of dissolving of an acid. In the intestine there is an enzyme which is able to dissolve meat in the presence of an alkali. Enzymes do not diminish or increase in amount (likemicrobes)in doingtheir work. They do their work best in the presence of moisture at a temperature of about 98"F. Heatingto the boiling point destroystheir to
In these two respects they resemble microbes,but must power. from the latter. be nevertheless carefully distinguished Microbes or ordinaryferments are livingorganisms which of tation. fermenand are multiplying. They also cause capable growing With a high power microscopethey can be actuallyseen.
Enzymes
themselves
Fermentation.
"
the Fermentations are
often
product of microbes.
of many (I) Fermentation are
kinds, of which proper, e.g. (a) the by yeast fungus
the following are examples: saccharine fermentation caused Vinous or in and certain moulds of alcohol ; (6) resulting the production caused by a microbe Acetic fermentation known as Mycoderma aceti actingon alcoholic solutions ; (c)Lactic fermentation caused by another microbe known as Bacillus lactis acting on the sugar "
caused by still another microbe of milk ; (d)Butyric fermentation the Bacterium butyricumactingon known lactic acid. as (II)Putrefaction or growth of saprophytic germs on dead waste animals. This is plantsor usuallyaccompanied by the production of mal-odorous gases containingsulphur,phosphorus, etc. and also of highlypoisonoussubstances known as ptomaines.
{Ill)Pathogenic fermentation is caused by disease-producing in the tissues of plants^andanimals. During their germs living lifethey producetoxins or poisonoussubstances which are highly deleterious to the life of the plant or the animal. It is not by
AGRICULTURAL
575
BACTERIOLOGY.
caused by an abundant growth of capillaries productionof a poisonous substance that an animal dies so suddenlywhen it is attacked by the bacilli, anthrax. by (IV) Fermentation caused by unorganizedferments from the above three classes of true which must be distinguished
the
blockingup
of
but by the Bacillusanthracis,
caused by microbes. fermentation The fever which Anti-toxin treatment. accompanies most microbes is the result of a fermentation diseases due to pathogenic ^caused by a toxin or poisonsecreted by the microbes of the disease). "
defendingitself againstthis poisonthe animal is often able to this toxin, hence capableof neutralizing prepare a body specially and if it can be prepared,a specific called an anti-toxin, against the disease. In two diseases,viz.,diphtheria and glanders, the has proved most valuable. ^'anti-toxin treatment Dr. Koux's the microbe of DiphtheriaSerum is preparedby first cultivating for The in broth weeks. meat some diphtheria liquid portionis then filtered off from the bacilliand the clear liquidis injected In
'
under the skin of a horse. Minute doses are used at firstand cause of a certain amount of anti-toxin in the blood, the production animal and so the is able to stand largerdoses of the virus or toxin of diphtheria.By gradually increasingthe dose of toxin in of anti-toxin present the blood becomes larger the amount and be increased and almost to The extent. blood can larger any of a horse thus containing of anti-toxin is serum largeamounts and successfullyused as a remedy for diphtheria in regularly Europe. The substance called mallein,which is used for diagnosing and sometimes also for curingglanders,is a fluid similarly not only from horse to horse, prepared. Glanders is communicable but also to human beings,dogs,goats, donkeys and mules. It is a disease caused mallei),which appears in by a bacillus (Bacillus the form of an obstinate runningcold,or in which the skin of the face and neck of the horse is affected by streakysores (farcy).
now
be collected from inside these sores and cultivated in broth at the temperature of 98"F. for 30 days. The culture is afterwards sterilized at the boilingtemperature for Then the dead bacilliare separatedout from the liquid hour. one
The
bacillus
can
portionand the liquidportion (which is called mallein) is used for diagnosingthe disease in suspicious cases (when an injection fever). Once
cured, even a strong dose of fever in the animal, into which the fluid is mallein does not cause injected.For diagnosticpurposes the use of another toxin is causes
temporary
Professor agriculturists. that tuberculin,i.e.,the serum separatedout
Koch discovered in a somewhat similar manner from a culture of Bacillus tuberculosis, when injectedin small doses into cattle afflictedwith tuberculosis, into an animal which producesfever,while a similar dose injected is not so suffering, producesno reaction. This is thus a good also of
some
means
of
use.
interest to
detectingtuberculosis
in cattle,and
is
now
in
regular
576
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
to the appear* usuallyclassifiedsimplyaccording of the under the microscope. ance organism,as seen form of the microbe is the coccus The simplest or form, spherical which this form the retain last known to and those are as Micrococci. bell Micrococci,however, become slightly elongatedand then dumbdivide then each and themselves into But the two. shaped generalappearance of a cluster of micrococci is that of minute of a cluster of microslittlespheres. If the generalappearance copic
Microbes
are
form
and
if most i.e., fungiindicates elongation,
of the microbes in the instead of cluster are like short or beingspherical spindle-shaped, rods, in appearance, then they are called Bacteria. If the general drical appearance of a group of microbes is that of bits of thread or cylinthese are classed as Bacilli. These rods of different lengths, bent or curved, fine or fairly be straight, plump, of the sam" may
thickness throughout,or beaded, or knot-like in appearance. the bacilli are serpentine(i.e., made up of small S's), When they Vibrios ; and when they are to be recognized as cork-screw are or Spirochcetce. The common shapedtheyare called either Spirilla bacillus of cholera is to be classed of
as
a
spirillum, generallyrepresenting
only. simple forms, viz.,micrococcus,bacterium, and spiroand bacillus (withits variations of vibrio,spirillum, forms each under there Where are the complex chseta), group. in called micrococci usuallyoccur pairs,they are diplococci.The part
in chains
groups
(guti)is
of fowl-cholera
microbe occur
turn
one
these
Besides
of
they occur
they
are
four, they in the form
Where
When a diplococcus. micrococci called streptococci. When they occur in called tetrads or tetra-cocci. Where
they
are
of cubes
or
square
clusters, they are
in
called called
irregular masses, they in largeuninterrupted masses these called in the form masses are scum, zoogloea. Bacteria also occur or in pairs. Bacterium termo, the ordinary singly a double as usuallyoccurs spindleprovided germ of putrefaction, with hair-like appendages termed flagellae. of bacteria is lTFV?r^ The unit of measurement "f a millimeter, which is equalto ^-^th of an inch,and this lengthis represented The letter the lengthof bacteria usuallyvaries from 2 to /A. by sarcince.
occur
where of slime or
; and staphylococci
are
they occur
2
the
breadth
from
2/u. The
Bacillus anthracis about lO/*in help of micrometers, measuring of bacteria time as microscopic observation. is done at the same The dimensions be also judgedby comparisonwith those of a microbe may to the observer. of certain microbes, whose dimensions are known Reproduction.Yeast cells multiply by budding, whereas
10/x,and
about la length. With the rods
are
"$
in diameter.
to
Yeast
cells
are
"
and multiplyby fission,
for this reason the groups of microbes, viz.,micrococci, bacteria and bacilli, are generally Besides termed Schizomycetes. reproductionby gemmation or microbes
proper
budding,which takes placein the case of yeast, and reproduction which takes placein the case of Schizomycetes, there by fission,
AGRICULTURAL
577
BACTERIOLOGY.
is another method of reproduction, mz.} by the formation of spores in the interior of the organisms. Yeast fungiusuallyhave four in each. Bacilli and spirilla often have several spores formed do Micrococci not form spores. Some bacilli, spores in each. free access air of and anthrax bacilli, a r equire temperature e.g., 70" F. to 105" F. for free formation of spores. of between of putrefaction, Some germs, e.g., the germs are not parasitic
plant. They flourish best at the temperature microbes of 75" to 85" F., while parasitic generallygrow the temperature best with a temperature of 98" to 104" F., i.e., Most microbes stop growing below a temperof the animal body. ature of 48" F., and a few are destroyedby freezing, though the microbes remain low of only quiescentat majority temperatures Under repeatedthawings and do not actuallylose their vitality. more and freezings they succumb quickly. But spores of anthrax
on
livinganimals
or
this treatment. stand dry heat better than moist heat, and can if it is intended to destroymicrobes by the use of hot water, or by which are likely to contain microbes, heatingmilk or other liquids the to it is necessary bring up temperature to 150" F. Some microbes which live in the soil can resist the temperature of even to a heat of 250" F.,for ten 165" F., and others must be subjected before they are killed. In the ordinaryboiling minutes temperature of water it requiressix hours to kill some of the spores of Exposureto heat,not sufficientto killdiseaseputrefactive germs. producinggerms, may, however, attenuate their virulence. This survive even Microbes
possiblethat the which would otherwise produceepidemicsmore or less harmless. The action of sunlight, in the presence of air, independentof any heatingaction,specially is onlyeffective but light in destroyingmicrobes,is also recognized, that have most effect in in presence of air. The rays of the sun while the red ultra-violet microbes the are destroying rays rays, effect. Electric light to them have littleor no and those nearest microbes. of destroying has hardly any potency in tMs matter kill to a microbe, is yet Sunshine, which is not sufficiently great fact is of
great economic
heat of the
sun
makes
importance,as
it is
of the germs
most
able to reduce its virulence. there %are other potent agents Besides heat, air,and sunlight, for killing the growth of microbes. or Agentswhich restraining limate, subcorrosive called kill microbes are germicides, actually e.g., iron and copper sulphates,chlorine gas and quicklime, carbolic acid. Agents which only restrain the development of microbes sugar,
without
them killing
are
called
antiseptics, e.g., salt,
of iron,etc. of sulphate oil,and small quantities
dal substances used is the Disinfectants
in
a
Spores resist the forms. Products vegetative to the growth antagonistic at. HA
Germici-
like
antiseptics. septics. and antigermicides disinfectants of longer than power of germs (toxins, etc.)are generally
very
common
dilute form
name
act
givento
of germs.
37
578
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
Decay of food substances may be preventedin various ways, of bacteriology and this is one of the most importantapplications and its allied arts : in the fieldof agriculture (1) By desiccation. This deprivessubstances of moistufe ally which is necessary for the growth of microbes. Desiccation actu"
"
microbes,e.g., the cholera microbe. Milk, meat, fruits may be rapidlydesiccated and preservedin air-tight is done by many tins. The desiccation of fruits and vegetables Gnom but the methods, Evaporators(Waas patent), probably which are sold at various pricesrangingfrom 30 shillings to "30 " L. of America Messrs. London, Lumley Co., Square,Minories, by killssome
and
"
"
the best for India. They consist of a series of trays above another in a vertical frame. Underneath is a placed of hot air,of a temperature hot air stove from which a current of 120" to 180" F., passes up through the series of trays. The E.
C., are
one
at the lowest of the series of trays process of dryingcommences where the heat is the greatest. Bv a lever arrangement, the whole be lifted up admittinga tray at the bottom. series of trays may Successive trays are thus added at the bottom and the upper trays Before the fruits or vegetablesare put in, they are removed. stance, Carrots and beans, for inor sliced,as necessary. cored, peeled, and sliced,and most fruits are peeled, are vegetables,as a for a few minutes before they are rule, sliced and steamed hundred pounds of fruits or desiccated. One vegetablesare
reduced
to
10 to 30
Ibs.,accordingto the varietytreated.
which must be continuous,as freezing does (2) By freezing killthe microbes, but onlysuspendstheir action so longas the freezinglasts. Meat, fruits,etc.,can be transportedfrom one not
another in freezing chambers. addition such as sugar, oil, of harmless antiseptics, (3) By salt,smoke, etc. Smoked and salted fish,bacon,preservedfruits, are jams and jellies, examples of this. The preservationof lime*
country
to
juicewith powdered charcoal is another example under this head. The addition of 64 grainsof borax to every quarter of milk can be w ithout 24 but it about for harm, practised only prevents curdling hours. which (4) Addition of minute quantities of strong germicides, beingpoisonousand injuriousto human health,should not be
encouraged. The
of alum use of bicarbonate of water, of this. examples*
ing drinkfor purifying and preserving soda for preserving milk, etc., are
and of wine for pickling (5) Use of vinegarand spirits
medicinal substances may etc., are (6) Curries, cooked
now
serving prein this connection. largelypreservedin tins in the be mentioned
condition always ready for use. After the cooking has been done, the articleto be tinned is put in the tins which have been alreadywashed with boiling with and fumed steam or watep The tins with their contents heated twice sulphurfumes. are tins soldered each in more water (the /time) at beingput boiling
580
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Ordinaryfresh milk may contain a3 many as fifty million microbes per pintwithout looking or tasting any the worse for it. But if the cows and the cowhouse are kept scrupulously clean and if the person milkingwashes his hands and the pail The milk as it leaves there are much fewer microbes. properly, concerned.
the udder
The
is almost free from
microbes
in
a
healthycow.
milk-sugarinto lactic acid. As milk into dahi, and as dahis this ferment is the agent for curdling less improperly curdled, the conditions or are apt to get more of dahi should be understood. for the most perfectcurdling required of skim-milk The sdnjo,i.e., the seed or culture,should be made and not rich milk, as it is not desirable to associate the butyric Bacillus lactis converts
ferments with the lactic. The skim-milk should be taken in the fresh state, heated to about 75"C. to pasteurizeit,i.e., to ternk ill all the after little and a then, porarily adding germs, watery portion of any dahi, the pasteurizedand inoculated skim-milk should be left in a cool place, at a temperature of about 16"C. i.e.,
This
can
dahi
or
be used afterwards as souringagent for making good for souringcream before churningit into butter. We often find dahi of a slimycharacter. This is due to a micrococcus t he and replacing, ing resisti n numbers or attacking milk-sugar larger the action of the lactic bacilli. This micrococcus multiplying becomes is s lime. and the slime There are a a zooglcea, zooglcea other characteristics we notice in dahi,tksmost noticeable of which coloured patches on the surf ace of pots of bazaar dahi. The are blue
patchesare
to several
due to
Bacillus cyanogenus,
the
yellow patches prodi-
and the blood-red patchesto Micrococcus bacilli,
giosus. There
is a Sarcina which producesrose and another which brown-red acid bacteria lactic and the of one produces colour, milk like Bacillus acidi lactis imparts to it a while coagulating blood-red colour if lightbe excluded. These chromogenic microbes which are fairly in milk are not known to produce common
disease,thoughthe blood-red colouration producesa superstitious horror which induces owners of valuable cows to part with them
theydo
that the cause of the blood-red colouration not present in the cow with was at all,but in impurities which the milk came Redness of contact. i n milk, subsequently due to the mixture of.blood from inflamed udder, is a different where the redness is visible at the time of milking. thingaltogether, There is not one bacillus only but many, which curdle milk and cause acid and carbonlactic into milk-sugarto splitup dioxide gas. The curdling itselfcould be caused by any acid,as in the preparation of chhdnd out of boiled milk, and also by certain of these enzymes, e.g., rennet, and the milk of sheord. As none microbes are known do to develop spores, they not requirevery much heat to kill them. A temperature of 158" F. is sufficient all except the Batillug to destroythem lactisof Hueppe, which at once,
as
producesthe method
of
not
know
The uniform dahi not readilyliquefying. heatingmay hence be used for obtainingfirst class most
DAIRY
ddhi
and
goivdUsin
581
BACTERIOLOGY.
first class butter,such as are of the Bengaldistricts. some
obtained by ordinarily
When
daki is kept too long,a visiblemould develops the on This is the Oidium lactis, is which a sisting higherfungus conof hypheeand spores. Sliminess and stringiness of dahi of which have been studied. caused by various fungi, many
"crust.
are
Cheese. Besides the lactic ferments there are the cheese ferments which break down These casein casein the of milk. or ferments being mostly spore-forming difficult to ferments are killin the milk, and these account in sterilizing for the difficulty milk. of these is the Tyrothrixtenuis The commonest of Duclaux. It can stand a temperatureof 239" to 248" F. Cultivated in milk at* a temperature of 98|"F.,itis capableof curdling milk, the "
curd at first formed being redissolved afterwards by the action bacillus. of the same effectedby this bacillus result in the productionof peptone, leucin, tyrosin,ammonia, in butyric acid, etc. Other bacteria also play a part in case of the and others in fermentation, ripening probably still
The'decompositions
cheese. It has been noticed that cheese does not ripenproperly if the milk is pasteurized, if boiled or sterilized milk is or of milk loses most used before thl addition of rennet. Such of cheese. of which in the the bacteria,some are ripening helpful have not But the bacteria helpfulin the ripeningof cheeses of the been isolated,and no ripening cheese, improvement in due to the addition of pure cultures of specific bacteria,has been as
yet effected. Besides
bacteria which specific the lactic and the curd
it is doubtful
whether
there
are
any
of cheeses, or whether helpin the ripening bacteria not principally are cerned conforming
also. in the ripening bacilliform butyric Butter. Though some of the curd-forming acid, one of the characteristic constituents of a butter, it is not Butter to be supposedthat the latter is a productof fermentation. fermented be made from fresh milk as well as from sour, i.e., can "
milk. Butter made from sour milk or sour cream keeps better^ obtained. and by souring, is o f butter a larger Butyric proportion acid,no doubt, is obtained as a residue from the breakingdown of milk-sugar which is effected by various lactic ferments (CaHl2Oa C4H809-^2C02+HJ. The presence of butyric acid of be detected in all ripenedcheeses. As the fat globules can of is the cream milk come togethermore readilyif the casein =
such fermentation plays previously precipitated by fermentation, of of the ordinary processes of manufacture a part in most milk should be used in as from cream, and if no state as centrifugal possible, separator is shallow fermentation the in should milk set employed, pans, by being preventedby renderingthe milk as cold as possible
butter. fresh a
If butter is made
rapidlypassingthe milk may
be set at
fermentation
sets
that the througha refrigerator, 55" F.). II a temperature of 12 to 15"C. (say, offers takes which in, coagulation place, fresh milk
582
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
\
resistance to fat globules to the surface. readily rising fat
globuleshave
After the
the surface, the top portion of the is This,containingall the fat globules, and, from this,butter should be made after fermentation or fresh milk can be fermented and butter made from the fermented milk or dahi. In this climate it is sour difficultto secure the proper temperature for settingof cream, and it is better therefore to obtain butter from dahi or from clotted cream as is the (sJiar) generalpracticeof the country. is practised The latter method in Devonshire also,where the milk is set in deep tinned vessels, or iron of of brass, or pans and after twelve hours' standingwithout disturbance, fire is lit and the milk heated tillthe first steam is seen in bubbles "on the surface of the milk, after which the vessels are allowed to stand undisturbed and cool until the milk is quitecool,and then off. The is skimmed (sayafter ten or twelve hours)the cream obtained is left to ferment before butter is churned out so cream of it,which is usuallydone by flapping it with the hand in a tub for about ten minutes only. This modified plan of making butter be introduced in this country. Churningshould out of shar may be done early in the morning. But if the temperature at this of warm time be below 64" F., sprinkling water, while churning
milk
is skimmed called the cream,
to
come
off
.
dahi or shar, helps to All the fermentation
bring
divested of possible, the keepingqualityare
all sugar of no
the fat globulestogetherfaster. and other processes applied in the manufacture of butter help only to bring the fat globules already existingin the milk together in as pure a state as and
If the quantity and consideration,the sweetest butter obtained of the freshest be the cream out milk, by separating can The milk in the fresh state. out of it and churning the cream to yield some also can be churned directly butter,though a less
quantitystillis
obtained
by
CHAPTER SOIL
this
casein.
means.
CXXXIV.
BACTERIOLOGY.
that land left without crop increases in IT has been known in spiteof loss of soluble matter by drainage. It has fertility soils which yieldvery poor been further observed that poor and beet are yet capable of yielding returns of cereals, turnips, of leguminouscrops.; and further,that land which good returns deteriorated by heavy croppingis recuperatedby has become growingclover,arahyr,or some other leguminouscrop on it. This recuperationof exhausted land is due to the presence of a large number of microbes. The power of microbes,and, in a few cases,, of fungito make u$e of the free nitrogenof the air has been
demonstrated
by
various
and observers, notablyby Hellriegel
Wilfartb,in Germany. the
root-nodules of It is now also known
583
BACTERIOLOGY.
SOIL
The
of the microbes in multiplication has been studied. leguminousplants chiefly
that microbes of root-nodules are not the and fixing of the nitrogenof the only capable utilizing air,and probablybacteria have a wide influence in feeding plants with nitrogen. Some nitrogen in accumulated soil in the is, fact, ones
by
whether microbes and fungi, many Berthelot's experimentswent to show
very
not.
they live on
roots
that 75 to 100
or
Ibs.
in some and 900 Ibs. of nitrogen per over was cases acre accumulated of by bacteria, independently leguminous any rather hindered than helpedaccumulation plant,and that humus of nitrogenfrom this source. Fixation of nitrogenin the soil goes
and at
on
by day
and
by night,but
high temperatures
(50 to 104"
more
in daytime, actively
of air,and moisture from 12 to 15 per cent, in the soil,are also helpful. bacteria accumulate Though nitrogen fixing largelyin the roots of leguminousplants, soilsin which leguminous crops have in which such fixation is most those not are recently grown active. Thus there is a limit to the accumulation of nitrogen by the growth of leguminouscrops, and it is not possible to go on the fertility of soils by taking one leguminouscrop increasing Rotation therefore is necessary, if the organism after another. which bring about the desired fixation of nitrogenfrom the be utilized to the best advantage. to atmosphereare Though the uppermost layers of soils teem with microbes
F.).
Free
access
there are scarcelyany microbes below a depth of three feet from the surface. Among those found in the surface layerthere are valuable from an agricultural more none point of view than the the complexorganicmatter added as manure group which convert for the nutrition of the plants. The into the nitrates required fication process by which this is carried out is called nitrification. Nitrii these when and the ganisms orso surface, freelyat goes on more the beds are made used specially for making nitrates, are with soil dug out which results from a deep pit. It is not certain ifthe nitrification, of the result in the formation of saltpetre, is chiefly the action of
layersof soil and only with the superficial
not
microbe or the joint result of that of several microbes, though since the completeand the latter is the most probable,especially made. One of of Winogradsky were convincinginvestigations one
the
in the earlier part of the process, which
microbes principal
matter wide influence in decomposingdecayed vegetable by Bacillus amylodestroyingthe cellulose of vegetablecells,is the drum-stick It is bacter discovered by Van a shaped Tieghem. anaerobic microbe, and has been stated to be active in the of JAite.Possibly the nutrition of ruminant animals,which retting
has
a
able to digesta due to this microbe. are
largeproportionof cellulose,is
also
partly
also to be one of the active agents seems etc. The in the production of butyricacid in cheese, hay, silage, commonest
microbe
It
of
matter, vegetable putrefying
and
hence
584
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
of the most importantagents in changingthe organicmatter in the soil, is the Bacterium Termo. It can be alwaysobtained by while in water some rotting pulse hay shows Bacillus ; rotting subtilis more abundantly. Bacillus subtilis.Bacterium termo, Bacterium a nd Micrococcus the commonest urece are amylobacter of all microbes and are present everywhere,and are allvery important in the changesoccurring in the soil. one
These microbes, however, the
are
only the agents commencing
into the nitrates requiredby mately by that of others,which ultiallthe o f the the into form materials of salts bring nitrogen of ammonia. These salts of ammonia then acted upon by a are which producesnitrites of potash or specialnitrifying organism, These lime. latter are finally converted by stillanother microbe for plant-food. into the nitrates required After the discovery of the organismsin the roots of leguminous plantscausingthe fixation of nitrogenit was imaginedthat the addition of a culture of these microbes would increase the crop of such leguminouscrops on any soil ; a material called nitragin" conversion plants. Their
of
organicmatter
activityis followed
"
It consisted of a jelly, which on was, in fact,put on the market. there has been sown minute organisms derived from the nodules found in the roots of leguminousplants, such as arahar,dhaincha, sold and little bottles containing in was etc., ground-nut, sunn, of jelly, two the surface of which a white mouldor on an ounce substance has claimed by the manuIt was been facturers looking grown. that this small speckof white fungus, ifmixed with about about of and the water over gallon water, sprinkled carefully a hundredweightof earth, and thoroughlymixed with it, was half an acre of land when spreadover it as capableof inoculating and that land so inoculated would in most cases a top-dressing, much of other or a beans, clover, minous leguproduce largercrop peas, half
a
plants,than uninoculated
land. root-nodules of leguminousplantswere first discovered by the famous anatomist, Malpighi,about the year 1660. For taken of them until a Eussian two centuries no further notice was careful microscopic a botanist, Woronin, made study of them. He described the root-nodules in 1866, and noticed that at a certain filledwith a slimy matter stage of their development,they were of little myriads tiny containing brightcorpuscles capableof motion allied to the and resemblingbacteria,and he thoughtthey were Vhich caused the finger and toe in turnips.De Vries, slime fungi The
he absorbers of nitrogen, in 1877, discovered that they were as lifeof whole the found they were full of albumen the plant during of the seed in the host plant, until about the time of the ripening for the use of the future generain which is stored the albumen tion. on this,Beyerinckthen Following
discovered that the
of the nodules was due to a real Bacterium, and he grew nutrient medium outside the plant,takinghis seed from a
growth it in
a
variety
SOIL
585
BACTERIOLOGY.
of leguminous plants. He gave the Bacterium the name of Bacillus radicicola. firstdiscovered that the nodules enabled leguminous Hellriegel air of the of the free nitrogen by converting plantsto make use their in bodies. it into living matter Experiments organicproteid for made in almost all parts of Europeconfirmed this pointonce alL of which I have already spoken, nitragin, conducted by Nobbe at Tharand, was experiments cultures of Bacillus radicicolain in in Germany, growing pure to which was a decoction of the added,when liquefied, gelatine, is accustomed planton which the organismunder investigation
The manufacture the resultof the
to
of
tion Nobbe found that the best results in the way of inoculaattained when the micro-organisms were got from a soil
feed. were
growingplantsof
the
with,so
kind
same
that,in order to
as
givevigourto
those he a
experimenting
was
clover crop, the soilshould
obtained by cultivation from micro-organisms Thus the Bacillus and the nodules of the clover plant, on. so radicicola of Beyerinck, by Nobbe as though it was recognized affected is powerfully the one original organismpresentin all soils, of the leguminous in its nature by the nature plantit grows on. material for inoculation,cultures made in preparing Accordingly, of leguminousplantsare from the nodules of the various species to crops be used for application that they may so kept distinct, of the same process, the speciesonly. As an actual practical method of soilinoculation by Nobbe 'smethod has proveda failure. Except in the case of a few sandy or moorland soils which have
be inoculated with
not
borne previously
a
leguminouscrop
there has
been
little
material. It was thoughtin using the inoculating ton, for this had been found by Moore, in Washing1904 that the reason of failure was the weakeningof the who stated that the cause media as had been microbes through culture in such artificial no his culture in media containing organic employed. He prepared but so far the cultures he has and only a trace of nitrogen, matter
benefit from
have been
sent out
We
are.
by
no
means
great a failure in India
as
near
an
as
the former
of the understanding
ones.
questioneven
yet. Such are
by
recent
beneficial or the
described
been in organismspresent the soil. And
useful bacteria
as
have
only by Russell and investigation no
means
others indicate not undesirable bacteria also present but
only that
also that there are many there exist .otherlarger chiefly protozoa,which actually organisms, destroylarge numbers of the beneficialbacteria which may be theamprovement in a soil which results present. This explains "
as whether by heat or 'by antiseptics, from partial sterilisation, sensitive protozoa, sterilisationdestroysthe more this partial freelv* and allows the useful bacteria thus to develop more
586
HANDBOOK
OF
CHAPTER VACCINES
AND
AGKICULTURE.
CXXXV. THEIR
PREPARATION.
importantresults of the studyof bacteriology has been the methods devised for protecting appliedto agriculture farm animals by vaccination againstseveral of the most virulent of the diseases to which they are subject. The firstof these,in which the possibility of such vaccination was proved,was anthrax^ tion or gutior go-basanta, it is called in Bengal,and the demonstraas ONE of the
most
modifications in due to Pasteur in Paris. Numberless the method of preparingthe vaccine has since taken place,but the idea remains the same throughout. vaccines The principle of these which the preparation on depends is reallythat of accustomingthe animal to weak nonwa#
the disease microbe, so that when a more virulent form is introduced into the system it is able to resist an infectionwhich would otherwise cause it to succumb. Pathogenic certain conditions,, to disease or producingorganisms,subjected either diminish or augment in their virulence. The virus of swine virulent
cultures of
increases in virulence plague,for instance,inoculated in pigeons, in each successive generation of its passage throughpigeons. Ifr in the virus the is however, passedthrough successive generations bodies of rabbits,it becomes gradually attenuated in virulence, and be after the tenth generation the virus taken from the rabbit may swine plague. used to inoculate pigsto protect them against of the in The actual methods preparation now employed the anthrax vaccines are three,the firstbeingused by Chauveau, In method. second by Arloing,and the third Pasteur's own
the virulent virus is taken from a recentlydead animal first, This with an ordinary sterilizedpipettein the usual manner. the
is sown in a sterilizedflask on broth, and the culture of the bacilli is allowed to go on in the flask by leavingit for twenty hours in a this period When chamber to a temperature of 42" C. regulated lized is sucked into sterithe vaccine (still of time has elapsed, virulent) tubes, sealed at one end and having a cotton-wool plug at the other. The sealed end is broken off,the tube passedthrough of the wrist, flame four or five times with a twistingmotion a drawn in by vaccine the of dipped into the flask,and a portion sufficientquantityhas a the other end* When
suckingthrough
in, the end is againsealed. The cotton-wool end fe also seajed beyond the cotton-wool,so as to obtain a sealed glasa been
drawn
Several of these tubes are tube containingvirulent vaccine. This rack is plunged time placedon a rack. taken at the same ment water in a vessel containing kept by a similar automatic arrangeuniform at a temperature described has been as already of time, of this period At the expiration of 48"C. for three hours. attenuated for application the vaccine in the tubes is
sufficiently^
in the usual
quickestway
Tins is the animals. of preparingan anthrax vaccine.
manner
to
simplestand the
588
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
is drunk. If the malady does not exist duringthe sucklingperiod it is best to wait until the weaning. Sheep are vaccinated in the inner part of the thigh,the firstvaccine on the rightthigh,and the second on the left : oxen and horses behind the shoulder,
sometimes before,lest the collar should press on- the placeof inoculation. It is well to shave off the hair of the part before lest inoculating,
the orifice of the syringeshould, be blocked up with a hair and prevent inoculation. When vaccine tube has a been uncorked be used a second time ; what not once, it must remains over after the first series of operations be rejected, must and not reserved for another placeor occasion.
We often 4
may
confused
from anthrax to a disease which has been in Bengal,and as it, known as gala-phula
turn
now
with
charbon symptomatique in France. The characters that distinguish anthrax '
are
from
charbon
matique sympto-
"
Charbon (1) Anthrax is fatal to almost all animals known. virus,if inoculated into rabbits,or dogs,does not have any effect.
White mice may or may the virus. The animals "ows and oxen die more
not
die of charbon
when
inoculated with cattle. are
to charbon most susceptible of charbon than frequently
of anthrax, and half the number recover. guineaSheep die when pigs are also susceptible animals, that is, invariably inoculated with the virus,whether of charbon or of anthrax. The to enable one subjecthas not yet been sufficiently investigated to say whether man is more subjectto one than to the other. from
which
about
Limpingbefore
death is an invariable symptom in charbon. (2) (Edema takes place at the pointof inoculation in both Anthrax and charbon. When incision is made of the oedemaan tous part, the appearance of which presents itself in the case -anthrax is moist, bright red. In the case and light and gelatinous, of charbon,however, the oedematous part on incision presents dull dark red, almost black, appearance. a The oedematous
part in the state ; but
of anthrax also is redder than in the natural the difference in colour in the two diseases is most case
characteristic.
(3) Both
charbon and anthrax virulent for susceptible are but in charbon its death takingplace is effect, ; quicker within twenty-fourhours ; whereas, in the case of anthrax, oftener after thirty-six for more hours,and usuallyif the animal lingers than a week, recovery takes place. Two inoculated guinea-pigs time by M. Arloing, at the same -with the objectof demonstrating the difference between found two days the two diseases,were inoculated with dead that and the other (viz., afterwards,one
animals
anthrax
virus)stillalive.
(4) The disease in the one case is caused by a non-motile in the in the case of anthrax, ajidin the other,i.e., bacillus, viz., which .case of charbon,by a bacterium, which is a shorter organism, never
forms chains
as
bacillido*
AND
VACCINES
THEIR
58!"
PREPARATION. *
"
(5) The organismsof disease are found in the case of anthrax less in every tissue, or the body, more all over but more cularly partithe in. the spleen, heart, and the liver. In the case of charbon they are found onlyin the oedematous part;and theyare localised. invariably (6) Swellingof the glands of the neck is invariably present in the case of charbon when it arises spontaneously, and onlysometimes So neck swelling of anthrax. in the case must not be regarded peculiardiagnostic necessarily symptom
a
as
in the
case
of charbon.
(7)
sound crepitating
A
presentin the
(8) Spores
charbon,never
of
case
of the
formed
are
in
oedematous
in the
the
case
charbon
part is of anthrax.
always-
organism (named
by M. Arloing,Bacterium Chauveau) in the body of the animal when it is stillalive. In the case of anthrax,the spore formation even of Bacillus anthracis goes on onlyoutside the body of the animal,, in contact with the free oxygen of the atmoswhen the bacillicome phere. (9) Bacillus anthracis than
a longer but narrower organism In artificialculture Bacillus anthracis Chauveau. long filaments ; whereas, under similar conditions,.
Bacterium
appears
Bacterium the
is
reason
as
Chauveau
being
incapableof
full
appears
even
state^ organism,'
shorter than in its natural
that this bacterium
development in
is
an
contact
anaerobic with free oxygen ~
of
the air. Chauveau
is rounded the ends, Bacillus at Bacterium Chauveau in decayingbecomes ; anthracis, straight in but a inflated narrower dry state, (as in the vaccine). more ; Chauveau is found in chains of three never (11) Bacterium
(10) Bacterium
like Bacillus anthracis. The
usual mode
of vegetation is by spore formation, sometimes, however,section takes place, than two. in a series of more but never of anthrax is almost invariably found (12) An animal dying or
more,
bleedingfrom
the
anus
and nostrils. An
animal
dyingof
charbon
this symptom. The black colour of muscles in charbon is caused by the extravasation of blood into the muscular tissues,caused by the ing solvent action of the diastase of the Bacterium Chauveau dissolvthe muscular cells and allowingblood to flow into them. of the blood losing Greater oxygenationgoes on, the haemoglobin than in the natural state, and the carbon dioxide more oxygen has
never
gas
producedhelpingthe
further
developmentof
the anaerobic
bacteria. The lightred arterial blood becomes exaggeratedly of this action. veinous and dark in consequence A vaccine for charbon has been prepared by Arloing, and in is and now in France. has proved very effective, regularuse to consider rabies, turn, now in con-* or We may hydrophobia, the o f the with which of nection highestdevelopment, principle vaccination has taken place. If the virus of rabies,be passed
590
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
it is found that it rapidly bodies of rabbits, augments in virulence. A rabbit inoculated with the virus of rabies from oculated .a mad dog dies in eighteento twenty days. A second rabbit inwith the virus taken from the dead rabbit will take less time to die, and so on, until the thirtieth rabbit inoculated with rabbit takes only six days to die. the virus of the twenty-ninth of virulence is reached,the 32nd, Here, however, the maximum 33rd, etc., do not die any quickerthan the thirtiethrabbit,but they all take,after the latter,six days to die. At this stage the standard virulent virus used by Pasteur in the preparation of the
throughthe
vaccine
is
of the virulence reached, as the strength
is
now
constant.
vaccine the dead rabbit is dissected, its taken out, and hung inside a glassjar containing spinalmarrow the jar beingplacedin a room the at bottom, regulatedat potash 20" C. of The spinalcord thus gets drier a constant temperature In
preparingthe
.and drier,the and gets more
and potashpreventingputrefaction,
in
dryingup seven days
it of
attenuated. But even after more rabbits. On the 8th day it is desiccation it is capableof killing for men. But to so harmless for rabbits,and probablymuch more is made with to man be more careful,the firstvaccination applied cord desiccated for 12 days ; the second vaccination with the spinal what has been desiccated for 11 days ; the third with what has been "desiccated for 10 days ; the fourth with what has been desiccated
for 9 days ; the fifth for 8 days ; the sixth with what has been rabbits unprotectedby "desiccated for 7 days (capableof killing weaker with inoculation vaccine); the seventh (still previous with what has been desiccated for 6 days ; the eighth stronger) 5 for days ; the ninth for 4 days ; the tenth and the last vaccination which has remained with the vaccine preparedfrom spinal marrow the in Pasteur for 3 glassjar. stoppedhere. He never days only with the vaccine which is quitevirulent. But vaccinated men vaccinated believed 10 times with the graduatedvaccines he men could be inoculated with perfect safetywith the virulent vaccines, with made and those two that is, row, one days'desiccated spinalmartaken out of the dead and with undesiccated marrow freshly the dead dog. The desiccated spinalcords are mixed with water in glasses before syringing the vaccines up severally is done with under inoculation Pravaz The a to men. syringe, and into of the human the abdominal cuticle in the case subject, rabbit
or
of lower animals for experimental purposes. be that Pasteur's method of inoculation for rabies, will be in both as a curative and also as a protective measure, in but the future adoptednot onlyin human pathology pathology,
the
brain
It may
of our than
domestic
animals
also,which
are
no
less
subjectto
rabies
men.
Pathological explanationuncertain. Why this method of fihosecaused by lower organfor infectiousdiseases (i.e., isms) "
treatment
should prove efficaciousis difficultto say. But analogy A person may that it is a most natural method.
goes to show
THE
591
FUNGI.
HIGHER
and larger himself to takinggradually doses of larger take such a w ithout he seriousharm as can quantity arsenic until kill one not so accustomed. So with alcoholic TOuld certainly customing opium, and perhapsall poisons.It is like a person acpoison, heavier and heavier weights, touching himself to lifting hot substances or performingacrobatic feats. There is an to adapt almost unlimited degreeof tendencyin animal organisms which to the circumstances bhemselves to theyare subjectedif them. This to subjected tendencyis shared they are gradually
accustom
alike by the muscles,the nerves, the viscera,and, in fact,by all in what way custom is of the body. But exactly livingportions It may be that no one can say. againstsusceptibility a protection chemibal alteration a in this process tissues the particular undergo altered tissues are no and the chemically of accustoming, longer the otherwise 'poisonous deleterious or infectious diseases is a kind of conditions. Inoculation for of in the rabies case done at several stages; is It accustoming. the in of anthrax, according case of charbon at two ; in the case and at also Pasteur's two, method, accordingto Chauveau's to the tissues come in contact methods only at one stage. When alteration chemical with the vaccines,some probablygoes on not acted upon
by injuriously
death, but producingoedema or fever,or some sufficientto cause the animals getting this slight disease over But slightdisease. in which the tissues become acquirea new constitution, evidently of virulent the attack virus also. invincibleto the
CXXXVI.
CHAPTER %
THE
HIGHER
FUNGI.
which show distinctive mycelia of these fungi, The green mould of moulds. and spores, are known by the name Pemcillium the caused glaucum. The by in cheese,bread,etc.,is
THE commonest
blue mould is caused by a fungus termed white mould by another termed a Mucor.
and Aspergillus,
The
Oidium
the of dahi
fungus. classification of the higher systematic diseaseof the principal to the description will getat once we fungi, of of the idea life-history fungiwhich will givesome producing these higher also included among are these plants.Mushrooms of the cultivation of edible mushrooms and a description fungi, will follow in the next chapter. disease,well recogmfestans)"rlhis Potato-rot (PhytophtJiora nized the of also as smell of the tubers, plants stinking by the peculiar as Phytophthora affected with it,is caused by a fungus known Dark patchesappear on leaves first,then a white infestans. the under on bloom both on upper and under surfaces,but chiefly the and finally surface of the leaves ; the stems are then attacked, before is also a Instead of givinga
spokenof
common
592
HANDBOOK
The disease sometimes
tubers.
AGRICULTURE.
makes
Fortunately for
weather.
in wet
OF
very
us,
rapidprogress specially the potato-crpp grows been so serious in the
as
dry season, the potato-rothas never Bengal as it otherwise would have been, but nevertheless of damage in Assam, Bengal, the amount does an enormous
at the
plainsof it
Eastern
or
a
The
the
generalconditions
or
tomato
and
other solanaceous
some
to the attack of the
fungus,and
of all these crops rot
where Nilgiris
An average 77" F. less humid. temperature of over 34" F. is than for its unsuitable lower temperature tion, propagasuitable beingbetween 50" to 60" F. the temperature most
more
are
the
Himalayas and
appears
in any
for two
it is
plantsare
necessary
or
to
threej years
also
subject
suspend the when
vation culti-
the potato-
locality.
FIG.
PHYTOPHTHOKA
116."
INFESTANS.
Explanation of the figure.'(a) Section through an infected potato -leaf showing greater protrusionof the fungus from the under surface than from the upper surface of the leaf ( x 50) ; (b) Conidiophore with conidia shown greatly magnified (X250). (c) and (d) Zoospores coming out of a conidiophore. (e) (/) Pro mycelium from Germinating zoospore. (g) Promycelium zoospore. growing directlyout of a conidiophore.(h) and (j)Oogonia and Antheridia inside shown the potato-leaf enlarged( x 250). (h)Germinating oospore. (I)Zoospores (m) Germinating zoospore. coming out of an oospore. "
If
of particle
affected leaf is examined
under the
scope, microit will be seen that the fungusgrows chiefly at the lower part from leaf to stem and of the leaf,and the growth is downwards The mycelium or spawn-threadwill be found from stem to tuber. of the lower branchingout and burstingthrough the stomata a
an
of these threads comes in contact with a leaf-cellthe latter gets discoloured and putrefied.Occasionally out at the upper surfacaalso (videJfig. a thread comes 116a). The stomata is pregettingblocked up with mycelia,transpiration vented, results. Conidiophores, and ultimatelyputrefaction i.e.,
surface,and wherever
one
THE
jointedbranches
HIGHER
593
FUNGI.
bearinglittlefruit-likebodies (conidia), appear
at the under surface. The conidia observed under a high chiefly power microscopemagnifyingabout 250 diameters will be found to be divided into
compartments ; and if a coiiidium is placedon moist substance, each compartment will be found coming out and as a ciliated zoospore film of sailingabout in the slightest These zoospores after a littletime become moisture. non-motile and more spherical.After restinga while each zoospore, if properly conditioned,throws out a mycelium, and thus the life of is repeated. the parasite The conidia also sometimes throw out a pro-mycelium without The conidia carried about with are producingzoospores. the and swim the surface of leaves bedewed the wind, over zoospores with moisture, and the infection spreads in this two-fold Insects and birds also act as carriers of infection from field way. the mycelia reach the tubers, they decompose to field. When the tubers rot the cells and corrode the starch. In bad cases but in mild cases the mycelium hibernates in the tuber altogether, these a nd tubers which contain the disease and becomes perennial, form in an undeveloped giverise,when they are used as seed, may But perennialmycelium cannot to potato-rot in the next crop. of heat, cold or moisture, and diseased survive an unusual amount therefore,do not necessarily seed-potatoes, produce a diseased a
crop.
Besides of
the
mycelia and
non-sexual
conidia
stage before
reproductive functions
(which usuallyform
the
zoospores
by as
means
an
mediate inter-
inpro-mycelial growth),Phyptophthora
by sexual festansis reproduced
section of the leaf ings intersectedby mycelialgrowth closelyobserved, littlethickenin the mycelia themselves as and buds will be observed from T hese and buds are called conidiophores. thickenings apart Oogonia and the enclosed cells Oospheres. Smaller buds growing out of the myceliawill be also noticed which are called the Antheridia. The Antheridia are the male cells,and these coming in ing with Oogonia,and the protoplasmof the Antheridia flowcontact f ertilisation takes into the Oospheres, placeand Oosporesare also called Kestingthe result. These fertilised Oosporesare round and sometimes and sometimes smooth They are spores. spinyin appearance looked at under a powerfulmicroscope. The means
also.
If
a
is
Oospores abound
after they have germiin diseased seed-potatoes nated The perennial and spent themselves. mycelium in the tuber, and conidia (whichrequire not beingable to produceconidiophores with free atmosphere for their development), contact develops rise As it and antheridia as give multiplies. zoospores oogonia do oospores when kept uniformlymoist The oospores are of brown colour and thus easily and warm. from zoospores, which are almost colourless. The distinguished than zoospores, and remaining oospoies, havinga longervitality and old leaves and hsttlms, tubers in in old potato fields decayed to
germinalthreads,so
M.
HA
38
594
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and it is usually by their means the of that perennial seed-tuber, mycelia by means As the potato-disease potato-disease reappears year after year. spreadsfrom leaf to stem and from stem to tuber,and as it is never
they germinateagainnext
summer,
of the
and not
of developmentfrom observed to take the opposite course the of infection is not so much tuber upwards,the source the seedtuber as the decayed haulms and tubers of the previousyear. It the from is not necessary for the mycelial to take growth oospore placeon the leaf of the potato plantitself. The fungus can grow of at first on the moist soil and then graduallyspreadby means
zoospores to the leaves of the new crop. The source the previousyear'sdecayed tubers and of infection beingchiefly haulms whether lyingin fieldsor in manure heaps,and the oospores, which possess greater power of resisting climatic conditions than
conidia and
the non-sexual reproductivetissues,such as mycelia, conidia in the hilldistricts in springat or immeand zoospores, germinating diately the treatment before the potato 'sowingseason, indicated and curative. is both preventive of solution or Sulphate copper be sprinkled corrosive sublimate may the field with the help on before of a knapsackvaporiser the potatoes are sown. immediately watched and if any black patches Then the crop should be carefully and white bloom appear at the lower surface of the leaves at any portion of the field,the vaporisingshould be repeated. One preventiveand two curative treatments should be sufficient. But is not feasible all over if treatment tract affected with potato a is best to
it blight,
give up potato cultivation
for three
four or the the o f that die before out vitality resting-spores may years, in that tract. This is how the potato cultivation is resumed which ruined the crops in the Darjeeling hills about potato-blight, There was ten years ago, had to be faced. entire suspensionof for cultivation three all these over hills,but since years potato the disease has reappeared. was combated with "; In France, the potato-blight successfully the the helpof the Bouillie bordelaise, Bordeaux or mixture which consists of a half per cent, solution of sulphateof copper in hot to which a quantityof milk of lime is added. water This was plied apwith the help of the knapsacksprayingmachine called Eclair both before sowing and two or three times after gerVaporiser, mination of the seed, duringthe growth of the crop. Rust. This is a disease of cereal plantscaused by a minute then
"
Puccinia. There are different species of Puccinia, of which wheat is called Puccinia gra" the commonest attacking to attack oats minis. This is different from the Puccinia known
fungusknown
as
barleyplants. Barley plantsgrowingin the midst of rusted found entirely at the SibpurFarm free from rust, but were barleyis also subjectto a rust. The funguswas firstnoticed by Foatana, an Italianbotanist, first studied by the great German of 1767, but its biologywas De De discovered that the fungushas three botanist, Bary. Bary or
wheat
596
HANDBOOK
The
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Indian rust which affects judr,bajra^ shdmd, wild known of Puccinia is the some name by penniseti. grasses, The red patcheson judrand other leaves affected with this fungus due to uredo pustules. It should be noted, however, that are certain races of judr are naturallyalmost immune againstthis disease. These should alone be selected for seed. Attempts mune are beingmade to establish stocks of wheat which would be imbut far been definite have obtained results so no againstrust, varieties in India. by the use of the so-called rust-resisting Smut another This is disease of cereals chiefly (Ustilago). the judr,but noticed also in paddy, oats, wheat, barley, affecting m aize and shdmd. It is caused by a minute bdjrd, fungus called commonest
and
"
which affects the the variety Ustilago segetum (or Ustilago zeamays, affects It t he the maize). chiefly grain,while rust affects chiefly leaves and onlyindirectly the grain. The loss due to smut ,isnot,
however, in the
case
there may wholesale
great in this country
that caused by rust, except ear-head here and an ear-head be seen but affected with smut almost in any cornfield, destruction due to smut of in the case is not known
so
of
judr and shdmd.
wheat, barley,or
as
An
In June
and July are commonly seen and even smutted grass at Sibpur, earlier in the season one plotof showed a profuse of 1901. Khari sugarcane It is quantity smut in in connection with seeds, and if a disease, however, which comes is a bout it the o f for is one seed, negligent harvesting grainykept oats.
in an epidemicform ; while, on the other have smut disease which is it be easily a hand, can preventedin a largemeasure the seed. The spores of the fungus germinate after by pickling the seed of the cereal,with which they were has been entangled,
possibleto
The
germinatingspore throws out one or more promycelia of which are. thrown out sporidia conidia. These or joints throwingout minute germinal tubes penetrate the tissues of the of judror wheat, or whatever the cereal may be, and once seedling inside the tissues of the plant,the fungusgrows up alongthe stem in the grainsof the cereal forminghyphaeand finally fructifying sown.
from the
affected. This is how all the It is curious,the fungus when
the ear appear smutted. it developsinside the stem of the cereal, scarcelyaffects the growth of the cereal. The sorghum in 1898 was nearlyall smutted, and grown at the Sibpur Farm how it t he was surprising yet vigorously plantsgrew. But when the cereal plant reaches the stage of fructificationthe fungus
grainson
and prevents seedingaltogether,
where the ears of grainshould be there we of black spores. But these sooty see only a mass wafted the wind affect by healthygrainswhich get these spores and sewn unpickledthe next spores entangledon their surface,
theyagaingiverise to this fungus. In the case of the maize, smut-swellings appear on the stem as well as inside the cob. Bunt (Tilletia is also caused Bunt or stinking smut foetens). the life-history of which closely sembles reby a fungus (Tilletia f"tens), that of the smut-fungus(videFig. 118). The rice plant
year,
"
597
The grains by it,as well as wheat, barleyand oats. and emit The odour. a they abnormally inflated, putrid also affected by the black close to grainsare leaves and stems is the name Dhaner-yu given to the bunt fungus when spores. it affects grains of paddy. The same fungus affects oats also.
is affected become
Fm.
1 18.
SMUT
"
AND
FUNGI.
BUNT
\(fi)Spoiv of Ustilago (smut), (h)Spore of Ustilago throwing^out promyce(d) Spore of Tilletia sporidia. (c) A germinating sporidium of smut, (bunt), (e) Sporo of Tilletia throwing out promycelium with sporidia. (/) A liurn with
germinating sporidium
Bunt but they odourless and to
are
crop far
the
more
to health injurious
grains so
Headache,
other forms
of human
of bunt.
grain,it should
only give rise
when
smut.
the spores
bunt.|
adhering to grains not
spores
in the next
of
be
affected
spores
the face, been traced in
eruptionson
ailment have When bunt is known
steepedin
used
are
than
some
to as
of
bunt
seed,
ordinary
indigestion some
cases
amongst seeds germicidalolution before
weak
to be
Salt,
slaked with boilingwater, permanganate (jiiicklimc of potash,sulphate copper and sulphateof soda solutions,have been recommended for use. The spores being lighter than water, of in is also mere the excess the water as efficacious, grain steeping afterwards run out usuallycarries with it allthe spores which water adhered to the grains. originally Sugarcane Disease (Trichosphceria sacchari).This sugarcane use.
of
"
disease, due West
Indies and
to
a
fungus,broke
Mauritius, and
out
it has
a
few
years
ago
in the
appeared recentlyin
the
The disease was Godavari District of Madras. first observed in Barbados in 1893, then in Trinidad,and then in British Guiana. In 1896
it
wras
noticed
United Provinces, and
in the District of Mozuffarnagar in the since that-time, it has been found almost
everywhere in India where
is grown. sugarcane diseased canes first recognizedin July or August by are dark red and brown marks on the rind in one two or joints towards the middle or base of the canes. the time of to Up ing ripenin January or February,the red patchessteadily increase in The fibro-vascular bundles become size and number. less juicy, The
598
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRIOULTUBBI
red and spongy
in character. Fine-looking, thick and soft canes affected. Towards the ripeningof the canes black are specially specks begin to appear which burst open from within outwards. These first appear the roots and then work upwards, and near then finally the affected cane shrivels up and dies. The Eind Eoot and Fungus Fungus, at one time considered different,are two fungus. The yieldof sugar from stages of the same diseased i s a plantation very poor, and the fungusin its epidemic form does very extended damage to the crop. Juice obtained from diseased canes takes longer to crystallize.
only
Experienceon
the SibpurFarm has shown that superior us the s uch Patna as varieties, Kusur, and the Samsara, Chittagong far more ties are subjectto the attack of this fungusthan poorer variesuch as the Khari sugarcane. It has been also seen that if tops are used for seed and if these are dippedin a solution (1 : 200 of copper at the time of planting, the disease or 300) of sulphate The old affected fields must sometimes be arrested. be set can fire to as also the dry leaves and trash accumulatingat the time of harvestingand Eotation should crushing of canes. be invariablypractisedin cultivating the same as sugarcane, field if it is used for growing sugarcane after must year year hot-bed both for become the conidia of this fungus and a for the grubsof the borer moth. from seed Growing of canes and then gradually found has healthy stock a been establishing and other cane-growing localities where beneficial in Java
European plantersare
employed in CHAPTEE
MUSHROOMS IT must be not Some of the mushrooms
the cultivation
of
cane.
CXXXVII.
(AGARICUS CAMPESTBIS).
supposed that
all
noxious
fungi are
pests.
the highest fungi)offer among it is very the food be if and can food, digested, very palatable mushrooms nutritious. Some are very poisonous,and the most m ethods of edible mushrooms are : (a) practical distinguishing To taste a bit of the raw mushroom. If the taste is sweetish and If it is quite safe to count it as an edible mushroom. pleasant,
(which
are
"
it has
bitterish or acrid taste, it may
be rejected as a poisonous with the fingers. the littlebit of mushroom raw one. is If the cojourchanges from white into green, the mushroom is safe the to eat. If colour does it not a one poisonous. change, But, it is stillsafer to relyupon importedFrench bought spawn reliable from the Great Eastern Hotel,'Calcutta, or other some a
(6)To rub
a
'
firm, and
'
from it in artificially prepared sold loose is w ith manure by the incorporated Himalaya Seed Stores,Mussoorie,at Es. 2-4 per box of 2 Ibs. This givesvery good results. The best plac"to choose for mushroombeds is a damp godown, where a specially preparedsoil is to be The should 18". consist of five parts of of soil spreadto a depth
beds.
grow
The spawn
the
mushrooms
599
MUSHROOMS.
garden
mould,
ashes,
it
and
be
spread
to
another.
rich
of
country
European
grown,
the
of
also,
grown
population
Small
cellars
shelves
fixed
mushroom in who
of
first
crop towns
value
like
thfe
may
Calcutta
mushrooms
further
No
the
to
If
godown.
the
will in
utilized
are
be
to
are
mushrooms
in
beaten
watering
occasional
the
water
and
watered.
well
spawn in
mould
garden
atmosphere
September,
on
the
and
except
October.
mushrooms So
this
in
early
of
days
The
sowing
sun
five
or
dipped
after
up
the
to
way.
square,
inches
down
four
each
apart inches
covered 2
beaten
dampness
end
growing
deep
afterwards
needed
is done the
at
2
month
a
bed,
foot
a
days
two
fresh
of
part
one
After
godown.
about
inches
and for
exposed
the
sown
After
ensure
and
in
pieces
3
the is
spawning
in
holes
over
walls
be
horse-dung
fresh
up
out
in
firmly.
attention
for
spread
taken in
sown
down
mixed
should
spawn
should
up
is
of
parts
thoroughly
before the
10
walls
come
Europe
one
above
remunerative
prove
there
where as
a
is
delicacy*
a
VIII.
PART
CHAPTER GENERAL FAMINES
are
Famines
In India.
REMARKS
not
occur
upon
and have countries
countries trade and manufactures that peoplein them development, local
FAMINES.
INDIAN
ON
to be looked
highly civilized
most
CXXXVIIL
as
a
novel
phenomenon
always occurred, except in the of
are
modern in such
Europe. an
advanced
do not need to The yieldper acre
In
these
state
depend on
of
their
in these
tries counagricultural produceonly. and total failure of crops is preventedby the larger, and treatment. Severe adoption of scientific methods of tillage ancient in famines are works, and of historical in most spoken India it is the paucity of ancient historical records that makes the subjectof periodical stration. failures of crops so difficultof demonFamines of long duration are, however, casuallymentioned in many Sanskrit works, and they are spoken of as the the of sins of the sovereign.The tendencyof Hindus consequence there is a famine, is,therefore, to blame the sovereign power whenever It is their notions. to orthodox known, quite according and illustrious the most however, that even during prosperous In 1596, in the reignof the popular famines have occurred. reigns, famine raged in India, in which Emperor Akbar, a very severe selves reduced to such extremity that many people were kept themalive by devouring human flesh. In 1615-16 similar a famine occurred followed by plagtie, which lasted several years. It is also known famines raged from authentic history that severe in the reignsof Shah Jehan and Aurangzeb. In the famine of million people died in Bengal. The ten 1770, in nine months
is also
famine of 1784 sold for
The
a
of such bad type that four rupee, and the deaths from starvation recent of serious famines,viz.,that was
seers were
of wheat were innumerable.
in some prevailing of the India other 1896 from to than or severer 1901, was p$rt famine of 1874-78, but neither of these two famines which are within our living be compared in destructiveness of can memory most
human
lifeto the famines which
years
ago.
than
one
hundred
v
that because be4 supposed, the other hand, it must not there was land has been under cultivation now than ever
On more
more prevailed
REMARKS
GENERAL
ON
INDIAN
FAMINES.
601
in former times ; that because, on the whole, there has been steady in the export of food-stuffs from India; that because ndia has had no occasion yet to look to foreigncountries for of livelihood ; that because the agricultural population means before, than theyever were better off now appear to be generally that therefore there is nothing to fear from the steadyincrease of population and the necessary limit there is to extension of culti
Progress
Alreadythe extension of cultivation has gone on to such that there is not sufficient in the populouslocalities, extent an left for the cattle. Barring occasional famines, no pasture-land of the country. the food-supply actual stress is felt yet regarding But in another twenty years, unless agricultural improvements or plaguedecimates keep pace wjth the increase of population, the peopleat a stillgreaterrate than it has been doing,the aspect have of affairs may and India like Englandmay change entirely, take to emigration for food-supply, to look to foreign or sources vation.
India stands at present with wholesale scale. How at a glancefrom be seen reference to the rest of the Empire can the following table :
on
a
more
"
in India at 164 million Taking the area under food-grains at 840 Ibs. and the produce of grainper acre acres per annum and the population at 350 millions, we haye to the lot of each individual of the population only393 Ibs. of food-grains per annum, is for the needs, sufficient alarmingly a though present quantity,
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE,
if any future expansionof population ation. is taken into considerlittle, Of course, the conversion
for a time the difficulty will be naturally met of non-food into by food-growing areas areas, but there is a limit to this source of expansionalso. covered by the British Empire is about one-sixth The area of the area of the whole earth's surface,and the population represents fourth
a
stress
of
of the
populationof the whole
world.
The
population, though highestin England itself,cannot
result
in
famines
in that country. The followingamong other reasons be ascribed for this immunity. (1) The promay duce is much largerin England. (2) The population per acre does not depend upon agriculture mercial solelyfor subsistence as comhfve and manufacturing of the wealth increased pursuits now
of communication England to such an extent that unless all means with c ountries sea be stopped, there is no possibilican by foreign ty of food becoming scarce in that country. (3) The abundance superof food-produce in one part or other of the vast Empire can always supply the deficient produce of England. England in fact is not able now to produce the food she requiresfor her consumption. But she need not depend upon foreigncountries at all : her own in other parts of the world making possessions of fact her quiteindependentin this respect,though as a matter England stillimportsa good deal of wheat from Eussia, France, the United'States,and South America. (4) Emigrationto other is countries another means whereby England has maintained her positionas a wealthy country notwithstandingthe great stress of population.As the population of India is gettinglarge,it is by the fourfold means of England that India noted in the case in must also learn in the near future to keep herself above want of food-supply methods the matter better She learn must : (1) of cultivation whereby the produceof land may be enhanced. (2) She must direct her attention to commerce and manufacture, "
whereby stress on land will be lightened.(3) She must learn to importfood-stuffs from those parts of the Empire where meat and corn are producedexcessivelycheap,as soon as famine becomes certain. (4) She must learn to send out her superfluous tion populaand willingly to those parts of the Empire. The voluntarily in normal years, is not stress of population, yet felt in India because the allotment of three acres per individual of population is quitesufficient. But their where cultivators readily convert this surplus surplusfood into cash in a good year, and where food goes out into foreigncountries,a bad year brings sudden commercial enterprise distress,which is not relieved by indigenous be would as bringingfood-stuffs in from 'foreign sources, civilized countries., The Indian grain-dealer in more trouble himself about the priceof grain in Australia. round, and he Canada, or Cape Colony when a bad yeaiv comes of in common with the cultivator looks to Government for means need for doors. The subsistence to be brought to his very
the case does not
OF
HANDBOOK
proportionto the
AGRICULTURE.
recovered
rent
by
zemindars
or
the
superior
demand landlords from actual cultivators. The Government alone, from but the small to outturn actual land, a bearing proportion -causes no hardshipto the cultivator in Bengal. In appreciable comparison with the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, for a very carry lightburden in the shape of the actual rent paid by cultivators to their though revenue, landlords is higher, in Bihar and in Eastern Bengal,than specially in those up-country Provinces. vinces The acreage of the United Prored of Agra and Oudh is onlytwo- thirds that of Bengal. Debar-
instance,Bengal has
to
land
from materially increasingthe is Government to assess a higher obliged Bengal, the burden from most of the other Provinces, and rate of revenue is consequently in the United unequal. And yet the land revenue Provinces seldom exceeds ten per cent, of the gross produce of
by
land
the Permanent
revenue
Settlement
of
This is a "Governments on land.
than what Akbar claimed
burden lighter
was
imposed by
former
land. one-third of the gross Strabo learn of land due. From historian his the we as produce that, at the time of "Alexander's invasion of India, the Kaja's share of the producewas Manu chouth or fourth. a put the and one-sixteenth at one-sixth,one-eighth king'sshare variously of
the produce of land. The obtained total land revenue at the time of Akbar shorter than indeed about ten crores was what is obtained this But by the British Government. may be accounted Akbar able for by two causes was never : (1)
bringto completesubjectionfor the purpose of assessment of land revenue for this is owned such a largeterritory as by the present Government. (2) There is far more purpose land under cultivation and less junglenow than in the days of The development of the country'sresources Akbar. by means of roads and canals and railwayshas been very great and the than in the purchasingpower of the rupee is also far less now to
time
of Akbar.
The
collection, therefore,though revenue of less value than in the time of nominally higher,is intrinsically Akbar. It should be noted, however, that in the reign of land
the land revenue The present land revenue
Aurangzeb
former age from British Government
the present limit. systems of India are a direct hex itThe under modifications the Governments. exceeded
have been few and unimportant, the tendency been t he local at the time to customs prevailing having recognize of the codification of any law regardingland. And yet tracing the main feature of thfc Indian land oldest time to the present,one cannot has
revenue
system from
the
the change helpconfessing,
the benefit of the cultivator. The earliest inhabitants of India,known to ethnologists Kolarians, as recognizedthe patriarchalor family system. The proprietary in land rested in the familyor tribal organization by whose not
been
altogetherto
rights
labours the la"d had been cleared or Their institutions were democratic.
reclaimed from the jungle. The chiefs,though they
held
LAND
OF
SYSTEM
largerand
REVENUE
AS
AFFECTING
THE
QUESTION.
605
fertileholdings, claimed
tribute or re* no and cratic right only acceptedgifts.The demoinstinct is still ingrainedamong Kols and Sonthals who cultivate jungleland without waitingfor anybody's permission, consider themselves harshly and who treated if they are ousted as
venue
a
more
of
matter
afterwards. The Dravidians who followed the the system Kolarians extended of their predecessors.They the i n the land to rest with the actual permitted proprietary rights cultivator. The king,however, exacted a certain share of the
by the zemindar
produce from
each holding, except from those held by priests, militaryofficers and others renderingservice. The Aryans who* followed the Dravidians keptup the land system of their predecessors and
the reclaimer of land from jungleas the true recognized and all kotwals and others landholders, proprietor, except priests, who rendered service,paid a portionof the produceof land to the recognizedthe king as the proking. The Hindu system never prietor of cultivated land,but onlyits protectoror overlord. The Mahomedan acceptedthe system of their predecessors conquerors it happened to be in accord with their own laws and customs. as The first important changewas made by Akbar, who substituted It was cash payment for payment in kind. duringthe decadence and jagirdars of the Moghul empirethat petty chiefs,rajas, rose into They had sufficient local authorityto prevent power.
collectionof
by the
revenue
officers of
Government.
It became
in its earlydays to recognize for the British Government and to transfer to them the claims of Government magnates for an annual tribute paid by them to Government. In in return the and talukdars ment Governto cases revenue most paid by rajas class of peoplealso arose is of this nature only. Another of Mahomedan the decadence the to whom at viz.,one power, farmed out the rightto collect revenue, Government to retain a
necessary
these
known as Malikana), certain share of it for their trouble (afterwards This is the originof the and to pay the balance to Government. The Permanent Settlement class. zemindar recognizedpermanently collection the British Government the maximum could make at the latter end of the eighteenth century in these provinces. Lord Cornwallis only carried on the existing system by collecting
The Permanent Settlement,however, saddled with three serious mistakes,which Government have was w ithout hard to rectify its pledgewith been since trying breaking made the zemindars : (1) No survey of estates or holdingswas revenue
throughzemindars.
fixed for
irrespectiveof the
extent or the The of the cultivators estate. of the (2) rights were possibilities limit was and practically no not safeguarded, placedto the rent demand fixed for ever. was (3)In demands, though the revenue is hammeredin the for ever, Government the land revenue fixing
and the
revenue
was
ever
of taxation, zemindars, for instance,beingexempt from the payment of income-tax at the expense of their fellow-subjects. When it is remembered that half the income-tax of Bengal i"
matter
"608
HANDBOOK
OF
AQRICOT/TUBE.
the residents in Calcutta,it may be inferred how trade is undulyhampered by this limit of choice on the part of The lightburden of land revenue "Government. of about three of cent, on settled produceimposed permanently estates necessitates per of a heavy burden of ten per cent, in the the imposition "derived from
of estates not permanentlysettled, and thus the burden is as regards prosperityor unequal without any adequate reason
"case
Otherwise of the cultivator. The actual incidence of land revenue of cultivated per acre in the different Provinces of British India and net croppedarea Native States may be judgedfrom the following figurescompiled from
the
Statistics Agricultural
for 1898-99
: "
Rs.
A.
p.
Bengal
0
12
7
Assam United Oudh
1
3
4
Provinces
202
Punjab
1
15
1
1
2
10
6
0
6
0
Sind
Bombay Madras Berar Central
1 2
11 2 10
4
1
Provinces
094
Ajmir-Marwar Upper Burma
1
3
2
2
1
1
15
4
Coorg
1
4
11
Mysore
1
8
6
Bikanir
0
7
7
Jaipur
4
3
11
Gwalior
259 0 15 296
10
Lower
Burma
Marwar Tonk
11
that the Government demand in the is very light, and itis not any more in British shape of land revenue India than in most Native States. Though a rupee was far more the land revenue valuable in olden days than now, in the days about the same of the Moghul Emperors was at the present as In 1664 the land revenue of India under the Moghul Empire time. 74 lakhs,and in 1665 at 24 crores stood at 26 crores 5 lakhs. In time the land revenue assessed at 34 crores was of Aurangzeb's The
above
show figures
In the case rupees. demand Government actuallyp^idby the
of
Bengal,it will be seen that though the is only about 4 annas per bigha,the rent is cultivating raiyat seldom so low as 4 annas and it is often as much as Rs. 3 or even Bs. 10 per bigha,and the land in Bengal is about Re. 1 per average rent of agricultural To 3 Rs. the acre. or blame, when famine or distress lay bigha per in the country, on Government, and of any. kind prevails of land tasay the poverty of the peopleis due to over-assessment is absurd. Of course, the high rent actually revenue, paid by, "mltiva,torsin other than Government estates is due to the facilities for th^4. creation of intermediate pro-, at present existing and tenures between the Government and the actual prietorship
MEASURES
OF
PROTECTION
AND
RELIEF.
607
be changedonly at the sacrifice cultivator. But this system can of the Permanent Settlement,to which Government is pledgediii of most Bengal. Besides,it cannot be said Bengalsuffers parts from famine than other parts of India,or that the raiyats any more in permanentlysettled estates in Bengal are worse off than the raiyatsof the Central Provinces,for instance,though the former pay the average rent of Rs. 3 per acre, while the latter only 12 The greaterfertility and the more settled rainfall annas per acre.
Gangeticplain make our province more secure against famines, though the cultivator is burdened with largerdemands in the shape of rent by their immediate landlords.
of the
CHAPTER MEASURES
OF
CXL.
PROTECTION
AND
RELIEF.
It is not impossible for Government measures. Legislative to cultivator the methods. by legislative help (1) The exportation rice may be prohibited, this may have the effect of cultiof new vators, and dealers zemindars, mahajans, grain holding large season's prospects are certainly stocks of grain until the next It is not difficultto distinguish known. between old and new rice, be easilyenforced. and the prohibition can (2) The export of "
oil-seeds (not oils) be prohibited. (3) The minimum may between land revenue and rent paidby the actual proportion vating occupierwho is a cultivator may be fixed for ever. (4) All cultiraiyatsmay be compelledby law to maintain one food or and
bones
of land he holds,the listof such trees tree per acre fodder-yielding in being publishedfrom time to time and nurseries maintained District with connection Engineers'offices and inspection bungalows, from whence river and canal road, sides also planting may Each (5) VillageUnion may be comproceed systematically. pelled to
maintain
a
conservancy
establishment,and
allotted
fieldsfor burial of dead animals,night-soil and other refuse matter, food and fodder may where trees yielding be systematically grown, and fuel and fodder sold from this miniature forest after 10 years' growth. This is a modification of Dr. Voelcker's recommendation
regardingpropagationof
fuel and
measures. Departmental
fodder
reserves.
The
Agricultural Department may grain,by having stores of superior varieties of seed at certain recognized for sale to raiyats. centres One varietyof seed may yieldtwice as much another variety, as circumstances all other The collection ,of remainingthe same. varieties of grains,pulses, seeds of prolific etc.,may occupy the officer of the Agricultural time of a special travelling Department. teach
The
raiyatshow
to
"
store
collectseeds,tubers,etc.,of drought-resistin and flood-resisting crops. Some varieties of rice do well in dry soils their rootd by sending deep down into the soil. Some varieties, same
officermay
608
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
hand, increase in height as
the flood increases. and drought-resisting, flood-resisting prolific, crops the be after by Agricultural prepared Department gradually may careful enquiryand experiment; and seeds,roots and cuttingof be kept for sale to raiyatsin the recognized seedsuch crops may also have the effect of protecting This may distribution centres. ous raiyatsfrom taking inferior seeds from mahajans on loan on ruinof paddy seed, for instance,may A maund be valued terms. when he the it season sowing gives out for Rs. 2. by the mahajan at At harvest time he values the paddy at Re. 1 a maund, and takes the other on A list of such
arid another maund rnaunds of paddy by way of principal, by way of interest. The mahajan does not mind if the raiyat another maund of seed again to He advances loses his crop. him next year, and then if he has a good crop he takes back from back two
3 maunds of previousyear, 1" account on him 7J maunds, i.e., for that 3 maunds of interest account maunds on subsequent maunds for the 3 second and loan. Thus the year's to harvest, for the loan of 2 in two years the mahajan gets back 7" maunds he have which at seed a of maunds bought cheaperpricethan may
It is the local price at harvest at. what he sells his 1\ maunds his grain,and it is time that the mahajan considers when securing he gives it out, and if the the local priceat seed time at which he does not giveit out at all, sometimes is of seed cheap, price the but holds his stock tillnext year, or year after,when he gets the as the best bargain, grain selling grainand not as seed. It is in this way some mahajans in Bengal were found to own several of of maunds lakhs paddy in the famine year of 1897, and they The mahajani system has its advantages, let it all out that year. of of seed at better if no more supply good system be substituted in its place. But if an reasonable rates can officialsystem, or a system devised with the aid of local bodies be substituted for it,one of the greatest of bankers, can or Indian cultivator has lived from time the which under curses immemorial, will be removed.
also organizea system through villageunions and putwaries,of lendingout irrigation and other machinery, superiorbulls,etc., on hire. Behia milk without such aid,but as a matter have, no doubt, been popularized
The
Department Agricultural
may
helpinghand, as small farmers in every science can filter qther country do. The fruits of agricultural of an organized down to aqtual cultivators onlyby means agency illiterate either or are cultivators where the very poorlyeducated, of fact,the
raiyatneeds
who
accustomed the course,
are
not
Of
a
of their
own
principalever
accord to
to make move
education,but agricultural education,specially
an
new
the
tures. deparraiyat is
expert agency,
unions,may also accomplisha working in connection with village great deal. The extension of canals and railwaysare further measures has been steadily which Government of protection developing*
OF
PROTECTION.
AND
609
BELIEF.
Death from starvation even in localized famines was more general of communication when means with the in times past than now, interior are easier. But greater progress in these directions is desirable. of affording relief when famine Reliefworks. The means actuallybreaks out are detailed in the Famine Code. One suggestion, however, will not be quiteout of placein a book like this. By the end of September or middle of October it becomes quite famine is going to take place or not. If the evident whether whole for the estimated outturn the provinceby general tural AgriculDepartment, of Bhadoi and Aman crops, falls short of 50 that there will be famine, though be assumed per cent., it may peoplemay not beginto come to test or reliefworks tillFebruary. Relief works should be started in each thana where the estimated for reliefof famine crop is 25 per cent, or less. All works organized should be arranged for from October to January, the actual "
"
test-works,however, beingdelayedas long as possible.
opening of The
a
sorry
raisinga been
the
increase
to
is
of works
programme
sight to road
devoted
four to
produce five feet
include
of land
thousands
see or
should
of
directly or
and
men
high,when
lands irrigating
on
only such
calculated It indirectly.
women
their energy
and
canal
as
are
employed in might have
river sides,and
when or they might be employed more usefully raisinga food-crop, and tanks wells. even channels, canals, irrigation excavating The roads made by famine peopleare usuallyso badlymade, that makes the fact quite patent that making the next rainy season for these people. Growing of kutcha roads is not a suitable work of the year, from February at the driest season a crop by irrigation which may to raiyats, to May, would be a splendid object-lesson have a permanent effect in their learning how to avoid famines Relief works ought to aim at givingsuch for all times to come. in a tank or a well to the cultivators. Earth- work object-lessons in the largeexpanse of a is as easilymeasured as on a road, and in
paddy under
field it would
be
easy
getting5,000
supervising staff,if 1,000
one
wells
labourers are
employed
excavated
in
it
Each well would cost about Rs. 25, inclusive at regulardistances. than of the cost of well-rings, and the work would not take more of five be then Each week can a employed accomplishing. party in irrigating with leather buckets, worked by bamboo levers,an of land, one-tenth to one-fifthof an acre beingirrigated acre or two the every day accordingas the soil is lightor heavy,cultivating land, and raisinga crop from it, in three months, of maize, or millet,or aw paddy,or some pulse. The crop will justcome in when the famine is at its full height,from May to July. If 2,000\acres and be irrigated of a paddy field 5,000 acres in expanse out can 40*000 maunds of food grainsthus raised from the tract, the lesson In some thus taught is not likelyto be forgottenvery soon. suitable localitiesdons may be employed,and a thousand of these,
worked
beside M,
HA
a
canal
or
a
stream, may
serve
to
irrigate4,000 39
610
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
of land, by the employment of 3,000 persons, 2,000 being the water, and employed in working the ddns and distributing 1,000 in cultivating, sowing,weeding,etc. We never hear of the o f famine labourers a energies being thus utilized in raising crop time of the year, and throwingin an extra supply at the worst the market when the food supplyusuallygets to the lowest on Another special ebb. advantageclaimed for the system of relief acres
here recommended is,cultivators will be able to go and work fields from June instead of diverting in their own their attention to famine works to the great detriment of the agricultural pects prosfor the succeedingyear. From Februaryto May is the slack time for cultivators, and if by artificialmethods a food-crop be then raised by peoplein distress, the advantage will be can work
twofold.
AgriculturalBanks. and supervision,
"
These
Government
should
be
under
Government
interest of 3 per guarantee and transfer to the Banks the duty of granting cent, per annum takavi loans on interest. Any raiyatcontributing to this Bank thus be sure of his principal and at least 3 per cent, by way can of interest,and of getting back in years of local distress the whole of his contributions and accumulated amount joint profits, or, on number of of of cultivators and a shareholders, application getting of their joint contribution. A larger back the whole amount amount be lent on joint under certain restrictions, and interest can security, thereon at 6j per cent. As shareholder,a raiyatshould charged can
an
*
to share in the profits be eligible of a Bank providedhis balance fallbelow Rs. 100, though he may does not contribute any amount of Rs. 10 per annum down to a minimum him eligible for to make the benefits in years of distress. The Banks should invest sharingin
in securities approved by Government the money tions ; but speculaof an agricultural character approvedby Government should A scheme worked be allowed. such a line will teach raiyats on and it may lay the foundation of a great many agriciileconomy,
tiiralimprovements. If 3 per Government there should
of interest is guaranteedby and if the Banks controlled by Government, are be no lack of shareholders and of capital.
CHAPTER
AGRICULTURAL
cent,
CXLI. EDUCATION.
alluded to agricultural education as one of the principal of The famines. must means means necessarily overcoming of all ; and if but it is the surest means be slow in its operation, education devised is of a sufficiently the system of agricultural character,the effect need not take very long in being practical education perceived.Foundation has been laid "jfagricultural
WE
have
Bengal ; but the arrangements formerlymade at Sibpur only education of a rather enabled Government to give agricidtural
in
612
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
should be and their teaching improvement in their school-gardens, The school-masters themselves may be taught concrete thoroughly .
agriculturein
in farms attached to Normal Schools, but in village schools should be taughtonlycertain definite facts which will enable the pupils to derive some immediate benefit from their school education. If the school-going of son be of helpto his father in his own a cultivator can the difficulties, father and the son will both beginto find out that education and a
more
systematic manner
If the to each other. farming are not necessarily antagonistic school-master can be of helpto the raiyat in his own business, village the raiyat will think more than of his also business own highly he is accustomed to think at present. The tendencyamong vators cultiand artizans who of prosperity attain to some amount their own ancestral craft is to shun their craft,to by following take to money-lending, clerks of their sons. The and to make education has been antagonistic ment to the advancespread of literary of arts and industries, and it is very importantthat from the lowest stage children should have education of such a character enable them to pursue their ancestral occupationswith as may and interest,instead of despising such occupations greater ability and taking to others which are considered genteel.
The
principle alreadyrecognizedfor primary and secondary be recognized also for high schools and colleges, and permissionmay be grantedto all mofussil schools and colleges in placeof physicsor chemistry. It is less to teach agriculture gardensand farms in connection with mofussil expensiveorganizing schools and than making an adequate arrangement colleges high for teachingchemistryand physics,and and high colleges many avail themselves of the permission off schools may ploying right by emClasses,to teach passedstudents of the Sibpuragricultural However in of and physics. agriculture place chemistry meagre the arrangement that may be made by a mofussil school or college this subjectcannot for teachingagriculture, possiblybe worse tural taughtthan physicsor chemistryis at present. Facts of agriculscience abound in the mofussil, and if the teacher employed he will not need has been himself taught in a practical manner, to impart sound knowledge of such facts much outlayof money and the principles underlyingthem, to his pupils.There cannot, be such occasion for cramming in the case of agriother in words, culture, in the there is in the case of chemistryand physics, as of time, speciof mofussil schools and colleges.In course case mens insect of rocks, minerals,crops, manures, economic products, and fungus pests,will accumulate,if the teacher does his duty, atid the subjectwill be always better and better taught. In the and physics, of chemistry an opposite case tendencyis often noticed is fitted up at, what in mofussil colleges.A sort of a laboratory the part and there is is regarded on as, great cost, unwillingness of the college Authoritiesto replaceimplements and chemicals Some agricultural must as they get broken or used up. implements schools
can
AGRICULTURAL
be
bought,
and the
to
of
part
working
outlay school
the
of
faculties
and
even
of
science.
all
the
it
If
be
be
all
in
a
advanced
countries,
If and
abreast
the
years
first
and
engineer,
the
expressed sphere of have
ample
of
students
passed
in out
excellent will the walks
and work have
agricultural of
to
as
Indian
agriculture are
as
we
much
condition
of
the
enable
to
make which
them
occupation.
and
geologist
by farming. augural invirtually the
money is
Engineering College agricultural classes, we of
high
After
into
these
in
disposed the
in
classes
END.
as
who
the
work
we
number
really
were
the
and
who
men
doing such tion English educa-
are
that
remodelling
life.
THE
assert
country,
Tlie
opinion.
agricultural to
have
in
Bengalis
caste
some
years' experience
some
the
of
America,
and
botanist
and
science
Sibpur
influence of
is
particular
own
steadily increased,
feel
difficult
very
Europe
sufficient
modifying
employed
that
a
only
never
the
agriculture. admission
in
education,
is
usefulness
for
study
science
book,
the
of knowledge agriculture,
of
recognized for really needed a
their
will
of
the
reason
seeking
interested
at
opening
practical
he
branch
is
chemist
a
able valu-
more
what
find
in
this
to
delivered
doubt
had
be
to
introduction
at
ago
times
sound
developing
particular
also
farmers
training,
the
has
lecture
and
that
intelligent
with
zoologist In
and
a
subject by itself, which
a
of
of
of
preliminary
standards
detrimental
is far
one
as
manner
agricultural
scientific
farmer
a
of
life, which any
keep
easy
of various
right understanding without
agriculture
less
means
a
any a
bullocks
Thriftinese
imparting
systematic
a
be
education
in
that for
the
As
agricultural
very
students
every-day
physics.
hired
purpose. will
is to
now
training
that
with
this
authorities
it
or
is necessary out
shown
for
contended
is
pointed
to
than
sound
it
taught
manner
needed
mind,
a
sciences
may
can
the
be
can
college
chemistry of
than
to
is
agricultural education,
knowledge
in
their
great
no
on
but
613
EDUCATION.
and
it has
improving had
in
other
INDEX.
Beans, 38, 71, 115,201"206,
494. ABORTION, 84 88. Aeromotors, Agaves, 144, 148, 152, 247. Banks, 696., Agricultural
AgriculturalEducation, Aich,
"
700.
246.
Albizza
procera,
477, 478, 516.
All-stock-and-no-crop,159. Alumina, Ambari
Hemp,
Ammonia,
143.
146,
232
164. 417
(See Regur.)
Soil, 13.
Cotton
580.
Bone manure, 216, 250, 396, 425, 426. Bone 430, 458"462. super, 427 Bordeaux Mixture, 262, 532, 533, 594. Boring Insects, 531, 559, 561.
234.
"
501.
150, 109.
Bloody Milk,
144.
Amlaki,
Bhura, Bhusa, Bidia, Black
116.
Amada,
501.
Bhringi, 146, 148, 201"206,
505.
Albuminoids, 149"151, Aloe, 246, 248.
Beet, 2, 36, 147, 264"268, 272. Behia Mill/ 7, 107, 272"286. Belun Pat, 248, 249. Betel-nut, 314"315. Bhela-nut, 147, 206, 230. *
696
148.
Akanda,
264"268,
501.
"
"
"
419.
Analysis, 446"473. Anise, 147, 318. Ant, 561"563. Anthrax, 490, 570, 686"689. 575. Anti-toxin Treatment, Apatite, 14, 425.
Bot-fly,645. Bottle-gourd,148.
Aphides, 565"566.
Brussels Sprout, 264"268. Bucket-pump, 129, 132, 136.
Brinjal, 145, 148, 259, 261. Broccoli, 264"268. Bread-fruit, 386.
Apiculture,382"383. Apthse, 494.
476. Buffaloes,474 Buck-wheat, 39, 147, 200, 201. Bullock Gear, 100. "
Arahar, 26, 38, 110, 146, 147, 201" 206, 219, 244, 330, 533. Arharia Sim, 64, 146, 204, 505 Areca Nut, 385. 344. Arrowroot, 144, 148, 343 Artichoke, 147. Artesian 132. well, 131 Asan, 148.
581.
"
Bull's Dredger, 136. Bullock's Heart, 249.
596"597, Bunt, 197 Butter, 5, 518"521,
682.
581"582.
"
abdominalis,
Aulacophora
541, 542,
564.
CABBAGE, 2, 36, 38, 115, 147, 264"268.
Camphor, Canna
315"318.
edulis, 144.
Carbohydrate, BABTJL, 67, 146, 148, 154, 384, 385. 525"527. Bacon, Bacteria, 407, 576"591. Bad, 385, 501. Bahera, 148. Bajra, 38, 62, 143, 162, 200. Bakhar, 73, 102, 192. Bakla, 146, 501, 577. Baldeo
Bamboo, Banana,
Carboniferous
144, 148, 344"346, "
"
17, 18.
148. Cardamom, Carob Bean, 385. Carrot, 36, 147, 148, 194, 264"268, 268"270. Cashew Nut, 36, 148, 206, 207, 385. 337"342. Cassava, 145"148,
Castor, 145, 147, 206"208,
Balti,121, 130, 134. 251
149"151.
rocks, 15, 16
215~r218,
244. 385.
25^.
201" 206, 279, 505. Barbati, 146, 147,* Barley, 38, 67, 143, 152, 190"192. Barui, 311.
Casuarina, 384. 643"644. Caterpillars,
Cauliflower, 38, 147, 264"268. 126; Cawnpore Chain -pump, Rubber, 146, 162, 349"361.
Ceara
616
INDEX.
Celery, 147, 264"268. Pump, 91"92, Centrifugal
EABTH-NUT. (See Ground-nut.) Eau Celeste, 532. 531. Ecto-parasites, Elachi, 319. Endive, 264. Engelberg Huller, 179"185, 332. 574. Enzymes, 573 Era-kati, 144, 502. Eri-silk,215, 218.
133.
Chai, 145, 148. Chaff-cutter, 136.
Champa
Note
Sag,
148.
Cheena, 143, 199, 202. Cheese, 6, 521"525, 58L
"
Analysis,446"473. Chichinga, 146, 148.
Chemical
Chillies,145, 148, 262"263. simplex, 539, 559"561.
FAMINE, 600"603. Famine-food, 337"342.
Chilo
Chironji,206. (in soil),35"44. Chufa, 144, 148. Chupri Alu, 144. Cicindela sexpunctata, 540. Cinnamon, 317"318. Clod-crusher, 109. Cocoanut, 148, 206, 207, 209, 221" 222, 385. Cock-chafers,541, 542. Coffee,152, 328"333, Coir, 221, 222, 246. Chlorine
Farmyard-manure,
412
"
415.
149"151. Feering,105.
Fat,
Fermentation,
574.
Five-plotexperiment,44. Fodder Crops,152, 195"196,
499"505.
Foot-and-mouth
.Disease, 492"493. Fungicidal Appliances, 137, 532. Fungoid Diseases, 532, 591"598.
Coleoptera,535"539.
GANJA, 232. Garlic, 144, 148.
Colza, 20(5, 211. Milk, 579. Coriander, 147, 318, 533. Cotton, 36, 38, 62, 110, 146, 152, 240-
Germicides, 572, 577. Ghani, 137, 180, 217, 221, 225,*243. Ghi, 5, 223.
Condensed
138.
Ginning Cotton, 247. Glucoses, 294"298. Goat-farming, 485. Gohany Land, 33. Golmarich, 318. 145. Gomukh, Gondli, 141, 200. Gourds, 148, 313.
Coulter, 108.
Country Figs,148, 337. Cow-dung, 67. Cow-gram, 159"163. Cow-pea, 62, 147. Cream, 518"521. Crickets,548"649. Cucumber, 145, 148. Cucurbitaceous Vegetables,39, 41, 62. Curing, 525"528. Cut-worms, 557" -559.
Cyamopsis
psoralioides,64,
201,
206.
Cyst Disease, 493. DAHI,
579"581.
Dal-bhanga
rog,
105.
Ginger, 144, 148, 270"271. Ginjelly.(See Til.)
246.
Cotton-gin,137,
Gathering,
262.
Date, 36, 148, 272, 287"294, 385,
438.
Grafting,387"389. Gram,
38, 146, 147, 152, 189.
Granary Pests, 553 Grasshoppers,548,
"
Ground-nut, 62, 146,147,219"220, 244. Grubber, 108. Guano, 423, 424. 2, 144, 148, 502"503. Guinea-grass,
148. 239. Deshi jute, 146. Dextrose, 294"298. Deodhan. (See Juar.) Dhenkli, 120, 134, 135.
Guttapercha, 348"351. Gypsum, 18, 69, 398,
Dhaincha, 62, $7, 146, 160, 219, 229, 249, 279, 312, 396, 419. Dhenki, 136, 179, 218, 225. Dhundul, 145. Diarrhoea, 494.
Helancha
Dengo Sag, Degumming,
549. Dragon-flies, Drainage,67, 73, 119, Drilling,71, 72, 138.
Sag, 148. Hemiptera, 535. Hemp, 39, 234"235. 552, 553, Hieroglyphicfurcifer, Hoe, American " " " "
419.
441"445.
HAM, 525"527. Haritaki, 148. Harrow, 76, 109.
Diptera,535. Divi-divi, 384. Don, 120, 130, 131, 134, 135. Dracaena ovalifolia,144.
555.
549. Green Manuring, 419. Grewia, 344, 345.
567.
Hand, 111. Wheel, 111, 191. Bullock, 81, 112, 138, 157. Hand, 111, 112. Hunter, 74, J8, 81. Wh*el, 111, 112.
Hopperdozer, 553. Horse-gram, 147.
617
Hoven, Humus,
Ladder,
493.
ICHNEUMON,
Lai Lata
533.
Lau,
India
Rubber,
144.
148.
Grass, 144, 145.
Lentils.
(See Musuri.)
Lepidoptera, 535. Leptocorisaacuta,
Spinach, 165.
"
Alu, (Traranyia
Layering, 390.
(See Maize.) Radish, 148.
Corn. Horse
249.
566. Lady-ford,
Impactionof Rumen, 194, 493-494. Inarching,390. Indian Indian
109.
Finger, 146, 148,
Ladies'
417.
29, 39, 37, 38"40, Hymenoptera, 535, 538"540.
555.
Lettuce, 147, 148, 264"268.
348"351.
Lewa, 322. Lime (in soil),35
Indigo, 67, 146, 152, 298"302.
52, (a" manures), 403, 437"441. Lime Trees, 434. Linseed, 146, 147. 152, 191, 207, 208,
Inoculation, 585, 587"588. Inaect Pests, 529"570. Insecticides 137, 529. 52. 35 Iron (in soil),
"
398,
"
7, 8, 67, 73, 114"130, Irrigation, 399. 194"195,256"257,
IrrigationSpoon,
159,
212"213.
Litter,192. 32, 33, 38"40. Sandy, 32, 33, 138. Clay, 32, 33. Locust, 28, 549"552. Lucerne, 2, 40, 503"504.
Loam,
73.
"
JACK,
148, 270, 385.
Jainti, 249. Jerusalem Artichoke,147, 148, 264"268. Jhand, 385.
Jhinga,
145.
Jmr, 38, 62, 143, 195"198, 244.
150,
152, 189, 312,
KACHII, 144. Kalai, 26, 38, 79, 146, 18J). Kamela, 384. Kankar, 19, 24"30, 45, 47, 398, 437. 145.
543. Mancipium Nepaliuisis, 314.
Mandar,
Mango, 36, 148, 270, 385, Mangold, 30, 501.
563.
144.
144, 148, 249, 254. Manure, 395"445, 513"515.
Hemp,
Maple Tree, 272,
296.
Mania,
62, 143, 198"200. Mat-grass,344, 345. Mauritius Hemp, 148, 248.
249.
Melons, 13, 148, 337.
Menjhri, 143,
Kham
Alu, 144. Khesari, 39, 146,
201"206. 308. Knol-kol, 148, 264"268. Kodali, 78, 81. Kuli-begun, 145, 260.
Kurthi,
146,
323. Mosquito-blight,
147,
189,
147,
189,
505. 145. Kundruki, 146. Kunra, 178.
201"206,
Kumra,
or Kulthi, 146, 201"206, 505. Kutki, 200.
Kurthi
Kutl-laga,262. LAC, 152, 379"581.
Lao-dye,381. (See Irrigation Spoon.)
200.
Mesta, 146, 232"234. Microbes, 570"591. Milk, 515"518. Mint, 148.
Khurpi, 111,
Ladle.
Huller, 137. Sim, 146. Mammites, 494.
Manila
249. 143. 206, 208.
or
244.
Maize Makhan
Mankachu,
Kankrol, 145. Karala, 146. Kasha, 143.
Kulthi
Chloride, 116. Mahua, 206, 209, 223, 385, 501. Maize, 2, 38, 43, 62, 110, 143, 147, 152, 193"195,
Jute, 4, 79, 146, 148, 152, 226"232,
Kayon, Kenja, Keyaphul, 148, Khag, 143.
144, 148. "
249. Jira, 148, 318"319. Juan, 319.
Kasturi,
KATTI,
35 52. Magnesia (in soil), Magnesium, Sulphate, 116.
Jhumkalata,
Kankri,
MADUK
Mot, single,121, 134, 135. Mot, double, 122"123, 134, 135. Moth, 201"206. Mowers, 112. Mug, 146, 201"206. i Mulberry, 139, 145, 148, 351"378, 385, 505.
Mulching,76. Munj-grass,144, 148, 249. Mushroom, 598"599, 684. Musuri, 39, 146, 201"206. Musk-mallow, 146, 148. Mustard, 13, 26, 38, 67, 147, 152, 191. 206, 209"212.
618 Plough,Baldeo,
144. Mutha-grass,
Mylabns pustulata,542. Myrabolan, 384.
"
Furrow, 96. -mould-board or 74, 96, 102. Indian, 92"108.
"
Mcston,
Double
"
JNALITA, 220.
Neuroptcra, 535. 415. Night-soil,
.
407"425,
462. 582"585. Nitrification, 70, 410"412, Nitrogen(in soils and manures), 400
"
"
Steam,
Sub-soil,74, 96, 102.
425.
Sulky,90, 103. Swing, 96, 97,
"
Three
Furrow, Turnwrest, 90. Watt's, 95.
"
"
192.
Crusher, 141), 207,
137.
Oil-cake
Oil-cake,
209"220,
242,
405"470.
Oilseeds, 200"220. Ol, 144, 337. Onions, 30, 144, 148, 204"208. Open Furrow, 105. Opium, 152, 320"322.
175.
Pruning,391"392. Pulping, 331. Pumpkins, 148, 313. 493, 570.
LAND,
38.
147, 201"200,
Rake, 109. 140. Rambha, Randhuni, 318"319. Ranga Alu, 145.
Rape, 20, 147, 152, 191, 200, 209, 212, 318.
214"215.
Ratoon.
(See Sugarcane.)
Reana
luxurians, 148, 502. Rcd"water, 494.
*
35
"
52.
Regur, 44,
Phuti, 145.
Physical Properties of Soil, 30
"
35,
53"59.
48.
Reh, 69. Resin, 531.
Retting,230.
Pigeon Pea. (See Arahar.) Pineapple, 144, 250"251. Pittaraj,147, 206, 208. Plant-lice, 565"566. Plantain, 2, 144, 249, 251"254,
Pleuro-pnoumonia,493. 296,
209"270,
Rajgir,200.
579.
Peat, 15, 17, 32.
Polamcope,
159.
Rabies, 570. Radish, 147, 148, 204"208, 299"304, 230. Radhuni, 148. Rai, 209"212.
204-208.
Pccpul, 101, 148, Pepper, 145. 202. Payra-raater, Phapar, 200. Phosphoric Acid,
Plan,
"
Proteids, 149"151, 419, 420. Proteid Ratio, 509"513.
RABI 314,
330"337. Para-rubber, 152, 348"351. Parsnip, 204"208. Pasewa, 321.
140,
579. Prout's
QUARTER-ILL,
35.
115,
of Food, 385, 380, 578
Preservation
Papaya, 2, 145, 148,
38,
410.
Poultry, 480"489.
Long-stemmed Aman, Rayda, 175.
Peas,
52, (manures),
592.
254"258,
117, 103, 104, 172. 73, 174, 175.
Pasteurization,003, Patal, 140, 201"202.
"
431"437.
Poudrette, 415,
Aus, 38, 117, 103, 104, 192.
Pans,
35
Potatoes, 2, 6, 30, 74, 114, 139, 148,
38, 71, 79, 143, 147, 152, 104.
Paikota, 120, 125. Palam, 147, 148. Palas, 140, 148. Palval, 148, 204, 337. Pan, 32, 148, 210, 311"
320"322.
(in soil),
398,
340"347. Orthoptera, 535. 470"485. Oxen, 549"559,
Aman, Boro,
100. 90.
Wheel, 90, 97, 100.
"
Popat, 201, 203. Popped corn, 193. Poppy, 208, 210, Potash
Oranges,
if,
103.
96, 104.
"
Noria, 129. Nubian Tube-well, 13 L OATS, 2, 30, 143,
ing, Ridg-
95.
Multiple,101"102. Paring, -90, 102. Potato-digging,96, 90, 103. Pulverising, Sibpur,95.
200, 208.
Nim,
Nitrates, 73, 115, 401-402,
95.
Double
"
Rhea,
26, 147, 235"239. (See Paddy.) Rice-husker, 136, 179"185. Rice.
Ribbons. 386.
(SeeRhea.)
Rinderpest,491. Roller, 76, 109, 110, Root-cutter, 136,
620
INDEX.
WALNUT,
209.
Wind-mills,
Warping,
77.
Wind-power,
Water-analysis,
472
Wheat,
90.
87,
Water-power,
38,
143,
1J7,
332.
87,
85, 85.
147,
563.
152,
185-
Yoke,
342.
148, 100.
yoke-galls,
494. 246.
144,
188.
Soil,
563.
501
White-ants, Windlass,
1 14.
Winnowing,
Yucca,
190. Wheat
Winnowers,
YAMS,
553"554,
208,
100,
84,
148.
147,
Water-nut,
Weevils,
473. "
120"136.
Water-lift*,
84,
ZBD^ARV,
144.
"
132.
Zymotic
Diseases,
570"573.
120.
OF
INDIAN
AGRICULTURE
HANDBOOK,
OP
AGRICULTWB
INDIAN
BY
GOPAL
NITYA
MUKERJI,
M.A
Holland Gold Medallist of the RoyalAgricultural Collie,Oirencetter(England)
Society (Scotland) of the Highlandand Agricultural Civil Engineering and Agricultural Chemistry^ of Agriculture Professor Sibpur(Bengal) College, Fellow
and
THIRD
"Dl"COVEKIEft AND TO
COUNTRY rOTDRS
AFKORDIHd MULTIPLYING
IN
MIDI IK WHICH
AQI8,
AND
saRSLSTBNCg
LIFE, BUT
THE THEY AS FOR
EDITION,
CULTIVATION ARE
ULTIMATELY
BUT
EARTH TH1Y
TENDING
GENERATIONS
LIKEWISE
THI
OF
D8VBLOFID,
REYIHBP
TO
PROVIDING
OOMK,
KOR
ITS
NOT
ARK MAY
Bl
TO
B1NEFTT
AS
MULTIPLYING
ENJOYMENT.""
CALCUTTA
THACKEB,
8PINK 1915
" CO
MERELY
OON8ID1RID
FOR AS
TH1
Will
iXTtHDIlia
WHOL1 RA01, At UF1, AND HOT ONLY DAYf SlR HUMPHREY
THB
PRINTED
THACKBR,
SPINK
BY
AND
CO.,
CALCUTTA.
DEDICATED
TO
THE
CHARLES
MR.
HON'BLE
OLDHAM
WILLIAM
SERVICE,
CIVIL
INDIAN THE
OF
LATE
ARBUTHNOT
EVELYN
DIRECTOR
BENGAL
AGRICULTURE, OF
AS
A
TOKEN
OF
HIGH
ESTEEM
AND
DEEP
GRATITUDE
NOTE
PUBLISHERS'
THE
Edition
Second
THIRD
TO
of
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EDITION.
book
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sold out
publishers
The
rapidly.
have
again
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the
most
brought
the
book
of
recent
progress
up-to-date
Science.
has
PREFACE
publication
THE of
a
of
a
Handbook
on
for
suitable riot
possible
from
and
farm,
a
the
Sibpur
of
use
learn and
of
the
to
Indian
advanced
the
the
in
owing
subject
in
subject
a
want
It
text-book,
a
form
ture Agricul-
students.
from
agriculture
to
Lectures
necessary
whole
the
learn
to
the
found
was
text-book
of
EDITION.
FIRST
,TO
is
apart
systematic
also laboratory are necessary. Even one agricultural college which passing out of an is equipped with and farm, laboratory, and a museum, of a text-book, must possessing a thorough knowledge be prepared to buy his experience, either ship by apprenticein another on person's farm, or by losing money a
manner,
his
museum
for
own,
a
confidence
acquire
a
or
year in
two,
before
himself, his
he
and
crops
expect
can
his
to
methods.
and be Book-knowledge mented supplecollege-education must by detailed experience in that particular department of agriculture which in take chooses to one up, be a to particular locality,before one can expect any
successful the
farmer.
A
and
also
student
farming. to pretends
or
The
book, to
is
however,
the
Handbook'
a
valuable
engaged
man
Indian
of
aid
to
in
planting Agriculture
lie which now originality. Facts in hundreds of Reports, Notes, scattered Monographs, and have been Journals, Ledgers brought together here in one volume in a systematic manner. and But treated it will even a as compilation the author hopes, that of useful students to a planters and companion prove agriculture generally. CIVIL
little
ENGINEERING The
Uth
COLLEGE,
August,
SIBPUR,
1901.
N.
G.
MUKERJL
PUBLISHERS'
lamented
THE
book
took
for
of
death
while
place
of
kindly
of
being
undertaken
the
however,
midst
of
who
which
public
and
to
skill
great
in
This
duties.
the
man, gentlethe
anonymous, second
edition
of
volume a
a
considerable
attained
already
enabled
has
remain
produce
to
has
subject,
on
onerous
prefers
publishers
with
through
carried
trying
most
the
authority
leading
by
work
labours.
was,
a
and
have
personal
his
this
passed
consequence
revision
and
correction
of
in
benefit
the
of
author
were
Chapters
latter
deprived work
talented
the
pages
The
The
RDITION.
final
the
press. been
SKCOND
TO
NOTE
popularity,
a
and
utility
which
they in
the
hope
present
further
will open
edition.
up
a
field
of
CONTENTS.
Page. 1
INTRODUCTION
..
PART I.
II. III IV.
Strata
Geological Surface
I-SOILS, 11
Formation
of
24
Soils
Physical Classification
Soils
of
30 ...
V.
Chemical
Classification
of Soils.
VI.
Chemical
Classification
of Indian
35 .
VII. VIII. TX-
of
Sunlight, Rain
Hail
XI.
44 53 60 67
II-IMPLBMKNTS. Cultivation
Underlying
Theories
Power
Motive
Soils
Barrenness...
PART X.
and
.
Soils
Physical Properties Fertility and
19
Districts
Bengal
of
Geology
or
..70 ..
Movers
Prime
77 ..
XII.
Ploughing
and
Ploughs
Cultivation
XIII.
Other
XIV.
Theories
...
92 ...
...
Appliances
...
108
... ...
XV.
Under)
ying the Question
Water-
Lifts
Other
Agricultural
.
...
XVI. XVII.
Equipments
XVIII.
Economic
XX.
Chemical
XXI. XXII.
XXIII. XXIV.
of Crops of Crops of
...
of
Crops
...153 ...
...
XXXVI. XXXVII.
...
...
...
^
.,
185
Juar
...
...
...
...
190 ...
..
...
...
...
192 or or
Marua
Corn
Millet
Great
Ragi
or
Buckwheat
and
...
...
...
Indian
...
...
' ...
"
".
other
...
...193 ...195
Millets...
Lesser
198 ...
200
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...206
...
...
...
Pulses
201
Oilseeds ...
XXXV.
...159
...179
...
XXXIV.
...
...
Husking
Barley Bhutta
XXXIII.
...
...
...
Wheat
XXIX.
XXXII.
151
...
...
164
Paddy
Oats
XXXI.
149 ...
Rice
XXVIII.
XXX.
147
...
...
Statistics
Farming
...
XXVII.
...
the Principal Crops
...
XXVI.
...143
Classification
...
XXV.
...189 ...
III-CROPS.
Agricultural
Rotation
...136
Classification
of
120
...
..
Composition
Systems
114 ...
...
..
...
...
Botanical
XIX.
...
Implements
of Farms
PART
...
of Irrigation
Mustard
and
...
Rape
...
...
...
Linseed
Gingelly
209 212
or
Til ...
^
...
...
124
CONTENTS.
Xll
PART CHAP. "
XXXVIII.
III"
Sorguja
XXXIX.
or
Castor
XL.
...
Ground-nut
"
"
.,
t"
,,
Cocoanut
XLIL XLIII.
Safflower
XLIV.
Jute
XLV.
...
224 ...
...
...
...
...
226
...
232
...
234
..
..."
Rhea ...
...
...
...
...
...
235
Cotton
XLIX.
Aloe
kl.
%i.
Fibres ...
L.
Other
Fibre
...
...
Crops
...
...
Pineapple
LIIL LIV.
LVI.
Potato
...
...
Brinjal
...
LVII1.
".]* ...
'
... "
...
English Vegetables Carrot,
Radish
Turmeric
and
and
...
...
LX. LXI. LXII.
259
'
Sweet
Sugarcane The
...
Sugars
LXIIL
Indigo
LXIV.
Tobacco
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
268
...
270
...
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
261
...
Potatoes
Ginger
Date-Sugar
262
...
..
...
LXV. LXVI.
Pan
...
...
294
...
298
...
Betel-leaf
or
...
LXVIII. LXIX. LXX. LXXI. LXXII. LXXIIL LXXIV.
...
Tea Coffee Vanilla
Papaya Cassava
Bamboo,
Oranges
Lac-culture
LXXXVI. LXXXVII. LXXXVIII.
...
...
...
...
...
General
314, ...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
for Lower
t
328 ...
...
...
Bengal
333 336
...337 ...
...
...
320
.'..' 323
...
...
315
...318
Grass
...
...
...
...
..
...
..
...
...
343 344 346 348 351 379 382
...
...
...
...383
."
...392
MANURES.
Summary
Exhaustion,
Ruisa
...
...
IV"
...
...
...
and
Gutta-Percha
of Trees
...
...
...
and
...
...
Food
Agricultural Calendar
.
.
...
Recuperation and Absorption
Nitrogenous Manures Phosphatic Manures Potash
...
...
...
Apiculture Propagation
PART
LXXXV.
...
..,
...
...
LXXX.
LXXXIV.
...
...
..
...
Sericulture
LXXXIII.
...
..
India-rubber
...
...
Grewia, Mat-Grass
LXXIX.
LXXXIL
...
...
Famine
as
Arrowroot
LXXXL
...
Cinnamon
......
LXXV.
LXXVII.
393
...
.'.311
...
...
Camphor, Tejpata, and Other Spices Opium
LXXV7!.
LXXVIII.
...
Betel-nut ...
LXVIL
...
272 287
...
...
251 254
Chillies
...
LIX.
'" ^
...
...
...
LVIL
...
...
...
246
250
...
Plantains ...
240
248
...
...
LII.
219
223
...
Hemp
214
221
...
...
...
Bombay
or
Sunn-Hemp
XLVIII.
""
e.
...
...
...
...
Deccan
XLVI.
"
..
."215
...
...
...
...
""
...
..
...
...
...
"
...
...
...
Page. .
Mahua
XLVII.
"*
...
...
,,
XLL
CROPS" (contd.) Niger Oil Seed
Manures
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
395
...400 ...
...
407 426
...431
4
LXXXIX.
Calcareous
Manures
...
...
...
...
437
CONTENTS.
PART CHAP.
and
XCI. XCIL
Page. Salt OF
ANALYSIS.
Remarks
General
Standard
The
446 and
Acid
Alkali ...
"
XCIV. "
XCV. "
XCVI. ,,
XCVII.
0. CI. GIL cm. CIV. CV. CVI. C\7II. CVIII. CIX. ex. CXI. CXTI.
Buffaloes Oxen
...
...
...
...
...
...
Goat-keeping
Diseases
PART CXVII. CXVIII.
...
...
...
Theory of Healtn in Relation to Foods Utility of Growing Fodder Crops Fodder Crops ...
...
Silos
Ratio
Mammal
Value
Food-stuffs
of
..
...
Ham-Curing Curing Sheep and Other
General
...
CXXIV.
Cut-Worms
CXXX. CXXXI. CXXXII. CXXXIII.
The The
...
Sugarcane Borer Weevil
Indian
Goldenand
CXXXV.
"""
...
and Fodders
486 490 495
...
...
...
...
499 500
505
...
50$
...
...
...
...
513 515
...
.,,
...
...
...
...
their
525
...527
629' 533
...
538
...
549
...
...
...
...552
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
553
...555 ...
557
...559 ...561
...
..
...
Preparation
...
...
Apple-Beetle,..
Scale-Insects
Bacteriology
521
...
...
...
Crops Zymotic Diseases and Remedies for Them Agricultural Bacteriology Dairy Bacteriology Soil
...
...
...
Insects Injurious to Indian
Vaccines and
485
...
...
...
...
CXXXIV.
485
,..
...
other Ants
Mango
Plant-Lice
.,,
...
...
...
...
and
...
PESTS.
...
White-ants
...
476
...
...
...
...
CXXIII.
The
474
...
...
...
FUNGUS
Grasshoppers and Crickets Granary Pests Paddy Pests...
CXXII.
470 472
against Pests and Parasites
Remedies
Agricultural Zoology Locusts
465
.
..
..
Skins
AND
VII-INSECT
CXX.
462
518
Butter
and
Insects
CXXI.
...
...
...
...
and
...
...
Milk
Bacon
.
...
...
^
...
Proteid
CXIX.
CXXIX.
.
...
The
Cheese-making
CXVI.
.
...
Cattle
of
CXIV. cxv.
...
Poultry-keeping
Cream
CXXVIII.
,
...
of weight of Livestock
Calculation
CXIII.
CXXVII.
,
VI-CATTLE.
PART
CXXV.
455 458
,,.
XCIX.
448 450
...
XCVIII.
CXXVI.
,
Analysis of Soil Analysis of Bone-meal Analysis of Super Analysis of Nitrate of Soda and Saltpetre Analysis of Oil-cake Analysis of Silage,Grass, etc. Water Analysis
XCIIl.
441
..
V-METHODS
PART "
IV~
Gypsum
XC.
XUl
..
...
...
563
...564 ...565
...
..
...
...
668 570
...573
...
...
...
...
...
...
..'. 579 ...
...582 ..: 585
...
...
CONTENTS,
XIV
CHAP.
AND
VII-INSECT
PART
The
CXXXVI.
FUNGUS
PESTS-(conM.)
Fungi
Higher
...591 ...
CXXXVIL
...
...
Mushrooms
598 ...
...
PART
Remarks
General
CXXXVIII.
VIII"
..
,..
...
FAMINES.
on
Indian
Famines
599 ...
"
The
OXXXIX. CXL. "
JP*ge.
of
System
Measures
of
Land Protection
Revenue
as
and
Affecting
the
Relief
...
6O2
Question
...606
,
...
CXLI.
Agricultural
Education
610 ...
...
...
INTRODUCTION.
report
on
manifold
introduced, of
aim
;
Handbook
the
normal
years
of
for
canal
of irrigation ; Profitableness of agricultural Knowledge I'd ///.// as ; of special scheme of agricultural Need of subjects.] Division
Ti"E
inauguration
British
the
is
their
Report
in
and
Canals
have
scheme
definite
a
The
adopted.
out
and
during
the
irrigation land
for
State Canal
the
Canal
;
well
as
Officers
;
classes
;
different
the
deliberations
India
the
at
of*
instance
Commission
been
to,
since
that
after of
measures
with
the
mitted sub-
date
kept steadilyin
one
then
since
for
period
have
given most important
of
the
Need
of Indian
Colleges
agricultural
Famine
Commission
of
systems
to
by
capital;
in
of
The
extended
been
for
in
Cultivation
of
irrigation to important
effect
the
railways,
against famine, and
and
Government,
by
view
sent
Resources
; ;
Conservatism
;
education
1878.
1880,
of this
India
Engineering
outcomes
was
in
Parliament
recommendations
the
the
of that
India
in
education
agricultural
one
Commission
Famine
the of
India
of
provinces
of
science
already following ; The
expenditure
in
Favourable
;
worth
in
Officers
venue
well
and
by
education
agricultural
India
farmers
farming Ke
years
improvements
depression
Gentlemen
;
Special courses agricultural education among
rti"i/fiti; Need
Southern
agricultural
increase
recent
Agricultural
;
of
system
No
;
the
on
The
partnership; for
within
agricultural improvement of Saidapet work College
of
[Progress
another.
protection
great rapidity,
different
administration
and
provinces istration police admin-
greatly improved, chiefly with a view to give tics statiscorrect security of possession to cultivators, and to obtain and information and regarding agricultural conditions prompt the of institution agricultural depressions. By agricultural experiments have
been
and for
agriculturaleducation,
ascertaining
the
of
produce
the
cultivating
Institute, of
with
facts
land,
and
in gradual institution education agricultural The
establishment
Agriculture in province every
of
in
villages,
district
of
agricultural experiments achieved
to
the
of one
a
actual
text-book in M,
Uriya, HA
district
is
a
further
I have
cultivator.
by publishing a suitable
each of
the
are
in
after
of the
of semi-official
establishment
for
been
laid
to
of
College
a
has
increasing and improving diffusing agricultural knowledge among view
a
The
classes.
foundation
a
use
means
in
among
on
province, a
Research and
the
practical system
ments. developagriculturalassociations most
recent
making the results experimental farms known of
endeavoured book
Pusa
to
the
remove
agriculturein
want
Bengali
cultivatingclasses. 1
and
2
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
been the result of agricultural education it has been the longest t hat established, a mittee comto report on the workingof the appointedby Government department and the agricultural collegeof Madras, agricultural attached the highestimportanceto the agricultural education a nd the in and the devoted schools, more college they imparted So
has satisfactory
in Madras, where
than half their report to this subject. It is often said that the native agricultural the are practices best for India and that they are not capableof improvement. I was surprisedto find duringmy tours of 1898 and 1904 to 1906, of the Madras, Bombay and that the native agricultural practices far advance in of those of Bengal and the Central Provinces are education has been the United Provinces of India. If agricultural in the Madras beneficial where the existing found Presidency, is how much beneficial of more agriculture reallysuperior, system is ! backward We have not only will it be for Bengal, which so of science and western western to benefit from our knowledge but we have also to learn the superior followed practices, practices
by
the
non-Aryan
of
South
India.
Indeed, Indian
culture agrivastlyimproved by our contact with the actually of introducing West. European plantershave been the means out-of-the-way important innovations. In the most placesof find European plantersimperceptiblyand noiselessly India we experimentsand improvements. We find carryingon agricultural delicate Englishvegetables the them most even growing during them in trenches. Some the hot weather by cultivating of our articles of food and fodder have been introduced by commonest beet,papaya, Europeans. Maize, oats, potatoes,tobacco,cabbages, varieties of plantains, lucerne and guinea-grass, the superior are few English cereals,root-crops, all exotics. Indeed, there are and fruits that have not been introduced with success vegetables into India,and European farm implementsare in common in use is difficult I t think to of some plantations. agricultural any or successfully, unexperimentsthat have not been alreadytried,successfully Even the which by European planters. steam-plough, is stillconsidered an expensiveluxury in Europe,has been tried within my own knowledge. by planters races
has been
The to
aim
yieldmore
of this book will be to consider how soilscan than they do, how irrigation be made can
be made
possible
for the poor raiyat,how to extend the cultivation of droughtresisting crops, how to preserve, without damage, food and fodder, how to t^heexcess productionof one year, for years of scarcity, These of famine. measures organise protection against pages wiU be mainly devoted other to the consideration of the food and necessaries of life or what can become food,etc.,for the masses. and machineryas can be They will discuss only such appliances used
or by the raiyatindividually They will analyse collectively.
only such manures the raiyat.They
as
will
may
be
placed within easy reach rid of,and of getting
explainftiemeans
of of
4:
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
of Rs. 10 a maund, fifteen at the price example like jute, the taken as produceper acre, the raiyats' being average be regardedas Rs. 100 per acre, while the share of the outturn may shared and the 50 Rs. are by the Indian middleman remaining a
concrete
maunds
raiyathas always been, his he can it used afford to be, and now little luxuries which his forefathers never
European exporter. Poor poverty is not so intense
spend
to
on
money
the Indian
as
as
dreamt of enjoying. The buy land and to become Rs. 10 or Rs. 12 a month
of the landless labourer
ambition
The agriculturist.
an
in
who
man
a
in
countries Let will pay a
'
be
gentleman/
a
the
gentleman
It is
Indian to
were
He
can
compete
agriculture, by as
get their
outturn
succeed
may
cultivator
a
their at
with
finds out
cultivator)will at
smaller
labourers
number
how
in
some
years of actual the
the
a
and
hard
labour
and
but
cocoon-rearers.
ordinary
and
thus
only cost
for
him.
He
time.
When
the
a
where and
to
undersell he sells
put
it
taught scientificmethods
largenumber
in
cultivators
industrythey will be able
it,and
smaller
accomplishingvery
actually in his presence.
actual
cost
he grows
have
agriculture
mean
of
agriculture pay him. in for and go ordinary when industrious working (so
doing work
crop, a
not
dint
makes
work
and frugality
it at to
be
with
new
grow
his
smaller
a
a
price. I
duringeleven a
settling it is not
labourers
employ
pretendingto
never
only by
cultivator
themselves)sleepingover
littlewhen
I do
misunderstood.
farming,he will find these for
to
Europe. not
me
that frugality
If
for
money
earns
Calcutta mill also looks forward
buying land and cattle and down an as agriculturist. Surely agriculture pays, and in wfiich it happens to be in that depressedcondition
savingenough
is to
on
it,he (the
the market
of sericulture
whom of persons, among It is these latter alone
are
who
while all the educated with profit, have who In a climate like men gone in for it have lost money. that of India, agricultural for men who is unsuitable industry be in the field with their labourers. cannot are
carryingout
new
methods
and educated derive Capitalists men can profitfrom agriculture and by actingas middlemen, findingland, seed, manure for their cattle a nd labour and their cultivators, appliances using and sharingwith them the profits.Cultivation by partnership is indeed a well-recognised culturist system in Bengal,and, iltrained agri"
go in for it
this system may largely, prove to be of the and methods introducing superiorstaples superior of cultivation. One has, say, five-hundred bighasof land. He Cultivators of the neighbourhoodto go in partnership gets some with him and to give him half the produce. He givesthem seed, well-selected and of superior kinds ; he finds them superior appliances for irrigation, hoeing,thrashingand winnowing; he buys
highestbfehefitin 4
for them and he takes half the crop for himself. He manures, knows how to store his crop secure against insects,and he sells it for seed againat twice the priceat which he would have sold his
5
'INTRODUCTION.
at
crop
harvest
time.
ordinary system
Then, by the with
This would
be
improvement over by partnership. can one employment of capital, compete
the
an
of cultivation
cultivators
in such
or agricultural,
rather
cessfully suc-
industrial
as requirea largeoutlay at the start. Two graduates pursuits, of SaidapetCollege are making largeprofits by conductingdairies. of cheese, butter and manufacture The that ghi,with appliances
ordinarilypurchased by cultivators,would prove with a capital. The remunerative to a man method of sugar devised by Mr. S. M. Hadi, of Cawnpore, can manufacture be with capital of a few thousand rupees. by men adoptedin practice a lso would Fruit-farming probablypay well in suitable situations. be preservedby a rapid process of deFruits and vegetablescan siccation. be
cannot
This is
is likely industry which, properly developed,
an
of one importantfuture before it. The abundance year from for in another can rotting preserved consumption year. But some classes will have of the students of the agricultural with do in and agriculturiststhe capacityof revenue to agriculture officers. The knowledge of agriculture is of great value for revenue officers and district engineers. When the Director of the the of Economic or Products, Department, Reporter Agricultural to
have
an
be
or
expert officer
any
of Government,
seeks
any
information
of
an
samples,he
usuallyrefers to district any for such information or samples. The officers district officers and they (thedisconsult their deputiesor the district engineers, trict find how out officers)usually ignoranttheir subordinate character, or agricultural
officers
are
regardingthe Revenue
circumstances
officers and
likelyto training of the populationwho are are
masses
of
life,and
ignore. A littleknowledge
or
to
which
officers
literaryand
mere
of the
the wants
of the cultivators. district engineerswith an cultural agrifor the some acquire sympathy employed in producingthe staff
interests these
whose
and
immediate
are
now
scientific
too
apt
to
forget
traininggivesone
surroundings,in the midst of
one's lot is
and littleaptitude to be cast in actual life, likely in official surroundings, an capacity.The statistics which oughtto be of greatvalue in estimating agricultural the resources of the people in times of famine, being compiled who have by men acquaintancewith land very little practical and its produce,and who, owing partlyto the very education they in
dealingwith
have
such
received,are
accustomed
to
take
very
little interest in such
duringthe last famine in pation Bengal. The famine programmes, annuallypreparedin anticiof famine district wide of found the were by engineers, and mark in practice, ignored. The district staffs might were,
were questions,
found
to
well in future be manned
be of little use
have received not only a and scientific education, but who have been accustomed literary and handle the thingswith which they will be ordinarily to see surrounded in their practical life. Such officers will be able to in an intelligent draw up famine programmes after ascermanner
by
officers who
6
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
taininglocal conditions,and enquiringof if
they
had
any
works
to
the
cultivators themselves which might protect suggest,
In certain localities, I know of cultivators accustomed roads and bunds to cut across have been of their crops. for the protection admittingwater into their fields, for the district have to been applying fruitlessly They years here, a channel there ; and for permission engineerfor a sluice-gate
certain tracts
againstfailure.
who
to open
a
earlieror a little lock-gate
a
little later than
usual,and
so
of crops, officerswith a rural protection and their able to shape their famine programme in the interest of the cultivators. As men annual programme in chargeof Government estates, officers with agricultural training
Having an will be training
on.
eye to the
of Government zemindar the position for will recognise as a model and they will know how to utilisethe Khas the khas mahal raiyats, best ment to the Mahal Improvement Fund advantage. Governthe mahal their khas can initiating tenants, depend upon under their charge,to at least one permanent improvement, for and to the offiwhich they will be always grateful to Government cers in times of famine. concerned, specially If, for instance, the under induce mahal tenants their charge khas they can teach them to use the roots for food to grow tapiocaroots, and and to extract flour out of them, they will have done some nent permagood,and they will have saved those tenants perhaps for all ' '
' '
' ;
' '
' '
' '
times from
As managers the jaws of famine. of Court of Wards will have ample opporestates, officerswith agricultural training tunities for agricultural of utilising the allotment annually made reforms. improvements,by introducingwell-thought-out They it of irrigation will find in most places is some method practicable that the
raiyatneeds,and, if they can
there,a windmill
somewhere
else,and
givehim teach
a
him
canal here,a well how
to lift water
from small depthsand great depthswith fairly cheap appliances, the outlaytheywill incur on account of the estate they may happen to manage, tract for all time to protect a certain precarious may In from droughtand failure of crops. come, parts of Bengal many where water in wells is available at the driest season within twenty or twenty-fivefeet from the surface,the introduction of the most method inexpensive prevalentin the Western Coast of India from Dwarka with hand and foot by means to Eatnagiri water of lifting of a primitive Persian wheel, would become the means of giving less an or impetusto the cultivation of rabi crops, which are more in ignored Bengal. And the educatinginfluence of such innovations, even on the Indian raiyat, who is proverbially conservative,though slow, will be lasting.For the raiyat, thoughconservative,is onlyobliged to be so on account of his poverty. He cannot afford to lose money
by launchingout on mere methods some practicable "
his old ways.
before his eyes, Have
if the benefits of
But speculations. are
demonstrated
"
monstrated depersistently
he will be induced to change cultivators taken to growingpotatoes the not efven
7
INTRODUCTION,
and
tobacco, and usingthe Behia mill for crushingsugarcane, and
the the
silkworm microscopefor selecting raiyatwith a littlepatienceand
you
must
You
have
have
confidence in
to
treat
methods.
own
your
grain?
questionof
The
and
to manage
famine
in India
is
gation, mainly a questionof irrihave must o ne a irrigation properly, fairly and of agricultural science. It engineering
knowledge of of soil diminishes has been observed that the productivepower of years where canal water is used too freelyfor after a number and that localities too freelyirrigated the purpose of irrigation, with canal water, become malarious. The questionof well-irrigation is beingseriously discussed as probablyfraughtwith greater advantage,and along with this must be considered suitable implements solid
for
from
water lifting
various
depths.
be the slightest doubt the whole, however, there cannot the best that canals have famine. I protectionagainst proved will quote a few figuresfrom the reports of the famine year taken, 1896-7, to prove that the construction of canals should be underOn
wherever famine
by possible,
In
of relief work, at
Bengal the capitaloutlay on reached
1896-7, had of canals in
any
rate, in
to the close of The total length 7,61,23,817. 738 miles used 916 miles,including for
canals
up
total of Rs.
a
was operation being used
the rest irrigation, also
way
times.
miles
2,605
of canal
for navigationonly. There were distributaries. These were capableof for 1896-7 The amount to receipts
1,572,005 acres. irrigating Ks. 25,63,047 and the working expenses to Rs. 19,37,142,the net Rs. revenue 6,25,905 againstRs. 2,45,646 and Rs. 1,38,135 being in the two from actuallyirrigated precedingyears. The areas these canals in 1896-7 and the two previous respectively years were 805,387
The
579,933
acres
and
509,811
acres.
The
average
be put areas canal-irrigated may sixteen maunds of rice. at twenty-fourmaunds, representing of grainfrom the 805,387 acres served by canal water outturn
outturn
down
acres,
of
paddy
per
acre
from
The annual consumpbe put down at 12,000,000 maunds. tion of grainper individual adult beingput down at six maunds, of adult units directly the number saved from starvation by canal in Bengalduringthe famine may be calculated to have irrigation been two millions in 1896-97. may
The
figuresfor and
Bombay the Punjab
Madras
the are
United
Provinces, the Punjab, Sind,
equallyor still more the capital outlay of
In satisfactory.
841 lakhs of rupees the net revenue more recovered, up to the end of 1896-7, amounting to 865 lakhs of rupees, or takingthe interest chargeof 556 lakhs of rupees into account, the State has already works recovered 310 lakhs out of the 841 lakhs spent in irrigation exceeded 109 lakhs, in the Punjab. In 1896-7, the gross revenue while the working expenses were below 31 lakhs, leavinga net
the whole
has been
of profit
of
than
about
78J lakhs
to the
to 9*34 State,which is equivalent
8
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTUBE.
invested. The area irrigated in the Punjab per cent, on the capital one-fifth in that famine year was of the total 4,621,000acres, viz., of the province. Of this 1,441,000 acres cultivated area were under wheat (whichalone must have saved between three and four million persons from starvation).The total quantityof foodkinds raised of all by canal water in the Punjab in 1896-7 crops sufficed to feed over six millions of peopleor a quarter of the entire of population
that
province.But
the
does area actuallyirrigated that it is whole the and t o possible irrigate represent grow The capital mous, on. food-grain outlayon canal works, though enornot
representsbut a small fraction of the benefit rendered to The value of the crops raised through their means. agriculture in the Punjab in 1896-7 alone was estimated by canal irrigation of the whole viz.,nearlytwice the amount incurred from the the value per commencement capitaloutlay ; levied was acre being estimated at Us. 33, while the water-rate for more Rs. 3-4. The figures recent still aging, encourare more years the interest on capital than ten per working up to more at
1,508 lakhs
Even
cent.
a
of rupees,
canal like the Eden
Canal in
Bengal,which
has not
benefit to the yet proved remunerative, has brought immense the has been raised and water-rate latelywithout any country, worth speakingof, so that profitmay be expectedin opposition as
future. A
science will enable one to avoid knowledge of agricultural of deterioration about gation-wate Irrisoil by canal irrigation. a bringing of the soil, while used adds to the fertility judiciously and it wash the can injudiciously lavishlyused, good gradually time. out of the soil and render the locality unhealthyat the same
The cultivator will take nine inches of water ifhe can get it,though two to six inches accordingto the season of the year will do him nine of the soil intact, than the more inches,leaving good fertility and the locality free from malaria. It is somewhat unfortunate,however, that in this as in every other country, agricultural education is being taken advantage of almost exclusively by persons who are not directlyinterested in agriculture. Neither the farm labourer,nor the farmer, nor the landed proprietor, education. a as rule, for agricultural cares, and schools in almost Agricultural colleges country are every who either by place-seekers town-bred or by fancy men, they can make their fortune by scientificfarming or by cattle do occasionally turn out ranching. In other countries such men
crammed
*
successful farmers or colonists. But in India the caste system has ingrainedand stamped in different classes,different abilities and disabilities in such an indelible manner, that the priestlyand writer castes who generally in for high education are ab initio go unfit subjects for agricultural and the higheducation they training, in for makes them suitable for less an pursuit. agricultural go Their instincts, their habits oibody and of mind, are not suitable
lor
an
agricultural occupation.They
are
eminentlyfitted
for
INTRODUCTION.
9
but not for success in agricultural It pathso! life, pursuits. therefore for India that classesof the doublyimportant right education peopleshould be encouraged to receive agricultural that the benefit derived by them may easily filterdown to their
other is
To expect the benefits of agrifellow-caste-men in rural tracts. cultural education to filterdown to rural tracts from the prospective farms and plantations that the Bengali or the Maratha gardens, '
'
after receiving education gentleman may establish, agricultural of a high order, is a far-fetched hope. Vernacular education,on the other hand, has spreadso far in rural tracts in Bengal,that find many actual cultivators who have passedthe we now can vernacular middle or even higher examinations. They are quite, of and these in a receiving systematic capable training agriculture,
who will have influence among their fellow-caste-men. of with agricultural In dealing the cultivator class a great pupils But deal of patience, a great deal of sympathy,is at firstneeded. been has made when a once them, headway -agricultural among will their It is therefore come directly through progress agency. are
the
men
of great importanceto induce, by the offer of suitable scholarships or otherwise,sons of bond fidecultivators who have passedat least the middle vernacular examinations,to come for special agricultural to a central institution, and then go back to their respective training will not feel disappointed Such men if they cannot secure villages. Government appointments.Traininga hundred men of this sort allotment of a hundred scholarships, the will have far judicious by the agricultural effect in ameliorating condition of this province who will than training a dozen university graduatesannually, if they in disgust, probablygiveup all connection with agriculture fail to secure Government the It is appointments. spreadof by more
than by reduction of revenue demand must banks that the famine of or agricultural question There is no occasion for the raiyatto starve when there be met. but the raiyatdoes not know how he can help shorter is a rainfall, himself. He -must be taught. So, while a class has been properly
education rather agricultural
openingof
established in Bengal for highertrainingin agriculture given to and engineers a few Universitygraduates or surveyors with the of them Government officersin certain special as object employing in which agricultural capacities knowledgeis needed,it must not be forgotten that the more ly importantscheme, of givinga thoroughin a properlyequipped farm, to practical agricultural training is yet to follow. It is the 'want the actual cultivator, of such a scheme of education that is really at the bottom of the small amount of practical the agricultural success departmentshave attained hitherto. The objectof agriculture is the production of food and other essential requirements of man, and the aim of the science of agriculture is the productionin the best condition,of the greatest of produce, in the shortest space of time, at the least cost amount and with the smallest deteriorationof land. The sciences helpful
OV
HANDBOOK
to
this
end is
which and
required
;
(6)
:
(1) in
Hydrostatics (c/. Parts
Chemistry V)
are
Zoology
(8) Political
IV
"
II)
VII) VI)
(cf. Part
;
I
Part
understanding (c/. Part
(some
Mineralogy
and
Geology
(c/. Part
Economy
AOBIOTOTtTBE.
;
(7)
;
(3)
(5)
of
this
Botany
Veterinary
Bacteriology
VIII).
of
knowledge
book)
;
(c/. Part Science
(c/. Part
(2)
nics Mecha-
III)
;
(4)
(c/. Part VI)
and
12
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
violent in past ages than they are now. more very much Take, for instance,the Deccan trap formation, two hundredthousand square miles in area and as much six thousand feet as
were
deep in some depositmust
places.The
volcanic outbursts that resulted in this fearful. But all over the earth's crust we have evidence of contortions and dislocations of the strata that form the outer crust of the earth,which pointto very great heat actingfrom within the bowels of the earth. This heat gradually becomingless,in other words, the earth gettingcooler and cooler, the disturbances on the earth's surface have also become less and less. At one time the heat and the disturbances in the and dislocations were shape of earthquakes so great that no plant
have been
most
animal could have lived on the surface of the earth. Gradually the surface gettingcooler and quieter, plantand animal lives made their appearance. But thousands and perhapsmillions of years
or
before elapsed It is of the sun,
the surface of the earth became
supposed
that
planet
our
was
and
fit for human
ation. habit-
a originally portion violent sun a by of burning and
that it was spittedout by the action. nebulous This fluid mass centrifugal or
has been graduallygettingcooler and cooler revolvingmatter and solidifying of from the surface downwards. The composition the whole of
a
of the solid crust of the earth can be studied and even ' of the fluid portion as it is called, lyingunderneath magma, '
the crust, as volcanic action has exposed to the surface not the solid strata but also the liquid below. magma have Geologists
and
found
out
dislocationsto which
the
for subjected
in the midst outer
crust
of
only
all the contortions
of the
earth
has
been
formingthe crust occur in a certain definite order all over In England the earth's surface. these strata occur in beautiful regularity west, from south-east to norththe newer older tions formaformations at the south-east and the at the north-west. In other countries althoughthese strata do not occur in such regular succession exposed to the surface, a similar order can be traced all over the surface of the earth. If
ages past,that the
strata
study the character of the rocks so exposedin succession, in cuttingsor horizontally we as vertically pass from field fied and districtto district, find two classes of rocks,stratifield, we and unstratified. Unstratified rocks are igneousin origin, i.e., we
either to
thrown up from the burningbowels of the earth. The stratified rocks have been formed by the action of rivers,lakes,or the When sea. rocks formed by such action have been afterwards heat by or changed, by great pressure, they are called metamorphic rocks. find from below upwards,we order prevailing of these strata : in the deposition following Tht fir$tfthat is,the lowermost stratum, may be called the Lowtr Magma. This consists of basic rocks rich in earthy bases and oxides of iron. Volcanic4 action has exposedthis deep liquid strata Studyingthe geological
the
layerto the
"
surface of the earth in the form of Basalt and similar
GEOLOGICAL
Greenstones
rocks.
and
Basalts
J3
STRATA,
generallyare
called trap-rocks
in the form of stepson hill-sides. The solidification they of the Lower Magma has usuallytaken placeafter volcanic eruption the surface of the earth,and therefore they occur on chiefly which have formed these volcanic rocks. Many of the eruptions as occur
as
rocks took
recent times, and fairly placein, geologically speaking, hence the rocks often lie over others,sedimentaryand metamorthe plains phic,which were formed at an earlier date. All over of Deccan occur usuallyin horizontal layersof six to trap-rocks, each ninetyfeet, layerbeing a separate lava depositevidencing succession of volcanic eruptions.The total depth of these suca cessive of reaches in some deposits trap placesto 5,000 or 6,000 is about 200,000 feet,and the total area covered by these trap-rocks miles. Soils formed of from are "decomposition trap-rocks square
naturallyvery fertile,being rich in silica,alumina, iron,lime, magnesia,potash, phosphates and soda. The celebrated black*
cotton-soil
or
Eegur of
Southern
and
Central India
was
formed
chiefly out of trap-rocks. the Lower on Magma is lighter 2nd. -The Upper Magma -resting is more This and of silica. is stratum largely composed therefore called the siliceous or acidic magma. It is mainlyplutothat under is solidified slow and to say, nic, by cooling pressure, in conseqiience, in the form of coarse-grained occurs pacted crystalscomin of the form The of plutonic granite. together presence is of formation. indication earliest the an granite geological They difficultto distinguish usuallyintrude into gneissand it is sometimes between intruded dykes or veins of graniteand the older of graniteoccur metamorphic schists. Veins andr"dykes out throughthe vast metamorphic(orgneissose) rocks of India,all alongthe Granite Himalayas,in the Arravali hills,and also in the Deccan. consists of quaitz, mica and in felspar, varying proportions.
but felspar is. Quartz and mica are not of much value as fertilizers, Soils formed of graniteare therefore less fertile than those out formed whole hills of feldspathic out of Basalt. But there are
granitenear
Rajmahal,at
the foot of which
are
some
of the most
fertile tracts of land suitable for rice,melons and mustard. The acidic rocks contain sixty to seventy-five per cent, of the basic rocks less than fifty The acidic rocks silica, per cent. and rocks while the basic are are light, more infusible, very heavy and of fine texture, and they are not so infusible. The principal acidic rocks are : Granite, Felsite,Obsidian,Pumice, Syenite, "
Trachyteand
basic rocks are Basalt, Pophyrite.The principal and Labradorite). Diallage (containing
Dokrite,Diorite and Gabbro
consist of gneiss, metamorphic rooks. These mentation the formed jointaction of sediby clay-slate, in water and compactionby heat or pressure. They called azoic because no trace of life has been discovered in are them. There are three distinctsystems of azoic rocks which from 3rd
"
The
Azote
mica-schist and
or
"
14
HANDBOOK
above
downwards
be
OF
AOBICULTURE.
called the
Vindhyan, the Sub-metaMetamorphic. The Vindhyan system consists morphic and of sandstones, limestones,shale and iron pyrites, and the fernof like (dendritic) markings earthymanganese oxide which may be for fossil plants, characteristic of this system. mistaken are easily The Sub-metamorphic system consists of quartzite, sandstone, The slate,shale and limestone of more crystalline appearance. may
the
older and stillmore rock which abounds in Southern crystalline India is called gneiss.More than half the Peninsular area is on gneiss.From Cape Comorin to Colgongon the Ganges,a distance width of 350 miles or an area of nearly of 1,400 miles with a mean 500,000 square miles, the land is composed of gneiss or soils formed mainlyout of gneiss.Patches of newer here strata occur and there on the gneiss.The Bundelkhand gneissis the oldest of in the Himalayas, in the Chutia Nagpur all. Gneiss also occurs It is composed of quartz, Division of Bengal and in Assam. chlorite and hornblende, mica, all or only two of which felspar, be present. Lead, silver,garnet, corundum and minerals may found azoic rocks. The in lead-ore diamond or are occasionally in Chutia Lead-ores occur the azoic system is 26,000 better than granitic but micafeet. The soils are somewhat soils, but only quartz and mica, are schists which contain no felspar, Quite recently apatite has been discovered in the mica poor. mines of Hazaribagh a fact which is of considerable agricultural
galenaof Bhagalpur contains silver. Nagpur also. The greatest depth of
"
importance. Above the Vindhyan system which represents a transition tary between the true metamorphicgneissand the true sedimenSilurian system which are marked rocks of the Lower with terised the Pateeozoic rocks. The Palaeozoic periodis characcome ripples, of the of first remains the life, though by very appearance few animals have been discovered in the older of these rocks. ~A trilobites and graptolites shells called and some few zoophytes, 4th.
"
fossil remains found in them. The greatest Silurian rocks,as these older rocks are called, is about 30,000 feet,and of the Upper Silurians about 108,000 feet. sandstones, limestones The Lower Silurian rocks consist of shales, This system is scarcely in India. and conglomerates. represented
the are Lower the depth of
Oldhamia
Lower
The
the Himalayan gneiss. Silurian beds are found overlying Upper Silurian system consists of the Old- r^-sandstone
and the Permian rocks (15,000feet) the Carboniferous (dO,000feet), ferous feet)or the New-red-sandstone. Of these the carbonigroup (3,000 consist of These India. i n rocks are chiefly represented The limestones,shallow beds of sandstone, and coal measures. them in coal and of of coal measures Bengal are great importance, with and their possible iron associated limestone, importance being Coal exists in an igneous of manufacture is evident* form in the ftlder metamorphic formations, for or* crystalline ordinaryform instance, ia the district of Sambalpur,in the more
as
centres
GEOLOGICAL
15
STRATA.
formations also in carboniferous rocks and in the later tertiary and in the recent formations as peat. Feat can be dug out of a depth of only twenty feet in places south of Calcutta. The coal of Bengalis characterised by the usual fossilsof the carboniferous and systems, viz.,lepidodendron
calamite.
The
fields Raniganj coal-
embrace of about 500 square miles,the Barrakar area an coal-fieldsabout 220 square miles and the Jheria coal-fieldsabout The depth of some of the Raniganjcoal seams 200 square miles. is seventy to eightyfeet. The Bengal carboniferous rocks come is called the Gondwana under what system. The soils of this but poorer than than better granitesoils, system are indifferent, basaltic and alluvial soils. There is not much to choose between the gneissose soils of Chutia Nagpur and the soils of the coal-fields indifferent of Burdwan and Manbhum. As a rule, they are
f:
soils.
i
U
ftj ftfe"
of the The Gond wan a system. Palaeozoic and strata upper from Jurassic the lower strata of the Mesozoic groups in India (i.e., included under the Gonddown to Carboniferous rocks) are have been wana system. They probablydepositedby rivers and "
sandstones and shales. Plant remains are but animal remains. The Eajmehalhills, the Damonot common dar Valley,the TributaryMehals of Orissa and Chhatisgarh, Chutia and and Son the the Valley, Nagpur Upper Satpurarange at the the Gondwana Grodavery basin, are the localities representing
are
chiefly composed of
system. which first Air-breathing animals their appearance the close of the Paleozoic at epoch appearedin abundance at the Mesozoic epoch. The lowest group of this epoch is called the Triassic group (about2,300 feet in maximum The next thickness). higheris called the Oolitic (about and the topmost group is called 4,500 feet in maximum thickness) 5th." The
Mesoxoic Epoch. "
made
the Cretaceous (maximum thickneSvS, 11,000 feet). Fossil remains have been discovered in the Damodar of Labyrinthodonreptiles acteristic Valley above the coal-fieldsof the Panchet hills. These are charof the Triassic period. They have been also discovered in the Central Provinces of India : but Triassic rocks occur chiefly in the North- Western Himalayas,where theyoccur to the thickness feet. The Oolitic group of rocks is subdivided of 1,000 to 2,000 into (1)Liassic,(2) Jurassic and (3) Oolitic proper. Monstrous
Plesiosaurus and Pterodactyle) the were (Icthyosaurus, reptiles characteristicanimals of this period.The ammonite and belemnite of the
Himalayas are Himalayas are both
Oolitic* The shales and limestones of the Liassic and Oolitic. The Bajmehal hills
which abound
in fossilplantsare Jurassic. The cretaceous system at allin Bengal,thoughportions of the Nizam's represented of and the and also of Assam belong dominion Bombay Presidency is not
to this
system. Tracts rich in fossilremains
those where
gneissand limestones meet.
are
also very fertile,
16
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
6th." The Neozoic epoch follows
the rnesozoic,and at this epoch remains of animals and plants across for the first time we come alliedto those of the present time. The trilobiteof the Silurian period,the peculiarbony-armouredfish of the Red-sandstone, and reeds of the carboniferous system, the large club-mosses the Oolite,the ammonites of the Lias and the forms of life. Only from three to four chalk, giveplaceto new per cent, of the tertiary plantsand animals of the earliest strata are modern ; about eighteen and animals of the per cent, of the plants and middle tertiaryperiodare there is no distinct gap modern, the close of the tertiaryperiod and the recent between period. The lowest tertiary forms periodis called Eocene when the existing first seen. The middle period is called Miocene, and of life are of huge reptiles
the
the upp3rnmst tertiaryperiodis called Pliocene. The nummulitic limastone formations of the Himalayas, often attaining a height of 16,000 feet,are marine and belong to the eocene mals period. Mamin the and first the miocene extensive fossil period, appeared remains of the Siwalik range belongto this period. The Sivatherium deer is the characteristic fossil of this period. Giganticcrocodiles and land turtles of modern times also occurred, and a huge but extinct
speciesof tortoise,a
and
agate
knives
have
of
this
characteristic
very
Neozoic
Tertiaryor "
alluvial
the
Indus
plainwhich
of
In
man.
we
as
with
8th."
"
are
much
as containing or
Upper Godagreatest depth of the
Brahmaputra there of miocene
mainly Recent
and
the rock
recent
lies
the
a
pliocene
Formations, the
with
as
impregnated with 25 to
35%
of iron.
hydrated peroxide.
is covered
but
in the
mencement com-
first appearance are
sented, repreconcerned
deposits.
in the origin of laterite and its position of Laterite is subjects some dispute. porous
much
rock argillaceous
exposure
the
and post-tertiary
The
Laterite.
limonite
tho
aie
the
his appearance,
of the other systems Bengal,though some have alreadyindicated,we aie mainly
geological system
as
and
in
seen
is 9,000 feet.
periodbeingcoeval
alluvial
these
discovered
period. The
consists
tertiarydeposits. These of this
been
be
can
first made
periodman
of rocks
group
Between
7th. vast
In the Pliocene
Museum.
Indian
shell of which
with when
The
iron The
surface
peroxide,some chiefly
iron exists of
blackish brown or a freshlybroken is mottled brown
considerable
yellow and
laterite
after
crust
of limonite,
with
tints of
proportionconsists
of and a clay which contains no iron. Examples of all these forms with at Garhbeta in the district of Midnapur. The to be met are caused exposed surface is pittedwith hollows and irregularities The rock has a scoriaeeous by washing away of softer portions. it is associated usually with and volcanic appearance, especially as But it is believed to basalt and other igneousrocks now usually
brown, white
red
*
mentary. be of detrital origin producedfrom other rocks,igneousand sediof and India laterite Central The high-level Western
17
STRATA.
GEOLOGICAL
the iron is not sandy. does not appear to be detrital in origin as The low-level laterite of Bengal is mixed up with sand, quartz, laterite sandyclayand gravel. The high-level ferruginous pebbles,
always caps the highestlava flow,which makes the subjectof its and more originso difficult to understand. It becomes more that it is the normal however, simply weathering probable, product of highlybasic rocks under the conditions of a tropical climate. The low-level laterite is probablythe detritus of the high-level laterite. The action of rain and streams having carried away sand and clay,the heavy iron-sand is left as laterite, the lighter and to this may be due the concentration of the ferruginous element. while The age of the low-level laterite is certainly post-tertiary, is laterite the high-level being constantlyproduced. sands*Blown sand forms the soil is quiterecent. Alluvial close to the sea, and its deposit of places will be dealt with in the next Chapter. deposits should be noted that (1)clay,(2)sand, (3)gravel, It (4)peat, formation and marine of recent ooze shell-marl are (6) analogous (5) to (1) shale,(2) sandstone,(3)conglomerate, (4)coal, respectively of old and chalk formations. The limestone plder geological (6) (5) the But their more the sedimentaryrocks, compact they are. age is indicated chiefly by fossils. and Blown 9th." Alluvial deposits
"
in The strata of the crust of the earth has found recent .to the the top to the bottom or from the most below as : be graphically represented
India, from oldest,may
"
NROZOIC
A.
| I
|Plei8tocene
MBSOZOiu
-v
(3rd).
r Pliocene
Miocene (4th). IEocene (5th).
Tertiary
\Cuddalore /
rooks.
(6th). (7th). (8th). tLiassic (9th). Gondwana Triassic(IOrh). system. Permian (llth). f I Cretaceous
I JK.
(1st).
I Decent
Tertiaru Post rost-lertiaty
( Oolitic 1 Jurassic
Oolitic
proper
.
TT*""~ Upper
C.
PALEOZOIC
"lurian
nftrKnnifl.n,,n (12th). \ Carboniferous
n*
(oldred-sandstone
\ Lower
Silurian
(13th).
(14th).
(15th). Sub-metamorphic (16th). / Peninsular ,^"",^ M"t
(Vindhyan (Bundelkhand
Metamorphic
of following summary refer they particularly
The strata
as
Gneiss (17th). Gneiss (18th).
the characters of the be found to India may
geological
useful : "
A. NEOZOIC. sands, alluvium, fluviatile and marine, including deltas and Blown lagoons, laterite and gravels. Exampl*," the united delta of the Ganges and miles and ft depth the Brahmaputra, covering a space of 60.000 to 60,000square General cf"racof about 600 feet, and the whole of the Indo-Gangetic batfn. t*r," fine sands and clay with occasional pebbles or pebble-beds,beds of peat
Itt. Recent.
"
and remains of tree*, but
no
trace
of marine
organisms.
18
HANDBOOK
02
AGBKJULTURE.
Glacial period." Erratic boulders Modern fauna.
and moraines
in the
layas Hima-
Upper Punjab.
and
3rd. Pliocene period." Sott massive sandstone, also claysand conglomerates, many limestones. frefth*water, resting on the nammulic Example," Sivvalik-beds, allied to modern of animals, chieflymammals fauna ; full of fossil remains '
also in Sind, the Punjab, the North- West Provinces of India, and along layan narrow stripof bills from the Jhelnm to the Brahmaputra in the Sub-Himaregion,1,500 miles long and 12 to 15,000feet in thickness.
4th. Miocene. "Marine fossiliferous bands
sandstones and highly clays with gypsum periodis representedin Sind.
sands, shales, clays with gypsum, Uppermost beds
of limestones. containing estuarine shells. This
a
are
limestones passing "5th. Eocene." Sandstones, probably fresh-water ; also marine limestones ; clays With gypsum and into sandstones and shales ; nummuUtic ligniteabounding in marine fauna. Examples in Sind, tho Punjab, Orissa Burma. Coast, Assam ana
B, MESOZOIC, "6M. Cretaceous over
in the middle
of this
and tbere in the Himalayas, the Indian Peninsula, where it is covered by the Deccan basalt, which is the volcanic lava
system 11,000 feet." Here
Chalk
or
especiallyin Assam, and
but
all
west
over
period. Clth. Oolitic proper."Himalayan shales and limestones. I 8M. Jurassw." Hajmehal hills (characterisedby fossil plants) and I Upper Panchet Series.
OOLITIC
FEET.l 9th. 4,50;)
l.
and limestones of the Himalayas. Lower Li"i9*ic. -Shales beds of the Kajmehal hills and the lias of India belong to the Gondwana
system.
Panchet Series of the Daraodar Lower IQth. Triassic 2,300feet..-" Valley showing also of the valleysof the Central Provinces remains of Labyrinthodon reptiles, and of North- WV"st Himalayas, where they attain to a thickness of 1,1)00to and [theSalt Range of the Punjab. The 2,000 feet chieflyin. North Kashmir like those of the alpine trias. These fossils are belong to the Gondwana
C. PALAEOZOIC. New-red- sandstone or 3,000 feet." Thick beds of sandstones llth. Permian group and shales of flnviatile origin,belonging to the Gondwana system. The Lower rocks which correspond with the Permian Series are the Talchir and Darauda rocks of Europe. 12th. Carboniferous system 15,000 feet."Raniganj, Barrakar Belong to the Gondwana system. i3(/i. Old Red-Sandstone
and
Jheria
fields.
90,000feet."Scarcelyrepresented in India.
Silurian and 30,000 feet."Shales, limestones, sandstones rates. conglomeThis is scarcelyrepresented in India, but is found on the top of Himalayan
llth" Lower
gneiss.
D. Azoic. rocks 26,000feet."Oldest known rocks of India are gneiss ancient Palaeozoic rocks. They belong to two periods. Tfee Gneiss (18th)is covered by certain transition or SubOlder or Bundelkhand metamorphic rocks (called also Vindhyan system of rocks)which (15th)as altered (16th)and intersected by gneiss become they approach the younger The Upper graniteintrusions. In West Himalayas both the gneissesoccur. is fprmed by the metamorphisra of older Pakeozoic Himalayan gneiss(16th)
IbthtolSth.
Arr.h"an
underlying the
rocks*
20
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
though occasional elevation by silt formation,due to inundation, alluvium is ordinarily in places.The newer under also occurs formation and it has the tendency to rise,though occasionally of whole tracts of new and disappearance denudation alluvium often takes place in different localities. This generaldepression elevation of the newer vium alluof the older alluvium and this general from the geological to be distinguished are upheaval and in taken the of Bengal that have alluvial tracts place depression since the tertiary period. The elevation of the Tipperahills and of the Gangeticdelta by of coast the Orissa,and the depression be explainedby alluvial action nearly five hundred feet cannot There is evidence denudation. to show that the drainage and some Indo-Gangeticplain took place at only,viz.,the delta of the Indus, and that of the
been formed
since the
drainageby of jungles Dacca are existed
which accumulation
of depression a
second
The
probablythe remains which priorto this depression
of
one
delta
Gangeticdelta havS litating part of Bengal,faciextensive Madhupur of the
old
alluvium has resulted in the in the greater portion of East
alluvium
new
by
the
the lower
outlet.
time
one
Bengal. the
rocks prevailing
of
Bengaland Bihar are alluvium, whether old and new, are some importantexceptions.First will describe the laterite regionof Bengal,which is also of all we This laterite regioncan be traced up from post-tertiary. Cape Comorin the east coast, Orissa, Bankura, along through Midnapur, Though
there
Burdwan, Birbhum, This
to
fringeof
the flanks of the
Rajmehal hills as
laterite underlies
the
far
as.
and is. old alluvium alluvium. It is often older than seen capping older rocks. Thi" laterite alreadydescribed. is the high-level The low-level laterite Patna.
trulyalluvial,and
it
in
vium patchesthroughoutthe old alluof the Ganges valley. The Pleistocene or glacial boulders and moraines not reare presented in Bengal,except in the lower hills of Sikkim, Bhutan and Nepal, down to a heightof about 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. Next we come in Bengala band of the Cuddalore group across of rocks, sandstones, gritsand clays,underlyinglaterite, from far as Suri. These east of Raniganj,extendingnorthwards as Cuddalore sandstones,etc.,are tertiary.At a lower elevation in
is
occurs
"
the Sub-Himalayan range, on the north of Bengal,there is a band of soft massive sandstones,also clays and conglomerates, resting the older tertiary bed of nummulitic limestone. This belongs on band from Raniganjto Suri. to the same age as the Cuddalore Next the Eocene sandstones,nummulitic come limestones,
the cretaceous
rocks, and
the
slates pre-tertiary Chittftgong, Tippera,Garo
and sandstones and Manipur
that are found in the hills. Tertiaryrocks prevailin these hills which were elevated at the post-tertiary time age about the same
geticdelta from
Rajmehal
to the Garo
hillswas
probably as
the Gan-
depressed.
SURFACE-GEOLOGY,
21
BENGAL.
Jurassic system is next in Bengal in the represented hillsand the Panchet The typical rocks. series of Rajmehal Upper of dark-coloured doleRajmehal rock is a basalt or trap consisting rite interstratifiedwith a hard, white and grey and carbonaceous shale,white and grey sandstones and hard quartzose grit.TrapThe
dykes and
intrusions of the "coal-fieldsof the Damodar .are
common
diminish
in
south-west
Rajmehal age are also abundant in the valleyand dykes and cores of basalt in Birbhum, South- West of Rajmehal. Trap-dykes the Damodar valleyfrom east to west until in the of Hazaribagh volcanic intrusions disappearalmost
Further west, "entirely.
of course, occurs the newer focus of eruption of the Rajmehal trap is at a Raniganj. The Rajmehal beds extend to the east
The to
Cuttack
numerous,
and
but
Deccan
trap.
pointnorth of
close up less Eastward, trap-dykes are throughoutthe Upper Son valleyand coast
southwards.
they
occur
they graduallydie out in Palamau only two hundred miles west of the ground in which the older lava flows of the Rajmehal age and within less than one hundred miles of the Gondwana are seen basins in the Upper Damodar valleywhich are traversed by basalt dykes probablyof the same age as the Rajmehal traps. rocks appear in Bengal, The Gondwana in the Damodar valley and in Chutia Nagpur. In the former, the upper and the lower Gondwana rocks, are both observable at the basal portionof the Panchet hill and the zemindari of Panchet, south of the Raniganj coal-field. The lower Panchet beds consist of coarse felspathic and
micaceous
colour,with
sandstones, usually white
or
in greenish-white
bands
of red clayinterstratified among the sandstones. in close Damuda often rocks, though occurring of different age. The Panchet rocks are distinguishare proximity, able from the typical of red Damudas clayand the by the presence absence of carbonaceous shales,and by the sandstone being usually micaceous. more Fragments of coal and shale are found in the of the Panchet derived conglomerates evidently group, but they are from the Damudas. of The Dubrajpur rocks consisting
The
Panchet
and
sandstones ferruginous
Gondwana
age.
The
conglomeratesbelong to the Upper ridgeof gneissfrom the basaltic plateauof and
the Deccan to the Highlandsof Chutia Nagpur is overlaid and "crossed by Gondwana from the Son to across deposits stretching the Mahanadi. The watershed between the Son and the Mahanadi is pretty highand is occupied by the Talchir rocks of no great thickness,so that gneissforms the rock barrier from east to west. The Tributary Mahals of Orissa also belongto the Gondwana series. The coarseness of the rocks,the prevalence of sandstones, the of bands of conglomerate and the absence of frequentoccurrence marine
characterise them as Gondwanas. fossil, Then come the typical Damuda Barrakar rocks belonging or carboniferous butaries to the river and its trisystem. The Barrakar traverse the whole of this region. It passes round the western into the Damoportionof the Raniganjcoal-fieldand fall|
22
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
within the limits of the field. In the higherportionof its which drain the Karharbari the Barrakar receives streams course coal-fieldswhich are supposedto be Talchirs or the lowest Gond-
dar
waria
and
sandstones, Conglomerates,
carboniferous.
not
shales
stones usuallymicaceous, and coal, characterise this region. The sandand of of are decomposed felspathic, consisting grains quartz of calcareous concretions projectthrough the felspar.Knobs converted into sandstones. Felsparis at different placesseen be traced all the sandstone felspathic pure kaolin. White may Another from the in Provinces. Central Raniganjto Chanda way typicalBarrakar rock is conglomerateof rounded-white quartz pebblesscattered over the surface of the soil. Last
of all
we
have
the
Archaean
rocks
of
Bengal, metamor-
Small hills appearingthroughthe alluvium are most of them Lower Vindhyan, and at the lowest level where the Ganges washes the base of the plateauat Chunar, only Upper Vindhyans are exposed. The concealment of the Lower Vindhyans here is probablydue to
phic and in Bihar
submetamorphic,transition
Vindhyan.
or
in the main axis of the basin. the depression The Lower Vindhyan of the Son rocks valley consist of limestones,shale, sandstone, shales and congloshaley sandstone, trappoid beds, porcellanic meratic
and that is to say, transition
calcareous
gneissand
rocks
in Bihar
True sandstone. encroach granitoids, where
for
some
metamorphic rocks, upon
the
of the
zone
miles north of the Grand
the strike Trunk Road, west of Gaya, gneissreaches quite across of the slates. Several hills isolated on the alluvial plainin thi"
granite. Immediately east of Gya rocks appear again on the prolongationof those on the strike. and havingthe same They form several groups of valley
neighbourhood
are
of pure
transition Son
hillsin East Bihar,known Gidhour hills, which stand or
less isolated
in the
the Maher, Rajagriha, Shaikhpuraand and more clear of the main gneissic area
as
alluvial
plains,and
those
of Mohabar
and
Bhiaura on the northern margin of the gneissic upland. All these isolated Bihar rocks belongto one appearing system, massive quartzites the sides of the hills and the associated schists or slates on ura appearingobscurelyin the valleys. On the north side of the Bhiadomeridgethe bottom quartziteslie steeplyagainstthe of rounded and poisedmasses gneissare gneiss as the peculiar schistose gneiss called. Elsewhere at the boundary. True occur* intrusion may in the soft earthy schists. In be observed granitic ' '
' '
the
neighbourhoodof Gya
forms of special metamorphism many At Lukhisari the quartwell exhibited.
and of contact action are of pseudo-crystalline zite rests againstan amorphous mass nitoid grapura rock of much less sharplydefined texture than at ShaikhThis amorphous in which strings of pebblescan be detected. beds of coarse rests on mass conglomerate.Another outcrop of schist in the east end of the Gidhour range. conglomeratic appears The gneissic uplandsof Hazaribaghin Chutia Nagpur, about and the transitionrocks hundred one twenty miles wide,separated
SUBtfACE-GEOLOGY,
2"
BENGAL,
those which occupy parts of Manbhum and Singh-* in South- West Bengaland stretch far to the west, the whole* transition area here being one hundred and fifty miles long from character of and eightymiles wide. *The prevailing east to west the rocks here may be best explained by an enumeration of the kinds surface. These are quartzite, that the on occur principal
of Bihar from bhum
sandstone,slate,shales,hornblendic,micaceous, talcose quartzitic and
chloriticschists passing into bedded trap,and shales with ripple marks so littlemetamorphosed that they might be mistaken for
Talchirs,or the lowest Gondwana
shales,but for veins of quartz
The Chutia Nagpur gneissis interand occahornblendic and siliceousschists, sionally and metamorphic highly porphyritic granite schists. In Singhbhum the oldest or Bundelkhund gneissis seen in junctionwith transition rocks, interpenetrated by trap-dykes. Sandstones and tnudstones,resting immediatelyon the rough and
penetrating through them. bedded
with micaceous with bands of
weathered surface of the granitic gneisstraversed by trap-dykes is the prevailing the Domecharacter of Singhbhum soil. in the northern fringeof the Hazaribaghplateau gneiss prevails in and the Mandar hill of Bhagalpur. Trap-dykesthough common the Bundelkhund gneissare rare in the Bengalgneiss.We do not ' '
' '
the
extensive basaltic intrusions in Southern Monghyr,. same Hazaribaghand Chutia Nagpur as we do in Birbhum where they belongnot to the Archaean but to the Kajmehal age. We have thus seen character of that, althoughthe prevailing the soilof Bengaland Bihar is alluvial, either old or new, we have where rocka the a ll over importantexceptions outlyingdistricts,
see
of older
epochs prevail.
The age of rocks can be only vaguelyguessedby their texture. The study of fossilsalone givesus exact clue as to which period a
sandstone, or a particular limestone, or a particular particular should be able to judge one shale,belongs.As an agriculturist the external appearance of soils and sub-soils and with such acid, rough and ready test as is afforded by a littlehydrochloric their generalcharacter and composition, and a knowledgeof the of distinguishing and testing minerals and of the method principal them will helpone to judgestillbetter whether a soilis rich or poor and whether it is capableof much improvementby the utilization of local resources. The value of trap-rocks in the formation o" rich soils has been mentioned. The presence of a largevarietyof rocks is also of great value in formingrich soils. A valleyor a
from
plainsituated near a hillwhere shales,sandstones,limestones and ielspathic graniteor gneissoccur in abundance must be rich in formations is always plant-food.The junctionof two geological differ in character accordingto the rich. The alluvial deposits differencein the character of rocks composingthe hillsfrom which however,alluvial soilsabound m plant* t"ey are derived. Usually, the farther theyare situatedaway from mountains. foods,especially The delta of.the Gangesrepresents washingsof the finer particles
24
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
of all the
and what is of great importance, it is full of Bengalhills, of the drainage of a large and organicmatter, beingthe receptacles populoustract of country and of hills aboundingin forests. The combination of minerals and organic matter is far greateri^ the lower part of the basin of the Ganges than in the upper parts. But where from
in the upper
parts of the basin
felspathic graniteor
the soil is clearlyderived trap-rocksand limestones,it is richer
than alluvium.
CHAPTER FORMATION
III. OF
SOILS.
; Kankar ; Knowledge of composition of soi* characters far useful ; External ; Evidence of composition indicative of fertility of archsean and fertility ; Value ; Fossil remains metamorphic soils ; Trap-rocka and volcanic tuffs making superiorsoils ; desirable ; Disintegrationby aqueous, Presence of felspathic pheric, atmosstones physicaland organicagencies; Nature's cultivators (earth-wormSf
(Sedentary and and
and
stones
transportedsoils
how
etc.); Chemical
propertiesof
and
humus
bacteriological disintegration : Physicaland ; Mixed
SOILS are formed rocks. Soils are either
by
chemical
soils.] the
weatheringand
of disintegration
lying is,formed out of the underthat is,formed out of the disintegrated transported) that sedentary,
rocks,or parts of rocks, broughtdown, mainly by the
action
of rivers from
fossilremains of plants distance. Sedimentary rocks containing ancient at soils some were geological period. The superposition of layerafter layerof silton them resulted in their becomingcompacted under pressure. By volcanic or other action these solidified have often been brought again to the surface in the masses and thus have become form of mountains more once subject a
heat and cold and the atmosphere, and In weathered into soils. been and converted more once is also a rock,and in some language,the loose top-soil geological future age, what is now soil with herbs and trees growing on it hard rock with other rocks superposed become a fossil-bearing may the loose matting of earth both on land and it. Underneath on under the sea there is the uneven pavement of stone, juttingout and ravines,or exinto high mountains, or sinking tending deep in valleys far and wide in plainsand table-lands. There are mountains and valleys and plains both under the sea and on land. The is with the loose matting of soil concerned agriculturistmainly and sub-soil on dry land and scarcely at all with the stone pavement he within easy depth,in which case underneath, unless it occurs to the action of rain and
they have
valuable even down soil a short improvinghig by digging of ten to An admixture a short distance. depth or fifteenper cent, of small stones of the rightlands with agricultural matesoils is not undesirable, these contain valuable reserve as can
coals,or other minerals,or get building-stones,
mammal
substances for carryingfrom
FORMATION
rials of food which plant-food.But an
OF
graduallyget admixture
of
25
SOILS.
dissolved and
made
stones large-sized
available
as
in the soil is
not desirable, as they interfere with proper aeration of generally of seed and penetration The agriculof roots. soil,germination turist
should not only have an idea of the compositionof his soil and of the stones which are found in the soil, soil but also of the subthe soil immediatelybelow the surface soil interpenetrated or with the roots of deep-rooted pact complants. The sub-soil is more in appearance
and
is
colour. It is very usuallyof a lighter that the sub-soil should richer than the be b ut important lighter the is soil rock should that the underlying soil,and if sedentary, be composed of substances which valuable for plant-life. are soils In transported also, valuable minerals, such" as lime or kankar and gypsum, be found buried within easy reach of may the surface. Chemical analysisdoes not always give a correct idea of the actual present value of a soil,subsoil,or rock, but it tells us of their possible ultimate value. In a hard rock scarcely any on
exists plant-food such
a
rock.
in
In the
an
available form, and of soils also
case
a
nothingwill grow great deal depends on
their potentialrichness as found out by cultivation and not on for instance, chemical analysis.Analysis, shows, that the soil of
the
SibpurExperimentalFarm the Dumraon
and
Sibpur poorer
Experimental Farms.
crops. is difficultand
which
is richer than those of the Burdwan
The
soil of the
But
we
SibpurFarm
actuallyget at is a hard clay
more expensiveto cultivate and under the this soil does not yieldsuch heavy crops as soils easier to cultivate. Nevertheless are actually poorer but which of soils and rocks is of greatpraca knowledgeof the composition tical value to the scientific farmer. what plant-food He knows there is,and it rests with him how much of it he can or he ought to make available for a certain crop. A soil may but be very fertile, be the fertility will exhausted. may Deep ploughing very quickly givebetter results and so will limingfor a time, but these processes and it is for the farmer to judge whether his soil are exhausting, is capable of such exhaustive operations. For exhaustingand valuable crops, deepploughing, ing burning,limingand other exhaustsame
treatment
advisable if the soil is rich,but by bringing too quantityof food into a soluble state and by letting chiefly
processes
largea
are
rain to wash it out of the land,though one heavier crops or two be obtained,the soil in the long run be impoverished. may may Chemical analysis is therefore a guidefor ascertaining the value of rocks and soils, as the farmer has it in his power to utilisethat value
slowlyor quicklyaccordingto his needs by the judicious tion applicaof tillage and by manuring. Though chemical analysisalone givesone the rightclue as to the composition and nature of rocks and soils,their external characters often give a rough idea as to what they are and what to expect of them. Indeed, the scientific farmer depends more and on rough ready tests than on careful chemical analvsis for
26
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and minerals. He looks at a dark-coloured soiland may conclude it is rich in nitrogen and potashand suitable for growingcorn. He looks at a yellowsoil and may conclude it isrich in phosphorusand lime and other mineral matters, and suitable
judgingsoils,rocks
for at
a
growingroot-cropsand
soil and may light-coloured
fruits as conclude
well
as
corn.
He
looks
sand and will it is chiefly
He looks at a grow onlymustard and rape and Jcalaito perfection. fieldovergrown with rich and wild vegetation of various kinds, rank and creepers, he digsit with his spud grasses, leguminousplants, and finds he can that, and while digginghe notices easilymanage dead shells and channels made by earthworms and insects and he concludes it is rich friableloam, and he prefers it to all the others.
The
dark-coloured
soil,first mentioned, though rich,and
though of on a larger proportion well as organic as lime,and other mineral plant-foods phosphorus, is stiff plant-food, perhapsa claywhich he finds it difficult to dig with his spadeand on the surface of which he notices deep and wide cracks. Though he knows it to be richer,he will not preferit for for permanent pasture, ordinary agricultural crops, though he may it may
show
chemical
to contain analysis
and
for such
and
to manuring it is possible
perennialcrops, as Rhea, Abroma augusta, Sabai grass, such agricultural and Tapioca crops as take long growing,such as arahar and sugarcane. If he can afford to keep it in proper tilth facilities for irrigation, he may and if there are special prefersuch clay soil to loam, unless the clay is too stiff. Different soils are cannot one particularly adapted for particular crops, and when choose his soil one at least choose his crops. can By cultivation of certain adaptability be lost sightof in any It has
been
a
limited
soils to certain
to alter the natural
extent
crops
and
not
case.
able loose workfind imbedded that once grew on the
said that certain stratified rocks
soil in former
these should
geological periods.Hence
were
we
in hard rocks,fossilsof plantsand animals soil or disported it. As the remains of animalsthemselves over ance and plantsare very valuable as plant-food, rocks showing an abundof
such fossils,
of productive of
some
very
as
certain
sandstones,and all limestones,are
fertilesoils. The
of fossilsis thus recognition The fertilising property
practical importanceto farmers.
of the rocks of the crystalline group, viz.,archaic and metamorconsists in the phicrocks, chiefly presence of an abundance of felspar.. mentary Mica is of less importance,and quartz is of the least. All sedithese rocks and soils being ultimatelyderived from rocks, a knowledge of the compositionof these is of crystalline Mica-schist consists of quartz and mica, and a soil formed out of mica-schist is therefore poor. Gneiss is the same as granite in in ^composition, is other it words, it has only metamorphic or, become by tljejointaction of heat and compact and crystalline mica and quartz,, of felspar, pressure. Granites,thoughconsisting in composition accordingto the proportionin vary very much value.
which
these minerals
occur.
The
of felspar largerthe proportion
28
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
of the earth's the superficial alter even layers think they do ; but these agencies more were Electric agency is also at work. potent in past ages than now. The water- vapour and the free nitrogen of the atmospherecombine
have the surface
tendencyto
more
than
we
in the presence of lightning and thunder in the form of nitric acid which beingbroughtdown by rain acts on the rocks and helpsto dissolve their particles more quickly. Minute at work in various forms. are (4) Organicagencies bacteria are continually at work in soilsand on the surface of rocks. forms of vegetation,lichens, mosses, grasses, shrubs, rocks. also most potent in disintegrating creepers and trees are Animal lifealso is at work chiefly in the sea in the formation of nummulitic soils. Coral reefs,chalk cliffs, and other limestones of marine and marls, consist of dead shells, animals, large chiefly and small. The lime carried in solution by rivers to the sea goes The silicacarried in solution to form the shells of these animals. is used by a minute animal called radiolaria in the formation to the sea
Higher
"
of its
the shell round its body. Tripoliearth and old Barbadoes-earth used for grindingpurposes are radiolarian deposits, chalk is old foraminiferous as deposit. Lightdiatomaceous earth is of vegetableorigin; but the earth is nearlypure silica. Landshells,caterpillars, moles, voles,musk, shrews
and
body,
or
rather
be also mentioned nature's cultivators, as in the though they are regarded lightof pests. Locusts which are the worst of all pests may be also regardedin the light of nature's fertilizers. If locusts are and prevented frightened
pigsmay
also to be
from alighting, they may not do any damage, but simplyleave a thick depositof droppings, rich in manurial substances culled from forests all along their track. Earth-worms tion have also considerable influence in the formaof soils and
their character. ment They derive nourishaltering passes throughtheir intestinal canal, some of the organic matter while the whole of the earth is beingdigested, mixed up and triturated inside the canal. Worm-casts are cularly partithe useful to the farmer,as theyhelpto loosen and perforate soil for the penetration of roots,water and air. Worms also drag down leaves,piecesof straw, etc.,into their holes,thus incorporating and organicmatter into the soil,and making heavy soils lighter soils heavier. The of earth-worms on light grass-land presence of a shallow layerof soil resting hard rocks is partion consisting cularly of beneficial in gradually the soilin to the an adding depth Darwin manner. imperceptible computed that an acre of garden soilin England contains on an average about fifty-thousand worms, earthIn and in ordinaryarable soils about half this number. is smaller. In good soils India, it is probablethat the number ten tons of dry earth is passedthrough*the intestines of earth-worms and the surface of is about one-fifth of an casts annually deposit inch per annum. Even in poor soils a surface deposit of '08 inch from
per
annum
in
soil which
has been estimated.
As earth-worms
go down
several
FORMATION
feet
deep
and
is often
them
OP
29
SOILS.
up again,the mixing of the soil effected by efficacious than that effected by cultivation. observed that a stream of lava takes sometimes
come more
It has been
several years to cool. Even when cool it is incapable of supporting life. takes Disintegration highervegetable place by hydration, oxidation and physicalaction. Nitrification then proceeds with the help of bacteria. Then lichens and other minute forms of tation vegeobserved to appear. are Graduallythe quantityof soil on the hard
surface
of the rock
becomes
and the growth of vegetaincreases, tion
more vigorous,mosses, ferns and grasses gradually of the place lichens. When visible soil accumulates,and taking fissures and cracks appear on the rock, herbs and shrubs multiply and by their root-action further help to disintegrate the rock to some depth. The formation of soils now on Lichens goes apace. "
and bacteria
able to draw
are
nourishment
from
the most
insoluble
rocks, not only basalts,granitesand schists, but also quartz. Even quartz gets covered with lichens when exposed long enough "
action of higher vegetation on air. The rocks is partly mechanical and partlychemical. Roots get into the cleftsof rocks Chemical action and tear them asunder. is concerned in the of the ingredients of the rock. solution of some The solvent
to
action of roots is partly due to the formation of of soil. All plants, which act on particles largeor year
wholly or partlyand
the rock.
deposit their
dead
acids in them small, die each
organic matter
on
The
leaves,seeds,etc., when falling they accumulate in forests, marshes or bogs, produce a black or brown mass* which is called humus. By decay of roots of plantsalso a similar is formed. When substance organicmatter decays in very high and the carbon hydrogen may get entirely temperature, oxidized and water, but with limited access into carbon dioxide of air the oxidation is slow and the formation of bodies which resist decay for a long time is the result. These are found in the lower layersof turfs and in meadows and forests. The humus formed
is of
complex composition. The
acids and other formed not are clearlyunderstood. The acid (C H,2 06),ulmic acid humic commonest are (C20H14 06), 0 crenic acid acid and apocrenicacid. The com(C10H, 07), geic position so
a
organicsubstances ,
of crenic
and
apocrenicacids, discovered by Berzelius,
All these compounds retain ammonia is uncertain. with great is also a highlyhygroscopic tenacity. Humus substance tending to keep rock moist, and thus helpingtheir further disintegration
by hydration. The generationof carbon dioxide in humus is The air of all soils contains a much higher profuseand constant. of carbon dioxide than ordinaryatmospheric proportion air,which contains only four or five parts of carbon dioxide in ten thousand .
parts,while the air in soils contains from ten to and fiftyparts of carbon dioxide in ten thousand
two
hundred
parts. The acids and carbon dioxide of humus assist in the decomorganic position of minerals. The nitrogenous matters of humus jnte gra-
!30
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
in nitrates,especially
salts and
into ammonium
duallyconverted
bacteria. These salts in their the presence of lime and nitrifying integrating assist in disintegration. Plants thus have the effect of disturn and dead rocks in various ways, both in their living cates, Not only limestones,but even state. quartz and other hard siliare
contain
a
found
eaten
good deal
into
by
of alumina
roots
plants. Clubmosses
of
(which is
not
an
which
essential constituent
of great helpin disintegrating rocks conof every plant), taining are Of alumina. plants, mangold-wurzeland agricultural of oxalic acid, have a condeal Chukd-Pdlam, containinga good .siderable power of assimilating phosphatesfrom the soil,and considerable of disintegrating rocks. have also power
they
decay of organicmatter, helpedby the various processes described,results in a supply of phosphoricacid and nitrogenin available form for the nourishment of plants.Generally an speaking, the more organicmatter there is in a soil the more nitrogen does it contain, and the proportion be of organic matter may of a soil. of the fertility roughlyconsidered as a direct measure The
in addition to humus kankar or other limestones occur is certain. Generally speaking matter, the evidence of fertility the number of rocks mixed a soil is (i.e., also the more the larger it is formed), the more -and minerals out of which fertile it is. soils a nd the Hence alluvial soils, formed at gical junctionof two geolo-
Where
formations,are
Compare, obtained
more
for
archaean
in the
fertile than
mations. on singleforresting comparativelypoor crops
soils
instance,the soils of
Singhbhum
in the mixed geological formation a few of this district beyond Katbari, in the
CHAPTER PHYSICAL
miles
with
the
rich crops outside the borders
Mourbhanj
State.
IV.
CLASSIFICATION
OF
SOILS.
Colluvial Alluvial and soils; Light, Heavy: Warm, Cold; Moist, [Diluvial, Pasture-land Garden-soils and ; ; Wheat-soil ; Ek-jthftull Dry ; Do-jrtwxli calcareous land ; Stony, gravelly,gritty,sandy, clayey and soils ; Peat ; Marsh analysis; different kinds of loam ; Classifications of ; Mechanical Settlement
Officers of different Provinces
;
Tilth, sub-soil and
pans.]
of soils into sedentaryand transported has I^HE classification
alreadymentioned.
Transportedsoils are again subdivided alluvial. Diluvial or drift soil consists of soil proper mixed up with stones and boulders,broughtdown by rain formed from various kinds of rocks. from hills. These are usually Alluvial soil consists of fragmentsor particles of minerals arranged and their size to also according partlyaccordingto their specific been
into diluvial and
fertile, gravity. Alluvial soils are, as a rule, more containing of rocks of different geological fragments periods.Alluvial soils 0* less angularfragmentsof the rocks on which mixed with more called eoUuvial. they lie are
PHYSICAL
CLASSIFICATION
OF
31
SOILS.
and heavy,warm and cold,moist also classed as light classified the to also according dry. They are crops which them for econo* on do best on them, or which ought to be grown form soils richest The mical garden-soils reasons. ; middling Soils are
wheat-soils; hard claywhich is expensive to work, clay-loamsoils, wood-soil. Soils harsh land, also are classified ; poor pasture-land physicalconstituents. These are, accordingto their prevailing calcium carbonate, vegetablematter sand, clay, stone, gravel, grit, Soils are thus divided into stony, gravelly, and moisture. gritty, sandy, clayey,calcareous, peaty and marshy. There is,however, distinction between one It group and the next. where sand beginsand gritends or where stone be again siliceous,or. micaceous, "ends and gravelbegins. Sand may that either is, a or calcareous,or felspathic, containing good at all. Stones and pebblesare not immediately deal of plant-food or none no
hard-and-fast
is difficultto say
useful for
but they plant-life,
and
actingas a therefore thoughusuallypoor are moisture
soils,viz.,those which stones
and
are felspars,
contain
of
reserve
not
serve
so
sample of dry and warm
floor of
a
useful purpose
in
taining re-
plant-food.Stony soils
and necessarily,
stony
some
basaltic chieflyfossils, limestones,
rich.
of soils is done The mechanical analysis and the coarser particles Siftingseparates The
a
soil to be room
;
and washing. by sifting washing the finer particles.
analysed is lumps are to
to
be
be
spread on
broken
up
the and
dryingproceeds.The largestones are then to be picked out, cleaned,dried and weighed. The dry soil is then to be passed meter. througha sieve,the meshes of which are three millimeters in dia-
crushed
as
which passes through is weighed as fineearth,and what remains on the sieve as gravel. The gravelis further washed and dried and weighedagainas true gravel The fine earth is then boiled for an hour to break up lumps,and it is then put into a ducing washing apparatus (e.g.,Schulz's apparatus)in which by introat different rates, firstthe finest suspended a flow of water and then successively is washed the finest sand and matter away sand. coarser Another analysisof soils consists in process of mechanical side side and allowing vessels of series the water a by arranging the into This next. also divides the soilinto from the one to flow For either o f different consistency. portions process it is necessary That
from each vessel and water evaporate completely This enables residue. to separate the the us analysis weigh dry soil into (1) stones ; (2) mechanical gravel sand ; (4) ; (3) coarse fine sand ; (5) finest sand, and (6) clay and impalpablematter. Clay-soil proper is that which contains only clayand very fine sand. A more rough and ready method of mechanical analysis of soil, consists in takingan ounce mixingit up with a pintof water, it for the water in hours, then shakingit up twenty-four leaving to settle for five minutes. the heavier particles and allowing The to let the finally
to
can then be poured into another vgnelwhich supernatantliquid
32
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
for another twenty-fourhours. The settled will be in vessel and the seen one sandy part clayeypart be dried and weighed separately. in the other. These may If one hundred grainsof dry soil, not peaty or unusually rich be
may
in
allowed to stand
matter, vegetable
in this manner, loam ; if from
leave
no
than ten
more
it is called
grainsof claytreated ten to fortysandy
soil ; if from
sandy forty to seventy a loamy soil ; if from seventy
clayloam
; from sand is
to
to eighty-five
a eighty-five ninety-five strong day soil ; and when no separatedat all by this process, it than five per cent, is a pure agricultural more clay. Soil containing a
of carbonate of lime is called marl, and more than twenty per cent. calcareous soil. Peaty soils contain more than five per cent, of humus or Ferruginoussoils contain over five vegetablemould. in Bengal by the names per cent, of iron. Sandy soil is known Balu Balmat, Balsundar ; sandy loam by the names Balu-doas, Dhus and Dhusar ; loamy soil by the names Dods, Do-ras, Do-dns, and Gurmat, and clay-soil Khirni, Pauru by the names Kddd, hard Kewal and Matti-gar is known Anthial as matti and ; clay
Ndgrd
;
grittysoil is loam
For
known
Kankuria
as
or
Rugri ; while red
ruginous fer-
is called Lal-mati.
practical purposes, however, the systems of classification in Bengal and in the other Presidencies are
of soils in vogue
They
numerous.
is
Land
based
are
for classified,
irrigable ; also
as
as
fundamental
distinctions.
instance,as
and ek-phasli
double-cropped ; also The
various
on
as
and nonirrigated, irrigable or and do-phasli single-cropped
cultivated,culturable
cultivated land may bhadoi land or suna
be also divided and
shall
also aghaniland)and paddy (called
low
or
and
non-culturable.
accordingto land
crops, thus suitable for aman
rabi land.
arahar, Vegetables, indigowith bhadoi potatoes with aghani crops. Pan garden land is crops and sweet curiouslyenough classifiedwith the uncroppedarea in settlement in Bengal and thatchinggrass also. The culturable operations and
sugarcane
are
is sub-divided
classed with
rabi crops ;
into
(1) New (or less than three years')fallow ; ; (4) Grass ; (5) Bush ; (6) other kinds (including clumps,threshingfloors, pan gardens,forest,bamboo waste s ites, sheds, cavations). village adjoining pathways and extemporary area
(2) Old fallow ; (3) Groves
sites ;
The non-culturable Sites of templesand (2) * '
' '
area
is sub-divided
burial
ground ;
into
(1)Village
(3) Unculturable
turable ; (5)Rivers ; (6)UnculJhils and Churs ; (7) Government roads ; (8)other roads ; embankments, (9)other kinds of unculturable lands (e.g., campinggrounds, b rick and lime mounds, railroads, barracks,bungalows, kilns,
waste
as, for
instance,
usar
;
(4)Tanks
permanent cattle-sheds,serais,etc.). Land is also classified as and chdhdram, or 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th class ; dwdl, doem, soem and orchard, also as (1)bastu,(2)udbastu,(3)garden,(4) bamboo Each dearh. of and these is sub-divided (7) (5)mathan, (6)bilan, Lands and chdhdram. also classified into dwdl, doem, soem are
according to
: e.g. (1)Permanently Settled proprietaryrights
PHYSICAL
CLASSIFICATION
OP
SOILS.
33
for which revenue has never been settled ; settled tenures the estates or (3)Temporarily property of Govern individuals ; (4)Estates or tenures purchased of private ment or of Government escheated or forfeitedto Governaccount or on ment free lands ; (6)Islands thrown revenue ; (5) Resumed up in accretions rivers Alluvial Lands (8) navigable ; ; (7) acquiredbut for public no longerrequired purposes ; (9)Lands annexed quest by con-
(2)Waste-lands
lands ;
(10) Occupancy holding; (11) Non-occupancyKhudkasta
;
officer describing and Paikasta holdings.A revenue a pieceof of classificationto bear in^mind. land has thus several principles relation to the intrinsic value of the soil They all have some ; and look into all these principles the farmer also must before deciding of a property he wishes to buy for agricultural the value poses. purof tenure and of rent is of the utmost The fixity value to the him to go in for agricultural tenant in encouraging improvements. of tenure, the following and fixity In addition to fertility siderations conalso affect the value of lands : "
healthy unhealthy. (1) Cliiftate, local labour is abundant, industrious and skilful. (2) Whether of rainfall whether inches perannum. (3)Amount morethansixty has been the tract (4) Whether subjectto famine or local or
failure of crops due to droughtor inundations. (5) Whether the land is level and well exposed to sunshine, or
whether
it is
steep ravine
(6) Distance
from
the
land.
residence. purchaser's
(7) Vicinityto good markets. of communication with the markets. (8) Means for instance,the depth of (9) Facilitiesfor irrigation,
water
in wells.
(10) Depredationsby cattle,wild boars, rabbits,etc. (11) Local supply of manures. In the United
Provinces
in vogue : generally land Gohani 1st.
the
of classification following
soils is
"
"
or
land
near
and villages
towns.
In
gohaniland the crops usuallygrown are, wheat, sugarcane village for ywr-making or ukh, vegetables, maize, radish,carrots and is practised, chillies. In town that gohaniland, market-gardening ing chewis to say, the growingof potatoes,cabbagesand cauliflower, or canes poundashand tobacco. 2nd. Loam. Wheat, barley, gram, jowar, cotton, with such lands. Jowar, bajri arahar and maize are usually grown on "
grown, as a rule,with arahar both on gohani and loamy soils. When the land is very rich,arahar which occupies it for a whole year, is not grown in mixture. 3rd!. Sandy loam. Bajri, kalai, barley with gram* jowar" mustard with wheat and other rabi crops, are grown on such soils. 4^. Clay loam. Barleymixed with gram (or gram -alone) or with pea (orpea alone), sugarcane, mung and paddy*are grown and
cotton
are
"
"
on
such soils. Mt HA
-JPB
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
tanks. The same near Clay-soil crops are chosen for such soils as for clay-loam.Only these are harder to work and, being uncertain. more subjectto floods,are more
5th. "
Bhur or sandy soils. (a)near rivers (dearhland),suitable for growing melons and other similar crops : (b)in fields suitable also barleywith for growingbajrialongwith til or kalai or mung, mustard. wheat or Kankreli soil. Full of calcareous nodules,suitable for 1th. and leguminous crops generally.Bajri,jowar, growing gram the usual crops grown are urd gram, barley,pea and mustard on Qth.
"
"
"
kankreli soils. In the Madras
classification of Presidencythe following
soils
in vogue : 1st. Karisol, or Black soil,No. 1 and is generally No. 2. 2nd. GuruSeval,or Red loam, No. 1 and No. 2. SRD. or Clay-loam,No. 1 and No. 2. "th. Veppal,or dry and many "
"
"
"
"
hungry sandy soil,which is so common 5th. Pottal,or barren soil,either "
in Madras, No. 1 and No. 2. saline
too
or
too
ferruginous
crops of any value. divisions are Kali,Nos. 1 In the Central Provinces the recognised Black soil) Nos. 1 and 2 (Loam) ; Kherdi, and 2 (i.e., ; Morun, Nos. 1 and 2 (Sandy soil) ; and Berdi, Nos. 1 and 2 (Stonysoil). In the Bombay officers follow a very Presidency,Revenue soils. This method, however, systematicmethod of classifying for alluvial soils where depth is of no practical is unsuitable deep soilswhich are all very deep. Soils in Bombay value for classifying to grow (laterite)
are
divided
orders
into
nine classes
accordingto
accordingto their colour and
givesan
texture.
idea of the system followed
their The
three
table following
:
"
The
of
depth and
conventional sighsfor peculiarities defects following or soilsare in use in the Bombay Presidency : mixture Denotes a nodules of limestone. containing "
~
o
o "
36
HANDBOOK
other constituents of
OP
AGRICULTURE.
plantswhich
are
essential,though usually
soils on occurringin minuter proportions.Plants depend entirely but essential constituents. When for these minute a plant is and nitrogenpass away, and burnt into ashes, its carbon, water
the ash left always contains the
phuric : phosphoricacid, sulfollowing and iron as acid, potash,lime, magnesia protoxide(FeO) and sesquioxide Fe803,soda, silica and chlorine are also' nearly always present, though some plantscan do without these food "
constituents. Alumina
is only sometimes present. the chemical requirementsof plants,soils can soils ; be divided into : (1)Aqueous or boggy soils ; (2) Nitrogenous soils soils Potassic Calcareous soils ; (4) (3) Phosphatic ; (5) ; (6) an Ferruginoussoils ; (7)Siliceous soils ; (8)Alkali soils (containing
Accordingto
abundance of lime,magnesia,soda,and potash) ; and (9)Sulphureous is of the highestvalue, then nitrogen,then phossoils. Water phorus, then
potash,then
lime
and
magnesia,then sulphur,then
chlorine and soda. The physicalimportance silica, iron,and lastly of silicaor sand, as making the soil freer and lighter to work and for roots to penetrate,is very great, but not its chemical importance. The chemical importanceof the soluble silicatesin soils is,however, very great. The importanceof chlorine and soda as present,for salt for certain crops such as cocoanuts, instance, in common beet (not sugar-beet), onions, carrots, radishes, potatoes, mangoes, cabbages,cotton, cashew-nuts, date, breadfruit tree, asparagus, is undoubted, but the presence of these is not essential in the soil
for every
Potash can replacesoda crop. of potash is therefore doubly
plants,and the important. The absence plants,just enumerated, in
some
presence of any of the essential constituents of makes a soil quitesterile. But it is rare to meet with a soil wanting in moisture, or nitrogen, or altogether phosphoricacid, or potash, or
acid. lime, or magnesia,or iron,or sulphuric in any
soil which
Plants
generally
of these. sufficient proportion The presence of an excess of certain salts or of some substances poisonous to plantsmay render the soil sterilein spiteof the presence in sufficient quantitiesof all the essential constituents. Nearly every soil contains all the essential constituents for the growth of and even the well-water or drainage-water vegetation, percolating throughsoils contains all the essential constituents for the growth of vegetation, much so so, that water-culture with such well or alone has been successful with reference to a good drainage-water grow
contains
a
oats. It is fr""m solutions that plantscan plants, including many absorb food. The solubility is helpedby the organic acids and the carbon-dioxide excreted by the rootlets. Soil digestedin water ought to part with one part of solid for every thousand parts of for plantsto make water two proper use of the solid. If over p"rts of solid are dissolved in every thousand parts of water, the
rootlets cannot make proper use of the food, nor if less than one part in two thousand parts. A soil can be too rich in soluble plantfoods or too popjr.^ A soil becomes too rich if in the dry season it is
CLASSIFICATION
CHEMICAL
OF
37
SOILS.
with fresh urine which contains nearlytwo per cent, of urea, used by plantsas food. But a be directly substance which can is at least ten of a valuable plant-food two per cent, solution even for Bengal cultivators regarding times too rich. This accounts urine as injurious valuable in the to crops, though it is really more fresh state than cowdung. Diluted with ten times as much water urine proves a most excellent fertilizerof soils. As nearlyall soils contain all constituents of plant-food, the chemical classification of soils is based not on absolute but only on relative grounds. Schubler's classificationis based on a consideration of only manured
a
four of the proximateconstituents of soils,viz.,Humus, Lime, Clay and Sand. It takes no direct cognizanceof the proportion of nitrogen, phosphoricacid, and potashwhich are the important mines deterconstituents of soils, the excess of which chiefly or deficiency of soils. But humus implies but also lime itself, only usuallyphosphoric indicate the acid, clay,potash,sand, and the soluble silicates, the
or fertility
barrenness
and lime not nitrogen;
Schubler's classificationhas also the merit of fertility. in practice to ordinary farming,as it does beingeasilyapplicable
nature not
and
of
but only on such rough depend on elaborate chemical analysis and educated ready methods of analysisas an intelligent
farmer
can
easilycommand.
To
determine the class of any soil accordingto the Table, followingdirection should be followed :
Schubler's
"
(1)
Take
in a the
hundred
one
dryingit for half
an
hour
platinumcrucible
over
grainsof in a
an
air
or
a
after Heat it
soil well-pulverized
oil-bath at 250"F. for half an hour, stirring desiccator and weigh. The
clear flame
Cool it in a occasionally. is calculated Humus. as weight (2) Digest the residue in the platinum crucible in a phial with cold diluted hydrochloric of half an acid in the proportion of of water hundred grainsof dry acid to ten ounces to one ounce hour for soil. Let the digesting half with occasional on an go wash with distilled Filter througha weighedfilter-paper, stirring. until the water water to ceases passingthrough giveacid reaction tested with litmus paper. Dry the whole at 250"F. ; weigh the substance in the filterpaper ; deduct the weightof the filter-paper. The loss of weight represents very of roughly the amount mass
loss of
lime.
(3) The
removed contents of the filter-paper are now carefully and the tall matter a impalpable glasscylinder, separated the sand and coarser particles by repeatedwashing with Stir well,let it subside for a minute and then pour off the water. thus separatedis supernatant liquid. The impalpable matter collected on d ried before and a as filter, weighed. The weight representsthe weight of clay. (4) The remainder is sand. refer any soil to can Proceedingon the above method we Schubler's Table which is given on the following pages. into from
*
e
refe
produce, designation their relations barley, land. (Vegetabl caulifl with
cr
to
Agricultural cotton, [Wheat, arakar
of
ence
and appropriate class
general
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0)
""
|| I
C
d)
"
sss
sss
88?.
SS3
333
sss
Q "
o
::
pip"o ooi-
?:SS
SSS
=
"
a
sss
2
i
fe
o
SSS
OQ
WCC
"
g .
$""
.
55S
555
55
SSS
ccco
0
O
2"" 'D
I
.2
.a
"8
"S
U
-
o
c"g
fe
043 O
"-
-j c?
flH-|
c
: ^
13 o
II tt
!
15S
bfi
"8
'i
0
^S8
o^
-
=
ooo
fa
O
sss
0?
3
1
a
^jtfjin llfl
1 I^'SJ ,
rt^r
1?nli]'**;. ll"
"-==*.
=
1"
el^a^.s*
^t"srp*5 3.
"u
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gc'S^
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o
S
"p
II
^
;
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=
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'I. *ii Jn
S
42
OF
HANDBOOK
The
AGRICULTURE.
of soils from fertility
the chemical pointof view depends in sufficient quantities of four essential
mainly on the presence constituents of plant-food, viz.,nitrogen, phosphoricacid,potash and lime. In fact, lime and potash being almost invariably the present in sufficientquantities, and
acid phosphoric
is
character of soils. If
mainly looked
a
soil contains
-5 of
of nitrogen deficiency of the chemical to in judging *1 to *5% of nitrogen and *08 classed as a good soil. Soils
excess
or
phosphoricacid, it may be containing 1% of potashor lime (thelatter not as insoluble silicate but as carbonate) ces. to be considered quiterich in these substanare A sample of dry soil showing *1% of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash would yieldout of a depth of nine inches,two to
to
three thousand
pounds of each of these constituents per
takes ordinarily
acre
; but
than
fiftyto sixtypounds per left a soil even that, properlytilled, without manure A soil containing of crops. would raise hundreds of of '2% as ammonia), '2% nitrogen(calculated phosphoricacid and "5%.of potash,and weighingwhen perfectly dry l,600,0001bs. is to of of five acre a 3,2001bs. inches, capable affording per depth of nitrogen as (calculated ammonia), 3,2001bs.of phosphoricacid and 8,0001bs.of potash. A good crop of twenty maunds of wheat and thirtymaunds more of wheat-straw per acre would not require than 401bs. of nitrogen, 201bs. of phosphoricacid and 261bs. of potash. The objectof manuring is to give a larger quantityof ing and a vailable to to really helpin dissolvplant-food growingcrops the plant-foodof the soil,and thus augmentingits quantity. A judiciously manured soil,also forest and pasture land, may go on .fertile. So few pounds of the chemical and more gettingmore constituents of manures taken up ordinarily are by crops, that it is easy to more of proper manures. than recoup these by the use To ascertain, needs the addition soil whether a particular however, of any of these constituents,whether one phosphoric nitrogen, ciently it is if acid,potash or lime in the form of manure, or alreadysuffirich in this or that constituent,and it will be superfluous no
crop
of these substances.
acre
up So
more
it is not absolutely another of the manures, necessary A ten-plotexperimentmay to have recourse to chemical analysis. be made after Ville's method to understand the chemical character in of a particular Boil. There should be ten equalplotsmanured the following way : No. 1. Sodium nitrate (Na NO.), 2201bs. or Ammonium 361bs, Chloride (NHt 01),1401bs.,i.e.,the quantity containing
to
use
one
or
"
of
should nitrogen,
be appliedper acre. Unmanured plot. 3. Sodium phosphate (Na HPO,), 441bs., i.e., the acid should be applied 221bs. of phosphoric quantitycontaining No. No.
per
2.
acre.
No,
4.
No, 5. after
Unmanured
plot.
*
Quick-lime (CaO), 401bs. should be appliedper
slaking.
acre
44
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
If the plotsare givea very fairidea of the available plant-foods. will be found unmanured and sufficient, quitedetached,one plot in that case it will be a five-plot experiment. As experiments should be always conducted in duplicate, two such series of fivewill also make If a plots ten-plot experiment. none of the applications if the yieldof the cereal and of the prove of any use, i.e., pulsecrop are about the same in all the manured and unmanured the soil must be considered extremelyrich in all available plots, and if all these applications one plant-foods notwithstanding ; does not get any yield or only a very poor yieldof pulsesand the soil should be considered barren or very nearly so, cereals, that is containing of of some salt,or (2)deficiency (1)an excess essential substance. some or constituent, (3) some poisonous Another method of carryingout this experiment is to apply mixture of all the four manures a to one without plot,the same lime to the next, the same without phosphoric acid to
without
potash to
a
third,the
same
and the same without nitrogen a fourth, is called Ville's Five-Plot Experiment. There should,however, be unmanured plotsfor comparison,and the the number of such plots, is the check. the more accurate more Pot-culture experiments have given very useful results in Japan, be more desired can as the conditions that are readilycontrolled in pots than in fields. to
fifth. This
a
CHAPTER CHEMICAL
CLASSIFICATION
VI. OF
INDIAN
SOILS.
[Chemical
of (1) Indo-Gangeticalluvium, of (2)Black cotton-soil, or composition of (4) Laterite soils, of (5) Deccan alluvial tracts,of (6)Dharwar (3)Red soils, soil ; Peculiarities of Indian soils with reference to Iron, Manganese, Lime, Magnesia, Potash, Phosphoric acid, Sulphuricacid, Carbonic acid, and Nitrogen; available Phosphoricacid in Indian soils,high ; Indian soils poor localities.] except in special c"
"
which four main types of soil,"says Dr. Leather, Indian cultivated the far of the area, are greaterpart occupy by alluvium,(2) the black cotton-soil or regur, (1) the Indo-Gangetic red the soils (3) lyingon the metamorphicrocks of Madras, and (4) the lateritesoilswhich are met with in many In partsof India/' THE
addition* to these we might mention (5) Stretches of alluvium which are situated at the mouths of the Mahanadi, Godaveri,and other rivers,which bear no comparisonto the Indo-Gangetic alluvium. rocks which is also quite the Dharwar (6) The soil covering differentfrom the red soilsof the metamorphicrocks of the Madras Soils of other kinds also occur in smaller patches, Presidency. but the .main types of Indian soils are four alluvium,regur, the Madras red soils, and those popularly called laterite. The composition of the last two
classes of soilvaries very much*
CLASSIFICATION
CHEMICAL
OF
INDIAN
45
SOILS.
soils of the Indo-Gangetic The alluvium are of a nd fine the no generally pebbles, texture, containing only ticles parlargerthan sand to be met with in the alluvium consist of within a few feet of the surface. The character kankar, deposited varies within certain limits. In most places the alluvium is yellow loam. is others In some and in it places sandy, clayey. The clay Alluvium
"
is generally also sand dunes bluish grey. Occasionally have been formed by the wind. The following tables furnish the analysesby Dr. of the principal alluvium soils : Indo-Gangetic
or
hills
Leather
"
/.
Sandy
soil from Ison sand
belt
Cawnpore :
near
Insoluble Silicatesand Sand Oxide of Iron Alumina Lime
.
.
.
91'72%
.
2'36
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
.
"
2-92 "
.
.
.
.
.
.
;
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
'35 "
'78
Magnesia
'33
Potash Soda
'08 ..
..
..
-08
acid (Pa05) Phosphoric acid (SO.) Sulphuric Carbonic acid (CO,) * Organicmatter and combined .
.
.
.
.
.
'04
..
..
"
"
..
..
"
"
water
*27 1*07
.
.
100-00 *
//.
Sandy loams
:
Containing -027% of Nitrogen.
"
From
Ganges
Ison
Doab.
From
Burdwan
Experimental Farm.
Insoluble Silicates and Oxide of Iron Alumina Oxide of Manganese .
.
Sand
.
.
.
.
88*08% 3'10
5'58
.
"
Nil .
.
"
"
4'38 .
84'31%
"
6*09 '12
"
"
'47
Lime
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
*32
Magnesia
"
'64
Potash Soda
"
'09
Phosphoricacid (P20S) Sulphuricacid (S08) Carbonic
.
.
acid
Organicmatter
(COJ and
combined
"
'08 .
.
.
.
.
.
"
'05 "
-37 "
water
*2*42 "
100-00 *
ContainingNitrogen
t ContainingNitrogen
=
'081
=
'042 per cent.
per
cent,
100-00
46
Loamy
///.
soils:
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
"
Insoluble Silicates and Oxide of Iron
Sand
Alumina Oxide Lime
of
Manganese
Magnesia Potash Soda
Phosphoricacid (Pa03) Sulphuricacid (S0t) Carbonic
acid
(COJ
*0rganicmatter
'
water
Containing Nitrogen
Clay loams
IV.
and combined
:
"
Bahr, Patna.
Insoluble Silicatesand Sand Oxide of Iron
Dumraon
Sibpur
Farm.
Farm.
72-64% 80-90% 7-58 9-89
Alumina Oxide of Manganese
"
1-64 Potash
6-36 7-93 "
"
"
Lime
73-58%
"
6-50
"14
1-01
6-12
"
'14 2-07 1-17
"
"11 "
1-52 "
1-61 "
"64
"73
"82
Soda "07 Trace "28
acid Phosphoric
*
acid Sulphuric
Carbonic acid
..
^Organicmatter and wat$r
*
Nitrogen Containing
..
)J
"08 V/V/
Trace
"
" "
"11 }y
-05
"03 1-35
"
combined 5-93
2-24
6'76
100-00
100-00
100-00
"061%
"041%
"065%
CHEMICAL
Two
CLASSIFICATION
OF
other
gave
the
samplesof SibpurFarm result : following
INDIAN
Soil
ther analysedby Dr. Lea-
"
Insoluble Silicatesand Sand Soluble Silicates Oxide of Iron(FeflO,) Alumina (A1208) Oxide of Manganese(MnO)
.
Lime(CaO)
..
Magnesia(MgO) Alkalis (sodaand potash) acid (S03) Sulphuric Phosphoricacid (P405) Carbonic acid
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
and combined
of
three
of composition
the
-28
4-73
6*28
4*47
7*96 2*03
2*00
2f14
-08
.
-11 .
.
.
T79 Trace
Trace
..
water
*12
2*07
.
..
Nitrogen(Total) above
.
.
..
72*88
-03
-11
..
.
.
.
78*95
.
.
.
.
(CO*)
Organicmatter
The
47
SOILS.
.
..
12
3*82
3*95
3*63
2*45
100*00
100*00
-063
-065
idea of the variableness analysesgive some soil of SibpurFarm, chiefly in lime and the
alkalis. V.
Calcareous soil from
Pratapgarh(Oudh):
Insoluble Silicatesand Sand
Oxide of Iron Alumina Oxide of
.
.
.
.
Manganese
.
.
Lime
.
.
Magnesia Potash Soda
Phosphoricacid acid Sulphuric Carbonic acid
*0rganicmatter
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
"
.
..
57*52% 3*23 3*39 Nil 14*54 1-86
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
" "
-02
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
and combined
..
water .
"
*18 "
.
'08 "
11*42
..
.
"
-44
.
..
"
"
.
7-32 100-00
*
Containing Nitrogen
..
..
..
'18 per cent.
calcareous soils are rare in India,beds of kankar commonly underlie the Indo-Gangetic alluvium,the black cotton-soil and other soils. The surface-soil of the alluvium is usuallyfree from kankar,except where there is an outcrop of the bed of kankar. and in the black cotton-soil, In the old alluvium the kankar
Though
well as mixed up with the soil. Some of the reten per cent, of calcium carbonate. as gur soils contain as much surface of the rockysoilsin the Kankar often occurs on many parts that cart-loads of lumps of the Santhal Parganasin such profusion occurs
in beds
of kankar
are
as
collectedfor six
annas
each.
The soilof the
Sibpur
48
HANDBOOK
AOBIOULTUBB.
OF
is rich in calcium carbonate (about two per cent.). The of phosphoricacid also in Indo-Gangetic alluvial soils i" of potash than in other Indian soils. The amount usuallymore of nitrogen is sufficient. The amount in the samples examined alluvium is and organicmatter in soils from the Indo-Gangetic in the iron alumina The oxide of and low. of amount usually Farm
amount
alluvium is usuallyhigherthan in European loams Indo-Gangetic The clays. sandy soils contain about two and a half per is higherin loams, while in clays The proportion cent, of these. absent it is from six to eightper cent. Sulphatesare practically and
the regur, the red-soils of Madras and the laterite soils,but contain a small amount. alluvial soils sometimes
from
the black cotton-soils or regurs. Their composition is not very variable in soluble silicatesand sand The of oxide of iron usuallyranges from five amount (65 to 75%). of alumina is usuallya little to nine per cent., while the amount than iron,that alumina Madras soils contain more greater. regur Regur
from
"
-We
next
to
come
the Central Provinces
iron
more
than
alumina.
Manganese
Lime occurs amount. there is more calcium carbonate and calcium silicate. Where than a small quantitypresent,calcium carbonate usually predominates.
is
always
in all these soils
present in small
as
Regurs usually lime.
The
soils. The not
potash is
contain
more
than
1 per
two
to
five per
cent,
in
usually high amount usuallypresent in only small
present
phosphoricacid is
from
in
of
regur tity, quan-
Regurs are poor in soils. bined Organicmatter and combut it is chiefly high proportion,
cent,
is the rule. ' k
other Indian in very water occur and not organic matter. In heating,the regur combined water and contracts changes colour from black to dark-brown very This is due to the loss of the water much of hydrain volume. tion from hydratedferric oxide and alumina, in which substances rich. The regur is rather poor in organic the regur is specially and its richness is chiefly due to its friability matter and nitrogen, moisture. and its power of retaining Indeed the outturn of crops land at the Nagpur Farm is lower than from similar from unmanured the soil in alluvium. is At it Dr. Gangetic loamy any rate, that it is a common that mistake to suppose Leather's opinion, cotton-soil Southern and of is black India is it the rich, very
nitrogenlike most ' '
only richet than
the surroundinggravellyred and brown soils. boiled with concentrated be If regur sulphuricacid for several the silicates) becomes very dark* hours, the insoluble residue (i.e., Other soils colour. t reated in brown similarly usuallygive a black white residue. The of the silicates colouring matter with if due to organic acid, matter, would digested strongsulphuric
disappearunder this treatment,
and it must be concluded that the silicates in dark-coloured blackness of the regur is due to some mineral and not to organicmatter. This has now been shown oxide be of iron. to largelymagnetic
*"
SSO p tfl
"
"
2 jg
C* ^
^
*
G
8 a q5
-
S
!"S
I
S
2
18
H
K M t-
i*1
"N
ds
91
rn
t-
-
o
as
5
CO
^J"
O Oi
i
SOILS.
INDIAN
OP
CLASSIFICATION
CHEMICAL
-
QO
"
o
o
'
" H
w
CC
^
SS^'*1^
00
" S
S
^"r6,|S
i
H
!
-fl
tf "
"""
O3 **
QO
JLIJL.*-* I
95*
"
"
QC
^
L"
*
^P
|O
P^
i|~s" 9
""
17
"S ffi O
OJ
r;
s"
CQ
I s
2 CO
O"
O5
O
Cl
00
OO
C-l
O O
rf"-^fHio6"WCOCO
N
X
IO
W
"*^
T^
*?P I ^
8
H
1
^Scbi)^^-
^^g/?7"
t*
""
"''
2
? *
p*i
o
^Q
!
"g
T3
" 3
|
* M
1 HA
N
50
HANDBOOK
Brown
OF
alluvialsoils of Madras.
AGRICULTURE.
These
"
classed by Dr. Leather, the
soils which
have been separately
loamy high proportions of lime is small and the of iron and alumina, the amount of magnesiahigh. They are, as a rule,rich,in potash amount but not in phosphoricacid and nitrogen.These are believed to do not show them to be but the analyses be very fertilesoils, any alluvium, fertile than the Indo-Gangetic more contain
and
with alluvium soils we have and we givebelow the figures of Dr. Leather to do in Bengal, chiefly the of soils o f with the of Hazariconnection in analyses some rocky Most of these bagh, Lohardaga,Singhbhum and Manbhum. Rocky Soils. "
With
these
ones
and granitic basaltic soils. True soils,including soils are gneissose in a band and in patches it is too stiff laterite occurs ; and where it is barren for and ferruginous, ordinaryagricultural crops. The amount of lime in these is small of also is not that or magnesia high, while that only moderate, The proportion of potash acid is uniformlylow. of phosphoric that of ferric oxide and alumina is indifferently high or low, and of organicmatter of nitrogen is rather high. The proportion soils in main the the low. rocky composition, They resemble of difference being in the proportionof phosphoricacid. Some of this a nd others the rockysoilshave a highproportion constituent, soils of Coimbatore, Madura, Karred the Madras whilst low, very and Kistna are all uniformlypoor in this constituent, nool,Trichinopoly the extreme variation in the samplesanalysedby Dr. Leather beingbetween '04 and "11 per cent. The
Red Soils of Madras.
General remarks
"
about Indian soils"
Iron
in
usually occurs
larger
proportionthan in Englishsoils in the Indo-Gangeticalluvium two to seven per cent.,in the regur four to eleven per cent.,in the Madras red soils three and a half to ten per cent., and in Madras The proportion of alumina alluvium five to seventeen per cent. is also high in Indian soils. In the Indo-Gangeticalluvium three to ten per cent.,regur s six to fourteen per cent., red soils one and a and a half to fifteen half to fifteen per cent., rocky soils seven alluvium six to fifteen per cent, in loams, but per cent., Madras less in sandy soils. Coffee soils of the Madras Presidency "
much contain as seventeen to as twenty per cent, of this constituent. Lime* occurs more usually as silicate than as carbonate. follows : Gangetic Calculated as the as oxide, figuresrun alluvium,two to three per cent., regur one to eight per cent., Madras red soils, lateritesand Madras alluvium less than one per "
cent.
as
An Englishfarmer usually a fair proporaims at maintaining tion This is for the of lime in his soil, cent. about one pose purper say of havingfree basic matter to combine with the organicacids and they are formed from the humus, tinuously consoon as they are "
beingformed.
The
of humus, proportion
however, in
5SJ
over
soils of the
The
this.
soil from
but
the
in
only
phosphates
to
total
fourth
of
the
Indian
soils, while about
higher, "
one
less than
Nagpur
mental experi-
of
proportion About in
usually
unmanured
when
available
one-third
or
available
an
soils
the
and
in
sulphuric acid with
one-
form
in of
proportion manured
is present
some
it forms
which
one
soils
sodium
with
or
in
"
no
soil,
a
of
the of
majority case
much
as
of
case
sulphate and
in
other
The
sulphates.
remarkably little sulphate, the in exception occurs
impregnated
are
the
An
cent.
per
and
one-sixteenth
is about
with
soils contain
which
proportion
Dumraon
cent.
per is
combination
in
oxides,
phosphates is usually
the
fourth.
one-
exists
always
metallic
as
'01
phosphoric acid,
Like
found
showed
farm
phosphates in English
phosphates
available
Indian
one
less than
be
he
Cawnpore,
Dumraon
of
case
available
of total phosphoric acid, *05 to '09 per cent, of the Nagpur and plot in the case one plot
contain
farms
AGRICULTURE.
of
soils the proportion regur In two '01 per cent. cases
and
it
OF
HANDBOOK
soils
usar
sodium
carbon*
ate. AcM
Carbonic
usually
lime
the
with
is
and
and
of
The of iron
are
rich in
not
the
determining humus.
and
water,
soil
a
serve
alumina
nitrogen
alluvium
by
as
of
and
a
so
are
contain
contains
The
other
that
have
had
in old fallows
or
the
Where
reality. virgin richness flooded As
soil has
Indian been
a
loss
constituent,
"
the
tions propor-
Shevaroys Speaking of nitrogen.
Pratapgarh.
or
'05 *03
cent,
higher.
cent.
the The
Laterite
cent.
per per
In
cent.
per little
a
But' soils
accumulating nitrogen,whether a higher proportion. soils is
a
more
in cultivation
myth
for many
has
the (e.g.l
annually Bengal).
of
forests, contain
of reputed fertility
The
canals
in
opportunity
contain
soils of
'1 per about '05
the
lime.
approximately
than
only
the
by combustion
even
coffee
soils of
soils
the
with
chieflywhere
and
regurs
red
that
chieflyto
valuable
proportion is the same usually contain less than rocky soils contain only about
and
loss
of
most
less
to
soils
due
sequence. con-
combine
assumed
Indian
the
of
occurs
some
much
in combination
means
that
great.
are
be
rule,
a
of
sufficient
heating is often
by combustion
soils generally,Indian The Gangetic alluvium
Madras
mainly
As
knowledge
a
is not
not
therefore
or
loss
amount
loss
and
proportions
"
does
of this
it may
Nitrogen. The
little organic matter. of combined
in
present wholly
matter
Organic
exists
present,
acid
carbonic
determination
The
"
It
than
years,
a
the
it is irrigatedby disappeared, except where Eden canal), bringing rich deposits of silt,or rivers in Eastern by leaving such deposits (e.g.,
rule, Indian
soils
yield poor
crops.
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
OF
CHAPTER
PHYSICAL
-n,"iipci",uui.o,
Evenness
ojjcumv;
of
VII.
PROPERTIES
uettL',
53
SOILS.
-EL
xxuuiiuiuu,
OF
usurp
temperature, Inclination, Electric
SOILS.
tiuu
u/uu
cvei/eiiuiuji
UJL
jneuif
influences,Elevation, Lati
Weight. The specificgravity of soil as it naturallyoccurs, the weightof natural soil as compared to that of distilledwater i.e., varies from 1 to 2. Some have less specific peat-soils gravitythan "
1. The floating vegetable gardensof Kashmir consist of lightpeatsoil of this kind. The absolute weight of soils varies from 50 to 120ftls.per cubic foot, a cubic foot of distilledwater weighing 62'5fbs. A cubic foot of rich garden-mould weighs about TOtbs, ; of ordinary arable land 80 to 90fts. ; of dry sand llOfbs. The
weightof an
of soilto the depth of one to foot varies from one loam of of about 4,800,000ffis. pounds ; dry sand, ; of half clay and half sand, 4,200,000fts. consisting ; of ordinary arable soil 3,800,000 to 3,900,000fts. ; ; of stiff clay,3,250,000ffis. of garden-mould,3,000,000fts. An of peat to the depth of acre foot weighs from one million pounds. A soil when to two one soil found to weigh 3,137,000ttjs. The same perfectly dry was when found It should be wet to was weigh 4,000,OOlJbs. acre
five million
remembered an
tons
be
that
rainfall increases the weight of hundred foot by about one a one depth In (224,000ffis.). agricultural language,a soil is said to
acre
of
inch
one
soil to
which
of
of
offers
the
plough. Sandy soils which actuallyweigh heavier than other soils are called soils because they offer least resistance to the plough. A light stiff clay soil which is said to be very heavy becomes i.e., lighter, less resistant to the plough,after there is a shower of rain,though the rain actually adds to the weightof the soil. The specific ity gravof soils, not as theyactually but of the materials of which occur they are composed varies from 2*5 to 2'8. The specific gravityof heavy
soils very
rich in
considerable
organicmatter
resistance
is sometimes
to
less than
2.
The
specific gravityof quartz is 2*65. Porosity. The
fineness of division of the particles of soil has of tion on vegetation.Food plantsmust pass into solube assimilated. before it can with which this The rapidity action can take placeis in direct ratio to the surface. dissolving the space The finer the particles, the greater the surface and more the growing roots have for their developmentand- spread. But "
great influence
when
the
are particles
too
fine,the soil becomes
too
compact for
and it cracks in drying,which also interferes roots to penetrate, with the spreadof roots. Up to a certain limit,therefore,fineness of division of the particles of soilis desirable. The condition known the in is best as loamy respectof porosity.
64
HANDBOOK
Retention of water.
AGRICULTURE.
OF
This capacityof soils depends mainly on the fineness of division of their particles. Humus or vegetable organicmatter in the soil has the greatestcapacityfor retaining in this respectthan sand. moisture,and clayhas a greatercapacity "
Angularfragmentshave greater capacitythan
round fragments for retaining 100 parts of sand take up about 25 parts moisture. of water by weight and 49 parts by volume ; clay40 parts by weight and 68 by volume ; fine calcareous soil,85 by weight and 80
190 by weight and 93 by volume. takes soil Ordinaryagricultural up about 50 per cent, by weight of water. that an inch of irrigation It will thus be seen or rainfall in at a time soaks it to a depth of about two inches,and provision the matter should of irrigation be ordinarily this basis. made on
Heat
by
volume
;
humus,
of The porosity capacityfor holdingwater. also soil though dependingmainly on the fineness of its particles, of soils fineness Loose looseness filth. or depends on agricultural can
decreases this
hold 59 per
cent,
will hold only 45 per
of water, while cent,
and
the
same
presseddown,
soil shaken
down
only 40 per cent.
Capillarity.The capillarypower of soils for drawing water their from below on depends porosity.Clay possesses the greatup est and sand and chalk the least. A column of fine clay capillarity wetted from the bottom will become to two wet to a heightof one "
wetted yards. Quartz-sand similarly
onlyhalf a
yard,and
becomes
wet
to
a
height of
up of of pure calcium carbonate)to a stillless height. The particles of soils in lump is less than that of the same soils action capillary when finelypowdered or broken down. of the many This is one takes cultivation action benefits reasons why Capillary crops. three or four days before it reaches its final limit. Capillarity is disturbed by digging or spreading on irrigated up the surface-soil,
chalkyand
calcareous
made soil (i.e., soil,
soils, dry earth. The retention of moisture \mder trees, or in sugarcane ber, trenches,is thus helpedby digginground the trees in Novemand in earthing trenches with dry earth after up sugar-cane Loss irrigation.
of water
raised
is by evaporation, by capillarity,
thus avoided. Hygroscopicpower
All porous bodies have the power of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. The proportion of moisture absorbed depends (1) upon the surface exposed,and (2)on the, nature of "he substance. Organic substances, as a rule, are than Wool, silk and mineral substances. more hygroscopic hair are highlyhygroscopic.Wool absorbs nineteen to twenty "
per
cent, of moisture
and
this selling,
from
air at the
freezing temperature.
In
buying
be borne in mind. Silk may contain nine or the eleven per cent, and above over of normal moisture,without one noticing it. In buying100 maunds of silk it is quitepossible throw to away Its.7,000 or Bs. 8,000 in must
ten per cent, of latent moisture
should be buying superfluouswater. Dry seasons substances. these with refuse buying Manuring soils
chosen for from wool
PHYSICAL
or
silk factories
moisture.
or
OF
PROPERTIES
with
55
SOILS.
hair,increases their absorbent power for
Absorbent
varies very considerably in soils. power Coarse quartz-sandabsorbs littleor no water from air,calcareous sand very little; ordinary* and more arable,clay and humus soils,
Calcareous sand
finelypowdered absorbs
twelve times as The coarse aqueous rapidityof vapour as of moisture present in the absorption dependsupon the proportion of water air; but the total amount absorbed mainly depends on at at a low than a temperature, more being absorbed high Hence the soil of the at a temperature. necessity desiccating uniformly high temperature for purposes of analysis.Sowing of seed for rdbi crops should be done in the evening after which the land should be harrowed and left in an open state for absorption of dew. In the morning rolling done be as so or ladderingshould more.
much
to
in the
keep in
the moisture
absorbed
state.
night.
at
Evaporation. Soils becoming superficially dry in the day time absorb moisture at night. All soils exposed to air lose their less rapidily, moisture more or sandy soils most rapidly, clay less rapidly, and humus soils list rapidly. Exposed to a dry atmosphere at 19" C for four hours in an experiment "
"
"
Siliceous soillost Calcareous sand Pure
clay
Claysoil Chalk Garden Humus
.
.
.
.
88 .
.
%
of moisture.
76 .
.
.
.
.
.
52 35
..28 ..
soil or
24
.
.
peaty soil
.
.
20 .
.
for a Coagulation In fresh water, clay remains in suspension in a nd but salt it water deposited gets coagulated very longtime, Hence formation of soils in the sea is facilitated. at the bottom. of any soluble salt to salt or gypsum The addition of common or mixture of clay and fresh water, would demonstrate the action a of the sea has in the formation of clay-soils. The application is such as castor-cake or gypsum to clay-soils, certain manures "
known
of gypsum friable. The use soils porous has been demonstrated.
make
to
plastic
usar
it
more
in
making
Shrinkageand expansion. Pure clay contracts eighteenper cent. in volume when it becomes wet, and strong claysoilsmay contract to ten eight Lightsandy soilswith littlehumus undergo per cent. littleor no change in volume when wet. soils expand up Humus and to fifteen per cent, when in frost. more wet, Clay soil also expands in frost. This expansionoften causes rupture of roots of crack. These in drying, crops growingon these soils. Clay soils, cracks also damage the roots of*growing crops. "
Colour.
"
The
colour
Dark-coloured
of the soil somewhat
bodies
being more
.
affects its temperature.
quicklyheated
thaa
56
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
soilsand dark basalt soils are warmer sandy soils. If dark-coloured shales are over vineyardsin cold countries,ripeningtakes place sprinkled white Smooth and substances darkquicker. sprinkledover coloured soil would keep such soil comparatively cool. As we are
bodies,humus light-coloured than limestone soils and
interested in keepingsoils cool rather than warm, we might white chipsof stone or chalk on darktry the effect of scattering coloured soils. For practical the questionof colour is purposes not of much importancein a country where coolness is best secured more
by moisture which most soils are in need of, at certain critical -however, is of periods.The questionof temperature of the soil, great importance. Temperature "
The
temperature
mean
in different climates,but
even
in the
same
of the surface soil differs soils
localitysome
are
The heat of the soil is cold and others as warm. and it is distinguished from three sources accordinglyas solar heat, terrestrialheat, and chemical heat. The chemical heat in porous soils, derived from decayingorganicmatter, especially is very considerable ; but as this heat is evolved very slowly,it has
recognisedas
derived
plant-life. Owing to the internal of the earth,there is very little change of temperature due to radiation,between day and night below a depth of four little perceptible effect
from
the
depth
of
surface
in
on
warm
countries.
In
to eightyfeet the seventy-five
feet
countries,below a temperature is constant,
affected by radiation at night,and solar The mean annual temperature of the surface soil colder than that of the air ; but moist clay-soils are continual above them, as the evaporation goingon the
face sur-
cold
i.e.,not
lowers
heat
heat is
by day. over slightly
the from
atmosphere them
tinually con-
Water
ascendingby capillary temperature. and subsoil the action from the place of that evaporated taking from the surface soil, keepsthe surface-soil always cold. heat The less the specific Specific heat of the soil, the more heat of soils compared to that of rapidlyis it heated. The specific and from *16 to -3 for varies from *2 to *5 for equal volumes water heat than clay. The equalweights. Sand has a greater specific actual capacityof soil for heat, however, is largely dependenton its capacityfor water has four or five times the specific water as heat of soils. Quartz-sand becomes heated to the highesttemperature a$d white chalk-soil to the lowest temperature under the "
solar influence. The coolness of lime-soils is therefore of climates,and the advantageof kankar great advantagein warm beds can be viewed from this pointalso. Moist claysoilswhich are considered very objectionable from the temperature pointof view in cold countries should, from the same pointof view, be looked
same
upon
as
highlyadvantageousfor
Radiation.
Radiation surfaces which polished "
ftiisclin^ate.
also affects temperature. Smooth reflect heat most absorb perfectly,
and and
PHYSICAL
PROPEBTIES
57
SOILS.
OF
moist soils at nightis such soils colder and are called whole, are quick,but, on radiation results in quicker formation 'cold soils.' Nocturnal of dew in the interstices of soils where water vapour accumulates in larger than in the air. proportions
radiate it least
readily.The radiation from the
less
Retention of heat.
Quick
slow fineness or
coolingdepends partlyon heat but chiefly of the of particles on specific largeness covered Soils soil,finelydivided particles more readily. cooling cool more with gravels, slowlythan sandy soils. Sandy soils also and these longer retain heat longerthan clay-soils than humus soils. Water beinga bad conductor of heat,wet soils differlittlefrom one and retention of heat. A wet plotmay another, in the absorption be as much 7"C higherin temperature earlyin the morning or as 7"C lower in temperature at 3 or 4 P.M. in the daytime than a neighbouring effectof irrigation soils in equalon dry plot. The physical ising and soils from be hot cannot keeping gettingtoo temperature overrated in a climate like that of India. In England coldness of soils is avoided by drainage.Drainage for this purpose alone is in this climate. not required "
Evenness to the helpful
or
of temperature and
growth of
slow
nocturnal
radiation
are
plants.Uniformityof temperature
very occurs
in sea-side places, the climate of which should be considered favourable to vegetationfor this reason only. It should be noted, for developing the germinating however, that cold is helpful power of seed in the case of many agricultural crops of the temperate
climates,and
the difference of
ficial. winter is therefore beneplaceshigh winds prove an obstacle to agricultural From difference between the to operations. January May the day and nighttemperatures is the greatest in the plains of Bengal, and
summer
In sea-side
while are
in
in
July and August
hampered therefore July
and
of Calcutta
table
August.
it is the least.
from January to The
throughoutthe
maximum year
Vegetativeprocesses May and highlyfacilitated
and
minimum
will be found
from
temperatures the
following
:
"
Maximum,
January February
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
March
April May
83"F. 91" 99"
..
..
..
..
July
..
..
August
..
..
September
,.
..
..
..
October November ..
..
..
..
December
52"F. 54" 64"
100" 98" 93"
69" 69" 73" 76"
92" 93"
75" 75"
91" 86"
68" 57"
81"
52"
103"
June
Minimum.
68
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
determine The maximum and minimum temperatureschiefly A certain at the crops that can be successfully a locality. grown temperature of over 90"F. is not suitable for growingwheat, and a temperature of under 60"F. is not suitable for the growth of rice. is unsuitable for the growth of A temperatureof 32"F.,i.e., frost, does it kill not though deep-rooted vegetation, crops and trees,the ness are lodgedin warmer securely layersof soil. Evenof soilin which the roots of plants of temperature of the layers to vegetation only when other conditions are lodgedis helpful
roots of which
are
equal. The
followingtable gives the temperature of at the depth of three feet :
Calcutta at the surface and
Metin
temperature
at the
January
February March
April May June
July August September October November December
Yearly mean
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
temperature
the
soil of
"
surface.
a
temperature
depth
of 3 feet.
64*4"F. 71-2"
72'5"F. 74-1"
82-7" 91-3" 90-4" 87-5"
78*4" 84'5" 87'1" 87'2"
86-2"
86-4"
85'9"
86-1"
86-0"
89-1"
83*2" 73-3"
85-2"
64-8"
75-1" 82'0"
80-6" .
Mean at
81-0"
.
the angle at which the sun's rays strike the influences the earth, temperature of the soil. Where there is a
Inclination,or
of moisture,more direct rays of the sun sufficiency causinggreater of the indigenous heat of the soil,only result in richer vegetation kinds. A southern slopein the northern hemisphereis therefore desirable for moist climates ; but a level soil helpingretention of rainwater on it is by far the best for all ordinary purposes, in most radiation from walls is In cold climates even taken advantageof in increasing the heat of the neighbouring soil and in growingfruits on the walls, to greaterperfection. The electricalinfluences of various classes of soils on plantlife in wet an"J in dry conditions,have not been studied sufficiently
parts of India.
enable
givedefinite information on the subject. studied at present, But this is the subjectwhich is beinglargely and and cipated i n France chiefly Germany, importantresults are antifrom this study. Electricity has been appliedto plantsin three ways, the soil of wires buried about by means (1) through two inches deep,(2)by a network of wires carried in the air above which act like the growingcrop, and (3) by powerfularc-lights the lightbeing also softened by amber globes. strong sun-light, minutelyto
us
to
"
Under
the continuous
action of the last of these crops have
been
(JO
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
VIII.
CHAPTER SUNLIGHT,
AND
RAIN
HAIL.
different coloured rays on vegetation; Blue rays the best ; Solar of plants for sunlight of endurance measured ; ; Difference Kainfall how governed ; Regions beyond high hills,rainless ; South- West and North- East monsoons Regions of heavy rainfall ; ; Receding monsoon; Effect of rain on soil ; Loss of water ing by drainage and evaporation ; Sinkof rainwater in the soil ; Rainfall gettingmore precarious on account of destruction of trees ; Untimely rainfall should be utilised ; Catch crops of calculation method and of rainfall and fertilising crops ; Brahmins' of rainfall, temperature, both meteorologists' methods faulty; Table rainfall altitude,latitude and longitudeof typicalplacesin Bengal ; What should be aimed of weather at in securing site for a farm ; Reading charts ; How hailstorms prevented in Austria and Italy.]
[Effect of
radiation how
known to Sunlight* Solar rays of different colours are duce prodifferent effects on vegetation.An experimentwas ed conductin glass of the following colours was compartments in which glass used ; ruby, brown-red, orange, cobalt-blue and deepyellow, soil in the box covered The young plantsfirstbroke the green. with the orange glass,and last under those covered by yellow, found that the effectof green and blue glasses.It was subsequently the yellowrays was such as to prevent the germination of the seed, "
even
althoughthe
rays
only rested
on
the
surface
of the soil while
the seed
lay buried beneath ; while, again,the blue lightseemed to remarkably favour the process. Under the orange lightthe and had white but then stalks, they plantsgrew very tall, they it was refused to put forth any flowers. Under the yellow light remarkable of littlefungior moulds that a number sprang up and withered and flourished luxuriantly while the plant themselves died. Under the red lightthe plants only grew an inch or two high,had somethingof a reddish colour,and soon rotted and perished, the soilin which food in abundance of w ith althoughsupplied
they were placed. Under but tolerably strong,yet
the green would none
lightthe plantsgrew slowly the flower, notwithstanding
results under the The paid to them. littleless seed a different. The germinated glasswere very quicklythan in the open air,but the plantsbecame compact and healthyin their character,puttingforth their flower buds strongly and flowering alone did the various Under this light in perfection.
greatestcare
and
attention
blue
processes go on with the vigourwhich is characteristic of vegetation in the open air. It is inferred that such would also probablybe the case with plantsgrown under violet glass. stations with the Solar radiation is recorded in meteorological of consists mometer of radiation This a delicate therthermometer. help a in a glass tube havinga dull blackened bulb and paclosed This instrument is freely from which the air has been removed. and its maximum of solar radiationwhich
exposed to the heat of the The
greatestamount
sun
readingregistered. occurs during the
HAIN
SUNLIGHT,
AND
61
HAIL.
mum by the excess of this temperature over the maxiIn shade. tlie the of ture, moisthe air in of presence temperature solar heat is most potent in accelerating vegetative processes, solar heat. of endurance of differ in the power but plants Cotton, for and Sida example, though rhombifolia, tropical plants pineapple, is indicated
day
cannot
under
bear the full blaze of the the shade of trees.
tropical sun,
and
they do
better
that govern rainsaid that the1 causes fall well understood. Rainfall is regulated in India are very and w inds the partlyby the contour of the prevailing partlyby with reference to the positionof the seafe and the country, chiefly Rainfall
"
be
It cannot
In the mountains. turned towards the
neighbourhoodof high mountains
the face condensation of sea, the rainfall is heavy, as mountains. A tableland most these takes o n readily place vapour surrounded by mountains, e.g., the Tibetan receives very tableland, littlerain,since the winds which reaqh it have alreadyparted with the hill-sides. Differences of temperatheir moisture in ascending ture of the globe, stimulate currents of air,and in different regions when into a very hot and dry regioncurrents of air flow from the sea
and
cold
from
accompaniedby the continuous and make the
and
moist
rain follow.
In
on
hill-tracts, cyclonicdisturbances the greaterpart of Northern India
heat of
the air April,May and June tends to rarify in that region and continuous atmospheric pressure light
thereafter flow into these in definite directions. Thus in Bombay the monsoon zones rent curis from the south-west,i.e.,the Arabian Sea, while we have it from the south in Calcutta. These winds when theyreach their full force in June, and when they are accompanied by cyclonic Under normal ditions constorms, are termed the south-west monsoon. and in 14th the 20th between of they begin Ceylon May, at and Rangoon a few days later?and at the head of the Andamans currents
Bay
of
of
air laden with
moisture
Bengal during the first or second week of information telegraphic regardingthe monsoon
June.
To
obtain current from various stations in Southern India, from Ceylon and from the Andamans, is therefore of very great importancefrom an agricultural of transplanting at the time point of view, specially
paddy. which a particular and distributionof rainfall ity localdetermine its productiveness, in receives,usually especially the In the Malabar Coast of India and in parts of Assam the tropics. largestquantityof rainfall occurs, and these are among the most productivetracts in India. The regionsof heavy rainfall, i.e., of 70 to 100 inches or more, are Assam, parts of Eastern Bengal, the Cis-Himalayanregionof Northern Bengal "*nd the Eastern and Western Ghauts. The
The
amount
effect of rainfallslowlybut surely in changingthe physical character of the surface soil,where4 siich soil lies bare or is ovetgrown oalyby short grass, must not be ignored.The finerparticles
62
HANDBOOK
OF
AGBICULTURE.
washed out, the soil has a tendency of claygetting to get lighter, which is an advantageonly for soils which are too stiff. High amount of fine dust and tend to winds, however, bringback some balance. winds which High prevailon the seaside districts keep up a therefore not to be regardedas absolutely inimical to In of time pursuits. course agricultural they helpto make sandy tracts loamy and fit for cultivation. On the whole, however, are
boisterous winds
to helpful
the proper growth of less crops unthey are very short crops. An occasional galemay lay low and spoil a crop nearlyreadyfor the sickle and where high winds are the rule, is genervery few crops can be grown and the landscape ally found quitebare of trees in such localities, and how helpful are
not
"
in various ways, we shall see later on. agriculture What proportionof rain evaporates,what proportionsinks into the soiland feeds wells and springs, and what proportion finds its way by means of drains,streams and rivers, into the sea, depend trees
are
to
of the year, the porosity upon tljeclimate of the place,the season the nature of the strata below,and the contour of the of the soil, whole district or locality. Untimely rainfall. It is generally considered that the rainfall "
than used to be the case. in India is becomingmore precarious t he it isdifficult is this case to say, for the precariousfar really in recent years may be simplydue to the fact that the character ness in cycles. But there are some of the climate runs elements in the of which condition of are consideration things from worthy present view. One of form in which the uneven our bution distripresentpoint of rainfall takes in India is the occurrence of heavy rains In 1906, for instance,after a fair amount out of season. of rainfall How
in
January, in most parts of Bengal and Upper India,extraordinarily rains occurred in heavy February,in some placesas
In March also, fairlyheavy rains occurred much as ten inches. followed by the great droughtof April. In Bengal, and this was is made of this untimely rainfall,which use as a rule,no is a Such heavy rainfall,at any time of the year, very great pity. would be at once made use of in Southern and Western India, in
partswhere littlerain is obtained. January rains should be always utilised in gettinglands under the plough after the rice those
harvest. Once brought under the plough, the land can be afterwards kept stirred from time to time until the next rice sowing This results in the soil retaining or season. transplanting moisture much more from the air and in being effectively, absorbing fertility and insect from If free funguspests. rain occur againin February after land has been prepared, or sowingof catch-crops, crops which take only about three months gettingready, should proceed Such crops as have a beneficialeffect on the future rice vigorously. ; so that if the crop should be chosen in preference crops come t he land at to least beufertilized. nothing, Melons ultimately may cucurbitaceous and other wheat, bucktil, bajri, crops" maize,juar, marua,
cotton, cow-pea,
ground-nut,dhaincha,sunn-hemp,gowar
RAIN
SUNLIGHT,
AND
63
HAIL.
EH
S
23
ft "
i
"
S CO CM
S
"
8
-
w
a
O5
CM
OO
00
8
s
s
"
n
o
s
CO
TH
o
CO
g
s
rH
S
CO
O5 0
00
s?
CO
"
1 1 "aunp
O
t-
S
OO
CO
00
a Ip
p
CO
4t"
o
S
00
05
"5
X 05
CO
S
00
OO
CO
CO
S Cl
CO
CO
9*
CO
rH
O5
rH
6
05
^"fi GO
*p
O5
!""
00
*2
o
s O
000
00
O
CO
O
05
r?
1-1
8 s
8
i CO
i
1
ga
w
tta
Bard
O
S
P1 "
OO
64
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
be grown as catcharharia sim (Cyamopsispsoralioides) can The rain. but lastfive with heavy untimely crops should be crops in excellent action have an the soil. a s fertilizing preferred they aim
or
untimelybut heavy
rains
in any
there month, usually in againthe month after,at least that is our experience Lower Bengal; so that there should be no hesitation on the part of cultivators to utilise heavy rains whenever they may happen. It that heavy rains early in Bengal, in the season is also our experience are compensatedby short rainfall late in the season, and short is compensatedby heavy rainfall late rainfall earlyin the season When
occur
is heavyrain
Cultivators make a great mistake to consult in Brahmin and land and sowing almanacs soothsayers cultivating seed. They ought to follow their own experienceand common in the matter, and relyon the beneficent dispensations of a sense of the universe. In 1904, in the diswise Creator and Governor trict cultivators the Hindu found of Sambalpur, they had made a the earlyrains of Apriland May and serious mistake in neglecting in
the
season.
advice in the matter of cultivation, while fellow-cultivators following their own ment judg-
their Brahmin's following
their Mahommedan their land and cultivating secured a bumper crop. season
and
sowing the
It may
be
seed
earlyin the inferred that readily
be true, as they speak of rainfall, not of a the whole of and but from know we village, country,
almanacs
cannot
cular partirience expe-
that rainfall differs from
provinceto province,and district from village and even In 1904 the crops to village. to district, in certain in failed entirely villages the Chanda District,while in the the neighbouring villages crops were very good. A good shower while the absence of such the situation in a village, ruin the crop in the next village. Even for a particular rain may often turn out wrong. the Brahmin predictions soothsayers' village of Pous, from day to He studies the state of the sky in the month of the season for the whole of the next day,and infers the character month the into divides twelve He equal parts,and notices year. of rain may
save
if there are clouds or rain on any day or portionof a day. From which portionof a month in this he concludes which months or the year that is coming are to be rainy. We have studied their Eain could not inferences and found them utterlyin the wrong. in such a simpleway. be predicted are Meteorologists studying of snow in the hills,directions of winds in sun-spots,occurrence different parts of the world, and various other circumstances that but their forecasts known or are supposedto determine rainfall, We have no reliable means also are generally out. as yet for preparing forecasts of rainfallin India. The table in the preceding page
elevation, mean
givesthe latitude,longitude,
temperature (M. T.) and
rainfall
(R.)of the
of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. rainfallof some parts of Assam is highereven than that The average annual rainfallof Cherrapunji of Darjiling. is as much inches. 475 it In some runs as years up to 600 inches. In Sylhet towns principal
The
SUNLIGHT,
KAIN
65
HAIL.
AND
be seen for the several months from the followcan ing figures-."January" 0'39" ; February" 1*59" ; March" 5'74" ; April" 13-73";May" 21-64";June" 32'02";July" 25*48";August" 25-69"; September" 20-05" ; October" 8*31"; November" 1-18"; 0-30" ; Annual average" 156-12". In Chittagongthe December" the averages
rainfall is 104 inches. average rice of the ordinary varieties grows
It should be noted that better in the plainswith of six five rainfall inches or at the germinating and a monthly ripeningperiodsand ten or eleven inches at the growing period. inches per month The rainfall of twenty or twenty-five is suitable annual
even
the excess be easily^ for hill tracts where water drained can often is Excess for as as varieties most injurious deficiency away. varieties of rice,however, can of rice. Some stand a rainfall of inches month. A rainfall of two to thirty monthly twenty per
only
growth of Kharif
the
favourable
most
suited
figurebeing more
lower
as
is the
six inches
to
evaporationdoes
in the nearest registered
and
some
years
cold
crops,
weather
as
it
much
as
be
a
of canals,
is less than
July and twenty
as
avoided
it is
other
or
the
farm
November
localityshould generalfarming,unless
such
a
that in
and precarious,
very in
rapidlyin the
monthly rainfall average station should be consulted. meteorological in any locality in April,May and June, and
If the -average rainfall September, October and or
also for the cold weather
so
on
site for
selectinga
In
go
ordinary vegetation,the early and late periods of
hot.
the
in
does
not
the
tor
crops, and
for
a
as
inches, twelve inches,
to two
one
August over or thirtyinches or more, naturallyunfavourable for
cool hill tract.
Of course,
the presence
alters the specialfacilities for irrigation,
questionentirely. The
Weather-chart
the
reading
that
one
each
sees
chart
The
can
The
placeswhich
connectingall those one
should agriculturist
weather-chart.
be
curved
weather-charts,called isobars,are
on
barometric
same
"
the
of
pressure. see
at
a
From
a
glance the
have
number nature
atmosphericpressure over a country at any department issues these charts difference of pressure between one c ' gradient.A gradientof 4 means,
at
familiar with dotted lines
imaginarylines, a
given time the
of these
isobars on a of the distribution of The meteorological giventime.
isobar and that over
every morning. The the next is called the
distance of 1 degree or by 1for ^th of an inch. close to one When another they indicate high the isobars are drawn wider when are or they apart they indicate a low steep gradient; 60
miles,the
barometer
has risen
a
or
by high winds and low gradient blow directly from regionsof high pressure to those of low pressure ; the atmosphericmovement caused by the rotations of the earth results in an alteration of the In the northern hemisphere if you stand direction of the current. with your back to the wind, the barometric pressure on the regions left hand is lower than on those to your righthand. to your In
gradient.High gradientis by lightwinds.
M, HA
followed
Air does not
5
66
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
the southern hemisphereif you stand with your back to the wind, The same of lower pressure will be on your righthand. the regions in other words thus : if you stand with the is expressed principle to to your left, barometer your rightand the low barometer high the southern In the wind will blow on hemisphere your back. Thus the isobars indicate direction will be the case. the reverse of the wind, and the distances between the lines its strength. barometric readingshave to be reduced to a common Actual ot the place standard by the Meteorological as the elevation Office, of observation and the temperature at the time of observation,make of the column of mercury, a difference in the height apart from the of wind.
difference of pressure causing movements therefore corrected or reduced are
comparison.
has also to
A reduction
All and
32"F. for
account
ence of differ-
"to sea-level
be made
on
the*readings
of gravitydue to difference of length in the diameter of the earth at different latitudes. All reduction is made for the latitude of 45". Hall
"
The
in Lower
occur
is not
of hailstorms
cause
Bengal at
southern
the
breeze
change of
known. definitely
season
bringswinds
from
winter
They to
mer, sum-
laden with
moisture from when northern wind bringsthe clouds back the sea, and occasionally a from the south towards the Himalayas. These clouds are formed Cirrus clouds) and not low down as in the high up in the air (i.e., clouds the of of the of the case rainyseason, and the colder regions rain the sometimes before down come drops they congeal atmosphere hail. smaller of Hailstones size in in the form are as largeror they from a greater or smaller height. The destruction down come
by hailstones,though local,is often very considerable. In Italythe damage to vineyardsannually caused by hail is estimated
caused at
over
"4,000,000.
In
1880
Italian
an
savant,
Professor
Bom-
most bicci of Bologna,observed that showers of rain were frequent where gun practice shook the air and filledit with in those places American followed the well-known smoke. Then experiments
(which have, however,
led to
practicalresults)for artificially
no
producingrain in a cloudless sky. In bicci's researches have led to a very
one
direction Professor Bom-
result. In 1896 in practical Styria (Austria) progressivevine-grower,BurgomisterStieger, started shootingwith cannons againstapproachingstorm clouds. a
He
established
his yards the. hills surrounding vineat an altitude of from nine hundred to two thousand four hundred feet. At every station he had from five to six mortars in could be proceeded with even a wooden hut,so that shooting during rain. His mortars and inches are they weigh about eighteen long 1601bs. each with a three centimetre chamber. He loads them with about 5ozs. of nliner's powder. The clouds either disperse or come down in the form of rain and he has altogether avoided hail by this means.
His
Italy. There in Italy,
shootingstations
example has been are
now
on
largelyfollowed in Austria and stations hail-preventing
about six hundred
68
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
fertileit is. We silicates present in it the more of silicatesmore at absorptionand decomposition
chapteron
in the
exhaustion,recuperationand
will speak
of
hereafter length
absorption.By
the number co-efficientis meant of cubic centimetres form of in the absorbed from a solution of ammonia of nitrogen chloride by one hundred grammes of soil. ammonium the the proportionof a soil which Speakinggenerally, greater the dilute fertileit is. The amount more acids, dissolved of is by absorbent
soil-substancessoluble in But
cent.
water
in pure solubility
usuallyvaries from *1 to '5 per is not a guide to the solubility
water
in the soil. Some actuallyundergoing chemists of plant-food dilute that acetic acid dissolved assumed all the os substances have available to plants; but the acid secretions from rootlets are of a complex nature, and no absolute guide as to the dilution to be used is possible.Professor Stutzer of Bonn, was 1 per cent, solution of citricacid for the ascertaining acid m of available phosphoric and Dr. manures, Dyer of
the firstto amount
use
with soils, and arrived London, has carried out this method in dealing i n the r esults, practical at very important determining proportions acid and potash in soils. But the method of available phosphoric of available nitrogenin soils ; and gives no clue to the amount of is mainly concerned with the after all the question fertility of
amount
available
nitrogenpresent
in the
soil.
Besides,acid '
secretions from all rootlets are not equivalentto a 1 per cent, acid, Some of citric secretions acid than others solution are more tility and some plantstherefore are better able to utilize the latent ferof soils than others. The average acidity of root-secretions all
of citricacid, shown by hundreds of plantsexamined by Dr. Dyer, is about 0*86 per cent. Coming to individual plantshe found the variation was about very great. Strawberryshowed Geum and of a 2 per cent, (anotherplant the order Rosacese) as much
in terms
of Solanaceae and Lilia; while the examination low about results" O36 cese gave very per cent. Crucifera} and Leguminosa3 averagedabout 1%, while Grammes Umbellifene,Composite
as
5'53 per cent.
and
showed only about J%. These results, Chenopodiaceae in showing how some orders of plants^ important very and Leguminosee thrive on poor soils! Rosaceae,Cruciferse,
however, are such
as
while others,such as Solanese, Graminese, Umbellifene' Liliaceae, need liberal manuring. Some Composite and Chenopodiacea3, the of orders natural same differed widely from others in plants of root-secretions and the figures this property of acidity should be judged with this reservation. is governed by the minimum of a necessary ingreFertility dient. A soil may be rich in all essential ash-constituentsof plants but deficientor wantingonly in one, and this deficiency want or result its rocks Soils several barrenness. derived from m may alluvial soils) better than soils from one rock,as there is are ("."/.,
less likelihood of such soils beingdeficientin
anv
necessary
stituent. con-
FERTILITY
Barrenness
Soils
The
"
formed
the
by
of
followingtypes
containing an
oxidation
of
land
barren.
often
are
salts,as, for instance, those
of ferrous
excess
69
BARRENNESS.
AND
iron
barren.
pyrites are
Land
fore newly reclaimed from the sea contains ferrous salts and is thereTank-earth temporarily barren. freshly put on soils also them makes temporarily barren, probably also from the presence of ferrous the
action
of
containing More
but
and
sun
a
air
sulphitesinto
salts and lands
Drainage, liming and
salts.
than two much
very
barren.
Lands
of their
these
(which
the
of
means
reclaiming
it barren ; per cent, of soluble salts in a soil makes less proportion of common make salt would a soil
reclaimed lands
barren
to exposure salts into ferric
ferrous
convert
sulphates) are poisons.
the Sunderbuns
from
salt before
excess
and
cultivation
become
they
of the
United
fit for
have
to
be drained The
cultivation.
Provinces
usually contain an of sodium carbonate sodium excess or sulphate which is locally called Reh. made to reclaim closure Attempts are being by drainage,enand light Voelcker In Dr. 1895-1896 determined, manuring. by a series of carefullyconducted experiments, the proportions salts which of different sodium might be present in a soil without which was To to seen preventing plant-growth. good garden-soil, of any contain of the sodium no salts,were appreciable amount amr
or
added
definite
sodium
sulphate and
from It
'1 to
found
sodium
that
each
three
salts, sodium The
chloride.
and
Cereals
1%.
the
of
amounts
pulses
were
of these
salts
amounts sown
retarded
carbonate, of salt varied
in
separate pots.
the
germination. The cereals were affected by "7% of carbonate or sulphateand by of of the retarded chloride. The by *4% germination pulses was chloride and '7% smaller amounts, i.e.,by '2 to "4% of carbonate or of sulphate. In the after-growth '2% of the carbonate did harm whilst *4% was chloride was quite fatal. Up to "2% of sodium found harmless in a few cases, whilst "]% proved harmful in others. Sodium sulphatewas less harmful, perfectgrowth both in the kkarif and rabi seasons of *5% of the in the presence being maintained salt. As in germination so in the after-growth, the leguminos""were affected of soda salts. more ,than the cereals by the excess was
From
this
experiment it may be inferred how the lands fit for growing Sunderbuns, though they become found unsuitable for a long for are readily, pulse-crops
in the
the presence
of
and
dhaincha
and
in seaside lucerne Another to
this.
lime,however,
can
stand
more
placeswhere and cause
water.
dhaincha
leguminous crops such
some
can
be
of the barrenness
Gypsum
salt than
common
there is no
has
been
doubt
reclaimed rice very time. as
In
lucerne
they otherwise do,
of the presence
stone of lime-
readilygrown. of
usar
used
lands is their with
success
ability imperme-
in correcting
PART
II.
IMPLEMENTS.
CHAPTER
THEORIES
I Objects
of
cultivation
thin
crops
Tull
may
Spacing
"
and
ploughing,
"
of
which free
by
help
of
access
water
of
to
the
take
and
allow
of
"
tillage ing, Ridg-
"
"Subsoil-
"
stubbles
and
sod
nitrates
the
;
(4)
"
to
of
thrive
parasites.
In
microbes
freely with
more
acid
carbonic
and
tion cultiva-
sentence,
one
of
weathering
facilitate
oxygen,
easy
moisture
of the
allow
trate pene-
find
to
water
to
to
roots
absorption
(r")to
action
of
and
air
:
allow
to
allow
to
nitrogen
nests
up
(3)
;
(1)
"
place easily
chiefly by
break
:
arc
soil
formation
oxygen
soil
(6)
;
the
in
ridging
Jethro
"
of
nature
Subsoiling
Burning
"
hoeing
Trenching-
"
tivation cul-
deep
of
]
soil ; (2) to
soil to
the
on
Bakharing
"
rabi
for
but
season,
disadvantages -Drilling and
for
Harrowing
"
dry
influence
adapted
Mulching
and
roots
gases
particles
the
"
irrigation
objects of cultivation into
crops
Climatic-
"
and
Warping,
easily into and
other
Country-plough
"
Stifle-burning THE
systems
Rolling,
and
Advantages
and
-Drainage
for
c.ultiwitiou
"
fibre
for
"
Drilling
access
Protracted
overdone
Lois-Woodon
Nitrification'
"
CULTIVATION.
UNDERLYING
"
bo
X.
and mechanical, suitable helps to bring about a in the soil. biological condition fication, aeriThe (a) better arc : advantages of protracted cultivation tilth ; (c) exposure and specially nitrification ; (6) better chemical
"
of insect a
of
and
fungus pests to the action longer period ; (d) the preservation of the
soil.
Cold
weather
preparation
practised by the best cultivators, In better return. gives them a
deep moisture of
cultivation
in the
which
is not
who
the
always the
layer in which
seed
of
birds,
for
know rabi
kharif it
crops
in
season
be
layers is actually
the
improves
desirable is to
lower
in the
moisture
as
cultivation
needed
should
Valuable
for
commence
proper
as
opportunities
soon
are
after
usually lost when
retention
harvest no
protracted of
is loss
there
placed, the and growth
thfe rice
soil and
Bengal
germination four or should extend for at least a fortnight during which Rabi be done. ploughings and ladderings should should rains after the properly over. are commence is
for
sunlight,
ants,
;
still it
five
cessive suc-
tion cultiva-
Kharif as
sible. pos-
advantage
THEORIES
71
CULTIVATION.
UNDERLYING
istaken of rain from Januaryto May in putting land under preparation for the rice or other rains crop. The advantagesof deep cultivation are : (I)Roots can penetrate "
deeperand
great tendency towards
root
barleyplantsten days' old parts of dry
two
matter
in the
second
leaf,the
Young plantshave a found that development. Hellriegel
find food from the subsoil.
only in their third leaf had fortyof dry their roots for every fifty-eight
and
in
matter
leaves
and stem, while the proportion was twentynine to seventy-one when a month old, and eight to ninety-two when ripe. He also found that barley plants with only one leaf had roots nine or ten inches long, and when they had their a
month
old
roots
had
were
roots
help in developingthe penetratingdeep, a crop rule,more a deep ploughingthe
is, as roots
can
more
distances
resist moist between
drought better
the
deeper one plantscan
The
disadvantageof deep
cultivation
the
as
goes.
soil
(3) By
be shortened
then, instead of spreadingout, sink deep
can
food.
and
twenty inches long,and barley plants long. A loose soil is of great of agricultural roots (2) Roots crops.
three feet
in search
lies in the
fact of
as
of a
of plant-food great deal more beingmade soluble and available than be utilized by the crop, and the liability so can of this plant-food let iree, beingwashed has in the past This is a defect* which out. been
much
too
insisted
upon.
cient Spacing. One objectof tillage operationsis to allow justsuffiA rice plantshould have at its space to each class of crops. one-third have found cubic foot of earth. In Bengal we disposal "
the
of paddy practiceof transplantingseveral seedlings
common
about
nine inches apart very
feet.
In
vicious,and better results have been obtained from singleseedlings planted one foot apart. A bean have should cubic foot of earth, a potato at its disposal one plant cubic plant three cubic feet,and a tobacco plantas much as seven with barleyplants experimentconducted by Hellriegel it found that was out on a jars, a large plant grown grown of 281bs. earth weighed when jar containing ripe and perfectly dry 33,000 milligrammesand bore 636 seeds ; while twenty-four plants grown in a jar containinglllbs. of earth, weighed when dry 21,600 milligrammesand bore only 384 seeds (of a smaller be size). The minimum space consistent with good yieldshould an
on
allowed
each plant. For instance, though one potato plant the is it if give highestyield giventhree cubic feet of space, it is more economical to have two plantsin this space though these will yieldonly a little more two than the one plant. Potatoes plantedin double rows four inches apart have been found at the than those plantedin single SibpurFarm to yieldmore rows, the distances in each case beingeighteen inches by nine inches,though the proportion of increase in the latter case is larger. to
will
and Hoeing. The space allowed between Drilllni plantsnot only in root also in weeding. helps developmentand better growth,but "
HANDBOOK
Sowingin
OF
AGRICULTURE.
drills or
kvel field, regularlines and having a perfectly one do the weeding by bullock-hoes when plants are of that height(threeinches to a foot)when bullock-hoes be can is able to
used without
much
developmentof in the
as
largenumber
of branches
Where
stems.
is considered
able, undesir-
of fibre crops, deep cultivation and thick sowing The objectsof ploughingand reploughing a field,
case
advisable.
are
of
a
Joss by treadingor breakingof
levelling it,of sowingseed
in drills, and
of
weedingit with
bullock-
hoes,are evident from what has been said here and in the chapter on physicalpropertiesof soils. There is a further objectin constantly the soil helpsin usingthe hoe, besides weeding. Stirring removing the surface-pan which is formed after rain or irrigation, and which
prevents free access
the consequent weathering in or sugarcane potato crop should be hoed withweek a after each irrigation to avoid caking of the soil,unless is practised, fit So great is the benetrench-irrigation is desirable. as derived from constant stirriri| of soil during the growthof crops that Jethro Tull,a famous Englishfarmer (1680"1740), jumped to the conclusion that was alone would serve, and no manure tillage needed. Tull's principle issue carried better out to was by the Revd. Mr. Smith of Lois-Weedon, Northamptonshire.Operating of air and
of soil particles.A
upon for
a
Smith clay-soil,
many
manure, and grew
bushels being thirty-four
years
bushels,which
produced largewheat
His average crops. in place of sixteen
the average
yieldof the locality.He used no but simply parcelledout his field in stripsfive feet wide was
the crop in drills on alternate strips in successive years. The vacant were strips spaded and plougheddeeplyand frequently, that by the disintegration so of soil and absorptionof carbonic
nitrogenfrom acid^and year's crop what a
was
secured.
the air. The
and spacingcan tillage
good many
plant-foodenough
Lois-Weedon
do
without
a
for the next
system clearlyshows
particleof
manure
for
years.
that here It should be mentioned deep the point of view of liberating plant-food, so essential in warm climates as in cold climates. Disintegration of deep-seated soilsis favoured by warmth, which generatescarbondioxide gas from organic carbonates. matter and from disintegrating traced disintegration Boussingault to- a depth of three hundred feet in a warm mine. The corrosive action of air and water Climatic Influence. "
cultivation is not, from
much
The air faster in warmer than in colder climates. in the pores of the cultivated soils is highlychargedwith carbondioxide,it is also found in natural waters usuallyto the extent of that has passed through in water nearlyone per cent, and more soils containinglimestones and vegetablematter. The carbondioxide enables water to dissolve and convey to the plantsmany goes
on
substances which are hardly soliible in pure water. fertilizing Phosphateof lime and phosphateof iron even are not altogether insoluble in water
charged with
carbon-dioxide.
Formation
the
well-tilled field
Every
of nitrates. "
light of
The saltpetre-bed.
a
calcium
organic
and
matter
a
value
of
the formation
be over-estimated, and nitrates is facilitated
cannot
73
CULTIVATION.
UNDERLYING
THEORIES
maybe nitrates of
regardedin for
crops
potassium and
by open tilth in the presence of little moisture, by the action of nitrifying
The value of keepingland in tilth during the dry months therefore be over-stated. from December to (i.e., May) cannot be in crop, or else the soils should months wet During ploughedup bacteria.
the
of
excess
be washed
available
plant-foodmade by
away
operationsmav by tillage
rain.
Drainageand Irrigation.The object of draining the soil is to admit air. which water-loggingwould prevent. \Vhcr"" a field he is so situated that drainingis not feasible,the land should "
done after the ridging or kharifseason inches nine maize, groundnut, etc.),are high, plants (?."/.,
ridgedbefore sowing for the me
than others
injuredmore
are
crops
the
of winter
varieties
p, except some plants, can stand
but no by water-logging, Boro rice and aquatic
and
water-logging
throughout the growth. Excess
season
of
of
moisture
its
is
speciallyinjurious at and immediately after the periodof germination,also at the periods of ripening. flowering and This is why Nigarh or letting out
of water
October
is
in September or practisedin some
districts as,
Orissa,for also
for
instance, in
the
Niyarh rice-crop. of the helpstillering plants
if done
earlier in the
it is necessary
If
season.
irrigatefor
to
helpingon
germination, it is better to irrigate the field before sowing than after sowing. field is irrigatedin If a
FIG.
1." IRRIGATION
SPOON.
preparationfor sowing,
i
is
advisable to wait until the soil is sufficiently dry for passingthe Bakhar for the preparationof a tilth and for breakingthe surfacepan.
Scatteringof
does, however, ladles
or
spoons
no
the fields after the sowing of seed, For this purpose, the use of irrigation
water
on
harm.
is advised.
(Fig. 1.)
Bakharing and Trenching. Trenchingbringsthe subsoil to the and where the subsoil is known to be as rich as the surface "
much It is,however, be resorted to. operationmay trenches have to be dug with as expensivethan ploughing,
this
top, soil, more
spades.
Trenchingis done before valuable perennialplants.Mich as roses, are planted, Trenching i" practisedin Bengal for growing mankachu and in Ireland for growingpotatoes. The Irish s\4"Mn of
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
growing potatoes
is called the lazy-bed system. The land is divided into strips in the Lois-Weedon as system alreadydescribed, and from the bare e arth is and out strips, spread over the
strips operationsare equivalent to the two earthings.These bare stripsor trenches are used for planting potatoes the next year and earth is dug out of the strips which had potatoes on them the previousyear. Trenching may be done with Even advantage in growing high class sugarcane. ordinarysugarcane should be grown in trenches in Bengal,as from Januaryto March, when sugarcane should be planted,the soil is
dug
which
on
potatoes
FIG.
are
planted.
2." THE
Two
such
DOUBLE-MOULD-BOARD
PLOUGH.
trenches may be dug with a doublemould-board plough (Fig.2). Making trenches with a doublemould-board plough costs less than one-sixth of what it does when trenchingis done with spades. There are trenchingploughsused in Europe, but these requirevery powerfulhorses to work them. very
dry at the surface.
Shallow
the Ridging The object of ridyiny or hillingis to expose action of and cold the moisture, air, heat, largestsurface to of water and also to prevent accumulation immediately at the base "
of
plants.
For
when ridgingis of great benefit especially clay-soils ed, water-loggingis fearso
which
ridgesor
done are
FIG.
3." THE
HUNTER
a
foot
advisable weather
for and
and
so
ridging should
be
the
after
Sowing
HOE.
crops
cultivated
are
June to September should be grown
from
on
that most
or
ridging plants
two
high.
in trenches in
the
is
dry
done, speciallyin clay soils,
dry weather crops also. Ridging facilitates sowing in lines be using of hoes. The ridges can split or spread out with the double-mould-board plough or a Hunter hoe (Fig.3),and
76
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
bringsthe only stirs the subsoil,but subsoil-ploughing Subsoiling to a be attached subsoil to the surface. A subsoiler (Fig. 5) may richer, ploughifmore bullocks are used. The surface-soilis usually and it is often in desirable unthe than subsoil, especially organicmatter, to bringup the subsoil to the surface by trenchingor But itis very desirable to stir the subsoil for subsoil-ploughing. certain crops with the object not onlyof admittingair and moisture the penetration into it and facilitating of roots, but also of breaking the impervious pan which is formed by the sole of the European be also done by a country-plough being plough. Subsoiling may passedbehind a ploughfitted with mould-board, the plough on the rear stirring the soil of the furrow made by the front plough the in the same way as a subsciler workingbehind a ploughdoes work. is best done in this country by passing Deep-ploughing one plough behind another along the same groove. Another trenching or subsoiling object of deep-ploughing, is to increase the water-holding-capacity of soils. Loose earth receives and stores more than compact earth. Ploughing water
of rain one may find the furrow turned up, wet onlysuperficially, and dry at its deeperlayers. Loose earth could retain over forty per cent, of its weight of earth in a very compact condition would water, while the same hold only about twenty-fiveper cent.
a
field in
May after a
very
heavy
shower
is too Rollingand Mulching. On tjieother hand, soil which loose,will not allow water to raise in it and does not firmly support the plantsgrowing on it. A tilth too open is not desirable should be rolled after ploughing for lightsoils,which especially "
and harrowing. Rolling and mulching are practisedto cause moisture to rise in the soiland to retain the moisture respectively. is meant By* mulch anything laid on tilled soil to keep in '
'
leaves and straw, bits of cowduag cake, etc. Too free a subsoil may also result in water sinkingtoo quickly, leavingthe surface soil hungry. Extremes should therefore be avoided in tilling operations.
moisture, such
as
objectof harrowingis to level the land after producea good tilth,and to collect the weeds. Where ploughing, follows that of ridging the land has to be ridgedthe operation Harrowing.- The
and a ladder acts, both as a harrow and land the levels givesit a roller inasmuch as it collects weeds, is done of compactness, But the work certain amount* very b oard used the levelling by a ladder. The beam or imperfectly weeds, but it is in other parts of India is not effectivein collecting and giving it land effective than the ladder for levelling more It is advisable to introduce a lightharrow and a of
harrowing.
The
native
compactness.
be easilymanaged roller (which can of Bengal. the farm in bullocks), operations
lightwooden
by
a
pairof
k
only for
new Burning tto sod is recommended for and lands, soils some i.e., on clay peaty
jungleland,
for
clay lands which
MOTIVE-POWER
PRIME
OR
77
MOVERS.
of silicateof potashand some lime. The lime and liberates of the silicate the some potash. All decomposes claysare benefited by moderate burningwhich makes the land friable and less plastic.Moderate burning, i.e., more burningin
contain
a
good deal
should be resorted to, except heat,if necessary, stifle-burning,
slow
the loss of
matter would not nitrogenous land. Stifle-burning felt as in ordinary be so severely agricultural and clears it of weeds, insects,fungiand corrects acidityof soils, not onlyis there too their seeds. If burningis done too freely, and nitrates,but the physical much loss of organic matter of the soil becomes deteriorated, character i.e., imperviousbrick-
in
jungleland
new
like
are
masses
where
formed
the surface.
on
As it is not practicable to improve soil by mixing Warping from another locality, character carted with it soil of a different achieved in sandy,stony or peaty result is sometimes the same as soils,favourablysituated,by the operationknown uwrpiny. A bund two or three feet in heightis nit up around the land to be improved,and the enclosed land is sometimes further partitioned Then of a stream, at the the muddy water off by smaller bunds. is diverted into this area, where it beginningof the rainy season, "
flows
from
one
compartment
another, until the whole
to
area
is
and film of silt is deposited,
the operation filled. A by repeating be the land accumulated in silt of on inches one several may season. tides come in, warping is very easy to regulateby means Where as in the low lands to the south of the Sibpur of a sluice or flap-gate, of the land where the objectis not so much the fertilizing College, as
the raisingof its level.
CHAPTER MOTIVE-POWER
OR
XL PRIME
MOVERS.
of man and different classes of ; English farm-labourer farm-labourers Indian compared ; Wages for piece-work; Animal-power, where suited ; Improvement of Indian z\griculturechieflyby means of a power extended employment of bullock-power; Calculation comparing horsemore with Bengal bullock-power ; Bullock gears ; Wind-power; Cheap for estimatingefficiency wind-mills, aeromotors ; Calculation ; Power-mills of aeromotors of aeromotors ; Water-power ; efficiencyof ; Erection
[Classification ; Work
turbines compared ; Advantages of water-power and water-wheels over for agricultural of power other forms purposes ; Steam-power~~Stationary, Oil-engine,and ; portable and traction engines; Gas and oil-engines as a motive-power.] pumping water; Electricity centrifugal
classes in done on the farm may be divided into seven WORK has attained a very those countries where agriculture highstate of of Work done Work man : T hese (2) are ; (1) by animalefficiency.
horses,mules, donkeys,bullocks,etc. ; (3)Work done power, viz., by wind-power ; (4) Work done by water-power ; (5) Work done action of gas and by steam-power ; (6)Work done by explosive ; (7) Work oil-engines
done
by electricity.
78
OF
HANDBOOK
work Where firstform of work is the most the third stillless,and so on. of Man.
Work
"
AGRICULTURE.
has to be done on a largescale the expensive,the second less expensive, Wherever therefore animal-power,
wind-power,water-power, steam-power, etc., can be made the employment of hand-power should be avoided, as a
use
of,
general
country the management
of labour is of very great An will hand-weed Indian labourer who one-tenth difficulty. for be himself, can of an acre a day working hardly got to do oneIn this
rule.
for his employer. Apart from this,there is the hand-power. In hilling general advantage of mechanical over fortieth of
to Us.
comes or
of maize
acre
an
acre
an
5
of
such
only
nature
a
Us. 6 the
hoe
Hunter
a
potatoes,for instance,with kodalies the cost near Calcutta,while with a ridging plough
or
or
work
same
about
eight
to
and
requiresreason
as
accomplishedat Of
annas.
an
course,
diture expenwork of
judgment for guidance must
instance,attendance
for
be done
be
can
twelve
cattle and other liveon by man, stock, of machinery, etc. plantingand transplanting, management
which
work
Some
by machineryis more cheaplyand by hand-power,for instance,bindingof sheaves.
convenientlydone [n managing Indian or
foreman,
or
be done
can
labour
it is very necessary to have to look after the labourers, unless
overseer
a
sirdar
the proprietor
himself. If the proprietor IP himself accustomed cultivator to an he can doing work, expert rough work of labourers out himself always get more by working with the gang. Working Indian labourers on the gang system is of the farm
do
can
so
very
important,and yet each be
judged. on
is
that the amount
to do
work
the
enough
man
It is not
of
and
be
given a separate pieceof
qualityof
necessary to in the same work
course
field and
same
if the
should
each
man's
employ at the
work
may all the ers labour-
time.
same
It
each
easilysee
from where he man When labourers distribute themselves in different parts of a farm and work outside the immediate ken of the foreman, they do very little work. There are overseer
can
is, doing his allotted piece of work.
some
works,
such
broadcasting, dibblingor
as
seed, planting, cuttings, etc.,which are
usuallytwo
ways
of
need
doing a work,
"
close a
of hand-drilling
watching.
careful
and
a
There
careless
It is less troublesome and doing work carelessly, unless way. labourers are immediately corrected when they take to careless into the habit of A great deal they get workingcarelessly. ways, habits depends upon proper beingengraftedto labourers. When Indian labourers 'once get into the habit of doingsome work in the
they continue to do the work in the proper manner, proper manner, when they are not very closely watched. even Some of the cultivator's habits are hereditary, and some castes are therefore found than others. It is less doing work faster and in a neater manner for troublesome, instance, in prepared sticking sugarcane cuttings soil,anyhow, so that some are plantedsix inchesdeep while others
only one \"r two inches deep. But whenever a labourer plants a cuttingone or two inches deep,he must be made to plantit five
MOTIVE-POWER
OR
PRIME
MOVERS.
79
six inches deep,until a proper habit is established. A labourer, however, who is accustomed to do sugarcane plantingin his own the this will at family, cuttings plant habitually depth,when planting
or
erect, or three inches
deep when plantingthem horizontally. be If expert labourers can secured,it is alwaysbetter. But cultivators in this country go in for cultivating few crops that so had be in any particular expert labourers can locality only for three cultivation of two the or An doing crops properly. ordinary labourer in Bengal will transplant cultivating paddy neatly and fast,broadcast jute and kalai seeds evenly, harvest the paddy and the jutein the proper style,but in doing the cultivation of a them
kind of crop
new
must
man
he will be found awkward be behind him to insist on
and slow. the work
An
gent intelli-
beingdone
fast.
properlyand
is fraughtwith more calculation for hand-power difficulty that for stearn-power, horse-power, or An bullock-power. Englishfarm labourer in his own country does far more work than Indian farm-labourer,and an Indian farm-labourer will do far an work for himself than for another more party, while one class of
The
than
labourers
part
same
another
than
work
more
in the
even
class
of the country
of labourers.
does Further
habitually tion complica-
arises from the fact that a certain class of labourers will do a certain kind of work well while they will do another kind of work The Sonthal labourer will dig more than very imperfectly. a
Bengalilabourer,but the latter will transplantmore paddy. The will transplanta great deal more Sonthal woman paddy than the Sonthal
An
man.
of foot-pounds
work
English farm-labourer in diggingdoes 250 In the BengalFamine per minute. operations
of 1897 an average quantity of about 100 cubic ft. of earth was raised 3 ft. during6 hours, and the weightof a cubic ft. of earth beingtaken as 100 Ibs.,the work done in 6 hours was about 100 x
ft.-Jb.or,
100x3
~-^XJ
about
=
83 ft.-lb. per minute.
As
the
mostly non-professional diggersand as the work done weak, the by they average Bengali labourer habitually employed in diggingmay be calculated at about
famine
were
labourers somewhat
were
of 200 to 300 cubic ft. of foot-pounds per minute, though cases sometimes man earth beingdug by one to notice even came in this on the fanr* calculation of Basing a Bengali Deration. ble generally to performonly half the amount laboure a^v ot ^ 125
work
r^
3'
'ish labourer,he should be able to show
" "
~
"
"
gene ft.-lb. of work ft.-lb. " ft.-lb. " (4) 2,000 ft.-lb. "
(1)
(2) (3)
125 165 250
per minute "
in
"
"
"
"
"
digging. dung in filling pitchingcorn. rowing
a
carts.
boat.
filling dung in carts, an Englishlabourer will load thirty fortycubic yardsin ten hours to an average heightof four feet. In
to
The made
weightof fresh dung is twelve to fourteen cwts. and of wellton per cubic yard. 50,000 Ibs. liftedinto rotted dung, one
80
HANDBOOK
OF
AGBICULTURE.
four feet highmeans 200,000 Ibs. raised one foot highper day which is to 330 foot-pounds of ten hours, equivalent per minute. an In pitching corn Englishlabourer can pitchthe corn of one acre of grain and straw. The average height tons two per hour, i.e., is pitchedis six feet 5,000 Ibs. lifted 6 ft. high to which the corn carts
"
30,000 ft.-Ib.per hour, i.e.,500 ft.-lb.per minute. and human-power is as 7 : The relation between horse-power labourer. We of 1 in the case English approximately put may the relation between down horse-powerand the power exerted by a Bengalilabourer as 14 : 1. But it entirely depends upon the work whether human character of the particular power is so much For less efficientor still less so. of Bengal bullocks is at least ten
steadydraught purposes times
a Bengal bullock,as though theoretically
only one-and-a-half
times
Calculatingwages
as
we
powerful as
at three
annas
a
efficientas
as
a
shall
a
pair
a
labourer,
presently see,
is
Bengali labourer.
day, the average cost of hand-power is partly or
principalfarm operationswhere It must ever, be remenbered, howwholly employed,is given below. and that three annas that wages are steadilyrising a day, which was a good wage in Bengal a few years ago, is now very the
bad
except
in certain
tracts
like Behar. PER
*
have
Cultivator* to
pay 6 to 8
usuallyspend Rs. 6 per acre a day to a labourer at annas
for hand the
-weedingpaddy, weeding season.
ACHE.
as
they
MOTIVE
POWER
OR
PRIME
81
MOVERS.
PER
Cutting and strippingsugarcane Cuttingpaddy with hooks or s ckles Thrashing and winnowing paddy with hand and winnowing machines Transplantingpaddy Sowing seed broadcast Sowing seed in drill with Planet Jr. hoe ..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Rs. A.
P.
4
0
("
0
11
.
,.180 thrashing ..480
.
.
.
.
ACRE.
..120
.
0
.
.
.
.
.
180
possiblework should be got done by contract at rates, even by labourers employed by the month. work done Piece-work or by contract is,however, apt to be done unless is exercised. carelessly proper supervision Wherever
%
the
above
cattle, or donkey-power is utilised (1) For direct draught or haulage as in drawing carts, ploughing,etc. (2) For applicationto machines to a wheel to turn a or windlass,e.g., in capstan giving motion Animal
Power.
"
Horse,
for three classes of work.
ginning cotton, pumping water, etc., by animal (3) For pedallingto turn a tread-mill for communicating power. Work done by draught-animals,aided by water. or lifting power is Jess done human expensive per unit than work reason, by hand-power,and it is by the substitution of hand-powerby cattleagricultural improvements may be effected power that a great many hoe (it may Hunter be repeatedhere) in this country. With a drawn which is easily by a pairof country bullocks,maize or potato be ridged at a cost of about eightannas fields may per acre, while done by hand-power with kodalies will cost Rs. 5, work the same watched the cost will even and if the labourers are not closely exceed but for most this amount. efficient, Hand-weeding is more crops bullock-hoes be found with will effective. hoeing sufficiently Freeing land of weeds is not of such importance as givingvigour often results in weeds being smothered. to the growing crop, which mechanical be conveniently When steam, etc.)cannot (i.e., power and extensively and employed, e.g., when fields are small, uneven crooked, or cut by natural water-courses, it is better and cheaper than with steam. As to cultivate with the aid of draught-animals fields which like not from ten to are are fields, English Bengal say in enclosed and ahirs as or borders, they are by area, twenty acres and cut by natural water-courses, steam vation ploughingand steam cultiunsuitable for conditions. are generally usuallyquite Bengal The introduction of implements suitable for the employment of bullock-power is it is of the t han utmost more extensively ance. importnow, Indian cultivators are, as a rule,averse to using mechanical appliances.In this,as in other matters, they have got to be habituated to see the advantageof using mechanical appliancesbefore when the advantageof some Even they beginto take to them. has been demonstrated mechanical applianceor some method new old appliances and to them, they are apt to fall back on their own
thrashingcorn,
M, HA
(5
82
to which
the methods
considerable
been accustomed. In dealing with of local influence are of
importance.
be ascertained Bengal bullock-power may A of : Bengal bullocks,it may be pair followingway
Bullock-power.
the
they had
AGRICULTURE.
questionsof habit and
raiyatsthe
Indian
in
OF
HANDBOOK
"
"
observed, walk
about
exerted
draught Farm being all
ft. per
66
being
about
minute Ibs.
100
The
while ploughing,the fields of the Sibpur
wide, the facts stated here have been constantly tested. The work done per minute by a pair of Bengal bullocks is therefore 66 x 100 6,600 ft.-lb. per minute, i.e., work done The ft.-lb. bullock minute. by ono 3,300 per per ascertained to be about 33,000 Englishfarm-horse can be similarly 66 ft.
-
ft.-lb.(which is the theoretical for
therefore horse.
and
steam
other
performs ten
The
less work
times
horse
actual
horse-power,the high powers). The
or
than
bullock-poweris
unit of
ment measure-
Bengal bullock the English farmonly two-thirds of
in the above calculation no as bullock-power, is taken of loss of times in turning,and for other stoppages. account So compared to Watt's horse-power or theoretical horse-power the actual Englishhorse-powerand Bengal bullock-powerare ft.-lb. as 33,000 : 22,000 : 2,200 respectively do not perform the same animals of work amount Draught chain machine while working a or thrashing by walking pump round and round a track, as they do while ploughing. 1st, the is inconvenient ; 2ndly, positionof the animals in a bullock-gear they cannot exert their full power in a bullock-gear ; and, 3rdly, force is lost by pullingat an angle. In England a pairof horses is calculated as sufficient for keeping in cultivation ; and our cultivators calculate one fiftyacres as being sufficient for keeping sixteen bighas yoke of Bengal oxen Thus from actual in cultivation. practicealso (about five acres)
the nominal
horse
or
Englishfarm-horse is able Bengal bullock, and that the
it is deducible that much
work
as
a
an
to do ten
as Bengal bullock, while ploughing,is 2,200 ft.-lb.,
On acres
lightsoil,three of land.
On
horses
are
thirtybullocks for workingone one
yoke of
oxen
kept
in
this calculation
for
England for
we
hundred
twenty bighas.
In
would acres
of
times
done
work
stated every
as
by
a
above. hundred
requirein Bengal land light
stocking
a
farm
or
about
in Lower
A pair of Gujarat, be borne in mind. three do times the work of bullocks Hissar or Nellore,Dakshini, shini Bengal bullocks. Gujaratbullocks are weaker footed than Dakshould Bengalthese figures
animals
and
hard
soil
able to work
long. will be replaced by steam longbefore bullock-power in this country for farm or electricity operations.Steam and other enginesdeteriorate as time goes on ; cattle have a tendency is one of the chief to multiply. That horses are a farm-produce, considerations why horses are mainly employed in Englishfarm is where steam even applicable.Judiciouslymanaged, operations It will be
on
they
are
not
84
HANDBOOK
OF
AGEICULTUKE.
ted for India. Windmills of cheap construction are popular in the United States also, whence we A get the Chicago aeromotors. cheap windmill may be constructed without a vane, and the wheel is so fixed as to be driven onlyby the prevailing wind duringthe dry which in Lower Bengal are from north and south, or a few off The either sails would catch the wind points way. only when and the mill would it is about northerlyor southerly, thus be set in motion. the wind is easterlyor westerlyit would When not season,
Jt is necessary to enclose the lower part with boards the wind from all sides to exclude except from the
move. so
the
as
of the
action
mill
would
correspondto
that
of
walls
or
top, and over-shot
an
The
figuregivenhere (Fig.7) illustrates a windmill which would 11s. 50 cost only about There is au constructing. which iron axle to G fans or sails (5ft. x (3ft.) are attached. The Jumbo-box is 12 ft. long by 8 ft. wide by (" ft. high. The axle is mounted on to pump posts. Such a windmill has*been known hundred head of cattle from for one water foot well. an eighteen The whole arrangement, if a pump is provided,can be set up by a villagecarpenter and a blacksmith. ber, Any old lumsuch as splitrails,old packing boxes, tin from old tin roots,can be pressedinto water-wheel.
"
"
the service in the
tion construc-
of these mills. The constructed
be
may narrow
and
tall
oblong,the offeringof
largesurface
a
mills
7." TUB
Fio.
also
for
of
mechanical made home-
only be
cannot
pumping water, biit stone, working a grind-
for
WINDMILL.
HOME-MADE
or
wind.
these
arrangements for
the
for
proper
used
square
objectbeingthe
obstruction With
or
sails either
ginningcotton, for for churning
sawing wood, butter, for cutting chaff, for crushing oil-cake
and
tower,
or
doing other
The old forms of windmill work. smock-mill)with a 15| ft. radius and with
ordinarybarn-door eightmiles
per hour
Power-Mill.
"
In
a
yieldabout
one
(called posta
breeze
of
horse-powerof energy.
largefarm, where
cake-crushers,etc., worked chaff-cutters,
it is worth
by wind
while or
having
water-power,
the mill working at all seasons, specially indoor work is preferable to out-door work. at the wet season, when of modern construction* are preferable windmills The self-adjusting wind they do fairly for constant work, as even with very light good in that whatsuch a manner, work, and the vane turns the wheel it is
importantto
have
POWER
MOTIVE
the direction of the wind the
mill.
The
Afterwards out
whole
expense a week
oiling
once
in the erection here
of
a
PRIME
OR
be, the sails catch it and work may is incurred in the first erection. is all that is needed. Rs. 2,000 laid
power-mill,one be got back
(Fig.8), can
35
MOVERS.
form of which is represented in two years, in a properly
farm. "organised
FIG.
Windmills are
either
Fig.8 is The
of
AUUOMOTOR
(POWER
MILL).
construction,called also aeromotors,
modern
here in mill represented horizontal. The or vertical mill,the motion of the wheel being vertical.
a
sails of
be
THE
vertical
horizontal
a
Useful Tables.
may
8."
found
of efficiency
"
A very
few
mill
tables
useful
windmills.
move
in
horizontally.
regardingvelocityof wind, etc., connection
with
the
questionof
86
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
Velocity of icind. exerted
Force
hour.
per
Breeze
hardly
Gentle
breeze
Equivalent in feet
miles
Popular Description.
second.
per
tible percep-
J
breeze
29'3 58 -G
1-107 1-96H 7-S72
50
73-3
12-300
100
146 (i
49-200
15
..
Brisk gale
20
Veiy high v/ind
40
Storm
Hurricane
Ibs.
"005 "123 "492
1-47 7-33 14-07
...
Pleasant
square foot of sail. pe"
Dischargeof ir"ilet'/"// pum/*. disc'h. i' eh of
of wntcr
Amount
i"y every
pump-j-troke. "0076
Dillons.
"0300 "OUO "05 H "0850
Efficiency ofAovmofors. Height water
to whi,h is
to be
lifted.
ft.
Diameter
to
Gallons
pnmp.
when cy Unaer b-foot mill used.
"j
25
4
30 40 50
31
5
3.1,
70 80
Calibre of
of
aeromotors
i "
when
the
The
inches.
v
_f
lni|, usCf
5,508
1,703 1/224
4,700
9HH 784 68!) 6"K) 518 440 37) 30(i
2,644
3.525
248
pump-cylinder
,
mi], 10
3,634
("()
100
foofc
miii used.
inches.
8
10 15 20
per hour 8 foot
when
above
table
velocityof
5
l,9"3 1,377 1 ,377
4J,
1,115
4^
8*2
4
882
*l 3*
770
gives the efficiency
wind
is of
the
mill with
average
wheel sixteen miles an a eightfeet in diameter is constructed to have a pump-strokeof six inches. A mill with a twelve-foot wheel is constructed either with nine-inch or one-foot pump-stroke. The two pump-cylinders diameters with inch and noted in with eight six-inch asterisks(*) the long stroke (one foot) assumed the above table are to have of With mill attachment. wind, an eight-foot average velocity undergoesabout fortystrokes and a twelve-foot mill about thirty is less, With strokes per minute. lighterwinds the efficiency and with strongerwinds, more, than is indicated in the table. For of the calibre irrigation purposes it is best to employ a cylinder benefit from theindicated in the table so as to get the maximum calibre than those indicated But cylinders of smaller aeromotor.
strength,i.e.,about
hour.
A
MOTIVE
in the
table
POWER
for small depths. The table specially be safely which can of the cylinder an eight-inch cylinder given depth. Where may
diameter
employed for a be employed it is false to
use
two
a
very hour)will work
an
or
gated) land has to be irriwhen (specially economy three inch pipe ; though it should be noted
lightbreeze
a
two
a
will requirea fifteen
of (i.e.,
velocityof
the
sixteen-mile
or
wind
two
at the
Local
it.
in which
seasons
three miles
or
eight-inch pump
when an pump breeze to work
three-inch
or
velocityof
to
as
87
MOVERS.
PRIME
used
be
may
givesthe maximum
that
OR
ditions, con-
is irrigation
should determine at these seasons, needed, should the choice of the calibre of the pump-cylinder.The pump is breeze be when the a with handle, as a light, always provided littlecoaxingwith the pump-handle, results in the wheel turning, and
and
the
depth of water
to turn, with continuing
further
a
comparativelygentlebreeze,making
handle
of the
working
unnecessary.
power horsetwelve-foot mill develops two-and-a-half miles sixteen about wind wind blowing (i.e., average
Efficiency A "
with
hour).
per
Erection
The
"
higherthan has
the
should
should
lean Price
Sons,
B.
21, Produce,
priced thus
by Messrs. S. Freeman York City,U. S. A., are
Exchange, New
:" "
wheel
dollar
(
ialvanized
--__:
Rs.
3).
(iralvani/cd)
Ii2-ft. "
.
)
,,
stool tower
..
tor S ft
40 ft.
null,
Ditto Ditto
80ft. for
12-fl
mill
40
high
..
,,
Ditto
ft.
Attachments
Water-power "
a
very
there
,.
.
150 ,,
87 i
2i6 ...
,,
.,
for
power-mills,for feed-grinder, etc.,are also The actual of erect ng cost companies the Sibpur Experimental Farm (which has an
In
about
was
is
and no
If there is water. and efficientmotor
Rs. 900.
utilisingwater-power initial expenditure
important factory.
wind utilising and
100
the aeromotor
the aeromotor at 8-ft. wheel and 40-ft. tower)
is
80ft.
42.',dollars 58i
..
,,
suppliedby
tunrat-holes nelled the
side, will make
one
constructed
(One 8-ft
Even
so.
of the which
that the tower
side.
windmills
Steel
the tower
the base
form
work,
a may the anchor-postson
that
on
"
masonry remain ways
plumb
underneath tower
anchor-postswhich
feet
fifteen
about
buildings.After
and
protectedwith
be
be set
erected
be
trees surrounding
been erected the four
tower
"
should
tower
water-power
expenditure
as on
There there account
is
no
is in
loss
of
time
in
using steam-power,
of coal and
cartage
of
flow of water, it is a more reliable A high elevat on or a precipitate wind. fall is not necessary if the current is sufficiently rent, strong. The curthat is,the speed of water, may be measured very simply. a
constant
than
88
HANDBOOK
Measure stream
a
AGRICULTURE.
distance o^ say, twenty yards,along the centre of the intended to be utilized, and let a bit of cork, or of lightfloat be allowed to pass along this distance of channel
or
kind
any
OF
of the water twenty yards. This givesthe velocity of the channel. At the sides and at the bottom,
at
the
the middle
velocityis
and the sides of the channel are made of bricks, ascertained in the above manner, seventeen per cent, of the velocity should be taken off ; if the sides and bottom of earth twentyare less. If the bottom
nine per cent,
should
be taken
and
off,and
if
they are
stony, irregular
should be taken off,in estimating the Then by multiplying the section of the reduced velocity, one gets the quantity
rough,thirty-six per cent, of a stream. average velocity
the stream
utilized
by expressedin the
of water
The
Efficiency of water-motors "
terms
effective
are
of
so
cubic feet per
many
horse-power of the
"
Of
Turbines fashioned new
forms principal
:
ordinary Undershot- wheels ordinary Breast-wheels ordinary Overshot- wheels
For For For For For
minute.
the theoretical
..
.
and
per cent
08
..
70 75 to
..
wheels
horse-power,
35 55
turbines
80
effective power The varies accordingto the ingenuityof construction and erection,which minimises friction. Properly breastand overshot-wheel constructed, a and turbine a have
may
75 per cent,
a
efficiency.On
the 75
basis,it
per cent,
ascertained that has the height of the fall in feet multipliedby the number of cubic feet of water per minute, divided and by 706 gives the actual horse-power.So, been
c
"
^?
i
.
,
minute; of
and
all
of cubic ft.of water
horse-power X
, ~
-
--
-
quantity of in
number
= "
-c 11 4. fall in feet f
heightoff the
-
-
water
requ red
feet
-
to
f
in
required per i j
706 .
-
height to
--------
i7~r~~r
"-*.-" cubic feet per minute
produce
the
horse-power.The
less efficient is
suitable for level undershot- wheel though more curved with countries like Lower Bengal. If the floats are made will be obtained their concavity backwards, increased efficiency The race channel is obtained from flat vanes. to that which or be should short in the case of a11 the wheels"th""h the tank reserv"ir "f water should be or
^ ~"
.....
as
that largeas possible,
j^|JB]||!1hcurrent
may
be
terrupted.If constant
a
but required, on
a
masonry* increases the FIG.
9." TIIK
OVERSHOT
\VATEU-WIIKKL.
wheel.
When
and
even
the
uninis
stream
reservoir
burnt channel
a
the
c
is not
ay-pipe or
race,
of efficiency a
water-wheel
a
OR
POWER
MOTIVE
PRIME
89
MOVERS.
low to allow the when the tail is not sufficiently is drowned, i.e., is about reduced fourth. its off freely, efficiency oneto run water by instead of floats that by The breast-wheel should have buckets the the in the wheel may water of buckets of the weight means go down
readily,the
more
Thus
goingdown.
the overshot- wheel
as efficiency
But
the
FlG.
buckets
constructed
bucket
10." TliK
their discharging breast-wheel which
may receives the
still further
arrangement
BllJSAST-WHEEL,.
FIG.
11."
contents
be
of the
while same
impulse earlier. improvesthe efficiency
THK
UNDKKSHOT-WHEEL.
wheel
overshot-wheel. Fig. 9 representsin section an overshotwith the bucket arrangement. Fig. 10 representsa breast-
wheel
with
of
the
the
ordinarykind
of
float,while Fig. 11 representsan
curved floats. The with lower portion of the undershot-wheel brickwork in each wheels should be encased in case, the axle of the wheel resting on this brickwork whence the power is transmitted
0
FIG.
12."
THE
TURBINE.
of in the barn. The diameter various machinery worked overshot-wheel should be a littleless and that of the breastwheel somewhat greater than the heightof the fall of the water. Turbine The complicatedmachine than (Fig.12) is a more lages the ordinarywater-wheels,and not beingcapableof repairin vilto
the
the
it is not
so
suited
for
though requirements, agricultural
it
90
HANJJBOOK
will prove
far
AGRICULTURE.
OF
useful where
it can be introduced. It is not of fall woik and water to a very a turbine great necessary the wheel occupies As it little h be with can run gh very space. speedit is better adaptedfor drivingmachineryof different k nds. The water is received at the supply pipe (A),whence it is directed to the vanes of the wheel which revolves on by curved guide-blades more
to have
this pivot. There is a screw arrangement at (C) for raising The wheel is rigidly fixed at the bottom of a shaft (B) which
pivot.
a
the
the
municates com-
The
wheel shell,and
machinery employed. power covered by a cast-iron case are or guide-plates the wheel is kept in an exactlyhorizontal position by a special also rigidly cover are (D). The guide-blades kept in positionby bell cranks and coupling rods (E.E.E.). The water pended having exits force actingon the vanes at different points, passes out of the centre both above and below. be placed The turbine may and
to
the
close to an opening at the bottom of a tank or reservoir of water, be be led by a pipe into the turbine,wh ch may the water may or placedin the barn instead of at the foot of the tank. The velocity of the wheel dependsupon But even with the heightof the fal .
has to squeeze its way in different directions until it reaches the vane* of the wheel guide-plates
small
a
the fall,
water
between the which it has to move before it can escape at the centre of the wheel In the figure is barely above and below. the wheel inside the case visible to the rightof D, but the guide-plates are entirelyhid from view. The
advantagesof water-power
are
power
(1) its
:
constancy,
Water-wheels simplicity. drive
also less A
and
them
work
burst
be
turbines
the boiler,and also do many
wholly
goes
not
do
on
out
bringdown
may
and animals can
and
or
more
the
the
wheel
fuel may
kinds of
of mechanical
(3) its
and inexpensivcness,
they readilyget danger in using this median cal
hurricane
may
do
other forms
over
(2) its
not
requireski
1 to
(4) There is than any other.
of order.
power of an aeromotor
; steam
the fire-box.
burn
damage, and
where
the
r
Men work
partiallyreplacedby the mechanical powers, smoothly. The importanceof having a farm
of water Waterbe overstated. can never differences in where available districts readily hilly power of water-level within short distances are of frequent occurrence.
near
a
flowingstream
is
more
Steam-power.
"
Steam-engineswhich
are.
employed
in
ing farm-
viz.* highlycivilised countries,are of three descriptions, portableand traction. Multitubular boilers are now stationary, in generaluse. Ordinarily 2| to 3 Ibs. of coal are consumed per in
horse-powerper hour. Low-power stationaryenginesare useful in farms for dairy purposes, e.g., for steamingfood, pulpingand cream working the centrifugal separator. Steam clean and free from essential for keepingdairy-utensils for ordinary Portable enginesare in more use common germs. for These who them let out to farmers, use are thrashing farming.
grindingand is most
92
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
at a cost of Rs. 4,000 or Es. 5,000, but in Bengal such oil-engines be said to be non-existent. For ordinary crops also, raiyats may be recommended. the outlay for wells and cannot oil-engines Andrew of Eevd. The A. Ch ngleput a prominent supporter
value of crops The average terton's view., says : the of the raiyatwarivillages in Presidency,excluding per acre 30 for rice,Rs. 10| Malabar and South Canara, is only Rs The average for Ragi,Rs. 10 for Ch lum, and Rs. 9 for Cumbu. for allfood-grains is only Rs 15 per acre, for oil-seedsit is Rs. 22. The average for gardenproduce is very much higher and more
of Mr
"
Cha
profitable.Chillies bring in Rs.
250; sugarcane,
not
pay cultivation of
for the
with
regardto
Rs. 100 ; turmeric, average It is evident, Rs. 100. tobacco,
an
Rs. 200, and
therefore,that it will water
on
to
use
engineand
an
but food-grains,
it is
pump
to raise
quite different
With valuable crops. the for left larger meeting greatermargin the to leference Even with pump." area) Madras an insignificant (which
the cultivation of the
them
more
there is a very much expenditureof running a
valuable crops
more
peop
e
occupy from Mr Chat terton's
experiments,that replacethe singlemot
convinced
not
are
and oil-engines
be able to would ever in the Experiencedplanters except under specialcircumstances. Madras PresidencypreferWorthington'sPumps worked by highly pumps
efficientsteam-enginesto centrifugalpumps by Mr. Chatterton. The maximum
and
cated advooil-engines
result attained at Mr. and 23 ft. deep, Andrew's farm with a well 24 ft. wide at the mouth with a smaller well 15 ft. \yideat the mouth and 7 ft. deep, at the engine that a 3i h. p. oilbottom of the largerwell (whichis 23 ft.deep),was and
different at can
a
cost
be
a
3-inch
seasons
centrifugal pump,
from
able
to
of (57,000to 100,000 gallons
of Rs. 46 to Rs.
kept
were
with irrigated
per month.
GO this
Twenty
pump
water acres
out
at
per day, of land
arrangement, biit the initialcost of by Mr. Andrew)
having this arrangement (whichis not mentioned would be prohibitive for the Bengal raiyat.
CHAPTER PLOUGHS
AND
XII. PLOUGHING.
ploughs ; [Indian ploughs of \arious si/es and efficiency;. Defects of Indian Deep ploughing with cheap implements ; Improved plough ; Principlesof improvement ; lijuropeanploughs swing-and wheel-ploughs, multipledouble mouldplonghs,seeding ploughs, paring ploughs,sub-soil-plough, sulky board plough,pulverising-plough, one plough h, ; Draught, way-plou of ing; ploughThe s team and Judging -ploughs; potato-digger, yoke swingle ; be that may of nrea English system of ploughing;Calculation of improving in possibility one ploughed day ; Expert opinionsregarding the Indian plough. fitted plough,consistingof a tongue of wood with an iron tooth, a stiltfor holdingand a pole for attachment varies of bullocks, works the soil to a depth which ordinarily THE
Indian
93
PLOUGHING.
AND
PLOUGHS
with the district. In Bengal this depth is only from three This primitive to five inches. implement, however, varies very tive effecsize and form, and some are much in weight, more very much The and others. which than Eungpur Jalpaiguri ploughs, scratch only about two inches of the soil,while least efficient, are much
heavy Bundelkhand
the
maunds, This
and
men,
depth of
and
can
body
as
a
small iron
nine
of
it
gets
plough in
each
is fixed it
as
the '
The
out.
worn
on
gets
a worn
provinceare be
plough should
of the peculiarity
chosen
Meerut
the
heel,and '
share
out.
sole. But
at first in
has
are
tongue
longpointedbar
which
and
numerous
local conditions
a
of the
wooden
districts
edge of the
fitted with
tooth, are
projectsout behind
arrow-shapedand it be pushed forward
the
foot.
shaped like two mouldridgingploughs. The
are
the appearance
Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagararid
of
the local as
sides of their
give them
with a instead of
Indian
a
and
or
oxen
half
Bihar
The
the two
of iron which is
pairs of
iron round horse-shoe-shaped
forward
inches
a
togetherto use one another's bullocks heavier and more are ploughsgenerally and than the Bengal ploughs, they woik the soil to a and Noakhali The Cuttack five inches. ploughsarex very
boards, which shod
nine
of
three
and
club
cultivators
heavy and ploughs
depth by
a
is worked
implement
in their fields. effective
soil to
stirs the
latter
plough,weighingnearly three
can
be forced
Gujarat plough This
share
the forms
also
of the
in each
locality preferenceto others, probably determined
Change may be thought of after sufficient experience gained of the local plough. The defects of the native plough are, first,that it has no and it cannot in consequence invert the soil ; secondly, mould-board, that it makes V-shaped furrows leavingridgesof unploughed land and there is waste of power due to rudeness of between, thirdly, the local form. has
been
also,the
native
ploughstirs the soil to a only a bigha a day in placeof three very which be worked with ordinary can more or bighas Englishploughs. fault the the animals than the plough. Where, of But this is more cattle are used, the native in Gujarat and Nellore,large-sized as plough is able to get over an acre a day. Englishor American ploughsmake deeperrectangularfurrows of wider width, and the upturned soil gettinginverted,the grass and \veeds get covered up in the process of ploughing.As a rule,European and American for India. But a Swedish ploughsare too heavy and too expensive in is used in the Nagpur all to others preference plough habitually and SaidapetExperimental Farms, and at Sibpura ridging plough used with of and a turn-wrest-plough bullocks. a are pair ordinary The bullocks of the Central Provinces and Madras beingvery much bullocks the the of Swedish t o use superior Bengal plough is not considered objectionable. For heavy soils the Swedish plough is unsuitable especially but for lightsoils it can for Bengal bullocks,
construction.
As
a
rule
slight depth and
be tried with
The
success
works
where
a
better class of bullocks is available.
or ridgingplough can European double-mould-board-plough
94:
HANDBOOK
with
be worked
OF
AGRICULTURE.
even ploughedfields by Bengal bullocks. this There on plough,especially using heavy soils,where sowing is to be done on ridgesfor rainy season ing crops, or in furrows for the dry season, or where subsequentearth-
is
is
done,
success
in the
as
The
mulberry.
when
furrows
on
advantagein
some
cutting,etc., or
of
case
potatoes,ground-nuts, sugarcane
be
splitand
with Deep ploughing is done also with superiorploughs,by another can
be
in
the
done
and
the on ridges required,for coveringseed-potatoes, sugarcanein the subsequentearthings. can
same
be
the
ordinarynative plough as one plough being passed behind with cheap appliances Deep ploughing
furrow.
in another
firstploughing can
earth thrown
the
way
also.
The
gatheredin the
loose
dry season
soil stirred in two
by
rows
the
ated separ-
by eightor nine ft. by passinga heavy A-shapedwedge of wood, which may be called the Meagher Dragger(Fig.13),through of the cross-pieces the ploughed-upfield. The driver sits on one his and legs againstthe other crossputs piecewhen he is drivingthe bullocks along. The
interval
the
loose
can
soil
spread over.
be
ploughedafterwards and heaped up on the sides then This method of ploughingin
be utilized with layers may great in advantage introducingsewage-farming. two
The
sewage-cart may
thin layerin
be
emptied in
a
very
the
interval before the loose earth on the sides is spread over it. The MwvdiiEii 13 DRA":t:Kii. deodorisingeffected is nearly complete. About two or three months after the spreading and June, the land of the sewage, if it is done between March inoffensive. The addition of a little lime will be found perfectly harmless. Colonel Meagher, of the operationstill more makes the Allahabad Farm, has introduced a similar system of sewage farmingto what is here described. "
the ploughrecently invented by Babu improvedploughs, tural RajeshwarDas Gupta, of the Eastern Bengal and Assam Agriculbe mentioned the the whole as on Department, may raiyat's of wood shaped ideal of an Indian plough. It has a mould-board in the body of the plough,which is otherwise a native ploughwith a wrought-iron tongue driven into it in place of a share. It works the Sibpurplough,though it costs only Us. 4 as well at least as be made in any The Meston in making,and it can country-place. United Provinces of is the another Agricultural Department plough Rs. 4 plough,which is in some cultivators. It is request among to work. It has and mould-board and its depth a very easy light the cast-iron is easilyadjustable.It is useless for heavy soils, as share breaks readilyon such soils. The Watt's plough,also issued by the United Provinces Agricultural Department4is stronger and its but is Rs. 7. The Sibpurploughis rather efficient, more price
Of the
PLOUGHS
AXD
95
PLOUGHING.
heavy for ordinaryBengal bullocks,and its priceis Rs. 7-8. Both Watt's ploughand the Sibpurploughcan be used for ing ploughheavy soils. The Sibpurploughis no better than the Watt's plough,and its construction has been suspended by Government.
too
"Tes sop and Hindustani *
'
Co.'s
Plough/ Plough,' Plough'and Plough' of
S.S.
Seeley's c
the Kaiser the 'Baldeo the United
Provinces
Department, Agricultural other
are
improved
ploughs
that
has also
a
be may mentioned here. The Baldeo plough, which
Frc.
14." THE
Snu"uu
PLOUGH.
mould-board
like the other improved Rs. 3 each, but it is too
ploughs,has been actually sold for and it is altogether lightand inefficient,
unsuitable for heavy classes The Sibpurplough the Watt's ploughdoes a or one-third of an little over
of soil.
acre
the
day (eighthours)at
a
first
ploughing and
a
half an a acre the at day subsequent ploughings.The bullocks little
over
should
be
at
least
high
Fi"
;.
15,
"
KECT
A NG
u LA
u
F
n
jmow-SiiCE.
class Bengal bullocks. If inch and the narrower an the share of this plough is made of less abrupt curve, it would mould-board a littlelarger and On it the bullocks. be for ordinary Bengal whole, answer may of the said, that none ' c
im p r o v e d so-called ploughs"answer all the
requirementsof lightness, cheapnessand efficiency the raiyat looks which for. The
"improved beingproploughs" vided not
with
a
double stilt,
1 6. "Tn FIG. of the bullocks A I'Kzoi i" A L F r u RO vv-S LICES. steering be done by the can who holds down the plough. The Meston ploughis so man name nicelybalanced that it needs little effort on the part of the ploughman to hold it down, but, as alreadysaid,it is unsuitable shows where the trialtakes place for heavy soils. In Agricultural the Meston plough attracts the greatest attention on soil, light
the
96
OF
HANDBOOK
it commands
and
Gupta plough, efiicient
more
sale
some
which
even
also
heavy
come
clear idea or
Das
stronger and
is
doubt
no
have
we
in the manufacture
not
improvement ploughs for Indian raiyats, it is necessary to have a principles which the construction of European of the principles on
ploughsis based, ploughsand the
American
forms
there
limit of
the
rational
on
construction,is
soils.
of improvements." -As principles to
The
cultivators.
among
of ruder
is
on
AGRICULTURE.
and
lifted
furrow-slices
(1) The
of the
methods
of these
character
of
these
by
of
of the
chief
using them.
ploughs are
commonly
(Fig.15),but they are sometimes parallelosometimes crested or trapezoidal (Fig.16). The
rectangularin section grammatic and furrow rectangular furrow-slices furrow-slices
is the best and
ploughsthat turn up rectangular best, other things being equal. (2) The
the
are
be laid
should
evenly at
horizontal. (3) The depth to width inches being the usual depth and ten furrow
air and
to
depth,the effect.
turn
a
depth to
clean,
over
that
(3) (5)
lie flat and
a
(5)
The
stirreror
(9) the
that
to the crests
action to
of
form
a
great for the has not the same
the
should
offer too
great
forms
in
furrow-slice may so a
gently curve resistance
to
in
Europe Swing-Plough,(2) the Wheel-Plough,
common
Double-Furrow-Plough, (4)
the
(seven
width, the furrow-slices back. (4) There ought
faK
mould-board
10
:
is too
the harrow
tendencyto
it will not
European ploughs. The America are : (1) the the
great
width
for the
givethe vertical cut
"
and
the
45" to the
width of a objectsof these angles
greatestsurface
When
is too
show
the
about
be as 7 the usual
passingthrough the
seed-bed.
edge and coulter
backwards the soil.
harrow
furrow-slices
If the on
to be
to expose
the
tilth and
proper
stand
allow
should inches
English plough). The
made
by an proportionsare
and
angle of
an
the
use
Three-Furrow-Plough,
(6) the Subsoil-Plough, Paring-Plough, (7) the Subsoilthe or Subsoiler,(8) Ridging Double-mould-board-Plough, (10) the One-way-Plough,including Pulverising-Plough, the
Turn-wrest
Turn-
or
wrist
the Plough, and Balance-Plough, (11)the Sulky Plough,(12) the Potato Digging Plough, and
the
(13)
FIG.
17.-
THE
Steam-
Ploughs. now shortlygo throughthese that the reader may judge We
WHEEL-PLOUGH.
will
for himself whether any of tee or be any portionsof these can in this ount^v.' As the wheel-ploughis introduced with success a practically swing-ploug with wheels put on, the same figure for illustrating both the ploughs. will answer (Fig.17) '
*
PLOUGHS
The
Swing-plough consists
97
PLOUGHING.
AND
of
the
following parts
:
(1) The
fixed. (2) The Sole, the is which the share or to Bottom, Slav, or Plough-ground part (3) The Share or Sock (C) cuttingpart of the plough is attached. when it can be relayedwhen which is often made of wrought-iron, damaged. For shallow stony soils shares are made more pointed frame
Body (A), or
to
which
other parts are
usuallyfixed at an angle of yielding. For soft or clay-soils prevent for ten pence Shares are sold separately the shares are made wider. Cast-iron each. shares and they common are more a shilling or Heel the The harder. (H) is are posterior (4) part of the sole which in turningor raising the plough. the ploughman uses as his fulcrum the front of is Beam the (B.B.) portion plough between (5) The the Body and the Bridle. (6)The Head (T) is the front end of the to Bridle (L) is fixed. Beam to which (7) The Bridle or Hake (L) by which the depth of the furrow is regulatedin the swing-plough.
and
slightlybent
7" from
the
downwards.
It is
its
groundto
(8) The Coulter (R) or knife which cut to gives the perpendicular
is fixed to the beam
and furrow-slice,slants
which
a slightly like the share for sharpening easilyremoved relayingor replacing. For stony soils,coulters like shares are or of wrought-ironor steel,but they are made made of ordinarily The is coulter-blade and half feet two hard cast-iron (chilled a iron). to three feet wide, and fixed at an angleof 65" to the share in wet forward in the dry weather. weather, but at a smaller angleand more fallow the coulter should pointa little ground Using the ploughon The coulter has usuallya hole in the point of the share. behind it from which suspends a chain and a small iron ball which presses down long grass or dung as the furrow is turned, so that these may A sharp revolvingdisc-coulter is used on grassbe better covered. land
forwards.
or
It
where
level lawns
terminating The
be
can
in wooden
Mould-board
(M)
there are no stones. (9) The Stilts (SS) handles to hold by with both hands. (10) is joinedon to the rightof the body behind
and it is so modelled, that it turns over is kept smooth Mould-board and clean, and the would give obstruction in working, not loaded with earth, which and thus add to the draught. (11) The Cheek-plateis just below the land-side of the body, i.e.,oppositethe Mould-board, and it In the figure this part of the slides againstthe unploughedland. is three to plough is not visible. The weightof a swing-plough and it costs in England from two to three three and a half maunds the shoulder
of the share
soil clean.
The
pounds sterling, The Wheel-ploughresembles the wheels (W " W) attached to the beam
but swing-plough,
it has two of two (B) by means sliding from the beam. One of the wheels bars or uprightscoming down of the (W), called the furrow-wheel, marches along the bottom furrow and the other (thesmaller one), called the land- wheel (W), the unploughed land to keep the plough in position, the along level lower end of the largerwheel should be adjustedat the same the furrow an inch deeper wants to make with the sole. If one M,
HA
7
98
HANDBOOK
than
one
has been
one getting,
OF
AGRICULTURE.
raises the land-wheel
the small (i.e.,
inch to make wants the furrow an inch, and if one an of shallower he sinks the small wheel an inch down. In the case the swing-plough the experiencedploughman adjuststhe depth or by raising loweringthe bridle. The beam in the case of the
wheel)
is a littlecurved the furrow side,and the towards wheel-plough little in is of the swing-plough a than the case draught higher the depth is automatically as adjustedby the difference "between
line ot
the diameters of the two wheels. There is usuallya second coulter called the skim-coulter in front of the ordinary coulter which skims dung,etc.,and spreadsthem out. The wheel-plough, though heavier in weight and costlier,is lighter in draughtand it is easier also to work it. Shallow ploughing for the man be done more can which easilywith the wheel-plough, regulatesdepthsto a nicety, than with the swing-plough.The swing-ploughrequiresto be of time in by expert ploughmen. But there is waste in the of the In the case adjusting depth wheel-plough. the hands
handled
of a good ploughman the swing-plough works at different depths for all practical with sufficientevenness Then the wheels purposes. stony) get cloggedin wet weather ; and for steep and rough (i.e., is of The is t he cost unsuitable. soils, wheel-plough a wheel-plough also
for prohibitive and
where
the
our
able cultivators, though where the land is suitthe not are clever, wheel-plough
workman
cheap in the longrun. Besides,the wheels with the axlebe taken off and the plough used as an bars and uprightsmay ordinary swing-plough.A swing-ploughof very much simpler comes
construction
but
all containing
the essential parts, i.e., the
share, duced mould-board, coulter and an adjustablebridle, ought to be introinto this country. The advantageof the wheel-plough over
in traction is ten to fifteenper cent. swing-plough four plough the share and the coulter absorb forty-
the the
friction
In the per
swing-
cent,
of
per cent., the cheekthe and The thirty-five mould-board, six per cent. plate, per cent., of resistance are in three planes: (1)the perpendicular directions resistance which passes throughthe plough nearer the land than furrow side ; (2) the horizontal resistance which is alongthe the and ; (3)the curved resistance which follows the course sole-plate
of the outer
or
the sole,fifteen resistance,
surface
Draught." The
of the mould-board.
of European the plough in the case from contributes to fifty ploughs thirty-four per cent, of its draught. The shapeof the mould-board also affects the draughtconsiderably, but the depth and width of the furrow of the soil chiefly and the nature influence the draught. A long and gradually curved mould-board offers the least resistance,a is proved overlooked in the construction of imgenerally po^nt which for India. offers ance, resistploughs Dry clay-soil very strong if the mould-board is not of the right sha$e. The draughtof harrows and other implementsis measured by the dynamoploughs,
and
American
weight of
100
of
HANDBOOK
the
which
draught, the are
over
300
OF
AGRICULTURE.
ordinary swing-ploughsor
wheel-ploughs, unsuitable for use in clearly bullocks can work the plough for a
Ibs. in weight,are
Bengal,though a strong pairof days or onlyfor a few hours at a show-yard, to apparent satisfaction. But by adding to the number of animals or givingthem work for a shorter time, implements with heavy draught can be used. Swingles and Yokes. A few
"
plough
or
any
other
vating culti-
ed implementis attachin
European countries to horses or bullocks by means of a swingle or whippletree or trees, and ropes or chains. The yoke to which ends of the the further chains or ropes are attached
be may of wood
only a singlepiece the going across
necks of the animals, traction
be
at
the
the
or
hump
may
lightened by having an-
ether
pieceof wood for the chest with cross-pieces to the in two keep position. The chain or rope to which the whipple-tree is attach""JV.ed called the draughtThe yokes are made rope. of wood of the aerial roots of bar-tree or other light and
strong
wood
having
for curved the notches necks of the animals. Yokes
furnished with breast-beams (Fig.18) are used in some provinces.These distribute* the resistance to a greater surface and thus lessen the 21"
of
yoke-galls. of Bengal method to the sides of a long pole rigidlyattached and cheapness. It does advantage of simplicity bullocks reins being guidedby also, necessityof occurrence
FIG.
MULTIPLE-PLOUGH.
The
yoking on plough has
two
"
the with the away touch or twist of the tail with one a hand, while stilt is held by the ploughman by the other. The and ploughsrecognisethe advantageof this simplicity
the
single
improved cheapness.
of attachment and 22 illustrate the method of one, two, three and four animals respectively to an implement. 23 Fig. illustrates another method of attachingthree animals.
Figs. 19, 20,
21
PLOUGHS
AND
Two Multiple-ploughs.
furrows
"
Avith
ploughinstead
tAvo-furroAV
a
greater,and three horses Having a Avider bottom it does much
soils free from
stones
the
as
101
PLOUGHING.
of are as
turned
are
simultaneously
The
draught is therefore requiredto drive this plough. level and steadywork even on one.
There wheel-plough.
are
platesor sole in this plough,and it does not therefore preparing seed-bed on ploughedland,two horses this plough. It manage
For
does
twice the
as
as
Avork
or
sAving-
wheel
plough. plough turns
can
acres
wide, and
wide
four
plough three
or
of land
day
the soil is
pans.
easily
time,
same
nine inches
each
can
three furroAv-
the
slices at
form
side-
three-furroAV
The
it
much
no
per
if
light.Having
bottom,
the
a
draught
four heavy, are required for The priceof it. dra\viug the double-furrow plough
and
is very horses
"7
is
to
"12,
as
These
more.
of
or
as
eA'en
ploughs are
altogetherunsuitable Indian needs. most While
a
plough
three-furrow
much
and
"10,
to referring
for tiple-ploughs, mul-
however, be
may
mentioned
the
|||
.seedifl.y plough of Messrs. Hornsby " Sons, Grantham
(England).
implement
This
be
can
used
either Avith or without seed-box. Without seed-box be used
(Fig.24) for
(three
the the
it may
simpleploughing or
deep only),or
four for
inches
the seed after it has been
depth up
any for each horses
to four
furrow.
to do the
FIG.
25 "SEEDING
PLOUGH.
covering broadcasted.
It is well within
work,
It
inches and in Avidth it is carried
the
can
be
to six and
of a power three Avheels.
regulatedto a
half inches
pairof light
Best chilled on for the shares,and all the wearing parts are easilyreneAvable. Equipped with the seed-box (Fig.25),it SOAVS the seed directlyinto the furrow efficiently, time. covering it at the same The quantityof seed sown is controlled to a nicety by the per acre
iron is used
as
'
102
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
of an indicating lever. The four-furrow improved simplemovement with seed-box conductors complete is priced and seedingplough This plough used, not for the first ploughingbut for at "7. and specially for sowing,may have a very subsequentoperations,
important future
before
it, if capitalists go
in
largelyfor
more
in this country. agriculture an ordinarywheelinches It is used for share broad. twelve a doing very shallow Avork,and the wheels, are adjusted so as to Deccan Bakhar (Fig. turn two inches deep. The or up slices one
The
paring plough. The paringploughis "
plough fitted with
26)
can
be used
as
paring plough,either
a
sods stifle-burning
for
fairlydry. bed. clay-landfor preparinga seedFor ploughingwet fallow-land two three inches deep or for destroying weeds, and for preparinga fine tilth en fairlydry is an invaluable,though inexpensive, the Bakhar soil, implement. The knife of the Bakhar is made about two feet long,and with a pairof strongbullocks one can prepare two to three acres of land for time destroythe weeds. tilth,and at the same The subsoil-plough is like an ordinarysingle-furrow plough,but of stronger construction, having a deep body and a largemouldIt is used board. behind an ordinary swing- or wheel-plough or preparinga seed-bed on The Bakhar does not work
ploughed-upland
often the subsoil. It may of the drier Indian tracts.
up
subsoil-stirreror
without turning it up. It has no mould-board
sub-soiler (Fig.5) This is also used behind and
it
can
deep.
sometimes
A
for
lightsoils
for
lightor The
from
heavy
very
line with the
to
"7
to
"ll
It
eighteen
to
a
is
strong
rightside and pointof the share. the
It passes along the bottom furrow raised and moves subsoil plough on wheels
BAKHAR.
costs
a
plough.
a
subsoil-stirrer
attached
on wheel-plough
subsoil
ordinaryplough.
an
the soil twelve
inches
in
the
moves
hardly be called
moves
"FIG. 26. -THE
is
in wet
furrow, and it turns alongthe same be of advantagein deep soilsin some The
which
according
as
it is
of the it.
A
adapted required
soils.
ridgingor double-mould-board
plough(Fig.2)
is made
like
either side,. mould-board on shorter and no nearly flat. It is used for making ridgesand splitting them, also for splitting A drills for sowing turnips, marker is hingedon etc. potatoes, to the beam of the ridgingplough. It marks on the ground the The marker is held in position line where the next ridgeis to be. a
swing
but
or
a
wheel-plough.It The
coulter.
has
mould-boards
a
are
^
"
a chain. By another chain behind, the ploughman can turn the marker on either side of the plough. The cost is "4 and "1 extra for wheels. It has been alreadyshown how a native plough* used be a can as ridgingplough.
by
PLOUGHS
AND
103
PLOUGHING.
ploughbreaks up but does not turnover furrows. pulverising be regarded Indian ploughand the sub-soiler may as pulverising and the as improved ploughs simpleswing-ploughs. ploughs, The plough. With an ordinaryplough ploughing one-way The
The
"
line after line in succession,as the slices are turned during the forward march and in the opposite way during one-way in this way The whole of the land cannot the return march. be both ploughed and turned over. With the one-way ploughs, be done
cannot
of which and
the
balance againstanother
another
side
is called
form
one
one
unploughed
furrows
and
the turn-wrest
or
plough,furrow-slices in
the
same
ridgescovered
turn-wrist are
plough,
all laid side
by
direction avoidingopen by furrow-slices. There
shares in the balance-plough. When set is at work on one one side,the other set is kept raised on the other side. At the end of the fieldthe position is reversed, the set which was kept raised being now broughtinto action,and the plough is turned in the ordinaryway is turned. as a carriage Tn the turn-wrest ploughthere is onlyone set of share and mouldboard which are reversible round a hinge,while in the balanceare
two
sets
of mould-boards
and
plough there are two sets. In ploughinghill-sides the ordinary locks system of ploughinground and round a field is unsafe, as the bulwith the ropes liable to go down a precipice or get choked are with which they are attached to the yoke. It is safer in hill-side ploughingto take line after line in the lateral direction only. If is done at all,the bullocks should not be made to cross-ploughing but simply walked ing, ploughup-hill, up, and the down-hill ploughhave if no been made, should be done with the terraces Turn-wrest been extensively ploughs have now greatestcare. 5re and the into in introduced used numbers on India, large and in Gujarat. The Deccan made most popular is one by Sirns and JefCeries, of Ipswich, Messrs. Ransome, which is named C. T. 2 and costs Rs. 40 in Bombay. This is suitable by them "
"
Local manufacture of the Deccan. similar plough has been undertaken, and Messrs. Kirlosa very kar Bros, of Kundal Road, Satara District, in the Bombay for the
heavy
soils of
are doing a Presidency,
make. an
In the
tracts
extensive trade in the plough they named, the turn-wrest plough is no longer very
the country plough. experiment,and is rapidlydisplacing The sulkyplough is used in American man prairies.The ploughsits and drives and covers five acres furrows three a day, two four inches
turned over at the same time. It is driven but strong,wheels almost as fast as a carriage is driven. on light, For perfectly level prairieland it is a very useful kind of plough. The potato-digging ploughis fashioned like an ordinaryplough; but it has two shares,one behind the other, both elevated posteriorly and divided or forked. The shares are driven in underneath to turn out potatoes. The Potato-digger the ridges by Story" Son of Jedburgh,Howard, and other makers, is not exactlya plough. It consists of a strongframework four wheels,the two front run on or
deep are
104
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
beingsmaller
than the hind ones. Abroad sharpshare passes underneath and liftsthe potato-ridges, while a set of 8 revolving forks workingat right-angles to the ridges above the share is worked the hind wheels. This is put on or off gearingat will. It throws by the diggeradvances all the earth and potatoes from ridgeson as land that has been cleared againsta screen which keepsthem from spreadingfar and wide. This bruises the potatoes to a certain is used hardly any loss occurs. extent, but when a canvas screen Potatoes are gatheredcarefully each time, else they get covered up. ones
When
potatoes do get covered up, they can be harrowed up again, but constant with harrows, reduces the knockingabout, especially value of potatoes and makes them liable to putrefaction. On light land two horses can work but on the potato-digger, heavy soil three are required. Four acres be dug out in a day. The cost can of
is "12 to "13. On heavy or wet soil it does not potato-digger The work done by a potato-digger leaves the satisfactorily. soil beautifully fine and mellow and free from weeds. The remains a
work
of the weeds
and
potato-haulmscan be easilyraked off and the land immediatelyafterwards for growing sugarcane, maize, jowar, be used also for digground-nut or arahar. The potato-digger can ging out ground-nutsand yams The implement of different kinds. is unsuitable for the Indian raiyat.but a capitalist going in for will find a great scale growing potatoes or ground-nutson a large saving on the cost of hand-picking.Four strong bullocks must, of course, be employed attached to a proper swingle. The Hunter-hoe has been employed with advantagefor lifting potatoesat Sibpur. been for have unsuitable found most Steam-ploughs Indian surroundings.They have been tried by Mr. Archie Hills, of Patkabari (Dt. Murshidabad),and by Mr. Armstrong, of Dehra the first outlay cost Skilled supervisionand Dun, and others. in and in India more than the advantage of the steamEngland, used
in England is only as 10 : 9. even plough over the horse-plough Where have taken to farming on a Englishmen largescale, e.g., in the FijiIslands,and where labour is dear and labourers scarce, of At the first ploughing,the found are steam-ploughs great use. furrows are twelve inches deep ; at the second ploughing made fifteen inches,and at the third ploughingeighteeninches, and thus than i"s the ground is disintegrated in a far more thoroughmanner
possiblewith any other plough. In some parts of India where the be land is badly infested with deep rootinggrasses, which cannot that than is it more probable ploughedout by the ordinaryplough, be found of very considerable value. If one asked to judge a competitionin ploughing,one were should mark the followingpoints: Whether the furrow-slices are clean-cut on the land-side (1) an*d the bottom. and compactlyone against (2) Whether they are laid regularly another at an angle of 45". (3) Whether grass, stubbles and weeds are turned in and covered
the
will steam-plough*
"
*
.
PLOUGHS
(4) Whether level,so that an (5) Whether
the
seed-bed
even
furrows
furrow-slices are
the
edges of
upper
a
on
by harrowing.
be formed
may
finished
straightand
are
105
PLOUGHING.
AND
at regularly
the ends. turned out and A the last furrow-slice is properly (6) Whether about the size of the rest. the depth has been regulated accordingto the (7) Whether of the soil and the crop to be grown and for the time of the nature four inches nine inches being the limit for this country. to year, (8) Whether the proportionbetween depth and width of the furrow-slices turned over is as 7 : 10. To understand the Englishsystem of ploughing, it is necessary to comprehend a number These are (1)Crown, of technical terms. and (5)Peering. (2)Open-furrow. (3)Gathering,(4)Splitting, Crown The is of line the the (1) ridge,running up highest the middle of one under unit of a field" tilth,all the furrow-slices '
slopingup
'
towards '
(2) The
'
Open-furrow
furrow-slices
the
it.
slantingaway
'
'
(3) Gathering is in which
the horses
round
given to
name
always turn
ridges,
two
this.
from towards
system of
the
the
crown.
When
ploughing ing plough-
by gathering goes on in a field for some the field beginsto'havea wavy appearance, the hollows being
years, *
the
between depression
is the
and
*
round
?
'
open-furrows and the elevated portions,crowns.' (4) Scattering,' Splitting or Scaring is the name '
'
to the
from
'
system the crown.
of
'
'
ploughing in which '
(5) Peering
is the
the hoises
marking out tilth,by means
given
'
'
of land
always
turn
away
for the first time
ing indicatfeeringpoles,' fixed is width The are upon by the foreman or the first ploughman,a width of either 33 ft. or 66ft. being chosen. Narrow width (ICJft. or 33ft.),involvingclose best i s suited for stiffclay-lands inclined to be wet and which ridges, into sections,or units of where the future ' crowns
benefited
-are
is to
say,
'
to
of
'
be.
is 8| ft.,that by surface-drainage.A feering-pole a feering-poles perch in length. Four or more
half
used when a field is broughtunder ploughfor the first time or where no ridgesand open-furrows observable for some reason are
are
after harvesting a (e.g., be
kept up. In very plough,lines of the old *
to
by
*
"iown
as
'
not
the
open-furrows are followed,to replacethem gathering being done round and round the openinstead of the crowns. This serves to keep the crowns
crowns.'
furrows
are green crop); or where the old ridges old fieldswhich have been long under
low
*
as
than the rest
'
'
'
possible.The two first slices to keep down the crown.
are
also cut
thinner
that the future ploughing" It is along the crown first The line is the ploughed feering-poles spt up. along poles way and then in reverse up to get all the land moved, the first one and the two slices -way, so that a double furrow is left at the crown Method
of
are
106
HANDBOOK
turned, one,
OF
AGRICULTURE.
In setting and the other,the other way. up the feering-poles, half the distance desirable between two ridges is measured from the end of the field, and the feering-poles set along this distance. The line along the polesis ploughed as described, and then the polesremoved to the fulldistance between two ridges. This line alongthe poleswhere they are removed, is also marked out the
by
one
way,
ploughas above, and
between
the
ridgesagain,and
field has been marked
the the
polesremoved to the full distance operationrepeateduntil the whole
The ploughing is done round and round these lines by gathering.The horses turn at the headlands, which should be fairlybroad, that no difficulty be experienced by may in horses turningat the ends of the fields. If headlands are left out.
all sides,these may be ploughed up afterwards by drivingthe round and round the field away from the fences and not plough towards them. When set are feering-poles up at the full width between ridges is done by splitting. With to start with, ploughing an 8| ft. staff,66 ft. or 33 ft. may be easilymeasured, and an acre on
ft.X66 ft.,these widths are convenient calculations as to area. Light soil should
being660 mental too
by ploughing. Sections of gatheringon such soil,
wavy
each
132
ft. may
for not
making be made
be taken
for
and ing turnPrincipleof calculation. A man ploughingan acre furrow-slices only an inch wide, would turn over 99 miles of furrow-slices (i.e., wide If he ploughed 12 inches 6??2L?*^i!). "
over
would
he
this distance, i.e..,8*25 miles. one-twelfth If he ploughed up slices six inches wide he would cover 16J miles in a day ifhe succeeded in doing one With an ordinarycountry acre. plough,or with an improvedploughthe utmost width obtained is six inches. of over A third of an acre, which involves a walk five miles while working,may be considered a good day'swork for a
cover
tempt bullocks,at least for the first ploughing. Atfive should be made to get the ploughman to do at least or miles of walk per day while ploughing. To get the number of
ploughman
six
and
miles walked in ploughing an acre, it is only necessary to divide 99 by the breadth of the furrow (ininches)turned out by a particular plough. With ploughs of different widths of share turning out different widths of furrow-slires, the ploughman should show different quantitiesof work. Expertopinions."With regard to the possibleimprovement that may be introduced into the ordinarysystem of ploughing, etc., in India,the following remarks of Dr. J. A. Voelcker,recorded in his worth noting: are reporton the improvement of Indian agriculture, I cannot that the system of shallow ploughing, helpsuspecting aversion to as ploughsthat practised by the native, and his "
turn
over
a
broad
slice and
form
a
thing furrow, may have someretention of moisture, and
wide
of the to do with this matter be to lose that the effect of deep ploughingwould too jgenerally the very moisture the cultivator so treasures." (P. 43). "
108
HANDBOOK
"
OF
AGRICULTURE.
The
effect of soil inversion was equally conspicuous on paddy. The trial with this crop was carried out exactlyin the .same The results are shown in the following way as with wheat. statement
The p. 135
: "
remarks following of his
Textbook
serious consideration
of Mr.
J.
Indian
on
Mollison,taken are Agriculture,
from
Vol.
also
I,
worth
"
To those who are sceptical in I can show of indigenparts Bombay Presidencycultivation by means ous tillage which in of implementsonly, respect neatness, thoroughness and profitableness be excelled by the best gardeners cannot the best farmers in any other part of the world. or This statement :
of the
I
deliberately make,
and
I
am
quiteprepared to
CHAPTER OTHER
CULTIVATION
substantiate
it."
XIII. APPLIANCES.
[The Grubber
or Cultivator (the Madras Grubber) ; the Harrow, the Hand Rake drills ; Nari-nagarwith Surtha Weeclers ; Hoes ; Bullock-hoes ; Hand Grain Scythes; Threshers ; Winnowers cleaner.] ; Hauser's
Seed
THE
; ;
ordinarycultivator or grubberis a simple A five-tined grubber with duckfor Indian use. enough be easilyworked foot coulters, wheels can mounted two on by two bullocks on land alreadyploughed and reploughed, once one way and the second time across. The advantage of using the grubber GRUBBER. instrument
"
The
consists
stirs the
in
it the fact, that soil to a varying
depth of five to nine inches uprootingand draggingweeds
FIG.
27
"
THE
GRUBBER.
and coarse grasses before it. It stirs the soil deep without The practice turningit up.
of smashingup land by cultivators instead of systematically has i ncreased it, ploughing greatly in England of late years, and we take the hint in this can country. The grubber used in the Sibpur*Farm (Fig.27) can be easilymade in country placesin India, and the cost need
OTHER
CULTIVATION
109
APPLIANCES.
Rs. 20. The priceof the ' Madras Grubber is only Rs. 17. For earlypreparation of land for rabi crops, for which time deep, cultivation is desirable, the quick,and at the same exceed
not
'
grubber is should
much
Hairow,
The
and
long.
implement.
It forms
no
bing Grub-
pans.
be done in the kharif season, when opening up loss of fertility results in too much by hashing.
not
the soil too The
invaluable
an
These
"
either
are
rectangular (Fig.28)
drical. cylin-
or
of the
rectangularharrow is several feet wide It is usuallydivided into two or three sections carrying frame
equidistantteeth, usuallyeightto
inches
long,which serve the surface clods after the ploughor grubberhas been used in order to bringup clods to the surface to be afterwards smashed and to detach up by the roller, weeds from land which has been stirred. It is also used after the seed has been sown it. to cover Chain-harrows, constructed as a ten
to break
mail,are composed or circular, polyhedral plain, coat
coarse
of
of
by ringsor links,the
the latter connected
side than used
or
FIG.
'28." THE
HARROW.
ringsand tripods,
rings,toothed
teeth
that either surface
being longeron
one
of the harrows
the other,so be can of the land or meadow the nature are viceable serrequires. They for light covered action,as when seeds requireto be lightly
as
when
on
requiredto
manures
be
The ladder,
spread on grass land.
board, used in this country takes the place of beam, or levelling is a far more but efficientimplement,especially latter the harrow, kinds can be used with bullocks. for uprooting weeds, and the lighter such the cross-killroller or clod-crusher circular as harrows, Heavy or
unsuitable for this country on account except in preparingthe land on very hard soils like those of the Deccan for very valuable crops like sugarcane ;
are
but
as
chain-harrow
a
even
of their cost
and heaviness
would
40, the questionof replacing beams, ladders and bidias by
cost Rs. our
dismissed for the present. Iron-toothed harrow called in India in common bidias are use it is hard to replace these. cumstances harrows
may
about
be used like bidias. Rs. 3.
Rollers in which
and are
the
be
may
common
purpose
preferable.
29.-HAND
RAKE.
and under existingcirSteel hand-rakes (Fig.29) 15-teeth garden rake would cost" only
useful for
are
moisture
is
expensivefor in
A
FIG.
use,
obtaininga level and compact seed-bed better retained. But they are too unwieldy Indian use. Levellingboards and beams in especially
fairlywell.
But
a
South
India, and
lightwooden
they
answer
roller would
be
110
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
been
piepared by ploughing rabi the in season),harrowingand grubbing (aridcultivating done either by scatteris ing for it is ready sowing. Sowing levelling, bv dibbling. By dibbling or the seed broadcast, or by drilling, Seed-Drill. When
the
"
soil has
or
the
of seed
greatesteconomy
.and if the seed is not
is
perfectand
effected,but
it is
slow
a
process,
too many germinationis partial, be left. Dibbling is blanks may done when sometimes large-sized
seeds, such
reliable
of
cotton,
are Duality,
Smaller
in each hole.
should
seeds
be
drilled.
or
and
germinating
two
sown,
broadcasted
either casting Broad-
experiencedhands
in not
maize
amhar,
as
involve
much
of
waste
does
seed,
sowing, and it is the irregular of sowing. But cheapest way is the most desirable sysdrilling tem, it does not as pert requirean ex-
nor
FIG.
and
hand,
SIX-TINED 30-" MADRAS DRILL. SEED
enables
the bullock-hoe
hoe, saving cost
of
its application afterwards
employ
to
one
as
and
weeding, and
enablingone English and American
to
hand-wheel-
keep
the
land
seed-drills with stirred and aerified. The be would the too expensive^as arrangements eightor twelve times three- tined and sixThe Madras of these drillsare too elaborate. and the Surtha or Tari, a seed-drilling tined (Fig,30) Seed-drills bamboo a cylinder with
funnel-shaped hopperat the top, fixed
hole
in the body of the plough, called Nari-Nagar in the Central to
a
Provinces, are adapted for existing stage of Indian
the
When agriculture. a
mixed
and
seeds for
crop, such
cotton
or
maize
as
arahar
jowar
and
and cotton,
arahar, the hopperof are drilled, or
three 31." HENDERSON FERTILIZER AND
FIG.
CORN
PLANTER
DISTRIBUTOR.
with
by
or one
one
Surtha
a
six-tined seed-drill hole stoppedis fed person,
while behind
a
dragged being provided with wheels the and ploughNative seed-drills require experiencedplough-bullocks men to work them, and it requireslong patience to introduce in a new them successfully locality.On the whole, perhaps,the make (fig. one-furrow garden drillsof American 31) have the best fed
by
another
prospect of
success
person.
Not
in India.
is
CULTIVATION
OTHER
Some
of these hand-drills
holding"seed and the other for super or sulphateof ammonia, Planter
Corn
*on
this three
apart and
sowing
same
machine
droppingthe
is furnished with
pinionsto regulatethe number sowing. Extra ringsare also supplied for sowing peas, beans other and special sized seeds. The pricewith the fertilizerbox is eighteen dollars, each extra ring costing twenty-live cents. the
seeds
distance
four
of seeds and
droppingrin"s
distance
apart of
fertilizerbox,
priceof the Henderson
the Corn
teen Planter is only four-
dollars in New Planet Jr. Seeder
York. 5 No. FIG.
is also (pricetwelve dollars)
recommended. Hoes. When "
has been
seed
sown
32."
AMERICAN
the young plants have khurpiesis necessary for most
"
a
once
HAND-HOE.
and
hand-weeding with up, one Afterwards the soil between the rows crops. kept stirred and clean as often as convenient, come
or
at any
time, if needed, any kind of pulverized
and
Without
boxes, one for such as fertilizer,
two
concentrated
some
per day.
at the
fertilizer. Each
fitted with
are
etc. Fig.31 illustrates the HenderFertilizer Distributor. One can with sow
and
of land
acres
Ill
APPLIANCES.
month, accordingto circumstances,
"
of say
plants should once
a
until the
be
fortnight plantsare
eighteeninches high. Two three hoeings give the crop a
about or
start
verv
and
With also left clean hand-hoe
the land is American an
.
wheeled
(Fig.32),one
easilywork one-third of an With a bullock-hoe a day. acre (Fig.33)3however, one acre a day
can
can
done.
be
hand-hoe poses the
or use
The
use
of
the
bullock-hoe pre-supof a seed-drill. The
FIG.
33." MADRAS
BULLOCK-HOE.
or (Fig.32) may be used as a seed-drilled, hilling one working part by another! plough,or rake, by substituting be substituted for the hoe The various working parts that can A in Fig. 32. shown hand-hoe of the American are pattern can
Planet
Jr. hoe
The essential parts are : (1) be constructed for less than Rs. 10. four curved tines screwed on to (2),which is a bar with a slit in the tines can be arranged close the middle, along which somewhat another, according one together, or apart from of the width wheel to the drill,(3) a going in front of the tines which labourer to
serves
push the
guide,and (4) a double handle for the implement with. If instead of four tines onlv
as
a
112
one
OP
HANDBOOK
tines at the two
tine is used, or two
furrow,
made
furrows
the two
or
AGRICULTURE.
by
walking behind
extremities
the
of the slit, the
implement, may
who
can cover with seed by a man with his feet as he walks along. Planet Jr. hoe bar has an arched bar instead of a simplestraight while the tines on the the young plants, goes over costlyimplement than the soil. This is a more
be
sown
the furrows
up with
two
with
wheels
slit. This
a
two
sides open
the
wheelsingle
up
hoe.
Provinces
Central
bullock-hoes cost only Rs. 5 or Rs. 6. They requre trained bullocks to work these hoes is tle. always a littledamage done by the feet of catstraight.There be muzzled. The of the use The cattle must, of course, Madras
The
or
hand-hoe
is accompanied by
and
rows
distance
lines
are
between
more
34." THE
C
P. DUNDIA.
Excelsior Weeder Mowers
farming.
and
called
plants is
(Fig.34)which
For
niranies, certain
Weeder,
Eureka
have
been
reapers
are
The machines
the
a
ordinary khurpiesand (Fig.36)
rows
Dundia
for this purpose.
effective instrument
besides weeders
of
Central Provinces bullock-hoe with a But the combined singleknife may be used. which is hoe and rake (Fig.35) used in the vineyards of France is a is
FIG.
regular.Where the
sufficiently greata
loss if the
no
are
found
very
hand-weeding, specialforms of
Hazeltine
and
Weeder
useful.
kinds of Indian unsuitable for many and the fields too heavy and expensive in
India
small.
cheap,
often
are
too
Labour
being harvesting
the
sickle must
hold its
own
placesfor a long time to come, as the cost
in most of
harvestingis
there is our
FIG.
more
85." FRENCH
work
COMBINED
than the
HOE
RAKE.
AND
reapinghook
Threshers."Steam-threshers hand-threshers But
be
no
paratively com-
small.
But
reason
why
labourers should not the trained to use
scythe, which (kachhior kastia).
does
far
unsuitable for Indian bandry. huscould be introduced with success launch to in middle-class men out wishing farming. Even by of separating is a better mode the grain from the straw flailing than treadingthe corn out by bullocks. The bullocks voidingexcrements the straw and grainthey tread upon, the system is decidedly on of I nstead flails handles with wooden objectionable. and leather thongs, flailscould be improvisedof green bamboos about 8 ft. long,1J ft.of which can be left cylindrical for the handle are
CULTIVATION
OTHER
and the rest made
113
APPLIANCES.
semi-cylindricaland
three strips. Only grainsshould be gatheredand the heap of ears beaten with 3 or 4 flailsby as many and the heap stirred and formed men again and again and beaten upon, until separationof grains from the ears is complete. Beatingbunches of straw with grainon boards is another clean and simplemethod of threshingwhich is in vogu
the
in
cut into
of
ears
parts of this country.
some
faster and
it
for which
the
be
with the flail work
But
appliedto
is executed
all sorts
of crops, is unsuitable.
includingpulses, beating board The European hand threshers that have been found useful " Co.'s Rs. Hand Thresher, price : (1)Mayfurth are 85, exclusive of freight, would come Rs. 50 ; (2)Ransome's to another etc.,*which Bullock-powerThresher ; and (3)Ruston Proctor " Co.'s Threshing Machine. The first is obtainable of Messrs. Mayfurth " Co. of can
Frankfort-on-Main,Germany, and firm
local
who
it
be
can
ordered
throughany
in agricultural European machinery. It is used at the Nagpur ExperimentalFarm, where it is found to thresh three and a half maunds of grainper hour. It is kept workingby It is well made, strong, compact five labourers. and simple in of a revolving construction,consisting drum
which
on
deal
fixed strong iron in close proximity
are
spikeswhich pass along a series of spikes fixed curved platebelow which the The
revolves.
with
straw
on
a
drum
grainis put
in at the
hopper or feedingboard. The drum sucks it in. The spikes revolving detach
beaters
or
and
straw, bottom
the
the
the
grain and
grains fa/1
at the
out
separated.The space between
on
spikeson the drum and the spikes the surroundingplateis adjustable,
so
that
the
the
machine
can
be
used
separatinglargegrains as well as work for paddy, jowar,araJiar and so
well with
works
much
linseed
faster than
and
Ipswich,England. Rs.
160.
used
by
Ruston
members
of the
at the M,
straw
Cawnpore Farm HA
and
Threshing
Jefferies,
Machine
costs
it is said to execute
persons, and been introduced
costs
Army Rs.
into, and mostly at
265.
chaff very rapidly. A is sold for Rs. 60.
which
"
Sims
Ransome,
Salvation
Wlitnowers._Dell's Winnower
grainfrom the
do
adapted for threshingwheat, paddy, jowar and arahar. This
Proctor's
by twelve rapidly. It has
very
the
excellent
it does not
well
of Messrs.
It is worked
the work
does
grains. It grains,but
and
It is very well as as
gram, is obtainable
machine
small similar
at the
use
expensivemachine.
WEKDKRS.
Ransome's Bullock-power gram. work and better does It Farm. Nagpur it is an but Mayfurth's Hand Thresher,
wheat, linseed
Thresher is also in
SG.-HAND
KIU.
for
Ahmedabad.
It
the
cleans
winnower
is made
It is said to work 8
114
HANDBOOK
well
as
by
a
as
OF
Dell's Winnower.
AGRICULTURE.
The
ordinaryfan (sup or kula)helped
dry good system of cottage husbanif basketfuls of grainand chaff are in India,especially prevalent breeze is well
graduallylet fall from grain from chaff
adapted for the
adapted for separatheight. A winnower ing " Co. for Rs. 65. is sold by Messrs. Burn Mr. Hauser, an American gentleman, while stayingin Calcutta, and grain-cleaner sold by Messrs. which is now invented a winnower a
^1'
1l'11h
FIG.
37." HATJSER'S
\VINNOWER
CHAIN
AND
-CLEANER.
down by After a crop has been trodden Co. for Rs. 250. be passed throughthis cleaner bullocks or otherwise threshed,it can be it hand the and will found out longstraw), separating by (after behind, but the that not only the straw and chaff are blown away in sizes different different out at comes spouts front. Grains grainof linseed and wheat, come out at of a mixed crop, such as gram, "
Burn
the different spouts
quiteseparate (Fig.37).
CHAPTER THEORIES
UNDERLYING
XIV.
THE
QUESTION
OF
IRRIGATION.
"
[Character and
of
endosmosed determined
compared
sap ;
used
water
sea-waters
must
be
of ;
great importance; rain, well, canal, river, evaporation ; storage tank ; solids in solution ;
thinner
than
exosmosecl
of paddy-fields irrigation ; duty
sap ; how
in canal
quantity to
be
irrigation; drainage;
depth of water.] The problem stated
enteringinto it is necessary various irrigation appliances, "
Before
theories connected with this
subject. The
descriptionof
a
to
deal
with
question of
the
certain
irrigation
116
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
poor in soluble substances,but of its beingtoo rich in such substances. Spring or well-water may look purer than contain onlyabout one part or less river-water, but the latter may of solids in solution in every thousand parts,while the former may The water of contain as much as two or three parts in a hundred. low and dirtypool may not look very clean, but it contains a a high proportionof solids in solution. We have said before that
beingtoo
water
plantscan take up nourishment only in a very dilute solution,the of plants dilution best adaptedfor nourishment generally beingone than a thousand partsof water. part of solid food in solution in more Five parts in one thousand may be taken as the extreme limit of while two and a half to three partsof solids in endurance for plants, solution in a thousand parts of water indicate the danger-point, i.e., the degreeof solution at which the results of the use of water for leguminouscrops and seedlings. become uncertain, specially The salts in solution may be one or more of the following Sodium : c alcium chloride,sodium sulphate, chloride, magnesium sulphate, "
magnesium chloride,sodium
cium bicarbonate,calcium carbonate, caland alumina some silicate, iron, compounds, nitrates and borates. also some Of these salts, the calcium carbonate, and alumina calcium sulphate, i ron silicon, compounds do no harm when theyare present in large proportionsin irrigation-water
sulphate,and
the evaporationof the water after it has been appliedto the land, these compounds crystallize out and do not collect in the soil in a soluble form. of the other salts in The accumulation solution may go on until the proportionof soluble salts in the soil reaches the danger-point.Herein liesthe dangerof irrigating with as
upon
well-water
low cesspools or canals,which contain a of undesirable solids in solution. There is another highproportion side of the question. Some soils contain a highproportionof these undesirable salts in a soluble state, and when to such soils water the proportionreadily salts is applied, surchargedwith the same reaches the danger-point.Soils containing of these a large excess salts are not
or
usar,
water
from
barren i.e., altogether
and
unfit for
cropping,but soils
such excess but only a highproportion, containing may war by injudicious irrigation. Evaporation "
which
is further
be
dered ren-
The
question 'of evaporation then comes in/ that is the fact much complicatedby evaporation
slower from land under crop than from bare land, and is different and the whole questionof evaporationis of at different seasons, minor importancewhen one takes into consideration the loss by surface flow and percolation in certain soils. But leaving all side issues out of consideration, and assuming that a tank 30ft. deep loses by evaporation 15ft. of water in course of the year, it would be obviously from such a deep tank an advantageto have irrigation than from one, say, 20ft. or 18ft. deep. Just as the 30ft. tank would lose by evaporation15ft., the 20ft. or 18ft. tank. so would Now the remainingquantityof the water in4 the tank would be
THEORIES
UNDERLYING
117
IRRIGATION.
less rich in solids,and the residual 5ft. or 3ft. of water rich in solids unless the water in the tank is rainwater and not water of solids in solution to containingan excess with. Here the of water comes begin danger utilising pumped and stored in a tank for up from a well or shallow pool of water future use for wateringplantsin the dry season. As evaporation more
is
or
to be too likely
becomes more and more concentrated goes on, the residual water in soluble salts,and the water used for irrigation afterwards may do more harm than good. If storage tanks are made at all for and well in water stored such or tanks, they must irrigation, pool be made as deep as possible, or evaporationshould be prevented. But storingof water for agricultural in highlevel masonry purposes gation tanks, is not a practicable project, except for such purposes as irriof seed-beds, etc. But it is in the watering of seedlings
that specially in the water
the
questionof the proportionof solids in solution
importance. Sap usuallycontains about four assumes
of solid in solution grammes The in litre. which the plant-foodis water, therefore, every contain dissolved should less than four grammes of soluble matter of any kind per litre, that absorption with cessive Exsuccess. on may go results in plantsgetting manuring with soluble manures, dried and burnt up. If horse-dung and horse-urine,for instance, to
are
tree
heaped up round the base will dry up and perishin Quantity. The "
of a
proportionof
a
largemango
few
or
other tree, the
months.
moisture
imbibed
and
transpired
by a leguminouscrop period of its growth has been determined by actual experimentsto be about two hundred of the crop ; the weight of the dry matter and eighty times while in the case of cereals the proportionis about 1 : 320. But one one varietyof one crop differs crop differsfrom another, and even and aman from another aus paddies)very much in variety(e.g., this respect. Roughly speaking1 : 300 may be taken as the average pean for crops during the cold weather (which is the result of Eurothis for hot of weather a nd 1 600 the try. coun: experience) crops
during the whole
But
as
hot
weather
crops
can
on depend chiefly
rainfall,
even a tion-water requirementof crops of irrigayear, the maximum 300 the of the down times be at weight dry put may 3 wheat of straw acre weighs tons, including Suppose an crop. The maximum the dry weight of the crop is about 2J tons. for this 300=750 is tons of 2Jx requirement irrigation-water crop of water, or nearly200,000 gallons.A don lifting 10,000 gallons found in practice is to of water per hour, or 80,000 gallons per day, of wheat in one day ; and two irrigations be able to irrigate an acre in the worst found for the wheat season. are ample crop even Thus the maximum requiredfor this quantityof irrigation-water determined, agrees very nearlywith what is crop, as theoretically
in
bad
actuallyallowed in practice.But there are extreme habits of plants. Cicer arietinum (gram),Panicum peculiar
of muticum cases
118
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
and
other crops are able to utilize very largequantities some from moisture the nocturnal varieties of dew, while most rice are benefited by an accumulation of water at their base continuously for about seventy days. Probably plantscovered with leaf-hairs are able to utilize the moisture from dew, hence the of and condition in dry weather muticum Panicum flourishing gram without irrigation. of
Canals and distributaries have been canal-Irrigation. from and other rivers the Son, Rupnarayan, Banka leading for watering the rice and other crops in the surroundingtracts. These are bub not only of the greatest benefit to the raiyats, The silt to the State. they have actuallyproved remunerative Value
of
"
made
and distributed to the Banka fields by the Eden Canal has also proved one of the best fertilizers. Rs. 4 The manurial value of the siltitselfis found to be between and Rs. 5 per acre in years of abundant ; so that even per annum from the rainfall the raiyatsfind that it pays them to take water in May and June, when the silt is richer in organic canal,specially In years of scanty rainfall the canal- water tion matter. bringssalvaThere is a tendencyon the part of raiyats to the crop. to take
broughtdown
more
water
by the Damodar
and
than is necessary
inches of water
for their rice crop. in their fields five times in the year
They
nine
want
for the rice crop,
while experimentshave proved that in ordinary years four and a half inches of water twice,and in dry years three times, are enough. The excessive distribution of water in the country has resulted in the canal-irrigated and Midnapur, of Burdwan tracts, specially become malarious. in Even bad having very years there is some and the rainfall only requires to be supplementedby rainfall,
canal-
The excessive use of canal-water results also in fewer irrigation. A quanpeoplebeingbenefited than might be otherwise the case. tity of water that is now miles might be spreadover ten square distributed with greater advantage over fiftysquare miles. for rice of inches land If is with 4-JDuty an crop. acre irrigated "
~4A of water
once,
the
quantity used
ft.,i.e.,16,335 cub. ft.
In
up
is 660ft.
x
66ft.
x
^
cub.
gation irriproper, the effect of one foe 15 days. The quantity ot
Bengal
of 4J inches last at least that flow oufc of a channel in 15 days at the rate of one water* can cubic foot per second is 15x24x60x60=1,296,000 cub. ft., and the water beijng the of distributed at rate 16,335 cub. ft. per acre, The duty of each cub. ft. of water about 80 acres be irrigated. can flowingper second is therefore said to be 80 acres. According of the openingof the channel and the rate of flow,the to the area duty of any channel can be determined accordingto the above and calculation. Canal Engineersshould see that each lock-gate full that and If water is wasted. is doing its no duty sluice-gate for instance, the openingof a channel is 4ft. X 1ft., and the flow' floated ascertained the middle of the channel' as along by a pith-float, ?
THEORIES
is
2Jft.per
800
second, the duty of
such
a
channel is 10
X
80,
or
acres.
The of
119
IRRIGATION.
UNDERLYING
questionof quantityof
great importance. Wherever there
is also irrigation has been introduced, canal-irrigation needed
water
raiyatsfeel that the
for
they
water
more
This is
value
use
the better very serious
a theyget for the water rates they pay. which it is the duty of irrigation officersto dispel.. By using
error, too much
or or well-water,one is bound to suffer sooner later from the effects of over-irrigation. The complaintis already has ruined largetracts of land beingheard, that canal-irrigation in the United Provinces. It is not the fault of the canals,but of
canal
and of utilizing the over-irrigation, it is low
down, and when
water
it contains
at the driest season
when
high proportion inch of water once month, or at most twice a allowance in the cold weather, a month, should be the maximum and two to six inches in the dry weather, according to the periodof of the From the obtained this, growth by rainfall plants. quantity is of water should be deducted. For winter-rice, a largeramount about twelve inches per month i.e., requiredat the growing period, for a littleover two months, one-half of which quantitymay have of solids ;
to
be
in solution too
a
one
ordinarily suppliedby irrigation.
of paddy-fields. Irrigation Suppose
wishes to providefor the should be what irrigationof paddy-fields, provision of water ? if rice is made It plantshave half an inch of water at enough their base for 72 days, i.e., if they have 36 inches of rainfall during the three months of vigorousgrowth from July to September. An "
(4,840 sq. yds.)would
acre
An
thus
one
require4,840
cub.
yds.of
water.
evaporationand requirementsper acre may 7,000 cub. yds. for the 72 days. Now
allowance
of 2,160 cub. yds. may and percolation, the total maximum
be
made
for
thus put down at If a square mile of rice-fields in a square mile. there are 640 acres has to be providedwith the maximum quantityof water (fora of severe and in the canal runs the at the water season drought), rate of 1 mile an hour, a vent of only about 9 sq. feet is required. To providemeans for paddy, for any considerable of irrigation of tanks and wells is not feasible. area agricultural by means be
Drainage
have said over-irrigation, or irrigationwith soluble in with results of accumulation salts, surcharged an these salts in the soil which graduallyrenders it barren. When the is of the evils of means canal-irrigationprovided, correcting should be also provided. This consists in havingdrainage irrigation channels. Drainagewould make much usar land fertile. A land which is drained,readily parts with its soluble salts. Irrigationcanals should be built with a fall of one foot per mile and the "
We
water
drainagechannels should have a fall of two feet to the mile, and the drains empty themselves finally into a canal, stream, or river farther down where the level is six to eightfeet below the level of the highest portionof the channel where the particular irrigation
120
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
channels begins. Drainageand irrigation
taneously should be simulother than rain-water,is used provided wherever water, for growing crops, whether it is well, or canal,or tank-water.
section
Purity of waters
What
of
solids is contained in solution in a particular water, intended to be used for irrigation, cannot be determined for except by an analysis.This analysis agricultural purposes need not be an elaborate analysisat all. Of all natural
"
quantity
waters, rain-water
is the
purest and
safest to
for
use
Water of a river flowing irrigation. througha granitecountry is also very pure, containing two three grainsof solid matter or only in solution per gallon(i.e., 70,000 grains).The water of a river flowingthrough a country containingmore easilysoluble rocks of solid often contains twenty to thirtygrains (such as limestones) matter in solution in every gallon.Springs, well-water contains or a largerproportionof solids in solution,as under pressure at great phuretted depth, such water absorbs largervolumes of carbon-dioxide,sulhydrogen and other gases, and it also dissolves saline
of different kinds from different rocks. Sea-water contains much as 2,400 grainsof solids in solution per gallon, of which as about 2,000 grainsare common salt. Sea-water is thus absolutely unfit for purposes of irrigation. matters
CHAPTER
XV.
WATER-LIFTS. [Classification according to depth of water to which each lift is adapted net result of Indian experience : The single mdt with self-delivery tube ; The double mdt; Stoney's water-lift ; The Sultan water-lift;Mr. Chatterton's "
experiments; The Madras Paikota ; Tera or Ldthd ; Chain-Pumps ; Persian wheels ; Egyptian appliancesfor irrigation (SackiyehTaboot and Shadoof) ; The Noria ; Windmills and Tube-wells ; Windlass; Baldeo-Bdlti ; Artesian and-Bucket-lift parison ComPumps and ; Fire-engines CentrifugalPumps; ; of cost of irrigation with different appliances. s
Classification
By far the most importantimplement for the is the water-lift. Various forms of water-lifts are raiyat The following are adaptedfor depths of over 25 feet : "
Indian in
use.
"
and double (1)M6ts, single
Water-lift ; and (3)Force; (2)Stoney's and Fire-engines. The following are adapted for medium pumps from 25 10 feet : (1) Paikota ; to i.e., depths, depths varying "
(2) Tera, Dhehkli
Latha
; (3) Persian wheels ; (4) Cawnpore Rao's see-saw water-lift ; (6)Deck-pumps ; The water-lifts adaptedfor {7}Centrifugal ; (8)Windmills. pumps smaller than 10 feet Sewni are : (1) depths or Swing-basket; (2) ladle ; (3) Baldeo-bdUi ; and (4) Don. or Irrigation-spoon Of all these water-lifts experimented with, the single mot has or
chain-pump; (5)Subha
been pronounced by the authorities in
Farms, as
the best for
of the various Experimental charge^ deep wells,everything beingtaken
121
WATER-LIFTS.
into account, and the lifts.
don and
the paikota,
the baldeo-bdlti, the best
for short The
a self-delivery tube, which will o f the reference bucket (which the to by a position is shown in two positions in the figure) costs only about Rs. 25 and it does well as the double such not require as a wide settingup, mot to work it successfully, it is the most suitable water-lift for fairly well-to-do cultivators. In the United Provinces mots are not provided with self-delivery tubes, and there an additional person is for emptying the bucket when it therefore needed or leather-bag of the well. comes up at the mouth The record of an experiment with a singlemot conducted in
(Fig.38) with
Singlemot
be understood
Madras
worked The mot was givesthe followingdata : by two 732tbs. in and 616tt"s. the or weighing respectively, gate aggre"
"
bullocks
l,348tbs. The leathern
bucket, which
fitted with
of iron and
was
a
discharging
trunk, weighed 43Fbs., and
when
full held
31
gallonsof water, but ed, the mean quantitylifta
tank,
per
24'2
was
the lift,
or spilt
into
measured
as
lost
rest
gallons being
by leakage.
the bullocks the rate
With
working
was
ployed, em-
of
Fi",
38."
THE
MOT.
SINGLE
lifts
90
per hour, and the heightof the lift being 23ft.,the total quantity The of work -ffis. to 500,940ft. usefullydone amounted per hour.
draughtexerted by
3831t"8. The useful work
to be or
the bullocks down done
the inclined
planewas
found
singleliftwas 24*2 x 10 x 23, a pullof 383 fts.through be raised an extra 2|ft.to enable it in
a
whilst the bullocks exerted -ffis., 5,570ft.
the bucket havingto 25|ft., its contents, and to discharge tt)s. The
bullocks
the work
then had to return
done is
equalto 9,760ft.-
in gradientof 1 in 5'28ft., ft.-fts. of X they expended 6,510 (1,300* T.-b x 25J), doing in lifting their own weightagainstthe action of gravity. energy of work done by them in a single The total amount liftwas therefore and the useful outturn that the so 16,270ft.-tfes., 5,570ft.-lfts., of of 33 per is than water this method not efficiency lifting greater up
a
which
cent." Tilt double mot
"
The
followingdata
occur
for
an
experiment
"
the
The buckets Double conducted in Madras : mot in of iron t runks and with leathern were were good discharging bucket oi 28 order and dischargedan as gallons per average and measured into a tank. trial 3 that in lasted The hours, ,time with
*
bucket
The and
"
figure1,300
is for the
weight of
1,348-43-5.) rope (i.e.,
the two
bullocks,minus
the
weight of
122
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
buckets
of tlie water raised. The mean 22' 125ft. and! liftwas the useful work done per hour was 413,OOOft.-Ibs.The circumference of the drum of the winch was 12ft. 11 Jin., ference and the circumof the circle in which the bullocks walked was 60ft. 9in.,.
200
that the velocity ratio was 4*67. The pullon the dynamometer at the ordinary speed of working was 90fbs.,and the pullto just full bucket and the pullto justraise a 59ft"s., prevent descending, The mean between these last two quantities, a full bucket, Sifts.
so
is the force TOffis.,
at the end
of the lever-arm requiredto balance full bucket of water when friction is eliminated. a Multiplying the mechanical the unbalanced by advantage, weight is 327ffis., a result probablynot very much in error, as the water in the bucket about 300R)s. The mechanical of the lift just weighed efficiency
moving
is therefore
Tha
6'6 per cent.
74 per cent., and workingat its normal speed, liftsaverage I'lll per minute, and the animal therefore
was
usefullyemployed
for 52a 5 per of the time, cent, and the absolute efficiency of the lift as a machine for utilizing the
of
energy
0-66x52-5, FIG.
39." THE
DOUBLE
iron two
when of 40." THE
(SECTION
MOT.
DOUBLE
THROUGH
A.
B.)
or
suspended in a stirrup by pivotsattached to adjustable bucket very slightlyabove
the the centre
FIG.
is
Stonty'sWater-lift" The principal feature in this lift is the employment of buckets of wrought,
(PLAN).
MOT
bullock
the
35 per cent,"
the
lower
turned
of
gravityof
full of water. bucket
the bucket
The
mouth
is inclined and
the
the stirrup are encircled and outwards
ends
of
steel wires which
are
suspendedin
The screwed eye-bolts attached to the framingabove. of the^ wires are fastened by some to the bottom convenient means and well and act as guidesto the bucket, ascending and descending, prevent it from either turninground or swaying to and fro and thus On the strikingeither the sides of the well or the second bucket. and rapidly bucket beinglowered into the water, it-turns horizontal, the well from
fillswith water, and and
rises
out steadily
on
a vertical position up assumes level is reached, tillthe discharging
beingdrawn
of the water
the upper side of the inclined mouth into contact comes and the stirrup, the framingof the lift, with an iron bar fixed across the bucket to revolve about its upward motion, causes continuing charge of the bucket with the iron rod and thus disthe pointof contact into the delivery its contents The as lift, arranged trough. the the worked at Saidapet was trials, during by arranging ropea turned by which hold the buckets over to a winch guide-pulleys when
124
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
the well. The is fixed 15 feet 3f inches from the working end." The weight of the two sections of the platformis l,4501bs.and 8501bs.,respectively. To diminish the shock when the free end fallsand the bucket is lowered into the the platform water, 2301bs. of iron rails are fastened underneath short end of that before the the a so chain, by just platformreaches
longer segment up and lower the bucket into roller platformis 24 feet longand the supporting
its lowest
the rails rest position, the platform comes
to act, and
on
the
ground and
their
weights
more gentlythan would if the velocityof descent continued to accelerate to be the case the very end. The ropes from the platform wound round drums, are the circumference of which is 3 feet 2| inches,as measured winding by un-
cease
coil of the
rope; and the mot 7 feet 10 inches in circumference,so one
drum
workingend Rao
to rest
told
of the he
me
lengthenin time
from
a
that the motion
platform is multiplied2*443
intended and the
is worked
rope
times.
of the Mr. Subba
chains ior ropes, substituting of lift is reduced the efficiency
as
in
ropes time
thereby.
With the bucket empty and the platformhorizontal,the load at the free end can be varied from 1601bs. to 3621bs. without the equilibrium, whilst with a load of 2471bs. in the "disturbing bucket, equal to 24*7 gallonsof water, the platform remained horizontal though the loads at the working end varied between 581bs. and 2751bs. between the two extreme Taking the mean values to be the actual weightsrequired to balance the platform, it is possibleby taking moments about the centre, to determine the only force actingon the platform which is not measured, viz., the weight of the empty bucket and ropes actingwith a leverage of 2,443 to
With the bucket unloaded, the weight works out 65*41bs. and when as loaded, 651bs., a remarkably close agreement. The liftwas worked duringthe trial by a bullock weighing 7001bs. and a man weighing 1171bs. The rate of working was 81 lifts per hour from well 18 feet 1 inch deep. The average a 1.
"
quantityof tank,
was
broughtup by the bucket, as measured into and the useful work done per hour amounted gallons,
water
23*5
a
to 344,210ft.-lbs. The of the lift can be mechanical efficiency front of of end ascertained by multiplying the the the fall form platby the force requiredto set it in steady motion when lifting full of water. a bucket The total heightthe bucket had to rise to
dischargeits
contents
was
22
feet,and
the end
therefore fell 9 feet and the work
of the
platform
584
done x 9=5.256ft.-lbs. was To raise the plattorm back to its initial position, the free end then falls 5'184feet and the load on it is 3621bs., and the work done is equal to l,875ft.-lbs.The total work therefore done in a singlelift is 7,131ft.-lbs.and the useful work given to the is 4,245ft. water -Ibs. ; so that the mechanical efficiency when just working is 59*6 per cent. ; at the normal rate of working it is much lower,probablynot more than 50 per cent. Mr. Chatterton thus Madras Water-lifts : "
summarises
the
^rialsof
the various
125*
WATER-LIFTS.
Foot-tons Mr. Stoiiey's Water-lift
of work ..
..
Mot
Double
Rao's
Subba also
He
gives
See-saw
.
.
.
.
.
1-930 2-323 3-511
comparison
of
the-
"
here
that
the
dangerous instrument, is
a
.
Water-lift
the following figuresfor
be noted
It may
.
trials :
results of the
though
(Saidapet) (Subba Rao's Improved) .
SingleMot
per Ib. weight. 2'253
ordinary
Pnicota
still considered
(Fig. 43),
in the
Madras
best
Presidency the
appliancefor lifting small
from
water
depths (say 10 to gle and the sin12ft.), the best
mot
for
from
liftingwater great depths. The inexpensiveness of the appliances,the which
with
ease
up and
they are set repaired, very
cannot
be
well
passed sur-
for small
v$ry
depths. The
swing-basket(Fig. 49), and
the
such as Madras
is used
by
person,
are
tion-spoon irriga(Fig. 1), in
single
a
also
sidered con-
very efficient for small depths.
Chain-pumps. "
FUJ.
Of the
found favour with the
43.
"
PAICOTA.
chain-pumpsin use, the Oawnpore Pump has Agricultural Departments.This chain-pump,
126
OF
HANDBOOK
the chain-discs of which
AGRICULTURE.
fittedwith
leather
washers,works well they or repairedfrom time new, farm at Cawnpore time. They are to be had at the Government Chain-pumps Hand-lift "(Fig. 44, I, II and III)works well up to
when to
but
are
be
requireto
renewed
.
depth of
"
feet,but
25
CAWNPORE
44 "THE
FIG.
it is doubtful
whether
it is
efficient
more
than the mot at depths above fifteenfeet.The
CHAIN-PUMP.
cast-iron stand well the two
as
the
(I),as of
top part fixed
pipe,are beams
a
II),walled
into
the
the
top
on
masonry of the well
on
(Iand
a
by
means
of six
bolts,b b. pipe with top c be fixed in such
The is to a
way
that the centre of the pipeand the centre of the wheel are in one line A B (II). The lower end mouthed
of the bell-
pipe
should
extend
at
least
inches
below
the
six face sur-
The
of the water.
pipes,for liftsof BULLOCK-POWER
HAND-LIFT.
LIFT.
than
10 feet
well,ought to on a
a
beam,
d
(I,II
vertical distance of
means
iron
an
and
III),walled
of about
strap,
2
or
e, with
into the masonry the 3 feet above
(I and position. The bolts
more
depth of be fixed
of the well at water-level
III) in
order
by to
should
not pipe keep them firmlyin their proper the but on be fixed vertically, to an incline,according slopeof the chain (Fig.1),in order to avoid friction as much as possible. of should be 25 The worked the to 40 rate at chain-pulley
revolutions
per
minute, accordingto depth of well, from
4 to
25
the approximatecapacities The following are feet,respectively. of a Chain-pump Hand-lift for different depths of well,if worked
by
two
good
coolies
:
"
127
WATER-LIFTS.
by bullock-power.It has
about
Hand-power Lift, and depth of forty feet,but
it is
it
a
can
depthsgreaterthan twenty
at
Double Chain-pump Liftworked a three to four times the capacityof be convenientlyworked up to a
V) shows
and
Fig.44 (IV
probablynot
as
efficientas
the mot
feet.
bullock gear, the shaft of which carries of
It consists horizontal
a
/ /,each working chain-pulleys, chain-pump. The gear is fixed
two a
with four bolts walled
top
into
of the
beams,
two
on
the
The
m,
the
on
masonry
well.
m
top parts
fixed with other beams, two four bolts on into the masonry o o, also walled A well. fifth beam of the p for fixingthe lower part of serves described the pipes similarlyas the Hand-lift. before for
of the
pipings,n
n~Mi~"
Persian
Wheels
are
n,
in
F
"
r
e
s
i
are
in the
coast
lightframework
turns
FIG.
46."
in the
the coast
generally. A
of India
WORKED
WHEEL AND
HAND
Bv
FOOT.
on
THE
an
The
EGYPTIAN
of
(Fig.45)
type illustrated
Kathiawar, Gujrat and
bamboo
axle which
Some
Punjab.
cheap construction.
simpleand
in is used chiefly figure
the west
4-5." PERSIAN
n
and
Coast, Rajputana, Kathiawar of very
a
Malabar
in the
use
FlG"
"
T"
iAfh-*i.
Wheels.
are
rests
PERSIAN
wooden
or on
two
drum
pivots.
of One
WHEEL
and
the other on the top of another support fixed on dry land,or both the pivotsare on with his hands sits and turns the drum A man the sides of a well. is attached endless garlandof mud the drum an and feet. Round of the drums carryrevolution the by vessels which are broughtup
is at the
top
of
a
strong support fixed in
water
128
HANDBOOK
ing water
in
them, time),into
OF
AGRICULTURE.
dischargingthe
and
water
(from three rnud
sels ves-
a troughof stone whence it flows out to the field. vessel is tied on both sides with ropes, and a bamboo Each mud side of the well,i.e., the side at which one on or a rope hanging down
at
a
the
mud
vessels
filled with
water
coming up, bumping against
are
the
side
the
of
well is prevented.
With
this
ment impleman
one
oneirrigate
can
tenth
of
Mr. FIG.
built
a
Persian Wheel
and
3 ft. 8 inches
wide
and
The
Andrews,
a
of old railway
out
24 ft. 6 inches in diameter.
acre
missionary of Chingleput, has
TABOOT.
47." THE
an
day.
a
over rails,
rotatingdrum
carries
a
circular well
a
is 6 ft. in diameter
double
chain
of sheet-iron
buckets, each r80 The
ing hold-
gallons.
axle is prolonged on
through
pairof by
bucket
from
This
a
of air escape the descending as
the
they water.
improved
Persian Wheel very From
Each
provided leather flapto permit of
buckets enter
a
wheels,
is
valve the
bevel
winch.
a
with
side and
one
driven
works
satisfactorily. a raiyat's
ever, point of view, howit is too costly and it has too
many
workingparts. FIG.
48."
THE
Egfptfan appliances. P e r s i an The of the Punjab Wheel
SHADOOF.
"
Egyptian Persian Wheel, is, for ordinaryiraiyats' also somewhat too complicated use (Fig.46) in The in Bombay. Egyptian Bengal,though commonly employed
pattern, which
is the
same
as
the
129
WATER-LIFTS.
Persian Wheel or Saekiyeh,as illustrated in p. 127, is thus described The Saekiyeh mainly consists in Lane's Modern Egyptians: in earthen pots attached of a vertical wheel which raises the water series ; a second vertical wheel, continuous to cords, and forms a fixed to the same axis, with cogs, and a largehorizontal cogged "
wheel, which, beingturned by a pairof beast,puts in motion the former wheels
Egyptian arrangement (Fig.47), which resembles the chief difference
the
is raised bullock a
in
up is blind-folded, and
driver,while
is attached
the
pots."
Wheel
hollow
with
it goes round
cog-wheelto which
in
used,
not
are
the
is
raising water
a
Another
single tiful beau-
Taboot
respects,
some
but
the
water
The round even without the shaft of the bullock
jointsor
fellies.
and
the The
moves
wheels
other two
arid
Persian
being that pots
largewheel
a
for
bulls,or by
or
cows
.
the
with
wheel
fellies faces
channel
a
which
to
hollow
or
seven
the
eight of
hollows
their
pour
out
while
others
tents con-
simultaneously, in
up series.
ing com-
are
endless
an
This arrangement
is
for small
adapted only depths. The
(without the selfliverytube) and the
mot
de
swing-basketare also in use in Egypt, as also the
Tera
The
(Fig.48) two
Shadoof
suspended one
end
made stuff
in
height
pieceof a
49." THE
FIG.
BENGAL
SWING
BASKET,
of
pillarsof wood,
or
5ft.
horizontal
doof. Sha-
consists
posts
about
or
wood
and
rushes and cane mud or with than 3ft. a apart,
of
or
less
from top extending,
slender lever formed
of
a
branch
to
of
top, to a
tree
which
is
having at
pended weight,chiefly composed of mud, and at the other,susfrom two long palm sticks,a vessel in the form of a bowl of basket-work, or of a hoop and piece of woollen a
leather.
With this vessel the water is thrown to up about for its 8ft. into a trough hollowed out height Idthd and swingreception. The Shadoof is thus a combined The ordinary Swing-basketof Bengal is illustrated in basket. or
the
of
Fig. 49. The
Noria
or
Bucket-pump
is another
form
of
sian improved Per-
Wheel, which consists of buckets chained one to another in an endless series and worked ing The followby hand or animal power. facts and figures taken from the catalogue of Messrs. W. J. " M,
HA
9
130
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
Works, Brentwood, Essex, England) C. T. Burgess (Victoria idea of the efficiency of this kind of water-lift : a general
give
"
Number
of bullocks
means
FIG.
Chapter XI. the
S. Freeman
and
60." -THE
BALDEO
BALTI.
are erectingaeromotors given in and Companies constructing supplyingthem.
FIG.
Part
needed.
Full directions for
cataloguesof the
(Vide
donkeys
with centrifugal oil-engines pumps, of raising water, have been already described in
Wind-mills,aeromotors, other
or
THE
ORDINARY
DON.
Steel Wind-mills, CatalogueNo. 29 of Freeman Sons, ManufacturingCo., Racine, Wis., U. S. A.)
1 of "
51."
132
HANDBOOK
There
cherry.
tube-wells
also many
are
Borings at
OP
at Pondiworking satisfactorily to a depth of 200ft. up
bottom
the
AGRICULTURE.
of wells
in the Baroda State by Mr. Kasherao successfully the Bombay AgriculturalDepartment in other by Jadhav, to keep up a continuous supplyin wells. parts of Gujarat, and supply artesian and tubeOf the firms which manufacture wells and the drivingapparatus and boringtools,may be mentioned made
been
have
and
C. Isler "
Co.,Artesian Works, Bear Laner Southwark, London, S. E. Messrs. W. Leslie " Co. of Calcutta, supplv tube-wells at the following Messrs.
prices:
"
Drive
pointand 20ft. l|in., wrought-irontube in short lengthswith a pitcher pump "
Ks. 20ft. ..
..45
..
25
50
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
30 40
The FIG. 54." THE DRIVE-POINT
55 60
priceof the drivingapparatus, the
servingfor any
number,
The
is Rs. 45.
same
set
of
manner
is illustrated in Fig. first, plantingthe drive-point AND MONKEY and the whole the well 54, GEAR, arrangement for fixing in Fig. 53. Another device for irrigation, called the Windlass and BucketLift,is illustratd in Fig.55. It is useful for bringing water from fields. The two positions of the same a stream or canal to adjoining bucket are illustrated in the figure.A tilting what arrangement, somethat in resembling in
use
Stoney's Water
at the top of Lift,occurs the post, and when the
bucket
reaches
it
with the
The
up and FIG.
the when
65." WINDLASS
windlass. there
are
BUCKET-LIFT.
AND
Two two
buckets
may
one steel-ropes,
This the other marches down. hill-sidesfrom a stream water on
be
tion, posi-
gets upset coming
in contact
rod.
this
bucket
down
and
with
rope
it
a an
tilting slides
steel rope,
ordinary
is worked
with
simultaneously worked
bucket
travelling up
while
arrangement is suitable for lifting at the
bottom, and
in other
able suit-
sites. and force suction Of pumpt. pumps be to the given Fire-engines. irrigation, firstplacemust Curricle Fire-engine Platform Fire-engine and Hand
Fin-enginesand other suitable for
Heathman's are
excellent for
out fires. out
on
pumping
"
sewage,
well as irrigating,
as
for
putting
ting tehsildars should have these for letat so and also for regular irrigation emergencies purposes,
Village unions
or
133
WATER-LIFTS.
take placefrom per day. The suction can of much 600ft. as as deliveryhose can be
much and and
about discharging
which
pumps up This pump
man,
hour.
and
suction-hose
of
2 to 4: persons
height Truck-Force-Pump, over
a
from
2ft. of
and discharge-hose
complete, is "5 106. Od. for
nozzle
by
placeto place,and worked by one about 500 gallonsof water or liquidmanure per Its pricewith 10ft. is also used as a fire-engine. about
be moved
can
water
forced
per hour
Heathman's*
10s. 6d.
priced "12
of 60ft. is
1 worked
Fire-engineNo. 2,000 gallonsof
Platform
Heathman's
depth of 28ft. through.
a
a
and
3-inch pump
fan and spray "6 for a 2i-inch
pump. Of "
suction "
Handy
or
and
force
be
may
pumps
also
mounted
Semi-rotaryWing Pump
the
recommended wheels
on
(Fig.
56). These are pricedby Messrs. W. Leslie " Co., of Calcutta,at Rs. 125. They raise 300 to 500 gallonsof water per hour. Handier are adapted for applying syringe pumps specially
FIG.
56"
WING
SEMI-ROTARY
PUMP.
insecticides and
Messrs. Of these may be recommended fungicid|". Heathman's Brigade Suction Pump, made of brass and copper. It ejects of about 30ft. 300 gallonsof liquidper hour. to a distance With 6ft. suction-hose and strainer,2ft. delivery-hose and nozzle the priceis 50 shillings.Extra suction-hose 2d. costs Is. per foot and
delivery-hose, 8^d. per
extra
Centrifugalpumps are
not
pumps,
so
which
liable to get
and
if such
are
do
out
foot.
not
possess
of order
made
with
as
valves
and
ordinary suction
wheels multiplying
washers and
force
suitable
for
to our a raiyats. Centrifugal and in factories indigoplantations pumps with steam-power and they in this country, but these are worked too expensive for the ordinaryraiyat. are
they may hand-driving, are
*
W.
C.
J. H.
in
common
Heathman
prove in
boon
use
"
Co., Manufacturers,
2
"
37, Endell
Street, London,
134
OP
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
worked Comparlton off costs,etc. The centrifugalpump by used and for the 8 H.-P. steam-engine, at irrigation purposes "
an
four Cawnpore ExperimentalFarm, irrigates
in coal, oil and
and it costs Rs. 5 per day The Cawnpore chain-pump worked for
workingit
ot land per day of the mechanic.
acres
wages
quired (4 men by 2 men being reabout'an acre without interruption) irrigates
where is within 4ft. the water about 8 annas is 10 the water at at Cawnpore. Where to 12ft., as as deeper,say is like the the Barakar (which Sibpur, Cawnpore pump) very pump is able to irrigate less than the only one-third of an acre a day, i.e., a
day
at
cost
a
of
of labour also are at Sibpur swing-basket does, and the wages is double what they are at Cawnpore, so that the cost per acre about Rs. 3 at Sibpur againsteightannas, the cost incurred at about one"third of an Cawnpore. The Raldeo Water-Lift irrigates bullock under of six and one man) at acre cost a annas (one per day The conditions prevailingat Cawnpore. Stoney's Water-Lift from a worked by a strong pair of bullocks,and a man irrigates,
deep well cost
work
of 30 to 40ft.,about
of 12 can
(about Re.
annas
be done
and
on
one-third
1-8 in
of
an
Calcutta).
aero
On
per diem at a sandy soils less
The
stiffclay-soils more.
figuresgiven
important compare these high use or improved irrigation applianceswith those in common in this country, viz.,the swing-basket, the terd or Idthd, the don. the singleand double wof and the singlePersian Wheel (Punjab To least work the three at are men pattern). (J) swing-basket the water relieving in turn the two required,the man distributing in The the out water. men employed baling heightto which the be lifted with the swing-basketis from 10ft. water 5 up to can apply
to
a
medium
loam.
It is
to
class
About
one-third of a cubic foot of water is thrown up each time, and there are about 20 deliveries per minute, which gites 400 cub. ft. of water per hour. If 25 per cent, is allowed for wastage, to 300 cub. ft., i.e., percolation, etc., the actual dischargeconies the ordinary 1,890 gallons.(2) To work the terd,Idthd or-dhenkii (i.e., lever and bucket-lift) man one is""mployedat the bucket and one The water can be easily for distributing man the water. raised 16ft. high. The contents of the bucket or dol is about half is about three. The number a cubic foot. of discharges per minute The discharge per hour is therefore 90 cub. ft. Allowing 10 per cent,
in this
case
for
wastage, we
get about
81 cub. ft. "
500
gallons
hour. (3) The don or canoe-shaped lift,made of trunks of in common trees hollowed out or of iron (irondons being now use in Birbhum It and Murshidabad), is also worked by one man. There 10 deliveries raises water onl}r 6ft. 5 of are or up to a height per
minute, each deliverybeing about 3 cub. ft.,1,800 cub. ft. thus lifted per hour. Waste of only about 10 per cent, takes The actual quantityof water lifted is therefore placein this case. cub. which at 6^ gallons 1,620 ft., per cub. ft. gives10,206 gallons tube, one (4)To work the singlemot with per hour. and the two bullocks are required, besides man man distributing per
are
seli^deJivery
135
WATER-LIFTS.
the
Water
water.
lifted from
be
can
The
bullocks walk at the 40ft. the bullocks traverse is 3 cub. ft. The number
a
of 2 miles
rate
80ft.
an
depth
of
hour.
The contents
40
For
of the
80ft.
to
each
bag or
liftof bucket So the
of liftsper minute is only one. 180 cub. ft. Allowing25 per cent, discharge per hour is 60 x 3, i.e., of loss by spilling 135 cub. ft. or 850 gallonsper hour is the result is avoided by But whereas, at the Sibpurfarm, spilling obtained. the bucket beingmade to slide up two tightsteel ropes as in Stoney's Water- Lift,the loss may be put down at only 10 per cent., and in The draughtor trachour. that case we get over 1,000 gallons tion per required being 2551bs.,two bullocks are essential. (5) The double
and two requiresone man of the whim being 3 ft. and the diameter the bullocks 16ft., walking at the rate of
The time per minute. 1-4 minutes. of 40ft. is depth
a
bucket or
cub. ft.,the
being 3
buckets
to 252
comes
Thus
for wastage.
The
ft.,of which wo
arrive
The
at
ratio of power to per hour. of whim and bullock-walk are 3ft. and
being
35 per cent,
165
cub.
ft.
weight where
bucket
or
the
from
take
can
of the
contents,
hour
dischargeper
cub.
diameter
of the bullock-walk
2 miles per hour the bag taken for raising
3*4 turns from
The
bullocks.
also
mot
two
bag or bags be calculated
may
1,045 gallons
or
the diameter The total 16.
16ft. is 3 : weight raised each time being 4601bs.,the draught exerted is 1241bs.
considerablyless than in the case of the singlemot. (6)To work and two bullocks (or even one singlePersian Wheel also one man b esides The the man are water, bullock), distributing required. water being raised 40ft.,the diameter of the drivingwheel being or
the
4ft., the diameter of the wheel attached
being
of one-eighth
also
cubic
to
which
the buckets
4ft.,assuming the
of
content
foot and 6 buckets
pots
or
each
are
bucket
each
turn being emptied of the bullocks,the dischargeat each turn conies to three-quarters of a cubic foot. The lengthol the bullock-walk being 62*8ft. and the speed of bullocks being 2 miles an hour, the bullocks make 2'8 The dischargeper hour is therefore 126 cub. ft., turns prr minute.
of which
a
45 per cent,
thus buckets
to
comes
at
n^ay be allowed for 69*3 cub. it. or 429
charge actual dis-
wastage. The
gallons per
hour.
The
2ft. apart from middle to middle, the number is endless The weight of buckets is chain 40. one ISOlbs. Twenty buckets being always full,the weight of contain is 1561bs. The weight of the rope is 221bs. The they weight raised is therefore,2581bs. The modulus being '6,the this between 2581bs. ratio raise 4301bs. The is to required
beingtied
of biickets in about water
total power
exerted by bullocks beingabout 1*5, the power which is still exerted is draught or power only 861bs., lighter than in be worked of the double mot. the case Such a Persian Wheel can and
power
by
one
the
bullock
From
only.
the above
appliancesare
by
no
means
be
to be
seen
that
the native
and despised,
that
tion irriga-
takingall
conclusions : consideration we come to the following don is the best implement for Indian use for small depths
thingsinto (1) The
it may figures
"
136
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE,
its lifting 6ft.), capacity,being 10,000 gallonsper hour the swing-basket, to it comes which in the hands ot dexterous coolies will liftabout 2,000 gallonsof water per hour irom medium For of 10ft. double either a depth a or (3) depths, triple series of dons, or the lever and bucket-lift (tern) is the best. 500 be of raised hour For the terd. with water can gallons (4) per great depths, the singleand double mot and the Egyptian or Punjab pattern Persian Wheel are the best. The mots will give about 1,000 gallonsper hour, and the Persian Wheel about 500 gallons. the cost, the singlemot is to be preferred to all others Considering for great depths,and to adapt ordinaryringwells of only 3ft.
(up
to
(2) Next
to avoid
diameter, and
of water, spilling
the bucket
be made
can
of to slide up two steel ropes stretched vertically from the bottom the well up to the beam whence the pulleyis suspended. To irrigate of land, 50,000 gallonsare requiredfor clay soils, and acre an for sandy loams. The latter quantityis equivalent 100,000 gallons which is enough to soak thoroughto about half an inch of rainfall, ly of soil.
six inches
above
quantities may
For
double thoroughirrigation,
more
be allowed,viz.,100,000
gallonsper acre 200,000 gallonsper acre sandy loams, and needed for with a irrigating particular locality arrangements clay soils and
for
of the water-lifts for
every
or
described above,
pumps
be
can
worked
the for the any out
locality. particular
CHAPTER OTHER
XVI. IMPLEMENTS.
AGRICULTURAL
cake-crusher, oilkibMei, [Bull's dredger, rice-huskers, chaff-cutters, root-cutter, root-pulper, dles, hurmeal -grinder,hay-trusser,oil-mill,feeding troughs and maize -huller,cotton gin, sugar-rune mill, silos, bone and stone-grinder, and carts insccticidal fungicidal appliances ; balances implements ; dairy ; useful tea and coffee planters' machinery; machinery tound (steel-yard); in the SripurFarm.]
implementsand machinery that operationsmay be mentioned agricultural OF other
in
or
be used
may
following: Dredger for sinking wells.
(1) Bull's These
are
the
"
workshop of the Cawnpore ExperimentalFarm and sold are
for Rs.
made
in the
Rs. 210. (2) Rice-huskers or hullers and 180
which in the
next
to
polishers, dealt with separately
will be
part
in connection
with
the
rice crop.
(3) Chaff-cutter (Fig. 57), by Messrs. " Co., priceRs. 53. (4) Root-cutter. Ordinarydao or kdtdri
Burn
"
FIG.
57." CHAFF-CUTTER,
does the work
slowly.
more
(5) Root-Pulper.Dhenki fairlywell. "
motar
answers
with
ted cemen-
OTHER
(6) Kibbler and
other
sold
at
a
or
mill for
corn.
crushing grain,oats, maize, barley
crushingthree bushels
One
of
corn
per for Rs. 35.
Cawnpore ExperimentalFarm Crusher,by Messrs. Oakes
the
137
IMPLEMENTS.
AGRICULTURAL
"
(7) Oil-cake
hour
is
Co., of Madras, price
Rs. 57. wheat for whole-meal (attd), for (/rinding " Co. The Flour also barley, oats, maize, etc., by Messrs. Burn
(8) Steel
hand-mill
Machine Dressing per
No.
5 is said
to
grind and
dress 30 to 45
hour, and it is pricedat Rs. 2K). (9) Hand-power hay-trusser. (10) Ghani, Kolu or Oil-mill. (11) Feedingtroughsand hurdles. (12) Bone-mill and stone-grinder. (13) Maize-huller (Fig.58). (14) Cotton-gin.The Macarthy Hand-Cotton-gin "
Rs.
220),obtainable cleans 1401bs. of cotton
N.
of Messrs.
two-thirds
seed
obtained.
The
in seed
per to the (according
seed is not
D.
Maxwell
diem, about
"
Co. of
one-third
varietyof cotton
injuredand
it remains
seers
(price
Bombay, lint and
ginned)being
fitfor
sowing.
to be described (15) Sugar-cane mill,etc.,
in Part III in connection
with the sugar-cane
crop.
(16) Silos
to
with
connection
fodder
V in connection
V
in
crops.
(17) Dairy implements,to in Part
in Part
be described
be
described
with milch-cows.
(18) Appliances for spraying or dusting insecticides and in connection
to fungicides,
Insect and
with
(20) Balances.
described Fungus Pests. be
Platform HULLRR. weighingmachines though highly useful for experimental farms where weighingof cattle or of cartloads of crops, etc., has to be done, are too expensivefor ordinary straw, manure, The common scale-beam with wooden use. agricultural pans and As iron weights, obtainable in bazaars, is the best for such use. "
used, for weightsare liable to get lost if they are too frequently dailyweighingsof small quantitiesup to SOlbs.,the balance best adapted is the steel-yard. of the steel-yard in which weights Fig.59 represents the position from
2 to
161bs.
can
be
determined, as
the
the on figuresmarked something high by the
iron-bar will show. It should be hung on The middle hook will not be used at all hook nearest to the arm. in this case. The article to be weighed is to be hung on the double This beingdone, move bar till hooks. the weight on the arm or it assumes a perfectlyhorizontal position. The figureon which the weight will rest will indicate the weight in pounds of the article ment instruweighed. Figure 60 represents the positionof the same reversed,in which weightsfrom 15 to 501bs. can be determined
138
HANDBOOK
by the figures on the steel-yard Ls suspended by is shown
as
the
used
is not
arm
enterprises FIG.
59
.-"
for
which
in
the
iron- bar
middle
the
or
hook
this
In
arm.
and
the
hook
case,
nearest
all.
at
(21) Machinery
AGRICULTURE.
OF
and other indigo, coffee planting capital and intellect are employed are hardly necessary
tea,
European
STKBL-YAKU "
-
handbook
in
of
attention
in their
places
proper III.
in Part
following
The
and
implements
chinery ma-
have
been
tried
the
in
:
"
(1) A Thresher,
Steam
by
Co.,
costing
Aberdeen,
ed adapt-
3,500, and
Rs.
threshing
for
turning
WEIGHING
oats,
barley,
wheat, and FOR
Messrs. "
Reed
J3en,
STBEL-YA1U)
useful
Sripur Farmr Raj, District
Hatwa Saran
been
found
and
N.
N.
reported by Mr. Banerji as having
."
a
ture agriculthough these subjects will receive some
^"
.--"
described
be
to
WEIGHING
FOR
etc., 8
out
f
15
50
TO
tt)S.
maunds
(60 RESEKVED).
of
grain
per
hour.
(2) Donaldson's and
costing
and
Calcutta,
efficient
than
with
together
the
Oil-mill,
Patent Rs.
120,
Kolu,
local
the
help
of
which
Messrs.
by
Jessop
found
was
when
two
or
more
three
"
Co.,
economical are
worked
steam-power.
v
(3)
with
(6) the
The Assam
Country
Native
Seed
Drill
worked
by
locks bul-
training.
some
(4) South (5)
Three-Coulter
and
Two
Indian
Behar
bullock
hoes.
Indigo-Drill used
Cotton-Gin,
Cotton-Gin,
which and
which
was
for
drilling oats
found is worked
more
with
and
wheat.
efficient treadles.
than
*
140
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
farm again,where the fodder, the dung, experimental have to the urine,etc.,have to be weighed; where small lots of corn be separately thrashed,dried,weighed and stored,where detailed In
an
be must money and labour staff buildings, implements,the supervising to be
experimentshave
of
accounts
spent on are force,if the experiments also
ures give reallyreliable results. Man-
such each item instead of Rs. 10 will be needed on for annual expenditure ; while the outturn
bought in
be
must
to
recorded,more
experimentalfarm.
an
For
farm Rs. 20 per acre and Rs. 100 per acre to less than Rs. 50 per acre. for such a farm may come per acre and as thus vary almost infinitely, As the circumstances may estimate the cost of growingeach of the principal shall separately we will be to givea typical the e xample, for aim our present crops, the apdraw certain definite conclusions from it,and recommend plication a
tatis muin each particular case, of these deduced principles what hinted are have we mutandis. In fact,we going already gal, of a 400-acre farm in Lower Beninfer from a typical case to do, i.e., should be allotted for buildings, that about Rs. 10 per acre for implements,by way of for cattle,Rs. 10 per acre Rs. 10 acre
per
charge,and capital
Rs.
50 per acre is very much
by
way
of annual
expenditure.
increased tion proporfarm is if the and and implements, for buildings very much a diminished proportionfor buildingsand implements will larger, enunciated here refers only to mixed The be needed.
If,however,
the farm
smaller,an
principle
gardens or plantations. cutting Capitalcharge (i.e., (1)Laying out at Rs. 10 an acre and making roads, down trees, burning low bushes, levelling, Rs. 10 Rs. 4,000. (2) 160 bullocks at Rs. 25 (i.e., and channels), the implements, principal per acre),Rs. 4,000. (3) Cost of buying like that land of arable of farm 400 for acres heavy etc.,required a of the Sibpur Farm, which : are
farms
and
to
not
"
"
Rs. 16
240
Carts
.
1
Spring-Cartfor
1
Pony
1 Gun
for
.
.
.
market
harness
4
Bakhars
4
.
200 .
.
.
.
.
.
100
100
etc. killingjackals,
4
2
.
.
for market
Improved ploughs Ridging ploughs Five-tinned grubbers Zig-zagharrows
80
.
100
Water-Cart with
.
.
.
.
1
.
.
640 .
.
.
.
"
"
.
.
100 80 "
.
160 .
.
.
.
20 .
.
.
rollers Wooden 8 Ladders 4 Beam-harrows Seed-drill 1 American
4
.
.
.
.
.
.
80 .
.
4 .
.
.
.
20 .
.
"
.
.
50 .
.
bullock-hoes (Dundias) bullock-hoes 4 Narrow 8 Planet Junior Hand-hoes
4 Wide
..
32
..
'""
20
fc
160 ..
EQUIPMENT
OF
141
FARMS.
Rs. 2 Chaff-cutters .
1 Corn-crusher 1 Cake-crusher 1 40
Turnip pulper dons Other suitable etc.
20
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
1 4
.
400
..500 ..
.
.
.
.
weighingup
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
20 4
weights
Grindstone, 24" diameter
.
..
Hooks or sickles 1 Hand-thresher 1 Winnower
250
2
to
.
pairof scales and
Scythes
100
.
Steel-yard
1 Small
100
mot, irrigation appliances,
hurdles Scales and weightsfor mds.
1
40
.
..
Dozen
..80
..
.
.
.
.
.
20
..40
..
20
.
8
.
..
.
.
200
..
.
Chains, rope, bamboos,
*
2
65
.
115
etc.
..
Rs. 4,000 Rs. i.e.,
10 per
for
acre
implements. Rs.
Sheds for 100 resident labourers Covered shed for manure pits Shed for bullocks
.
..
Barn and godown House for residence
Rs. i.e.,
.
.
.
acre
2,000
.
300
..
of Farm
10 per
.
200 .
Overseer
.
1,000 500
Rs. 4,000 for sheds and godowns.
Hedging and ditchingshould be done when a farm is started The of the farm. laying out they are included under the of about Rs. 3 costs work ifthe mere jungle clearing per acre, This item is necessary is done on contract. only when a farm has to be started quitefresh from land in jungle. The annual expense of workingthe above tarm can be estimated "
and
thus
"
: "
Rs. labourers at Rs. 6 per month Overseer or bailiffon Rs. 50 Oil-cake @ 1 maund per bullock month, @ Re. 1-8 per maund Rent 200
..
..
Other expenses
\
.
.
.
.
.
600
per .
3,000 1,200
.
..
.
14,400
.
.
800
Rs. 20,000 U s. 50 per acre. i.e.,
142
ordinary
By
labour,
hired this
such
in
per
acre
them It
is
But
pay.
best
choose
to
the
though
will
sugar-cane from
it and
costs we
set
four
will
discuss
We
should
apart
for
water-courses
200
outturn
in
the
mention roads and
and
we
next
here
paths,
irrigation
one
a
two
crops
double
value much outturn
average down
put
the
costs
Rs.
at
50
therefore
farming
just
and
labourers,
such
as
it
pays
more.
expect the
of
150
and in
An
the
but
each
principal
from
it,
is
a
it
tion, rota-
of
acre
growing,
gur
crop
question
handbook.
that
one-tenth
of
and
one-tenth
for
channels.
these
greater.
What
make
to
only,
crop grow
is
crops
Rs.
hope
one
and
crops,
may
on
jute,
sugar-cane,
may
rely
to
about
part
a
of
the
pulses
maund
which
crop
field
such
or
of
2
in
pay
maunds
crop
safely
crops,
paying
Bengal
farming
Rs.
with
pulses,
coolie.
a
growing
and
cropping,
But
own
safe
five
Rs.
worth
what
a
at
gentleman-farmer
never
or
in
cost
be
may
is
of
cost
be
special or
it
ten
sold
Ordinary
as
growing
or
etc.
their
are
make
or
etc.,
may
service
capitalist
a
farming
by
only
is
that
etc.,
than
better
land,
50.
who
cultivators
no
Rs.
at
to
and
judicious
pulses,
farming is
also
cost
the
keeps
mixed
from
the
the
jute,
maize,
as
are
By
tobacco,
cultivating,
less
these
of
out
year
every
paddy
of
acre.
rice
cultivating expect
when
per
sugar-cane,
as
and
50
AGRICULTURE.
cannot
maunds and
Rs.
taken
be
can
i.e., by
obtained
only
is
yield
farming,
Fifteen
are
acre
OF
capitalist
a
country.
per
HANDBOOK
the
land
farmstead,
should
be
canals,
PART
III.
CROPS.
CHAPTEE
CLASSIFICATION
BOTANICAL Indian
[Principal
('yperaceae, Amaryllidaceoe, Musaceie, Zingiberarese, Can
JDioseorece,
Bromiliacea?,
CROPS,
OF
Gramme*
under
coming
crops
Aroideae,
Liliaceae,
XVIII.
Solanea\ Convolvulacese, Piperacese, Enphorbiaceye, Morete, Sesame*, Linea?, Tiliaceae, Malvaceae, Cruciferse, Leguminosae, Umbellifene, Urticaceye, and Chenopodiacea?, Polygonacca?, Composites, naceac,
Cucurbitaocae,
Onagracese
;
of
Character
these
crops
Abbreviations
[Ce
Cereal
Vegetable T
=
Timber
L
=
Loam
crop ; ;
;
D
S
=
Fodder
=
R
=
; I)e
soil
the
Ft
Pulse
=
;
;
orders
Sp
;
;
"c.,
"
PH
Bl=Bil
which
to
Fb
Spices
=
crop
soil
=
;
Fibre-crop ; V~ seed-crop
O=Oil
Pot-herb
;
Cl
clay
=
; ;
land.]
may
be
they
belong
thus
exhibited :
"
MONOCOTYLEDONS.
"
3. 4.
Oats
5.
Deodhan
2.
|
s.
"
crop;
Fruit
=
grou
(Oryza sativa), Ce (Cl, L " S for Aus). Wheat (Triticum sativum), Ce (Cl " L). hexastichum), Ce (L " S). Barley (Hordeum
1.
Paddy
sativa), Ce
(A vena or
Juar
"
F.
(L/C1., S "
(Andropogon
St).
sorghum),
Ce
"
F
(L
S
St). frumentaceurn),
Ce
"
F
(S
St). 6.
Cheena
7.
Kayon
8.
Maize
9.
Shama
(Panicum (Panicum
miliaceum), Ce " F Italicum), Ce (S).
(Zea mays), Ce (Cl,L Bhura or (Panicum
(S).
"
St). 10.
Gondli
(Panicum
miliare), Ce
(S.
"
12.
St). Menjhri (Panicum psilopodeum), Ce (S. " Marud (Eleusine coracana), Ce (8 " St).
13.
Kodo
11.
14. 15. "
;
each
:"
-Miscellaneous
=
natural
various
(I) GRAMINE^
"
explained
I)ye ; P St Stony
=
A.
"
M
Root-crop
I)rug
Sandy
=
;
which
on
principalagricultural crops,
THE under
F
crop;
"
soils
;
St).
(Paspalum
scrobiculatum), Ce (S " St). Bajrd (Pennisetum typhoideum), Ce (S " St). Ulu or thatching grass (Imperata arundinacea),
M
(Cl
L). 16.
Kasha,
Tchag or
reed
(Saccharum
spontaneum),
M
(S).
144
HANDBOOK
(I) GRAMINE.E
AGRICULTURE.
contd.
"
17.
M (Cl " L). Sugarcane (Saccharum offieinarum),
18.
Fb Munj (Saccharum ciliare),
19.
Durba
20.
Bamboo
(St).
F (Cl). (Cynodon dactylon),
23.
(Bambusa arundinacea),M (Cl," L " Lata-grassor para-grass (Panicum muticum), Era-kati (Ischsemum rugosum), F (Cl). Guinea-grass(Panicum jumentorum), F (Cl,St
24.
Sper-grass(Heteropogoncontortus), F
25.
Koisa
21. 22.
and
(II)CYPERACE.E 2. 3.
Poina
grasses
Kathi
(IV) LILIACE^E
(Andropogon Sp),
(Cyperustagetum),
"
M
(St).
M
Agaves, Fb
(S
"
St).
"
Onions
2.
(Allium (L). V (L). Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis), Yucca and Fb (Cl). gigantea,aloifolia, gloriosa, Dracaena ovalifolia, F. (Cl). Fb Sansieviorias, (L).
(Allium ascalonicum),V
Garlic
5. 6.
AROIDE^K
"
1.
Man-Kachu Kachu
3.
01 (Arum
(Alocasiaindica),R (Colocasiaantiquorum), R
Campanulatum), R (L
(VI) BROMELIACE^E (VII) DIOSCOREA
3. 4.
(VIII)
Pineapple (Ananas sativa),Ft
"
(Musa Sapientum), Ft Fb (Cl" L). hemp (Musa textilis), Plantains
ZlNGIBERACE^:
4.
S). "
Fb
(L).
alu
MUSACE^:"
Manila
3.
"
(Dioscoreasativa),R (Cl " L). R (Cl " L). Ghupri "lu (Dioscoreaglobosa), alu Lai garaniya (Dioscoreapurpurea),R (Cl " L). R (L " S). Sutni-alu (Dioscoreafasciculata),
2.
2.
(L). V (L).
"
"
Kham
1.
1.
(L).
sativum), V
2.
(IX)
L).
(St).
1.
4.
"
(L). (Scirpuskysoor),M (Bl). grass (Cyperusrotundus),F (Cl " L).
(III)AMARYLLIDACECE
3.
St). (Cl).
F
"
Madur Chufa Mutha
1.
(V)
OP
"
"
"
R (L " S). (Maranta arundinacea), " Edulis,R (L S).
1.
Arrowroot
2.
Canna
(Cl " L).
"
Sp (L " S). officinale), Ginger*(Zingiber Turmeric (Curcuma longa),Sp (L " S). Amada (Curcuma amada), Sp (L " S). R (L Sathi or zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria),
(X) CANNACE^E
V
S).
BOTANICAL
CLASSIFICATION
OF
145
CROPS.
(B) DICOTYLEDONS. (XI) PIPERAC.E 1. 2. 3. 4.
"
Betel
(Piperbetle),Sp (Cl " L). Long pepper (Piperlongum),Sp (Cl). Chai (Piperchaba), Sp (L " S). Round pepper (Pipernigrum),Sp (Cl).
(XII) EUPHORBIACEJE 1. Castor (Ricinuscommunis), 0 (S " St). 2. Cassava (Manihot utilissima, and aipi), R (L 3. Ceara rubber (ManihotGlaziovii), M (St). 4. Papaya (Caricapapaya), Ft " V (Cl" St). "
(XIII) MORE^E 1. 2. 3.
"
S).
(Mulberry) "
Morea alba, F and Ft (Cl " St). Morea serrata,F, T and Ft (Cl" St). Morea nigra,Ft (Cl " St).
(XIV) SESAMES
gingellyor (S " L).
Sesamum,
"
0
(XV) SOLANE.E
til
(Sesamum
indicum),
"
(Solanum tuberosum),R (L " S). 2. Brinjals(Solanum melongena),V (L " S). 3. Kulibegun and baromeshe begun (Solanum longum),V (L " S). 4. Chillies (Capsicum frutescens), Sp (L, St " S). 5. Teepari or Cape Gooseberry(Physalisperuviana), Ft (C " L). Tomato 6. esculentum),V (Cl " L), (Loycopersicum 1.
Potatoes
7.
Tree- tomato
Java
or
8.
Tobacco
(Nicotinarustica
(XVI) CONVOLVULACE^E
"
(XVII) CUCURBITACE^)
"
Nicotana
Rdnga-alu, R
V
Ffc plum (Cyphomandra betacea),
L).
(St "
(S
"
sddd-alu
tabacum),D (L), (Batatus edulis).
L).
"
V (S " L). vulgaris), (Lagenaria
1.
Ldu
2.
Kumrd,
bilitiand
deshi
(Cucurbitamaxima
and
pepo),
(S " L). 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
(Momordica muricata),V (S " L). V (S " L). Jhinga(Luffaacutangula), V (S " L). Dhundul (Luffa^Egyptiaca), Ft Tarmuj (Citrulusvulgaris), (S). Uchhe
Khero Shasha
(round cucumber), V (S " L). V and Ft cucumber), (Cucumis sativus) (ordinary
(Cl " L). Phuti (Cucumismomordica),Ft (S " L). Gomukh V (S). (Cucumis maderaspatanus), K"nkri or b"khari (Cucumisutilissimus), V (S). K"nkrol V (St " L). (Momordica CochincEinensis),
9. 10. 11.
12. M,
HA
10
146
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
contd. (XVII) CUCURBITACE^E V (S " L). 13. Karala (Momordica charantia), 14. anguina),V (S " L). Chichinga(Trichosanthes V (S). 15. Fatal (Trichosanthes dioica), "
V diseca), (Trichosanthes
Kundruki
16.
(XVIII)
LEGUMINOS.E
"
Ft
(L " St).
"
26.
(Pisum arvense),P (L " S). Englishpeas (Pisum sativum),V (L). P (L " Cl). Payra Matar (Pisum quadratus), P (S " Cl). Kaldi (Phaseolusradiatus), Cl). Mug (PhaseolusMungo), P (L " P " Gram L). (Cicerarietinum), (Cl Musuri (Ervum lens),P (Cl " L). P (Cl" L). Khesari (Lathyrus sativus), P (Cl). Arahar (Cajanusindicus), P " V (Cl" and Barbati (Vignacatiang), Rambha juncea),Fb (S). Sunn-hemp (Crotolaria De(S"L). tinctoria), Indigo(Indigofera Fb (Cl). Dhaincha (Sesbaniaaculeata), Sajna (Moringapterygosperma),V (Cl " St). P " F (Cl " L). Bhringi(Phaseolusaconitifolius), P " F (S " St). Kulthi (Dolichosbiflorus), F " V (Cl,L Arharia Sim (Cyamopsis psoralioides), 0 Ground-nut (Arachishypogea), (S). Babul (Acaciaarabica), F, T " De (Cl" St). M (Cl" St). Palas (Buteafrondosa), Bakld (Viciafaba),P (L). Sim (Dolichos lablab),P " V (Cl" L). Sim (Canavaliagladiata), Makhan V (Cl " L). Sola (Aeschynomena aspera),M (Bl). Tamarind (Tamarindasindica),S (Cl" St). Bean V (S " St). Soy (Glycine soja),
27.
Sank-alu
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.
(XIX)
Peas
"
LINE.E
"
S).
R (L). (Pachyrhizus angulatus),
Linseed
"
St).
0 (L (Linum usitatissimum),
"
C).
(XX) TILIAC^E" 1.
2.
(XXI) 1.
Fb
Jute (Corchoruscapsularis), Fb " P H (Cl " L). Sirajgunj Deshi Jute (Corchorusolitorius), Fb (Cl " L). MALVACEAE
"
Cotton, or
Kdpas (Gossypium
herbaceum
"
arboreum),
(L,S " St). 2.
Silk-Cotton
3.
Musk-mallow Ambari hemp
4.
or
Simul
Fb (Cl" St). (Bombax malabaricum), Fb and D (S " L). (Hibiscusabelmoschus), or Fb mestd-pdt (Hibiscus cannabinus), '
(S"L). 5. 6.
Roselle Bhindi
or or
mesta
(Hibiscussabdariffa), V (Cl" L).
Ladies' finger V (Cl" L " (HibscusesculSntus),
S).
148
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
(4) Fibres (Fb),e.g., jute,sunn-hemp,cotton, musk-mallow, aloe (Agave lurida and other agaves),Manila hemp, munj-grass, Mauritius hemp (Furcreseagigantea), rhea, ulat(Musa textilis), e tc. kambal (Abroma augusta), arnatto safflower, (Bixa orellana), (5) Dyes (De.),e.g., indigo, bahera haritaki chebula), (Terminaliabelerica), (Terminalia palds, aich or al (Morinda citrifolia), dmlaki (Phyllanthus emblica), etc. Cinchona officinalis, Plantagoovata (Ishap(6) Drugs (D),e.g., tea calamus Coffea arabica, Acorus (Camellia t heifera), (bach), gul), rustica and
tabacum, Papaver somniferum, Cannabis metel, etc. dmddd, chillies, onions, (7) Spices(Sp),e.g., turmeric, ginger, coriander seed, anise, (Cuminum cyminum), jira fenugreek garlic,
Nicotiana
sativa,Datura
(Apium graveolens), fcenumgraecum),rddhuni (Trigonella tejpdtd chai, sulpa(Fumaria parviflora), p dn, (Lauruscassia), peepul, keyacardamom (Amomum subulatum), phul (Pandanus odoratissimus), mint (Mentha arvensis), supdri,etc. Tablevegetables(V),e.g., potatoes, brinjals, radishes, (8) bottle snake(Deshi-kumra), (Ldu), gourd,pumpkin gourd yams, ladies' dumbur finger, country figsor (Ficus gourd (Chichingd), Indian roselle, beans, horse-radish, arums, tomato, cabbage, cunia), salem knol-kol,turnip, cauliflower, carrot, beet,lettuce,artichoke,Jeruetc. artichoke,palval, etc., asparagus, (9) Pot-herbs or sags (PH), e.g., Indian Spinach or Puinsag alba and rubra),Kalmi-sdg(Ipomseaserpiaria), (Basella ChampdGobra note (Amarantus lividus), note sdg (Amarantus polygamus), Palam, Betosag (Chenopodium Dengos"g (Amarantus giganticus), Helancha viride), sag (Hingcha repens), Sushni sag (Marselia etc. quadrifolia), (10) Miscellaneous
crops
(M), such
as, sugar-cane,
Madurkdti,
bamboo, Ulu, Supari(Arecacatechu),mulberry,asan (Terminalia tomentosa), cucumber, melons, chufa (Scirpus kysoor),Sank-alu, date
(Phoenixsylvestris), sago (Caryotaurens),etc. cocoanut (11)Fruits (F),e.g., Mango (Mangiferaindica), Cashew nuts nucifera), (Carica (Cocos Papaya (Anacarpapaya), dium occidentale), etc. jack (Artocarpusintegrifolia), (12) Fodder crops (F),e.g., Guinea-grass, spear-grass, sugarReana luxurians,Bhringi, sorghum,Sorghum halipense, lata-grass, etc.
(13) Yams, potatoes,turnips, arrowroot,
cassava,
cauliflower,
cabbages,beet, carrots,etc.,are sometimes called root-crops(R). be classed also as fruits Cucumbers, melons and water-nuts may as
be eaten raw. (14) Timber trees (T) can
they can
be hardly classed as agricultural the B"bul but used for making agricultimber,beinglargely tural crops, and the fruitsand leaves of this tree beingin comappliances, mon for feeding use cultivators. cattle, are largely grown by
(15) Sandal- wood, Rosa grass and Poina essences
are
grass
able yieldingvalu-
in the wild state,though not cultivated. protected
COMPOSITION
CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION
OF
THE
PRINCIPAL
[Considered under fat and green
CROPS.
H9
XX.
CHAPTER CHEMICAL
PRINCIPAL
OF
the six heads" moisture, albuminoids ash. Average compositionof the commonest with that of agricultural crops ; variabilityof and succulent.]
CROPS.
fibres, carbohydrates, food-substances
pared com-
compositionchieflyof
usuallyconsidered under six heads, viz.,(1) Water, (2) Albuminoid or flesh-forming matter, and Fat (3) Carbohydrates or heat-forming matter, (4) Fibre, (5) THE
chemical
of composition
crops is
(6) Ash. Of these the albuminoids and the fat make the richest food. Carbohydrates though less concentrated, are also highly Fibres are more less digested or digestible. by ruminant animals, but in largequantity, they are not an economical component of food-substances. The ash constituents of plantsare not altogether in the feedingvalue of a crop, these useless,though estimating '
usuallybe neglected.The bones and the ash constituents of the animal frame are derived from the ash constituents generally Before givingthe of plants,and hence they have a great value. chemical composition to giveat the it best is of the principal crops outset the composition articlesof food and fodder as a of the principal for all the value of food-substances and fodders. guide judging may
Average compositionof the commonest
food-substances.
The of Composition." compositionof grainand seeds Variability and is tolerablyconstant, but that of straw, leaves, roots
tubers, varies manure
and
very
season.
considerably accordingto the variety,soil, The same varietyof wheat, rice,maize or
ferent )"ut difcomposition, any other grainor seed,has about the same The hill in composition. varieties often differ very much fat than the ordinaryrices. rices,for instance,contain much more differsvery much With regardto fodders,the chemical composition accordingas the crops are cut in a mature or immature condition, and also
to according
the process of
dryingthey afterwards under-
150
HANDBOOK
exposure to go. Too much of the The resultsof analyses in the following : pages "
OF
AGRICULTURE.
them considerably. impoverishes fodders,grains, etc.,are given principal sun
AGRICULTURAL
CHAPTER AGRICULTURAL
XXI. STATISTICS.
Area and cultivated yield under areas; Relative importance of crops in Bengal ]
[Uncultivatedand
151
STATISTICS.
different
crops;
India are still condition ; those of the Native unreliable than of British India. Indeed, very States beingmore has few Native States send in any returns. Stilla good beginning been made, and the figures, are even regardedas mere estimates, remarks in and reliable. With these more kept view, gettingmore Statistics for the following figures compiledfrom the Agricultural Uncultivated Land.
on
the whole
in
an
"
Agriculturalstatistics for
unreliable
The area of all Asiatic interesting. of Great Britain,including India,is 1,100,800,000acres. possessions of British India professionally The area surveyedis 554,234,736
India for 1906-07 will be found
The acres.
under forests in British India is 67,136,162acres. not available for cultivation in British India is 138,373,825 in British India is estimated at The culturable waste
The
acres. area
area
152
HANDBOOK
103,395,256acres,
to
AGRICULTURE.
OF
which
be added
may
10,550,759acres
in the
few Native States like Mysore, Jaipur,Gwalior,etc.,which submit
The area of fallow land in British India is estimated at 36,908,596acres, and in the few Native States alreadymentioned 4,261,151acres. returns.
Cultivated Land-
"
The
in British India is estimated mentioned the Native States
croppedarea
and in 208,901,314 acres, areas 15,002,673 acres, of which the irrigated and 2,125,202 acres respectively. at
Arta undtr
tht
principal crops. "
in British India in 1903-04
In
were
The
areas
are
34,244,590 acres
under the
principal crops
: "
order of Bengal the importantcrops stand in the following in of area : precedence point rice,oil-seeds, jute,maize, wheat a nd tobacco. Southern In mania (ragi) India,jowar sugar-cane, cholum t he second or occupies placenext to rice,and in many parts of Southern India,either jowar,or bajra, or ragi, occupiesthe first e ither the other grainbeingthe staple or food of the peoone place, ple, instead of rice. In some districtsmulberry, chillies, sunn-hemp, onions,turmeric, ginger,English brinjals, pan, potatoes, palval, table-vegetables, thatchinggrass, bamboo, mango, jack, date, supari,cocoanut, rubber trees, are grown as papaya, plantains, and extensive areas. Agave and rubber plantations crops occupy have been started in many places, and the latter are likely to rank as of considerable India. and importancein South crops Lac-growing sericulture will be also treated in this book as agricultural *
industries.
SYSTEM
OF
XXII.
CHAPTER SYSTEMS
153
FARMING.
OF
FARMING.
of seed ; Seed-farms ; JMH ; Exchange of seed ; Selection middleand Mixed Farming by planting ; ; crops ; Farming class men system ; Bare-fallowing system ; Green-crop; The one-crop system ; Irrigation fallowing system ; Prout's plan ; All-stock-and-no-crop system ; Mixed farming ; Market-gardening; Dairy-farming; Fruit-
[Demonstration farms cultivation
farming.] Demonstration
of bost mtthods
of farming. "
The
resources agricultural
India may be said to oped undevelbe more less in an or condition. The largevarietyof crops that may be raised and the quantityin which they can be raised,are not to be judged obtained. In by those actuallygrown and the average outturns here and there,excellent crops are raised,and great care is places, of and The rice obtained districtof in the given. crops sugar-cane
of
Burdwan, of tobacco at Petlad north of Baroda, of onions,lucerne and carrots obtained at Veraval, in Kathiawar,are as good as any obtained in any part of the world. Some castes are habitually and industrious than but the others, more intelligent average yield The demonstration of crops is very poor. farms that are being established in different parts of the country will do well to secure the services of the best cultivators in the country in various departments, and demonstrate the best methods practised the in country. be done without This cannot the helpof science. One system of is not or cropping,irrigation, manuring applicable everywhere, but the scientificagriculturist can easilysee what has proved so successful in one place, can prove successful under similar conditions elsewhere. Every crop, or every method is not suitable for every be chosen for each farm by the demonstration can farm, but some is best for each district and division scientificagriculturist. What has to be found out by experienced and such alone agriculturists, adhered to, to the exclusion of others. No centralised policywill in the case of agriculture. answer Saltpetremay prove to be an for paddy in Surat, but it may not be a suitable excellent manure this for manure crop in the regionsof heavy rainfall in Bengal. Egyptian cotton is an excellent staplefor Sind, where irrigation is readily available and where the climate is dry and the soil sandy, but it will not do to grow this cotton allover the country. We not canall that f or in so (or 'dogmatise places India, many irrigations needed for and at are all) irrigation potatoes. In any sugar-cane and be and in ten one even place required, twenty irrigations may others none at all. Distribution of seeds and advice from a common in would each in in not source India,or even province India, should for each part. Each division, each have district, answer nay its agricultural farm and bureau, where the crops and method suitable for that division or districtare to be studied,and seed and information distributed thence to the cultivators of the division or district. Each area with similar soil and climatic conditions has dealt with, and the system of farmingbest suited to be separately
154
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
who have experience for it judgedby men of crops and conditions divisions and provinces in other districts, of India. The agriculture of India is shapingto this end, but the scheme, organization indicated here, is too vast to be at once realised. A great deal as of time and patience will be required, and the money that should be spent to attain this end bears no comparison J;owhat is being
spent
at
present.
It is a great mistake to choose for demonstration farms, sites with exceptionalfavourable environments, such as good very fertilesoil,presence of a canal, close proximity to a Choice of site. "
market,
privatefarmer should seek all these conditions. An educational farm may also be favourably situated. An mental experifarm may requirecertain specialfacilitiesto be present for the purpose of special experiments,e.g., of a canal for irrigation experiments. But for a demonstration farm the objectaimed at should be the removal or avoidance of a certain felt defect.There A
etc.
largetracts
are
and
once
of land
Birbhum, that
are
why these are say, they cannot
districtsas Nadia, Murshidabad vators without cultivation. Ask the cultilying lyingwithout cultivation,and they will at be cultivated. Demonstration farms should in such
even
be set up in these tracts to show that these lands can be improved and broughtunder cultivation. The effect of such demonstration will be practical vated, ; these lands will be taken up by raiyatsand cultiif they see the demonstration farm methods successful. are Some of these lands are be improved by too sandy. These may the cultivation of ground-nut. Some have too much iron and are
hard.
These may in which
be
them by digging much too have put. may salt or soda salt. These and improved common might be drained further by planting of Babul or other trees. Some too are dry for the ordinary crops of the locality, rice,jute, etc. These be utilized for growing cotton, agaves, etc. The effect of may such demonstrations will be of benefit to zemindars in the first instance and the members of each District and Divisional Agricultural
too
holes
such
be
be
on
Some
small should farms in demonstration start situations under the expert advice of the Agricultural farms to grow good Department. For demonstration
Association unfavourable
crops, where * '
provedby growing trees
manure
also get good raiyats ' '
crops and
feel no
want, is useless.
is the valueless excuse Nothing succeeds like success in out pointed selecting particularly good sites for
farms, but the
' '
that may tion demonstra-
' '
of such farms is of no practical value. Utilization for agriculture of such lands as are not at present utilized for any good purpose, should be one aim of principal demonstration farms. success
Exchange. By the advocatingof a local system as opposedto tion, informacentralised of agricultural a system of dissemination division it is not meant that exchange of seed between one and another, and between one province another, or even or country "
156
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
of subsistence with the least trouble; the plantersaim at the largest value off their land. The hill-tribesof Garo, obtaining Khasia, Chittagongand Rajmehal Hills are accustomed to hacking down trees,making holes in the ground,and sowing several kinds of seed without usingcattle or regular implementsof cultivation. means
mestd cow-pea, cotton, Italian millet, Rahar,maize, jowar, mestd-pdt,
til,aus
paddy, cucumber, country
the crops, the seeds of which
are
beans and
put
pumpkin
are
some
of
vested in the holes, and the crops har-
they get ready. On the virginsoilsof forests,the result obtained is by no means bad. But the system is quitebarbarous, and on ordinary of hillsides, soilsit givesvery poor results. Terracing as
and growing crops by civilized and methods of cultivation are not very easy for hill-side places, their cultivate yet advanced nation like the Japaneseand Italians, hill-sides up to the very top. The special to jumming objection consists in specialmethods of cultivation adapted for different and levelling them, clearing
crops not
They
where beingpossible
so
crops are grown harrowingand without many
together.
left to nature without weeding, dustrious and the return is poor. Kols and Beharies, Santals, though incultivators using both ploughs and plough-bullocks, still addicted to the are growing of mixed crops. Ordinarily mixed crops should be avoided, though a few mixtures, such as rahar with castor or cotton, and with mustard peas are found remunerative to grow together. In the cotton-districts proper of Western India,even cotton is grown by itselfthough cotton is probably are
benefited
littleshade, such as is afforded by rahar or of peas and mustard, mustard seed should be and after a fortnight the musthe pea seed. In this case sown tard first, fited affords means of climbing to the peas, and isitself perhapsbeneby the root-nodules of the peas. In other cases the value of the mixed crops does not come up to the value of each crop grown singly.Mixed crops besides are apt to result in mixture of grains which are very much objected to by exporters. castor.
In the
by
a
case
Planting. Such
crops as tea, opium, coffee,indigo, of are mulberry,round-pepper, tobacco, etc., which sugar-cane, value and which to a exceptional respond specially large outlay of capital,are best suited for plantingenterprise. Planting differs from farmingproper, inasmuch it is concerned with the as growingof one valuable crop only. Gardening,on the other hand, differsfrom both,inasmuch as the methods, the tools,the manures, used in gardening, are different from those used in farmingor planting. A planter is a one-crop farmer. A gardenerusuallygrows a mum great many crops and flowers. But his aim is not to get the maxiamount of nourishing food at the smallest expenditureof but rather to producethe best size,shape,flavour,in fruits, capital, flowers and vegetables, by expensiveand highly careful methods of work. The farmer aims at doingwithout manures, as much as Farming
and
at keeping possible, up
"
the
of his lancfsimplyby feeding fertility
SYSTEM
OF
FARMING.
157
oil-cakes and utilizing his cattle with nourishing allthe cattle dung urine and litter in manuring his fields. By growing leguminous he also tries system of rotation, crops and by adoptinga judicious The farmer's methods of cultito avoid the purchaseof manures. vation He does not aim at straight of a wholesale character. are lines and neat curves, al absolute freedom from weeds, all of which attainable by the use of hand tools and at a great cost. are By and crossingand hybridizing, by budding and grafting, judicious similar methods, the gardenerattains exceptional results at a great rich towns, where there are always peoplewho are a largepricefor a the where is not judged fine value of articles particularly pineapple, from quantityand intrinsic merit in the shape of nourishmeht,but from bloom, flavour,look and size. The gardenerdoes not, as a cost
; and
yet gardeningpays
largeand ready to pay
near
rule,trouble himself with rotation,nor does the planter,but the latter growingonly one crop has no choice in the matter, while the former usually thingsin small patcheson land grows far too many for which he pays a very high rent, to be able to choose a definite of rotation,or to adopt the methods in generaluse in farms. course Then there are various kinds of gardens. In tea-gardens, though
(spades,rakes, forks, etc.)are in use, the one-crop garden-tools of plantations.Then them partakeof the nature makes system for all,such as flowerthere are gardenswhich are laid out once and also and orchards, tea-gardens; while marketgardens gardenshave to be laid out at least twice a year. A garden,which and which is once contains mainly perennial laid out at a plants, cost does not initial more cost, keeping any great up than a farm. after to three look two of One labourer can acres gardenland as of farm land. But in market-gardeningcosts a great deal more labour.
Even
one
labourer per
acre
is not sufficient for every mixed garden,where English
though a market-gardening, be worked vegetables, sugar-cane, green maize, etc.,are grown, can farm appliances labourer per acre, if some with one and bullocks where no farm implements,such as are kept. In tea-gardens, used two labourers are and bullock-hoes -are considered ploughs of land. In plantingand necessary to properlywork every acre and other utilized animal much as possible as are farming, powers is the while in gardening hand-power mainstay. however remunerative The single-crop at first, is liable system, to end in failure or later. Competition sooner bringsdown prices, increases wages and diminishes profit : the land gets exhausted for insect and fungus parasites this special accumulate : crop : special the manager and the proprietor the or understanding only handling s ticks to it of this special to the last and is thoroughly, very crop unable to take to anythingelse for want of experience and for fear of losing until the crop failsentirely. more, Middle-class men goingin for farmingshould go in for mixed which givesrest to land if a judicious cropping, system of rotation We will go in for dairying, is adopted. They should not say, kind of
"
158
HANDBOOK
coifee, or for tea, or vanilla, for in as should many go They
or
They
must
AGRICULTURE.
OF
banana, or sugar-cane, or rice. thingsas have a good local sale. at firstgrow only such things i.e., proceedtentatively, or
' J
what
for the consumptheyrequire tion for their servants of their family, and their of the members That is the market ready for them. farm animals. They should in the locality, at firstas are ordinarily such only grown crops grow and better methods and appliances staples thoughsuperior may be introduced from the very first. Then vation they can extend the cultiof anythingthat they find they can well grow particularly their land, or which suits their tastes and fancies best. If they on are to find that cows doingvery well under their management, come that they understand them, and that they would like to keep more some of them, they must givedairying ing prominence,and beginsellmilk and butter and bullocks and bulls. If they find goatbreedingdoes well and that they would like keepingmore goats, branch of their this extend should first at farming, though they as they should keep only just many goats as they requirefor supplying of their neighbours. meat to their family and perhapssome the needs of their In this way they should advance from supplying needs t he of their friends and neighbours, t o own supplying family, It is market. easier the and more and then supplying tive lucrageneral market for producewhich shows any specialto create a special ity. in mind, one should determine Bearing the above generalprinciple the system of farminghe is to follow eventually which must be governedvery much by local circumstances. The principal lows folas systems of farmingmay be enumerated as
theycan
consume
at
home,
or
:
"
system. Growing the same crop year after is land without the common manure system of year on the same this country. The Jethro Tull system is only a slightdeparture from this,the land beingcultivated deep and well. Deep cultivation and hoeingare not, however, in vogue in India. The one-crop tract of country. But sooner later the or system suits only a new in the Sunderbans,one finds the land getsexhausted. In settling (1) The
one-crop
"
system of growingrice only pays best. But as time goes be altered. the system must on (2) Bare-fallowingsystem. According to this system no is used, and no crop is grown field once on a particular in manure three,four,five or six years. In some parts of this country poor land under the utbandi system of tenancy is bare-fallowed for two one-crop
"
after two or three years successive three years successively ping. cropvariation of the bareThe Lois Weedon system is an ingenous to which three rows of wheat are drilled fallow system, according 12 inches apartand three feet of space leftfallow alongside the drilled and this succession of croppedand fallowed strips is repeatstrip, ed. The fallow strips are kept cultivated deep and exposed to the action of air. Keeping land cultivated and exposedwithout crop The ^Jewish system of should not be done in the rainy season. or
ROTATION
givingrest
OF
seventh
all land every
to
159
CROPS.
also
year,
under
comes
the
bare-fallow system.
(3) Green-crop-fallowing system. This is where a green or The land is well cleaned and fallow. root-cropis substituted for thoroughlymanured, either by direct manuring for the previous "
cattle crops, and by tethering oil-cake in addition.
or
(4) Prout's plan. Under
this
"
the land and
sheepon
all
system
givingthem
thingsare
grown
No live-stock is kept and all the by artificialmanures. crops are sold off as they get ready. This is a wasteful plan,except in certain localitieswhere there is a railwaystation close by and a readymarket and special for obtainingmanures facility cheap. The ploughing,
etc.,isdone
hired bullocks,and the straw of cereals
by
no
crop
is used for
feedingfarm
nnimals, even beingsold off (5) All-stock-and-no-crop system is the oppositeof Front's plan. The land is mostly let down in grass. Such foods as cake, bean-meal, chaff,etc., are bought. The dung is returned to the and the meadows On poor land and
is used
manure liquid on
.
for
the irrigating
hill-sidesthis system may
(6)Irrigationsystem. "
If
water,
be found
meadows.
profitable.
liquid manure,
or
town
be followed. sewage, is available in abundance, this system may meadow for For market for and gardens, pastures green crops, this system is adapted,but not for growing cereals (exceptrice) need not be appliedwhere there are special and pulses.Manures for with sewage, as sewage water itselfcontains facilities irrigation sufficientplantfood. (7) Mixed arable-and-stock-farming is the safest system for lands. most agricultural market-gardeningand (8) Near large towns dairyfarming better. (9) Fruit for lands away pay
station
or
are farming and jam and jelly-making
from
towns
but
to river,etc.,leading
a
not
removed
best
adapted
from
railway
largetown.
CHAPTER ROTATION
far
XXIII. OF
CROPS.
of a large variety of crops ; (2) Interpositionof : (1) Growing [Principles leguminous crops rich in root-nodules ; (3)Fallowing ; (4) Prevention of insect and funguspests ; (5)Recuperation after temporary exhaustion ; (6) from different Avoiding of poisonous excreta ; (7) Availing food-substance strata Growing of catch-crops; (9)Of different crops suited for different ; (8) for different classes of soil ; (11) classes of soils; (10) Typical rotations in planting.] Local crops to be at first grown even ; (12)Rotation necessary "
of dividingup the land and Principles. The principle ing growvarious crops accordingto man's natural requirements, is so obvious,that it has been adoptedby cultivators all over the world ; of growing one but the principle crop one year and another crop "
160
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
follow in a country where cultivators grow and where a certain pieceof land is reserved for a crops, Good cultivators avoid ther for jute or cotton, and so on. ricv, of the same cession, piece land two years in succrop on growingthe same much as as possible.They usually grow jute and aus land. Another paddy or cotton and juarin succession on the same t, is difficultto
few
c.
good cultivators follow is to grow a crop of rahar,or sunnprinciple their land. They are not hemp, or a pulse crop for renovating however, of the fact, that
aware,
of
the roots more
that
and
by as
to
leguminous crops
are
less rich in root-nodules, these nodules are caused
or
bacteria
harbouringon the roots, beneficent parasites. If one were take up a vigorously growingplant
of Dhaincha
or (Sesbania aculeata),
simn-hemp,
rahar,or ground-nut,
or
finds the
one
roots
developed nodules.
full of wellThese nodules
squeezedthrow
when
out
a
viscous
innumerable fluid, which contains bacteria which can be readily recognised under a powerfulmicroscope. bacteria which The form these nodules are able to derive their sustenance from
the air,which to do.
vegetationis unable
higher The
largerthe quantityof root-nodules, the greaterthe amount of nourishment derived from the air and stored in the soil.
beans
The
and
advantageof growing clover is well stood under-
in
England,but Dhaincha and simw-hemp are far richer in rootthan nodules perhaps any other and plant, being fast-growing they be grown can just before or after the FIG.
6l.-~Dhaincha
SHOWING
PLANT,
ROOT-NODULES.
rainy
as
season
a
preparatory
and catch-crop,
soil to the
ploughed into the benefit of the succeeding
crops.
principleinvolved
in
rotation, is the available in the farm, by keeping a portionof the lands by turns fallow and havingthe cattle tethered here for one year under some temporary structure made of wooden This is an posts and roof on which fodder is stored for the year. excellent system of making the best use of the manure available in the raiyats holding, in Mymensingh and it is one which is practised Fallowing. Another "
economisingof the
'
and
other districts.
manure
ROTATION
OF
Insect anil Fungus Ptsts.
Protection from
161
CROPS.
Another
"
great
advantage
in rotation
the same land is, on derived from crops being grown have would which i f the of a same multiplied that the pests crop, the of same piece land, die out again on crop had been grown in the immediate of the host-plant neighbourhood. The for want is the worst for encouraginginsect and system of planters one-crop
funguspests. Recuperationafter temporaryexhaustion. Another theoretical one. underlies rotation is a somewhat "
exhausts
crop which
minute
some
but
principlewhich It is this :
A
of the soil ingredient and also that the require,
necessary
crop probablydoes not in the soil which excrementitious soil some matter crop leaves in the is dispersed to that crop, but which is injurious by growing another another
by growing does
not
is found
a
of
crop
a
yielda
poorer
regardto
certain principles in what way exactly Jute following land jute on the same result than when intermediate crop an
different
clear.
appear to
soil getsrest with
The
crop in the soil.
kind, but
of rice is taken. taken
up by different crops, the while others, such as soil, exhausting top barley, some, from food of or maize, drawing up cotton deeperlayers the soil. Another which should guide a principle Growing of Catch-crops be of choice to the on in a farmer piece of land grown crops of rain by growing is the takingadvantage of occasional showers two between regularcrops. Catch-cropstake only catch-crops of these can be grown three months' about maturing,and some Certain when there is heavy fall of rain out of season. to perfection the such shati as or sixty-day varieties of ordinarycrops, varietyof which is mathia of cotton a the kapas, variety mis poor paddy, Food-substances from
such
differentstrata
are
as
"
in Kathiawar,
grown
be
may
grown
as
in less than three months, catch-crops.Other crops, which are particularly which
matures
are cheena,buck- wheat, growing as catch-crops, and various kinds of sag. Cyamopsis psoralioides,
adaptedfor cow-pea,
in succession
The main aim of rotation is to grow
of crops
are
with interspersed
crops
rich
differentvarieties
in root-nodules.
for differentkinds of soil,as certain soils Differentrotations are applicable suited for certain crops, but not so well for others. particularly soils are well suited for growingthe following Stony and gritty
(1)
the superior winter maize, oats, jowar,gondli(including called kodo, ; bajra m arua, laio), agaves, mesta-pat, cotton, variety
crops
:
mesta
or
sorrel, ladies' finger,sabai
sweet-potatoes,sank-alu
cassava,
;
grass,
cow-pea,
buck-wheat,yams, coarse
mung,
kulti,
makhan-sim, ordinary rahar, bhringi,Cyamopsis psoralioides, mulberry, dengo indigo, chillies, bean, sag, soy-bean, country cape tobacco kankrol, kankri, ; chichinga, tomato, castor, gooseberry, safflower ; also such trees as Ceara rubber,kusum, asan and sorguja, lac cultivation ; bhela or marking-nuttree ; asn for for baer, M,
HA
11
162
HANDBOOK
silk ;
growingtusser
AGRICULTURE.
OF
simul tree, myrobalantrees, tea, coffee, laurel in seaside placeswhich not too dry are under of other shade the trees. grow
leaf tree, and cashew-nuts The coffee would and hot.
land
Low-lying growingaman
and
and
hollows
in
be utilized
hillyplacescan
by
paddy.
aus
(2) In sandy soils. The crops that could be grown well are : tard, musbajra,barley,oats, cheena, kayon, aus paddy ; til,sorcjuja, s afflower ground-nut, ; mesta-pat, sunn-hemp,dhaincha,kalai, buck-wheat hill-sides ; melons, patol, and on kulti, indigo; mung, "
Sank-alu
sank-alu.
largely
a
as
or
it in
be sown,
can
May
or
June,
(3) In loamy
possibleafter
largely grown
more
should
leguminouscrop
a
catch-cropwhere should be
Ground-nut and
being
such
on
be
mesta-pat. soils,harvest
if there is sufficientrainfall, either in or
grown
or
aus
February,
in October.
soils should
be
potatoes, tobacco ; rhea grown (itsoilis very rich and moist),jute,buri-cotton ; paddy,jowar,maize, wheat, barley,oats, sugar-cane, English and country vegetables, linseed,ground-nut, kalai,mesta, gram, pea, musuri, khesari, mung, turmeric, ginger,arrowroot, melons, cassava, sweet-potatoes,oland mulberry. kachu, man-kachu, yams, plantains The suited soils winter paddy,wheat, oats, to are day (4) crops jute,sugar-cane, rahar, mat-grass, mulberry, gram, peas, beans, linseed,and cabbages. In lands subjectto flooding only mung, winter
paddy and juteof
certain
kinds special
grass and mulberry like sabai grass are suited for ordinaryrotation. (5) For calcareous soils the crops rahar in rotation ; (2) wheat and gram
musuri, followed
be
can
grown. perennial crops and
suited
are
jowar,and
(1) paddy
:
in rotation
Matare
;
or
sank-alu
not
and
barley,and in rotation
by ; ed followby potatoes; (4) Cyamopsis psoralioides by bajra; (5) Kulthi followed by oats ; (6) lucerne ; (7)carrots, onions. Lucerne cotton or beinga perennialcrop is not subject to ordinaryrotation.
khesari
or
(3) maize
followed
(6) For
peaty soils the
pumpkin, gourd,luffa oats, \\heat or the year round.
(7) The hundred
or
rotations following
cucumber, followed
and barley,or brinjals,
rotations following
miles of the seaside
:
are
paddy
be may
adopted:
by linseed,mustard, vegetablesgrown
adopted in
soils within
be followed
all
a
by radishes,
mangold (forfodder only and not dhaincha followed by potatoes and afterwards by sugarsugar); cane or jowar; ground-nutfollowed by cotton ; gourdsand pumpkins followed by barley. The perennialcrops suited to such lands date,cocoanut, supari,cashew-nut,and lucerne,if soil plantains,
beet carrots,onions, cabbages, for
may
other
be
may
or
is calcareous. .For the firstfour classes of soil,viz., stony, sandy,loamy and various and the rotations possible mentioned, crops are clayey, rotations suitA few tjrpical in these lands would be innumerable. able be givenhere,but onlyby way of example. for Bengalmay
164
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER RICE
XXIV.
(ORYZA
SATIVA).
wild rices of swamps, dry land and hills : The typical cultivated rices Division, speciallythose grown Area ; Principal paddies of the Burdwan at the Sibpur Farm* ; Aus paddy ; rotation,manuring ; soil ; tillage; irrigation paddy ; a discoveryin ; cost ; husking ; Peshwari ; harvesting; outturn with aus paddy ; Boro connection or long stemmed paddy ; ; Hornn of Haydn paddy ; Best conditions for paddy cultivation ; Average outturn and tins paddies at Sibpur and at Dumraon, of aman all paddies; Outturn and manured rice crops ; Paddy cultivation in the Jatter irrigated ; Mixed the Sunderbans; Chemical Composition.]
[The
-
paddy
is
The wild rice. Rice "
Australia,but cultivated
regionsof the Old
warmer
indigenousto from and
the
East
Indies
and
very ancient times throughoutthe the New World. Some of the wild
awned and others awnless. But other peculiarities, stand of more economic t o or are inundation, drought ability be studied by collectorsof wild and cultivated importanceand should varieties
such
are
as
of species to
root-stock.
woody
it is collected and rice
on
dry soils at
tudes alti-
3,000 feet,in
The
flavour
of the
grainis so good that granularstructure of its is characteristic inner glume peculiarity.No cultivated this pecuto have been derived from this wild species as seems liarity another perennial is not possessed by any. Oryza officinalis,
almost the
Oryzagranulatais found
Sikkim, Assam, Burmah, Pareshnath It is a perennial and Malabar. Hills, specieswith an Rajmehal up
and
rice.
eaten
by
children.
The
talland sparse branches, multi-nerved ters has its characpanicles, and intermediate between sativa. This granulata Oryza Oryza and in wild rice occurs Burmah. Sikkim, Khasia Hills, Hairy found in rices which cultivated in this are some are glumes present wild species.The umbellate, naked peduncles also are sometimes is distinctly met with in the cultivated hill rice,which Oryzasativa. is The Oryza sativa with in the wild state wherever marshy met with species,
a
with sub-woodyroot-stock,
leaves and
profusebranched
lands occur, in Madras, Orissa,throughout Bengal,Arracan and The plantis generally annual. The inflorescence Cochin China. an of spikeson short peduncles is a panicle which have hairy scales, tuft of in at the point hairs,as frequentlya distinct Oryzaofficinalis of the spikes. The outer glumes are large, of origin very often trimidrib dentate, prominent,inner glumes variouslyshaped,but in the wild state considerably elongated,' being,as a rule,*325 inch in length, and in the majority of cases the larger .one is produced into whidh is distinctly articulated and possessedat its base a longawn of two glandular to the extremities of processes which correspond the lateral nerves less hairyespecially : the surface is more or on keel and of forms the Whilst the vast majority of Oryza nerves. sativa possess only one grain,certain forms have two or even three The Uri Jhara rice of Bengalis only one form of wild or grains. of the various aus, aman and Oryzasativa,which may be the origin boro paddies. The wild rice is hardier than cultivated rices,and
165
RICE.
it is self-sown and is easily carried from field to field, it has been known sometimes the cultivated rice and take its to exterminate detached grainby bindingthe place. Fishermen collect the easily into tufts before they are ripe. When ears ripethey go in their
.as
the ears or simplyshakingthe graininto their .palmcanoes collecting rice is met with even in the dry regionsof Wild primitivebarges. in the Central Provinces,usually shallow poolsof water, for instance in railway cuttings.In the dry regions of Partabgarh(Oudh), I have seen wild rice growing where there is no accumulation of water. rices. He between and late guishes distinearly Roxburgh distinguishes
eightforms
of late rice
all awnless white grains. affording awned and yieldred or coloureU grains, but yielding is awned white grain,while there are awnless "one a w hite Of the grains. earlyrices six have coloured husks, yielding while two have white or pale husks ; of the late rices four have coloured and four white husks. The progress of cultivation is from "
Of his
earlyrices,four
awned
to
and
awnless
should suppositions sis
or
Uri-dhan has
"
are
coloured
from
be mentioned a
white husk and
finest cultivated rices have
an
to
colourless.
the fact that the
awned
and grain,
some
Against these Oryza Bengalenof the best and
spikelet, e.g.,, the
karpurkati,
and coloured husks. daudkhani, have kelejira some, classification does include ihe'bildn not rices, Roxburgh's probably
and
such
which the
may
have
ordinaryred
as
been
alone
rices
derived from
the wild Uru
probably derived
rice,while
from
Oryza rufipogon That a/man Oryza abuensis. paddy has be can aus actuallyproved by an experiment. from a second cuttingof an aus If grains that yieldsa second cutting instead of the are i.e., plantsyieldaman paddy aus, sown, they ripen in four to five months instead of three, give a larger yieldand the grainsdo not shed easily.
the blackish originatedfrom and
ones
are
from
under rice in India is enormous, and this Area. The area first cereals in all the the country. crop stands easily among grown The total area lies usuallybetween lion miland seventy-five seventy of of million in which nearlyforty lie the three provinces acres, Burma Behar and Orissa,Bengal and Assam. stands second with and million of between nine ten an area beinggrown acres, much "
for
export, while
between
eightand
nine
million
cultivatral Of the remainder of India,the Cenfour and a half million acres under acres
are
vated with this crop in Madras. Provinces and Berar grow this crop, the United Provinces about six million acres, Bombay (with Sind) two and a half million acres, and the Punjab (withthe Frontier Province)nearlythree-quarters The of a million acres. India three North f or vation cultiof East rice (the importance provinces) will be seen from these figures, as land of India is included in them.
more
than
half the rice
The varietiesof rice recognised in Bengalalone are innumerable. of Economic Watt, as Reporter Products, had occasion to examine four thousand varieties of Bengalrice at one Of the time. Division the following rices grown in the Burdwan varieties aman Dr.
166
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
(1) Atirang,(2) Hati shal,(3) Sacla-ora, (4) Meghi,(5) Rupshal,(6) Ora, (7) Paramayushal,(8) Ora-meghi,(9) Chile-rangi, (10) Bankmal, (11) Uttarkal(12) Lal-ora, (13) Shankchur, (14) Dhuki-lata-mol, (15) Kama, nakchur, (16) Uri, (17) Lakshmi-bilash,(18) Muktashal, (19) Sindurtupi,(20) Bhut-kaurabi, (21) Pashakati, (22) Soura, (23) RatiRamshal, (24) Nilkanthashal, (25)Kal-bayra,(26) Panikalma, (27) (28) Paramananda, (29) Amdn, (30) Nadanghatta,(31) Shol-pand, Sambara, (32) KatoshAl, (33) Mete-kuji,(34) Nilratan, (35) Nilthe Of the above kantha, (36) Boyal-d"nr,and (37) Ure-shals. has be noticed Hatishal a : (1) followingpeculiarities paddy may be
may
mentioned
suited for bil lands
as
:
high. though the yieldper acre is not exceptionally very biggrain, It goes up occasionally maunds to thirty-six acre. or (2) forty per The
the followingvarieties is large: Atirang,Sada-ora, Ora? Bankmal, Uttar-kalma, LalBoyal-danr,Chile-rangi, Meghi, Bhut-kauDhuki-lata-mol,Uri, Lakshmi bilash,Sindurtupi, ora, rabi,Pashakati, Soura, Rati-ramshal, Kalbayra, Panikalma, SholKalashal, Mete-kuji,and Nilpana, Aman, Nadanghata,Sambara kantha. These are expectedto yieldas much to fifty as forty-live maunds (3)Paramayu-shal,the yieldof which often goes per acre. to to thirtymaunds twenty up per acre, is a sweet-scented variety
yield of
considered
be very
easilydigested,and highly valued for this varietyare not very fine. (4)Kanakchur, the yield of which may also come to twenty to thirtymaunds per valued is of made it. is because kluti out (popped-corn) acre, Of aman paddiessuited for ordinarypaddy land (not bil land), noted varieties may the followingBurdwan be mentioned for as to
The
reason.
grainsof this
virtues special
phuli,Kamini, which
gal are and
are
:
(1) Gobindabhog,Khash-khani, and
fine and
Badshabhog, are highly prized. (2) Paramanna-shal
also scented
Bankchur
are
varieties,
Ramdhimipa-
not
(4) Khejurchariis a rice,the inflorescence bunch
and
Bena-
very fine. (3) Harinakhuri of which khai (pop-corn) is made.
but varieties,
paddiesout
Bansmati, scented
of
wrhich
has
some
semblance re-
of dates ; and
a paddy of winged (5)Pakshiraj, is have medicinal to supposed properties.(6)Chhotaappearance, bangota,Chhanchi-mol, Bankui, Harinakhuri, Dhale-kalma, Kalikalma, Jhingashal, Ajan,Kate-nona, Lal-kalma, Lata-mol, Chhotadhole, Chhanchi-ora, Jata-kalma, Dudhe-nona, Hara-kali, Manikkalma, Kartik-shal,Kartik-kalma, Khepa, Rangibangota, Nadnashal,Mehupal,Jal-shuka, Altapati-nona, Mugurshal,Dhole, ShunDhukishal, KashMota-nagra, Bangota Patategara, no-gangajal, phul,Nona-Laushal,Kalma, GddhashAl, Dudh-kanra, Kalam-kati. Laushenkdta, Sindurmukhi, Bankatd, Champashal, Neulipatuni, Bari-amla,Machyiydn,Akindi, Bagi-lal-patuni, Leajkata, Sonddlmukhi, Noyachur, Khayershal and Noyan, are heavy yielders.
to
The the
superiorfine and scented rices are kinds. quantity of the coarser
High get
a
class
too much
aman
under
paddiesalso water.
On
grow very
producedin only about
half
best on land which does not land fine rices show wet a
167
RICE.
tendency
become
to
the
At
coarse.
SibpurFarm,
the
Kataribhog
and coarser paddy of Dinajpuris steadilybecoming coarser ; but the Samudrabali varietyof Bhagalpur,the finest variety of all, has
remained
heavy, and of
fine so far. The yield of Samudrabali variety is ety it is worth cultivating largely.The Badsabhog variis also worth
paddy
aman
not only extensively, cultivating
for its
high quality,but for its largeyield. The introduction of variety of paddy in Hazaribagh,through the Reformatory Not School, has proved a great boon. only in the school farm,
this
but also in the lands of others who have taken to growing this variety of paddy, it has given a largerproducethan the coarsest variety of local
The
paddy.
but whether prolific, Division
wan
The and
is not
it will be found
varietyof fine paddy is also outside the Burdso prolific
known.
rice of
aus
Daudkhani
Bengal
is
nearly all
difficultto
coarse,
by the poorer classes alone. It is grown on and the plant requiresmuch sandy banks of rivers,
eaten
and than
the
and
ordinary
aman
boro
done broadcast,it is more It
smaller
paddies. As
troublesome
and
the
high-lands less water
these
the
get
outturn
When
scarce.
fails, poor
aman
the
fetches
rainy
arily is ordin-
sowing
to hoe
than
a yields price. the rail/at with a food-grain and fodder (incommon inferior grains, the millets,maize, etc.),at a time of the a
digest
lower
the But
aman.
it supplies
with
other
year
when
is of short duration
season
peopledepend for their subsistence
on
and
the
am
The growingof aus paddy, millets and maize is advisable the and therefore highly againstfamine, as a provision
and
millets.
the
introduction of fine varieties of would fine aus
be
a
palatableand easily digested, of possibility growingvery
greatimprovement. demonstrated at Sibpur Farm.
rice has been
in years 16 maunds a
more
The
of the yield of fine
or
aus,
the
aus
paddy
Sibpur Farm
from
has been
the average per acre, little less than 19 maunds per
Central
the
l,3031bs.or
yieldof acre.
In
The
Provinces a
average for seven
littleless than
being 1,53lifts,
straw
1901 from
^th
of
an
obtained of straw of paddy and 52 seers 34 seers were of straw from the and 9 seers of paddy and 20 seers the first cutting, second cutting. The growingof aus paddy is also desirable owing of land for rabi it gives for early preparation to the opportunity (winter)crops, such as pulsesand oil-seeds. Potatoes and sugarcane later are also benefited by a longerpreparation. which are sown There varieties of Burdwan aus are some paddy such as Niali, from
acre,
Kele, Aswingota,Kartiksal,etc., which
form
a
sort
of
a
connecting
and the aman. link between the aus These are also transplanted The time of transplanting like aman, and requiremore than the aus. water these is somewhat later than that of ordinary aus, but which is a greatmonth before the aman, two or they are reapeda
advantage. paddy is also all over greatlyappreciated Pethwari
an
earlyvarietyof India, specially by
paddy
which
rich Mahomedans.
is
168
HANDBOOK
It is a
OP
AGEICULTUBE.
highlyabsorbent varietyof paddy which
is in
great request
for the
preparationof pelao. Naturallyit produces a small crop in Bengal,the average of three years'produceat Sibpurbeingl,0961bs. of paddy and l,3031bs.of straw, or 13 J and 15| maunds tively respecacre.
per A
discoverywhich
is of the highestpractical benefit was author in connection fine aus, at with by Sibpur the seed of which he originally broughtto Sibpur from the Central new
made
the
Provinces, and for
sent
the
Swati
varietyof Peshwari paddy which was Sibpurby the Bengal Agricultural Department.
experiment at
The Central Provinces aus gave the firstyear a good result, of paddy per acre, but the Peshwari i.e.,about 20 maunds Swati, which
is
largegrainedvarietyand which produced a exuberant growth of leaf,produceda very small maunds of grainper acre. A small second crop was a
and 7
both,
which
second The and seed
used
was
withstood
crop
droughtwhen
fair
a
gave very of the Central
yield.
Provinces
The
year.
The aus
paddy
result in was
1002"
Tn
19U3-716
In
1904"1,640 result from
from (the crop failing
"
"
"
"
Swati
2,050 from
healthy of only
crop taken
seed
from
from
remarkable
the
result.
other seeds failed
from
the
grainfrom
ordinary
"
obtained -1.4 76tt"*.againstl,804lb*. 927 "
In
The
for seed the next
the after-math, produced a
cuttingor
very
fiom
ratoon
seed.
"
ordinary vseed
in
1902
was
nil
from ratoon-seed, drought)against l,250ffis.
obtained from ratoon-seed, and in 1904, l,558fl)s. againstl,570ffis. under favourable climatic conditions. The second cuttingor ratoonof years at seed has uniformlygiven a higher yield for a number this farm.
A
paddy like high-class
Swati
the
givinga largeyield
production. even droughty weather is an extremely valuable be should These two highclass varietiesof autumn extensively paddy in
from
groAvn
the
second-cutting-seed for its producing
The second-cutting-seed.
produces a deeper rooted plantwhich accounts There is another reason in droughtyweather. largeryield even The Swati has the for the Swati specially by benefiting process. flowers the rainfall and in August when it ordinarily an open panicle, washed and ation fertilizout the is so heavy, that pollengrainsget a
is
prevented. All
aus
paddy
has
or
more
less
empty grains
but the Peshwari paddiescontain a larger (agra)in consequence, just mentioned. proportionof agra than any other for the reason later matures the the fullya month second-cutting-seedcrop Using
takes placeat a season and the floweriAg (inSeptember)when the rainfall is not so incessant,and when, in consequence, grainsget of forming properly. the opportunity Rotation." Aus
another
paddy
grown
cereal crop such form a rotation in
The
on as
dearh wheat
land or
is
often
barley.
parts of the Burdwaa
rotation following
is recommended
followed
Potatoes
Division.
:
"
and
by aus
169
RICE.
First year." -4ws
paddy together.
mixed
two
Second year." Jute or
the two
mixed
by
pat, followed by
Mestd
paddy
followed
the
pulse or oilseed
a
by sugar-cane.
year"Sugar-canefollowed by
Fourth
pulseor oil-seed or
a
together.
Aus
Third year."
or
followed
Fifth year."
Potatoes
Sixth year."
Bare
followed
fallow
with
by
paddy.
aus
paddy.
aus
tetheringof cattle.
cates paddy is considered the best cleaning crop, as it eradiWhen ulu grass (Imperataarundinacea) and other weeds. orchard has to be made on foul ulu land,aus an paddy is sown, and in the midst of the standing crop, plantains and other fruittrees are Aus
planted. It is also Manuring." Aus paddy is often grown with manure. sides where there is river without on manure largelygrown silt deposit. The used are cowdung, ashes, tank-earth, manures
quantityof dung the raiyatgets and there is no rule observed afford to apply,he applies, can benefits the subsequent to quantity. The application that aus also, and it is for this reason paddy is heavily
.and,rarely,oil-cake. Whatever hold of
or as
raU
crop manured.
manured. 250ffis. rice grown after potatoesis not the usual is quantityused, per bigha)of oil-cake per acre is appliedonce 3 or is applied.Tank-earth this manure m Aus
.(1maund when
4 years, 30 to 100 cart-loads per
acre
; SOffis.of bone-dust
and
80jf"s.
would be a good substitute for oil-cake,and saltpetre per acre would givea greateryield. The cost would be Rs. 6 or Rs. 7 (i.e.,
of
Rs.
2
by
of crude
saltpetre).The
increased
the
SOlhs. of bone-dust
Rs. 2-8 for
or
80K)S.
The
outturn.
and
Rs. 4-4
outlaywill be
Rs. 4-8 for
than
more
should
bone-dust
or
be
realised
appliedat
the saltpetre a cultivation,and fortnightafter mixed transplanting, up thoroughly with the earth along the lines the of
time
of
transplanting. Soil." The
Joam
and
soils considered
best
for
loamy sand, situated rather
aus
paddy are
loam, sandy
high.
should be cross-ploughing Ullage. The first ploughing and after the rabi harvest as possbile. done in the cold weather, or as soon If the land is too hard to plough,ploughingshould be done after The longerthe interval the first shower of rain in February or March. the ter, betbetween and allowed the firstploughing sowing,the hence the importanceof doing the ploughing as earlyas possible. after be first used the The plough need not ploughingand but the bakhar may be substituted in its placetwice cross-ploughing, the weeds and prethree times, as occasion will arise,for killing or paring "
a
seed-bed.
The
burning heat
of
summer
will
destroythe
170
HANDBOOK
weeds
and
in the
season.
AGRICULTURE.
OF
leave the land clean. Six or seven ploughingsare not requiredif one ploughingand one cross-ploughing done early are
Later, after
fairly heavy shower of rain,two successive bakharingsfollowed by harrowing and laddering will level the land. Sowing should be done by drilling, but transplanting is stillbetter even for aus. If sowing is done broadcast or by drilling, wooden roller should be used to cover a light the seed and give the land beam can
the proper be used as
a
A
rounded
log of should transplanting seedling being planted at
compactness. roller. The
a
intervals of nine inches,one and not several as is the custom. should be close to water, that it may done at the very commencement
The seed-bed for be kept watered and
wood
or
be done each aus
a
at
spot
paddy
ing transplant-
of the
regularrainy season, The sowing in seed-bed or say, about the 15th or 20th of June. in field should be done earlyin May, and the firstheavy shower of rain from the middle of Aprilto the middle of May be utilized may for this purpose, i.e., for final preparation of land and sowing. Ten of seed
seers
are
sowing is done done,
20
requiredper
broadcast
30
acre
if
is done. If transplanting is ample ; if drilling
of seed is
seers
For
be sown. seed-bed, 3 maunds may per acre is done early,i.e., when the Transplantedpaddy (iftransplanting seers.
plantsare only about 9 inches high)grows more than vigorously from broadcasted drilled seed. Transplanting paddy grown alsoor for the after-ploughing givesfacility ning i.e., operations, hoeing,or runthe spade in lines and overturning either of which operathe soil, tion gives vigourto the plants.This ploughingwith a small plough called Idngld, or should be done when the transplanted hoeing,or spading, well established. Seedlings be kept even are seedlings can four or days after uprootingthem with impunity,but it is to have the bundles of seedlings in damp and shady places
three safe
r
or
actuallyin
produceof The the
tops
water
each
if
they
cottah of seed-bed
of the bundles
out planting
cannot
be planted out is made into 30
should be cut off before each
is done.
Before
water transplanting,
The
at
once.
or
32 bundles.
is untied should
and mulate accu-
in the field and
The ploughingin puddle should be done. ladder should be also passedover the puddle. But in sandy soil is not necessary. The ladderingof puddle before transplanting seed should be sown the in in season early lightshowery weather,, the cakingof the soil after a heavy shower of rain as prevents free when germination. Broadcasted aus seedlings they are about nine inches high are harrowed with a bidia. It is an operationwhich does as much harm as good and it is not recommended. The harm done by the uprooting of seedlings is not very noticeable, as a great seed is used than is deal more and The hoeing weeding necessary. done by the bidia are very imperfect. Passingthe bullock-hoe,or the wheel hand-hoe,or the Idngld, or the spade, drills, alongstraight is much better. Seedlings from one of seed-bed would suffice acre for at least ten
fine
paddy
acres
stillmore.
of
aus
and
more
of toman, and
in the
case
of
172
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
12 mds. per acre, but the money- value will be about the same. fine aus paddy grown at Sibpur actuallyyields20 mds. per
the
when
The acre
is used. second-cutting-seed
Husking. By husking the paddy after steaming, 20 mds. should giveat least 14 mds. of rice,and the cost of husking (3 2 mds. of women 7 annas a day at a cost doing per md. of rice)may be calculated at about Rs. (3. 14 mds. of aus rice at Rs. 2 a md. may be valued at Rs. 28, this addingto the net profit another Rs. 2 per "
If
acre.
fine
a
variety is
chosen
in this Rs. 70, and the profit to Rs. 50 per acre. of
Most
paddy.
Aman
"
case
the
the 14 mds.
(ifno
manure
remarks
and
of rice may is
used) may
calculations
bring come
about
paddy apply to aman paddy also,and it is only the distinctive characters of this crop that will be described here.
aus
Soil.
are preferredfor this crop. High Low-lyingclay-soils The suited. fine not lands,which cannot be easilyirrigated, are under inches 9 need be varieties specially 6 to to or are supposed inches of water from the time of transplanting to that of the plants accumulation of water but for the need at a coming to ear ; large "
the base of the fine varieties of
Paddy
aman
has
been
much
exaggerated.
other logging, being injuredlike most plants by waterthe water-logged condition of the soil hasjhe effect of killing
plantsnot
in the case leavingthe land very clean. But even of paddies (notably the Peshwari and other superiorvarieties) of old of out or twice, is an "change water, i.e.,letting water, once paddy this precautionshall advantage. In growing Peshwari be taken. of out water Niyurh or letting earlyin August (before the Hathia period)is considered necessary for ordinarypaddies broadcast. also. In lightsoils aman sometimes is sown paddy It is a lazy system which is prevalentin the southern portionof Murshidabad and northern and of Nadia perhaps in other portion parts of Bengal also. out
weeds
and
Cultivation." The
immediately
a
dry
shower
should
the
previous
after
be
ploughed and aman
cross-ploughed
harvest, if feasible,i.e.,
the land to get should not be wasted allowing for ploughing.If the land has become too dry already,
in December. too
land
in
Time
January
or
February should
be taken
advantage of
in
fields. If gram or any rabi crop follows the aman .ploughing up new should take placein first the intr"p, ploughingand cross-ploughing doesch or April,i.e., there is a shower of rain following as soon as done *abi harvest heavy of the land. But enough to allow ploughing deal ie ploughed in an open conup land under rabi crops is generally seldom there is about done"n, ploughingup fields any difficulty the a fter rabi At the harvest. the Mediately beginningof the rainy is moii, or a littleearlier, of the end about i.e., May, if possible(in for te in Behar and in Aprilin Eastern Bengal),seed is to be sown fine should then properlycultivated seed-beds. The paddy-fields
RICE.
of the rains, undergo regularcultivation after the commencement The of in this done is to bury object puddle. ploughingbeing Two a nd the grasses and weeds. ploughings two cross-ploughings,
followed by one ladderingin each case, to receive seedlings. is the of transplanting The method
are
same
enough
for the field
in the
case
of
aus
is done later and and aman, only in the latter case, transplanting further apart (one seedling beingput in 1 foot apart in each spot).
broadcast and no transplanting is commonly sown T he earlier the is done ; aman commonly transplanted. paddy be safelydone, the better it is for securinga can transplanting be kept in a flourishing condition The seed-bed can good outturn. in be comif necessary June, and transplanting can menced by irrigation first about sets the when the regular season in,i.e., rainy just earlier. If transplanting is put off to August of July or week
paddy
Aus
is
is not
there
because
sufficient accumulation
will be poor, and need for
irrigation may
be
of
the result rain-water, feltif the rains stop early
and Early preparation
a are earlytransplantation and where there is facility for canal againstfailure, great security in the in in for water and June, a early taking season, say irrigation,
in the
season.
rich in manurial matters can silt deposit should the Meteorological Department ; but
season
be
put
better
be secured. be
The reportsof
closelywatched
at
this
of the seed-bed should on no account preparation of the monsoon. commencement It is regular to resort irrigationto keep seedlingsalive, if the
off to the to
So instead of sowing seed in July, the season. necessary, earlyin be done by the beginning of June as is usuallydone, sowing should of instead end of in the June, and transplanting by August. In
unusual years there is sometimes
July.
beginningof
In
such
no
years
rain tillthe end must preparations
of June
and
be perforce
there where are canals,but in this case it is in of sowing it in seedseed fieldsinstead bed drill advisable to paddy the seedlings. This saves and afterwards transplanting time, the the of when and time is rainy season greatest importance At such a season it is advisable threatens to be a short one. am also to grow as much paddy, maize and millets,as the high
delayed,except
lands will carry. land is seldom manured, but manuring maunds three with oil-cakes,at per acre, would generally give a and perhapspay for the outlayby the increased outturn. better yield, accumulation of is too great, and surface water the Where Manuring.
damage
too
-
Aman
or dung,or tank-earth should be applied free,oil-cake,
But even these retentive manures to saltpetre. are preference washed the out be and, on to heavy rainfall, liable duringvery whole, for aman is of not manures recommended. paddy application for aman should not be used as manure paddy in Bengal, Saltpetre this manure is suitable for all though in regionsof short rainfall, in
kinds of
paddy.
174
HANDBOOK
Thrashing."Aman but harvesting,
AGRICULTURE.
OF
need
paddy
be thrashed
not
kept stacked for two
or
three months
soon
and
after thrashed
at leisure.
floodof September 1900 enabled us to find out, that of stand the flood paddy,the following superiorvarieties of Aman Samudrabali and MohanKelejira, remarkably well, viz.,Kapursal, scented a nd the three first the third and,' varieties, being bhog, the fourth, prolific varieties. The seed of Ketejira particularly, The
the
black, small, but long : of Samudrabali, dark brown, small and short,and of Kapursal,lightcoloured and small, but long. After the water subsided, the plants of these three varieties after
is
being12 days under
yieldeda crop as if nothinghad happened. Mohanbhog are lightcoloured and large. It is an Eastern out of Bengal varietyand very prolific.This also came the flood unscathed, while most other varieties perishedor suffered less in the immediate or more vicinity. The proportionof grainto straw is higherin the case of aman The
water
grain of
paddy, and of
maunds acre
the absolute
grainper
yieldis being
acre
is,therefore,largerin
per Rs. 15 of net
profit per acre may adoptingproper methods.
Boro-paddy."This
is
crops of boro cultivated as a rdbi or successive
a
also
as larger,
often
the be
soft
low-lyingand
seed-bed.
comparatively
paddy may and winter-crop,
be obtained
pieceof
If necessary,
aman
expectedby
in November November, transplanted The kharifboro is grown with in May. A
of
case
rain-crop. The kharif varietyis sown in July or August July,transplanted rdbi The October. varietyis sown "or
the
the
and
net profit paddy. Us. 10 to ator cultivintelligent
minor in
Two
crop.
a
year,
other
as
in seed-bed or
a
being
one
kharif or
in October
December,
and
or
harvested
the aid of artificialirrigation.
by
is flooded
soft
50
or
seed-bed in June or harvested in September
land
ploughed. The seed is sown on For thrashed grainis used.
an
40
as
The
in the
land
a
much
obtained.
river
mud,
or
bil side is chosen
before artificially
but not
in water.
for it is
Newly-
three
days and nightsthe grain is dried in the sun and exposed to the night dews. It is alternately then put in a bag,which is kept under water all the nightand dried all the day. This process is repeated for three days and nights. If the seeds have all germinatedby this time they are immediately Otherwise they are filledinto a bag and covered with blankets. sown. day
the seeds are taken out and broadcasted in the nursery at the rate of four maunds The seedlings per acre. for sufficient from au 8 After are 10 acre the seedlings or acres. After
are
two
a
inches
high,the
when transplanted field is
8
or
nursery is watered once 9 inches high. After
kept irrigatewhen
boro is grown or
two
or
in
November.
usuallysoft,and
necessary
a
week.
are
the transplantation
till harvest
time.
where fields, low-lying ploughingis needed are when seedlings simplytransplanted
No
They The
rabi
in October there is water in such lands, which are 10 inches
175
RICE.
or
12 inches
high into
givenwhen the
One
the soft mud.
land is not
or
two
quitesoft.
out of weeds is pulling harvesting, in the soft mud. to the time of
The
winter
Apriland or
are
or
even
May
or
four
buryingthem per
acre.
The
outturn.
and only in November February, and harvested in sometimes transplanted, two, and February.
in
and
January
in June.
Boro
times, between
is
December
These are varieties of coarse Long-stemmed Aman." which habitually 5 to 15 feet deep. They in water grow broadcast in bil or low-lying lands. As the water rises sown Boran
aman
afterwards,
districts boro is broadcasted
most
December,
and
is 20 to 25 maunds
paddy
(rabi) varietygivesa better
In
three
of boro
outturn
ploughingsare
All that is needed
Aman
or
growth of as much as 9" to 12" in 24 hours of the rainyseason at the beginning having been observed. When than three days, submerged through a sudden floodingfor more the crop is completelydestroyed. This accounts for the failure of the experimentin the growing of the long-stemmed paddy in the ArgoalCircuit of Midnapur. The sowing and harvestingtakfc place time as the sowing and harvestingoi ordinaryaman. at the same the and a foot or two of straw The rest harvested. are ears Only the
plant also
of the straw
grows,
is used
for fuel
gatheredand
or
burnt.
as peculiarkind of boro rice is known rdydd or This is with ricein boro ber. Decemsown ordinary bhdsd-ndrdngd. along
Rayda.
"
A
The
young this does not
stems
shorn
are
to do
when
the
the
rdydd any of 10 and a height grow in water, attaining till September or October, thus harvested but
tor
10 months.
seem
Only
the
with
ears
harvested,the rest of the straw or
gatheredand
or
a
nara
boro crop is removed, It continues harm. to even
20
feet,and is not
remaining on
the
land
foot and-a-half of straw are left to rot the on land, being
set fire to.
the poorest Rayda paddies supply the food of Aus, Boro and peopleof Bengal. Fully one-third of the whole produce of Dacca
the aman belongs to the aus and boro classes of rice,and even the is of a Dacca, variety, especially long-stemmed paddy coarse Bordn and inferior grain. Rdydd and paddiesare grown in Eastern Bengal and Sylhet. climatic conditions for the rice crop are : The most favourable final preparation (1) Premonitory showers in May, facilitating of land and sowing in seed-beds ; (2) heavy showers duringJune fair and in July, facilitating weather for transplantation ; (3) in August,facilitating a niyarhand weeding operations; fortnight the aman is coming into ear rains in when September, {4) heavy ; in October, about once a (5) casual but heavy showers week, two or (6) one duringthe first fortnight especially ; and good showers at the end of January facilitating ploughingup of rice-land in the cold weather.
rainfall, nor
late
The
aus
crop
the as rainfall,
aman
does not does.
need
such
a
heavy
176
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
differs so outturn much in different different conditions and for different varieties, that Sir W. Hunter gives15 inaunds it is difficult to strike an average. Average Outturn." The
under districts,
and boro
acre
the
as
as
maunds
paddy,
12
coarse
manure
:
"
grain per acre.
Ibs.
Badsabhog
fine scented
on
aman
grown land, i.e., low, rich land
aman
Badaabhog
3.
Rsinipagal(tine scented
on
grown
land
...
aman)
5.
Chinor
(".
Btinsphul(tine aman)
7.
Daudkhani
Provinces)grown
on
land
(fine aman)
8.
Kanakchur
0.
Karpurkiili(second
ordinary on
grown
aman
;
11.
Kataribhog (tine aman)
12.
Hatiabal (coarseraman) grown on aus Swati, Peshwari (big and scented
...
...
...
15.
Bara, Peshwari
...
1(".
Very
17.
Very
coarse
aman
fine Central
paddy
land
am
...
This
of straw scented
comes,
per
acre.
land
400
71("
875
2,13("
910
2,184 1,303
992
2,910
1,239 1,175
2,039 1,43O 1,880
grain,
..
1,096 1,041 1,378
1,764
1,826
2,173
...
1,303
1,825
...
1,208
1,960
...
...
aus
land
paddy
grown
on
aus
...
820
aw
...
Gerteral average '
...
laud
...
...
...
1,921
grown
...
grown
Provinces
...
aman)
aus
...
Madhumati, Peshwari
...
...
on
gown
14.
1,045
1,405
...
land
...
scented
...
paddy)
1,711
awned, fairlyfine)
10.
aus
1,011
table-rice)
aus
land grown Samudrabali (very fine and land aus on on
4,400 2,039
...
...
...
2,600 1,423
...
land
aus
tbs.
on ...
...
on
per
acre.
Central
the
land
aus
grown for
(amati, aits
grown
from
aman
straw
aus
...
...
...
(very fine scented
on
cms.
...
Randhuni-p"gal (tine .scented aman)
grown
on
grown
4.
land
for
...
...
Average produce of
propel
...
suitable
high land
2.
13.
or
better
the Report of the Sibpur the of different outturn give average varieties of paddy for several years,
clay soil without
aus
aus
maunds,
is probably a
Average produce of
1.
for
for 1904-05,
of fine and
races on
of rice
About
acre.
of
Sir A. P. Macdonell
8 maunds
yieldper acre. gatheredfrom following figures,
ExperimentalFarm grown
and
yield per
average 16
IjOOOlbs. of rice,or of average The
yield,while
the average of rice for aman
of clean rice per gives 10 maunds
...
1,462 1,435
on
of paddy and 24J maunds to 15 maunds roughly, The produceof Badsabhog,which is a fine and
variety,obtained
from
a
low-lyingfield where
there
was
shows what the possibilities throughoutthe growingperiod, in and situated land. The outturn are properly good actually obtained from the Bddsabhog varietyrepresentsa produceof over of straw of grainand over 50 maunds 30 maunds The per acre. of 50 maundfc per acre in the case of coarse rdiyafsexpectation and is this is vain, not, therefore, altogether paddy frequently water
177
RICE.
and in the Sundarbans. obtained by the Eden Canal in Burdwan The figures givenabove show how difficultit is to arrive at a fair and unless a fair average for each subdivision and district average, is reached it is not possible to estimate the potentialfood-stock of the country.
the outturn is affected be seen can from the following by heavy manuring and by irrigation the Report of the Dumraon table compiledfrom Farm for Four irrigations 1904-5. were givenin each case, and cow-dung and saltpetre enough for supplying401bs. of nitrogenper acre. be that the increase in yieldis chiefly It will in the straw : seen and Manured Outturn of Irrigated
paddy." How
"
Name
No.
of
Average yield of
variety.
grain per
3.
Sukvel of K a mode Ambamohor
4.
Jirasal
1.
2.
Bombay
Kalumbia
7.
Halvagadhya Tinpakhalia(Kamoda) Ban galia
8. 9.
695
4,560
...
4,710
...
1,160
...
Zina
...
...
1,370
10.
Welch!
710
11. 12.
Rajavil Tinpakhalia(black)
202
13.
Chinor
14. 15.
Daudkhani Banktulai
16.
Kandhunipagal
17. 18.
Samudrabali Bansmati
19.
B"Mbhog
20.
Patnai
21.
Ramsal
Central
or
of
of
1,113
...
...
...
...
...
...
1,253
...
Bengal
Karpurkati
24
Balam
25.
Bansphul (local)
26.
(do.) Mobarajoa (do.)
...
...
.
...
Srikole
29. 30.
Bagami
31.
Bansmati
1,413 1,680 1,460 1,278 1,516 2,000 1,100
...
Kalajira
Batasfeni Sheila
6,180 4,080 5,430 2,850 4,190 4,800
5,066 5,466 4,233 3,650 4,291 4,480 4,350
906
22.
28.
Provinces
do.
23.
27.
4,780"
786
Bengal
...
..
(do.)
...
(do.)
...
of the
Punjab (do.)
5,710 4,500 4,500
1,040 1,080 2,150 1,476 2,150 1,210 1,400
5,000 4,936 5,591 4,865 5,080 2,965 2,230
510
1,110
.".
38,942^31
=
acre.
1,010 1,300
...
Sherabutty
1,885 1,351
per
1,160 1,470
...
5,
straw
4,968 4,180 4,533 4,063 5,890
...
6.
acre.
Average yield of
1,256 Ib. 142,127-r
31
"
4,584 Ib.
the above table,it seems, the Moharajoavariety of Behar of the Calcutta, paddy,the Patnai variety a paddy grown near and Sukvel of the the most are Bombay paddy Bddsdbhog superior Two be mentioned other prolific which paddiesmay prolific. the Chandramuni of fine Aua, and the variety belong to Chittagong, fine variety. of Aman, which is also a fairly Rasail variety From
M,
HA
12
178
"
in the
bora
and
Aman
mentioned.
already
been
of
mixture
The
Rlct drops.
Mixed
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
Aus
field,e.g., in Rajshahi and
same
smdrdydd paddies often
are
like this is grown, usually a full crop if everything goes is of Aman obtained, crop is short rainfall early or late in the season, one crop
fails
crops seed
are
by
broadcast
sown
twice
levelled The
after.
bidia
hand-weedings
ladder.
given
broadcast
sown
in
studied
such
Aman
ed preced-
ladderings. ploughed and
once
again
and
a
one
that
or
week two
this
rough
largequantity
of seed
in the
Sunderbans, given in be should interest, and
intention
of
taking up
is deficient
in
mineral
any
of the
of
is
there
two
is used
a
other
sowing
passed,
considerable
of
is
if
seers
and
is obvfous
cultivation
rice
have
who
by those
It
only irregularmanner.
an
Dictionary, is
Watt's
field
ladder
because
of description
The
the
is also
afterwards.
is withstood
treatment
acre.
The
bullock-rake
or
The
ploughing
a
germinated, the
with
by
18
12-anna
a
But
the
or
mixed
a
only
well.
and
of Aus
seers
together per
have
seeds
36
followed
ploughing and
a
the
Dr.
less.
or
more
After
is
and
of Aus
grown
When
Chittagong.
has
mixed
lands
in the
Sunderbans. *
Chemical
Composition. The
matters.
"
Rice
composition
average
Water
"
13
...
...
...
...
...
Ash
1 ...
Nitrogenous
matter
Fibre
...
but
The
a
of the
lower
; but
value
inner
7 .
...
...
has
...
\\ 76
nitrogen than higher proportion of phosphoric proportion of potash and nitrogen than wheat.
Rice
rice
contains
of rice contains
husk
albuminoids
...
glutinous
rice.
as
...
...
So-called
...
...
treated
Starch
acid
7
1
Fat
ordinary
ous nitrogen-
is
...
...
and
the kunra
husk
and
feeding value, the
average
not
more
any
a
ing great deal of silica and is of little feedit does, largely rice-dust,consisting, as
a or
of
the
rice grain, is richer than of this substance composition being
germ
in
"
Water
11
Ash
9
Fat
14
% "
"
Nitrogenous
matter
treated
aa
albuminoids
13 "
Fibre
8 "
Starch
45 "
Containing a high proportionof oil,kunra and in which
i'tshould
be
therefore
used
the rice is boiled renders
especiallyin ash
as
fresh
the cooked
constituents,than
uncooked
gets rancid
by keeping, possible. The water rice stillmore deficient,
as
or
steamed
rice.
180
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
shaft and one out at for feedingthe mill. The paddy came man the vent at the bottom only partially husked the firsttime ; it had result to be run the mill twice before a satisfactory more through obtained. The rice obtained at the third turn weighed after was
winnowing machine, which separate machine, is pricedKs. 65. It does its work of rice and it is capableof winnowing 40 to 50 maunds winnowing 17
The
seers.
The
mill looks from outside like an The vertical (oil-mill). cylinderworked attached to it three sets of slanting vanes.
positionby
ringsjoinedto the outer
is
quite a well
very
day.
per
ordinary ghani or kalu by the bullock-shaft has The
cask of the
of bars.
is kept in cylinder
by three sets from the hopper
mill
The paddy in working its way down bars into the the is vent through subjectedto the squeezing It is by this action action of the vanes. that the husk gets detached from the rice, in the same detachment the as way takes
place if paddy
is rubbed
or
the
squeezedbetween
palm
and the thumb. that Comparing the cost of huskingpaddy with the dhenki with be of huskingit with Messrs. Burn found that " Co.'s mill,it will for in the favour latter there is some of advantage husking rice for consumption by poor people. The coolie rice,i.e., coarse the twisting 29 seers of paddy filled the mill at first,but as trial action the volume The went on, steadily diminished. been would have givena better result if the mill had kept filled
husked rice. From by a continuous supply of paddy or partially of the trial itself, however, it could be inferred that each maund rice would cost about 4 annas huskingwith this mill. The wages for 2 hours may of 1 man be taken 9 pies,and the cost of as 17 seers keep of a pairof bullocks for one-fourth of a day as 1 anna. of rice costing each maund 1 anna 9 pies, would cost about 4 annas, exclusive of the cost of steaming and drying the paddy. One and dry 3 maunds steam of paddy per diem from which, can woman with the dhenki, 2 maunds of clean rice is obtained. So the cost of is and maund of rice turned out dryingper steaming put down at
up
To husk
anna.
one are
3 maunds
of
paddy
with the dhenki 6
required.Thus
the wages of 7 women, i.e.,about for obtaining 2 maunds of clean rice. So
needed
14
women
annas,
are
the difference of in favour of Messrs. Burn " Co.'s system is 2 annas per maund inferior clean rice. The rice turned out is, however, somewhat to
ordinarybazar rice,and
if this makes
a
difference of
2
annas
per maund, there is no advantagein introducingMessrs. Co.'s machine. But, as alreadypointed out, continuous diminished the cost. feedingwould have considerably As to the quantity that the machine turns out per diem, on the or
more
Burn
"
can expect only 68 seers per day of 8 hours per than 5 with continuous day. feedingprobably not more maunds of clean rice could be expectedper day. If it does this the cost of huskingcomes to onlyabout much, annas per maund
17
seers
basis,we
Even
l|
PADDY
is a
rice,which
of clean
181
HUSKING.
great improvement
over
7
annas
per
maund,
is the average cost of huskingwith the dhenki. If,however, in for husking are instead of 2 bullocks,8 prisoners employed jails paddy with Burn " Co.'s mill, the advantage in, its favour which
disappears. rice-mill driven
A
a
portableengine and
turningout
140
rice per day is also advertised by Messrs. Burn " 7,700, the engine and the paddy smutter beingpriced
of white
maunds
for Rs.
Co.
by
separately. "
"
The sold
Eice
Engelberg by
Huller
Messrs. Marshall
"
(Fig.62), an*
Sons,
and
by
American
chine ma-
Messrs. Macbeth
Brothers " Co.,of Calcutta,, be seen at and which can work at Ramkristopore, Howrah, yields 3001bs. of It is cleaned rice per hour.
capableof dealingwith as
well
varieties
coa.rse
as
fine
unsteamed paddy, ing and steamed, and the huskin is done completely The machine one operation. both
of
tfre oil
itself,without
or
steam-engine required to drive it,weighsonly500ft s., and it occupies a superficial of
power about
to required
4-H.P.,
For
can
drive it is with
and
enginea
16-H.P. machines
The
3ft. square.
space
worked.
without oil-engine
a
an
boiler
and being is quitesufficient, driven direct by a belt from
the
S"
of four
set
be
single machine
a
a
FlG.
HULLEU.
62.--EN(JELBKK(i
is very simpleto manage. If a special is employed to look after the engineand the paddy-husking
the arrangement engine,
mechanic
machine, it
is best to
employ a set of four or five machines driven engine furnished with a boiler. The cost of for 1,100,of a separatingfan or winnower
16-H.P. steam huller is Rs. single taking out the dirt, sticks,straw, and stones from the paddy, rice of different sizes, Rs. 125 ; and of *a grader for separating
by
a
a
Rs. to
100. 16
A
12-H.P.
indicated
H.
(nominal)engine (whichusuallygenerates15 be bought in Calcutta for about P.) can
for
5,000 and four sets of hullers would Rs. 10,000 the whole plant about
can
be
Rs.
set up. cost of
cost
Rs. 4,400. Thus
of buildings) (exclusive
working the engine will consist of (1) the price of coal used, (2)the wages of the mechanic,and an attendant to the The
"
182
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
hullers,and (3) priceof oil used
for
the engine lubricating
and
huller. tank near at hand, there should not be or with water. The any extra expense in keepingthe boiler supplied o f be coal used 4fts. expenditure put down at may per H.P. per hour, which for a 16-H.P. engineworkingfor nine hours a day is If there is a well
maunds about seven 16x9~5761bs. or costingabout Rs. 2-8. The wages of the mechanic may be put down at Re. 1 a day, and of the attendant at 5 annas Inclusive of oil the daily a day. Interest and depreciation cost will thus come to about Rs. 4. at to another of Rs. 10,000 will come 10% calculated on the capital Rs. 5 per day,ifthe work of the machine isdistributed over 200 days in the year. The, outturn per hour from four sets of hullers being
equalto
4x
l,203tbs.daily, 10,800,or, So the cost
say,
comes
10,000,tbs.
to less than
(about12 maunds) of cleaned rice turned
a
of clean rice
rupee out.
can
be obtained.
for every l,000ffis. This is at least four
times cheaperthan the rate at which paddy huskingcan be done with the ordinaryvillage appliances. The Engelberg Rice Huller and Polisher No. 3, the cost of which New York, U. S. A., is $150 (sayRs. 450 to Rs. 500 at Syracuse, landed in Calcutta), ers the demands of smaller capitalists meets or farmwho do not require to shell such a largequantityof paddy as indicated above. Not beingsuch a powerfulmachine as the Hullers Nos. 1 " 2 which are adaptedfor steam-power, the paddy used for Huller No. 3 must be free from sticks, straws, and grit.It requires horse or bullock gear to drive it,and a high-speed horse-power Huller Company be employedfor the purpose. The Engelberg may 65 dollars. locks for Two of supplyhorse-gear pairs powerfulHissar bulturn be employed to drive it instead of two horses. The outmay two
of clean rice per hour from this huller is about 70tbs.,which is maunds to about seven equivalent tal per day. The whole of the capiof of bullocks inclusive exclusive the outlay (but buildingor shed) in this case would be about Rs. 1,000. The pay of the two attendants,,one lookingafter the bullocks and the other feeding the huller and removing sacks of rice when full,need not exceed 6
annas
a
day
in
a
and the feed of country-place, than 8 annas a day. The cost
the 4 bullocks
of huskingin need not cost more of this case, therefore,comes to only about 3 annas per maund rice turned out, inclusive of interest on capital and wear and tear. We have,in discussing the efficiency of Messrs. Burn " Co/s Mill, alreadygiven the average cost of huskingpaddy with the dhenki. with the helpof expert women work out It is possible to get more Two of Jbhedhenki. of such women, one*workingfrom 6 to parties 6 in the evening, the and in other 12 the from to 12 can morning of paddy,an average quantityof either turn out from four maunds 2| maunds (more exactly2 maunds 25 seers)of steamed (siddha) the former, rice. In obtaining rice,or 2 J maunds of unsteamed (atap) is besides the three the dhenki extra at woman an requiredfor steamingand dryingthe paddy and thus keepingthe supplyat the
dhenki
uninterrupted.Two
of four parties
women
at 2 annas
a
day
FADDY
will cost
183
HUSKING.
and the cost of huskingthus comes to about 6 In maund. the of rice where case no atap steaminghas per to be done, the cost conies maund to about 5| annas under the per most favourable conditions. The advantageof having rice husked by the EngelbergHuller is thus obvious. The workingpartsof the machine, beingmade of chilled steel, 1 rupee,
annas
are
extremely substantial.
Still the outer
of the
coat
paddy
is
machine work this grain, a very toughsubstance,and without can no and tear, which has been allowed for in the wear undergoingsome above calculations. The huller-screen (duplicates of which cost dollars
only 2
which requires each) is the part of the machine from times time The cylinto time, say, 4 or 5 renewing der evejy year. also is apt to get worn and the although out, blade-adjusting
helpsto keep
screw
and
the
between
space
when
FIG.
do in three
paddy
blades
63."
ENGKLBERG
four years.
or
the
dhenki. sunned and
be expected out, which they
These cannot
in this
be renewed
in New
York
country, The condition of the
20 dollars.
hopper of the huller in the
same
it is considerd
in which In
cylinder
(BULLOCK-POWKH).
HULLER
be fed into the
must
the
on
huller cannot
the blades get altogether worn
costs duplicatehuller-cylinder
a
the
cylinder-shell properlyadjusted,the
to work
and
the
case
then
to feed the mortar necessary of unsteamed paddy, the paddy should
spreadout
for
a
the next day. properlydried in the
before
it is husked
paddy
is not
nightin The sun
a
cool
(cemented)floor
breakageis greaterif and
be
also if it is in
a
the
brittle
in a hot day. In to the sun condition immediatelyafter exposure is nearly 10 per cent, more the case of steamed paddy the outturn with the and the dhenki both with EngelbergHuller. The produce of steamed
rice is
on
the average
rice 50 per cent, paddy is obtained with dhenkis. of the
The the
motion
Huller
No.
3, a shaft
communicated
per cent,
used, a
EngelbergHuller Company
to drive
and
68
to
a
and
result which also
is
supply a
beingmoved pulleyto
of
unsteamed
equal to what gear
for
power man-
round by 12 men which the huller is
184
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
attached by a leather belt. At least 20 Indian coolies would be of rice needed to work this gear, and the cost for tusking per maund There would be therefore no would thus come to over 8 annas. shaft is adaptedfor attaching the advantagein havingthis gear unless
bullocks,wKich
can
be
easilydone
as
shown
in the
is 75 dollars.
The
figure63. It is easier
York at New priceof this man-power the horse-gear than this for tioned alreadymenadapt bullock-power should be above. The huller and the pulley or bullock-gear both placedin a circular hollow, and the shaft drivingthe pulley should work above, the bullocks beingattached to the end of the A railing shaft and goinground and round above the hollow. or a into the hollow parapet should protect the bullocks from slipping accident. throughany Huller No. 2 is constructed without the fan or polisher, a rice for the made a being polisher, separate arrangement being conveyed from a series of 10 or 12 hullers to a singlepolisher placedat the end of the series. For largemills this huller is better in Fig.62 where adapted than the more completeone represented the polisher is enclosed at the lower portion of each huller. Huller No. 2 not being provided with the polisher costs less (about Ks. 900 instead of Rs. 1,100). The of a price separate polisher capable of cleaning2,400 to 3,6001bs. of rice per hour is 300 to
dollars
(about Rs. 1,000).
for separatepolisher The is
each
For
series of 12
winnowing machine
pricedat
to India.
30
largemill,Huller No.
a
suppliedby
it would dollars, i.e.,
It is
are hullers,
cost
the
about
from scarcelydistinguishable
the best
2, and to
a
have.
Engelberg Company Rs.
125
broughtout
Dell's Winnower.
A very
Das Khan, of of Rakhal mechanic, of the name ingenious has constructed number of Howrah, a steam-power, bullock-power, and hand-power rice hullers and polishers, which do excellent work. of capitalhe is unable to push his business,but his For want machines are certainly worthy of extended patronage. The handis machine pricedonly Rs. 10, and it does the huskingin power huller and one operation,but not polishing.The bullock-power and he has It huller at 400. consists of Rs. a polisher priced polisher and a winnower, all worked simultaneouslyby a pair of bullocks. With this polished rice is obtained in one operation.The dailyoutturn of ricefrom this machine is about 20 maunds. Five sets of
and winnowers hullers,polishers,
simultaneouslyworked
by a engine. From each set 50 maunds of rice is either husked or is best done by adding with each maund of polished.The polishing rice only half a seer of dust (kunrd)of unsteamed rice, unpolished and passingit througha set of hullers and winnowers. With five and with sets of hullers 250 maunds either husked or polished, are are
steam
one
set of winnower
250 maunds
of rice
can
be divested of husk
and
cleaned. Each set of huller or winnower is pricedat Rs. 300. If to this isadded Rs. 5,000 for purchaseof an engineand boiler, the total cost of machinerywill cost (Rs.300 x 5-f Rs. 300 +Rs. 5,000 Rs. 6,800,and with leather straps"nd a shed, the capital charg =
185
WHEAT.
will be at least Rs. 8,000. As each part of this machine is made in the country, it can be also renewed in the country, and for this alone it should be regardedas a better machine than the reason have been found In Surat. the hands of in better than the EngelbergHuller machines will have a great future Rakhal Das Khan's a capitalist Babu Kakhal Das that now It may before them. be mentioned
EngelbergHuller,or
the German
machinerywhich
and a boilers and steam taken to constructing engines, and polishing J-H.P. boiler with steam engineand a set of husking rice 45 maunds of It husks Rs. machine is priced 500. a day, at only this machine and if polished rice is wanted, the daily produceout of machine is 25 maunds. I commend these as well as the dal-splitting Khan
has
invented
by
this
the notice of my
gentleman to
XXVI.
CHAPTER WHEAT ^Classification ; Excellence
countrymen.
(TRITICUM SATIVUM).
of Indian
Wheats
;
the best varieties ; the Muxafter-
Wheat; Acreage ; Soil; Cultivation ; Manuring; Rotation ; Harvest ; Outturn; Improvements suggested.] main WHEATS divided into two are classes,soft and hard. The latter are more suitable glutinous, renderingthe grainmore nagar
for
while the *oft,starchygrainsare (suji), the productionof fine flour or maidd.
making semolina suitable for especially
also divided accordingto the colour of the Wheats are The following strains of wheat white and red. races or in
graininto are
nised recog-
Bengal: "
(1) Dudhid
suitable for making fine flour, wheat especially maidd grain white, soft, plump, and rounded ; leaves usually broader than those of other varieties. "
"
"
(2) Jdmdli "
wheat
; grain fairlylarge,soft,pale-red
"
"
leaves
narrow.
(3) GANG
A
wheat
JALI
grain pale-grey,large,hard,
"
"
gated, elon-
with somewhat angularoutline,difficultto break or bite. Best adapted for making sujiand atta (whole meal). Leaves broad. size ; wheat hard, pale-greygrainsof medium (4) KHERI "
"
leaves
"
narrow.
(5) PIUSA wheat
grain soft,pale-grey, very "
"
small ; leaves
"
narrow.
(6) NANBIA "
wheat
"
grain hard, reddish,very "
small ; leaves
narrow.
varietyof the Jdmdli wheat (softred wheat) is called Maghia, as it ripensvery early,in Magh or Falgun (aboutFebruary). A bald or beardless varietyof dark brown but soft grained wheat, All the in is k nown as Ghyochangmed. Singbhum, locally grown other Bengal wheats are more less bearded. or A
Better
the
vinces, classes of wheat are, however, grown in the Central Prothe Central In Provinces. and United the Punjab,
186
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Provinces the best hard wheats are grown* while the best soft wheats in Northern India, in the basins of the Ganges and the are grown Indus, and their tributaries. In Southern India,in the moist parts of the Gangetic Delta,in Orissa,and in Burma poor hard red wheats and
noticed for high class wheats to degenerate the United Provinces,Central in and white wheats Behar soft realisehighervalues than Provinces, and some other any others. The relative value of Indian, English, are
grown,
a
high class wheats
tendencyhas been these regions.In
can
be
judgedfrom
: following figures "
that Indian wheat compares with other and is it wheats, supersededonly very favourably by the finest Russian and Australian varieties. The Indian wheat of moisture and is therefore well is also remarkably free from excess adaptedfor mixing with Englishwheats which are too moist. The From
the above
table it would
the
seem
of thinness of skin of Indian wheats and the consequent largeness yield must always placethem in the front rank as millers' wheat, whenever theyare handled with intelligence. Indeed, Indian wheats are fullyknown in the Englishmarket, and their value is equalto that wheats. of the best European and American of some of the Indian wheats which are The names prized as equal Gundun of to any in the world are Delhi, : Safed (1) (2)Daudiof and Meerut in the Uniof Bulandshahr ted Unao in Oudh, (3) Saman in Khan the of Ismail Dera Provinces, (4)Safed Punjab, (5)White Pissi of the Central Provinces,(6)Buxar No. 1 Club wheat, wheat. The weightper bushel of Indian and (7) Muzaffernagar "
while the recognised wheat varies from 60 to 65 ffis., weight of a bushel of Englishwheat is 63tbs. Calcutta wheat is burdened with refraction of 5 per cent.,and Bombay wheat of 4 per cent.,in the a Englishmarket, which only induces cultivators or mahajans to mix In post-monsoon with the wheat. earth or other foreignmatter in wheat due to Indian the are chiefly impurities consignments weevils. The Agricultural Departmentsof Northern India have is as the Muzaffernagar succeeded in popularising wheat, which in recent good as any of the soft white wheats. The demand for hard tended and has be to wheats, more years, however, rpore
183
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
situated in a dry*locality" irrigation, is the best soil to choose for wheat. Sandy loams are also utilised alluvial lands, where dearh or new for growing wheat, especially Soil."
Clay-loam,easy
of
and linseed mustard of wheat and barley or wheat or wheat lands taken. of The best are on are commonly grown crops canal-water is used Where newly broughtunder canal-irrigation. of years the outturn is found to fall off for irrigation for a number of level. This is due (1) to excessive use below the original even food-constituents which washes valuable for water irrigation away tion and bringsup to the soil undesirable soluble salts,and (2) exhaus-
mixtures
by the taking of heavy crops
caused
Cultivation." Shortly, the
at first without
land is to be
manure.
ploughed and crosssome improvedplough
the country ploughor then cultivated with the grubber,as often as convenient,and after the rains are over as as soon operationscommenced possible. ing, When by ploughing, cross-ploughing, grubbing,harrowing,and rollland has been prepareddeeplyand thoroughly(all the operations close one upon another,that there may be no undue following loss of moisture), night's seed should be sown by drilling.At least a fort-
ploughed,firstwith
and
tween be allowed for the proper aerification of soil betime must the first ploughingand the sowing. If rolling or laddering is done after each operation there will be Jittle loss of moisture in a vation time after the monsoons over. soon are Deep cultifortnight's is advisable for the wheat ed. recommendcrop, hence grubbingis be done should after the cold weather properlysets Sowing somewhat in,i.e.,
The
sown."
Lower
later than
middle
Bengal.
In
20th
earlyin October.
cease
used per acre, but this is too
barleyand
worked
or
25th
October, or
are
boys in the United
earlier still if the
lOOlbs. of seed
About much.
SOlbs.
fieldshould be divided out into littlebanks of earth with a wooden
by
rabi crops
is
sowing,the up
other
the best time for ordinarily laterite soils sowing should be done
rocky and
earlier, say about the rains
when
of November
are
are
commonly
quiteenough.
After
irrigation-beds by scraping shovel which
Provinces.
is
usually
This wooden
shovel in for into be well introduced practice Bengal making may very littleirrigation-beds. If the soil is too dry,it should be irrigated before sowing. Three or four irrigations are ample for altogether are dry localities; but one or two irrigations usuallyrequired, though in moist tracts irrigation for the be w ith dispensed altogether may and wheat barleycrops. In such tracts,however, wheat does not do well.
two
Where
the natural
conditions in any season are be required.One favourable,no irrigation exceptionally may should be done within week ten days after the a or hand-weeding firstwatering. Two hoeingswith the American wheel-hoe may be afterwards of to the the given growth promote crop. Manure."
best manure of bonemeal
1J Saltpetre
climatic
is the (top-dressed) to be poor, 1 J maund time of ploughing, the a t beforehand
maund acre per If the land is known
for wheat. should be used
189
WHEAT.
immediate benefit will be derived from such application. Five maunds of oil-cake may be used instead. But better immediate effectwill be obtained from the saltpetre. The best manure to apply varies much, however, with the locality, and no generalstatements is required be made. No manure for dearh land which is annucan ally renovated with silt.
though no
Rotation." Juar
in
grown
other
or
millets
rotation,though both
are
and
wheat
commonly
are
Juar grain-crops.
and barley
being surface feeders
be grown togetheror successively may But better result would with wheat which is a deep-rooted crop. be obtained from Kulthi,or Bhadoi Mung, or Bhadoi Kalai being Lentils or gram grown before wheat. alongwith wheat is, grown bad practiceas the leguminous crop a and the ed wheat-crop prevents exhaustion of soil ; but mixsupports than one crops with wheat are found to be undesirable for more
not theoretically speaking,
reason.
Harvest." The
grainsare
wheat harvest should be commenced after the quiteripeand the straw quitedry and crisp.
Outturn."
of
grain,and Cost
9
or
maunds
10
is about per acre of straw.
10 to 12 maunds
the average
(inBengal)" Bs.
1
Ploughing Cross-ploughingfollowed by laddering Bakharing
1
Cross-bakharing
1
I
Grubbing Cross-grubbing Harrowing
1
Boiling
1 1
1
...
...
...
...
...
.
...
-.
Cost of
pickling Boilingafter sowing of
...
A.
...
...
...
...
...
...
,.
12
0
0
12
0
60
060 060
...
...
...
...
060
...
...
040
...
040
...
...
..
..
00 0
...
Maund
...
.-"
...
...
0
...
...
Hand-weeding Wheel-hoeings Reaping Threshing and winnowing with Bent (half-year's) Depreciationon implements 1
2
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Total Produce of 12 maunds and straw 16 maunds "
...
machine
...
grain @
cost
...
Bs. 3
...
...
..
Total outturn about Bs. 11.
...
Net
profitper
8
2
0
1
20
I
20
0
""
300 1
80
0
80
26
80
36
0
0
1
8
0
8
0
37
acre,
seed with the help of an Cost of drilling to nearly Re. 1 per acre. being used) comes to only about 6 annas cost would come per acre *
40 00
..
...
...
...
0
..080
...
...
1 2
...
Bs. 3 per maund
6 saltpetre solution with I saltpetre Watering of saltpetre 280 after application 1 Begular irrigation J
p.
0
0
...
...
1 Drilling* Cost of 501bs. of seed @ 1
yield
American with less. or
But
wheel-hoe a
proper
(I tine only seed-drill the
190
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
should be borne in mind in extending vation the cultiof wheat in any part of India are : (1) the seed should be suited to the locality in which it is grown ; (2) of the best variety should be chosen ; (3)the soil should be deepa rust-resisting variety ly The
pointsthat
"
as cultivated, deepercultivation
is
requiredfor
wheat than for should be used for top-dressing and oats ; (4)saltpetre rice,barley, ; mixed with other crops, and the seed used should be it not sown (5) and the threshing should be as clean as should be unmixed and select, until the should be done not cold weather fairly possible ; (6)sowing sets
in, barley and
earlier in the
being sown
oats
there is not sufficientmoisture
season
;
(7) if
at the
time, land should be irrigated and bakhared afterwards before sowing ; (8) wheat should be twice
in wheat if possible, irrigated,
districts proper, and the sites chosen for wheat land should therefore be close to water ; (9) harvesting should be done after the grainis thoroughlyripe; (10) grainshould be stored so that there may be completeprotection againstweevils. not to the and attack weevils of oats are so subject as Paddy wheat, and cultivators often find their wheat seed completely destroyed by weevils at sowing time, and their sowing of wheat seed results less partial germination. (11) Wheat seed or always in more should be isown after pickling, to avoid and smut, insect-pests, damage by birds. of grains The subjectof storing againstweevils and pickling will be discussed in the part devoted to Insect and Fungus Pests.
CHAPTER BARLEY [Occurrence
in
wild
state
(HORDEUM ;
Two-rowed,
Barley ; Composition of Indian Cost; Barley Meal; Barley Straw;
XXVII.
HEXASTICHUM). four-rowed, and Huskies** Exhaustion
six-rowed Barley ; Cultivation ; Seed ; of Surface Soil.]
Barley ;
of the most ancient of cultivated Barley,like wheat, is one but two-rowed the alone has been barley(Hordeum distichum) crops, discovered in the wild state in several parts of Central Asia, while The six-rowed barley(Hordeum wheat has not been so discovered. has hexastichum)or bigg,which is the stapleof Indian cultivation, in wild the been discovered not which state,though this is the variety
Europe,Asia, and Africa in very old times. The isthe stapleof European culfour-rowed barley(Hordeum vulgare) tivation now. Probablythe four-rowed and six-rowed barleysare derived from the wild two-rowed variety.Indian barleyis richer in albuminoids than Englishbarley. The composition mer of the forwas
cultivated in
is,
on
the average
Starch Cellulose Oil Albuminoids Ash Water
:
"
63
cent.
per
7 "
I "
11*5
"
3 "
12-5
191
BARLEY.
India Barleyis grown to a small extent all over either Provinces the mixed United in or and chiefly by itself, with wheat, or gram, or with peas, or lentils. The most favourite mixture is barleyand gram. Barleyand wheat as a mixture is not Cultivation. "
popular,but barley as surface feeder and wheat as a sub-soil camfeeder may be grown togetherin rich soils. Rape (Brassica tdr"mani tir"mird or mustard (Brassica vuncea), (Eruca pestris), and linseed are also grown along with barley. Lightersoil sativa), The land is prepared, and for barleythan for wheat. is preferred in than wheat, unless they the season a littleearlier the seed sown used per acre. lOOlbs. of seed are sown are together.About seed is requiredfor barley than for wheat, but A little more is too liberal an allowance. Seed properly stored acre lOOlbs. per and againstweevils germinates properlyand smaller protected of seed are sufficient; 60 to 701bs. of barleyshould such quantities be ample to sow acre. an Barley is a hardier crop than wheat of amount not it does and weeding and requirethe same It can be also grown and it is not so subjectto rust. irrigation, so
in different climates than successfully
more
not do
so
well in
warm
and
moist
wheat, which
regionsas
(Planet Jr.)
hoeing with the American of manuring with 1 maund when with great advantage
barley does.
wheel-hoe
and
does One one
be applied may above six inches plants is practisedfor barley. The high. In Bengal no irrigation done be before the grains earlierthan should wheat, i.e., harvesting be made to stand with ears are very ripe. The cut sheaves may when the and floor the grains are quite threshing upwards, near be threshed
dry they can Cost
or
saltpetre per the
acre
are
flailedout.
(inBengal)" H.
A.
P.
8
0
Ploughing and cross-ploughing 1 Bakharing and 1 cross-bakharing Seed (601bs.) Picklingthe same Cost of sowing in drills 1
...
Heaping Threshing and winnowing if necessary Irrigation, Manure, Imd. of
saltpetre
with water Applying the same Rent (halfcharged againstthis crop) etc. Depreciation, 18
Outturn. straw
12mds. of grain at Rs. 2, and
"
at
of 25
1 anna
Net profitper acre, about
I6mds.
...
6
To separate the adherent glumes from barleygrainsJmsking does not answer, frying or parchingbeingnecessary. Barleygrain, parchedand mixed with gram, is givento animals as food. Barley is eaten largely meal (sattu), by up-country preparedafter parching,
192
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and is givento animals also. Barleystraw is not a safe straw to giveto horses and cattle, as itisliableto cause colic, being bearded and spiney. It may be used for litter with great advantage. Barley, and beinga surface feeder, littlecrop-residue is a greater leaving exhauster of surface-soil than wheat or rice. For this reason this or only the ears should be grown, crop should be either sparingly men
harvested
and
the straw
ploughedin.
CHAPTER OATS [Soils suitable
XXVIII.
(AVBNA SATIVA).
for this crop; Range of Temperature; for fodder by irrigation.] Grown
Cultivation
"
Seed;
Harvesting;
in Bengal. Like OATS are a very minor crop in India,especially be grown lands suitable for Aus wheat and barley,oats may on Aus has been after the harvested. This crops or paddy jute paddy be also grown well on dearh lands and low-lying lands which are can and
November.
be grown all fact,oats can on kinds of soil, lightand heavy, rockyand calcareous,the best result of course being obtained from rich friable loam, somewhat lighter than typicalwheat land. The range of temperature at which oats properlyis greater than in the case of wheat or rice. The grow range of temperature at which oats will grow well is also very great.
dry by
As
October
soon
as
the rains have
In
stoppedin September
or
October
the land should be ploughed and cross-ploughedand bakhared, and rolled before drilling. Rotten harrowed 150 cow.-dung, maunds per acre, appliedon the land at the time of cultivation, of saltpetre when the seedlings 30 seers and | maund or top-dressed about six inches high,givethe best result. 501bs. of seed (which are is lighter than wheat seed) is ample per acre. After drilling the wooden rollershould be passedto bury the seed and give seed,a light compactness to the soil. Seed should be pickledwith Sulphateof Copperas usual before sowing. One wateringat the time of applying If the crop looks vigorous in solution is necessary. the saltpetre and if the land is not very harsh and dry,no other wateringwill be required.One hand-hoeingand one wheel-hoeingwith the Planet Jr. American hoe should be sufficient. of oats requiresspecial The harvesting care, as it should be and the straw is stillsomedone when the grainsare not fully what ripe Harvested the shed and loses the straw late, grains green. is value. in feeding Oat-straw nutritious than rice or wheat more of grainand 30 maunds An acre should yield20 maunds of straw. straw cultivated as above. Oats are sometimes grown by irrigation to supply green fodder, Cattle Farm, where three cuttings e.g., at the Hissar Government of the green fodder are taken, and the fourth cutting left to bear a thin crop of grain. then
BHUTTA
OB
INDIAN
XXIX.
CHAPTER BHUTTA [Area
Manure
;
Area
million
;
The
"
maize types ; Quality of food ; Straw ; Indian Soil ; Cultivation ; Outturn ; Jaunpur maize ; Maize
the
plant has antiquityit was
not
the Peruvians
and
Classification. This
In
state.
but
remote
only by
grown
acres
Patna
is about in
are
as
der fod-
huller.] six
Bengaland
Division, in Monghyr,
Parganas, Hazaribagh, Singhbhum and Darthe poor. a principalarticle of diet among
Bhagalpur, Sonthal forms maize jiling, "
British India
in
million
nearly two
districts of
all the
In
maize
under
area*
of which
acres,
Bihar.
(ZEA MAYS).
American
Origin;
;
CORN
INDIAN
OR
195
COBN.
been
discovered in the
known
not
in the
the Mexicans.
wild
Old
World, has been,
It
for nearly every climate,and it is now hills cold Sikkim the of and Bhutan, as well in successfully grown soil arid of and Manbhum in the hot and as Singhbhum. It does found
however,
suitable
Bengal and Provinces, Rajputana and the
Well in the moist
United varieties into
the
are
types
of
climate
best,but
similar
to
these
those
Indian
maizes
into
in India the
on
dry climate of the American Punjab. The
introduced
grown
generations.Improvement
in the
lines of
to be the
India, degenerate
in the
of
course
a
the cultivating
few
best
of
only, practical dealing way maize must have come from America question. Originally to India,but there are now regularIndian types. The three recognised Indian classes are : (1) large-cobbeddry-grainproducing class,usuallyyellow; (2) the class that produces sweet and large purposes ; and (3) green cobs,usuallywhite, for roastingor boiling the class that givesthe best popped corn (or khai),which is usually a many, but small-cobbed,class. White, yellow,red and and then there is the further black varieties are also distinguished, seems
most
with the
' '
kharifand
distinction between take
about
' '
rabi
maize, also
months
three
between those
and
those which
which
take as growing six. The stalks of maize being very tough and free from as many used in Germany for making high class paper. siliceous matter, are maize-stalk Bank-notes made from are pulp. Attempts may be the in of Indian made maize to grow vicinity largely paper mills
only
induce
and
the paper
Cornflour." Maize
grain, both
uncooked, is somewhat cooked,
it is
maize
mill-stones.
The
where
to
use
green
difficult to
maize-stalks. and
digest. But
easilydigested.Cornflour
steepingthe vats
manufacturers
dry, made
cooked
and
into meal
and
is manufactured
by
and then grinding it between in hot water into is then sieves pulp passed through
the cornflour
the glutenremainingin settles,
first
large
hug$
the sieves.
internal fat which is givesthe tendency to accumulate If cattle like bullocks and horses. to working animals injurious fed with maize it should be given mixed with other food, such are Maize
as
diet
straw, grass and M,
HA
oil-cake.
Too
much
maize
producesacute 13
194:
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
colic, impactionof indigestion,
the rumen, swelled legs, But etc. and habit have a great deal to do with the questionof diet. Bhutia poniesand Sonthal coolies are able to digestmaize even Maize contains more outside their own native climate. fat and is than other grainsif it can be digested.The cobs more fattening divested of grainsare rich in carbonate of potash,containing as climate
twice 1*762 per cent., i.e.,
much as is contained in wood, as thrown be into the manure they should, therefore, pit. The value as fodder (exceptfor elephants), is not of much if the straw cobs are allowed to ripen; but if the cobs are disposedof in the much
as
and
valuable for fodder as are state, maize-stalks into if converted silage. specially they are
as
green
Manuring and Rotation." Maize
is
heavy manuring requirevS very in are frequentlysown lines of rabi
the when to
drought
cattle and
the
while
maize,
is threatened.
the roots
eaten
are
mustard
gram,
poppy, is barley often
The
or
soil
good
it
produce good
to
the United
yield. Carrots
and
exhaustingcrop
an
or
juar stalks,
Provinces between
especially crop is still standing, leaves of the carrots are given
by people. In
fall, years of heavy rainBut wheat safflower follows maize.
maize, though it is against the grown of rotation of crops to do so. In some principle parts of the Punjab
or
after
three crops are taken in succession in the same year from the same Melon is grown after wheat land. or barleyis off the ground in and the land is preparedearlyin July for the maize March crop as
by then the
melon
Soil." Maize
with
is
crop
over.
prefershigh
daga, Singhbhum, are
intended
for
and
Manbhum
obtained
alluvial low-lands
in Bihar
of
Bengal
grain.
But
are
not
"
In
May
homesteads,
already ploughedup 1|
or
once
deep
districts
The
damp
for this crop, if it is throughout Bengal, where
either as
after
also,largecrops
lands.
a
a
as
a
kharif or
a
rabi crop unless there
good
shower
weather,
should
of be
rabi are
rain,land
ploughed
seed should be dibbled in regular lines eighteeninches apart at the
and cross-ploughed to 2 inches
June
In Lohar-
adapted for growing maize
well
in the cold
trict Darjeelingdis-
maizes.
suited
so
be grown Maize for green cobs. may to grow it crop, but it is not profitable for facilities irrigation. special Cultivation.
the
homestead
near especially
takes place,are water-logging
and
rough grittysoil,
even
plentyof humus in it. The hillyregionsof suited for growing high class are especially
of maize
no
and
open
and
the
When the plantsare all well acre. soil is found If the too be given. up, one dry three days after sowing and no rain is immediately expected, the land once. it is safe to irrigate (if Early sowing with irrigation late result when much better than no gives sowing necessary), is requiredowing to the monsoon beingin full swing. irrigation rate
of three to four
harrowed,
seers
per
hand-Weedingshould
Heavy rain does the greatestharm yet of small size.
No
harm
to
is done to
maize-plantswhen
they are
by heavy rains maize-plants
196
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
of special merit : (1) as sorghum should be recognized Sugar Sorghum,Sorghum saccharatum,which yieldsseveral cuttings Karmi fodder ; (2) the Gahama of sweet and palatable or sorghum
varieties of
(Sorghum Roxburyhi),which yieldsthe heaviest crops of fodder ; sorghum, the Cholam of Southern India (Sorinferior only to the best yieldsthe best grain, wheat for bread-making. The first is also known as Sorgho or and (3) the Deo-dhan which yhum vulyare),
Imphe and is grown in America and Africa. There are three distinct Bhadoi varieties of Soryhum,vulyare, a variety,a winter or late and a springvariety(calledShalu juar). In Bengal the variety, the riceShalu varietyshould be introduced as a catch-crop, as and no use is made of late rain in October crop is sometimes a failure, in districtswhere
and November
rice,maize
and
millet
the
are
principal crops. Chemistry. The be evident from the
high
value
possessedby Sorghum grainwill followingtable :
"
"
Albuminoids.
Sorghum
Indian Indian Indian Indian
The
Rice
...
Wheat
...
Oats
turnipswhich
68*4
"
10 1
...
show followingfigures
78'3
"
135
Oil.
72-3%
7*3
...
...
compared to
93%
...
...
...
Starch.
56'0
"
2'
"
"
12,, 2'3
"
"
the high value
of green juaras greatlyprizedas fodder in
are
%
-f" "
der fod-
land Eng-
:
"
Green Water
...
..
Albuminoids Starch and fat Ash ...
-
...
...
...
...
8;V17
Turnips. 90-43
2'5f" 1T14 1'14
T04
789 -64
in many agricultural population, parts of India juar is ing more importantcrop than even wheat and rice. It yieldsa nourishand about wheat acre as (900ffis.) the]samequantityper grain, To
8
...
...
Juar.
and
ten
crops.
the
times As
much
as
fodder crops
in fuel and are
at
a
fodder as the ordinarycereal discount in India, the growingof
superiorvarieties of juar for food and fodder should be encouraged much as possible.When as grainis allowed to ripen,the lower half of the juarstalk should be used for fuel and the upper half for fodder. But the best fodder is obtained from green juarjustwhen the heads it is in full vigourof growth and not too tall. visible,when Cut at this stage,it affords a .more nutritious fodder than turnips and a second and a third cutting,and sometimes even a fourth, if also obtained is each be the land after cultivated may cutting. The second cutting is of less nutrient value and weight, and third cutting of stillless value,but these are obtained at the dry season are
of
of fodder. when there is great scarcity The hard lower and be stalks converted into fodder. can juar silaged
should be sown with the helpof irrigation, and May, sowingsshould continue through June
Juar for fodder
if necessary,
in
portion
JUAR
GREAT
OR
197
MILLET.
and
July,that there may be a succession of fodder crops of first, from July to March or April, of secon4 and third cuttings, a portion which can be dried and preserved for use from Aprilto June. The dry stalks should be stacked and thatched, either on high land,or over
about
temporary cattle 22,000fts.is the
maunds per acre, of first cuttingand the weight About
sheds.
280
i.e.,
the average if irrigated, second and third cuttings produceas much again,or if left unirrigated but cultivated in proper season, about 10,000tbs. more. Dried, the fodder loses about two-thirds in weight. If is still on, and the the first cutting is taken when the rainy season second
the land is stillmoist, say early in November ploughedboth times,very fair results can be had without of green fodder to 40,000]t)s. even 30,000lt)s. irrigation. will keep a yoke of oxen GOffis. diem for one receiving per year. into grainwill also afford Any of the juar that is allowed to run about 10,OOOFbs. be used as of dry straw per acre, half of which can and
cuttingwhen
if the land
fuel and
half
is
this fodder is less valuable than green is better as a fodder than straw considerably rice straw, and it should be given at the rate of half a maund per bullock of ordinaryBengal size,properlychopped up and mixed with oil-cake and water. of straw If SOOltis. of grainand 10,000lt)s. obtained per acre of juar, will and lock, are a bulan acre support a man
fodder,but
as
juar(dried).Juar
the Soil. "
it does
beingallowed 40J1)s.of grainper month.
man
Juar
is grown
both
rich
on
and
on
poor
and though soil,
deeply cultivated rich loam (likethe black cotton Southern India),it is a very hardy crop and it well,though it is not a deep-rooted droughtfairly crop like for such For very dry soils, suitable and is not a juar crop, best
on
soil of Central and stands maize.
Bajra and crop
the
are
yield of
showing a lor
Kodo most
more
suitable.
grain is
luxuriant
If
rich land is chosen
for this
proportionately very small, the straw growth. Low-lying land is unsuitable
kills it. juar as water-logging Cultivation. The "
for maize
same
sort
of cultivation
as
is recommended
should be adopted. The roots are easilyspoilt logging, by waterhence ridging lating or earthingis advisable and water accumu-
in the field should be let out.
In
dry climates
this precaution
is unnecessary
but interculture here is essential. Ten pounds for grain, be used per acre, if it is grown but SOlfts. if is it for acre fodder, sowing being done 18" x 9" apart grown in the former case, and 9" x 6" in the latter. It is usuallygrown mixed with arahar, cotton, etc. But the best result is obtained by growing it singly. of seed should
Diseases. The
juar crop is very much subjectto fungoid diseases specially if the heads appear in the rainy season. Rust, and bunt havingbeen allnoticed. Insects,birds and squirrels smut also do a great deal of damage. We have seen in a very exagsmut gerated form in the juargrown at the SibpurFarm. The seed should "
198
HANDBOOK
always be
AGRICULTURE,
OP
of with sulphate pickled
sown
diseases.
Another
fungoid for preventing
copper
and obtaining a avoidingsmut better yieldof grainis to do the sowing in July instead of in May or June, when the floweringtakes place after the rains are over. in a damp climate it is impossible Grown to avoid diseases in juar for and in such a climate juarfor fodder alone should grain, grown of
means
be grown.
juar juar. It should be noted here, that stunted of rainfall, is poisonous there is deficiency to cattle,
poUonous
"
when
grown and contains be sown not
acid. prussic
If
juar should
available
is not irrigation
till June, i.e.,the commencement of the monsoon, be avoided. that the ill-effectsof earlydrought on this crop may late in ill-effects that should be done the not August either, Sowing be
drought
of late
may and
eatingstunted
also avoided.
parched up
Death
sorghurn is
cattle from
among
in the
fairly
common
Punjab. of
Extension
the cultivation where
juar is
grown
Matichur of
the cultivation
juar of the Central
juar fodder
arc
than
men
RA"JI
OK
Mn
Kdun
Mama
or
run
Ami
;
(ELEUSIXE
crop; ( hrrnn
of food.
CORACAXA)
AND
OTHER
Chemical
Cultivation:
Slnunn
;
Ctondli
;
Laid
;
Composition J
Mrtijhn
some
red
or
"/tt/af:
i*
more
commonly
grown
in
Bengalthan juarthough its
yieldis rather In
superior tion introduc-
cattle as difficulty,
such
with
the The
and
MILLETS.
Yield; :
and
Nadia
XXXI.
LESSER
[Value ot the Beverage;
parts of
introduced.
in their choice
CHAPTER MARTA
in
extended
Provinces
attended
is not
less conservative
be
can
introducing easy this crop, but know
be
not
juar where people do not by a few cultivators, as
of
Murshidabad,
will
It
cultivation."
poor, the average beingabout eightmaunds parts of Madras it produces over 2,000ft"s. per
per acre. in the
acre
soils with
of each stem are our irrigation.At the summit full of This is never digitate spikes grain. grain supposed to be attacked by insects and to keep for any lengthof time. There is some advantage therefore in growing this grain for storingit againstyears of famine whenever that may happen. 4,OOQR"s. of is obtained in some straw soils in the Madras irrigated per acre Presidency. cruciform
Cultivation. "
crop
Immediately
is harvested,the land is
prepared for Aus
paddy.
The
after
wheat
or
preparedin the seed
(7
to
same
other
some manner
as
10tt"s.per acre) is
rabi it is sown
the land to broadcast, and a log of wood or roller is passed over the seed. When the plants are two or three inches high, cover and is vacant harrowing done, spbts are filled in by plantstaken
MARUA
out in
from
those
spots where
OR
they
are
199
RAGL
too
thick.
In
the
Punjab,
Mysore and in parts of Bihar the seed is sown
in seed-beds and This is a better system. afterwards transplanted. The harvesting is done in September, about three months after sowing It is a i.e., harvest the difficult to The as ears ripenvery irregularly. procrop portion .
between 1
:
the
quantityof
seed
and the outturn of grain than rice-straw, though it is said to decrease the flow of milk. The quantity of in Bengalis less than LOOOtKs. obtained per acre straw ordinarily The The grain contains very littlehusk, only about 5 per cent. of the husked grainis givenbelow : chemical composition is about
The
40.
straw
is
more
sown
nutritious
"
Water Albuminoids
Of
/9
Starch
73i"
Oil Fibre
15
Ash
23
Nutrient
The
ratio
I'll
grain is somewhat
The poor classes. this of out grain.
and indigestible hilltribes of Bengalmake
is eaten only by the a fermented beverage
under this millet in Britsh India is estimated at over in Bengal three million acres, of which nearly a million acres are in the districts of Bihar, (liliota The crop is grown and Bihar. The
Nagpur
area
and
in
Darjiling.
Other millets. With "
regard
cereals,a table may be given their cultivation : regarding
other less important the principalfacts summarising to
the
"
REMAKKS.
Homettmeft
by irrigation. and
Digestible
like rice
cooked
fodder only Punjab.
;
for
also
in the Seed
easily. Parantanna of it
IH
mad* deli-
jungle land
Hough
Consi-
is chosen. a
No or
needed. fodder.
poor ing manur-
irrigation Good
200
HANDBOOK
OF
CHAPTER BUCK-WHEAT
AGRICULTURE.
XXXII.
(POLYGONUM FAGOPYRUM).
THOUGH not a graminaceouscrop, buck- wheat is classed among out of the flour from this grain. Its straw as bread is made cereals, is more is in the Darjiling nutritious than cereal straw. It grown vinces, where it is called Phdpar, also in Bihar and in the Central Prohills, where it is known is June of end at the sown as Rdjgir. It *
201
PULSES.
on
roughly preparedland at the or
The to
seed
get
on
the straw
12 to 25tbs. when
sheds
acre
casted broad-
when
Harvestingis done in October. and it is therefore necessary ripe, harvestingoperationearly. Harvested early, drilled.
when easily
with the also is more
rate of SOlbs. per
it is
The green leaves are cooked and be taken as the of grainmay eaten as l,200ft)s. sag. average produce suitable soils. Clay soil is not suitable for this on per acre soils crop, and it is very curious,that it grows best on poor granitic and that it is scarcelyever manured. The grainof buck- wheat is A bushel of buck-wheat weighsabout 50ft"s.and a very nourishing. bushel of oats about 40ft)s.One bushel of buck-wheat is considered nutritious.
equal to two of oats in feedingvalue. Stfes.of buck-wheat flour is equalto 12fbs.of barleymeal. For feedinghens,buck- wheat is specially them to lay eggs earlier. Another as it induces appropriate, advantageof growing buck- wheat consists in the fact of its getting catchready in ten weeks after sowing,and it is therefore a splendid for growingon poor soils is further enhanced crop. Its suitability of cold and by the fact of its beingable to stand greaterextremes heat than most crops. Hence it is suitable for growingboth in the hills and in the soils of Chhota Nagpur which are Darjiling poor in lime. It is killed by frost,but it can stand a temperaeven ture of 105" to 110"F. It should be introduced a catch-crop as for
rain utilising
out
of
season.
CHAPTER
XXXIII. PULSES-.
and [Acreage under pul*e crops generally; export; the principalpulsegram cative effect of recuperative growing pulse-crops ; leguminous weeds, indicrops ; of rich soil; best weeds for pasture land; Arahnr^ Mat/hi and Vnl ; Soy bean ; Ckaiiali ; gram Madras ; Po/mt-he"n or ; Kidtht or gram Khexari Muxur't ; ; JJ/iringi;Vrfl ; Mash Jtala'i; MHMJ ; French beans ; and Ghanyra ; cluster-beans ; cost; country peas ; English peas ; Burbati
mixtures
;
NEXT
to
best
soils.]
the most importantplaceas and oil-seeds land in Bengal. jute occupy more food-grains, though The only pulse-crop for which separate statistics are obtainable is the gram, under which in there are more than eleven million acres British India,including million acres in Bengal. The over one districts of Bengal specially suited for the gram crop are, Gaya,
cereals,pulsesoccupy
Monghyr, Bhagalpur,Patna, Murshidabad, Nadia, Shahabad, The Darbhanga, Santhal Parganas,Hazaribagh and Palamau. other under other pulsesare included in Government returns million which of 30 in and there acres are nearly grains pulse," in Bengal. It has been about 5" million acres India, including in India is about estimated that the total area under pulse-crops "
about 48,000,000 acres, i.e.,
15,000,000 acres
more
than
the
area
202
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
The export of gram, which is fairly constant, valued about 10 lakhs of at to only about 315,000 cwt. amounts valued of about and other 632,000 cwt. pulsesput together rupees, India at 18 lakhs of rupees. The principal pulsesof are, according
occupiedby
to
wheat.
their relative
importance :
"
ddl,tuer or arahar. (1) Cajanus indicus,pigeon-pea, Cicer arietinum,chicken-pea, (2) gram, chhold or chend. the horse-gram, kurthi-kalaior kulthi. '3) Dolichos biflorous, desi Pisum matar. (4) field-pea, arvense, American sativum, European and (5) Pisum pea, bilati matar.
Indian bean, Shim, popat, vol. (6) Dolichos lablab vulgare, Soy-bean,bhdt or gari-kaldi. (7) Glycinehispida, (8) Lathyrus sativus,khesari,tur or teicra. (9) Ervuin lens,the lentil,musuri. moth, mothi or bhringi. (10) Phaseolus aconitifolius, Phaseolus (11) Mungo, var. glabar,green gram, mung or mug. (12) Phaseolus Mungo, var. radiatus,mdsh-kaldi or urd, cot. harior (13) Phaseolus vulgaris,Kidney-bean, French-bean
(14)Vigna catiang, Cow-gram,barbati and ghangra. urharid shim, or cluster-beans, (15) Cyamopsis psoralioides simmi gamhar ; or bilatisim. effect of pulse-crops soils should on generalrecuperative Lime and for pulse the be remembered. ashes are best manure The the worst. crops, and cowdung and other organicmanures, The
commonest
leguminousweeds of Sibpur,which are also excellent milch cattle, are Pdyrd matar (Pisum quadratum), Chund
fodder for kaldi or Ankrd
hirsuta).
The
the regarding
(Viciasativa)and Chund musuri the following table summarises cultivation of
: pulse-crops "
or
Ankri
(Vicia-
principalfacts
204
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
PULSES.
205
206
HANDBOOK
The
of
expense
OF
AGRICULTURE.
growing leguminouscrops generallyis very pulsesand Rs. 15 to Rs. 20
for the country Rs. 5 per acre little, for European peas and beans.
Kalai, country
fodder.
Green
"
arharia
peas,
and khesari plantsare sometimes grown cattle. Sometimes two or more of the
only
as
sim, bhringi, fodder for
green
following crops, viz., rape, and linseed khesari,wheat, barley, peas, gram mixed together.Rape ripens then ordinary sown are first, mustard, then musuri, then linseed, then matar, then khesari,wheat, barley, musuri, country
and gram.
Barbati is of two varieties. The one with soft skinned short bushy creepers is eaten as a table- vegetablein the
pods and
green state ; the other with harsh skin and largerplantsis grown for ddl. It is a highlyfertilising is largely as grown crop, and
a
preparatorycrop for sugarcane. In the United richer generally
Provinces and
in lime
land is lighter and
in Bihar where
than
in Lower Bengal,pulse-cropsgive do yield. In the deltaic portionof Bengal pulse-crops of not grow well,an excess ordinary salt in the soil being very to these crops. Well-drained land injurious annually renovated with silt producesthe best pulse-crops in Lower Bengal. a
heavier
CHAPTER
XXXIV.
OIL-SEEDS. oil-seed [The principal and
the minor oil-seeds; seeds crops; acreage; export trade in oiloils ; the former trade to be deprecated. Sunflower, cashew nut,
Pittaraj,Nim. The
Drying and
non-drying oils.]
oil-seed crops of India principal
mustard), Linum
usitatissimum
are,
Brassica
Sesamum (linseed),
(rape,colza
and
indicum
or (til Eruca sativa,tdrdmani, Carthamus tinctorius (safflower), yinyelly), Ricinus communis Guizotia abyssinica(niger), (castor),Papaver somniferum (poppy),Arachis hypogcea(groundnut), and Gossypium {cotton).
Minor oil-seeds."
for which
use, are
minor
some
in common Besides, the oil-seeds which are this in book, there separate chaptersare provided which are used in some try oil-seeds, parts of the coun-
for extraction
of oil. These
are
Helianthus
annum
or
sunflower,
occidentale or cashew-nut Anacardium Semicarpus (Hijli-badam), rohituka Amoora anacardium or marking-nut, (Raynaor Pittaraj), Melia Azadirachta or margosa (Nim),Galedupa indica or Pongamia
Calophy(Kenjaor Karanja)Argemone mexicana (Sialkanta) Bullum inophyllum(Punang),Schleichera trijuga(Kusum), and of of seed oil chanania the The lati folia(Chironji, Piyaltree).
(jlabra
Cocos more
nucifera(cocoanut) and of Bassia (Mahua) are in latifolia be and will use common separatechapters providedfor these. Acreage." The
occupy
an
area
recognizedoil-seed crops 14" million acres, of
of about
of British India which the Province
207
OIL-SEEDS.
of
Bengal furnishes nearly 4 the
crops occupy of cultivation
extent
million
largestarea of these
provincesof North-East
three
1st, My
2nd,
acres.
Next
Bengal. According to the the different districts of the crops in the following India come order : "
singh
men
Son thai
462,300 230,300
Parganas
3rd, Darbhanga
229,400
4th, Gay a 5th, Rungpur 6th, Purnea 7th, Pubna
210,500 173900
148,200 146,300 140,500 130,200 110,600 108,520 103,500
9th, Nadia 10th, Dinajpur
llth, Sylhet
Uazaribagh
12th,
13th, Jessore Trade.
to the
The
"
and
cake
export
for
India
of oils from
valued
a
loss
great
food
is
or
in the
manure
The
country.
little over
eightmillion gallonsper annum, of rupees. Of this quantitythreeof castor-oil, which is highlyvalued for lubricating,
at about
consist
fourths
is
highly advisable to organisea system of country, exportingonly the oil and retaining
animal
as
use
in oil-seeds
it is
oil in this
pressingthe
trade
export
enormous
country,
acres.
17*?,700
8th, Dacca
the
seed cereals,oil-
to
in
one
a
crore
other in Europe. One-and-a-half soap-making and purposes oil valued million gallonsof cocoanut at 16 lakhs of rupees, is the which is oil of next importance exported. Against this, there is a rapidlyincreasing valued at over 12 crores export of oil-seeds, The questionof the fertility of rupees from India. of Indian soils with that of the export of oil-seeds and bones. blended is intimately of the linseed. America To England goes most also buys a good deal. The other oil-seeds go chiefly to the Continent of Europe. Helianthus as
a
and
uses
a
are
it it is
making
valuable
fond specially shown eaten
may
by
not
largelyused superiorto most is
food of the
it is
that
a
cattle and
be also used
Europe
For Russia. oils. Sunflower
for cattle. seed.
fuel and
candle seed
and and
Poultry,pigeons and
Experiments conducted
costlycrop they make
as
in
to grow. a
the
The
soapoil-cake
rabbits
in India
leaves and
fairlygood manure. ashes employed as
table
stalks
The
are
have are
stalks
a potash manure. garden plant only, yieldingseeds which are useful poultry,its propagation can be encouraged but feedinghome oil-seed as a regular crop.
As
for
oil is used (sunflower),"Sunflower in for olive and almond oil for culinary and
annuus
substitute
a
occidental
(cashew nut or hijlibadam)." Originally a native has established itselfin the this tree America, coast forests of India," in the Contai sub-division of Midnapore, in Orissa^jJ A Madras. in weak and solution of the Cbittagong of also gum in is soluble which water slightly be very plant may Anacardium
of South
208
AGRICULTURE.
OP
HANDBOOK
of insects. to make
againstthe attack preventive
little aloe
little asafcetida and a juiceissuingfrom the bark
is used
as
is used
bark
like bhela-nut juice.The
To this may be added a it more effective. The indelible
an
for
tanning.
marking ink ripefruit
The
of the seed which is partlyoutside the fruit, The pericarp is a good preventive in colour,which black contains an acrid oil, boats white ants and which is used for tanningor colouring against of like the the and and fishing lines fishingnets, gab mesocarp fruit. The kernels of the seed are delicious eating,and about 40 oil and superior to olive per cent, of an oil which is equalto almond is eaten.
the kernels.
oil is obtained from rohituka
Amoora
tree is used
in
some
or rayna)." The (Pittaraj
oil from
partsof Northern
Eastern
and
the seed
Bengal as
of this a
lamp
fried and bruised, then boiled with water, The the top. timber is good but little on
oil. The seeds are when the oil floats used.
seed
Melia azidrachta." Nim
nim
oil
and antiseptic
an
as
oil-cake as nitrogenand about of nim
trees to
may a
1| per
oil
5|
of cent, per of phosphoric acid should be here
cent,
be
can
of the crushing plentiful
are
be taken
up
a
as
cotton-ginningand Dried
instance. from
fertilisercontaining 5 to
a
and other paintedon young cocoanut protect them againstinsect pests. In districts where nim The
mentioned. trees
the value of common, very anthelmintic veterinarymedicine, and
being
nim
the nim
seed for oil and
oil-cake
in connection with secondary mill industry for e stablishments, cotton-seed-crushing leaves are often used for storinggrainssafe
weevils. The
kenjaoil and
here
as
sidlkdntd
need oil,as lamp-oils,
beingactuallyin
In Orissa the
use.
be
tioned only men-
cultivator
who
Galedupa (Kenja)trees, considers himself quite of lamp-oil. Sidlkdntd oil is used chiefly of Rajmehal.Punang seed which is globular the Sonthals among and large(about an inch in diameter)contains a largeproportion of oil which is used by Uriyas and also in Western India, for kusum of Schleichera The seeds contains or a trijuga burning. oils and for soapis used for making Macassar valuable oil which making. Chironjiseed which is fullof a rich oil is used for making possesses
twenty
in the matter independent
sweetmeats
but not
for extraction of oil.
Drying and non-DryingOils." The from the following plants:
drying oils are principal
obtained
"
Juglans regia(walnut, dkrot)which yields tinctorius kusum) which (sattiower, about yields Guizotia abyssinica (nigerseed,sorgvja)
...
50
%
of oil.
Carthamus
...
...
usitatissimum (linseed,masind) Papaver aoraniferum (poppy,postddand) rohituka (pittaraj Amoora ). occu|rgemone mexicana (Mexican pricklypoppy, Linum
...
...
...
...
25
"
23 "
28 33
to 27
%
,, "
to 47
Shidlkdntd).
"
MUSTARD
The
AND
209
RAPE*
principalnon-dryingoils are obtained from the following
plants:
"
Brassica juncea (rdi) Brassica napus (lutni) Brassica campestris (var.sarson) Brassica campestris (var.ioria) Ricinus communis Cocos riucifera (cocoanut) Sesamum indicum (til) Eruca sativa (tdrdmani) Bassia latifolia (mahua) Helianthus annus .
21 to 28 32 to 40 33 33
.
of oil.
"
"
"
"
47
52 to 57 45
.
.
%
%
12 to 25
27 to 37 27 "
The commonest drying oil used for paints and varnishes is linseed-oil. Boiled linseed oil dries up quickerand helpsthe paint to stick faster to the substance painted,hence about one-fourth of the boiled oil is added to three-fourths of the unboiled oil when it is used
for
paint and
varnish.
CHAPTER MUSTARD
XXXV. AND
RAPE.
four-rowed sarson, [Botanical classification ; mustard, colza, rape, uUi sarson, white mustard, China cabbage, the black and Kalimpong mustards of or Rai9 Tori or rape and Europe : Distinguishingfeatures of mustard colza ; Chittagong mustard, Sarson or Nepalese mustard ; Eruea sativa ; cultivation ; acreage.] Botanical classification
The Bengal mustards have been studied him to there and three distinct are according by Dr. Prain, closely be thus which of : distinguished mustard, may types Indian Mustard or Rai, the Sinapisramosa of Roxburgh IST. and Brassica juncea of Hooker and Thomson. "
"
"
2ND. very
Indian
"
Colza
or
Sarson, the swet-rdi of Central
Bengal,
bling Bengal except Chittagong, plantsresemtall,grown all over of and the Brassica swede, or Sinapisglauca Roxburgh, turnip
sub-speciesgenuina, variety glauca of Hooker campestris,
and
Thomson. of Central Bengal, species Roxburgh, and Brassica campestris,suband of Thomson. Hooker dichotoma variety
Indian Rape of the Sinapis dichotoma SRD.
"
napus,
or
Tori, the Sorshe
there are some others also cultivated staplevarieties, Brassica trilocularis of (1) Bengal,e.g., (UUi parts is unlike ordinarySarson only in having pendent
Besides these in
some
Sarson), which
which pods ; (2) Brassica quadrivalvis
of Sarson which is a variety of Brassica two ; (3) of seed instead has four rows rugosa, Prain, the Kalimpong rdi ; (4) Brassica rugosa, var. Cuneifolia,Prain, or grown by Cacharis and RajbansisthroughoutUpper Bengal and be also Assam ; (5) Brassica Chinensis or China Cabbage may and Cauliflower mustard. Indeed Turnip,Cabbage regardedas a M,
HA
14
210
are
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
allied to mustard, closely botanically Brassica
all of which
are
included
of Linnaeus.
under the genus The black and white mustards (Brassicanigra and alba) of Europe are not grown in Bengal. It is from these that the mustard obtained. The and hospitalpoultices are of European condiment useful a s oil of these mustards, though very medicinally a very
suitable for food as the oil of Indian is not so strong antiseptic, meal of diment. European mustards is a better conmustards, though the in all the First,Rai, Lahi, Li, or Raichi-rai is grown Divisions of Bengaland Bihar, except Chhota Nagpur, where it is unknown, except in Singhbhum. It is easilyrecognized practically Ral.
"
and after reaping, its of its leaves stem-clasping, from those of seeds,which are brown, can be readilydistinguished Tori or Indian rape, by their small size,and their being distinctly From Sarson which has white seeds,or, reddish brown all over.
by having none
as
occasionally happens,brown seeds
Sarson
are
seeds, it is easilydistinguished.
often alwaysconsiderably,
very
much
and larger,
There three the seed-coat smooth. are even sub-races of Rdi, a tall late kind and two shorter earlier kinds,one of these latter roughingwith bristly hairs,the other smooth with The taller sub-race is quite absent from darker coloured stems. Chhota Nagpur and from Tipperaand Chittagong.The shorter absent from North sub-races are quiteabsent from Orissa and are
brown, have
when
Bihar. Rdi or Rdi-shorshe and in Orissa,because the seeds are small.
Bengal
Tori
is called chhota-sarisha
Second, Tori, Lutni
(Chhota Nagpur) and Sarisha or importance of Rdi, and it is grown in every district in Bengal and Bihar except perhapsSaran It is easily and Shahabad. from Rdi by its stemdistinguished leaves and its small size. When clasping reapedthe seed is recognised of the as beinglarger, same colour, and by havinga though palerspot at the base of the seed ; the seed-coat too is onlyslightly rough. From sarson or Indian Colza it is easily by distinguished its smaller size and by its leaves, thoughstem-clasping, in Sarson, as The seeds of beingless lobed and having much less bloom. "
(Indianrape)is next
shorshe
in
Tori and ordinarySarson are much of the same size, but as a rule the seed of Sarson in Bengalis white. When Sarson seeds are brown they are of an amber colour and they have no palerspot. The The seeds of Sarson are sometimes considerseed-coat is smooth. ably than those of Tori. When this is the case the two are larger
There easilydistinguished.
kinds of Tori, a taller,rather which is the commoner very early kind Both kinds,however, ripenwell ahead of any Rdi or any variety. The earlierkind of Tori probably does not occur Sarson. in NorthWest Bihar and the later kind is unknown in Eastern Bengal and both sorts prevailthroughout Chittagong; with these exceptions Bengal and Bihar.
later,and
a
shorter,and
are
two
212
OP
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
however, earlyand late varieties of allthe three crops.
It should be,, that all mind of borne in sorts mustard however, crops are very and a crop which is late is much subjectto the attack of aphides, always badly infected if there is an earlier crop in the neighbourhood. Mustard should therefore be all sown at the same time and not sarson
in different lots,and very with wheat or is sown
earlyin barleyat
the season. When tori or the rate of l|ft"s. per acre, Sown by itself, at per acre.
the produce is only 1| to 2 maunds the rate of 4 to Gtbs. per acre, the produce is 4 to 6 maunds. Rai 3fts. and at is usually sown afterwards on per acre peas are sown in this way land. Grown the outturn the same of rdi is per acre Grown without peas, scarcely 3 to 4 maunds. by itself, any higher Rdi with in obtained. is the sown wards afterfield same yield peas is therefore
a
splendidmixture, specially as
the pea
usingthe
of rdi as support, bear more tall steam pods and give a better yield Rai it is itself. when seed than sown by yieldsless oil than sorsheIn the former case and shweti-sorshe seeds. the yieldis ten seers in 13 14 the and latter maund to All the three varieties seers. per
of mustard
sometimes
and sometimes for green plantsbeingcut and given to cattle in when and i.e., times February, they are justin flower. SomeJanuary of mustard is a but this form ploughedin as manure, crop of green manuring has not the specialmerit as the ploughingin of dhaincha, sunn-hemp, indigo,or barbati. are
as
grown
a
green
manure
fodder only,the
Acreage.
"
Rape
of land in British million
two
mustard
In
Bengal
in the rest of the
occupy
it is the most
LINSEED
important oil-seed
the firstplace. country tiloccupies
CHAPTER
XXXVI.
(LINUM USITATISSIMUM).
[Flax for fibre and seed
History. This
about
3| million acres India, Bengal includingAssam accountingfor
acres.
though
crop,
and
;
Acreage
;
Cultivation
;
Linseed-cake.]
plant has been
discovered in the wild state the Black and CaspianSeas and the Persian home of the Aryan racel Gulf, the original It is one of the most ancient fibre plants of India being mentioned in Panini thus : Atasi of Kshouma-bashan syat-uma-kshuma" Whether the the Vedas is silk cloth or linen cloth,is doubtful. Probablythe wprd Tcshuma was appliedfirstto silk and afterwards to linen,as Jcshaume bashane bashanam agnimadihyatam has always been understood in practicewith reference to silken wedding robes. What is most ancient survives in the most ancient religious customs. Besides it is not at all certain that linen cloth was made in ever India. Flax is grown for its fibre but for its seed in India, not and thoughthe knowledgethat linen fibre was obtained from the "
in the
regionbetween
"
"
"
"
"
.
flax
plantexisted
in ancient
India,the
use
of silken cloth has
been
213
LINSEED.
for religious observances among all classes of Hindus. prescribed 'The growingof flax for fibre instead of seed (fibre and seed cannot be both grown to perfection from the same with imported plants) seed and by sowingthe seed thick,has been tried with success in
Tirhut and
elsewhere,and reports of these will be
Bulletins of the Pusa the oil of which is more
The
Institute.
growing
found
of white
in the
linseed,
than that of the ordinary brown is another improvementwhich should not be lost sightof. linseed, White linseed grew quite as well as brown linseed at the Sibpur ' Farm. Acreage. The "
valuable
total
under
area
3 million acres, of which
qyer
924,000 acres
at
the
only,or
area
linseed in British India in
is is mated estiand Bihar Bengal
1-25 per cent, of the total cultivated
of the
province.Darbhanga,Saran,Gaya.Nadia, and Champathe most ran in Bengal. are districts, important linseed-growing of cultivation has been in the districtsof Expansion Nadia, chiefly Gaya and Darbhanga,while in Patna and Mymensingh there has
area
been
great contraction of Soil "
for
area
under
linseed of late years.
Linseed grows well on heavy land,and it is not well lightand sandy soils,which are particularly
for mustard
land which
and
til crops.
In
fact,linseed
is unsuitable for tiland
so
able suit-
adapted
be grown on Aman In rockysubcrops.
can
mustard Himalayan tracts, however, linseed does very well. Wheat, gram and linseed requirethe same kind of land. Gram and linseed are lusually together, doingwell also on heavy loam, if it gram grown The sowing of linseed should be done early is fairly rich in lime. and
preparations may
stillon, actual the
September,when the rains are immediatelyafter or even before
in
commence
sowing beingdone
ing Sowis over, at the rate of four to six seers per acre. done when the Aman logging is sometimes rice is stillstanding.Watermonsoon
does not do this crop so much harm in rocky and laterite soils. Thorough and deep cultivation is as beneficial to this crop be scattered in between the lines of paddy as to wheat, but seed may and when
simply ploughedin. the crop is in flower
Sown or
later,linseed needs
but irrigation,
nearlymature, rainfalldoes harm.
The
at the end of February or plantsare cut down when ripe, of the Six to seed extracted by flailing. beginning March, and The eightmaunds of seeds being the average produceper acre. linseed is useless as fodder,and it is said that green plants straw of cattle fatal to them. eaten by prove
The
seed
yieldsabout one-quarterits weightof
oil. Linseed-
valuable manure, valuable cattle food and a more for milch cows, than rdi or tori cakes,though the butter especially produced from milk given by cows eatinglinseed-cake is softer than that from cows eatingmustard or cotton-seed cake. Linseedcattle than any other food. cake is more potent in fattening cake is
a
more
214
HANDBOOK
OF
XXXVII.
CHAPTER GlNGELLY
AGKICULTURE.
TlL (SESAMUM INDICUM).
OE
valuable oil than the white linseed, white tilyields a more is often til White as a variety. grown along with cotton rdbi crop, while black til is grown alongwith a tall crop, such as juar,as a kharifcrop. The high and lightalluvial (Dearh)lands and rocky soils are suitable for the til crop. Indeed, all oil-seed LIKE
black
soilsrich in mineral matters, tildoingbetter on lighter crops prefer classes of soils, either rocky or riparian. Til occupiesthe largest oil-seed crops in British India, though in Bengal it area among under this is a crop of secondary importance. The total area crop at
in
Bengal,and
430,000
acres,
Bihar
Assam, including
while the
under
area
has
this crop
been
estimated
in all India
is
4J million acres. Til may be grown on poor soils providedthey are not too low or heavy. It does not requiresuch deep preparationof land as linseed does. Eightto ten seers of seed are used per acre when it is districts, grown by itself. Both the varieties of tilare grown in some til is in Bhadoi Jcat-til the coarser called sown or January variety over
reapedin June or July,about 6 maunds beingobtained per acre.. low Aman on sowing of this varietyof tilis done in Birbhum land after a maghi shower of rain. The seed needs husking and the The rabi til is sown in August oil extracted rather thin and poor. and reapedin November or December, 4 to 6 maunds being obtained rabi Til is sown in October also like ordinary crops as in per acre.
and The
Orissa and Chhota Nagpur. On dearh lands of E. Bengal,sowing til is done in January and February. The stocks of harvested the seed being .stalks should be left to dry in a standingposition,
afterwards detached
by flailing.
flowers are kept in between layersof til, the til being night sifted out next day, and this operationbeingrepeatedfor a fortand the scented tilafterwards pressed,phuleloil is produced for this which fetches over Rs. 150 per maund, but the demand but article is limited. The oil-cake is used not only as animal The yieldof oil also as human food mixed with gur or sugar. If scented
tilseed is about 45 per cent. About 25 per cent, oil is obtained from til seed treated with flower. from
CHAPTER SORGUJA THIS
OR
NIGER
of
phulel
XXXVIII.
OIL SEED
(GUIZOTIAABYSSINICA).
follows Aus paddy, and is sown in August, crop usually itself with or by some pulse-crop (kulthi, etc.). Rough and rocky lateritesoil or lightsandy soil is chosen for this crop. The of land is of the simplest character. Two preparation ploughings followed by a laddering that all is done before are sowing. About
either
215
CASTOR.
half
a
maund
November maunds
of seed is or
sown
the
December,
valued
at Rs. 5
The crop is harvested in produce coming to only about 4
per
acre.
Rs. 5-8 per maund. considerable A of land is under this crop in Chhota Nagpur. proportion The yieldof oil is about 35 per cent, of the weight of the seed. The oil-cake is highlyappreciated for milch-cows in the Deccan. Mr. Mollison speakshighly of this oil-cake as for the a manure or
and castor oils are adulterated with sugarcane crop. Mustard The oil. relative value seed in the of and sorguja sorguja rape seed Englishmarket is 48s. : 37s. per quarter. While rape seed yields 20 gallons of oil per quarter in England,sorgujaseed which dries
yieldsonly 16 gallonsper quarter, but a mixture of quicker, with actuallyincreases the yieldof oil of the latter sorguja rape seed. Hence the universal use of sorgujaseed for mixing with up
mustard seed before pressingoil out of the latter seed. and for lighting, For lubricating this oil is useful,and it is used in some of India for cooking and for anointingthe body. parts
XXXIX.
CHAPTER CASTOR
,
(Ricmus COMMUNIS).
[Use for extraction
of oil ; use for silk rearing ; uses of oil ; cold -drawing desirable ; cake substance for extraction of gas ; yield, a as as a manure, cultivation ; varieties ; different processes of extraction of oil.]
THE
of this crop is of a two-fold nature : (1) the Eri from .silkworms are reared on its leaf,and (2) the oil extracted castor-seed is highlyvalued for lubricating machinery,for dressing tanned hides and skin,for lighting, for soap and candle-making and other arts, and lastly, The largeseeded varieties as a medicine. and lighting are oils,while appreciatedfor extractinglubricating of oil used the small seeded varieties, for extracting a fine quality value
castor-oil burns, effects half in saving consumption quarter to one such as kerosine,mustard oil, oils, comparison with other lighting and from linseed oil,etc. freer danger giving Beingcomparatively The qualities little soot, it is used in railways all over India.
for medicine.
The
slowness
of
a
with
which
ranging from
a
cool and the pores of the skin ture and roots of the hair soft and open, are availed of in the manufackinds. various of of golden-oil, and oils perfumed pomatum Cold-drawn brilliant lightthan castor-oil castor-oil gives more from boiled or roasted seed. The oil,therefore,extracted from of castor-oil for
keepingthe
head
unheated shelled seeds is more valuable. The manufacturingof cold-drawn castor-oil in India offers a great opening for capitalists. wheels of Castor-oil agitated with nitric acid is used for lubricating of the best Castor-cake manures is one vegetable railwaycarriages. This cake is also used for extracting in use. gas which is actually in
use
in
the
Allahabad
Railway
station for
lighting purposes.
216
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTUBE.
Several of the Indian railwayshave their own castor-oil mills and they use the oil and cake both for lighting.Castor-oil is also in for extraction of gas for lighting the streets of Jeypore. As a use castor-cake and bone-meal together have been found better manure, for sugarcane than the cake alone,while for rice and potatoescastorcake alone has given the best results in India. Castor-cake is considered to the injurious
being mustard-cake. castor-cake
is richer in
Poppy-seedcake
plant,the
pan
It is
a
richer than rape
1
It is very
used in pan
mistake
to
barojes
suppose
that
cakes. or rape-seed is not castor-cake and phosphates
phosphatesthan linseed
is the richest in
any
manure
common
linseed-cake in this respect. that while castor-oil plant leaves eaten by milch cows to helpincrease the flow of milk, a pulp made out of castor leaves is used externally to stop the flow of milk by women from their breasts. Sometimes whole leaves are appliedto the breasts for this purpose. The dried stalks are used for thatch and wattle and as also as fuel. The stalks are not attacked by whiteor
curious
ants.
The
of yield
oil is about
25%
to
36%
of the
weightof seed, and
of cake from 36% to 44%, the rest beinghusk, etc., which lias to be got rid of before the oil is extracted. The cultivation of castor-oil plant,so far as Bengal and Bihar sions, concerned, is done chieflyin the Patna and Bhagalpur Diviwhere it is usallygrown along with potatoes. In other parts
are
of
Bengal also
juar,or
it is grown A small
arahar.
more
or
less
abundantly with cotton,
sized,a middle sized
and
a
or
largesized
from May the last are sown Janto July and grown The seeds ripenin uary with some bhadoi crop. and February. The winter varietyis sown in Septemberand the seeds are gatheredin March or April. This varietyyieldsa are variety,
recognised.The
first and
largerproportionof oil than the bhadoi varieties. On dearh land the cost of cultivation is littleand the yieldis large. Like other oil-seed crops, the castor-cropis benefited by mineral manures, and the annual renovation tute of soil by silt is an appropriatesubstifor
Red
manure.
soils situated at the foot of
chosen for growing castor-oil plants. Such specially in of 20 to organicmatter, get an application poor
hills are
also
soils if very 30 cart-loads
of dung (7 or 8 tons)per acre, or flocks of sheepare hurdled on them. of Two or three ploughing^ then given at the commencement are the rainy season and the seed sown by dibbling six feet apart, about 6tfcs.of seed beingused per acre for the larger variety. In each
hole 2 seeds
dry at the time, The smaller covered water hole before it is put up. varietyis planted18 in. by 36 in. apart, 4fts. of seed being used. Castor is an exhausting crop, and it should not be grown on the same land oftener than once in five or It is never six years. irrigated, after which is a great advantage, all the operationnecessary sowing beingploughingthe land a month after sowing in between the rows of seedlings, to keep it free from weeds. is
in
are
each
put and if the
soil is too
217
CASTOR.
plantations beingvery much subjectto the attack of of land in the cold weather is necessary, caterpillars, preparation that grubsmay be exposedto the attack of birds and ants, also Castor
The seed should month until sowing time. also be pickled with an insecticidalmixture before sowing. The pickingof capsules continues from the seventh to the ninth month after sowing, after which the remaining leaves are givento cattle and the stems cut and used for fuel,or for making charcoal
of the soilonce stirring
a
which
is used in the preparationof fireworks. The seed-podsare stacked in a corner of a house, covered with straw and weighted. After a week the capsules found soft and rotten. are They are then
exposed to
the
for two
sun
days, dried
and
beaten
with
heavy
mallets 2ft. longby l|ft. broad, which process extracts about half the seed. The remainingcapsules are again dried and beaten, until all the seeds have been extracted. A
small
seeded Deccan varietygoes on bearing for five years The quality of oil of this variety is also superior. of cleaned seed with other crops, the yield castor is grown
in succession.
When per to
is about
acre
500
to
while 250ft)s.,
9()0flbs.per
grown
The
acre.
cost
the yieldcomes by itself, of cultivation being very
little(aboutKs. 10 per acre),it is a profitable crop to grow. There are four processes of extraction of oil which can followed
without
much
: difficulty "
zontal with horiand pressed. resulting pulp put into ghanies
(1) The shelled seed rollersand the This cold-drawn
castor
36 per cent, of as per cent, of husk
(2) The and The
mixture
may
oil
can
be crushed in
a
be obtained at
the shelled seed.
screw-press as
high a proportion
37 per cent,
be
roasted in
a
pot, pounded in
tinies of water, which its volume constantlystirred with a wooden
four is
of cake and
27
being also obtained.
seed may
placedin
be
is
a
mortar
kept boiling.
After spoon. the oil skimmed off.
time the pot is removed from the fire and The residue is then allowed to cool,and next day it is again boiled and skimmed. The second day'sskimming givesbetter oil which is kept separate. If the beans are over-roasted a smaller proportion of oilis obtained. The proportions of oil to cake,etc.,obtained
a
by this method are 30 \ per cent, per cent, of husk-wastage. (3) The
seed
of oil : 43
1 per
cent,
of cake
first boiled and then dried in the
ma^ be
sun
:
20
for
days,then pounded in a mortar, placedin four tinies is which is kept boiling,while the mixture stirred with a wooden The skimming of the oil spoon as before. takes placeas in process No. 2. The oil thus obtained is a superior
two
or
three
its volume
of water
to that obtained by process No. 2, thoughit is inferior to lamp-oil that obtained by process No. 1. (4) The seed may be soaked for a night in water, and next ually morning ground up in an ordinaryyhani. The oil is removed gradby puttinga pieceof cloth into the pulp and squeezingthe '
oil out
of the cloth into
a
pot. This oil is also
a
better
lamp-oil
218
OF
HANDBOOK
than
that
best
oil-cake.
obtained
That
ought
and
kernels
bleached
the
This
by
increases and
make
when
machine
the
are
:
then
oil is the
In
noxious
for medicinal
made
this
in
filtered
extraction obtained
by
The
vats
the
causes
ment sedi-
through vegetable fire is put in
but
neath under-
bags.
canvas
of the
some
the
into
cinal medi-
adopted
processes
tating irri-
oil, which
cold-drawn
But
purposes.
in
jails
"
seed
(1) Cleaning and grading of the with (2) Splitting of the seed iron consisting of two distance. adjustable
the
(3) Sunning to
also
Eajshahi Jail, are pressed
jail.
of
been
kernels
the
larger yield,
a
put in galvanized iron
which
sun,
gives the
process
has
yield of oil by 10 per cent., properties of the seed, go
it unsuitable oil is also
the
to
exposure
oil
it is
bags,
in gunny
precipitate. The and flannel bags.
to
charcoal
This
beans.
cold-drawn
the
After
more.
pressing the and
roasting the
by
machinery gives cold-drawing with proper to adopt this method capitalists encourage
to
more
AGRICULTURE.
husk
with
with
or
parallel to each
set
the
from
mallets,
with
winnowing
kernels
the
(4) Crushing
and
seed
kernel
the
separate
rollers,
hand.
with
on
dhenki,
other
kulo
wide
a
machine,
a
or
and
at
as
so
sup,
platform. masonry another roller
with
or
machine.
(5) Putting the it in
screw
in
put
at
presses each feed
into
pulp
in between of the
15"
bag
canvas
plates
of
iron,
12"
X
about
and 150
pressing bags being
press.
(6) Boiling (40 parts of oil with
5 to
is needed
for
8
parts of
water) in copper
this
operation. experience of charcoal and of calico. bed 8 folds (7) Straining through a The in plantations for the purpose of rearing growing of castor be recommended. Eri silk Eri silkworms a on large scale cannot be carried domestic on as a industry rearing, to be profitable,must pans
by in
the
;
great
poor.
particular
thousand immediate
spinning but
delicate
Poor
of
with cloth
their
wheel out
have
other
no
time
in
or
of
lakur it.
(spindle),and Two
or
three
woven
reading
weaving pieces ot
would bring her a annually by a woman whatever. This in of Rs. 36, with outgoings no for would be considered women. a profitable industry
cloth
avocation
from dalas, picking leaves near on homesteads, cocoons utilising the
indoors
vicinity thread
their
profitably employ
can
silkworms
substantial
who
women
gross some
a
a
few the for
coarse
chadder outturn
districts
HANDBOOK
OF
in the
figure. Grown year has degenerated crop
the
is necessary crop ashes a
with
as
and
other
lime
deal
good
manure,
desideratum.
a
are
all of of
The
does
have
Madras
demand
for
growing
be
met
this
from
Madras.
of
crop
should case
inches
per
India
and
these
either
have
oil
has
quickly and
nut
making, yield of should as as
tor
cake
for
and
a
is
distance
a
forty maunds
to
Spain, Japan ai\d particularly in Western under
area
the
crop
in
give largely used not
oil.
brilliant
a
It does
light.
even
cinal for medi-
not
get rancid
for
adulterating cocoaextensively employed for soapfor lubricating machinery. The
and
It is unfortunate and
great benefit
to
that
not
in the
the
country
form as
the
export
of oil a
food
only, and
soil. oil-cake as
cooked
lentils in
cake
of
at
it is
of nuts
be
may
from
supply
acre
per
largelyused
the
per form
is
olive
cent.
the
phosphoric the
Europe
recommended in
for
forty
ground-nut
been food
peas
would
of
come may seed from
it does
but
It is
dressing cloth,
manure
it has
In
failure
very chosen
increased.
oils do.
oils.
is
may demand
the
to
with
be
Bengal
same
ground-nut
threatened
that
sown
success,
olive oil,and
as
chieflyin
The
foreign
substitute
oil is about
be
the
other
as
outturn
is
off
tendency
a
ground-nut-oil
the
be
may
with
slowly, a
with
without
or
of the
the
with
now
consequently the
rapidly
as
other
and
good
as
purposes so
tried
burns
It is almost
of
types
Burma,
regions
The
way.
been
in
The
passu of seed
maund
a
Many
acre.
America
a
show
which
in
stand
to
cultivators
crops
ground-nut and light soils judicious manner,
Bengal pari
Half
of nine
in
crop
dealing with this manuring with
throwing successfullyout
Presidency
It
of
the crop seems well at first with
great, especially in France, and for
in
diseases.
to
That
This is the
the
Pondicherry
near
subject
equally tendency
the
sudden.
a
tracts
become
taking several surprised that the
deteriorate ruin.
has
after
as
in
year
principle of rotation A judicious system
neglect and
land, they cultivation
and
crops.
facts which
guard,
after
the
is also
of
are
their
observe
to
AGRICULTURE.
fattens a
cattle
highlv nutritious
condition.
The
flesh-formingmatter,
acid
than
given below
Moisture
very
pulses.
The
cake
is
while
Indeed
rapidly. and
man agreeable hu-
actually richer it contains
percentage
more
than fat
composition of
:
"
9'6
Fat
11-8
Nitrogenous matter Sugar and starch
31*9 37'8
Fibre
4-3
Ash
4-6
OOCOANUT.
CHAPTER
(COCOS NUCIFEBA).
COCOANUT
ordinarysense
in the
ALTHOUGH
XLI.
cocoanut
cannot
be
regarded
used in India,and oil is so extensively crop, yet find should it a placein our that so description largely exported, in India has been The area under cocoanut of the oil-seed crops. The tree is put to such varied uses estimated at 480,000 acres. of an oil-crop, in as be regardedas much in the light that it can fruit miscellaneous of or that timber, fibre,fuel,vegetable, crop. as
cocoanut
a
vinegaris made of the juiceof this palm, also toddy,punch and liqueur. GUT and sugar are also made out of the juice.Soap and
A
oil has a larger candles made out of cocoanut percentage of water in saline or hard soluble candles. other and than any Being soap of marine soap, but the smell water, it is used in the manufacture of highclass toilet manufacture the used it in not is beingoffensive, oil is exported One million gallonsof cocoanut to two soaps. to England. annually,chiefly
The sliced kernel,dried in the sun, or artificially dried,contains ftom 30 to 50 per cent, of oil. The country methods of extraction of oil fall under two heads : (1)Dry expression ; (2)Extraction by
boiling.
chargefor a full-sizedghani and a pairof stout bullocks will get throughfour chargesa day, that 20 yhanisare required tons of kernels to get throughtwo so who drives has a boy to assist him in taking The man in 24 hours. is the mortar of which out oil, by dippinga pieceof rag into got it out into an earthen vessel, but if the bulthe fluid and squeezing locks be trained with. the are boy can dispensed (2) The second process consists in boilingthe kernels with in a press. an equalquantityof water, then gratingand squeezing (1) Half
a
cwt.
of dried kernel is
a
The
emulsion thus obtained is again boiled until the oil is found rise to to the surface. Fifteen to twenty nuts yieldtwo quarts of oil treated in either way. The firstmethod is the one commonly employed. The merits of coir as a rope-fibre, and possessingelasticity resistance and the action to of water are lightness a highpower of the world. About a ll million ten over now recognised pounds of coir and
coir-made
exportedannuallyfrom
India. About six lakhs of rupees worth of nuts are also exportedannuallyfrom India. An acre plantedwith 200 cocoanut palms (about 15ft.mpart)
Fiftycocoanuts
would
rope
are
now
yieldabout 61bs. of coir.
yieldin coir alone 2 to 2J annas per tree or nearly Us. 30 The average yieldof fruits may be put down at for the 200 trees. But the plantation to eightannas per tree or Rs. 100 per acre. be situated 100 within the much miles of must yieldso sea-coast^ that the sea-breeze may bringenough of salt into the soil to keep also,half a up its vigourfor this crop. At the time of planting
"22
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
of khari nimak (crudesalt)should be used per plant. The be importedfrom Ceylon seed-cocoanuts used should,if possible,
*seer
In
Madras.
or
Madras,
cocoanut
plantationsare
kept regularly
irrigated. flowers in about five years after planting, The cocoanut in the The and for nuts are ripe -hotweather. in ten months ready plucking after flowering.Nuts allowed to remain too long on trees, the and brittle. The fibre of green nuts is lighter fibre gets coarse and The removal of finer,but there is less quantityand it is weaker. the nut upon a pointed the fibre from the shell is effected by forcing
implementstruck
into the
ground. With this arrangement, one a day. The fibrous husks are next which is variously submitted to a soaking, conducted. In some in of salt brackish for are water 6 to 18 or placed pits placesthey If the fibre). steam is admitted into months (freshwater spoiling the water, the operation the steeping is rendered shorter vat to warm and the fibreis also softened and improved. The further separation -of the fibre from the husk is largelyeffected by the hand. After the husks beaten with are thorough soaking heavy wooden mallets can
man
clean
-and then rubbed
1,000
nuts
the hands, until all the interstitialcellular from fibrous the separated portion. When quite into a loose ropingpreparatoryto beingtwisted, clean,it is arranged which is done between the palms of the hands in such a way as to producea yarn of two strands at once. substances
between
are
Analysisof cocoanut. Husk.
weightper
Total
57-28
cent.
Shell.
52-80 nearly 100 47-20 Trace
65-56
15-20
Dry
matter
34-44
84-80
"Nitrogen
0-137
o-ioo 0-29
1-K3
Milk. 12-58
18-54
Moisture
Pure ash
Kernel.
11-59
0-504
Do.
0-79
0*38
1-31
2-95
Including "
Silica (SiOo) iron of Oxide
T22 and
(Fe9OaandAl3O3)
..
Lime
(GaO) Magnesia (MgO) Potash (K,,O)
*
Soda (Naa-O) chloride (K Cl) Potassium chloride (Na 01) Sodium Phosphoricacid (P2 O5) Sulphuricacid (SO^)
1,000 nuts removed from the soil.
Nitrogen Phosphoricacid Potash Lime Sodium
chloride
4 '(54
alumina
Husk.
0-54
1 '59
4-14
""-26
2-19
1-32
30-71 3-19
45-01 15-42
45-95
15-56
1-92
4-64
3-13
5-75
Shell.
Kernel.
Milk.
Total.
223
MAHUA.
CHAPTER MAHUA
XLII.
(BASSIA LATIFOLIA,
ETC.).
fat yielding tree, the Bassia butyraceais of Bassia than the value mahua tree. This tree common or greater the Indian Butter tree grows in the Sub-Himawhich is also called layan Kumaon and Bhutan tract between at 1,000 to 5,000ft. The pulp of the fruit and even the cake above the level of the sea. of oil are eaten by men. The flowers are left after the expression As
not
a
eaten
sugar
and
like the flowers of the
ordinarymahua
tree but from
them
preparedwhich is boiled down into sugar. It is equal, syrup to ordinarydate-sugar. The gur havingsmall grain if not superior, is
a
fetches
a
smaller
price. The
largelyemployedfor
oil is used
ghi. adulterating
as
a
substitute
It burns with
a
for
ghi and
brightlight
smell and it makes excellent soap and candles. such been taken of as it deserves. The oil has notice not This tree The seed is beaten to pulp and is extracted in the following way. and to subjected pressure until allthe fat is expressed. put in bags It is largely About 35 per cent, of fat is obtained out of the seed.
without
smoke
or
used mixed up with attar called the fat phulwa. mahua The common
as
a
tree
hair-oil which
by up-country people,who is found
abundantly
in the
dry and stony regionsof Bengal and, in fact,over the greaterpart of Central India is highlyappreciated by the poorer peoplefor its edible flowers,which drop in abundance in March and April. The after fruits from which an edible oilis extracted ripenthree months In famine times the mahua tree is the shedding of the flowers. The of the is also timber tree. mahua tree regardedas a life-saving of considerable value, and in dry and arid regionsin the plains the propagation pursuits ordinaryagricultural prove difficult, much as possible.The dried as of this tree should be encouraged in water allowed to ferment, yielda spirit flowers being steeped consumed tribes and by aboriginal by distillationwhich is largely of six be 1 cwt. Over from others. can gallons proofspirit produced
where
five to eightmaunds of fresh flowers, Each tree yields of mahua. of dry food. The dry flowers are an which giveabout one maund food for cattle. They keep very longand they -excellentfattening attack of weevils. the resist to seem The mahua oil is extracted from the kernel of the fruit. The kernels are taken out from the smooth chestnut coloured pericarp
by being bruised, rubbed
and subjectedto moderate pressure. oil obtained by expression.In the and the They are then ground Central Provinces, the kernels are pounded and boiled and then wrapped up in two or three folds of cloth and the oil thereafter expressed.In the western tracts of Bengal and in the Central used for lighting and as a substitute Provinces,the oil is largely oil for soap-making for ghi. It is of equal value with cocoanut
-and has been valued at "35 per ton in London.
224
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER SAFFLOWER
XLIII.
(CARTHAMUS TINCTORIUS).
THIS crop was seed formerlygrown both as a dye-cropand as an oilfor it is exclusively the sake of the oily produced crop ; now seed. In the Central Provinces, safflower oil,though it is slightly for culinaryand other purposes, and it is. use bitter,is in common sold at about 200 tolas per rupee like any other ordinary oil. Formerly it was chieflyfor its red dye that it was cultivated all over
India, as
well
as
in
Spain,Southern
Germany, Italy,Hungary,.
Persia, China, Egypt, South America, and Southern Russia. It is found in a wild state in the Punjab and elsewhere,the seeds of the wild safflower beingmuch smaller than those of the cultivated kind, and aniline colours gradually Safflower dye beingfugitive replacing died out. it,the cultivation of this crop as a dye has almost entirely other rabi crop, such as It is usuallysown along with some
wheat, barley,tobacco, chillies, opium, or carrots,from the In Chittagong middle of October to the end of November. sowing for this crop. is done as late as January. Low chur land is preferred gram,
It is
exhaustingcrop
an
and
grown
for three
years
in succession
soil it is known In Jessore the same to yieldvery poor crops. on both on lowlands and on highlands, and it is the crop is grown earlier. It requiresa found that the crop on highlandscomes on with fair w ell of moisture^ amount a soil, ploughed sandy light, and on highlandit does not succeed, unless there are three or four
duringthe earlystage of the irrigations plant. It is,therefore,usuallygrown as a subsidiary crop along and weeding.Rain is very injuriwith others that requireirrigation ous to the crop after the flowers have formed, as the dye is washed The central bud is usually out by rain. nipped off to encourage of flower heads. number side shoots and the growth of a larger The flowers or rather florets are pickedevery second or third day, be pickedwhen in January and February. They must they begin coloured. of the dye. to get brightly Delay causes weakening of the flowers in favourable seasons The picking through may go on As fertilisation March and even usuallytakes place up to May. the removal of the florets from the heads does before the picking, the not interfere with subsequentformation of seed which is gathered afterwards for oil. -The priceof the dry florets varied from The average yieldof dry flowers is about Rs. 20 to 30 per maund. $01bs.per acre and of seed 4001bs.,161bs. of seed being broadcasted when it is sown by itself. There is also a thorny variety per acre adapted for growinground fields grown for oil,which is especially cattle. The a as against spineless varietyis preferred protection of rain
showers
or
as
many
for flowers.
The florets are dried ij^shade (asexposure to the the dye) and sold afterwards ; or sometimes
Dye. "
sun
dry
ens weak-
florets
225
SAFFLOWER.
are
pickingsin the middle of the
The
dye.
first and the last
sifted. The
powdered and
ferior pickings give in-
season
give the best a red dye, the The yellowdyes
dry floretscontain two yellowdyes to the former. beingsoughtfor in preference One of them is highlysoluble in water, have to be first extracted. if clean river water and if the florets are kept in a basket and red dye) be washes the alkaline water out as acidulated, (slightly will be found coming out. poured on them, yellowdye Trampling at intervals while the yellowdye is being or kneading is continued washed out, the operation takingthree or four days, the mass being the washings. To ascertain if all the allowed to get dry between yellow colour has been removed, a small quantity of the stuff is thrown into a glassof clean water and it is seen if any yellowcolour The pulpy mass is now out. comes squeezed between the hands into small, flat,round cakes, which when dry are sold in the market safflower." as or ''stripped exported The quality of this safflower cake is estimated by dyeingaknown Four ounces of safflower will dye lib. of cottou weight of cotton. will it cloth light 8 dye rose pink ; 12 ozs. to lib. will dye pink ; ozs. and
The
result. latter
The that it may
it full crimson.
cotton
be
must
dyed
take
several times
of the
the whole
in fresh
red dye dye. of safflower or (C14HJ6 07). Cold water of the oil removes two one or only yellowdyes in safflower which of the while there 36 form 26 to weightof the dry florets, per cent, The second yellow dye is is only '3 to *6 per cent, of carthamin. solutions
up carthamic
is carthamin
removed
in this way. ' ? add safflower, filter, and
the second
the lead salt. of soda
acetic acid
of lead and
acetate
then
will be
yellow colour
To extract
acid
with
Acidulate
The
the
ammonia
' '
stripped
trate to the fil-
precipitated alongwith
pure state take carbonate of the weight of florets, after
carthamin
in
(washingsoda),15 yellowdyes have
a
per cent, been got rid of ; digestthe florets in the the dye (which is inalkaline solution ; filter and then precipitate soluble in acids) by addition of an acid. In India,pearl-ash from
both
the
bajraor sajiis used Oil.
"
The
the dhenki.
yields 7 The
seers
dry The of
for
obtainingthe red dye.
husk
oil is
of
the seeds
in expressed
oil, 14
oil-cake is considered
seers a
of
very
a
is removed
ghani.
oil-cake and
good manure
19
maund seers
of of
for sugarcane,
that
seed
husk. etc.
valuable a most been recently only brought to property for four oil of the Boiled hours the becomes one slowly light. mixed with best waterproofing materials It can be known. black oxide of manganese, white or lead, or yellow ochre, and the boiled oil so dyed applied with a brush or canvas drill, on cloth it other into cloth. to convert or or waterproof paulin any becomes The boiled oil poured into cold water rubber-like a be used as a cement for sealingglassor substance, which can fixingornamental stones or tiles on walls. For this purpose it isOther economic
of
M,
HA
uses.
"
It is due to Dr. Watt
by pounding in
One
safflower-oil has
15
226
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
better substance to use than plasterof Paris. It is this much rubber-like substance that is appliedon ornamental cloths made in the Punjab, to preserve -the ornamentations intact. A small a
(say 1 proportion is meant
substance
:
400) of to
arsenic should be used
the attack of insects
keep out
CHAPTER JUTE
if the rubber-like
permanently.
XLIV.
(CoRCHORUS CAPSULARIS
economic classification;
OLITORIUS).
AND
the jute industry; area; uses; classification ; early cultivation in East classes of jute grown ; trade Bengal ; climate and soil suitable ; sowing of seed ; preparation ; harvesting; steeping; washing ; cost ; chemistryof jute fibre ; improvements suggested.]
[Botanical
historyof
main
The four common varieties of jute, Botanical classification. the in in found be wild in localistate India ties even all of which may "
juteis not
where
cultivated
looks for the
in (e.g.,
the district of
plantsthere
in
Pertapgurh
October), are
the black seeded the Corchorus capsularis (the round capsuledand brown variety), the Corchorus acutangulus(the short and winged seeded variety), in
if
Oudh,
one
olitorius (the long cylindrical podded and
Corchorus
podded variety),and
Corchorus
cultivated. is wild and never is The first which
antichorus, the
The
third
which bil-nalita,
varietyis
also
tivated. rarelycul-
Southern
in
more common Bengal, Deshi pat ; the second which is more common designated may be designatedSerajgunj and Eastern Bengal may in Northern
be
pat. Uses. eaten
are
The
"
as
a
young
leaves
potherb,and
as pat (Corchorusolitorius),
speciallyof Corchorus capsularis, the dry leaves, specially of the Deshi an
alternative
and
medicine febrifuge
of the fibre are sometimes The stems, after the removal (nalita). charcoal. used for making gunpowder creation of the The a industryis practically jute-cultivating first The mention of last century. jute as an article separate in the customs for 1828, when returns of export is made only 364 to Europe. In 1854, the first European of this fibre went Serampore. Several jute factory was established at Rishra near and of rope and gunny of manufacture for raw factories jute baling of a few years, bags,sprang up round about Calcutta in the course time value the total of the fibre the has reached until at present cwt.
the
sum
of many
crores
of .rupees.
; and within the five years
The
1900
to
There are twenty-five per cent. in work mills at for Bengal fortyjute
than
outturn
1905 now
is
ing annuallyincreas-
the outturn between
rose
more
thirtyand
the manufacture of gunny hundred thousand spindlesand
contain about two thousand looms. fourteen and a half The under jutein India is over two Area. area The is c million acres. area jute-growing practicallyonfined to districts of Eastern, Northern and Southern the damp and warm of Assam. and Bengal
bags. These "
HANDBOOK
228
OF
AGRICULTURE.
of fibre may be taken as the average produceper acre, twelve maunds beingthe produceof the early of the late varieties. As 75 varieties and twenty maunds per for sale and export,16 crores of rupees cent, of the jute is grown food-earning at presentrepresentthe reserve or potential per annum which be utilized in of of time for course raiyats, may capacity Yield. Fifteen maunds "
its
legitimate purpose
as
populationincreases
and
greater
stress
is felt by the cultivator. All non-food crops grown chieflyfor cultivator be the looked upon in this light. sale and export by may of juteprevailing was so In 1905 the price great (about Rs. 10 per Eastern of Bengal reached the extreme maund), that the raiyats rice and the as not a good one limit in cultivating jute, crop was in 1906 was found to be too short. that year, the stock of food-supply in the hands of raiyats, of course, money But there was, and they thus no actual famine, could import and buy grain. There was of food local and hardship the was grains deficient, supply though had connection with the jute tj*ade. no felt by the poor who was A
and
damp
climate and yet not the essential conditions of success are of too incessant rainfall, in in and Madras this crop. Experiments growingjute Bombay and is not there unfavourably reported upon, have been elsewhere of the competition much ruining jute prospect industry of Bengal. Attempts at growing jute in South Bihar, Chota Nagpur, Orissa and other dry placesin Bengalare not very Conditions of success
"
warm
successful either. Soil. "
With
allsoilsare soils,
givesthe
exceptionof rocky, laterite and poor sandy adaptedfor jutecultivation. Rich loam, of course,
the
varieties grow luxuriantly in low of fibre is obtained from Aus land. better quality
best result.
The
coarse
lyinglands,but a Pulses, oats, barley,wheat,
tobacco
and
Aus
paddy
are
grown
on
such lands in rotation. Dearh and chur lands and islands,also lands producemore bil lands and ordinaryAman vigorousgrowth of the fibre is poorer. An excess and longerfibre,but the quality does in Sunderbun the not injuriously soils) of salt (suchas occurs affect the Corchorus olitorius, though it is not quite suitable for In lands south of Calcutta therefore the the Corchorus capsularis. in preference, on Corchorus olitorius should be grown highlands. sunn-hemp or dhaincha should precedejuteand on no If possible, account should two crops of jutebe taken in succession on the same
land. *
"
November
or
In
lowlands, preparation ought to begin December, though usuallythe winter cultivation
Cutivation
in is
the firstploughing givenin Februaryor March before with ing laddersowing. Two'ploughingsand two cross-ploughings of weeds, are a sufficientpreand one harrowingor collecting paration^, aerification continued but previous by occasional stirring for a long periodis essential. The sowing in lands subjectto and neglected
4
229
JUTE.
takes placein March flooding February. Sowing goes on
in
and in some parts of Eastern Bengal to from FebruarytillJune according of rainfall. In the bil land amount
the positionof the soil and north of Rajshahiwhere obtained sowing are very heavy outturns is done as earlyas February. In 1906 the rainfallin Februarywas that so in in February, Nadia a good deal of jutewas heavy even sown and February sowing that year gave the best result. July b ut it may sowing usuallyfails, succeed in Bihar and Chota NagOne and a half seers pur. per bigha(i.e., nine pounds per acre) is the to
quantity of certain
seed
to be used.
Exchange
of seed is
practised
for the cultivators. The ordinary time t he is the middle of August to the middle of Sepharvesting crop tember. But juteand in in some washingbegins July parts goes on to the end of November ed in others,the earlyvarieties being harvestin July and the late varieties from October. Ten to thirty maunds of fibre are obtained per acre be the average may ; but put down at fifteen maunds. By using two or two and a half of seed per bigha,i.e., tseers by thicker sowing,no better yield in fibre is obtained,and the direction in which improvement should a
extent
by
be
aimed at to arrest the degeneracythat is at present going in the jute on be to get the cultivators do the to crop, would thin in sowing growing this crop for seed-purposes. By thick sowing the crop yieldspoorer seed and the degeneracy comes
throughpoverty
of seed.
The seed should be sown by drilling, only nine inches apart, so with wheel-hoe or bullock-hoe may be done. hoeing Hoeing at least once should be done after sowing when well the plantsare and if lock-hoeing one up, possible, hand-hoeingand one wheel-hoeingor bulthat
should be given at an interval of a fortnight or twenty between the two operationsbefore the rains set in regularly, days when wheel or bullock-hoeing will not be feasible ; or the wheel
bullock-hoeing may
be done* when the land is not too wet, say, of June, and the weeds pulledup with hand when the rains have set in properly. Native cultivators use the bidia after germinationto loosen the soil and uproot extra plants.
or
^at the end
Maturing. Where "
required. be
Elsewhere
appliedwhere
there
cowdung
is silt
deposit
at the rate
of 150
no
manuring
maunds
per
is
acre
are appreciably necessary. cowdung manure, except those belongingto the leguminousorder. Growing of a preparatory crop of dhaincha or sunn-hemp has been already recommended. The proper time for harvesting the fruits have is when just commenced to form. Cut earlier, the produce is less and somewhat weak, though whiter and more glossy. Cut later,the fibre is coarser and rougher,though slightly heavier,but it does not do heavier a of outturn and coarse getting eracy dirtyfibre. The degentors complained of by jutemerchants is also due to the cultivaallowingthe juteto stand tillthe seed has begun to mature.
may
benefited by
All fibre crops
230
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
mature seed, and get a In this way they secure some partially fibre. littleheavier outturn, but of coarser deep clear,sweet (not salt) Steepingshould be done in fairly in running water a done is but stagnantwater. longer If steeping and the fibre is infiltrated with a grey for retting, time is required
depositof iron salts. Salt water also delaysthe process of retting. Steepedin shallow and dirty water also the fibre is somewhat if the whole heap is not specially grey, and it takes longerretting, to the The entirelysubmerged in water. grey colour is due depositof iron salts. Districts of which the soil is too rich in iron not suitable for growing high class jute. are have been cut, they are left employed." After the plants The in the field for two or three days for their leaves to shed. stalks are then gathered, tied in small bundles and arrangedin heaps of about maunds two each, which are covered with leaves and weeds and earth and leftin this state for three or four days. These fields. heapsshould be made on highgroundand not in water-logged Method
then well shaken of leaves, the branching tops beingloppedoff and then removed to water where they are kept submerged under a weightof logsor wood, earth and weeds being If it is not feasible to give also used for weightingthe bundles. of great bac"~ to the soil the shed leaves and the tops which are to for rial value,the stems may be removed retting water as man soon as they are cut with leaves and all. In the hot weather, i.e., from July to September,the rettingis finished in ten days to a fortnight.If cold weather sets in, it takes longersometimes as of the fibre gets too much long as two months, in which case some
The
bundles
are
y
the colour of from removed the fibre is grey and the outer bark is not entirely the lower part of the fibre. The submerged bundles should be that the stems to see from time to time after a week examined fibre the over-retted. not are Over-rettingnot only makes When the it. retting is darker in colour,but it also weakens
retted,or rotten,
and
others not
retted
enough,and
after bundle is taken by a man goingdown into with a flat battered is water, and the lower end of the bundle The pithstick or mallet,usuallymade out of palm-leafmidrib. fibre from the by shakingthem sticks of the lower end are separated then takes hold of the bundle of fibre and The man out in water. with a jerkymotion, the whole of by alternate pushingand-pulling bundle of fibres Each out. the fibre out of the bundle is drawn from out it, and water is Vinsed and washed, the excess wrung to it is then opened out in long strands and hung up in the sun bundle complete,
bundles of fibre are kept in a heap for one the second day. day, and the exposure to the sun given from break is to Another This improves the colour of the fibre. plan off the bundle against the knee in the middle (a smaller bundle be convenientlybroken being taken),to shake off the which can the fibres stalks at the thicker end, to wrap of the
get dry. The
wet
portions
pith
231
JUTE.
the palm of the right hand and then pulland push the rest of the stalks as before, in water, until all and wringing the fibres are removed. Instead of merely rinsing the fibresclean,it is better to wash them cleaner by takinglarger handfuls at a time and swingingthem round the head and dashing
from
these
portionsround
ties surface of the water, until the impurithree for fibres two or washed After exposingthe out. are days in the sun, they should be tied in bales and got readyfor sale. If the washing can be done away from the steepingplacein clean and runningwater the fibre would be cleaner,but this is generally
them
not
repeatedly againstthe
feasible. The
Rs.
of cultivation inclusive of
cost
32 per
acre
followed ploughingand cross-ploughing by laddering with 2nd ploughing and cross-ploughing beaming Spreading 150 mds. of cowdung before 2nd ploughing Broadcasting 4" seers seed (with cost of
March
1st
April Do.
about
calculation the following
from
will appear
as
to
comes
manure
:
"
Rs.
A.
P.
1
8
0
6
0
8
0
...
Do.
seed)
Harrowing immediatelyafterwards One hand weeding Pullingup of weeds Cutting of stems (10 men)
Do.
May
July August
Tying bundles
Do. Do.
Making heaps
Do.
Removing
Do.
Cost
to
water
of
weighting Washing (40 men) Drying and making
September Do.
Rent
bundles
for half year
Rs
The
outturn
15 maunds a
net
per
of profit
when acre,
Ks.
so
much
which
58
per 10 per maund.
Rs. 5 to Rs.
is
money at Rs.
acre.
spent,ought to maund,
6 per
come
would
to
bring
jutevaries from
priceof
The
32
ing standbe called a ligno-cellulose, Chemistryof Jute. Jute may and cellulose midway between cotton which is almost pure of jutehave the following lignoseof woody fibre. Good qualities "
composition:
"
Cellulose Pectose matters Mineral matter Fat and wax Extractive matter
64
to
70
24
to
28
0-2
to
2
0'4
to
0'8
1 to
2
per cent. " " " "
less than in In when young is richer in cellulose cotton. fact, jute-fibre this becomes but gradually partlyconverted into lignose.Like The
proportion of cellulose in juteis much
232
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE
be dissolved by a concentrated solution of cotton, jutecan chloride or by a mixture acid. of zinc chloride and hydrochloric dilution is and acidification of fibre the the By solution, tated precipia gelatinous as hydrateto the extent of 75 to 80 per cent, of the original fibre when the solution is fresh. It is important to distinguish between jute and cotton, as jute cloths are now combines Chlorine sold in the market. commonly readilywith jute,the latter takingup fifteen to sixteen per cent, of this element. If the chlorinated fibre be treated with a solution of sodium
zin^
a magenta sulphite, of only jutefibre.
red colour is obtained, which is characteristic To distinguish jutefrom flax and hemp, an solution of iodine should be used. Jute is coloured deep aqueous brown, while flax and hemp are coloured blue or violet. Jute absorbs acids and alkalis from solutions,much more readilythan and If is it such therefore fibre cotton. not cotton, a lasting as the alkaline treatment is carried on at high temperatures (as in the Dhobis' boiler) the non-cellulose of the jute constituents attacked and converted into soluble products, are the fibre finally
gettingdisintegrated. of Improvement recommended. (1) Thin sowing ; (2) Eeservation of crop for seed which should be allowed to mature the best portion fully; (3) Harvesting when pods have begun to form ; (4)Longdistrict where preparationof soil ; (5)Exchange of seed with some different. the soil and climate are somewhat "
CHAPTER DECCAN
OR
BOMBAY
BOMBAY
hemp, in Mesta-pdt, Bengal
Ambari Orissa
largelyas a run, is grown the Centra] Provinces and extent
in the United
XLV.
HEMP
(HIBISCUS CANNABINUS).
hemp, Kaunria crop
and
Bombay.
Provinces
and
Deccan
or
and as
a
hemp,
in Bihar
called
Paltua
or
in hedge-plant,
It is also grown the Punjab. In
to
in
Kud-
Madras, a
certain
Bengal,it
is
grown chieflyin Chota-Nagpur. The merits of this fibre have not hitherto been recognisedas they deserve, lby exporters. It is superiorto jute in every respect and its cultivation should be of cultivation encouraged wherever possible,and the method contains the best fibre changed. The lower part of the stem be in and as much of secured as possible this should harvesting. It is not only used as substitute for jutebut also for making fishing The pulp for making paper out of mesta-pdtis nets and paper. of clean water to made by addingsix seers of kaolin and a maund of maund fibre. sized 39 grains weighing Slipsof paper every from maize stalk pulp,jutepulp and mesta-pdtpulp, bore made the weightsof 4tlbs.,GOlbs. and 711bs.,which show respectively the superiority of the mesta-pdt article for the paper-manu$s an facturing fibre is five to ten feet as The the of industry. length
233
DECCAN.
in the
of
case
fibre best,i.e.,strongestand glossiest, in in and is of the not as flower, case plant The
jute.
is obtained when
the
and Abroma jute,Crotalaria juncea,
augusta, when it is justin fruit. Jute contains 76 per cent, of cellulose, 73 per cent.,nonu mesta-pdt fibre 62*3 per cent., plantain fibre 64*6 per cent., sunn-hemp 83 cent, fibre and much as 83*8 per cent. sida as Though in per respectof cellulose it is not equal to the best fibres,in pointof strengthit is almost as good as sunn-hemp and it is much glossier than juteand stronger. The following facts illustrate the strength of the mesta-pdtfibre : "
(a) A
preparedfrom mesta-pdtfibre obtained
line
from plants the weight sustained steepedimmediately, of 1331bs. when wet, and 1151bs. when dry, A line obtained from plants fibre from (6) prepared mesta-pdt cut when the seed was ripe,sustained a weight of 1181bs. when and HOlbs. when wet, dry. (c) A line preparedfrom sunn-hempfibre obtained from plants "cut when in flower sustained a weight of 1851bs. when wet, and 1301bs. when dry. when
cut
in blossom
(d) A
in fruit sustained
IGOlbs. when
Rocky are
even
more
a
weight
from
of 2091bs. when
plants
wet, and
dry.
and well
are
that
preparedfrom sunn-hemp fibre obtained
line
"mt, when
and
laterite soils which
adapted
are
suitable
not
for the cultivation
of
vation jute cultia nd areas mesta-pdt, for
considered suitable for growing ordinaryjute may be well utilized in growing mesta-pdt,while it should be also noted that low-lying lands which are flooded,are not suitable for The yield of this this crop, though jutemay be grown in them. fibre is about the same that of jute,and the fibre is extracted as
jute is
not
easilythan jute-fibre.At Sibpur,the average and of mesta-pdt twelve twenty maunds per acre
yieldof to fifteen
maunds. From water-logged plotsa smaller outturn was obtained. The best result in quality is obtained by the bundles of stems being
steepedin
immediately after cutting. and eaten as a pot-herb, plant are young the seed,which is rich in oil,makes and is so used a good cattle-food water
The
in Poona
leaves of this
and also
All the remarks to this crop
is
an
source
a
as
of edible oil.
cultivation of the jutecrop apply The extension of the cultivation of this crop of agricultural improvement. The fibre
the regarding
also.
importantmeasure bad reputation in
the Calcutta market, but it is not the fault of the plant but of the extraction of fibre. Cultivators get seed and fibre out of the same plantsand allow them to get too mature. when justcoming to The plantsbeingcut at the proper time, i.e., the is fibre. fibre t o .Mr. Benson, Manager flower, superior jute of the Shalimar Rope Works, who buys the mesta-pdt grown at the SibpurFarm, speakshighlyof it,and he pays a higherprice of seed are sown for it than for jute. Fifteen seers per acre, if the has
a
crop is grown
singlyas
it should
be.
234
HANDBOOK
The
AGRICULTURE.
OF
in the cultivation of this improvements recommended (1)longpreparationof the soil; (2)growingit as a single the crop not in mixture with other crops ; (3) harvesting
crop are : crop and for fibrewhen
the plantsare Justin flower and reservingthe best for plants seed till they are dead ripe; and (4)removing the cut plantsin the fresh state to water for retting.
XLVI.
CHAPTER
SUNN-HEMP
(CROTALARIA JUNCEA).
THIS is the ordinarysunn, but not the true hemp, or Canndbis sativa,of commerce. Hibiscus cannabinus (seeabove) is also called sunn or Bombay hemp. The Cannabis saliva or bhang plant is found in the wild state in most parts of India,but the fibre is cultivated hemp plant,except or In fact,the hemp plantdoes not produce a plainsof India. The sunn of India is either binus That Hibiscus cannaHibiscus cannabinus. with is classed in the Indian markets sometimes juteand sometimes with sunn-hemp,shows also the greatervalue of this
rarelyextracted from the wild hill tribes. by some valuable fibre in the Crotalaria juncea or
article than of ordinaryjute. The true hemp plant,producing hibited ganja and siddhi,is an excisable article and its cultivation is pronon-recognition for the This also account law. by may of true
hemp
Two a
tall
as
a
fibre-yielding crop
varieties of
sunn-hemp weaker
varietyhaving a
strongerfibre. The former
is
in India.
are
commonly
fibre and
a
grown
short
India,
in
varietywith
in Mymensingh as recognised
a
a
great
fertiliserof the soil. The seed of the Indian sunn very (Crotalaria juncea)is sown Eastern thick from the 15th Aprilto 15th June and in Bengal in September and October also. The plant flowers in August, but it should not be cut till September when the seeds have properly the harvesting season Sown in September or October formed. is February. It is not a profitable crop to grow in the ordinary lowlyingdistrictsof Bengal, except as a fertiliser of the soil. soils and low damp soils give vigorousgrowth, but poor fibre. High and lightsoils are yield of a coarser is better adapted for better suited for this crop. Old alluvium minous this crop than new alluvium,when it is grown for fibre. As a legueven by cultivators as a crop, sunn-hemp is recognised this renovator of soils,and it is a good preparationto grow
Clay soil,rich
before
valuable potato, jute,and a
in, in young
crop, some
state, as
and many
a
sugarcane, tobacco, It is sometimes ploughed of singh Mymenby cultivators
before especially other
crops.
green ipanure, other parts of India.
236
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
worked with profit in this country,except with very expensive "being of ribbons or bark, as European machinery. The hand-stripping practisedin China and in this country, is very expensive. The crudelycleaned and unbleached fibre is used by the ^Burmese, Bogra, Assamese,Nagas and by the peopleof Rangpur, Jalpaiguri, Dinajpur,Purneah, and Bhagalpur,for making fishinglines It is grown by a few cultivators only,each on a few of these districts could the yards of land. But in none square if a seer fibre be procuredfor less than eightannas ; and raw from any of these districts, any considerable quantityis wanted would be the raw article not forthcomingfor less than Rs. 50 to doubt could no machine A decorticating Rs. 100 per maund. several of render the raw produce cheap, and there are now extensive trial is needed these favour, but more and
nets.
claimingpublic
before
one
can
say
industry will that the rhea-cultivating definitely
hand"40 a ton for the raw "20 or even profitable. remunerative pricefor this strippedribbons is not a sufficiently and though such priceshave been offered for some years, article, into been have Europe. rhea ribbons exported no practically Besides it is a mistake to suppose that rhea will grow anywhere become
and under
that crop after crop
in any it grows
It
any conditions and soil without manure.
the if
doubt
a
but perennial,
in
plantsin vigour.
a
no
taken
shade, on rich loam, and the land must be above moist to keep time sufficiently level,but at the same
best
inundation
is
be
can
continuous
the
It demands
series of
rankest
and
richest soils
crops is to be obtained. the best tobacco soils of
The
crop
Rungpur. luxuriates in fact only on in Rungpur, the crop is of so little importance,that the But even villagecalled Kankurapara (named after this crop)and where only the crop is considered of any importance, has only about twenty cultivators growingit. Native method
from Bogra the ribbons stripped
of extraction." In
for a 'few minutes, or in boiled in turmeric water softens the in which rice has been boiled. This operation water In pur Bhagalfibre and assists in the subsequentcleaningprocess. the with in water boiled leaves of divested are stems the green in the boiler, of plantput addition of 10 chhitaks of sajiper maund and a half to two for boil one simmer allowed whole or to and the
the stems
are
of boiled stems are afterwards dashed on a board, end, then the other, until all the pith is removed. firgtone liquorand The fibre is again boiled for half an hour in the original then again beaten and washed on the board which is arrangedlike a dhdbie's board by the side of water. in the outer bark or parenchyma is practised off Scraping after In Assam before the fibre is hand-stripped. most districts, it is divested of the off a stem the leaves have been hours.
Bundles
stripped
outer
skin
is left to
by rubbing it with
dry
for two
or
a
blunt
three
knife,after which
days in
the hot
sun.
the stem The third
RHEA.
23T
the stem has been exposedto dew for several houra off the stem by breakingthe woody stalk right the fibre is drawn the fibre throughtowards the thicker end and then separating it towards off the slender gently therefrom by drawing end, some in givingthe fibre the peculiar twist in order care beingrequired
morningafter
it off without breaking.A good deal of the fibre (about after the drawingoff has to the stem remains adhering one-fifth)
to draw
done
been
as
described.
of green stems producesabout a seer of fairly in and this treated two half i.e., a only way, white fibre per cent. of fibre may be obtained per acre to eight maunds Seven per of the fibrefrom the stems is so difficult but the separation A maund
|. "
annum,
and
few a costlythat cultivators actuallygo in for cultivating
deductions as to cost and outturn can be with regardto this fibre from the data they are drawn definitely estimate the produceat as much as 50 to able to furnish. Some
yardseach, and
square
no
55 maunds
per acre. In Spain and other
European and American
and experimentally
being grown for the extraction of fibre,500 is
rhea
per
of
a
machinery}sused properlymanaged plantation
is estimated to produce7,000 to 9,000 tons of green stemsout of which it is estimated that five per cent, of fibre annum,
obtained,which
be
can
per
acres
countries where
where
annum.
without stems
is
The leaves
per
to 1,792 Ibs. of fibre equivalent per acre of 100 stems of full-grown weight rhea
average 241bs. is about
acre,
The
Chinese
grow
19,2001bs. Paure's
i.e.,about
about
80,000
decorticating
3 per cent, of fibre which is in a purer machine which extracts in European experiments is said to produce, state than China-grass, cutting.In the remainingtwo cuttings 5761bs. of fibre from one be reasonably least another 57 Gibs, at expected,or a total may which at "30 acre of l,1521bs. annum, per per ton (theprice per class is for China-grass')worth about "15 high paidin London and American estimates and from the From 225. Ks. European or it seems, one fairlyestimate the produce the Chinese figures may '
of rhea fibre at
l,0001bs.or
say
12 maunds
per
acre
per
annum,
to go upon than either 7 to 8 maunds reliablefigure which is a more 50 to 55 maunds or variously per acre, which are the figures given the Of climate and soil cultivators. have course, Bengal by thing everythe climate is damp and at to do with the produce. Where the foot of a hill where the soilis renewed annuallyby siltdeposit,
and the soil is
or always more maunds twenty-five water-logged, localitiesthe producemay dry
less damp, without ever getting of fibre may be obtained, while in not reach even five maunds to the
acre.
is propagatedfrom stem-cuttingsseed. The cuttingssix inches to and three to four inches nine inches longmay be plantedhorizontally each foot under soil one Forty to fiftythousand apart way. Method
of cultivation." Rhea
also root-cuttings,
from
238
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
The fieldsshould be weeded are requiredto plantan acre. "cuttings and heavilymanured each and hoed after each cuttingof stems Blanks should be filledup from time year duringthe dry season. three inches deep as time by plantingcuttingshorizontally to down The shoots are cut when the bottom alreadymentioned. and brown the leaves to low down turn of the stem begins portion obtained the stem are begin to fall off. Two to five cuttings richness soil and of the the the with to which care annuallyaccording the plantsare tended, three cuttingsbeing a good average crop. in shade be obtained if the plantsare heavily "Six cuttingscan If stems readyfor cutting alone selected, and watered. are manured with the is some cultivators, intelligent .as cuttingscan be practice had throughout the year. If the cuttingsare uninterruptedly first plantedin September,the first1 crop may be harvested in May (which is the shortest crop),the second in June (the best crop), the third in July,and the fourth in August. Plantingof cuttings take placein May and June also. "can If rhea is propagated from seed,it is necessary to sow the seed with rotten dung. on lightsandy soil well manured superficially seed should
Rhea a
be covered
not
lightcoveringof
earth prevents
there should be a "cabbageand cauliflower
with
after
sowing.
germination.But
coveringof mat seed.
earth
This
put
mat
on
should
as
bed the seed-
on
is done be
Even
in
sowing
kept moist
and
watered
direct. When the seed should not plantshave fully of should be the taken and watering mat off, covering appeared is the best time for done occasionallya^ required.September be
rhea. transplanting
-sowing and
they
when
about
are
The
three
seedlingsshould
inches
be
planted trans-
high.
from the steins is so question of the extraction of fibre India offered Government of time at one a important,that the reward of "5,000 for a rhea fibre-extracting machine, but this offer 1881. This Reswithdrawn by a Resolution,dated 19th March olution was low From the valuation the : put by English says The
' '
fibre
producedat the late competition,it rhea fibre will be able, for the Indian that seem probable with the Chinese product; present at least,to compete successfully while the experience which has been so far gainedalso pointsto
firms
on
the
samples of
does not
the conclusion that in most be undertaken with
"cannot
plant and
it
requiresa
parts of India the cultivation of rhea
profit.Rhea
m'oist air and
is naturallyan equatorial rich soil and plentyof water, unfavourable to it. Such
of temperature are conditions may be found in parts of Burma, in and Northern districts of Eastern in some be grown in such placeswith only so much can in an ordinary well-farmed field for a rather
wjiileextremes
Upper Assam, and Bengal,and if rhea care
as
is
required
superiorcrop, it is that it may succeed commercially. Until,however,private possible taken has shown that the cultivation of the plantcan be under"enterprise these or other parts of the country, and that for an improvedmethod of preparing has arisen real need the with
"a
in profit
KHEA.
fibre in order think
inadvisable
it
is difficult
it has now offer, which made result, of rewards for suitable
without
to
valuable
so
whether
say
of Mr.
Faure,
the
be
to
them.
Gomes,
the
; but
The
those
are
of
inventions
degumming
claim
they
as
good machines among very mentioned be prominently M.
lately made
rhea
there
fibre will
inventions
which
of Messrs.
Burn
of 400
plantation of
outturn
Co., of Macdonald, Boyle " Co!, of S. and London, of Mr. Charles W.,
Rs.
two
sets
of
comprising of forty drums for a machinery for a plant of this size this they anticipate an buildings. From and clean fibre dry day, at a cost of per
of
tons
two
"
set
The
acres.
"3,000, without
cost
some
should
Messrs.
each
decorticating battery,
of
really
be
to
seem
39, Victoria Street, Westminster, J. Dear, of 28, Victoria Steeet, Westminster. Messrs. Macdonald, Boyle " Co., recommend
will
of India
the
renew
decorticatingand
for
machinery prove
production, the Government
"
machines. It
its
to
time
second
the
for
stimulate
to
239
282. aims
Dear's
decorticatingthe fresh cut stems the crude the fibre in England, degumming on Mr. Dear has in Yorkshire, where, equipped a factory to turn out of fibre for spinning, at a cost of 600 l,0001bs. to ready per day only Mr.
process plantations and
of the
exclusive
"1,000,
of,
spoken
but
power,
of
supply
inclusive
crude
durable.
Compagnie
N.
C.
Riviere,
fibre
of
the
lation instalto
comes
little doubt
this, in addition textile and
of
of which
of
to
a
him
a
plant
out
the
it
could
of the
those also
height
by
of grape
the
of about
be
the
in
Botanist
would
at
of the
steamers
after
ninety
forty-fivetrips. make
introduced
of
it as
a
an
ramie,
highly cultural agri-
country.
heterophylla,the
vines, is extracted
tribes ten
exceedingly
lasting qualities
silky character, if
is
Government
worn
will be
II.
supplied good condition
was
highly
in Behar.
Coventry
stinging nettle, Girardinia
resemble and
rhea
to
in
to
Bernard
French
is also
extent
India, Vol.
the
linen
article
commercial
fibre
grows
its
product
by the Nepalese, nettle
to
considerable
a
the
as
Decorticator
by Mr.
Transatlantique was while ordinary linen
seems
leaves
ramie
the
that
Algiers,states
The
to
its work
of it and
M.
valuable
Fibre
used
Agricultural Journal fibre produced from
The
voyages,
Ramie
been
the
in
There
has
and
full account
found
Patent
's New
Faure
and
The
China.
from
A
motive
light.
of electric
at
of the
and
Nilgirihills. Nepal terai.
feet in the
used
This
210
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE
CHAPTER COTTON
XLVIIL
(GOSSYPIUM).
[Area of
cotton in India. Historyof attempts at cotton improvement ; on what the value of cotton depends ; stems may be used for extraction of fibre ; oil ; for sowing and picking; conditions trade ; acreage ; yield; times ; mixture cost of the crop; of of profitableness cultivation; silk-cotton or simul ;
Akanda.] The
devoted
area
It varies
acres.
to
cotton
in India is about
considerablyfrom
tendency is upward. The
actual
year
to
year,
twenty million but
the
general
of cotton is (estimated) The average annual about fotir million bales of 400 pounds each. yieldof cotton per acre seems to be from 80 to 100 pounds of clean cotton
per
outturn
acre.
is a very minor factor in this production.There devoted of the to and this half about acres the 60,000 crop only ; is in the Saran district. It is sown area partlybefore and partly In Eastern after the rainy season. Bengal and Assam the crop is also only a minor one, and the production is almost entirelyin the various Assam valleys. the hills surrounding
Bengal is
The other
importantcotton-producing provinceshave approximate follows
as
areas
: "
AREA.
Bombay Presidency
6,000,000 I,200,0a0
Provinces
Central Berar
3,000,000
Presidency
Madras
Punjab United
1,500,000 1,500,000 1,250,000 2"'0,000 3,400,000 40,000 1,000,000 450,000
...
Provinces
Burma
Hyderabad (Deccan) Ajmere
Merwara
Central
India
Raj pu
acres.
tana
efforts have
been made duringthe past of the character Indian cottons. Exotic improve seventy years have been introduced againand again. American cottons planters A
very
great many to
But the generaleffect of such been broughtto grow them. of the varieties introductions has been small. In a few cases some themselves small but established have over areas, except in the in South .India in the past few years, cotton of Cambodia case have become a very largefactor in the produceof the counnone try. be said that the character of Indian On the whole it may the same it was is practically as cotton So much fifty years ago. that the authorities have largely is this the case abandoned the have
importingvarieties from abroad, and Mr. Gammie, the present has summarised ImperialCotton Specialist, recentlythe tion posi-
idea of as "
season
follows 1.
That
cotton
:
"
long season districts and
cottons
are
vice versa,
quiteunsuitable for early that slight differences
and
241
COTTON. "%
of climate
large differences
cause
in
the
quality of
cotton
produced. in
away
varieties characteristic of the black cotton soil fall inherent quality if transferred to another class
That
2.
some
of soil That
3.
varieties thrive
exotic
thus
been
in red
sandy soils,
or
introduced
and
have
the
Konkan
and
United Provinces. 4. That inferior varieties
only
better
permanently with varying the outside of regularsuperiorIndian areas, e.g., degrees success in Coimbatore, North Gujarat,and Dharwar American, Bourbon ;
Egyptian
in Sind
the
and
Khandesh
That
6.
Karunganie in
rare
cases,
when first,
cotton
are isolated,
generalmixture
superiorto often
too
tice prac-
found
in the Central Provinces
and
provided conditions can
for
are
similar,a
be substituted with
Kumpta
perior su-
advantage,
in the Dharwar
District
Bombay. cross-fertilisationinter se has in many cases doubtedly unthe but the method stock, same strengthened employed different varieties has, up to the present,yieldednothing
That
7.
between of
this,plus the fraudulent
in Madras.
type
same
instance,Broach
Punjab
that the so-called deterioration
fields, e.g., Malvensis
varietyof the for
the
of the
remaining constituents
growingin the
of
of cotton, and
varieties from
Good
the
are
is really due to
of Indian cotton of middlemen. 5.
upland Georgian in
in many tracts oustingsuperior certain greater hardiness and more
of their
chieflyon account yieldof a largeoutturn
;
permanent advantage In conclusion,the 8. that in
environment varieties which
some
appear
to be
plant is so influenced by its provinces,for instance, in Gujarat, the same from a botanical absolutely
cotton
view have, nevertheless, individual characteristics which in perfection and with profit them to be grown only in the where they have become the actual children of the soil. tracts These statements should give pause to attempts to make of largescale introduction generalstatements as to the desirability of one transferences of cottons from outside,or even large type of in from India without very careful cotton one place to another experimentbeforehand.
point of allow
determine the value of a cultivator of a are several,and some these are often ignoredby outsiders, who look to the character and value of the marketed cotton only. Thus it is necessary to take into account This (1) The lengthof the periodof growth of the cotton. from months. 3J months to seven may vary to attack (2) The hardiness of the plant,and its liability insect by pests. Points of cotton
cotton particular
"
The
points which
plantto
"
*
M,
HA
16
242
HtANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
(3) The yieldof seed cotton per acre. (4) The ginning percentage,or the percentage of The
seed in the crop. crop with in
cent,
be
as
low
of the fine varieties,or
some
of the very
some
the
marketed are:
lint may
factors
poor
which
cottons
lint to
25
per cent, of the reach 50 per over
as
may
of the Assam
determine
hills. When value of cotton
the
"
length of staple.This
(1) the
the best Sea-island cotton varieties Iiidian ;
inches with poor
may to
vary
half
an
from over 1" inch with very
(2) the colours; of the fibre ; (3) the glossiness
(4) the strengthof the fibre. rule the introduction of a new varietyis so difficultand doubtful that it would be well for a would-be cotton grower to so beginwith the varietyalreadygrown in the district in which he desires to plantthis crop, and only after thoroughly understanding the local difficultiesof soil,climate and other conditions,to make directions. largedevelopmentsin new As
a
relative value of cotton fibre depends the and fineness of the on length,strength mainly staple. The its has 1/65 Sea-island cotton inches long, the Egyptian staple American 1-10 inches,and the or 1-50 inches,the Bourbon ordinary '65 to 1*3 Indian inches,the latter figure ordinary applyingto the the former best varieties of Gossypium arboreum, and the to The herbaceum. strengthof the Egyptian cotton is Gossypium the and but that Sambalpur Bhagalpur tree-cotton very great, Points of cotton. "
latelycollected
been
have
The to the time
Steinsand seed. "
fibre.
Up
cotton-seed it is thrown
placesalso
The
and
stems
of
the
examined
are
also very
strong.
of the plant,if rotted,yielda good American War of Independence
regardedas a useless article. In India, even now placesas a useless article; but in many away in many is seed the to milch-cows, given to cattle,especially was
the flow of their milk. In the district of Patna, used for making a high-class cotton-seed is In the sweet-meat. of two Farm, seers cotton-seed diem are Nagpur Experimental per "and one seer a day may givento each bullock in placeof oil-cake, be givento Bengal cattle. Smooth seeds yielda largerproportion extraction of oil has been, until of oil than fuzzy seeds. The unknown in India, but a considerable recently,practically very cotton-seed oil has taken place development of mills extracting
to
increase
in the Bombay Presidencyand in the Berars in the last two three years. Decorticated cotton-cake is considered or one of the best oil-cakes both for feedingcattle and for fertilizing the soil. It is as good as the best Bengaland United Provinces castor6 to 7 per cent, of Nitrogenagainst cake as a manure, containing 6 to 8 per cent, which is the proportionof Nitrogenin the best ash of cotton-cake castor-cake. The is particularly rich in
244
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
to as much Indian cotton to England amounted as 86,555,0001bs. bale of In bales (a 1821, only 20,000 or 247,300 cotton^3| cwt.). bales were exported. In 1841, however, the export rose to 278,000 bales. In 1848, the export fell to 49,000 bales. During the Civil War, India again became the chief source of American market. of of the the At to end the cotton English supply war, cotton American The regainedits footingin the Englishmarket.
in the Englishmarket to the Indian cotton objections (1} were, of picking, cleaningand packing,(2) adulteration, imperfection (3) the higherpricewhich has to be paid for the inferior handginned cotton, compared with the pricepaid for the superior of machine-ginnedAmerican cotton, and (4) the shorter-staple "
The improvement in cotton cultivation in due of numerous to the establishment mainly years in Bombay, mills in India chiefly Ahmedabad, Cawnpore
Indian
the
recent cotton
and
cotton.
is
Nagpur.
and maize often grown Arahar, castor,til, juar are Groundnut with cotton. be with Where cotton. can along grown is grown with other crops the yieldof lint is 50 to SOibs. cotton it is grown where the yieldis 751bs. to 1501bs. by itself, ; per acre such as the Nausari cotton and per acre, though the best varieties, Mixtures.
"
kapas,often yieldas
the Buri
Grown about
much
as
4001bs.
lint per
acre
and
by itselfthe
common Gossypium herbaceum varieties nine inches sown are bushy Burhi apart ; while the more are varietyis grown 2| to 3ft. apart. The tree-cottons grown 8ft. apart. The last are grown at theby transplanting seedlings of the monsoon, the seedlings commencement being grown in From seedbeds beforehand. prepared sowing or transplanting more.
pickingof bolls,two hoeings and fresh branches By nipping
to
plantsbear
more
nipping of
one
desirable.
are
thrown
buds
out, and
are
the
fruits.
The time for sowing and pickingcotton in the growing districts of Bengal are given below :
cotton principal
"
Solvingtime. Midnapore
May and June. (1) June to July. (2) February.
...
Cuttack
...
Manbhum
...
(2) October. (1) May and (2) October.
*
Durbhanga
...
Saran
June
...
Chittagong
Hill
time.
September to March (1) October and November (") May and June. (3) February to June. (1) October to December. (2) February to April. to January. (1) November (2) April and May. (1) March and April.
(3) October and November. (1) May to July. (2) September to December. (1) June.
...
Lohardaga
Harvest
June.
(2) August and September. April and May.
and
July. (1) April and May.
and
(1) November
cember. De-
Tracts.
(2) January
Accordingto the months
when
cotton
and
above is not
February.
(2)August
and
September.
table,March and August are the only sown
and
July the onlymonth
when
245
COTTON.
done. For Egyptiancotton, the late Mr. Tata recommended the best months for sowing. November October and as in this But we have found that the plantsrequire more irrigation the and full in when in comes rainy season bearing they are case, for sowingand July and spoils the bulbs. June is the best month for transplanting in Bengal.The cotton after August is called sown is used,as a rule for cotton, late cotton." Though no manure lime the use of bonemeal or (3 mds.),and salt (40 Ibs. (2 mds.),
pickingis not
*'
per
acre) has sometimes
proved beneficial.
seed is used per acre. For treein seed-bed and afterwards transplantwhich be sown cottons ed, may for an acre. 1 Ib. of seed is a sufficient allowance Between The first picked of cotton the rows groundnut can be grown. Seed
Five
"
ten
to
Ibs. of
'
and
clean bolls should be reserved for seed.
30 parts of to an average, every of 20 seed and 10 parts there are seed) parts of lint,and the feedingvalue of 200 Ibs. of cotton-seed obtained is at least Rs. 5. otherwise of the The profitableness or per acre three considerations : (1) the crop therefore depends mainly on the of the cotton use staplechosen, (2) gin,(3) the utilisation of the seed as cattle food. One variety would yield300 to 400 Ibs. of lint per acre, whereas another will yieldonly 75 Ibs. On the in Bengal, whole the Burhi cotton to be the best to grow seems should be made the to grow though persistent superior attempts Conditions of
success.
"
On
lint and (i.e.,
cotton
tree-cottons.
The
cost
of cultivation per
be calculated
may
as
below
for the cotton
acre
in
crop
"
Rs. Four
ploughingswith laddering before sowing with cowdung and lime (150 maunds
Manuring and
4 niaunds
of lime
Bengal
:
per
...
of
A.
P.
8
0
300
dung
acre)
Watering before sowing (unlessthere is rain) Picklingof seed (5 seers) (Rubbing with cowdung, lime ami ashes) Cost of sowing behind plough Watering after sowing (not needed if sowing June or July) Hoeing and thinningor patching Nipping of tips ticking (1-lOth of produce) .
.
done
in
Rent
Cleaning or ginning (l" annas
per
10 Ibs
) 26
The
priceof
lint varies much. cotton One hundred Ibs. of Ib. can fetch only Rs. 25, and unless a heavy is chosen, cotton-growing does not yieldingvarietyof cotton deal than the costs a more good Hand-ginningusually pay. calculated above, but where the industryis well estabamount lished do w ork low at these actually poor women wages.
cotton
at 4
as.
a
246
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Silk cotton or simul (Bombax Malabaricum) is a tree. The fibre of this is almost worthless for textile purposes, and it is used chieflyas padding for pillows. Blankets and other articles are ing. beingnow made out of this fibre,and the demand for it is increasAkanda Mdddr fibre be or (Calotropis gigantea)pod many looked upon in the same light.But the fibre obtained from the of this plantis one of the strongestfibres known. stems The stems cut into sticks about eighteeninches long dried in the sun for are three days, battered afterwards, and then peeled off and the fibre pickedout with teeth and
two
or
inner
No
bark, and then twisted is used either for water
of the
into rope
rettingor
the
outer
bark
fingersfrom the net. cordage or fishing for helpingin the twisting for
rope.
CHAPTER ALOE
XLIX. FIBRES.
VARIOUS plants of the natural order Liliaceae and its allied order Amaryllidacese, ful yieldleaves rich in very strong and beautifibres. To the former belongYuccas and to and Sansievierias the latter Agaves, all beingpopularlycalled aloes. "
The
fibre of Yucca
needle,which gloriosaor Adam's is and fine, Sibpore, silky strong,but the plantcannot complete with Sansievierias Agaves, or Pineappleplants. The fibre is not unlike pineapple fibre but the lengthis less than two feet. average Yuccas.
"
have as a hedge at lengthis so short that this we
Sansievierias. These
fibre
produce the
celebrated
bow-stringhemp* beingsilkywhite, is superiorto Agave fibre,but the "
This
"
seldom often reach six three feet while agaves over feet. The wild Sansievieria (Sansieveria Zeylanicd)of Faridpur and other districts of B. Bengal (called CTihuncJimuJchi
length
is
famous moorva) produces as good fibre as the more foreign but the length of the fibre is very short, not more varieties, than all the feet. Of two Sansievierias, the Sansievieria in Calcutta which is to be commonly trifasciata seen gardens, best, and is on the whole, the best variety to choose. grows
or
The
feet
lengthwhich the leaves while the lengthof the
attain is generally three to four under three other kinds is generally
This does not requireso much wateringor manuring as the other varieties. The strength of the Sansievieria fibre compared other fibrescan be judged from the following to soqae : figures feet.
"
Line
fibfe (coir) fibre Hibiscus cannabinus Sansievieria zeylanica Gosaypium herbaceum Agave lurida
316
Crotolaria j"ncea
407
" "
Calotropisgigantea
made " ,, " "
of cocoa-nut
224
"
346
" "
362 "
...
"
...
...
Ibs.
290
552
,,,
ALOE
247
FIBRES.
Though coarser than Sansievieria fibre,Agave fibre beingstronger,and beingproducedby plantswhich seem to grow better on poorer soils, is likely to respond better to cultivation the All American,and imported operations. plantswere originally into India probablywithin the last four hundred years. They all and the be found over can have, however, spread country, growingin a semi- wild condition in most parts of India. One other of them has been used as or fence along railway lines a in almost every province. The classification of the agaves is botanical names and the difficult, by which they have been commonly known have been frequently changed. A very thorough of the whole subject and examination reclassification of the a Indian agaves was recentlymade by Drummond tural (see AgriculAll of of them, with the Ledger). Agave exception sisalana or Sisal-hemp, of fibre, amount yieldabout the same namely, two to three per cent. This last,however, yieldsmuch from four to five per cent, rule. This plant has or a as more, few or no spineson the sides of the leaves,and hence is much Agaves. "
-
with than most of the other kinds. The general rules to be observed in planting all Agaves are : (1) Plant about 400 suckers to the acre, eightfeet between rows and six feet between plantto plant. With a smooth edgedvariety closer planting somewhat than this is advisable. (2) Whenever leaf assumes the horizontal position a cut it out for extraction of fibre. (3) The cuttingout of leaves generallycommences from the fourth year after plantingand it goes on until the flowers which Flowers it does in fifteen or to seven plant years. bulbils often appear in the fourth or fifth year after planting, in the plants of India. from suckers removed All should be (4) the bases of plantsas soon the main as they appear as they weaken more
easy
to work
"
"
wards separate nursery to be afterinto the field. (5)Planting of suckers between transplanted
plant. They the older
may
be
planted in
a
plantsfor renewing the plantationshould
commence
be leaves begin to be cut, that the plantationmay full in five Each after four or always bearing. (6) plant leaves years should be divested only of twenty-fiveto thirty-five as
soon
as
per annum,
About
a
quantitywhich will yieldlib. to IJlb.of clean fibre*
one-third of
is all that can be annum moist soilsshould not be chosen expectedper acre. (8)Kich, good for growingAgaves,as such soils are only wasted on this crop. The growth is luxuriant, but the fibre on such soils is weak, and if there is water-logging, the plantsperish. At the same time it must be supposed that poor rocky hillysoil is not suitable. A good lightor medium land will answer well, but cultivation between the plants is essential, and great care altogether in the early days of the plantation.A full account of the whole a
ton
of fibre per
and questionof plantingSisal-hempwill be found in Mann Hunter's 'Sisal '-hemp planting in the Indian tea districts, publishedby the Indian Tea Association,Calcutta.
248
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE,
plant grown in Mauritius is tivated culThis plantis now the green or foetid aloe (Furcreagigantea). East in many parts of Ceylon and India. In German machine Africa also the Mauritius hemp and hemp-extracting have been introduced. It grows on fairly poor land. Gravelly not rich lands are and soil producesthe best fibre. Moist suitable,and that probablyaccounts for this varietyproducing such a small proportion of fibre in East Bengal and Assam, 4 and 4" per cent, obtained against where 2 to 2J per cent, were obtained in Sambalpur. In fact the plant flourishes best where leaves are the land. The does not cover ordinaryvegetation the middle, four to seven feet long,four to six inches broad at black small with armedeither and bright green in colour, the when The pulp, marginal spines or altogethersmooth. The Mauritius hemp."
fibre
The
*
Planting leaves are crushed, givesoff a strong pungent odour. of in the rainy season of bulbils should be done in the open The plant reaching maturity,a flowerjustbefore the season. stalk fifteen to twenty feet in heightgrows out from its centre. The blossoms form into bulbils that developinto young plants which are plantedin nurseries six inches apart and transplanted when one or two years old. Thus it goes on propagatingitself. The Mauritius hemp has the tendency to send up flower-stalks, at least in Lower Bengal,from the fourth year and a plantation than twelve years. of this aloe would not last for more ting All these fibres can be extracted from the leaves either by ret-
by scutchingthe leaves. Though the former adoptedby the peoplefor their own use, yet it weakens or
and there seriously
is
no
export market
whatever
for
is
usually
the fibre such retted
plest the simis by scutching, fibre. Apart from this the only method number with fitted wheel a form of the machine used beinga of metal plates beaters on the circumference,which on rotation or the pulp leavingthe fibre beat againstthe leaf and scrape away of such machines is the so-called 'Raspador' behind. The simplest From this have developed used in Yucatan, and worked by hand. machines of all sizes up to the huge automatic apparatus capable of dealing with 100,000 leaves per day, and with the produce of say six hundred acres of sisal-hempor other agave plant.
CHAPTER OTHER
FIBRE
L. CROPS.
This is a perennialbush or augusta (Ulat-kambal)." of which yielda valuable silkyfibre, The small tree, the stems and the retting as stems can be cut three times in the year and extraction of fibre can be dona as in the case of jute,it is very desirable to introduce this crop rather than rhea as a high class Abroma
OTHER
perennial fibre ripens in the ulat-kambal
is
durable
more
FIBRE
in the
It flowers
crop.
cold
rainy says
part* stronger
than
the
and
season
Roxburgh
season.
one-tenth
249
CROPS.
that
the
fibre
of
much
and
sunn
seed
in water.
Hibiscus
(kasturi),
abelmoschus
"c.
all
Nearly
"
malvaceous
esculentus Hibiscus plants yield useful fibres. The common or finger,the Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa),the Hibiscus mutabilis (Sthal-padma),and Hibiscus ficulneus (Ban-dhenras or Belunpdt),have been all used for their valuable fibre. Indeed the last named plant is preferred to jute by the cultivators of Murshidabad for their own domestic In an use. experiment conducted abelmcschus by the Agri-HorticulturalSociety of India, Hibiscus yielded the best crop of all the fibre-yielding plants experimented with and the yield came of fibre per acre, with a Death to SOOlbs. and Ellwood's machine, while a largeryield (12| maunds per acre) also obtained the of The seed was by ordinary process retting. has a commercial and value it is known to perfumery makers in Europe by the name of The when seed grains d'ambrette. smell and the is used for of amber and it musk ground gives making sachet-powder and perfumery. Of other fibre-yielding ed be mentionplants the following may Ladies'
:
"
sativa.
Ananas Musa
paradisaica (plantain stalks). (Manila hemp).
textilis
Musa
Pandanus
utilissimus
segiptiaca(Jainti).
Seshania
aculeata
Passiflora
sp.
(Dhaincha). (Jhumkalata).
vahlii.
Bauhinia
reticulata
Anona
(bullock's heart). (Berela).
rhomboidea
Sida
Saccharum
ciliare
Ischoemum
largely used The one
(Keyaphul).
Sesbania
"
for
(munj). angustifolium(the Bhabur paper-making). "
Quaxima
fibre
coming rivals long and strong
of the
fibre is
plant may
"Sida and occupy
mentioned Babui land
the
it
can
Ibira"
also
mentioned
under
Of
sea.
fibre
of
the
cannot.
grass
being
resist the action
the
near "
be
may
growing ordinary crops
grass
which
Rio-de-Janeiro
of
jute
and
in low-lands
grows
be
of
Babui
or
is
considered here.
of water.
fine linen-like
Paraguay.
shade
which
The The fibres
Pineapple, they can
of trees,
250
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER PINEAPPLE
LI.
(ANANAS SATIVA).
PINEAPPLE plants should be guarded againstexcessive heat and cold ; that is why they are often grown under shade. They do best on low, rich land that will not overflow,and near water. and shaded is suitable. In Florida they are High land if irrigable t o under i.e., plantedeighteen twenty-fourinches apart in pineries, As many mdcMns. 1 ft. apart) 2 ft. X as 20,000 plants(planted crammed
into
an
acre
in the Bahamas
islands,whence
the fruits are largelyexported to the United States. The ground chosen in these islands is more less rocky. The owners of land share or with the cultivators in the produce. The proprietors of land make advances in cash or provisions to the cultivating labourers, until the reapingof a crop, and the cultivator is precludedunder are
his share agreement from selling
other than the landlord, the pricepaid for beingIs. to Is. Qd. per dozen according to the date of production.Eighteen months to two years must elapsebetween tbe plantingand the reapingof the first crop, each plantproducingone fruit. Sometimes a plantbears in twelve to fifteen months. When ripe,the pineapplesare cut and carried on and women the heads of men the plantation nearest to the beach whence they are shippedin largeAmerican vessels. The London Market is principally suppliedby the Azores and Canary Islands. the best pineapples But It i" in Englishhot-houses. are grown mistake in shade. to that the best fruits grow a Pineapple suppose does grow in shade, but it grows better in the open especially in moist climate is the lower districts of Bengal where and the equable. In districts where the soil is dry,or rocky and harsh, it better in shade. The Mauritius varietywhich we have in grows is a superiorvariety. The Sylhet and Assam the Sibpur Farm an
pineapplesgenerally,are
to
any
also famous.
Cotton-seed-meal and tobacco-dust at planting have Manure. been found to be the best preparatory manures for pineapples. A month before fruiting bone-dust givesthe best result. and fifty dollars fibre has been sold at one hundred Pineapple market for and New York, but there is no regular per ton in London it. Ten leaves weigh about a pound and 22,000 leaves a ton. A ton of leaves yields50 to 60 Ibs. of clean fibre obtained by scraping and beating, exposingthe fibre to steeping,washing and finally The the sun. steeping, washing and exposingto the sun are "
repeateduntil
the
If the fruits
fibre is white.
the juiceof the fruit, preservedor even would nerative. by our cultivators,pineapple-growing prove highlyremuthe The following for preserving recipeis recommended the fresh of allsoft fruits of Press the out fruit,sepa: juice juice rating it completelyfrom seeds and skin. Then submit the juice to heat of 180" F. (neverhigher than 190" F. nor lower than 176" F.) be
can
"
252
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OP
food. The Negroes prepare meal is a highlynutritious and light banana-meal in a primitivefashion. They dry the fruits and Placed in jarsor sacks,away from damp, pound them in a mortar. remains for it a long time. But a quick-drying apparatus good is to be introduced into a damp should be used ifthe meal-industry The
country like Bengal.
and placedon a desiccator. When the trays in
in rounds
strippedof
skin and cut perfectlycleaned and heat-disinfected
fruits
are
dry the chipsare perfectly
ground
gal", like that of Lower Benrefuse of obtained the after make is best banana-meal out it to the extraction of jelly.The refuse pulp is pressed(say with a dried in the sun, then powdered with the dhenki or cheese-press), janta. The meal so made keeps good. The produceof meal is 151bs. of fruits 20 to 25 per cent, of the weight of fruits used. and
passed througha
will
give 31bs.
sieve.
of meal.
In
a
climate
It contains
1*4 per cent, of Nitrogen or For making meal it is preferable
per cent, of albuminoids. fruits which are not altogether ripeand which contains more starch than ripefruits. The fruits on analysis give the following -9'01
to
use
results
average
:
"
Unripe bananas.
Eipe
bananas.
Water
70-92
6778
Starch
12-06
Trace
Grape-sugar Cane-Sugar
0-08
2047
1*34
050
Fat Albuminoids Crude fibre
021
0'58
304
472
..
Tannin
Ash Others
from
matters
0-36
0-17
6-53
034
1-04
095
4-62
0-79
Mr. R. Swaminathan, analysinga Kanch-kala sent to him from Madras
followingfigurescomparing the with those
of
sample of banana-meal to Cambridge givesthe feeding value of banana-meal
wheat, rice and potato : "
Banana*meal. Water
Proteid Fat
Carbohydrates Fibre Ash
"
The
Rice.
Potato.
13-70
11-3
11-0
3'78
7-3
7'4
075 77-17
1 "
07
77-6
74-0
1-50
1-6
2-5
3'10
10
3'5
lOO'O
Varieties.
Wheat.
varieties principal
lOO'O
that
100-0
are
100-0
vated cultiordinarily
in
Bengal, or have been introduced with success, are : Martdmdn, Chdmpd, Chini-champa, Kdnthdli, Sdbri, Anupan, "
Rim-rambhd,
puri
and
Kanai-bashi, *Agnishwar, Bombay, Kabuli, Singa-
Penang.
Kdnch-kald, which
is
used ordinarily
as
a
263.
PLANTAINS.
is also eaten in the ripestate by the poorer classes. table-vegetable, and Champa are the ordinarygood varieties. Banana Martamdn jellyis best made out of the Martamdn variety. to water-logging and Clay-loamsoil not subject
situated chosen. be The land a tank, ditch,jhil, should be ploughedup and while a crop of Aus paddy is growing, the suckers should be planted8 cubits apart in the beginningof The pit should be made cubit deep and the rainy season. a The with intervals manured should be ploughed cowdung. and cross-ploughed silt from the tank, canal, or once a year, and in round the base of each clump. In manure as jhil, applied April the bunch of fruits one year the tree should be in bearing. When Soil. "
close to
or
canal,should
the portionof the inflorescence hangingon, should be lime should be smeared at the cicaand a littlechunam cut away which would trix that the nourishment have been wasted on it might go to develop the plantains.The tree should be cut down has ripened. No clump should from the base as soon a bunch as than three suckers at its base when have more the older tree fruits. All suckers should be taken out after a year, i.e., in the next May, formed
has
It is intended July and plantedelsewhere,if necessary. old for the third a second, or a fourth plantaingarden keep up
June to
or
year,
the plantingsuckers at the old spots or letting there to the should already planting grow undisturbed, the second year between the two original lines and in on
instead of
suckers be done
subsequent years
also in
new
spots,that the whole
of the
soil of
of by the plantaincrop before it is be made use the garden may for abandoned a new garden. This is not the system prevalentat where the old clumps are kept up by manuring,"but Baidyabati,
system adopted
it is the be too
not as
they
have Dacca
are
been
in Dacca.
The
suckers
planted should be all should divested of they expanded leaves needed after the suckers planted. The onlyoperation is earth of the round each, if the heapingup planted
large,and
system
is followed.
The
leaves should
not
be cut
cept away exthat down after they have borne cut are about Ks. 150, fruits. 300 to 600 bunches of plantainsyielding from annum a be acre plantationof bananas. expectedper per may than the finer kind, the kinds beingmore The coarser prolific the difference makes little to profitunder ordinary variety
from
trees
treatment.
Jcdnthdli varietyproduces the best fibre. The The leaf sheaths may be passedthrough a sugarcane mill with smooth rollers with brass comb, which will bring sides both then combed a on The blunt edge of a sickle of the cellular substance. out most used for gettingmore of the cellular subafterwards stance The bundles of fibre are then to be washed in water out. and then rinsed well and afterwards boiled with ashes or soft-soap in plainwater, wrung and exposedin thin layersto dry in shade* They are then to be exposedto dew for three successive nights^ may
be
HANDBOOK
254
OF
AGRICULTURE.
.and in day time the dryingshould proceedin the shade. A of a largecurved knife worked machine consisting by a
simple spring
in use in many block of wood is now ern parts of southIndia for cleaningthe fibre out of leaf-sheaths. Plantain fibre but should be worth at least twice as much as is not in demand handle
a
over
jute. Manila
It is very trees. kdnthdli plantain to
allied produce of a plant (Musa textilis) much to the fibre obtained from superior
is the
hemp
banana.
CHAPTEE
LIII.
(SOLANUM TUBEROSUM).
POTATO
crops of potatoes in succession in the same ; Two year ; Potatoes grown land Dhaincha the in same excellent after an ; crop preparation; year year Liming after ploughingin dhaincha ; Soils suitable for the crop ; Cultivation for growing potatoes on the garden system and the field system ; Irrigation ; Manuring ; Lifting; Use of the Hunter hoe for lifting potatoes ; Preservation
1Rotation
of seed ; Varieties ; Cost.]
is
Potato
Rotation.
"
in
usuallygrown
Bengalafter
Aus
paddy,
the potato is the or, in tracts of country where iute, "or forms the of it often the In the only crop year. principal crop, in parts of Bihar, and in the Khasi district of Baghelkand, hills,
maize,
or
from the same land in crops of potatoesare taken notion both in this country and in There is a common two
one
year.
England
the same land year after year. The texture of the soilis no doubt rendered fitterand fitterfor the potato done for this crop, but insect crop by the cultivation operations that
potatoesdo well grown
and
prove fungus-pestspredominating
svstem
after
few
a
years.
aculeata) or {Sesbania and
ploughthe
crop
on
It is best
swnn-hemp, in, in
and fresh ashes used if green 'of the crop
is not
crop
June
and
August September. This green produce of potatoes. Lime per
acre,
the
prevent insect pests. Even when
ploughedin but sold
crop residue and
a
this of dhaincha
or
together, say fifteen maunds manuring is done, to hasten
and
manure
of injuriousness
to grow between
August
manuring adds considerablyto the
the
off, the land
should
be
decomposition the dhaincha
is enriched
by
the
the root-nodules.
soil should be a sandy loam, of a fine texture, but Such soil,if it contains a good deal of a not heavy clay loam. it retentive of moisture,is best suited which makes humus matter, Shallow, sandy or stony soils and heavy claysoils, for the crop. for potatoes. Sandy soil improved by the admixture suitable not are of jhil or pond siltanswers very well. Stagnantwater is very and if in Septemberor this sowingis done early, to crop injurious SoU.
The
October, the land chosen must be highand capableof easy draining. is very The site selectedmust also be close to water, as irrigation necessary
for this crop in most
districts.
255
POTATO.
cultivation and thorough essential. Two and two ploughings improved plough followed by one grubbing
Cultivation, cardansystem. of pulverizing the soil are "
with cross-ploughings
an
Deep
five-tined grubber and one should be cross-grubbing the rainyseason is over, the three series of operaas done as soon tions of one conducted intervals week between the at being for collecting operations.Then should follow one or two harrowings be necessary to hand-pickthe sunn It may weeds. dhaincha or with
a
commencing ploughing,if either of these crops is preparationfor the potato crop. The highestmanugrown as rial value is attained by these preparatory crops, when they are in flower, and they should be cut then, and if from August to decomposed by September the stalks do not get sufficiently under and water, ploughing liming should be done submergence after hand-picking.The cost of picking, however, will be more than realized by the sale of the dry stalks afterwards for fuel stakes for the pea or pan crop. The as or harrowing should be to a followed by bakharingor laddering bring the land to a The land should then be preparedfor irrigation level seed-bed. is channels after before sowing done, as the making of irrigation sowinguprootsa number of seed tubers. The fieldis firstdivided channel for irrigation, from its head, or main to its bottom, into six feet wide, separated of longstrips a number by water-channels from the foot main channel about a at the head wide, leading The strip of land six feet wide should of the field to the bottom. divided into ridges and furrows eighteeninches from one another. then^be six these feet and inches wide, ridges long Along eighteen four inches apart early, potatoes should be plantedin double rows another say in Septemberor earlyin October,four inches from one This is a very costly method of preparing and four inches deep. the which land for potato cultivation and one be practisedby can cultivators only on a small scale with the objectof bringingthe Earlysowingis however very risky. Heavy crop earlyto market. do a great deal of damage by rain takingplaceafter sowingmay seed t he the irrigation or rotting disturbing actually arrangements the ridges.Early sowing also very often and washing down of the crop. But in localresults in insects destroying ities a portion and Sonthal Perganas, such as parts of Burdwan, Birbhum sinks into the soil or flows out freely, rain water where early sisting sowing is advantageous.Picklingof seed in a mixture conof sulphateof copper, ashes and castor-cake and the use of lime or ashes to rot the dhaincha or sunn, are great preventives againstinsects. stalks before a
For Field-system."
large scale,the board, ridgingplough should follow the bakhar or the levelling field should The be a nd the ladder. beam, or as long as possible channel. ridgesshould be at rightanglesto the main irrigation the will be made The ridges not ridgingplough absolutely by cultivating potatoes
on
a
256
HANDBOOK
but if trained straight, for the straight sufficiently
OF
AGRICULTURE.
bullocks
employed they will be and they agriculturist, apart. The sowingin this case are
of
purpose
the
should be about twenty-fourinches should be done after allfear of late rain is over, say about the 20th later. The sowingshould be done in to the 31st of October or even, the b ut this case not along ridges alongthe furrows. A man should make a straightchannel four inches to five inches deep with a
Planet Jr. hoe simplyby runningthe implement along each furrow and between two adjacent ridges.Another man of in two should put rows pickledpotatoes six inches apart both
spade or
narrow
and
the channel
he goes on, following the man who is making channel, while a third man goes on putting the covered channels Instead of spreading manure along only. the this will field all over be found a more economical the manure of the in between manure. Plantingdeep using ridgesalso way The two the cost of irrigation. saves earthingsare to follow of in two the manuring. The practice applying the manure ways,
cover
up the
the
time
as
of the
two does not seem to be earthings, soluble such as are highly manures, saltpetre used. Castor-cake,bone-meal and cowdung, which are ordinarily for use, are not recommended highly soluble, and applying dose after planting the seed, is advisable. them in one In fact, be should of at an early period applied cowdung tion preparabone-meal should be first converted of soil, and into of the addition a cid before sulphuric superphosphateby ing applyBone-meal it to the trenches after plantingseed. being
doses,
at
unless justified,
a on
by
comparativelyinsoluble short-lived crop high manuring and a
for
use
does
manure
like the one
potato.
of the
have Potatoes not
much effect benefited are is
followingmanures
mended recom-
:
"
Maunds acre.
per
Ka.
(1) Bone-superphosphate with castor-cake (powdered)...
6 )
...
(2) Gotten
cowdung
400
......
with ashes or lime and Castor-cake (3) Eotten cowdung with bone-superphosphate ...
...
...
18 )
...
...
"4) Castor-cake
......
15 \ 600 ) 6 ) "
appliedimmediately j after planting.
|*V$*""
15 )
...
Ks.
appliedafter planting. appliedbefore planting.
I
15 1"
'
night the plants all come within a fortout Whether Irrigation." or not, first watering should take place within ten days to after plantingunless a good shower of rain makes fortnight The tardy sproutswill come this wateringsuperfluous. up after under in-doors a are the watering. If seed-potatoes heap of kept moist straw or over damp sand for a week or ten days before planting, will be quickerand more after the sprouting even planting.
a
POTATO.
257
the field or runningthe water alongthe chanInstead of flooding nels in which the seed-potatoes are imbedded, it is best to run the of potatoes,or to distriwater along channels between the rows bute the water from the channel by means of an irrigation spoon
thali. This prevents cakingof the soil. But if the water is channels in the which the run along ing potatoes are imbedded, hoeshould be done within a week after the irrigation to allow the sprouts to come up without resistance. The firstearthing up with the ridgeswith a double mould-board kodalis or by splitting plough the plants are six to nine inches should take place when high. Then should follow two wateringsat the interval of a fortnight and then the second earthing.If the soil looks dry, irrigation should take place before and after the two earthings at shorter or
intervals,say, But
potatoes
days. Three
ten
six
are irrigations and of the locality in some northern and eastern districts of Bengal, be grown without which is a irrigation, great
according
necessary, season.
in
once
can
to
the
to
of the
nature
advantage. Lifting,-Potatoes haulms
and
have
are
Another
quite dry.
not
withered way
ready for liftinguntil completely and the land
of
lifting potatoes
is
of largesized tubers instalments, the first lifting
the has
leaves
become
doing beingdone
it in two
plants are still green by carefully diggingunder each with the KJmrpi and puttingthe earth back, that growth may This is a costlier operation,but it where pays potatoes sell at a high price. Potatoes require about the
months
mature
to
from
the
time
of
sowing,and
when
plant tinue. con-
early three
February and
the
ordinary months for harvesting, though by sowing in be done September or October lifting in December early can and January. Liftingis best done with the Hunter hoe unless March
a
are
plough or potato-digging
a
is potato-digger
slightlylargerproportionof tubers gets cut when than when is iftsed 100 maunds spades are used. fair is a outturn, though as much as peilacre are
acre
sometimes
used.
Perhaps a
the Hunter to
300
150
hoe
maunds
maunds
per
obtained.
Preservation of seeds
It is difficult to the seed of preserve sized hill potatoes in the plains, large and one of the chief obstacles to the spread of the cultivation of the Naini Tal potatoes has been the high pricethat has to be for the "
superiorand
the
paid
seed at the time of Tal
Naini
own
inferior
the
dark
If each
potato-seedthere
Deshi
but
sowing.
varieties.
The
would
ed import-
cultivator could store his be no occasion to grow
followingplan
may
be
well
tried.
ventilated room erect shelves on which sand is to be spreadand the potatoes spread one deep on the shelves, covered by the sand. Ten or twelve shelves may be arranged above another one on All rotten potatoes must a machan. be weeded out and the seed-godown examined constantlyfor this purpose. Small sized potatoes keep better than large ones. In
a
M,
HA
17
Only the high and
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
258
dry districts of Bengal
suitable
are
for
of seed. preservation
Steepingof potatoesin a dilute solution of sulphuricacid (2%) for 10 hours and then wipingthem dry and storingon sand for food; for preserving potatoes meant has been recommended but this experimenthas failed both at Sibpurand at Berhampore, for this climate. New is probablyinapplicable and the method established in of are tries countemperate and vigorousraces potatoes from seed. Seed-tubers from the plants by propagating better climate from a give temperate hill-stationsor crops than As it is difficult to those grown from tubers raised in the plains. in varieties the plainsuntil these of seed superior preserve the the next sowing season, and as the exchange of seed with a hill country attempt The
to preserve seed may
is the
of seed
cost
potatoes. high-class Bengal, seed costs Rs.
of
do
potatoes
poor
been attended
or
the beneficial,
with
good
results.
extensive cultivation sowing is done in Lower of maund, and an acre
October, when
5
found
obstacle to
Rs. 6 a in seed alone.
As very
small
largeweight of
give good result,a
not
sized seed is
seed-potatoes (except succeeded in only partially
far all attempts to preserve
required.So of the Lower
great
In
be
not
Rs. 75
potatoes costs about
has
climate
temperate
a
or
varieties)has
country
Bengal. variety of
JPatna
Varieties. The "
with
potatoes
red
skin,
though wantingin flavour,givesa better yieldthan the Nairn Tal variety,and the seed of this varietycan be preservedin the plains of the like the seed of the Deshi variety,and the popularising Madras A is also be an Patna potatoeswould improvement. variety very
it does not
but prolific, Cost
Two
The
"
per
expense
ploughingsand
2
well
keepso acre
may
as
the Patna
or
be calculated thus
with cross-ploughings
improved
Rs.
plough Two grubbings Pickingdhaincka tnaunds Spreadingdo.
Twenty
Laddering
or
stalks of lime
or
2 harrow
ings
bakharing
Ridging with
double
mould-board
plough
Seed 10 maunds Picklingseed Planting seed
Castor-cake (30 maunds)
Spreading Two
earthings
irrigations Harvesting
Four Rent
Outturn Net
150
Total Rs, maunds at Rs.
profitabout
the Deshi.
Rs
50.
...
...
170 225
:
"
260
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
takes place the seed-bed of rain should be heavy shower If of water. drained insect standing carefully pests appear, ashes and lime should be dusted on the plants. field where
Transplanting.The "
December an
or
January.
improved
afterwards
transplanted
early in the season, very This 'should be done with kodali The
plough and a
once
are seedlings
prepared
also
be
should
the
in i.e., or
with
grubbershould
be passed grubber. until planting.By the middle of May levelled and got ready for planting.Drains
month
the land should be channels all round the field and a fewr water made are running of in the garden cultivation potatoes. Then throughthe field,as inches apart and the beyun julisor furrows are made thirty-six of the the after a heavy shower middle plantedalong julis seedlings is done earlyin the planting be done the seedling transplanting may If
of rain.
season, on
in Aprilor May, i.e.,
the level
plot thirty-six
inches apart instead of in furrows and the water channels are made and ashes and lime should be applied Mustard-cake afterwards.
finelypowdered under each plant at the time of transplanting. at the Cowdung and castor-cake encourage the growth of vegetation and and six maimds of of mustard-cake fruiting flowering expense and three maunds for application
one
of ashes
and
acre.
In
one
maund
of lime
are
a
sufficient
fortnightor ten days the kodali the rows of plants,thus levelling the a
should be passedbetween this time. After at field. Blanks noticed should be filled up the kodali should be passed once another fortnight between more into ridges. Irrigation of plantsconvertingthe furrows the rows not be necessary accordingto the character of the rnay or may time of is done after a heavy and the season planting. If planting shower
of
will rain,in June, irrigation
be
generally necessary will be April May, irrigation the crop from at least once to save drought. From necessary The fruits will begin November month. to March once a irrigate to bear in August. From August to October one more earthing when the land is somewhat is required dry. till November,
but
if it is clone in
not or
Kuli
in September and October begun seed is sown ; the and in October and a re November, seedlings transplanted they bear from From May to August the ordinary Februaryto June. bear fruits if trees that show to plantsmay be made brinjal with .signsof decay by February or March are pruned,manured
mustard-cake thrown
and
watered. Fresh ashes and shootg will be inferior qualitywill be borne. out, and fruits of a somewhat
the commonest are Dhashalaga and Tulshimara fungoid diseases of brinjal which the cultivators attribute to not cutting the tap-root at the time of transplanting and also to the roots cut the at time of These fictitious causes. are getting earthing. has somethingto do, no doubt, with the vigourof Root-cutting and plants cuttingof the roots when there is water-logging may
261
FATAL.
cause indirectly spores of fungito settle in the tissues of the plants* but the exciting of the diseases is the presence of the spores cause in the seed of a bacillus (Bacillus solanacearum). Water-logging
of the bacillus. Every plant affected with a disease be must fungoid uprootedand burnt. The s^ed used should alwavs avoided for be pickled,and the same locality from this to growing year crop year.
helps the spread
The
cost
per
might
acre
be estimated
as
below
: "
Rs.
January
A.
r.
with laddering Ploughing and cross-ploughing,
"
with harrowing February" drubbing and cross-grubbing, June-" Making irrigationchannels
Making furrows 3 ft. apart 3 ft apart Transplantingseedlings ^oat
of
manure
Manuring
seedlings
First
earthing July" Second earthing One August hand-weeding "
"
October December
"
Hoeing
to February hoeing Gathering fruits "
Three
-rigationsfollowed
by
Rent 74
The to about
outturn
of 150
Rs. 90, and
of brinjals maunds at a the net profit to only about
CHAPTER Fatal NEXT
pice a
seer
Rs.
15 per
1
0 comes
acre.
LV.
(TRICHOSANTHES DIOICA). and
brinjals,this is the favourite in use in Bengal. The leaves and tender shoots table-vegetable of the creeper (called eaten are valescents. cooked, specially Paltd) by conSandy loam is best suited for this crop as for most to
potatoes
cucurbitaceous vegetables.It grows well on river sides,even on of commbn the sides of rivers containing an excess salt,provided the soil is not heavy. The male and female vines are distinct, and as patalcultivators usually propagationtakes placefrom cuttings, cheat others desiring to cultivate this crop, by supplying them from male plantsonly. About five per cent, of male cuttings are quite sufficient for the purpose of fertilization. plants Four or five ploughings and harro wings at the end of the rainy, followed lines six feet apart, by making of holes in parallel season, and plantingof adventitious roots and joints cut up into lengths
with
three inches each, two in each hole, are the first operations and watered required.The holes are covered with straw other day to hasten every sprouting,except when there are of about
262
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Fatal being a dioecious plant, the cuttings seasonable showers. should be mainly chosen from female vines,though the presence When the plants have of a few male vines is also necessary. about all come i.e., one November, hoeing is giving,and up, is highlyinjurious to then raised beds are made, as water-logging of the and the creepers. Each bed should have one row plants, bed is made slopingtowards the channels. The earth dug up in
making the channels is utilised in raisingthe beds. If the field is channels are made across two water the field also, or one very long, channels other at the One rightangles. intersecting irrigation in March. done in February hastens the fruiting Fruitinggoes after which a light from March to September, followed on ploughing, in February by weeding in October, and one or two irrigations for second will the and March, a Usuallyno mankeep crop year. nringis or on
done
bonedust
silt being depended upon. for patal, Ashes and would be of benefit if the crop is kept on a second
lime year
high land. Cost" Us.
plougliings Planting,includingmaking of Spading or earthing(15 men) Watering
4
...
2
weedtngs (12
Cost
of
men
cuttingsor
each
A
.
p.
.300
..
beds
600 300
time)
roots
4
8
O
3
0
0
400
Kent
300 Total
26
...
Outturn.
"
100 maunds
and
at
4
at
1
annas
picea a
CHAPTEE CHILLIES
seer
seer,
Es.
comes
8
to about
Es.
60
1,000.'
LVL
(CAPSICUM FRUTESCENS).
LIKE
chillies are much brinjals, subjectto fungoid very diseases,but they are not so subjectto the attack of insects.
Dalbhanga rog and Kutelaga are
the commonest fungoid diseases. these overtake a crop it is not feasible to stop them. When In chilliecultivation be has to for two years successively fact, givenup affected with either of these diseases before it can in a locality mixture and invigorating "be taken again. The Bordeaux up have been used in vain. Besides the ordinaryCapsicum manures of Bengal may be mentioned the Capsicum, frutescens annuum or and the Capsicumminimum lanka which are or Dhani Nepal chillies,
highlyprizedfor their greater pungency. Cayenne made out of is Some coloured annuum. Capsicum bright pepper varieties of Capsicum annuum have, however, no pungency at all, and these are preferred for the feedingof birds as theyare supposed the colour of to heighten their feathersi varieties
more
263
CHILLIES.
Soil."
Sandy
loam
and
newly-formed
alluvium
the banks
on
of rivers do well for this crop, but dry rocky soils containingplenty of lime produce the best if they are loamy. sufficiently crops
The
finest crops
Chaibasa,
Patna
otation
chillies
and
and
brinjals.The shade
seed
in the
as
is of
case
of the
one
after
grown
pulsesor
seed oil-
lowed It is fol-
potatoes.
,
land
-
Bogra, Backergunge,
Gujarat.
it is sometimes
Cultivation The
in
grown
generallyfollows
paddy.
aus
are
in parts of
This crop
"
crops,
by
of
is to be in
sown
preparedexactlyas
May
June in
or
brinjals.When
six
or
a
in the
of
case
situated in inches highin the
nursery
seven
of rain seed-bed, the seedlings after a good shower are transplanted 27 x 18 inches apart. The time of transplanting is July and August. When the plants have beds in raised established themselves well protected from stagnant water, their roots should be partially
exposed A
lightand
to
month
air
is put at the at the same time.
earth
the
by removing
after this,mustard-cake
at
their
bottom.
of six maunds
the rate the
per
plant earthed
acre
bottom
hand-weedingsand
kept clean of weeds, two One or two wheel-hoeings being recommended. and be required after November a hoeing The
irrigations may
two
after each
of each
field should
to
"
February
ripechillies, though chillies are
and
up
be
irrigation.
Harvesting. December for
plant and
from
November
and sent fresh four times, five men
is the
also
proper
harvest
season
October be should
in
plucked green
Plucking being requiredper acre each time. The ripe chillies are spread out in the sun for about a fortnight. Night dew does them no harm and they may be left out day and be brought but if rain is feared they must night for a fortnight, done
about
market.
to
in doors. Yield
from
The
"
Rs.
4
yield per Rs.
to
Unless
7.
it adapted for chillies, cost
may
acre
per
The
cost
may
tract
is known
to
maund
Rs. be
25
to
Rs.
estimated
the
100.
below
as
:
"
of beds
Irrigation
Hocking with shades Plucking and drying 1
after irr gation
Rent
Total
R".
...
42
selling
particularly profit.The
be
is
Ploughing and making Transplanting 2 Earthings 2 Hand-hoeings 2 Wheel-hoeings 1
a
each
risky growing this crop for uniformly to about Rs. 50, while
comes
from
vary
mds.,
is 6 to 15
acre
0
outturn
264
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER ENGLISH [Origin ; Soaking of
LVII. VEGETABLES.
in water and delicate seed in camphor water tion ; PreparaTreatment of seed-bed ; Watering ; Transplanting ; Which vegetables need not be transplanted ; Distances apart ; Quantity of seed of seedlings after transplanting ; Previous required; Protection preparation of land thorough and protracted ; Soils suitable for different for vegetables ; Suitable manures manure vegetables ; ; Special mixed with hoeing or channel irrigation seed to be obtained ; Irrigation, ; ^hence how also in regular tested ; Sowing seed-bed in Germinating power, lines ; Growing of English vegetaJDles hot in in the trenches ; weather Site for market-gardening.]
of seed-bed
NEXT
seed ;
the English vegepotatoes, palvals,and brinjals, tables, viz.,cabbages,cauliflowers,tomatoes, knol-kohl, turnips and beet,have come to be regardedas the important cold weather table-
to
in Bengal towns. vegetables,specially
Origin. What "
are
known
in India
as
English vegetablesdid
of home from originallycome England. The original and s ea-kale cabbage,carrot, celery,parsnip,salsify, turnipis Persia from believed to be England. But beans came originally all
not
and
and peas beet, broccoli,cauliflower, lettuce,parsley, from Southern Europe or Asia ; Brussels sprouts originally
India
came as
the
;
originallycame implies,
name
from
Belgium
;
kohl-rabi
from
Germany ; leek from Switzerland ; endive from the East Indian Islands ; Jerusalem artichoke from Brazil ; potatoes from Africa ; from Peru ; tomatoes from America South ; onions Northern radish and rhubarb from from and China, spinach Asia, Climate.
"
should
Taking into consideration infer that
the
land
of
their
this
origin celery,
for climate cabbage, carrot, sea-kale,turnip,Brussels sprouts,kohl-rabi,leek, parsnip,salsify, and spinach are not suitable. But experience shows that nearly all the vegetables mentioned above can be 'successfully even grown in the climate of Lower Bengalspecially in the cold weather, though we
which are it is necessary to import the seeds of those varieties, natives of the temperate climate, from such climate. Cabbage Poona and and cauliflower seeds from onion seed from Patna, and from also Verawal, and carrot seed from any part of Bihar Verawal
(JunagadhState)give good results.
noted followingpointsmay be particularly in connection with the growing of Englishvegetables :" in cool water be soaked (1) Any seed with a tough coat should (at a temperature of about 60" F.) before sowing. The seed should stilldamp, and it should be covered with fine leafbe sown when to the size and strength mould one to three inches deep according "
Cultivation. The "
*
three of the seed. Pea and bean seeds,for instance,should be sown of less than a quarter inches deep,while only a very lightcovering lettuce or should be put on celery or inch of loam or mould
ENGLISH
265
VEGETABLES.
Delicate seed should be soaked in camphor water, the bottles in which they are kept soaked stopperedup for an hour, and the seed sown immediately afterwards. The percentage of is germination higherfrom seed thus treated. in a raised and well pulverised seedbed (2) The seed is to be sown with well-rotted manure and leaf-mould, the soil manured of friable sandy loam, clean and without gritor stones. consisting
Cabbage seed.
There should be a be done in boxes
cover
of mats
the seed-bed,or Seed should be
on
sowing should
towards in a verandah. sown After seed the the the close of the rainy reason. on scattering of leaf-mould should be put on it and on seed-bed a lightcover the that ashes are to be sprinkled.Ashes should be sprinkled on as they appear. seedlingsalso,as soon After germination,the coveringmats are to be taken off (3) every evening if no rainfail is apprehended at night,and the cover Some sunlightis needed for seedlings, put on again at 8 or 9 A.M. else they grow or up into sicklyplants. is the seedlings Water to be gently sprinkledon sion occaas (4) soil looks in if three the two days once or dry. say, requires, six four leaves the there are to on seedlingsthey (5) When are ready for transplanting. beet, mangel, tomatoes, salsify, (6) Carrots,turnips, spinach, but onions, peas and beans, are not transplantedfrom seed-beds, where Where to grow. meant sown they are plants grow too "
thicklythey seed-beds
(7) with
thinned
are
and
Before
afterwards
out.
Beet
and
tomatoes
may
be
sown
in
transplanted.
transplantingthe
seed-bed
is to
be
well
soaked
water.
take place in straightlines and at should (8) Transplanting channels be made such distances apart that water easily. may be In dull should a or chosen, (9) showery day transplanting, if possible, else the plantsthoroughlywatered, or transplanting or
and the soil round them available. The plants are mulching materials are in the seedbed, to be set a little deeper in the soil than,they were firm with the and the soil round the roots should be made the of necks hand the without, however, bruising plants. The be pulled always plantsshould never up from the seed-beds,but lifted up with a littlesoil adheringto the rootlets. Watering the after mulched if
done
a
heavy shower
of
rain
.seed-beds before lifting, helps this. Watering the be s hould three times a week done two or seedlings
transplanted earlyin the
late in the afternoon,until they are well established. mulching is done, savingin wateringand hoeingwill be effected. the spacing should be regulatedby (10) In transplanting, considerations that two two 1st, adjacent plants when fully not touch each other, and 2ndly,that there may grown up may
morning or If
"
be sufficientspace
of plants. channels between two rows for water When The plantsmay be thus set closer in lines than in rows. is in in the done the open as of radish,turnips, case carrots. sowing
266
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
onions,etc.,the plantsshould be thinned out, the strongestplants beingleft,wherever possible, proper regardbeinghad to regularity of the
lines and
the
of distance among
the plants. into deep and wide trenches,Englishvege(11) Transplanted tables be grown in the plains,up to June. can The irrigation evenness
should be done in the trenches,the plantsbeingset on two ridges at the bottom of the trench. The trenches should be made 2 or 2J feet deep and about the same in width at the bottom, where two of middle.
rows
plants should
be
plantedwith
a
channel
water
in the
(12) Dwarf beans, both broad and kidney,should be sown two feet apart and five inches in the lines from plantto plant. Tall beans should be sown 3 ft. x 5 inches apart ; peas 4 ft. x 2 inches ; and beet 18 inches x 9 inches apart. Broccoli and be should cabbages planted 2 ft. X 2| ft. apart ; Brussels sprouts (which are suited to poor soils and do well even without manuring) 2 feet
1| feet apart ;
10 inches x
6 inches apart ; celery before planted nursery-beds apart they are transfor the second time into trenches which should be 1 foot deep and 1" ft. wide, the trenches 4 ft. being apart. Endive salad should be planted 1 ft. x 1| feet apart; onion 15 inches 9 inches apart ; garlic X 1 foot 6 inches apart ; parsley1 foot x 1 foot apart ; kohl-rabi 18 inches x 15 inches apart parsnips 15 ; inches x 12 inches apart ; and turnips1 foot X 6 inches apart.
and
x
carrots
leek 6 inches
in
(13) Quantityof
seed
Brussels sprouts,
requiredper
acre
"
and parsley broccoli,
Cabbages Onion (sets) ...
Onions
and carrots
Kadish Leek and
(seeds)
...
celery
2
ounces.
4
ounces.
1
maund.
8
ounces.
8
ounces.
I
ounce.
Endive
1"
ounce.
Lettuce
3
ounces.
Turnips and parsnips
6
ounces.
Beet
2i
seers.
Peas
and
Country Jerusalem
beans
artichoke
maund.
1 ""15
peas
(bulbs)
seeis
to
4"
mds.
(iffor fodder), maunds.
5
(14) Castor leaf,arum leaf,bur leaf,plantain leaf or leaf sheath, or some such article must be used in the day-time for protecting the
seedling againstthe
sun
for
a
week
after
ing. transplant-
(15) Thorough previous preparationof land where the seedlings are is avoid transplanted necessary to insect pests. Also of the followingthings"mustard may be used of some cake, ashes,lime, salt,white arsenic, asafcetida and an aloes, as insecticidal mixture at the the mixture can be mixed is
planted.
A handful tinje of transplanting. up
with
the soil where
each
of
seedling
268
HANDBOOK
seeds
of soil
the
levelled
AGRICULTURE.
onion, carrots,radishes and turnipsin thoroughlytilled,pulverised,cleaned
open from
ground, have
and weeds These seeds should be sown in drills bullock-hoe may be used between the drills.
previousto sowing.
feet apart, so that
two
OP
a
(a) FIG, 65.
JERUSALEM
~
(a) BULBS
(23)
Near
:
(l")
AKTICHOKE.
(b) STEM
WITH
LEAVES.
ket-gardening) (calledalso marvegetable-gardening of the growing potatoes, brinjals, say,
largetowns that is to
palval,cabbages,cauliflower,turnips,beet, knol-kohl, carrots, artichoke, palam say, denc/osag artichoke, Jerusalem asparagus, (inthe rainyseason),chewing sugarcane and Englishpeas and beans, is necessary. Ample provisionfor manuring and irrigation pays well. Dairying and goat-farmingought also to prove highly remunerative
if carried
on
within
short
a
and dairyingmay Vegetable-gardening
vegetablesthat
farmingmay for
are
readilysold
not
also go well with
as
or
gdjrdis not
such
European carrot,and
country, the Red
ExperimentalFarm is a heavier carrot
combined,
any Goat-
ments arrange-
.
LVIII. AND
SWEET
POTATOES.
and a
has
fodder is the
of all the carrots to be the best.
but yielder,
a
carrot.
specialvalue Up-country
palatablefood as with in this experimented
nourishingand
Mediterraneanvariety grown seems
as
givento cattle.
Englishroot-crop which
nourishingfamine-food
a
carrot
the
The
be
towns.
be made.
can
CHAPTER
CARROT."
well be
from
if proper vegetable-farming
hurdlingthe goats in
CARROT, RADISH
can
distance
it is
more
The
at
Yellow
suited
as
the Cawnpore Mediterranean cattle food. a
RADISH
CARROT,
AND
SWEET
269
POTATOES.
yieldof the White Mediterranean carrot is almost equal to, or even higherthan that of country carrot, but the roots are hard, the country varietygives and insipid.Without manure coarse of than the European varieties. much a larger yield any not be directly manured. Carrots should if possible, The previous should be but the itself grown carrot manured, highly crop The
without
There should be
manure.
plentyof
lime in the soil where
is grown.
carrot
The proper time for sowingcarrot seed in the plainsis between the 15th September to 15th October, and if famine or scarcityis still earlier is in done the United Provinces. It feared, sowing made in drills is best to sow along the natural inclination of the drills after the
land, and ridgethe to thin
out
the
should
be
used
plants. before
plantshave appeared and then
hundred
Two
sowing,
maunds
better
or
of well
still before
dung sowing the
rotten
is the previousaus paddy crop. Eight to twelve ounces per acre which be used. of should seed The to 200 comes yield quantity if loose soil near site is chosen a village to 500 maunds good per acre,
or
well pulverised,weeded if the soil is deeply cultivated, two and five six three times times. The seed should irrigated or
be
mixed
and
wood-ashes
with
up
the soil is quitemoist drills
immediately after
the time
at
at the
time, water
of
sowing and
should
be
unless
poured
in the
sowing.
analysisof carrots givean following value of this vegetable : The
idea of the
ing highfeed-
"
Medtn.
White
Water
...
Crude
84'57
84-43
35
-48
)
-17
30
f
8'98
7'98
2'37
3'70 )
2'19
1^0
...
...
.
fibre
...
fibre
Woody
..
mineral
Soluble
1'09
matters
Insoluble mineral
*28
matters
TOTAL
Nitiogen
So
important is
...
the
Medtn.
carrots.
...
Soluble albuminoids do. Insoluble starch and Sugar
Eed
carrots.
carrot
English, carrots.
87'30 "bb
8'10 6'Z()
\
'99 I *32
\
^
100
100
100
'175
-230
-200
regarded in the United
Provinces
received were applications stay duringfamine, that numerous famine Collectors the District of 1896-97 for carrot by during seed, exhausted. when the local supply was Telegraphicorder was Carter " Co. for seed, and they sent to Messrs. sent off at once of seed. 100 tons It was not before December out over and that the seed in the was hands of however, cultivators, January, and the importedcarrot either failed to germinateor producedonly as
a
meagre
very
Radish-
it is
a
"
crops. This also
cold weather
belongsto
crop, the sag
the can
cabbage familyand although be grown nearlyall the year
270
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE,
OF
in the therefore grown for prisoners.In the hills the radish Bengal Jails as vegetables round. The the all be grown can year large and small pale pink radish is liked by Indians, while the small red and round
round.
It
the China
and
cabbage
are
radish is grown to a small extent for European consumers. localitiesin Midnapur,Birbhum, etc.,where are special but
the seeds
these
of
tried
in
There very huge the Sibptir
radishes are grown, sold in the ordinary small sized radishes that we Farm gave see soils certain There bazaar. rich in mineral are the Calcutta light therefore speciallysuitable for the crop. that are matters
sowingtime is June to December, though the September,and the crop takes only two months
The is
The
best
time
maturing,
seed
be in should sown which a great advantage. out lines nine inches apart and seedlingsshould be thinned so inches in the lines. three and have them to as Thorough apart in twelve and ten once cultivation or watering days are deep is for demand this there no essential. As very great crop, except is
in
largetowns, and
as
it is
carrot, any extension in the recommended, but as a fast by cultivators for domestic use
such
not '
nourishing
the crop as of this crop cannot be vegetable,it can be grown a
cultivation
growing on
homestead
lands.
also a Sweet-potatoes. Sweet potatoes, Batatus edulis, are the and in of famine common principalstay root-crop country, This crop is propagated from stem cuttings of the vine which times. are plantedon ridgesin August or on the flat in October in moist lines being made localities six inches apart, the ridgesor one "
further cultivation is necessary and the crop foot apart. No liftedin January or Februaryis 100 to 300 maunds Sank per acre. dlu is also called sweet-potato. It is a leguminouscrop, the seed in June or Jiily.The creepers are relished by of which is sown and not cooked as Batatus edulis cattle. The roots are eaten raw The roots are lifted in February. roots are.
CHAPTER
TUKMERIC THERE
are
LIX. AND
certain crops that grow
GlNGER. well in the shade.
Of these
tUrineric,ginger,arrowroot, pine-apple, pipul,groundnut,rhea, rhomboidea and babui grass may be mentioned As it is desirable to have trees at the outskirts of farm uncultivated and harbour would otherwise remain such land could be utilized with great advantageby
Sida
and
prominently. land, which
insect-pests, meric growingtur-
ginger. Trees (such as
jack, lichies, etc.) mangoes, if the land underneath is kept cultivated. themselves benefited, of the principal This is one preventive methods that should be
are
employed
in
Stiff clay soils combating orchard-pests.
are
not
271
GINGER.
AND
TUKMBRIC
soil which is not too stony, these growing grittyor crops. The cultivation down virgin soil under trees for both the crops is similar. In putting it is desirableto ploughup for the first time under turmeric or ginger,
suitable for any
root-crops,but
any
will do for gravelly
after the rainyseason is the land in October or November, i.e., land is still in fit for when the state and a over ploughing.One with an improved plough,or a ploughingand cross-ploughing followed by ladderingshould be a thorough spade-cultivation, for these crops. In April, sufficient coldweather preparation i.e.,
after the
first shower
of
rain
in
the
hot
weather, another
and will render laddering, ploughingfollowed by cross-ploughing the bulbs of ginger or turmeric. These the land fit for planting should be planted nine inches apart in the line,and the lines maunds two should be 25 or 30 inches apart. About of turmeric bulbs are When or requiredfor plantingan acre. ginger-seed the
plants have
come
up
and
before
the
approach
of the
earthingshould be done along exclude the land, to from water the of the plants. Water should be let out surroundings there is any field whenever accumulation, or such
regularrainy seasoa.
ridgingor
the natural inclination of
immediate the from land should
be
chosen,
whence
ever readily.Manuringis scarcely
three maunds
water
done
flows for
out
naturallyand
ginger turmeric,but or
a
of oil-cake per
would benefit rnaund of ashes and acre If manuring both these and the trees under which they are grown. the trees themselves are inunder trees is neglected, of crops grown jured under them. in the long run The by growingcrops manuring after plantingand before earthing.Two should be done soon
hand-weedingsor hoeingsare necessary, one in July and the other in September. The root should be lifted up after the leaves have and January. The small completelywithered, i.e.,in December outgrowthsof the roots should be set apart for seed. These before beingplantedin Aprilor May should be kept under a heap of damp straw to hasten sprouting.The rest of the turmeric roots should be cut into two, if too fat,dried and then boiled in water mixed As soon the water to as with the boiler boil, begins cowdung. up and the turmeric taken out afterfrom the fire, is to be taken down wards The heap should be stirred and and spreadout in the sun. turned two or three times a day,and when the smaller sections have become quitedry,they should be separated the fatter out, leaving two. another or sections to dry for day Daily,in the evening, the turmeric exposedto the sun should be rubbed,the rubbingmaking smooth. the roots clean and and dried)comes The outturn of turmeric (boiled to about 16 fresh about 50 maunds, but as much maunds per acre, and of ginger have been sometimes 150 maunds respectively per acre The gingercan be sold off in the undried state at about fetch as Rs, 4 per maund, while dry turmeric much as may The cost of cultivation comes Bs. 5 per maund. to about Rs. 50 per acre, in either case. 50 and obtained. as
272
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER-
LX.
(SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM).
SUGARCANE
plants ; Superior foreign varieties [Sugar-yielding
of sugarcane
;
Superior indigenous
varieties ; Yield of gar ; Acreage ; State of the Indian sugar industry of phosphates; Seedling-canes of success Conditions ; Use ; Preservation of cuttings; Topping ; Pitting; Planting ; Picklingof cuttings ; Rotation ;, Manuring ; Irrigation; Other operations ; Harvesting; Cost of cultivation and method of ; Pests ; Crushing mills ; Mr. Hadi's yur -making ; Chewing canes "
sugar-making.]
and
yur
THE
is
plant
sugarcane
indigenousto India,and
of siigar than any higherproportion it,and the date-palm after beet.
be
regardedas
fourth in
other The
it yieldsa
plant,beet coming next to maple-treeof America may
importance.
Though indigenousto India, the best varieties Foreigncanes. found in those countries where of sugarcane are now generally have been employed in its cultivation. planters European and American "
Even
the Chinese
Chinensis,is
rum
said to be
ordinaryvarietyof Indian and
better
a
by Dr. Roxburgh, Sacchctyielderand hardier than the
The
canes.
the Straits Settlements the Striped considered the best canes, though are the Otaheite is preferred For to all others.
In cane-sugar. and Yellow Mauritius
of proportion
Bourbon
chewing
weightand
purpose lengththe
may Demerara.
and
varietyexcels
Tanna
be mentioned
canes seedling
The
White
standard
cane
White cane Transparent; but a seedling this and all other good varieties of canes as
Bourbon,
the
White
best varieties of Mauritius
Big Tanna, Port Mackay, Lousier,Jscambine, Bamboo, Rouge. The best Queensland cane is the Rappoe or Rose the largest which is a very hardy variety, though yielding
Bois
Bamboo,
for
called
the
are
canes
cane,
the
Jamaica,
Transparentyieldsabout
cane-sugar
per
and
the
others.
Of
good
bon BourBamboo, Singapore, of the Barbadoes
is the
latelyestablished
excels
grown
in
Barbadoes,
the Queensland Creole.
5,400 Ibs. of
gur
and
such
The
4,500 Ibs. of
low-lyingblack soils. The Bourbon cane, red results Ibs. on soils, 1,000 high only good gives in
acre
which yields very black of gur and 840 Ibs. of cane-sugar per acre grown on low-lying which has been lately established in soils. Some seedlingcanes low suit both high and the West Indies soils,the average yield of The tained thousand six acre. pounds exceeding gur per average obsoils is stillhigher. A red Jamaica cane black on low-lying introduced in Bihar, and it promisesbetter has been successfully than the
Samsara. indigenous
Indigenousvarieties. The
the indigenousvarietiesdo not necessarily cate indithey sugarcane are very numerous, distinction. Their habits must be closely studied before they into classified distinct Here and there canes be can equal gfoups. of world the be to the and to the best found in many are parts seen, is from them also the best equalto yieldof raw sugar yieldobtained "
of
of
names
but
273
SUGARCANE.
for goingout of India for anywhere, so that there is no necessity good seed. There is,in fact,risk of importingdiseases with seed from Java, Mauritius or Wes* Indies. The following varieties canes Farm been at the have Samsara, Bombay, Sibpur grown Poona, Dhalasundar,Mongo, Khari, Chittagong-Patnai, Saharanpur, Malohi, Puri, Bagdia, and Baghi. Of .these, Chittagong-Patnai, "
and Khari sugarcanes have been found to be the and the last a very The first two are good chewingvarieties,
Samsara, Bombay best.
good varietyfor plantersto grow as it is thick-skinned,and not so and insects, and it is a free ratooner. subjectto the attack of jackals and as it is not safe to After four years the yieldfallsoff rapidly, land for more than three or growing on the same sugarcane the should be not carried four years, on beyond the fourth ratooning which insect and after the crop fungus predominating, pests year,
keep
becomes
a
is very
much
of infection
to the
gong-Patnai neighbourhood.The Chittavariety,though producingfatter and longer canes, more subjectto the rind fungusthan the Samsara or
source
other Bengal varieties. The Bombay canes, which were probably softer and richer in juice. The derived from Otaheite, are gur the from it is darker in colour than gur from Samsara canes, and of largersize. On the whole, therefore, it is best to grow crystals of if the attention and Dhalasundar the Samsara or care Dacca,
superiorvarietycan be bestowed, or else to low-lyingbil lands,which remain under for a month water or a varietyof canes more,
necessary for growing grow the Khari cane.
three
four feet of
or
known
Kulera
as
Assam
For
can Jali-dk,in Faridpur,
and
of Bombay, grass-cane also suitable for swampy lands.
the
and
cane
or
a
are
and
the
Chittagong-Patnai sugarcane,
are
the
white
or
which, owing to
red
canes
the climate
often irrigation, and of ft. 20 length
facilitiesfor a
grown of these grow a
be grown. The strawthe red sugarcane of
Besides the Samsara
other
superior chewing canes Bogra,Khulna and Dacca, of special districts or on account in
to remarkable
size,sometimes
girthof six inches.
The
taining at-
produceof
instances,7,000 to 8,000 Ibs. per acre, sugar has been, in some in the West Indies. The Madrasi the to obtained highest quiteequal and the Saharanpur Poona of the the United Provinces, Paunda of other good varieties. The Chinia or Chini cane sugarcane are is another Patna suitable for and good chewingvariety Bhagalpur districtsof Western Bihar districts. In some Bengala hardy variety and seeds very freely. known sends out of sugarcane arrows as Uri, suitable for agriculturists are Other hardy varieties, Kajli,Puri raw
The Puri varietygrown in Orissa Division produces Katari. slender than those produced by the Kajli somewhat more canes varietywhich is grown by cultivators all over Bengal. The canes of both these varieties are somewhat thicker than Khari canes, but they are not such free ratooners nor can they stand water-logging be grown well as the Khari, though like the Khari they can so make better jaggerythan The chewing canes without irrigation.
and
the hardier varieties. The HA ftf,
Samsara
or
Dhalasundar
cane
18
274
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
coloured jaggery,though the crystals the lightest somewhat are smaller than the crystals of the jaggeryor gur made from Bombay .Khari sugarcane. or YWd
of gur." The
yieldof gur under a proper system such is practicable as a largescale on manuring be can by planters, put down at 3,500 Ibs. per acre, though as much been often obtained have in Poona and Ibs. acre as 8,000 per From Samsara and other superiorvarieties, Burdwan. by very careful cultivation and high manuring 8,000 Ibs. per acre may be sometimes obtained,but from Khari and the hardy varieties 3,500 be obtained at a comparativelysmall cost. Ibs. of gur per acre can of The ted produce gur of the whole country has been estimaaverage at a ton (2,240Ibs.)per acre, and the maximum obtained yield average
of cultivation and
is
cultivators
by
three
is 60 matmds average cottah. per
in
of British
India has been
per acre,
have
we
estimated
at
7,00,000
cultivator's ideal
a i.e.,
acre,
under
area
Bengal,includingAssam,
1 ton
Bengal
4,800 Ibs. per
or
Sugar growing localities."The whole
The
tons.
maund
2,500,000
acres.
On
gur
the
in
sugarcane at
of
acres,
the
and
basis
of
maunds the annual as duce proof is great import sugar per annum and Java supplythe largest Mauritius proportion about
six
crore
of gur in India, while the and
yearly. increasing of sugar importedto
import of molasses. affected the Soil" A
mere
area
The
Besides sugar there is a large extension of jutecultivation has prejudicially
under
enumeration
India.
sugarcane. of
the
tricts principalsugar-growing dis-
Bengalwould lead one to infer,that allkinds of soils answer for growingsugarcane, includingas they do, the rough Archaean Chota of the soils Nagpur Division, the old alluvium of Bihar, alluvium of Eastern lands and the new low-lying Bengalincluding old The of the best canes and new in Faridpur. junction grow at in
and rivulets. These are red clayFor growing the mineral matters. considerations that superiorvarieties of cane, the two principal in the of selection should guideone a site are : (1) Is the land close ? be easily from which it can to water (2) Is the land irrigated and inundation and drained level above yet level ? Some easily 4redsoilsof Burdwan, Birbhum and Kandi Sub-divisions of Murshialluvia loam
on
soils
the
sides of streams
rich in specially
are dabad, thoughvery light, highlyvalued
for
growing sugarcane. contain of a they Probably highproportion phosphorus. Phosphates valued for manuring sugarcane wherever are European and greatly American plantershave taken to growingthis crop. A very large of the bones collected for export, in India,goes to the proportion If our cultivators will not use of Mauritius. sugarcane plantations their bones,they can at least prevont being collected and taken golgothas.They do some away from their fields and from village condition. good even when they lieabout in the fieldsin a neglected
276
HANDBOOK
OF
AGBICULTUBE.
and small After five to seven days the seeds will germinate, forth. justlike young grass, will come plants, of the young germs, it is good the growth In order to watch to find them back which enables one to placea mark near every one, ' c
' '
easily. "
If after
eightdays the
arrow
did not
it is yet germinate,
as beyond that time no more signthat the seed was not fertile, the young as plantshave germinationwill take place. As soon into reached a heightof three to four inches they are transplanted soil-mixture referred to the as filledwith same bigflower pots, stantly above. The pots are placedin the full sunshine and kept conmuch rich the a soil, water, and moist,as plantsrequire After a few weeks, when they are 1 to 1 J feet high much sunshine. theyare brought over into the field and treated justas ordinary a
sugarcane.
Accordingto Benecke's and Soltwedel's researches sugarcane six weeks. Therefore within seed loses its germinating power in order to allow the has to be preparedbeforehand everything sowingto be started immediately after the arrival of the seeds. that the only purpose of It ought to be well understood of a new varietywith possibly sugarcane sowing is the raising than the ordinary better qualities existingones and not the change from seed. of the old way of planting with tops into planting "
"
' '
thousands
From
of young
plantsraised
in the horticulturists'
pickedwhich look promising;the others of them are destroyed.The pickedplantsare tested,and if some in the of to be usual are propagated superiorqualitythey prove way by cuttings. in Java, who have their estates partlyor The few planters under seedling entirely canes, do not -,y heir estate, but plantit nurseries,only those
are
66
with from
cuttingsfrom
canes,
seed."
the ancesto
ne
which
t,
have
been raised
:al im "e
junction
Cuttings. Canes that are chosen for s'^ts. These for cuttings, should be the For topped when they are matters. growttds, bud should be cut away, that thipalconsiderations^ Jn~"w topmost to the lateral buds and developthem to ^: (1) Is the lar/lition. The sprouting is helpedin this country by keep!? (2) Is flngsin a "
'
'
cool pit, by puttinga layerof damp straw and t yet leveiiebottom the of of cuttings pitand then arrangingon this successive vi"j-erb "nd wet straw and ashes until the pitis filled, wlien over the last layerof ashes and straw, earth is put on, and the whole allowed to remain for a week. After this,the cuttings will be found to have and rootlets come out of the knots. The cultings, sprouted though for be for the month if ready a planting out, may yet kept covering of earth is removed from the pit,and the cuttings kept in a standing in the pitwith a covering of straw and ashes,which should position be two
of water as occasion arises. The top kept damp by sprinkling feetof canes make the best cuttings, but the topmost bud must
277
SUGARCANE.
foe rejected beforehand in most
portiononly
is
done, there is no for
alreadydirected. The practice prevalent for cuttings the very topmost utilising based on a false idea of economy. If toppingis in the most difficultyselecting promisingcuttings is done or not, that whether is, case, topping any as
parts of India of
planting.In
the healthiest and
best
should
canes
As the bud
top two feet of these used. a knot, and the nourishment
for seed, and the the upper side of
be chosen on
occurs
is derived
from the portionof cane above this knot and below the next knot above it,cuttings should be made be below the there lowest that so no cane superfluous may node and that a whole joint above the highest bud may be included. Each cutting need not have more than three buds, and if they are made
sproutinghas
after
taken
placesubsequentto topping,one buds going to every cutting.With
of three of lateral buds either in the cane while it is sprouting stillstanding th j whole cane it should be in the soil, or after planting noted that the topmost bud of the cane then the next first, sprouts can
be
almost
sure
regardto the
below if the cane
one
it,and is cut
so
towards
on
up
the lower
into sections and
end
of the
But
cane.
bud
planted,every
at the
and end of each cuttingwill come out first simultaneously, then the next ones towards the thicker end, and so on until the finishes third or fourth bud, i.e., lefton each section, as as are many the So of sprouting. although planting cuttingsalong a line is upper
almost
should
continuous, whole be
not
planted,as
make sure of at least it is best to have each
one
sections which parts of healthyand uninjuredbud canes
is done
or
in many
cuttingabout
nine inches
are
too
long
India,but to per
cutting
long.
planting Planting. Sugarcane harvesting and sugarcane from for months in the viz., Septemberto eight proceed year, April; but the best time for harvestingsugarcane is December is February. the cuttings for planting to February,and the best month "
"can
Harvestingand plantingin September and October, one duringthe Pujahs,and sprouting gets very high pricefor the canes the heat of the cuttings also takes placefreely at this season, as and moisture are both sufficientto helpthe growthof the young plant. But the cold weather that follows retards the growth,and makes to May November the nodes of the canes as very short. From twelve the have be to to as keep plants irrigations given many may in proper condition. From February the growth is againnormal, and
there
are
.and expense
no
from
short nodes
formed, but, on
Septemberto Februaryare
whole, the time wasted,and the only the
advantage in doing the plantingin September or October is the of a crop of chewingcanes obtaining duringthe Pujahs when they fetch a very high price in a like Calcutta. town Plantingin November is most tardy,and most of the to January,the sprouting cuttingsmay perishbefore they have time to sprout throughthe the attack of white ants or from the cakingof the soil preventing from from their forcing sprouts way upwards. Cuttingsplanted
278
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
January do not make any more progress than those ary and Januis done in December plantedin February. If harvesting which months are as well suited as Februaryfor making high be topped and left to sprout on the class gur, the seed-cane may in in stored into a nd be made or fields, pits the they may cuttings described before. The actual plantingshould be put off manner but tillFebruary. By planting in March one saves one irrigation, the growth from cuttings plantedin February is better. March in Bihar, Chota Nagpur, etc.,this month as a nswers where, planting in the delta is cool. The conditions as to temperature prevailing in the hills, of the Ganges are not the same or those prevailing as But the principle in the rocky western districtsof this Province. of planting in mild temperature and after the cold weather has well passedoff,but a good while before the rains set in,may be followed in every locality. Plantingin May or June is very risky,except in free and grittysoils, or even as heavy rainfall, water-logging to when the plantsare stillvery short,is injurious to sugarcane as most like maize or juar,is benefited by heavy Sugarcane, crops. rainfallif it commences after the plantsare about a foot high. Various modes of planting are adopted. In Mauritius where in holes, in deep trenches winds is done or high prevail, planting November
to
give the
to
been
canes
good support
a
ploughedup, holes
or
has about a
After the land
at the base.
continuous
trenches
are
made
foot deep and 4| to 5 ft. apart from centre to centre from line to line and the cuttingsare plantedin the lines with an interval of nine inches between two lots of three cuttings plantedin each spot in the form of an arrow. Three inches of loose soil are put in the holes or
trenches,and these
are
watered, and
then
the
arc planted cuttings
the plantsare When another three inches of earth put on. a filled foot high, the land is levelled, that is,the trenches are entirely the between second makes shallow trenches and a earthing up, and
of
plants. powdered manure
rows
of
and bone-meal
or
measured a quantity earthings human animal excreta o f or usually (consisting of each clump, is applied at the bottom oil-cake)
At
each of the two
about a quarter of a ft each time. i.e., In Bengal,the cuttings are plantedin shallow trenches (about 6 inches deep)made with kodalies, 1% to 2J ft. apart. This is much too
and
close planting, the involving
trenching.The
system FijiIslands,seems
use
of kodalies for
in prevalent
hoeing,earthing
Queensland,
New
South
worth adoptingin this country. double in are cuttings planted rows, 6 ft. apart,the two rows toclose togetherbeingonly 18 inches apart. This is equivalent ft.from 3 ft. distance of centre But 3 rows a planting single apart. to centre of lines of plants does not allow interculture by bullocks ; terculture while a distance of 6 ft. from centre to centre does allow such inment beingpractised.In workingon a largescale the employand of hand-tools should be 'avoided as much as possible,
Wales
and
The
substituted. bullock-power there may
be
some
The
injurydone
trenches may not be by bullock treadingon
so
straight,
but plants,
279
SUGARCANE.
these
not of much
consequence, as the savingof labour and time instead of employment of proper farm-implements is enormous. The 18-inch trenches can be made garden-tools, with the double mould-board the plough cuttings plantedlengthwise in two rows at the two sides of the trenches,say three cuttings beingplantedin every 4 ft.of lengthin each row, and the trenches after irrigation filledup by splitting in between of the ridges beijig are
effected by the
with mould-boards. The subsequent be can hoeingsand earthings done with the Hunter hoe, when the plantingis done in the above described manner. Planting in this way, nearly12,000
cuttingsare requiredper cultivators
about
acre
10,890),and (theoretically
as
Bengal
kahans (2 x 1,280) of cuttingsper bigha sacrificeof space not much (one-thirdof an acre),there is really made for effecting of in The the cost labour. saving growth of is also healthier under such a treatment, as canes the plants get air and sunlightthroughout the periodof growth and a more use
2
proper elaboration of sugar in cane-sugar crystals.
is the consequence,
a i.e.,
gur richer
is very much Pickling As subject to the attack sugarcane the cuttings of insect and funguspests,it is importantto sow or of a fter each after lot or i.e., cuttings pickling, seedlings smearing But of and with mixture insecticides as a fungicides. seedlings jurious inthese substances when used in a dilute form are generally even with it is best to dry up the substances to vegetable cells, "
which
the
or are seedlings cuttings
smeared have
immediatelyafterwards effect in
keeping out half a pound of powdered sulphateof copper of powdered and if 8 ounces is mixed up with 100 Ibs. of hot water added to the vat containing white arsenic with 1 Ib. of dme are be dipthe of the sulphate copper solution, can ped cuttings sugarcane in this insecticidal and fungicidal mixture, immediatelybefore but the cuttings after beingdippedin this liquidmixture planting, ashes (2 Ibs.) should have a coatingof powderedcastor-cake (100 Ibs.), and soot (1 Ib.), that the growth of the young plantmay be helped able by these manurial substances. If sulphateof copper is not availof be used in placeof | Ib. of sulphate copper 1 Ib. of alum may of asafoetida for making the fungicidal solution. Half an ounce be mixed with every 100 Ibs. of the fungicidal solution,as the may insects. The mixture strong smell of asafcetida keeps out most made. The quantities should be used up the same day that it is of for 1 acre mentioned will suffice for pickling cuttingsrequired
such manurial insects also. Thus
with
substances
as
some
land. Rotation Except in the case of a ratooned variety,sugarcane should not be grown on the same land more than once in four years. It is best to grow sugarcane after a preparatorycrop of Dhaincha Barbati or (Sesbania aculeata), Sunn-hemp (Crotolariajuncea), cut down when in flower,in August. A crop of (Vigna catiang), be from October to February,and the land potatoesmay grown "
280
HANDBOOK
immediately afterwards
OF
AGKIOULTUBB
,
got ready for planting sugarcane
February. After the sugarcane (Cajanusindicus)or of
is offthe land next
of arahar
paddy
aus
in
February,a crop
(ifthe land is not
too
should be taken. After the aus poor or exhausted by cropping) paddy,a crop of potatoesmay be taken again,and then sugarcane in also. After the arahar (which occupiesthe land for come may nine or ten months),sugarcane may follow immediatelyafterwards, if growingof sugarcane is the main
Otherwise, objectof the farm. be is to to prominence ordinary greater agricultural given crops, and in of the the chapteron rotation one systems of rotation described of crops, adopted,according of the soil. As indigoto the nature for sugarcane, it should be are planters proposingto go in largely noted here that indigoand sugarcane form an excellent rotation. The slack season is the busiest December for indigo, to April, viz., for sugarcane. From season May to November scarcely anything need be done to sugarcane. from the water fields, Lettingout needed during all the operations are tyingthe canes and one hoeing, these seven months when indigois being sown, cut, steepedand manufactured. The space between two lines of sugarcane is sometimes utilized of growing such crops as ground-nut, cow-pea, green maize, onions,carrots,cucumber, melons, etc. Manuring.
nures. Sugarcanerespondswell to a heavy outlayon ma350 300 Ibs. the of to suggests application in the form of oil-cakes. The following mixtures nitrogen chiefly "
Dr. Leather
of are
recommended
:
"
(1) Bone-meal"
10 maunds applied before sowing. per acre Castor- cake" 30 maunds acre applied after sowing, in two per doses (2) Cowdung" 600 maunds ploughed in before trenching, per acre Bone-meal" 10 maunds before sowing. per acre 350 maunds before sowing. (3) Poudrette" per acre (4) Powdered apatite"6 maunds acre applied before sowing. per Castor-cake 20 maunds appliedafter sowing in two doses, per acre and saltpetre 2 maunds doses after the acre applied in two per plantsare a foot high, but before June (5) Castor cake -35 maunds applied in two doses before the two per acre
earthings (6) Fish manure"
30 maunds
per
acre
(7) Safflower cake" 30 maunds per 50 maunds (8) Kape cake per acre "
after sowing. before and after sowing. before and after sowing
acre
*
.
Sulphate of potash-
i
,',
j
considered a most suitable manure for should rotted be for 4 5 or months, cowdung sugarcane. dried and powdered. In a powdery state dung has more invigorating state. Mixture No. (9)recommended above effectthan in the plastic used by European and American is largely sugar planters.Some of ammonia fpr sugarcane grown after a greenuse onlysulphate taining concrop (suchas cow-pea)is ploughedin. Sulphateof ammonia f Rs. be had 10 maund. 20 per cent, nitrogen can or over per Human
excreta
Even
are
281
SUGARCANE.
Sulphateof potash costs would
cost
about the about Rs. 4 per maund.
of Superphosphate
same.
lime
the land has been thoroughly Subsequent operations. When prepared by deep cultivation, and cuttings harrowingand rolling, planted after trenching and watering, and when manuringhas been done, the intervals between the should be plants givenone hoeing with the Hunter hoe after each gations watering.From March to June four irribe in needed In may Bengal. Bengalsugarcane is irrigated from one to eight times,but in the Bombay Presidency20 irrigations "
are
quite common
Mr. Mollison actuallyrecommends 34 irrigations 50 fall giving inches of water in addition to that derived from rain(p. 119 of Vol. Ill of the Text-Book on Indian
Agriculture).
But the need for irrigation dependsmainly on the varietyof sugarcane the time of If a coarse grown, sowing and the locality.
variety(suchas
Khari
or
Kajli)is grown,
and if the
sowingis done
in
April (afterirrigation), will be found one subsequentirrigation sufficient to bringthe plantson in most parts of Bengal. But even
in this case two or three hoeingsand one hand-weedingwill be found helpful duringMay and June, after which nothing need be done tillharvest time. To break up the surface pan it is important to do a hoeingafter each irrigation ; the first hoeingshould be with
hand-tools.
If
is practised no trench-irrigation caking takes place plantsand constant hoeingis not required.The superior varieties of canes fited benethat have soft skins are particularly from by tying. The tyingprotectsthe canes the attack of insect and fungus-pests and jackals, uniform and the growthis more and clean. The oppositepracticeof 'trashing,' or tearingaway the older leaves as the canes for the ravages grow, probablyaccounts of fungusdiseases in Europeanand American cane plantations. The scars formed by trashing offer excellent resting for spores places of fungi, while the enveloping of canes from below upwards with the leaves, as practised in this country, probablyoffers a great protection not only againstthe the canes, on spores of the fungiresting but also againstthe insects laying It is said that eggs on the canes. tyingincreases the yieldof gur, but this pointmust be established by repeatedcomparative experiments. But so far the results of experiments made at Sibpur and Burdwan confirm the current belief that tyingincreases the yieldof yur. The operationcosts at the foot of
about Ks. 6 per acre, but as 3 maunds of gur more obtained were in these experiments, the cost is more than made up by the outturn. From Julyto October,the canes should be tied twice, the tying being so done that the canes may also support one another,and not lodge in the soil.
Harvesting;When there is littlemoisture in the soil, and when the top leaves have begun to wither,the canes should be considered fitfor cutting.The practical farmer would also judgefrom the taste of the 6anes whether theyare sweet enough to be cut. If too much "
time is wasted in
whether judging
canes
are
quitereadyfor cutting
282
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OP
on not, the excessivelyhot and dry weather may come during and then the yieldof juice the progress of the harvest operations, and the qualityof the g ur turned out will be inferior. December to is for in the Lower Bengal; canes February harvesting proper season but if owing to late rains,or late sowing,the plants look quitevigorous and green in December, and if the canes do not taste sweet
or
or perhaps a month, before enough,one must wait for a fortnight the should be cut with koThe canes canes. commencing cutting dalies close to the ground,rather two or three inches underground. If stumps are allowed to be left on the ground,these send out in the case of ratooned canes, turn yielda poor repoor shoots which
next
stalks
Sometimes
year.
from
these
prominent stumps
flower-
of strength, the arrows out, but owing to their want and cannot out of them, come they become smutted and dried up. This smuttingof flower-stalks in the case of the Khari sugarcane is said to do no harm, as shoots coming afterwards from deep down the earth grow up vigorously and continue to grow side by side with the smutted flower-stalks, apparently unaffected by them. safe to allow a luxuriant growth of parasitic But it is never fungus, as a fungus thoughat other times may sometimes prove very injurious it does not seem to do any practical harm. Lodged canes contain a
come
large proportionof glucose. More
should
be avoided. of
the rind a
glucose,and
fungus.
pieceof
Immature
mat
also
than
0*5 per cent, of glucose also contain a higher proportion
canes
with which are diseased specially be cleaned with water and put on the crushingmill to avoid dirt.
near
canes
should
Canes
estimate Sugarcane. In the following have been made out calculated Bengal conditions,the wages and the most at the rate of 4 annas, approvedsystem only taken Cost of
growing
an
of
acre
"
for
into account.
Harrowing the field after lifting potatoes Rolling plough Trenching with double mould-board 12,000 cuttingsat Rs. 2 per 1,000 Cost of getting the cuttings sprouted in a pit (if previous topping is not done) Cost of picklingthe cuttings of apatite(i.e., in 5 years) 10 maunds 2 maunds once per acre ...
..
..
...
...
...
Castor-cake 15 maunds
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Es.
A.
0
6
0
6
0
0
12
0
24
0
0
1
8
("
5
0
0
0
0
0
...
0
0
600 30
15 2$ maunds Saltpetre, ...600 Cost of plantingcuttings(24 men) afterwards Cost of filling 0 up blanks, a month 4 before the two earthings Cost of applyingthe manure 9 Cost of three irrigation** (February,March and April) Cost of one in November 3 (ifnecessary) irrigation Coat of one 4 hand-weeding in March Cost of one hoeing with Hunter hoe it May 0120 180 Coat of two with Hunter more hoe, June hoeings(earthings) ...600 Twotyings ... ...
P.
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
('
8
0
284
HANDBOOK
crop of 20 tons of
OP
AGRICULTURE.
(whichis usuallyobtained out of an days'crushingwith the Behia mill. With the help of a shredder which divides up the canes longitudinally before theyare crushed,a higherpercentagestillthan 72 is obtained. Sugarcanecontains naturally85 to 91 per cent, of its weight of juice,which is the maximum possible yield,but no mechanical be whole the 91 per to of the maximum can applied get pressure cent. out. By the diffusion process, which consists in gettingthe shredded from extracted by means of very hot steam canes sugar forced throughcylinders the shredded canes, almost the containing whole of the sugar is got out of the canes. The percentage of juicethat is obtainable from the cane does not altogether depend on the A m ill. contains which 16 fibrous of cane cent, crushing matter, per and 18 per cent, of cane-sugar, would yieldonly 45 to 50 per cent, of juice, while one containing 10 per cent, of fibrous matter and 18 per cent, of cane-sugar, will yieldabout 70 per cent, with the same crushingappliance.The rind and other fibrous matters act like a the juice.By getting rid of the rind,one gets a sponge in retaining of termine debe There that may considerations higheryield juice. may lular to prefer a planter soft cela hardy fibrous varietyto a s uch the in the and Samsara Otaheite as or variety, cane, sugarcane
10 to 12 acre) requires
such
the use of a decorticator or at least a shredder before is crushing advisable. But as the horizontal mill, the shredder, the decorticator, or would cost more cultivator than our money could afford to spend,these improvementsare meant for planters and capitalists, who may wish to launch out into sugarcane planting. a
case
Usuallycanes out
as
are
passedtwice throughthe
mill to get as much
juice
possible.
Whether
buffalo-power is
or steam-power, bullock-power,
employed for crushingcanes, it should be borne in mind that too results in diminished great a speed or jerkymotion of the rollers, needed where steam-power is yield. This precautionis specially for employed working the mills. A roller of 30-inch diameter should make
only about four revolutions
Modern pliances apand boiling crushing sugarcanes, and for clarifying the juice, obtainable of Messrs. Pott, Cassels and Williamson are and Messrs. Watson Laidlaw " Co., both of Glasgow, of the SangerhauserEngineeringCo., Ld., of Berlin, and of Messrs. Krajewski" Pesant Co., 32-34, Broadway, New York. Mr. Hadi's method of gur and sugar-making.Most important per minute.
for
"
improvements have been recentlyintroduced in gur and sugartor making by Mr. S. M. Hadi, M.R.A.C., tillrecentlyAssistant Direcof Agriculture in the United Provinces. As these are capable of beingput into practiceby small capitalists, they are well worth and learning, the Agricultural Department of the United Provinces has made A suitable arrangements for teachingthe methods. short description of these methods
though without advantage.
be out of placehere, to learn them to any possible
will not
practiceit is not
285
SUGARCANE.
of cane crushed withih 24 are Clarifying.The clean bundles 4 at of the crushing hours commencing A.M., and the boiling cutting, the canes are The juice, afterwards. as crushed,falls through soon with iron handle,and as tin an provided a strainer into a kerosine "
to the boiling shed and put it is removed at once each tin getsfilled, is in the if clarifier the tank in the copper clarifier, or full, reserve with the flue runningup from the unabove it,which is in contact derground
chimney. The
tank may
be of galvanized tinfuls 10 kerosine is iron. full a (about maunds) Twenty in the heated the rises to clarifier, scum charge. As the juicegets the top, which is not to be touched until it splits.In the meantime one pound of pinksaji(crude carbonate of soda)should be boiled and one pound of bhindi (ladies' in water, cooled and strained, finger) in clean water, stalks should be washed, pounded and immersed and afterwards the mucilageinside the stalks rubbed out between becomes thick and mucilaginous. When the hands tillthe water half the feAincfo'-water should be in the clarifierhas split, the scum should then be removed. The put in the clarifierand the scum should be then the Wmwfo'-water and half of the in, put remaining The should be continualso put in afterwards. scum ously water sajiremoved, and if the liquordoes not become quitetransparent by this time, cold water should be sprinkledin the clarifier and more or sajiand Wmiafo-water both added, until the sa/i-water the more impure liquorbecomes quiteclear. Instead of pinksaji, be used, and better stillbicarbonate of soda,about dark sajimay 1 tola) of the soda beingsufficientfor 3 to 4 drams (a littleover oven
to the
reserve
full charge of juice(10 to 12 maunds). If the juice a clarifying obtained from stale cane, it is desirable to use is poor in quality or after the liquor about 3 pintsof limewater along with sa^'-water The limewater should be added graduhas become transparent. ally, does not the show as s o liquor continuing long any floating these particles As soon as particles. appear, the limingis to be stopped. has acquired as the juicein the clarifier Concentrating. As soon the tap should be opened and the the desired degreeof brilliancy, allowed concentrator the flow into to ket througha double blanliquor The liquorin the concenthe concentrator. filterplacedover trator is to be skimmed from time to time for removing the froth the liquor has acquired that rises on the liquor.When the requisite in is which the to be determined from consistency concentrator, it is to be run into the third vessel also situated on the experience, called the evaporator,which is divided up into several compartments. oven, Care should be taken that the sugar in the evaporator does not get burnt into caramel. A littleskimming will be necessary when the liquor is passingthroughthe different compartments of the evaporator. At the last compartment ebullition will be very a few dropsof violent,and if there is fear of the rob overflowing, "
castor-oil mixed
with
or sa/i-water
a
little ghi may
be
thrown
286
HANDBOOK
has
heat.
and
it must
Airing. thickened or
ndnd.
in
the
the
the
in its
put airing.
of
cool
This
height
operation ciently, crystallization will the crystals will be of small Separation
of
quite cool, the
days
be
rab
centrifugal hydro-extractor Broadbent
Thomas
other
and
of Calcutta
(half
molasses
turned
by
four
sugar
whiter,
mukossi)
is
machine be
should
is
pounded
boiled.
The
makes
factories.
It
wooden
warm
turning.
decoction
a
a
put
and use
for
is sufficiently
carryino-
sufl"
done
if it is
is
motion, the
over
overdone,
a
and
machine
and
or
to
time
over
of
the into
seers
of
perfectly white
like
in the
sun,
taken and
come
will
out
and
freight Before
the
out, To
soda sugar
through while
the
make
the
(Sapindus
rab 1
machine
go
soap-nut
of water
bicarbonate
then
at
Macbeth
the
the machine.
decoction about 8
the
425.
then
molasses
from
the
and,
after
liquor consisting of well (one dram)
rab,
ritha
thrown
and
"25,and for Rs.
soda
of
prepare
kalsies
Messrs.
of
The
speed.
time
in
extra.
decoction
the sugar, be should
roller,dried
40
sides
of
and
be
to
are
the
To
liquid
elsewhere,
machine
in
of the
gauze adhere to
sprinkled
;
put
removed
Rs.
put
at full
wire
will
sugar
place
is not
slow
then
bicarbonate
be
labourers
the
needed
centrifugalmachine
is
seer) and
a
the
and
rab
white
then
rab
together, should
mixed
the
the
be
of each
about
sell this
with
machine
its
emptied into a that as constructed by Messrs. Huddersfield, England, under Mr.
of
cost
are
gdmld
accumulated
first
airing
and
kalsies
such
Sons
The
charges
Brothers the
and
instructions.
Hadi's
be
may of the
contents
has
earthen
have
until is
If
is to
kalsies
the
feet,
imperfect
experience
evaporator
an
rab
the
get spoilt
of
the
in
size.
The
Sugar"
a
2
success.
of
subjected to ladle, by stirringand ting let-
Experience
with
also
may work
a
in the
with of
not
from
rab
Each
compartment
into
removed the
oven
get burnt.
liquor, and
in
of
The
once.
each
out
seers
be and
is done
a
let
30
or
touched.
be
to
20
place,
from
liquid
be
it should
vessel,
vessel
10
may and
boiling liquor
about
as
soon
this
least
at not
with
as
soon
earthen
when
rob
concentrator
sufficiently,it should
process fall the
out
the
subside
be
is to
As
"
As
another
liquidwill
constantly charged liquor, with water, that the vessels The boiling of the juice into rob is be learnt by practice.
of
with
AGRICULTURE.
carefully that
very
evaporator
absence
the
clarifier, the
the
vessel, the
fed
be
to
and
boiling mass
the
into
OP
seer
which and
from
while
the
of
ritha
should the
be
riiha-
European
ground lightlywith passed through a sieve.
DATE-SUGAR.
THE
LXI.
CHAPTER
DATE-SUGAR.
THE [Extracts from
Westland's
report
287
on
Khandwa
the
Date-sugar industryof experiments.]
Jcssore ; the
account of the date-palmand date-sugar, THE following taken will givesome from Westland's Report of the Jessore district, idea value the of of of the great date-palmas a source sugar supply.
There are forests of date trees in many parts of Central India, the Madras and and some Provinces Central Presidency, experiments are alreadyin progress. One of the most important industries in the district of of date-sugar.There Jessore is the cultivation and manufacture derive all who from that they have,above so many are people sugar be considered that the necessaries of life,that it may the mere is the root of all their prosperity.In a trade and cultivation sugar c '
preparedin 1791, we find it recorded that 20,000 annual produceof the sugar cultivation, the and that was of this about half was exportedto Calcutta. In these later years has almost entirely driven away the cane-sugar from the date-sugar the fieldsas well as from the market. Europeanfactories began to and it was these factories that gave such be set up in the district, impulseto the trade. The firstsugar factoryin the country was erected at Dhoba, in Burdwan, a littlebelow Nuddea, and it was began to diminish,he changed by a Mr. Blake. When his success table statistical maunds
from which he gradually withdrew. the business into that of a company, This Dhoba Sugar Company established a factory at Kotin chandpur, Jessore,getting up Englishmachineryand afterwards also. The history appliedthe Englishsystem to the Dhoba factory i s record of not The truth a success. of the Englishsugar refinery they gave a great impulse to the sugar cultivation was, that when all the trade which merchants native steppedin and appropriated The methods used by native merchants the factories had givenbirth to. all the which is the to purity requiredby the impart sugar Had the European market remained open, the European consumers. factories might have competed with the native with some But the duties levied in Europe appear to have chance of success. sufficient to been prevent the developmentof the export trade,and the factories established at Cossiporeand Bally,near Calcutta, favourable circumstances the in which more appear, through placed,to have monopolisedthe Europeanmarket in they were
Calcutta. The which that^
groundchosen for date cultivation is the higherground, high for rice to grow well,and the rent paid for suchrgroundis at least three times that for rice land.* The trees "
is too
In low land are, however, equallysuitable for date cultivation. the rain water in small hollows, where would be grown Plantingshould collect and play round them, but too much of it would killthem. Pits in which they are plantedshould be manured be done 3 yds.apart each way. *
High
and
factTdate trees should
288
are
OF
HANDBOOK
AGBIOULTURE.
each tree beingabout twelve feet from plantedand left for seven years before
in regular rows, planted
its neighbour. If
so
being
touched,goodhealthytrees may be expected. Those who cultivate in the cold season, perfectly dates keep the land, specially bare of the turf,so that the whole ploughing up vegetation, any strength
groundmay expend itselfin
the trees. Of course, there are peoplewho cultivate other crops upon the land where the date trees, who have not patience enough to grow, and there are very many of full seven such wait for the expiration years ; however, people, of the
by their
to give the same failing richness in trees obtained from is more that tended. When the carefully juice of the and it is continued each tree is ripe, tappingbegins, process in the date-palmtwo series, There are thereafter. stories or year of leaves ; the crown-leaves,which rise straight as it were, out from the top of the trunk, being,so to speak,a continuation of it ; and
lose in the end
trees
the lateral leaves,which springout of the side of the top part of the has completely the rainyseason When trunk. passed,and there is cultivator the off cuts the lateral leaves for one fear of rain, no more half of the circumference,and thus leaves bare a surface measuring This surface is at first about ten or twelve inches each way. brilliant white, but becomes by exposure quitebrown, and putsthe appearance of coarse matting. The surface thus laid bare is on not the woody fibre of the tree,but is a bark formed of thin many layers,and it is these layerswhich thus change their colour and a
texture.
After the tree has remained for a few days thus exposed, tappingis performedby making a cut into this exposed surface, in the shape of a very broad V, about 3 inches across and J or ^ inch deep. Then the surface inside the angleof the V is cut down, "
the
surface is cut into the tree. From this surfacethat a triangular and caughtby the sides of the V, exudation of the sap takes place, to the angle,where a bamboo down it runs of the size of a leadbamboo is inserted a narrow into the tree to channel) (i.e., pencil so
droppingsap and carry it out as by a spout. tappingis arrangedthroughoutthe season, by periods of six days each. On the firsteveninga cut is made as justdescribed is allowed to run and the juice duringthe night. The juiceso flowing is the strongestand best,and is called jiran juice. In collectedin a pot hangingbeneath the bamboothe morningthe juice the exudingjuice spout is removed and the heat of the sun causes catch the The "
"
and shut up the pores in the tree. So in the evening cut is made, not nearlyso deep as the last, the new but rather and for the second nightthe juice is allowed to run. mere paring,
to ferment
a
"
over
and the ground ploughed up before and after the season rainy well grown until they are fairly Each palm, before it enters into its up. full adult stage,throws up about 15 to 20 offshoots which be detached and may transplanted.One per cent, of male trees for fecundating would be purposes quite enough. But male and female trees should be grown indiscriminately^ where obtainingof juiceis the only object. at
the end of each
season
THE
289
BATE-SUGAR.
"
do-kat," and is not quiteso abundant or so juiceis termed jiran." The third nightno new good as the cuttingis made but the exudingsurface is merely made quiteclean,and the juice this third nightis called which runs jharna. It is lessabundant This
"
' '
* *
less rich than
and
and towards do-liat,
the
the end
of the season,
unfit for sugar manufacture, the hot, it is even when it is getting it (and also from day jharna)being sold simply as from made gur " droppings." These three nightsare the periodsof activityin .
the tree, and after these three,it is allowed to remain for three nights the same at rest, when process againbegins. Of course, every tree in the same in the same cycle. Some are at grove does not run their a nd second at their first, some night, so on ; and thus the owner is
always busy. cut is made every sixth day a new the that and more follows it tree gets more
' '
one,
Since
the end progresses, and towards and often surface may is,as much be, The
the
about
the
tree
during the
are
place,but
same
whole
in alternate
the
of
seasons,
used for the
are
above
thus
cuts
hewed
previous
into
as
the
of the season, the exuding inches below the as four
season
surface.
the
over
tapping; and previous season's,and
each
as on
the
one
made
season
alternate
sides of
season's
cuttingis oppositeside,the
if looked
at from the side,a curious zigzag of be at once tree a counted can, of course, age appearance. and the notches six or adding seven, the up by enumerating of years passed before the first year'snotch. When number they
of the tree The
stem
has,
trees. forty-six years old they are worth littleas produce-bearing bared surface previousto the notching first the size of the
are
At
is about
; but it
ten inches
square higher and
to the old trees where not seen It is somewhat found.
come
narrower
gets less and less,as the notches part of the trunk, and I have
than
more
four inches square could be the notches are almost
remarkable sides of the tree, and always very rarelyon also sides the north and south firstnotch the ; appears to be made, in by far the majorityof instances,on the east side. on
' '
tree
a
As
the east and
to the
that
west
produceof
one
of five seers
regularaverage
per
expect from
a good the quiescent night(excluding
tree, one
may
copiousand nights).The colder and clearer the weather,the more of November rich the produce. In the beginning gun. tappinghas beIn December and January the juiceflows best,beginning sometimes as March of days on
too
earlyas come.
3 P.M., and it dwindles away the warm as If the cultivator beginstoo early,or carries
and quantityas late,he will lose in quality
gain by extendingthe tappingseason. October, and there
are
not
many
who
can
much
as
he will
But high prices beginin resist the temptationof
runninginto market with their premature produce. a During the whole of the tappingseason good cultivator clean and free from jungle will keep his grove perfectly or even grass. So much then for tapping. The next process is the boiling, does for himself, and usually within the limits and this every raiyat * '
' '
M, HA
19
HANDBOOK
290
OP
AGRICULTURE.
ferments and becomes the juicespeedily Without boiling, of the grove. be kept for boiled down into gur, it may useless ; but once boiled therefore is at in large once very long periods.The juice dome, beneath which a strong woodpots placedon a perforated the paredleaves of the trees beginused among fireis kept burning, comes bewhich was at firstbrilliant and limpid, The juice, which half is called half solid viscid, a dark brown, mass, now is when itis still it and pouredfrom the easily warm, gur (molasses), boilingpan into the earthen pots (small gharras)in which it is
other fuel.
kept. ordinarily "
it takes from
As
seer one
ordinarily good tree
or
of juiceto produceone seers of gur which calculate the amount We may count producein a season. to ten
seven
molasses,we
of gur
can
can
for the tappingseason, or about a half months sixty-seven of 335 5 These at seers seers each, nights. produce tapping of A maund 1 will about 40 which seers or give gur. juice, 100 trees will therefore produceEs. 200 bighaof grove containing four and
to
Rs.
worth
225
of gur if all the trees
in
are
good bearing.
all sorts of pottery which will bear the continuous hard firing requiredfor boilingdown the juiceand some potters have obtained a special reputationof the excellence of their wares in this respect. The whole of the regionabout Chaugachha and * '
It is not
from Kotchandpur is suppliedprincipally
village, Bagdanga, a an clay seems unusually of the is district, supplied again, part
littlewest
a
to be of
the
of Jessore,where
good quality.The southern from Alaipur, Khulna. near a bazar chiefly after boiling down his juiceinto A raiyat, "
do
more
into
gur9 does by them
; it is then
sold to the refiners, and
Near
Keshabpur,however,
sugar.
dinarily or-
factured manu-
largenumber
sugar and sell it to the exporters There are also in almost all parts of the only after manufacture. class refiners of different from those who are refiners and district a refiners by profession.These are the largerraiyatsin the only
of
manufacture raiyats
a
not
their
own
of whom combine commercial dealingswith agriculture. villages, many in receive their the from the They vicinity raiyats gur and
sometimes what
exportingmart ' '
also
facturing purchaseit in adjacenthats,and aftet manutake their thus to some they they purchase, sugar and sell it there to the larger merchants.
We
is. But shall now what the process of manufacture see three sorts of and two of refining, or there are several methods and describe We firstthe will them take in order, produced. siigar of manufacturing dhulua sugar that soft,moist, nonmethod *
"
granular,powdery sugar, used chieflyby natives and specially of sweet-meats.' in the manufacture " The pots of gur received by the refiner are broken up and the out into baskets, each and which hold about a maund gur tumbled fifteen inches about beaten down surface is to as so are deep ; tfce be prettylevel and the baskets are placedover open pans. Left thus for
eightdays, the
molasses
passes
throughthe basket, dropping
292
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
rich. After this, the previousprocess is again gone and about 10 per cent, more weightin sugar is obtained. through, and darker in colour than the first. This sugar is,however, coarser is mediate imof finding The refiner not very honest and if he is sure sale,he will use a much more speedyprocess. Taking the
nearly so
' '
the mass cooled gur he will squeeze out the molasses by compressing in a sack, and then, dryingand breakingup the remainder, will different from that prepared sellit as sugar. It does not look much in the
elaborate
more
fashion,but
it will
likelysoon
ferment
and
immediate
of finding hence the necessity an purchaser. The remainder,after all this sugar has been squeezedout, is molasses, chitiya gur, as it is called. It forms a separate article "
of
commerce. "
The
sugar
producedby
the method
justdescribed
is called
be clean, because It can never sugar, a soft yellowishsugar. the clear from there it is impurity process used, that whatever be in the whatever or originally impuritymay creep into gur,
dhulua
may the sugar
duringits somewhat
always appear
rough process of in the finished article. Another
and to liquefaction, that it leads slightly for any considerable time. 4 '
'
'
The
is
cannot
manufacture, must objectionto it is, therefore be
kept
and more permanent the dhulua has not. of it is more The manufacture expensivethan of the other,and the it finished is about when Rs. 10, whereas dhulua costs only of price about Es. 6 per maund. In this process the gur is first cast upon and flat platforms, of the molasses as then flows off is collected as first droppings. as much and a great deal The rest is collected, put into sacks and squeezed,
pucca article. It has also
sugar
a
a
much
cleaner
granularstructure,which
' c
is thus separatedout. The sugar which remains behind is then boiled with water in largeopen pans, and as it boils, is taken off. It is then strained and boiled a second time all scum cool it is alreadysugar of a and left to cool in flat basins. When roughsort and now shyalaleaves are put over it, and it is left to
of the molasses
The
result is good white sugar, and should any remain at of the vessels still unrefined,it is againtreated with the bottom
drop.
shyala. " '
The firstdroppings, and the droppingsunder shyalaleaves, collected, are squeezed againin the sacks,and from the sugar left behind, a small quantity of refined sugar is preparedin exactly the
the sacks are not used for further sugar manufacture. chitiya gur, and are About 30 per cent, of the original weightof the gur is turned out in the form of pure pucca sugar. There remains to be described the Englishprocess of refinement used in the factories of Kotchandpur and Chaugachha. In of water and this,the raw material is mixed ^itha certain amount boiled in open cisterns, the boiling not by fire, beingaccomplished, but by the introduction of steam. floats to f ilth The lighter now same
' '
way
by
twice
boiling.The droppingsfrom
THE
DATE-SUGAR.
295
the surface and is skimmed solution is made off,while the boiling blanket flow strainers to into another cistern. After through away this it is boiled to drive offthe water. raised were Now, ifthe mass to boiling temperature, the result would be sugar, granularindeed in structure, but not differing in this respect from native pncca But if the water be driven off without raising the mass to sugar. the and which t hen we crisp boiling point, get sparkling appearance stances, always has. Whether there is any difference in the subloaf-sugar I do not know, but so longas peopleprefer what looks pleasant and nice, sugar of this sparkling command will a appearance in the market. higherprice The objectis attained by boiling in a vacuum pan, that is closed cistern from which a powerfulpump exhausts to say, a large the vapour as it rises. The lower the atmospheric pressure on the 66
the lower the temperature at which ebullition surface of any liquid, is therefore regulated diminish The takes place. to as so pump will boil the pressure on the surface to meet a pointthat the mass to this point, at about 160"F. and the apparatus beingkeptregulated all the water is driven off by boiling introduced of means steam, by without the temperature becominghigherthan 160". "It is out of placehere to describe the mechanical devices for
and keeping filledand employingand watching and filling
ing test-
within the closed cistern, the supply for regulating or liquid It of heat and the action of the pump, which is driven by steam. is sufficientto pass at once to the end of the vacuum pan stage,which in the pan is now run lasts eighthours, and to say, that the mass which off into sugar-loaf are moulds, placedupsidedown, having a the
hole in their vertex, placedabove a pot. The molasses by its own weightdropsout by this hole and is caughtin the earthenware pot beneath. ner. manThe last of the molasses is washed out in the following is scraped The uppermost inch of the sugar in the mould off moistened, and put back. The moisture sinks throughthe mass three times and carries with it in the molasses. This is done some and then the sugar havingnow been twelve days in the moulds, the c '
and the loaves may be turned to be finished, If the raw the gur as it of the moulds. material used was loaffrom the cultivator, the result is a yellowish, comes sparkling loaf if dhulua is the but the material then raw used, sugar sugar, white sugar. is of brilliantly The process used at Cossipore, near Calcutta,is similar to difference consists in this,that The principal that last described. the sugar is at one purified by being passed stage additionally and that the molasses, instead of being throughanimal-charcoal, allowed to drop out by its own gravityfrom the moulds, is whirled
isconsidered purification out
c c
out
and and
of centrifugal force." by the application is used for with tobacco,and Chitiyagur mixing molasses for preparing sweeter cheap native sweets
parchedrice and
pop-corn.
the cleaner out of fried There is considerable demand for
294
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
chitiya gur and molasses in India,as about 18,000 tons of molasses are
annually imported
this
into
Mauritius
from
country
or
Java. A most interesting experimenthas been undertaken by the Khandwa Sugar ManufacturingCompany in the manufacture of book in the Central Provinces,and as the author of this handdate-sugar has been associated with this experiment, he is able to furnish the
differ somewhat from those givenby Mr. Westland,but the conditions of the Jessore and the Central Provinces date plantations and the following are figures different, entirely latest
which figures,
by any means Westland,but rather
are
intended
not
In
suppliedby
to discredit those
Mr.
supplement them.
to
the Khandwa
for every circle of 5,000 trees experiments, and ten labourers are employed, professional juice-collectors the former beingpaidRs. 12 and the latter Rs. 6 per month. and the tappingand gw-making season lasts for four months
30 seolisor
The
expense
per circle of 5,000 trees, is,therefore,4
6)~Rs. 1,680.
Extra
expenses
about
to
come
(30x
x
12
x
10
x
220, making
Rs.
the total Rs. 1,900 per circle. The average produceof juiceper tree is three seers per day for the days in which they are experiment, tapped. In the Khandwa four days of rest are allowed after two of tapping and even days then the yieldof juiceper tree comes for six days to only six seers the quiescent (including days). Each seoli takes up a circle of 120 trees,40 goingto a mahal or section,and the 120 trees are thus divided into three sections. After takingthe jiranand do-kat juice on
each
mahal,he
goes
tree is tappedabout
of
juice per able to
8 maunds
juicego to make
which per circleis
four
duringthe
is therefore 120
30 seolisare
of
gather30
30 x 120
so
on
after giving it rest for four
40 times tree
mahal, and
to the next
on
to the firstmahal returning
x
120
x
x
1 maund
seers
to the
days.
third, Each
months, and the produce or 3 maunds, and the
3 maunds
of gur,
juice. As about the annual yieldof of
3 ^=
1,350 maunds, the money
value of
o
gur
is about
Rs. 4,000. The
nearlyRs. 2,000
per
net
profitper
circle is therefore
annum.
CHAPTER
LXI1.
SUGARS.
[Groupsof
sugar ; Sacoharometer riscope; the copper test ;
; action of dilute acids on sugar ; use of the polabeet -sugar ; generalprincipleunderlying sugar
manufacture.]
glucosesand of two stituents, consucroses. consisting Honey is a mixture of glucoses, solid isthe which dextrose (Cfl more portion, Hia Oe H8 0), and l"vulose (C6H1906) which is the more liquidportion. Canemaltose (Cta HM Otl) are sucroses. sugar (CiaH,a ()") and SUGARS
may
be
classified under
two
groups,
"
295
SUGARS.
Dextrose occurs also in grapes, and in many it is therefore called It reduces grape-sugar.
juicesof plantsand
alkaline solution an of precipitate cuprous oxide (Cu20), while cane-sugar does not do so unless it is first heated with a dilute acid. This reaction is made use of in estimating the amount of dextrose present in liquids. All soluble in water are sugars and less so in alcohol. Laevulose resembles dextrose except in its action on polarized light.Dextrose rotates the planeof polarized trose lightto the righthand and laevulose to the left hand. Dexand laevulose are not so readilycrystallized as cane-sugar is,and the molasses of cane-sugar and other raw sugars contain dextrose and laevulose. These glucosesbeing hygroscopicsubstances absorb moisture from for which accounts damp air, gur and dhulua sugar running in the rainy season and good Cossipore of
cuprichydrategivinga
red
Factorysugar remainingdry. Impurities in and or
ash
constituents less. One part of
of
the form
glucoses
of cane-sugar more prevent crystallization one glucoseprevents part of cane-sugar from part of ash prevents five parts of cane-sugar
and one crystallizing from crystallizing. Unripe cane,
maize-stalks and sorghum-stalks less cane-sugar and more glucose.A properlyripecane contains about 80 per cent, of water, 16 per cent, of cane-sugar, *3 per cent, of glucose, '75 per cent, of ash, and about 3 per cent, of albuminoid matter. contain
Baume's
Saccharometer
graduatedto indicate the amount each degreeon the scale represolution, senting 0*019 per cent, of sugar, so that a 10" registering liquor would contain *19 per cent, of .about hot when are Syrups sugar. 3 degreeslighter than when cold and the saccharometer is standardised
of sugar in
at as
In
a
84"F. The Brix hydrometer can meter, be used as a saccharoit givesthe percentage of solids in solution directly.
and clarifying
thermometer is the best to use. case
and the
is
saccharine
in boilingsugarcane juicethe use is essential. One registering from
of a copper0" to 300"F.
Dilute acids convert of dextrose cane-sugar into a mixture laevulose. Cane-sugar the plane of polarized rotates lightto
rightand
mixture
of equal parts and dextrose and leevulose Sugar is therefore said to be inverted by dilute acids. Sugarcanejuiceis naturally somewhat acid, and hence in the boiling process some cane-sugar is inverted into glucose.The only dilute acid which does not invert the sugar liquidis acid hence this acid is used alongwith milk of lime phosphoric ; in clarifying the liquid.The addition of slaked quicklime for to
the
left.
a
'
'
is of the highestimportance. neutralizing juicebefore boiling, But justsufficientlime should be added neutralize the acid to else colour the of the sugar producedwill be too dark. or Maltose is produced naturally minating in germinatingbarley. Gerbarleydried and digestedwith water at about 60"C. which can be obtained from the solution p"ts with its malt-sugar by boilingit down.
296
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
difference of action of polarized lighton different kinds factories for utilized in the purityof a principle testing
The
of sugar is
juice,with the help of an sugarcane consists of two polariscope.It prisms of sugar
called transparent calcite which the saccharine
or
instrument
(Icelandspar) enclosed in a tube, between solution is introduced. Light passingthrough the outer prism, the saccharine solution and the inner prism,traverses a layer of transparent quartz so adjustedthat the rotation caused by the be detected and measured. The rotatorypower can sugar-solution of cane-sugar is 73*8" to the right, and it may be found out by observing a
column
of saccharine
solution,1 decimetre
in
depth,
of pure cane-sugar in every cubic centimetre of fluid. To get the rotation of any sample from this observed rotation,divide the former by the depth of the column of fluid by the weightof the sugar in each cubic centimetre of multiplied liquid.Thus, if a solution of 0*25 gram of sugar in each cubic centimetre of fluid has an observed rotation of 25" in a column 2
containing1 gramme
^ 50". sample is2-J The percentage of cane-sugar in the sample would thus be (73'8 : If no 6'77. 100 :x) 10-^^ 50:: invert-sugaris present, the solution can be found by of sugar present in the juice or proportion the observed by the polarirotation of solution the as scope multiplying by 100 and dividingthe productby 73*8. decimetres
in
depth,the rotatory power
of the
~
=
is detected by the copper test. presence of invert-sugar Cane-sugar does not give the characteristic red precepitateof alkaline solution of cupric tarcuprous oxide (Cu2 0) from of glucose does. To the estimate while glucose proportion trate, is standard used. solution This is solution. Fehling's present, a The
of copper, 364 grainsof neutral It consists of 90| grainsof sulphate 4 fluid of caustic soda of specific ounces tartrate of potash, gravity 6 In this standard tion solu1'12 and water to make ounces. using up the is and known to it a brought boilingpoint weight and volume of solution of glucose dropped into it from a burette until which is known by the blue colour reduced the copper has been just dried and is then filtered, being destroyed.The precipitate difference between and that its weight of the sugar weighed,the The used in the solution gives,the percentage of cane-sugar. sugar lost in
the reducing the copper beingglucose, residue is sucrose. (180 parts) Fehlingfound that one equivalent of glucosedecomposed 10 equivalents (1246'8parts)of sulphate of copper. Sugaris made not only from date-palmjuice,sugarcane and beet. It is also obtained from maize-stalks,stalks of sorghum saccharatum, cocoanut and toddy-palmjuices,and other plants.
quantityof
maple-treeis largelytapped for a sugar-yielding fine dyes and other articles from which so many juice. Coal-tar, of a highly swe%et of economic value are obtained,is the source In
America
substance
the
called saccharine.
One
tabloid of saccharine
scarcely
297
SUGARS.
largeas
so
substance
But will sweeten of tea. a cup piece, Milk is value like genuinesugars. feeding
two-anna
a
has
no
this also
and cheese have been extracted of sugar. After cream of fresh out milk, the whey from the cheese- vat is forced into a into an evapois run whence after a time the liquid largeboiler, rating thick syrup is until where continued the boiling is a pan, formed. This syrup is left standingfor a time and againboiled when The sugar is pressedand the molasses the sugar forms. a
source
and rejected,
packed in barrels for the refinery. in Germany and Austria, largelymanufactured Good with cane-sugar. it is competing very successfully their of of beet yieldon an weightof one-eighth average then
Beet-sugaris and roots
The sugar, but one-sixth has been also obtained, of late years. increased by phosphaticmanures of sugar is materially proportion and by selection only of middle-sized roots for seeding. Middlefor sugar. sized roots which are white,are alone grown for crushing of beet (i.e., In 1876 the average produceof sugar from an acre while in 1896 estimated at 2,000 Ibs., from 10 tons of roots)was the average rose to 3,000 Ibs. per acre and the tendency is towards further amelioration. It should be noted, however, that 3,000 Ibs. of is considered a poor yield for 4,000 sugar per acre and often obtained. more are 8,000 Ibs. or even sugarcane, been between chemists difference have able find not to Though any do not consider them manufacturers cane-sugar and beet-sugar, has been identical. For the condensed milk trade beet-sugar found altogether unsuitable. The Superintendent of the SaharanpurBotanical Gardens has made ture an experiment on the cultivation and manufacinteresting of beet-sugar.He came to the conclusion that the white introduced as a cold weather crop in India. be easily can sugar-beet or
The tons
may
the
yieldper acre was 9J tons of roots, 6 tons of juice, and 13 cwts. of gur, of which about
of green leaves,4J half the quantity
be put down as pure cane-sugar. Mr. Proudlock, late of Ootacamund Botanical Garden, also reportsfavourably of
sugar-beetgrowing. With regard to the manufacture of sugar by a scientific the be remembered : followinggeneralsummary may process, (1) The first objectafter the juicehas been obtained in the fresh state either from beet, sugarcane, maple, or palm is to "
the
albuminoid
is favourable to the acid. Acidity inverts sugar and prevents proper crystallisation. The ash or noncane-sugar saccharine substances the also prevent crystallisation. Hence before boiling.The temperature great importanceof clarifying of the juiceat clarifying should be between 125" and 145". In it should not be allowed to go above 160"F. any case is done by adding to the hot cane-juice The (2) clarifying which other alkali, or some justenough of slaked by stirring, would neutralize the juice which is naturally acid. The albuminoid remove
substance,which
growth of the microbes which
June
turn
c
'
298
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
combining with
lime sinks. For clarifying, about half a gharaof juicewill be found ample. Thus clarifiedand neutralized, the juice should be filteredthroughdouble flannel bags and then boiled,the impurities as on scum floating the boiling taken off. When the brown thick, mass, being sugar is put in casks or earthen pots in which holes are afterwards made to get rid of the molasses. (3) To get rid of the molasses more quicklyand thoroughly it is advisable to use A a sugar-turbine. hand sugar-turbineof matter
tola of slaked lime per
machine centrifugal
is sold by Messrs. Mylne and Fox of Behea, for Us. 200.* When the molasses have run out, brown crystals left behind. These are mixed with warm are into a syrup, water lime is added to it,and the mixture is poured into bags made of thick woollen cloth and left to dripthrough into a vessel below. The liquid though clean is stillcoloured,and it is made colourless
by passingit through a bed of bone-charcoal.
This colourless is then in and boiled. When thick largecopper pans put syrup enough it is poured into moulds after which we get loaf-sugar. The moulds are placed with their small pointedend downwards. Here there are some small holes. Part of the syrup which does harden flows out into a vessel underneath. not This is called '
goldensyrup.' Evaporationin a and crystals, sparkling
apparatus, which
vacuum
results in
more
the
of molasses by a centrifugal separation the two the of guished are apparatus, factorysystem as distinspecialities from the cottage system of making sugar, but the Indian be improved. If the cottage system of making raw sugar may and of the sugarcane preliminaryneutralizing clarifying juice is very carefully vessels or earthen handies done, and aluminium used, the second filtering throughbone-charcoal will not be found of lime tends to make the sugar brownish excess Any necessary. in colour. add, that for Indian use; Mr. we Finally, grey may Hadi's method to be particularly seems adapted.
CHAPTER
LXTIT.
INDIGO. [Varieties ; Introduction Manures
;
The
of
the Java
crisis ; Different
process ; Indigo tests ;
Varieties. The
and soil suitable Natal variety ; Climate ; ing ; Oxidissystems of cultivation ; Manufacture
Synthetic indigo likelyto replacenatural
indigo.]
in Bengal (i.e., Intinctoria is known not diyofera as Indigofera sumatrana, ordinarily the richest in India, and the Madras varietyIndigofera anil is still The the richest i s the in Indigofera dye-stuff variety poorer. "
varietyof indigo grown
4
*
Tool
For large factories,the Western obtainable of the American Centrifugals and Machine Co., 109, Beach Street,Boston, Mass., are recommended.
300
HANDBOOK
OF
AGBICULTUBB.
in the United Provinces and the Punjab. Saran and Tirhut, Champaran, i.e.,in North Bihar, a very careful system of cultivation is practised, which includes digging the land deep immediately after harvest. The seed is drilled with a seed drill, land well preparedby ploughing next season, on and rolling with a wooden roller, and the fieldsare hoed and irrigated when necessary. elevated on High class cultivation is practised lands in some parts of Bengal also, e.g., in Jessore and Nadia.
grown
as also by irrigation,
In
Pruning or feedingthe crops in some localities. practised
for
day by sheep and goats is also
a
lands indigois producedin highcultivation. The spring-sown
The
best
under
careful system of a the best dye, but as cultivators are eager at this time crop yields to sow aus more remunerative, it is not paddy which is directly convenient to in spring. So far always get a large tract sown as our experimentshave gone at Sibpur,we find it is immaterial whether aus in Aprilor in May, or in June. In paddy is sown
fact,Aprilsowingof indigois far of aus When
paddy, as Falgunisowing is
more
the latter is
ing importantthan Aprilsow-
risky.
in February highlands(i.e., or be thoroughlypreparedby manuring must March) with nil-siti, and rolling and ploughing, deep ploughing,rolling is again land again. Sowing is done by a drill after which the done
on
the land
rolled.
In three
germinates. One or two weedings are high. The plantsare sufficiently for canal irrigation. Falguni indigois grown where there is facility In dry soil sowing goes on in July to September,and the crop is cut in Septemberor October. The second year'scrop from early then
or
four
days
the
seed
givenuntil the
sowings and late sown indigocrop are called Khuwti. October is done char lands after the water has subsided on (chhitani) sowing but later and when the land is quitesoft,without any preparation, in October, sowing is done in higherland after ploughingand on when there is stillsufficientmoisture in the soil. October laddering the two and April are usual seasons for sowing indigo. With in October is usuallygrown some oilseed which yields indigosown the raiyatan additional Rs. 6 or Rs. 7 per acre, and October sowing of indigo is,therefore, not so unpopular with the raiyatas the April Ten fifteen of seed are required to sowing. seers Thirty per acre. is the produce to fortybundles (a bundle weighingabout 300 Ibs.) In Lower and the yieldof dye about 12 Ibs. per acre. per acre Bengal the average yieldis 10 to 12 Ibs. per acre and in Bihar 20 Ibs. acre. Indigois ripefor cuttingwhen the flowers are just about June or July,if sowing is done in February i.e., appearing, to April. The arrangements for manufacturing beingcompleted, cuttingbegins. The lowest lying fields are chosen first. The crop is cut with sickles and tied into bundles, and as the crop is bought at so many bundles (say 4 or 5) per rupee, when it is cultivated by raiyats and sold to the factory,a chain of a definite different factories use is used in each factory.4But measure chains of different lengths.
INDIGO.
The
bundles
of
301
put in fresh in the and vat, wal^r they are pressedby poured upon them, steeping rods and heavy beams of timber. of bamboo The bundles means in this condition for one night. There are two sets of vats. remain The second set is at a lower level than these steepingvats, and when steepinghas been completedin the firstset, the yellowish the dye is drawn off from it into the second set. liquidcontaining of men the bundles Here, twice the number employed in pressing with the bamboos is employed inside the vats in stirring liquid up has from the liquid a to oxygenate it. When changed yellowish Manufacture.
"
plants are
is
is completed. From these indigocolour the stirring is off alonga channel into a troughor vats the liquid run stirring is whence it pumped up into the firstdrying house, where well, here the thickened liquid charged it is subjected to boiling.From is discloth spreadon a platform of bamboo stout laths. a on is pumped up again and out The water percolating againon the of soft dye until the water mass percolatesout, not indigo coloured but of a dark red tint. If it takes too long alum water is used, when the indigois readilydeposited. or palas gum and is then folded cloth The over pressed. The press is and for six five hours and afterwards now or tightened again every and gentlyloosened,and the cake, which is about 42 x gradually in dimension, exposed. This cake is then marked inches 24J 3| off into 3 or 3|-inchsquare blocks, and the slab on which it another where the cuttingand removal to rests removed room the slab are of the cakes from accomplished,the cakes being the drying or cake-house, which is a well- ventilated removed on room protectedfrom dry and hot winds. The cakes are arranged
colour
to
x
and turned from side to side that every side get equallydry. The cakes are removed when quitedry to may where walls of cakes are made and covered with a sweating room,
in bamboo
shelves
blankets and dry bran, and the doors closed,so that little air In about into the room. find access a fortnightthe may sweating process is completed when air is let in slowly and the walls of cakes uncovered by degrees,the blankets being removed in four to five days. The process of sweatingimproves of the dye, and it giyesa white skin to the cakes the brilliancy
highly appreciatedby buyers. The whole process the time the pressing of the fecula or pulp takes about three months. The cakes are brushed wher place,requires and for into of well-seasoned wood cases packing packed ready Improvements in the manufacture of indigo have been Jatel} Eawson and by Mr. B. Coventry broughtabout by Mr. Christopher have obtained an increased who, by proper method of oxidizing, of 25 With the help of Mr. Eawson '* cent, or more. yield per the liquid from the steeping vat 2i blower for oxidizing as it comes in cent, of to 30 per some more has, cases colouringmatter obtained. With Bihar factor! the ordinaryappliances, been 10 seers of indigo(60 per cent, obtain about purity)out o
which
is
of dryingfrom
302
OF
HANDBOOK
plant, and with the blower green in obtained. The indigotin is contained
maunds
100
every
of
sometimes
are
little
as
or
of leaf
weight
the
and
10
as
plants
on
per
*55
leaf
per
indigo out of 100 to seers 40 good plant to contain average 14'7 would yield of green plant be now As seers 12| may purity). otherwise
or
indigo
or
with
tests
:
(1)
acid
nitric a a
green mixture
in
of
and
cloth.
dye, three
Care
square. the water
dyed
is
oz.
of
boil
in
1
dye
the
must
the
not
solution
it for
used
15
is
minutes
pure
the
will
washing
common
cloth
always
into
a
indigo
with
to
of
remain
soda
in
1J
inches
water, be
to
and
tested, the
pour
acid.
the
lowing fol-
yellow spot with indigo. (2) Make
parts
of the
taken
water
A
pure nine
dyed
judged by the ordinary commercial
of
fabric.
dye
be
indigo, the
in pure
gently If
and
maunds
100
been
be
can
drops
the
if the
has
one
about
Dissolve
inferior
appears
leaf,
cent.
per
fabric
portion
some
two
of
of
obtained
it is
or
cent.,
per
indigo (60 per cent, with the help of the tion fermentapossible by proper
seers
a
two
60
as
leaf,
of
part sulphuric acid, and a piece quickly for ten minutes of
into
been
water
Put
inches
1| gently
say
has
some
much
as
seers
the
the
cent,
per
another
Whether
"
quickly
rim
it boil
on
that
obtain
to
Indigo Tests.
Pure
pure
inferred
be
it may
blo'wer,
of
12"
Indigofera sumatrana is equivalent indigotin,which maunds of leaf. Taking an
of
cent,
of
36
be
may
The
cent.
yields about
of Bihar
AGRICULTURE.
If the
acid
cloth
colourless. half
a
liquid
of
piece
square will
(3)
pint remain
colourless.
artificialindigo of in Germany, large factories The
no
these
indigo red,
when
indigo the
no
have
substances
artificial run,
and
is
likely
defects
is
almost
indigo brown, some
to
of
manufactured
commerce,
pure
which
beneficial
supplant the
by several indigotin, containing
is
effects
a
disadvantage, in
dyeing.
as
But
natural
indigo in the long been product will have fabrics dyed with natural those artificial dyed with
artificial
Woollen means. supplied by be distinguished from indigo may fabrics The over steaming water. one indigo by holding the two emit will with while the an agreeable odour, vegetable indigo dyed smell. For out will the natural silk, chemical a give tarry indigo results than the better still synthetic product, produces indigo this will be maintained for cannot but we advantage hope that artificial
ever.
303
TOBACCO.
LXIV.
CHAPTEK
TOBACCO. [Soiland climate suitable ; Differences in quality; Proximity to sea unsuitable tobacco ; Chemical composition useful ; for cigarette ; Inference as to manures Rotation
Seed-bed
;
;
Preparation
of land ; After-treatment
;
Harvesting ;
of cultivation and fermenting; Different methods curing Tirhut Petlad ; Seeding; Outturn and in Nadia, Jalpaiguri, Rangpur, vogue at Pusa.] Injuries ; Suggestionfor improvement ; Arrangements made
Drying
and
Soiland climate. "
A
lightsoil
or
of
sandy loam, organic matter
well
in
;
drained,
and rich in containing average mineral matters is considered to be best suited for tobacco tion. cultivathe leaf becomes too coarse Grown on claysoils, and inferiorin but claysoils usually give heavier yields. Sandy loams, quality, amount
an
organicmatter, producea better sort of tobacco of the kind districts fit for making cigars.The principal tobacco-growing of in order their Cooch of Bengal, importance,are, Eangpur, Behar, Purnea, Darbhanga,Myrnensingh, Nadia, Muzaffarpur, Jalpaiguri, Murshidabad, Dinajpur,Chittagong, Jessore, Manbhum, Dacca, gong Tippera,Bhagalpur,Pabna, Monghyr, and Cuttack. The ChittaHill Tracts produce the best tobacco in Bengal. This is There are generallyused for making cigarsby the Burmese. Mri three varieties : (1) Khao Doung, (2) Kheoung, and (3) rich in
The
excellence
of these varieties of tobacco of speciality the soil rather than to any mode of cultivation or of curing. The leaves are cured peculiar in the way in vogue in Rangpur and Jalpaiguri. The Chittagong tobacco sells for Rs. 20 or more per maund, while the Rangpur tobacco sells from Rs. 6 to Rs. 12 per maund. The tobacco above is sold at Rs. 3 to Rs. 7 per of other districtsenumerated of cultivation and of curing the method of maund. Ignorance
Bigre Kheoung. is said to be due
to the
in the quality in many of leaves, but the placesinferiority difference in flavour is no doubt also due to differencein the kind of tobacco grown, to influences of the soils, and to climate. The tobacco cannot be grown best cigar-making too close to the sea, causes
for such tobaccos,i.e., chlorides are injurious they interfere with the burningqualityof the leaf.
as
Composition. Tobacco requires particularlygood soil and heavy manuring,as it is richer in nitrogen and in mineral other constituents than almost any The compositionof the crop. leaves varies very much in both nitrogenous and ash constituents the richness the of soil or the amount to of soluble plant according food contained in it. The amount of nitrates in leaves may be 10 much cent, of the as The ash of Indian as dry matter. per tobaccos varies between 16 and 28 per cent.,the greaterpart of which consists of carbonate of lime. The soluble portionof the consists of potashsalts, ash chiefly the proportionvarying from Chemical
five to
thirty-five per
"
cent.
304
HANDBOOK
OF
table givesthe following Virginiantobacco : The
of
AOBIOULTUBB.
chemical
compositionof
a
sample
"
Moisture Nicotiu Ammonia Nitric acid Malic
9-44 452
"53 '83 ...
acid
12-05
...
2'81
Citric acid
...
Oxalic
acid
Acetic
acid
3'18
...
"55
acid
Tannic
1-80 ...
Petic
acid
718 ...
and
bodies
Pectose
3'61
gums
11-92
Albuminoids Total
Nitrogen
Amid
Nitrogen
Other
insoluble Cellulose
Oils, fats and
2-75 "61
organic matters
6'87 1022
chlorophyll
5-90
Resins
4-51
Starch
"64
ash
Total
1364
pure Silica and sand
3'78
Phosphoric acid
"38
acid
Sulphuric
"56
"74
Chlorine Lime
3-94 1-04
Magnesia of iron
Oxide Potash
"
alumina..
"46 2-60
...
Soda
"13
Potash
ash) in the
should
to the abundant as
carbonate
chieflyas
occur
the richness of
soil,and
presence
of
a
crop and
are
that
ashes
the most (or crude
superphosphate.But
is
chieflydue
nitrogen,potash and phosphoricacid
nitrates, carbonates, sulphatesand
will appear
(or ordinarywood
soil for tobacco
phosphates. From
for the tobacco appropriatemanures potassiumcarbonate),saltpetre, gypsum as ally manuring is expensive, soils natur-
nitrogenousand ash constituents,that is, very soils,should be chosen for growing this crop. rich in
Rotation
this it
fertile
is sometimes
Tobacco
after jute or maize grown it the often forms only crop of the very it for be three four years can or manured, Properly grown year. and the it be on same can successively ground, nearly grown all the year round. has been
"
harvested
Sort-bed
The
but
soil of the seed-bed
is
dug
with then
a spade and with rotten raised about cowdung and ashes the ground has been well pulverised and levelled, six inches. When have about one inch of seed is drilled thin,so that the seedling may is the seed around After it. covered up with sowing, lightly space The seed-bed is kept covered with mats until germination earth. also to keep the seedlings takes place. It is necessary protected
manured
"
up and
305
TOBACCO.
from rain and heat of the sun. to be watered at They may require intervals of two or three days. Seed is generally in the first sown week of Septemberor earlierin Bihar and Chota Nagpur. In dry about the second lateritesoil it is best to do the sowingearly,i.e., week of third or (1Jtola)of seed is to be August. Half an ounce to produceplantsrequiredfor one acre sown ; but loss invariably of occurs owing to patches seedlingsgrowing too thick. It is therefore advisable to grow seedlings of seed for one from one ounce of land. Sometimes do considerable damage to seed ants acre and seedlings, when ashes sprinkled the seed-bed round and over soil of efficacious. seed-bed the between the Loosening prove lines i s of the seedlings important.
The soil for tobacco-planting should be Preparationof land the of and months October. September preparedduring Eight to "
ploughingsare necessary. Deep cultivation and thorough of the soil are most pulverisation important. The soil should be manured with well-rotted liberally cowdung and ashes. It is then ten
to be levelled with
a
be made
poor soil can
lightharrow. to
It is needless to say that
produce good crop by a
proper
even
and tillage
Soils destitute of potash, unmanured or soils soils, flesh,bones, calcium chloride,magnesium chloride, potassiumchloride,produce a bad burning tobacco which is
heavy manuring. with
manured or
unsuitable for making cigars. The use of cowdung also should be avoided in raising tobacco for the manufacture of cigars.Potassium carbonate, saltpetre, potassium sulphate,and calcium for tobacco the best intended are manures sulphate(gypsum) for cigars. They give to the leaves a sweet flavour and burning and its use is parquality. Gypsum is excellent as a top-dressing ticularly recommended Indian cultivators. Crops manured to with it suffer less from the effects of drought and require less in the manufacture of aerated Gypsum is a bye-product irrigation. and can be obtained very cheapfrom these factories at four waters to eightannas equal per maund, but it should be used with an of is liable to with it, as the bye-product quantity lime mixed be acid. The mineral used generally from 2J to 4| are manures also maunds ashes household an are Ordinary per acre. excellent manure for tobacco. They contain a largeamount recommended of potash and lime, and for clay are particularly and humus soils. Transplanting When about three inches the seedlingsare in the four after have shown three or high they nursery, that is, leaves,which takes placewithin six weeks from sowing time, they fit for [transplantation. The transplantation are beginsin the and extends beginningfof Aswm (the third week of September), late as the end of Kartik (middleof November). Earlyplantas ing is-preferable, The seedlings should for dry climates. especially another. be planted in the evening,three feet apart from one Smaller varieties, be as conveniently Hingli,Motihari,etc., may "
M,
HA
20
306
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
feet apart. The transplanted to are young seedlings few for first until w atered the strike root. days carefully they be afterwards necessary at intervals of about ten Irrigation may of the soil. In Eangpur to twenty days accordingto the nature
plantedtwo be
is repeatedly nately a hand-plough draggedby a man alterJalpaiguri tobacco the and which the across serves fields, along the soil. This is done until the purpose of hoeingand stirring In is flower buds are seen. places where artificial irrigation after each irrigation or required,regularhoeing is wanted once and
twice
month.
a
After-treatment. A
days before the plants run to flower, their buds and lower leaves should be nippedoff,and theyshould be than so pruned that only eightleaves,and on no account more finely ten, may be left to each plantfrom the top. In Jalpaiguri is earth used to of sap from or powdered stop bleeding overflowing the broken parts immediatelyafter pruning. This mode should be followed in other districts. Plants reserved for seedingshould The plants not be toppedin this way, but left to flower and seed. forth shoots of the side the stalks of leaves pruned, always bring by "
and
care
should be taken to prune off the shoots every now and the leaves are and The longer these buds mature. is done to the leaves requiredto kept the more injury
again
until
shoots
are
be
few
gathered.
and the leaves feel thick and gummy begin to turn yellowwith brown spots,they are considered mature and they should be cut off. Tobacco should not be cut over-ripe. Harvestingof a plotshould not be done at once : the mature plants is morning, to be gatheredfirst. The best time for harvesting are time the dew is off the plants. They should liefor some as soon as in the sun, say for two them wilted, sufficiently hours, to make that they can be handled without breaking. Care should be 90 Harvesting. When "
taken
It is better sun-burnt. whole plants (closeto the roots) than gatherthe leaves to cut singly.Harvestingshould be delayed for two or three days if there be heavy rainfall, the gummy which washes away matter the of leaves. not
to
let them
become
too
much
Drying and fermenting
veyed Immediately after the plants are conbeneath house, they should be hung up on strings "
to
the roof of
the
well-ventilated house, six inches apart. Cowsheds are used comtaonly by the raiyatsfor this purpose, but this gives bad flavour to the tobacco. The plantsshould remain hanging a than two months, or until they are quite dry. When for more and doors of the house very hot or strongwinds blow, the windows should be closed. In very dry weather,the floor of the shed should be occasionally sprinkedwith water, in order to keep the air of the room
the
a
moist. In June,*when the rains commence sufficiently again, plantsare taken down, strippedand handled. Best, medium
308
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
to the alternate action of sun's ray" up into bundles and subjected dews at night."* by day and of the
nrhut"'' Plants
allowed to be on thethen carried to some ; they are groundas cut, for a day or catch the and laid out to the day, and sun during grassy spot this turned After has the dew at night,being daily. gone on for fourth the third or ten or day plantsare stacked days,every eight Moth od offcuringIn
are
two
togethertillthey get heated, when cool.
to
If at this time
the dew
they are again spread out thoughtnot sufficient to cool
is scattered over the leaves this for The lie or on more. as they twenty days plantsare ; goes and stacked ; they are then brought into cover changed every third or fourth day, the top goingto the bottom, and so on. It i" to prevent them gettingover-heated : if the leaves important now the leaves are covered with plantain show a tendencyto get crisp, is put a blanket to make which leaves or damp grass, over the The leaves then sweat. huswa are or separatedby khurpi heap from the stem. They are then tied five or six togetherwith strips the
plant,at eveningtime
is
a
littlewater
of date leaves and piledtogether.These pilesare again watched tillit is evident that the leaves will not heat any more. carefully then tied up in bundles of four maunds each,wrapped round are They with a straw, and are then fit for the market ; if not immediately stowed
in
dry place. If the leaves are before openingthem for not of a good colour,the cultivator may, little and boil it a sale,get good tobacco, sprinklethe juiceover them after the last process of drying; but this is more trick of a of curing which the trade than a method being reallynothing sold,they are
more
matter
away
some
than careful alternative of heat and moisture, is introduced, "f
no
extraneous
The tobacco cultivation Method of cultivation and curingin Petlad. State is perhaps the most famous of Petlad in the Baroda in India and a of this may be of interest. Western description tobacco introduced here about The varietygrown is the Havana For 1 bigha (100 cubits x 100 cubits)" Ib. a hundred years ago. is in the seed-bed,thoughJ Ib. is sufficient. seed of sown generally "
is kept to allow for any contingencies. of seedlings ing Sowis done in July. If there is no rain at the time, every third day Too much rain is injurious for seedlings. the seed-bed is watered. when have five six leaves The seedlings are or transplanted they is done each, i.e.,when about 4 inches high. The transplanting A
reserve
in cloudyor showeryweather,1 " ft. nakshatra) and manured soil. Four or five ploughapart in well-ploughed-up 30 in and cart-loa4s(perlocal bigha)of dung. ingsare given May level state by the use of the Then the land is broughtto a perfectly After board. interculture with bullock-hoes transplanting, levelling
in
August(inMagM
*
Vide
Collector
of Nadia's
Report,*1874.
t Vide Collector of Tirhut's Report, 1874
309
TOBACCO.
inch of the surface soil is dry, after is resorted to when one there is rainfall againanother bullockWhen the rains are over. October or November mences, comirrigation hoeing is given. From which goes on twice every month ing Pickup to February. have of tipsand side-shoots beginsin December, when plants at intervals of leaves ten days,each plant each, fifteen or sixteen five The times. four thus or picked cuttingof leaves,or being
beginsin March. For five days theyare leftin the field, harvesting, after which, earlyin the morning when there is stilldew on them, leaves. If the leaves in bundles of fortyor fifty the is sprinkled too dry and there is no dew on them, water on are One hundred bundles of fortyto fifty leaves leaves before removal. "ach are put in each stack, and the bundles are dailytransferred
they are removed
thirtydays,from top and bottom
to middle and from middle to this for another month, or half a month, i.e., until of in three they are sold,the position the bundles is changed once should be stack there of leaves In each one put only day's days. described here The the to of only applies system curing cutting.
for
outside.
After
For bin or cigarettetobacco, chilim tobacco or snuff-tobacco. the cut leaves are used for chewing raw, left on the tobacco or after fifteen field on for which, a misty day,they are whole days, must be sprinkled before reIf there is no mist,water removed. moval. stacked togetherand their The whole of the leaves are
changed only once position transfers,the tobacco maunds per local maund Baroda a Ibs. 41 i.e., Seeding "
The
in 15 to 20
bigha,which being about
best
plantsare
days.
After two or three obtained is 32 to 40 yield sellsfor Rs. 5 to Rs. 8 per maund, half a maund of standard weight,
is sold off.
The
set
aside
for
seeding.They
are
moved topped like others, but the side shoots and suckers are reheads the or from the stems, only tops of the plantsbeing tied heads The to sticks to keep them seed. are for preserved straight.As soon as the seed is ripethe heads of plantsare cut
not
off and hung in a dry and safe place. After a few days the seed The seed should be is rubbed out of the .podsby hand and stored. and is it and therefore from insects, damp usuallyhung preserved of the seed can The the be tested by in cook-room. vitality up hot iron. If of sound a on a piece some sharpspattering scattering be considered to be sound. is givenout, the seed may A well-growncrop is expected to of cured leaves per acre, the money 24 maunds estimated at Es. 100 to Ks. 120, Rs. 5 be may tobacco. priceper maund of country-cured Outturn.
"
yield from value
20 to
of which
beingthe average
of the tobacco Injuries The chief enemy crop is a kind leaves which the at night and of Noctuid eats caterpillar away takes shelter in the soil by day. This caterpillar or cutworm causes It be the should serious damage to looked carefully youngjplants. "
310
HANDBOOK
killed when
for and is
injuryfrom
any
to this crop.
Hailstorms the of country.
often
"
a
takingits cigarettes For
be altered.
curingmust
be cut, and the that the colour
should
mature
lightmanner
Small-sized leaves with
green.
and
may
remain
largeareas
is untobacco fortunately the method place,
yellow and
goldencolour make The
brittle.
over
leaves not fully cigarette-making in fermenting heaps done in such
ordinary native tobacco
The tobacco. and is too dark
does great damage
crop
chilim
native
There-
is noticed.
source
destroythe
As
Suggestionfor improvement going out and of
this
causingcurlingof leaves which
aphid also
an
AGRICULTURE.
OP
is too
in
parts
the best cigarette much fermented
following paragraphsare
taken
' '
It would be well worth considering : Englishman newspaper famous and of the Dubec possibility growing Yenidge for cigarettes and for which such high in demand tobacco so much pricesare paid. This is grown extensivelyin the Bulgarianand All the so-called other principalities, well as in Turkey proper. as made from tobacco outside of are Egyptian cigarettes grown are Egypt, better known as Turkish tobacco. The best cigarettes and this is ascribed to made in Egypt and not in Turkey itself, the dry equable climate of Egypt preventingthe deterioration the
from
"
the
climatic conditions are not assured. We have in Aden the same conditions,a rainless region,and on a time been scale carried on small cigarette-makinghas for some there which, with certain conditions assured,might rapidlyexpand, from India. if such tobacco could be supplied specially that
*
ensues
such
when
European method
of
curing. "
"
When
the
leaves
and
ready for harvest, they are plant are mature first laid on the ground to wilt,that is, to wither
of the tobacco
gathered and ajid lose their
brittleness. This done, they are collected into bundles and packed, top upwards,into moderate size heapsto sweat. Mattingis placed and of rise the a over heaps gradual temperature begins. The increase in temperature is due to certain processes which are taking plex placewithin the leaves,whereby,as the leaves die,their more combecome contents broken down into simpler ones, with an evolution of heat and water. The water thus given off is in vapour and form, but it condenses again on the cooler mattingcovering, it is the presence of this water which givesrise to the idea of the is needed at this time toand Care attention heaps sweating.' for did the temperature rise unduly,there prevent over-heating, *
would be darkeningof the leaves and the sweating is completed, the leaves '
'
simpleexposure Mouldiness and
to
currents
consequent
then,if all the conditions leaves will have turned at
this
process
a
of air,or
rottingmust
injuriousdrying. When are dried,either slowlyby rapidlyby artificial heat. be
guarded against,and
favourable,in six or eightweeks the brown colour,thoughtobacco* brightwarm are
and flavour. The chief result of this stage lacks aroma has been to effect a further alteration in the constituents-
PAN
OR
BETEL
311
LEAF.
of the tissues of the leaves.
After it is completed,moist air is soften the leaves and render them play tillthen that they are ready for the process
again brought into pliant,and it is not of fermentation.
to
Fermentation has
alwaysbeen looked upon as a very important preparationof tobacco ; but if bacteriologists are right,eyen greater stress must be laid upon it,for it is the keystone of the whole and of paramount importance. As a preliminary stage in the
it,the brown
leaves
sorted and made up into hands, bundles,containing, perhaps,from six to ten leaves apiece. All these separate bundles are collected and piledup into great heaps or solid stacks a stack containingsometimes as much as fifty tons of tobacco. the stacks are Directly completed, to
or
are
small
"
fermentation
within, and
begins,encouragedby the warmth too, beginsthe productionof aroma now,
and moisture and flavour
accompanied by a considerable rise in temperature. But heating carefullychecked before it has gone very far by a continuous
is
turningof the stack higherthan
*
inside out and side into middle,' no 90 degreesFahr. being allowed."
CHAPTER PAN
OR
BETEL
perature tem-
LXV.
LEAF
(PIPER BETLE).
[Profitablenessof the crop: Varieties;Midnapur, the district where the best pan* are of cultivation ; Setting grown ; Soil ; General principles up a pan garden ; Subsidiarycrops; Repair; Diseases; Picking of leaves; Calculation of cost; Outturn.]
Varieties. The pan crop is probablythe most importantgarden of the most of all crops, and as crop in India and is one profitable the knowledgeof the cultivation of this crop is almost confined to the baruis, and is considered a secret by ordinarycultivators, a few notes the method on adoptedby the baruis in Bengal be of interest. The three main varieties are may Deshi,Sanchi, and Mitha, but there are such as some special sub-varieties, "
A^nta'a-Bantul,Ujani (Backergunge), Maghai,Karpurkath, which are
specially appreciatedby the
grown
connoisseur. is The finest pan between Ulubaria and Midnapur and in half-way subdivision of the Midnapur District.
at Bantul
the Contai Soil. "
stagnant
High
land
is most
above
inundation
level is necessary,
as
Black friable clay to this crop. injurious loam tank resembling earth, containinga largeproportionof organicmatter, is the soil ordinarily chosen, but the best pans are at Bantul loam on reddish in colour, ^e grown light slightly soil should be rather moist thoughhigh,and some of the best pan of gardens Backergungeactually get about six inches of water at high tides duringthe rainyseason. But when the flood is higher the damage done is very serious. water
312
HANDBOOK
Cultivation in the hence the proverbBina
Being a manure,
OF
AGRICULTURE.
ordinary sense
is not
requiredfor
pan,
chashe pan, i.e., cultivation for pan. no moist in soils with plentyof perennialcreeper grown under shade, and the plantingbeing done in the rainy
wateringafter plantingbeing done when necessary, it naturallyrequiresno irrigation except in dry regions.A garden established will go on yielding when once crop after crop for ten season,
to
thirtyyears.
the site for the barojor garden, Preparation.After selecting and trees growingon it are uprooted, burnt down, and or trench is dug round it,the earth dug out beingspread on the a land chosen to raise it a few inches above the surrounding land. "
shrubs
At
Bantul
they believe in spadingthe
soil to
a
depth
of
eighteen
the soil very fine,and levelling inches,pulverizing it,before putting the roof. The frail roofingand fencinghave the objectof on of temperature and securityfrom high securingshade, evenness winds, which are essential conditions for the successful cultivation of this crop. Rows of bamboo or other substantial posts are planted, feet remainingabove ground. Over these are placed about seven dhaincha or jute stalks and sometimes thatch of ulu-gra,ss a light is fenced all is also put above the dhaincha or jutestalks. The baroj materials. Each row, of cuttingsis planted round with the same at intervals of six inches between the between two lines of uprights taken from plantstwo are cuttings.The cuttings
years
or
more
old.
of twelve to eighteen cut into lengths inches containing are of which buried in two the five or six joints are each, earth,and the portionsleft above ground are made to recline on the surface. These are then covered with date leaves and watered if necessary, every morning and eveninguntil they strike root and put forth time extends from May to November. buds. The planting Planting
They
cuttingsin
nurseries
and
then
are transplanting
also
practised.
two the vines grow, one or jute or dhaincha sticks are stuck into the ground close to each other, the upper ends reachingthe tied to these supports with ulu straw roof. The vines are or the plants reach the roof they are dhaincha fibre. When bent and when sufficiently down long a lump of earth is put on the which is thus secured to the ground,and the bud end bent stem upwards and tied to another support. This process is repeated,
As
in the year. and there are usuallythree bendingdownwards Every trained this in two is three leaves mature time a plant or are way and upwards takes from where the bendingdownwards cut away place. In puttingearth alongthe base of the creepers from the and furrows,the plants two sides the land gets divided into ridges
while the walks alongsidethem are in furrows. growingon ridges, Dried and pulverized pond mud, dried and powdered cowdung used each time earthing and powderedoil-cake, is done. Castorare alone to pan pknts,and mustard-cake cake is said to be injurious is used in Bengal. Brick-dust is also as a manure. During the
PAN
dry
OB
BETEL
313
LEAF.
but stagnant wateringhas to be done constantly, should be avoided at all seasons. in barojes Gourds and pumpkins are usuallyplantedround barojesto additional shelter and give profit.The roofs and fences have to be changed every third year. This is the method in vogue in Bengal : that adopted in the drier regionsof India is very different,and an of this account Mr. R. S. latter by Hioremath will be found in the Agricultural Journal of India (1908). months
water
Fungus and insect pests and snails do great damage in pan of insects and snails plantations.Fumigationand hand-picking alone be suggested,Sulphuror chlorine fumigationcan be can of fungus pests, but to keep off moths, etc., done in the case cowdung cake smoke is sufficient. When plantingis done in July,in Bengal,pluckingcommences in October and when plantingis done in October, pluckingcommences in May. After pluckinghas once two commenced, pluckTwo to four leaves are received ings are made every month. each time from each plantand in the rains four to six leaves. All the leaves from an old stem after a new bent has cut away are One acre taken root. of land yieldsabout 80 lakh pern-leaves per besides inferior leaves from side shoots which are, as a annum, rule,nipped off,except those kept for making cuttings. For five after which there is a tendency years the plantsare in full bearing, for the yieldto fall off. The leaves,after beingbroughthome in
baskets,
are
sorted
arrangedin bundles Cost per 1st year
acre
and of puns
counted by the female hundreds. or
members
and
"
"
Rs. of 500 bamboo (Jiwol)posts 7 posts and wooden length,for the support of roof and for fence Purchase of cane fibre rope for tying or cocoanut Bamboo slips(longstrips) Dkaincha stalks Ulu for thatching Purchase of cuttings @ Rs. 2-8 per 1,000 of mustard-cake 12 maunds Purchase
cubits
A.
P.
0
0
in
Baskets Dhenki for crushingoil-cake Cost of cutting channels and spreadingearth soil Ploughingand pulverising Coolies for planting, thatching,roofing,and fencing Coolies for pluckingleaves,earthingand manuring Rent 2nd year of bamboos, betel-nut posts and "
Purchase Cane
or
dhaincha
stalks
coir-rope
of mustard-cake 36 maunds Ulu Wages of the permanent labourers for
pluckingleaves, earthing
manuring Rent
Carried
over
...
1,018
314
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
Rs.
Brought
1,018
forward
P.
A.
0
O
O
3rd Purchase of 150 bamboo posts,7 cubits long Slipsof bamboo and betel-nut trees Cane
or
6
0
50
0
0
3
0
O
rope
300 0 45 0 288 0 10
Ulu 36 maunds of mustard-cake Wages of the permanent labourers Rent
..1,423
Total of three years, Rs.
0 0
0 0-
0
Every fifth year the expense is increased as the thorough in of the barojis required.The total expenditure overhauling is about
ten
years Rs. 460.
Out-turn."
Rs.
4,600, and
the average
about
annum
per
the average price may be estimated for damages due
Taking3,000 leaves
per rupee as leaves at 80 lakh per annum Rs. 2,500. Allowinghalf this amount
of pan, the out-turn
about to insect and fungus pests and accidents,the gross income be safelyput down at Rs. 1,200 or Rs. 1,300 per annum.
at
LXVJ.
CHAPTER BETEL-NUT grown principally
LWhore
of nuts
THIS
;
The
(ARECA CATECHU). mandar
; Magnitude of the
is grown
as
a
may
grove
;
Seedlings
industry; The
regularcrop
;
Planting ; Gathering
betel-nut
plague.]
in the districts of Backer-
and young plants Noakhali and Tippera. The seedlings tree districts under a in these papilionaceous called are grown the mandar (ErythrinaIndica). It enriches the soil and gives from high the necessary trees protection and young 'seedlings of mandar The plantation of the sun. winds and gunge,
scorchingrays
planted in fifteen feet highlands,and four
about 6 ft. long are in this way : Branches twelve to February or in April(not March),in rows is made
After two or three ye^rs, is six years inflow lands,the plantation
apart each to
way.
on
ready for
the betel-nut
seedling. in October or November, the seeds betel-nuts are sown four to five inches apart. The seed-nurseries are beingdeposited if conveniently or either close to the homestead in shady places, The they are made in the mandar groves themselves. situafed, three or is usuallydone after two years, sometimes transplanting is done in July and lands the transplanting In four
The
years. in low lands in
high
the February or April. In the firsttransplanting,
from the mandar trees, are plantedequi-distant seedlings takes i.e.,twelve to fifteenfeet apart. But another transplanting into bearing.Before this placewhen the first trees have come
betel-nut
is done
around
down or cut trees are the mandar The the circumference of the grove. *
only
a
fringe left
betel-nut trees
in
a
.316
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
It is an ever-green tree, which rainfall is abundant in summer. to to the laurel tribe, is not able very well to stand frost,belonging It attains a height trees. which also belongcinnamon and tejpdtd of twenty diameter attains trunk ft. a 60 and and the of more, acuminate The leaves are to fortyinches. broadlylanceolate and introduced into been successfully has both base The tree and apex. at Madagascar, South America, Egypt, Italyand France. The soil this tree is sandy or loamy soil which for best
adapted
growing
it grows rapidly Manured is not inclined to be wet. properly, of the tree berries The ft.in 30 ten years. and attains a heightof eaten are by chickens and other fowls,and the wood of the tree is works. .affords a valuable timber for ornamental Irrigation where needed to keep the seedlings and young trees alive in places i nches. exceed doe" not fifty months the rainfallduringthe summer The seeds It is easily propagatedfrom seed, also from cuttings. should be collected in October and November, dried and kept June. sand until sowing time in May or packed up in dry coarse usual the i.e., character, be of The soil of the seed-bed should
one-third leaf-mould. The loam mixed up with about seed-bed should be kept covered up with mats in the usual way, and it should not be allowed to get too dry. The soil-temperature though the 75"F. at the time of germination, should not be over conditions The be as high as 85"F. external temperature may be secured of camphor trees can favourable for the
sandy
propagation some Bengal,in Assam, and in the lower hills generallythroughoutNorthern India and in Mysore (where will trees are growingin a healthy manner). The seedlings some in that case grow at a highertemperature than 85", but the plants be grown in pots in vigour. The seedlings will be lacking may to fields for for one to two years until they are ready transplanting when they have hill-sides. They are ready for transplanting or be planted should attained a heightof 20 to 40 inches. They
in
placesof Northern
be ft. apart, and after 5 years another lot of seedlingsmay begins plantedin between the rows, so that when the plantation lot to be used for the distillationof camphor after 10 years, one when down cut older lot. Trees may be of plantsmay replace an their growth and 15 20 they are 10, 12, or years old, accordingto allowed for a be If space can "he thickness of the plantation. for 20 years, it is best to use it after to grow uninterruptedly ree be lopped if the growth is ;his period; but younger trees may :hick. The largestproportionof camphor being contained in 20
olderand largerroots
in the trunk, proportion diminishing to dig out the entire branches and leaves,it is necessary finally to get the maximum ;ree yieldof camphor. Even leaves and in China and Japan, Swigs,the distillationof which is neglected yieldfor every 80 Ibs. about 1 Ib. of crude camphor. The trees are felled with the axe and the largerroots duly ahd the fresh chipsput in a cut. They are then cut into chips, 40 inches deep and 20 inches in diameter oonical wooden trough, uhe
and
CAMPHOR,
at the broader
base.
The
TEJPATA,
bottom
AND
CINNAMON.
317
of the
and. troughis perforated iron pan of water set on a masonry furnace. The but movable which is removed, cover, troughhas a tight-fitting for emptying the troughof chipsand puttingin a fresh quantity
fitted on
to
an
troughis surrounded by a layerof earth six inches thick to keep the temperature inside it as uniform as possible.A tube,, usuallymade of a bamboo, extends from the top of the trough wooden to a condenser,which consists of one troughbeingplaced wat^r, and the upper one, on another, the lower one containing sort of cover which is placedin an inverted position, a as to the clean rice straw on which the camlower one usuallycontaining phor The lower is than the trough larger crystallizes. upper trough,so that when the former is two-thirds full of water, the A continuous flow of edges of the latter are justbelow water. is kept up from the upper part of the coveringtrough,the water excess runningout from a hole at the top part of the side of the lower trough. The camphor oil floats on the water inside the in the rice straw lower trough,and the camphor crystallizes with which the upper troughis filledor floats in the water at the lower troughalongwith the oil. After the stream has carried away the The
'
in contact essential oil with it,it must not come with metal of any in lid of which the the the kind, so trough chipsare put, the tube and the whole of the condenser must the to condenser, be leading other material but of made of wood or metal. One tub never 20 to 40 Ibs. of chips fullof chipsrequirestwelve hours distilling, about 1 Ib. of crude camphor. yielding "
distillationof refined camphor out of the crude Japanese in Europe. The Europeanmethods or Chinese camphor takes place of refining too delicate and are complicatedfor description in a handbook of agriculture. and Cinnamonum Tejpdtd(Cinnamonumtamala obtusifolium). Though a native of the Himalayas,growing at an altitude of The
"
3,000 to 7,000 ft.,this plantgrows very well at Sibpur,in shady and the tree is worth growingin moist and well-shaded localities,
placesas the use coupleof small The
tree should
is almost universal in India. Aas a spice tejpdtd needed for one family. trees supplyall the tejpdtd be propagatedfrom seed imported from Sylhet.
of
and in two or three years should be grown in seed-beds, Seedlings The 10 fields ft. leaves can into be plucked apart. transplanted for fifty after the fifthyear and the tree goes on yielding or a hundred leaves But shed as if are as just aromatic, not more so years. of green leaves which weakens than the green leaves, stripping ~
the trees, is not necessary. tree from the inner bark of the The true Cinnamon twigsof which the valuable spiceis obtained,is the Cinnamonum ZeylaThis also grows at Sibpur. The bark of the twigs and nicum. be scrapedand dried and used the Indian varieties may of roots
instead of Ceylon cinnamon, which, of course, is the richest in The oilobtained by distillation aromatic properties. cinnamon 1 frojn
318
HANDBOOK
of
OP
all kinds
AGRICULTURE.
is almost
identical with cloveeugenol eugenic acid. The roots of also of Cinnamonum tamala and CinnaGinnamonum monum Zeylanicum, the some true camphor camphor, though yield obtusifolium, is different. tree (Cinnamonum camphora) leaves and
roots
chieflyof oil,consisting
or
LXVIII.
CHAPTER
SPICES.
OTHER [Round BLACK
or
pepper
;
Jird ; Juan
Pepper
Round
or
;
Rdndhuni
;
El"chi.]
gol-marich(Piper nigrum).
grows pipul (Piperlongum) gol-marich
"
Like creeper and the similar. vines are As two very habits of the pipul is under Lower of the shade of Bengal parts mango, grown in many under similar and betel-nut trees, the growingof gol-marioh moist districts of be attemptedalso in low-lying conditions may in Bengal. It grows in Assam, in Mysore, Malabar,in Burmah, in China and in the Straits Settlements,and the attempt to grow it in to succeed. the deltaic districts of Bengal is therefore likely as
a
fack
g| The propagationof the gol-marichand pipul vines takes of mature of pan, by means branches or suckers. as in the case place, suckers are layered,i.e., bent down into ground,and when they take root they are severed from the parent vine and plantedout in shade, and trailed on to trees. This of the rainyseason. The base of every is done at the beginning and well clean manured with cowdung vine is kept scrupulously The the
branches, shoots
or
mulch. Three four years after a or cake which acts also as in the bear cold to weather. vines the begin planting The berries are brought down from the climbingvines with berries are boiled and dried the help of a ladder. Black-pepper sent to the market. No preparation before they are in the sun Mr. Assistant the Basu, Director for long pepper. is necessary Assam, estimates the average yieldfrom each vine of
Agriculture,
of round pepper at one seer, valued at eightannas, Jira (Cuminum cyminum). Though this spiceis in daily household,its cultivation is like round pepper, in every use, in Bengal. The Jira seed of the bazar does not gerunknown minate, in the Punjab and Afghanistan, but as the plantis grown it in November be made to obtain fresh seed and sow "
attempt
may
sandy loam soil,viz.,such as is ordinarily preferred and wild coriander, juan celery(Rdndhuni). for growinganise, cultivated in Baroda, where after The crop has been successfully seed is sown in December. of the land and irrigation, preparation wild The o f celery Bengalneeds no such careful Rdndhuni, etc. the as attention European celerydoes. It occupiesthe or tillage juan and other garden herbs ; field longer than coriander,anises, in the former is not ready latter March, ripen that is,while the or
December
in
"
OTHER
before
Five
July. according to
the size of the
of
and
coriander
to
seers
half
a
maund
of seed
per
is used,
acre
being required in the case of juan and rdndhuni. case
seed, more in the
anise, than
319
SPICES.
A handmanuring and cultivation the seed is broad-casted. after follows the plants are weeding, accompanied by thinning, further notice is taken of the plants ^bout six inches high. No the plants are cut, and when until harvest time, when thoroughly dry, the seed is separated out by beating and winnowing. Five of seed are obtained to fifteen maunds per acre, the latter figure coriander heavier anise which apd are yieldersthan applying to and rdndhuni. Sulpa (Fumaria parviflora) juan (Carum copticum) is eaten also as a pot-herb. Like the is a semi-wild spice which but other garden herbs mentioned, this also is occasionally sown, it is oftener found coming up spontaneouslyalong with the other which of seeds usually contain a mixture of sulpa seed. spices, After
Eldchi. common
There
"
use
"
of
Bara-eldchi
the
spice,
as
kinds
two
are
eldchis the
or
cardamoms
or
in
greater cardamom
is grown in the lower subulatum), which valleys of Bhotan and mom Sikkim, and the Chhota-eldchi,or the lesser cardawhich is moist in soils in cardamomum), (Elettaria grown
(Amomum
Western
and
Southern
older
they
sent
stems
with
The
plants
the
lesser
unlike
ginger on perennial. The rhizomes growing go and The from them. to new come plants year, year up the rhizome of floweringand fruiting is,the largerthe number
plants, and from
India.
are
fruit of
The
out.
and
water soap-nut (ritha)
has
been
not
are
introduced
then
with
cardamom
starched.
is bleached
The
mom largercarda-
in the district of
success
Bogra.
zomes, of bits of rhiplace either by means manured seed-beds and fields are seed. or Highly the is needed needed. Protection from sun by plants,and from and rain by the seed and seedlings. The soil of the cardamom sun
Propagation
take
may
from
field should In the
be
valleysof
mountain
alongsideof This
water streams, whence the cardamom which secures
shade
water-logging. The be
utilized for
water
can.
dry
season,
never
on
round, but beds
made
along narrow
plants
are
moisture
of betel-nut
or
water-logged.
are
is taken
constant
in October, long and flat
not
fields
or
seed
the rhizomes
ridgesthrough
side alongchannels
on grown and freedom
gardens,easy
growing eldchis. The
raised seed-beds
September
year
Bhotan
and
Sikkim
arrangement
might
all the
moist
of
may
middle
from
irrigation,
be
planted the
ridges.
sown
in June
on or
of which
throughout the keeping the ridges alongside constantly moist but
be made
to
water-logged.
flow
down
in
a
slow
current
320
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER OPIUM [Soil; Maruires
Rotation
;
(PAPAVER SOMNIFERUM). Seasons
for cultivation ;
Tillage; Sowing
Weeding ; Harvesting; After-treatment Seed and Oil.]
;
Thinning
;
Trash
;
;
LXIX.
;
;
Cost
;
;
tion Irriga-
ture Manufac-
site,rich in Heavy loam or sandy loam near a village for The this land is should be close to a preferred crop. saltpetre, Soil. "
well,the
of which
water
Manures.
to be
is known
Nitrogenousmanures,
"
with impregnated such
as
nitre.
well-rotted
cow-
maunds (40 seers) per acre) and crude saltpetre dung (150 this for use in general are crop. Cowdung cake (20 maunds), ashes (4 maunds), oil-cake (6 maunds), or lime (160 seers)per acre, are to 200
also used
top-dressing.
for
usuallyfollows maize or millet,the preparation commencing immediately after maize or millet harvest. It
Rotation.
"
In the hills the opium Season. June and in the plainsfrom October "
is from
season
to
The land should be cultivated Tillage." and
broughtto
a
fine tilth before
Sowing. The seed
is
Februaryto
March. as
often
as
possible
sowing.
mixed
with
ruary dry earth in Febcase be, usuallybroadcast, at the or October, as may Camphor-watersteep should be used for rate of 3 Ibs. per acre. this (as for all small and delicate seeds)before sowing,as a preventive for and hastening germination. againstblights the seed beginsto germinate,i.e., As as soon Irrigation. in about a week after sowing,the field is divided by ridgesinto the alternate ridges compartments, 8 ft. X 4 ft., rectangular being made broader, as alongthem water is carried down into the fields. Wateringshould be done as soon as germinationhas taken place has failed. Irrigation where germination is carried and re-sowing the until intervals at regular on crop matures. the plantsare two or three inches high Thinning. When The out. out of sickly thinned thinning plantsis repeated, theyare to eightinches apart. until healthyplantsare left seven Weeding. This takes placealong with thinning. Flowering.Seventy-fiveto eighty days after germination the plantsflower. The petals(four in number) are carefully when fullyexpanded and matured, i.e., about the third removed flower leaves are employed day after the flower opens. These of the opium cakes. In another in the formation of the outer casing for eight or ten days tha capsulesare sufficient developed the of middle From nd sometimes to Marc? incision. January tilllater,extraction of the juicegoes on in the is. "
sown
up
the
"
"
"
"
"
"
-
is off / After the poppy After-treatment. rainy weather y "
ia Allowed to lie fallow tillthe
', the sown.
land
OPIUM.
Cost
of cultivation per
:
acre
321
"
Eight ploughings Clod-crushing .
.
Seed..
Sowing
Making water-beds Watering six times Four weedinga with thinning Harvesting (8 coolies
at
2
as.
a
day for
Manure Rent TOTAL
Products.
4
0
productsand by-productsof the poppy are : inspissated sap of the unripecapsules. (2)Pasewa,
The
"
the
(1)Opium, or
48
which drain from the ingredients of. Trash or already spoken (4) petals, opium. (3) Poppy and the dried from leaves. stems (5) Poppy powder prepared heads or capsules. (6) Seed and oil. Opium. The capsulesare lanced in the afternoon by the of his family. Three small lancetcultivator and the members shaped piecesof iron are bound togetherwith cotton, about ^th
i.e., the
soluble
and
moisture
"
"
"
of
to the
operator as
incision
pod.
discretion may be left, to be inflicted. The to the depth of the wound of the from the top of the stalk to the summit so protruding,
alone
inch
an
is made
capsuleis lanced
Each
times
three before
that
or
no
four times
all the milk
and
sometimes
is drawn
out
as
of it.
eightor drug is collected early in the followingmorning into small trowel-shapedscoops of thin iron. The opium is transferred to a many The
as
metal
or
further
ten
earthen
vessel,and it is taken
cultivator's house for
drains off and is kept in a pasewa hand from time is turned over by opium
manipulation.The
separate vessel,and to
to the
time
at
the
intervals of not
more
than
a
week.
collected,it is tied up in double
been
Ibs. have cloth. One
When
bags
25
of
to
50
sheeting
75 grains of as healthy plant may yield as much opium with five to eightscarifications and an acre 24 to 50 Ibs. will yield200 to 600 rupees worth of opium, the cultivator An acre gettingUs. 2-8 per Ib.
This is the dark coffee-coloured fluid which collects the freshly-collected of the vessels in which juice at the bottom it is when the cultivators is brought of the capsules placedby The shallow vessels are filled to such a degreethat the home. for off and be collected and sent in separately pasewa can drain the soluble of of principles weighment. It consists of the most It contains meconic in moisture. dew in or dissolved opium is not present in acid, resin,morphia,and narcotine. Pasewa collected during strong westerlywinds or in the absence Pasewa.
"
opium
of dew. in
a
Leaves." The
mature
handful
time
M,
HA
at
a
petalsafter being collected are earthen plateplacedover an -over 21
spreatf a
slow
322
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
covered with a moist cloth above, which is pressed, from the cloth,actingupon the resinous matter them to adhere together. The thin in the cause contained petals, in the earthen plate, cake of petalsthus formed is turned over the and the process of pressingand consolidation repeated on side. These thin sheets pasted together with lewd or reverse inferioropium and pasewa, form the shell or outer casingof the fire. They are until the steam
opium exportedto China. The pounded Trash. "
when
dry
at
and
stems
of the
end
the
leaves of the poppy plant used for packing the are
season
cakes. Factories the opium brought in by cultithe Government vators is examined accordingto consistence,colour,texture and into cakes and packed. The mixed up, moulded classified, aroma, cake exported to China are : constituents of an average In
Standard Lewa Leaves
..
..
.
turns
man
..
..
out
.
.
about
1
..
sr.
.
0'50
.
seventy cakes
attention and constant is removed The mildew by
require much
,"
5'43
..
.
7*50 chtks. 3-75
..
..
..
..
trash
Poppy One
opium ..
day.
a
turning
The
cakes:
else thev get
or
mildewed. rubbing in dry poppy also are extra leaves. Bv trash. Weak strenghenedby places touch and fairly dry to the October the cakes are solid when with chests in furnished double a tier of wooden they are packed tier
each partitions, 120
catties
(160 Ibs.).This
for internal
is the
cakes.
Each
case
Chinese opium.
consumption is made to the direct rays
by exposure
hardened
holdingtwenty
in
of the
What
this way sun
contains is intended It
is tillit contains :
of moisture. It is then moulded into square per bricks weighingone seer each, which are wrapped in oiled Nepaul in boxes furnished with compartments for paper and packed their reception.This opium has not the powerful aroma of the * for China, but it is more cake 'drug meant concentrated and cent,
only ten
more
easilypacked.
Seed and oil. After extraction of opium from poppy capsules, the ripeseed loses its bitter and narcotic principles, and it is then article of diet. Poppy-seed is largelyconsumed wholesome a cooked as an article of food. Even after the extraction of oil,the "
residue
or
in
oil-cake is eaten by poor people. phosphatesthan other cakes. The
richer when the seed is
simply by
fresh,with
an
in shallow for making
is Poppy-seed-cake
oil is
ordinaryghani,and
pressed out it is clarified
vessels,to the sun. Poppy-oil in Europe candles,soap, paint and artists' delicate machinery.The colours,also for cleaning average produce of seed per acre is three maunds, and the yieldof oil,when the seed is fresh,is thirteen seers One and-a-half per maund. The of seed is sown seed in acre. Malwa seer is imported sqwn per from Persia. is used
exposure
324
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and the questionof true hybridisation sxperienceof planters, of the tea plantsmay be pregnant with importantconsequences the present crisis at the planterneeds most what But is the which industry tea-making passing,is not the through but the renovation of the soil. jat, discoveryof a disease-resisting and (2) The two factors to the problemare : (1)exhaustion of soil, both and animal, which are fungoid parasites, growth of special of suitable T the a constant host-plant.he presence encouragedby be best met by the application of suitable exhaustion of soil can "
by deep hoeing once
and
manures
a
year
or
oftener,supplemented
The manures especially hoeingsduringthe season. by several light leaves of the which should be partiare used, to cularly applicable a crop and rich in potash nitrogen,also lime. A practiceof (Sesbania growing mati-kalai (Phaseolus mungo) or Dhaincha between tea plantshas sprung aculeata) up of late years, and its effect is said to be excellent
the
bushes. Castor-cake is excellent manure. Rape or mustard-cake may also be applied an The soil should be kept stirred deep and soil. the for renovating to February, viz.,December period, well,once during the dormant on
tea
other manure of rape-cake follow or application may of plants, and then when any pests are noticed, rows with of copper bushes the and mixture of sulphate of a spraying lime (1 : 10 with 200 parts of water), then dustingwith soot and of leaf coming after such alum, may be resorted to. The flushing of insecticides and cultivation and manuring and application free be of all sorts. and from should healthy blights fungicides, Picking of spottedand crumpled up leaves during the dormant period,and burning them, should be also practised. be gatheredfrom gardenswhere leaf The seed should nev"r from seed from wild but is picked, special gardensor plants. It in should be kept in almost dry earth throughoutwinter and sown When the seed-beds. in a year March old, seedlingsare planted
after which, the between
five feet
apart accordingto circumstances.
On of be the two tea races account same no plantedon plot for the purpose of blending."For the firsttwo years no plucking The is done, but the plantsare keptpruned in the cold weather. for difficult details is and tea of a matter, regarding pruning young out
from
four
to
should
"
be made
to the specialauthorities quoted later. The first plucking of leaves takes placein the third year, after which the plucking goes on many times in the year as longas the The first pickingis usuallydone in April. This alive. are bushes makes almost as good tea as that made out of October-November so as not to bruise picking. The pickingshould be done carefully,
it reference must
the leaves, nor injuretender shoots. The monsoon pickingsgo About coarsest tea. to the make an 2,000 plantsgo to acre, and the yieldfrom a mature plantation may vary from 200 to 1,000 Ibs. conditions. The to according average in India is 450 to 500 Ibs. bushes go on years at least. The
the fulKquantity for twenty yielding
to
thirty
325
TEA.
exposedto air in the shade for about constructed after pluckingin specially houses, after which they have become limp and flabbyand capable of beingrolled. The changeswhich take placeduringthis operation are profound. The essential oil increases rapidly,as also the which acts upon the tannin at a later stage of oxidising enzyme If the leaves are the process. bruised or injured, they do not wither properlyand are littlegood. In sound leaf,the commencement of fermentative end of the the observed be at can change Withering.The eighteento twenty "
leaves
are
hours
oxidised of the sap become and and gradually pass through stages of colour from coppery be should dark-brown The of moisture which to black. amount allowed varies considerably,according to the jat to evaporate broken
stem, where
the
constituents
of leaf, the time of year, yieldsthe best results. as rolling,
The the
wilted leaves
colour
The
the
weather, but about
33 per cent, the leaves fit for
objectis to make ing. keep a good twist without break-
take and
during the oxidation
witheringis allowed
moist, it may
and
process
becomes
uneven
If the atmosphere to go too far. to employ artificialheat and
be necessary
if
is very a
forced
draft in the
witheringprocess, but the temperature should never 100"F., and the heat should be graduallyreduced to 85"F. less,when the leaf is nearly ready. The leaves gatheredon that wet day should be allowed to get a little over-withered
exceed or a
the weaker and
sap
should
may be
be concentrated
to the standard
also
to
hard
and
proportion, prolonged
they subjected with than the usual to break all the cells (charged more rolling the and of the distribute moisture) juices all over proportion Leaves leaves. gathered in fine weather requireless withering a
When concentrated. properly withered, the leaves give out a fresh and pleasantaroma, different from the vegetablesmell of badly withered leaf. When the atmosphere is saturated with moisture, natural withering in very hot weather take does not even place readily, and and
the rolling,
sap
being more
artificial arrangements then and
the conditions time
be
can
100"F.
as
for
withering
are
always desirable, as
and regardshygroscopicity
regulatedto be employed
exactness.
for
temperature
Temperatures higher
time if the leaves the external has disappearedthe moisture are wet, but when 90"F. and reduced should be to retained at 90"F. temperature The leaves in the baskets should is concluded. until the operation but remain be never loose,and they must be brought presseddown, in as fresh a condition as possible. to the witheringroom The the leaves is to distribute e tc. Rolling, objectof rolling contained inside the cells over the juices the surface of the leaves than
can
a
short
"
thus brought to the surface by breakingthe cells up. The juices are easilyobtained in the tea infusion. In the process of rolling a a great deal of oxygen is also absorbed,and the tannin assumes dark colour and becomes partlyinsoluble and partlyit combines with the albuminoids of the leaf forming an insoluble leather-like
326
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
The substance. should be situated in the rollingmachine coolest part of the factory. After rolling and re-rolling, the leaves should be passed through a revolving sieve to break up any lumps and immediatelyafterwards placedin the fermentingroom. The fermentation room from the engineroom, should be well removed and it should have an even temperature which is secured by a. There should double roof. be a drain in the middle of the that the be washed and cleaned daily room fermentingroom may after the day's operation is over. In cool weather the rolled six is leaf of inches tea inches thick,and in hot mass or eight kept weather two to four inches thick and turned every half hour to prevent overheating. About 80"F. is the best temperature, and when the surrounding atmosphereis 90" or 95"F. and rather dry, the atmosphere should be cooled and moistened by hanging wet cloths in the room. Properlytreated the leaves should be of a
brightgreen tint half leaves
an
and
rollingoperation,and of a reddish change continues until the younger
colour after the hour later. This stems
are
colour, while
brightcoppery
a
the
older
and
less perfectly rolled leaves are partly reddish and partly normal Under for two conditions fermentation green. goes on to four hours, after which the leaf is re-rolled and dried, in
specialmachines, 200"
270"F.
to
leaf and
in A
a
current
more
temperature
a
of
is obtained
gradesin
operation,whereby rolling longerperiod without injuryto
air at
hot
colour
even
placingthe different
after the a
of
by sortingthe separate heaps to ferment
the older leaf
the other.
can
Should
remain
for
the
leaf
have been over-withered and the sap reduced to too great a degree of concentration, the colour obtained in the fermentation will be dull and dark instead of brightcoppery ; this can be partially remedied the
first
by moistening the
leaf with
cleanwater,
either
during
the leaf is put to ferment, by which rolling, the leaves. the concentrated sap is better diffused over means In all cases the leaf and the atmosphere of the fermenting be kept damp by sprinkling with cold water, and it is must room advisable to protect the leaf from draughtsof dry air. If this is not done, the surface of the heaps will assume a blaqkened appearance, and oxidation the leaf the to too rapid dryingup, owing A perfectly of the tannin and colouring moist draught matter. or
when
Direct rays of the be of any harm. be avoided. must Experimentshave that a certain moist condition of the atmosphere and of shown is necessary to obtain the desired colour,and also the leaf itself, that the best results as regards flavour,pungency, etc.,are obtained of air would probablynot in the fermentation room sun
when
the temperature of the
leaf does
not
rise
spontaneously
If the leaf is placedon a cement above 82" to 8i"F. floor,where it can be thicker absorbed as it is developed, the heat is partially than when placedon boards or cloth raised above the floor ; and a as generalrule,the cooler the May the thicker can the leaf be placed to obtain the necessary colour in a uniform time.
327
TEA.
usually takes placein two or three stages. The firing 270"F., about temperature employed for the firstfiring averages but duringthe second firing, when the leaf is partlydried,although the temperature employed in the machine is not so high as in the perature firstinstance, the leaf itselfattains within a few degreesthe temThe
the machine, since evaporation is not great. The become when the leaf has once temperature towards the end, i.e., below 212"F., say dry and crisp,should be reduced to somewhat 180" to 200"F.,and the draught employed should not be very rapidly.If great, so that the moisture will not be driven away of
the
hurried
firing operationis
too
much, the
"
tea
loses in
aroma.
280"F., the
260"
"
to in a Victoria at By ten minutes' firing Sirocco If the oxidized tea loses fiftyper cent, of moisture. is afterwards employed,as is usuallydone, the remainder of the moisture is evaporated at a slower rate. When fired and oxidized,it is ready for the leaf has been packing,which is done with lead in well-seasoned wooden boxes. "
"
CostManufacturing charges Establishment, including field labour Manuring .
.
.
.
Rs.
.
.
.
.
.
.
12
,,65
.
.
"
.
.
,,
18
per
acre.
"
"
"
"
05 of Rs.
Profit
5 per
maund
on
six maunds Total
If Rs.
125
are
30 125
cost .
.
"
"
realized
obtained per acre, and six maunds be worked with profit. can
as
the outturn per acre, tea The principal the so-called pests of tea plantationsare Mosquitoblightand the Red Spider. Againstthe former, pruning and and been found also have useful, hoeing burning sprayingof Kerosene emulsion, and against the latter dusting full account of tea-blights, of sulphur. For students are a the subjectby Drs. Watt referred to the work and Mann. on The chemical changes that take place during manufacture of the most
increase the flavour of tea is so of volatile fatty acids is also largelydue. A certain amount the of from a portion of the albuminoid splitting developed up in the leaf,and the sap developsan acid reaction. Some matter flavour and to of these on isolation have a sweet aroma, nutty smell of properly If the which the peculiar oxidized leaf is due. of is oxidation for the prolonged many hours, acidityof process of tea
are
numerous
in the amount
;
one
of essential
oil,to
important beingan
which
the sap rapidly increases and the leaf becomes sour and rancid, acids similar to those in rancid butter being developed. These be got rid of, up to a certain extent, by firing, can by exposing the leaf to a high temperature for a lengthened period,but only of the volatile oil which is dissipated with them. at the expense due The reduced to also tannin is astringency during greatly
328
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
this process of oxidation, the tannin being partlyoxidized into an insoluble brown substance known as Phlobaphene and partly of the albuminoid matter, and which gives combiningwith some the leaves a tough,leathery able and elastic character easilynotice-
handling. The albuminoid matter of the leaf is also partly coagulated by the acidity developed during the fermentation. on
The
followingis
analysisof fresh
an
tea
leaf,by Bamber
Essential oil Fixed oil Thein Volatile alkaloid Tannin Boheic acid Gallic acid
"
"05% .
..
"50 4-10
"
Trace 18-15
2-34 "83 24-00
Legumin
1-00
Albumin and Globulin Waxes and Gums .
2-88
.
12-60
Pectin,Pectoses,etc.
Trace
Amides
21-20
etc. Cellulose,fibre, Phlobaphene,resins,etc.
Mineral
:
7-85 4-60
matter
100
The seed of tea-bushes contains over 20 per cent, of fixed oil, which may be used either as lamp-oil for soap-making. The or oil-cake is less than half the value of castor-cake so far as Nitrogen is concerned, and of very little value so far as phosphatesare concerned. The cake being poisonousis useless as cattle-food. The decoction of the cake may possiblybe found useful as an insecticide. The growing and manufacture of tea is a very technical Bald's treatise to consult process, and the reader is recommended Indian Tea (Thacker,Spinkand Co.),or the various publications on
by Mann, mostly issued by the Indian Tea Association, Calcutta.
LXXI.
CHAPTER COFFEE
(COFFEA
[Situationssuitable ;
'and
ARABIC
A).
for the crop ; Varieties Planting ; Seed ; Drying ; Peeling or ; Fermentation Packing ; Prices ; Machinery.! .
Manufacture
Airing ;
THIS
crop
ing ; Pruning ; HarvestMilling; Winnowing
requiresa hilly,well drained, rich, ferruginous
rich clay soil,e.g., forest land, particularly altitudes varyingfrom prefers
in
Nitrogen. Coffee
1,000to 5,000 ft. The temperature
best suited for this crop is 60" to 80"F. It grows best in a humid rain every month, but the total where there is some climate,i.e., Frost is fatal rainfall should not exceed 150 inches per annum. also objecto coffee plants. Heavy clouds and strong winds are tionable. cessfully In hot and dry placesalso,coffee has been grown sucin shade.
The Arabian coffee can
stand
droughtbetter
329
COFFEE.
than
the Liberian coffee,which is preferred for moist localities. the confined cultivation of coffee is at present practically Though to Ceylonand the Lower slopesof the Nilghiris, the experimentof coffee elsewhere In is worth repeating. Ranchi, Mourgrowing and parts of bhanj,Chittagong, Darjeeling
the coffee
gardens shade.
planthas been grown also berries have been
One
and Bombay, Burmah Calcutta in and some successfully, coffee plantsgrowing in on seen
experiment conducted
in
Chittagong
gave
nine
of berries per acre. maunds In most of these places,however, the cultivation can be considered a curiosity. only should Planting. Having selected a suitable site,the juitgles be cleared and burnt, belts of trees giving protection from high winds being left. The roads are then to be laid out and the coffeehouse furnished with a good water-supply.Then a spot should "
be selected for on
slope of
a
nursery which should be well drained soil (situated be but close to water, that irrigation hill), may
a a
easilydone when
soil should be rich and retentive After spading and ploughmatter. ing to a depth of about twenty inches, exterminatingall the weeds, of farm yard manure manuring the soil with about 200 maunds and raising the beds six inches above the surrounding per acre inches be seeds should six to nine inches apart, and two soil, sown of
required.The
full of humus moisture,i.e.,
deep,and only one
inch apart from
one
The lines should then be covered branches thrown the seed-beds. over
earlyin the
morning
or
alongthe
another
lines.
and mats lightly Watering should
furrows
or
or
palm
be
done
after sunset.
bushel of seed will give 10,000 plants, sufficientfor covering the plantshave two to four leaves they should When ten acres. bed the seedbe carefullv transplanted, in damp cloudy weather, from and placed nine to twelve inches apart. The to the nursery for the reception lined out grounds of the plantationare of the plants. A rope is furnished with bits of scarlet rag at the feet. is usuallyseven distance fixed upon between the plantswhich A
"
"
the plotand stakes are inserted at each rag. It is stretched across The rope is then moved forward a stage at a time, gauged by laid base-line is down rods 7 ft. long. Or, a straight measuring and down cross-line at and off set the a right exactly slope, up the at On stakes into driven the this line are ground angles. of the plants. To each distance determined upon for the position and is stretched parallel with the base-line and fixed stake a rope as
providedalong these A rope held across them at succeedingstages of equal and the small stakes is guidedby measuringpoles7 ft. long,
straightas
lines.
width
possible.Small
stakes
are
each the fixed ones, the moveable rope crosses the site for a plant. The sowingand transplantstake indicating ing The seedlings done in the rainyseason. are are plantedout when a year old,and sometimes when two years old,in their pei" manent placesin the plantation.Seven feet each way is the usual are
put
in where
distance apart at which
theyare planted,about 1,000 plantsgoing
330
HANDBOOK
the
to
Holes
acre.
the
then
and
are
AGRICULTURE.
OF
first made
seedlingsremoved,
where
the stakes
planted
are
being taken
ball of earth
a
up
the possible with each seedling, plantingdone as soon wards and the earth made quitefirm after planting.Weeding is afteralso to has done as occasion requires.Stakingwith canes Filling be done for supportingthe plantsagainst heavy winds. be to also in blanks when any seedlings die or get sicklyhas vided profor and carried out. A fast growing small tree is usually as
the seedlings to give them alongside
grown
shade.
is
Maize
a
it is rather an exhausting crop, and an upright leguminous crop, such as arahar, or jainti these would go to should be preferred, as (Sesbania "wjyptiaca),
good
very
enrich
to
crop
but
grow,
soil. Trenching and the former as a means
the
these trenches
as
a
of
source
manuring have also of draining. Weeds
manure.
an
depth of
a
ganised, or-
put
are
in
The trenches open into off into drainage channels.
water catch-drains,whence runs Manuring with lime, oil-cake,cowdung, etc.,
coffee is
be
to
is
also
exhaustingcrop. Forkingor spadingonce a twelve to eighteen inches is also essential in
done,
as
year
to
the
dry
season.
After another
twelve
eighteenmonths,
or
the
when
plantsase
done, i.e., nippingoff the central bud to check further growth in height. Topped in this way, the berries more are easilygathered and the yieldis also heavier. Pruning is also done in such a manner remain 5 ft. that the plants may intervals of at and branches high develophorizontally primary 3 to 5 ft.in
about
throughoutthe height of the stem ; and to form boughs a constant supply of secondary fruit-bearing
6 inches
alongthese twigs. once
height, topping is
All
ascending and
removed,
so
as
spreadingbranches
cross-
to force the
which
has
wise
branches
or
the
advantage
twigs
are
at
type of horizontal
plantinto the
of
exposing to
sun
be with ease lighta All secondary fruiting removed. twigsare pruned off after each be finished each time before is removed. should Pruning crop and
largesurface
from
which
the crop
can
The lateral or priflower buds beginto form. mary than allowed to grow more 2| feet, boughs should not be otherwise they will droop and exclude the lightfrom those below. All broken, diseased and dead branches should be cut off. of the second or the third blossoms appear- in March The October year and they go on appearingevery year after. About begins collection of the crop and preparationof berries. The collection of ripe fruits goes on from October to January. The but deep red collected, are ripefruits) brightblood-red fruits (i.e., should be or cherry coloured fruits which are not quite mature the next
season's
also collected at the
same
time to
save
labour. of the '
'
berry from the in the following is accomplished cherry/as the ripefruit is called* stages: (1) Pulping,(2) Fermenting,(3) Drying,(4) Peeling, and (5)Winnowing and sizing. or hulling, milling Manufacture. The "
'
manufacture
332
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
from Winnowing and Sizing. The peeled coffee as it comes off which the drives to subjected fanning parchment skin, leavingthe clean coffee behind. Then the coffee seeds into different sizes that roasting separatedby mechanical means "
the
mill is
and are
afterwards
be
may
Packing. not spoilthe
will
Coffee,like
constantlyin by fungi and are
In
a
is incurred
beans
put in
are
and
or
poppy
any
of in connection
well-cultivated
with
estate
an
and superintendence
on
per
is
acre
As
poorer. total
But
3 ewts., the
in
an
heavy manuring
Ceylon. expenditureof Rs. 50
acre
per
estates
incurred,but half, the
at
a
estate
110
leaves
a
50
per
in
acre
coming margin to
small not
is spent
acre
rupees per to 4 cwts. every year, the average comes of leguminous crops and application of bones
per
pay
at
a
*2i of
all.
manuring
on acre.
ing Grow-
the manurial
are
recommended.
FlO.
The
is portionately proannually,the
outturn
coffee-growingdoes
cwt.
where
Rs.
and
obtained
is manured
area
peeling
expenditureof
total
alternate
treatment
is
acre
per
manures
on
the result
sold at 60s. per cwt.
crop 40,s. per
80
inclusive of field-labour,
annual
while profit,
is grown diseases caused
cultivation,which
coffee
to about expenditurecomes and the well-keptgarden, annuaj average
to
which
crop
in localities, especially
some
80
other
many of soil and
Exhaustion
and an additional Rs. freight, their application.In some coffee Rs.
of which
timber
is subjectto locality,
same
insects.
and
only
the
cases,
of the coffee.
aroma
tea
the
also talked
failingin
uniform.
The
"
C6.--THE
Engell)en"Huller Company
machinery required for Huller and Separator
the No.
HULLKR.
COFFEB
York
of New
manufacture
5, suitable
of
supply
all the
Their
Coffee
coffee.
for
small
plantations,
separates 1,500 to 2,000 Ibs. of cleaned coffee in 10 hours, separating is 200 The priceof the machine the parchment from the coffee. the before for dollars. A screen used dirt,sticks,etc.,
separating
333
VANILLA.
put in the pulperis sold
for 90
dollars. A hand-power pulperis sold for 100 dollars. The Coffee washer is made in two sizes,the smaller size being priced 150 dollars. Coffee graders sold for 225 to 275 dollars each, accordingto size. A Coffee are berries are
is also polisher
made
of two
sizes,the smaller size beingpriced250
only advantage of using this machine is,all foreign material,dust,etc.,mixed with the coffee is rejected by an exhaustliant brila more fan,keepingthe coffee clean and cool and permitting Coffee Hullers unlike not Rice Hullers (Fig.66) are polish. their principle in o f and in general construction. appearance
dollars.
The
CHAPTER VANILLA
LXXII.
(VANILLA PLANIFOLIA).
cultivation has been undertaken by a few European substance Mysore, etc. Vanilla is an essence or flavouring obtained from the fruits of a climbing orchid found growing wild in the hot, humid forests of Central and South America,and of the vanilla of commerce is gathered from a considerable portion wild plantsfound growingin the forests of Mexico. Soil and Climate. A lich loamy vegetablesoil is the best vanilla. An undrained water-logged soil causes the for the roots to the cultivationof the to rot, and it is therefore quiteunsuited VANILLA
of planters
"
should
be hot, and moist and sheltered but the plantsmust not be too much situations are indispensable, shaded, or the fruits will not ripen. Propagation.Cuttingsfour or five feet long are planted at the foot of trees, or other supports used for the vine to grow on, orchid.
climate
The
"
take root. and in showery weather they soon Cultivation. The fertilizationof the flowers has to be done and it is necessary for the plantsto be trained, so as^ artificially, The distances at to bringthe flowers within reach of the hand. which the supportson which the vines are to climb are planted, "
than six feet. The holes should be filledin more with sand and decayedleaves ; and ifthe plantamixed with rich loam tion the rich humus of the forest, found on the be in the vicinity surface of the ground is sufficientfor filling up the holes. The-
should
not
be
be heaped up, so as to prevent water-logging at the base soil must lower of the three leaves The of the cutting. are removed, cuttings of the stem plantedthree or four inches below the and that portion surface. The remainder of the stem is then tied to the post or
-
leaflet. flat band of plantainfibre,or by a cocoanut cord must not be Used, as it is liableto cut into and injure Round the the green, succulent stem of the vanilla. The ground over with leaves or light buried part of the cuttingis then mulched
tree
by
a
,
brush-wood
;
and if dry weather
comes
on,
.will: frequent waterings
334
be be
OF
HANDBOOK
necessary,
kept
until the
free from
AGRICULTURE.
cuttinghas taken
weeds, and, unless
root.
The
ground must
it be
shaded by growlightly ing weather roots to keep the
trees, it will be advisable in dry constantlymulched. the vines have reached the tops of the trees When
supports, bamboos
may
be fixed
from horizontally
tree
or
to
other tree
or
The trees from post to post,and the vines trained along them. be kept down low, so that the vines do not get out of reach, must be judiciously and the branches must lopped,in order to prevent No animal or artificial shade. should be used, too much manures soil leaves and be but rotten vegetable appliedto the roots may is
after each crop
gathered.
Fertilization of the Flowers. flower in the second year after
expectedin
the fourth
The
"
plants will
and planting, the Sibpur
In year. in flower in March
to
commence
full crops
may
be
Garden and Apriland artificial the vanilla creepers are fertilization is regularly practised,though in the wild state, in America, fertilizationno doubt takes place through the agency of insects or small birds. The parts of the flower are so arranged
that
is impossible, and therefore self-pollination If
the
flower of the
Botanical
it must
be effected
orchid be foreignagency. it will be seen that the outer floral envelope examined carefully, and the inner one consists of three sepals, consists of three petals. is very different from the others ; it is called The lowest of the petals and it envelopes the column or continuation of the labellum or lip, which are set the curious anther and the axis of the plant on
by
some
vanilla
This continuation is called the column. At the top of is a hood which covers the and anther the column pollenmasses, up and below this is the viscid stigmatic surface,protectedand hidden called the lamellune. Thus we lipsometimes see by a projecting is in shut the hood and the stigmais shut in by that the pollen by obstacles prevent self-pollination. the lamellune,so that two The
stigma.
and these obstacles, objectof artificialfertilization is to remove to approach the stigma. This is easily masses to permitthe pollen effected firstly, by detaching the hood, which is accomplished with a piece of sharpened wood ; seeasilyby touchingit lightly condly, the lamellune under the anther ; and thirdly, by slipping by of the a nd contact between ensuring pollen stigmaby gentle pressure The operationis performed in a few and thumb. the fore-finger "
seconds after
littlepractice, and the thumb between
be facilitated by holding and middle the column of the left finger is it whilst the back at hand, supported by the fore-finger ; the instrument, which righthand is then free to use the fertilising should be rather blunt and flattened at the end. A tooth broken from an old comb and fixed into a piqpe of thin bamboo a few inches a
it may
lengthmay be used. If the fertilising operationproves successful,the flower will whilst the pod will grow rapidly.If unsuccessful, wither, gradually the flower will fall off before the second day, and the ovary will
in
335
VANILLA
remain
yellow,shrivel
turn undeveloped,
up, and drop off the stalk. The flowers come out in March in clusters of from 10 to 12, than half a dozen of the clusters should be fertilised but not more and in this way fine largepods will be secured. Fertilization 9 or should commence 10 o'clock in the at morning, for if it be
done
late,pollination may
too
altogether.The
fruit goes
least five
take at
months
on
growing
longer to
be for
incomplete,or a
month, but
fail
it will
for ripen sufficiently
harvesting. Harvesting. The pods are to be gathered whfcn they begin to turn yellow at their ends, or when they producea crackling sensation on being pressed lightlybetween the fingers.Each be should gatheredseparatelyby being bent to one side,when pod "
it will
off the
come
in
curing,and if too littleor
will have
minute
green,
It is very
importantto gatherthe ripe,theywill splitopen dried with difficulty, and they
they are
too
perfume.
no
Curing. After "
for half
stem.
righttime, for,if they be
pods at the
the in
beans
gathered, they
are
hot, almost
are
plunged
water. boiling
They are then them afterwards they are spread put on mats and blankets to the out on sun. exposed Every eveningthey rolled up in the blankets and shut up in light boxes to ferment. are The sunning process is continued for a week, or until the pods and pliable, brown when they are squeezed between the become and t o the seeds and oilysubstance them, so cause fingers straighten a
to drain
dry, and
inside to be evenly distributed. Should they should be closed up and bound round split, thread
or
narrow
any
of the
with tightly
pods silk
the thread should dry and shrivel, tape. As they,
be unwound, and the pods tied up again. When the pods are brown, the drying process should be finished in shade, which may weeks. take many
Packing. The dried beans are to be sorted accordingto the long thin ones their length, beingthe most valuable. Beans "
lengthare to be tied in bundles of 25 or 50, the ligatures usuallybeingappliedclose to each end of the bundle. The latter tin boxes, which are enclosed in then packed in closely fitting are rough wooden cases. The Vanilla plantsflower very irregularly, and, in consequence, all the pods are not in fitcondition to be gatheredat one is requiredat the first gatherings not to touch time, and care if t he beans too will which are or unripe; gathered early, pods pods mostly shrivel duringthe process of drying,and lean shrivelled At the same beans do not realise so good a pricein the markets. after theyhave ripened, time the pods must not be left on the plants valves will sometimes nearlyan inch, and splitbeans or the open, of inferior value. 7 to 33 shillings obtained are per pound are the and London size market in the accordingto qualityof the
of the
same
beans.
CHAPTER
heavy yielding fruit and
a
PAPAYA).
(CARICA
PAPAYA As
LXXIII.
"hardlyits equal,and it deserves to be cultivated The fruit grows during the monsoon, plentifully The best papayas round. are yieldingall the year and Sylhet. week,
in
sown
plants are
and
a
as
regularcrop it goes 01 in Ceylo]
but grown
and
sun,
after
should
high they
be
transplantedto
be three feet high they should and when two or nursery, which and in of holes few i n a manure plenty out in fields,
high
feet
six
put.
fruits from
bud
this
by trees
from
of
done
size and
which
go
(which
are
the great value
form
Whei
10
quantity
fruits.
of
growtl
fruits
often
trees
From
large size( by their pendulou be taken, as then the tendency trees to yield fruits.
to
best
known
of the papaya
as
drought
a
of
reactions
pepsin,but
in energetically
more
neutral
it is different from
some
No
extent say
two
digests fibrin hundred
action,however,
this
reason
milk
of
(the its
times
takes
principalalbuminoid weight "
sourci
givei
pepsin, ai
alkaline substances
or
It curdles milk like pepsin. of acids. in the presence twenty-eighttimes its weight of coagulated albumen. some
resist
the fruit;
of the
it acts
ar
contaii
crop
some
anc
open
ft. apart. nipped off and
be
i
plantec pieces o
yieldinga highly nourishing vegetable (when green) and ripe fruit,the crop is of great value as the Papain or Papayotin. The filtered juiceof the papaya
ing are
be
operation. Male
flowering branches) seed should and female will be for both male Apart
planted in the
be
should The
encouraged.
hermaphrodite flowers male
should
trees
central
the
of side branches enhanced both
The
planting should
The
shade.
in
not
be
should
bones
ha
being kept \ in rich but light soil. Th" Whei two-year-old manure.
cover
sand
inches
few
a
in the
under
or
of
consist
soil should the
box
a
dried
be
should
seeds
The
the papaya
vegetablecrop
as
well
as
thai
It dissolve! It
also
t"
of
meat),"
white
of eggs It is fo
there is much acid. place when in so readily softeningfresh meat, if th"
acts papaya the fruit is added
such
to
the
meat
a
few
minutes
befor"
ready alimentary digestivein th" cooking. which is highly acid. Papain is presen presence of gastric juice of the but less in all parts or plant, chieflyin young fruits moife be obtainfed from In preparingPapain, the juice should un Moisture the ferment and heat fruits. spoils great ripe destroy its activity. The juiceshould therefore be dried as soon as possi The fresh but low dried juice should tx ble at a temperature. It
is
not
a
of rectified spirit,and the mixed with twice its volume The insoluble matter allowed to stand for a few hours.
then be filtered off.
The
atmospheric temperature, bottles.
residue Should
powdered
and
be dried
kept
in the in well
mixtur" shouk
ordinary stoppere"
CASSAVA
AS
FAMINE
337
FOOD.
of alkali, Papain is not only a valuable aid presence also but solvent it is of the gum to digestion, of tusser and other a which reeled with difficulty. The use of Papain as cocoons are In
an
the
reelingof
the
aid to
tusser
is recommended
cocoons
CHAPTER CASSAVA [Dron "ht-resistin#
crops
of
Advantages
;
LXXIV. FAMINE
AS
Objections
introducing
the
FOOD.
famine-foods
to
the
DURING who
persons notice
famines
series of about
went
Cassava,
;
where
used
;
high lands ; Varieties ; An experiment flour ; Yeddi arrowroot ; Tapioca ; CassaVa for keeping the bushes for Seasons low; on
crop
Tapioca meal or Brazilian ;^ Nipping of buds of Cassava planting and lifting; Dishes made for famine root- crops Other times.] ;
cultivation
for trial.
in rural
;
Liable
India
in
to
the
from
placescould
attack
1896
1901,
to
have
not
of rate ;
failed to
certain crops fared better than others,how suffer at all from the drought,and how poor people crops foods which they had formerlylooked on took to livingvery largely accessories to their dietary. It was noticed, for upon as mere had and failed wheat where that rice, barley completely, instance, certain
how
did not
of the millets did common arahar, kalai,gram, maize and some such and sweet as pahals, potatoes, vegetables, fairlywell, yams, and sweet did remarkand mash-melons melons ably sapia, country figs well. During the famine of 1897 these articles of food were largelyused as a substitute for rice. Throughout June, 1897, in the day-time and ate only mash-melons day-labourers many littlerice at night. A pice worth of melons or palvalsgave them when Avorth of rice was two full day's meal at a time annas
a a
hunger. It i$ singularthat the prices appease a man's articles as milk, fish,etc., did not increase, and that food of palval, kalai,dumbur, nourishingthan rice,consisting
requiredto of such far
more
fish and
sour
milk
was
famine, indeed, had
to be
the
had
effect
at
smaller
a
cost
than
educating peoplehow
of
The
rice. not
to
and teachingagriculturists the depend on rice alone for sustenance of their to of having several strings value bow, i.e., growing not rice alone, but also maize, millets, kalai,arahar,61,and bfiadai,
other
crops require the and
which
less paying ordinarily same
do
not
of
amount
fail
when
duration. The food-stuffs mentioned
water
there above
rice, but
which for their successful
than
is
a
either
one
not
growth,
of
monsoon
labour under
do
or
short other little
yield disadvantages First, they too or are thirdly, they indigestible, produce, secondly,they do not too coarse keep long. The or they are insipid, or, fourthly, Cassava (calledSimul-alu in Eastern Bengal and Sarkar-kanda in Midnapur),stands drought at least as well as any of those crops, it equallywell in the open or in shade, it yieldsa nourishing grows of
the
four
too
.
or
and
food,.which palatable M,
HA
can
be utilized either in the fresh state,
22
out of it a flour which keeps much better than by extracting much a largerquantityof dry food per acre wheat-flour,it yields
or
than
it
be grown
can
with
little
high lands,in the plainsof Bengal,
trouble,
on
The
crop, and
other
probablyany
Madras, and
Cassava
of the
roots
they
taste
sold boiled in the streets of nice. In Darjeeling, Bancoorah,
are
very
Bengal and Assam it is eaten cooked do Fresh roots not keep long; in the case of potatoes into curries. of Cassava roots, they become like the in and case they rot away, and in Eastern
Midnapur
it is not easy extracting the "farina. sava Casmanufactured from the fresh roots, and as flour is easily of this and it can the be utilized produce such, crop keeps long, to Indian taste. for food agreeable which
from
bits of wood
great advantage of growing the Cassava plantas
One
againstfamine, lies in the fact that the
dug up annually. If a
cultivator has
roots
need
a
not
protection be
hedge of Cassava
all round his he can his fields, ordinary crops fail. notice of In the interval he need not take them. any Properly the tuft of leaves of each tree gets beyond after a few months grown, in number and in the reach of cattle. The roots go on increasing
liftthe
size,and they need
roots
be utilized until
not
ordinarycrops
failure of the
a
only when
a
year
round.
of
partialor total
It should
be mentioned, Cassava that is not suitable a however, hedge plant,as cattle are very fond of its leaves. It should be also noted that the
root-development goes down
to
a
far
on
heightof
two
comes
more
when freely
to three feet
the
plantsare kept
only,by the nippingof
time to time. the roots is to liftthem The most economical way of utilizing months and twelve to them as an annual treat in ten to once crop. of starch falls off after the first year, that is,does The deposition in old trees as in one-year-old not go on quiteso rapidly plants. In
terminal buds
from
the introducing them
to grow
that there may
pursuits.In indirection
to
crop among
it
cultivators, however, it is best
alonghedgesand
be
no
odd
to tell of their homesteads,
comers
interference with their
ordinary agricultural
dealingwith find
cultivators it is often by necessary direction out," to introduce improvements
and slowly. Poverty makes tentatively
"
them
and if suspicious, apart some considerable portionof their you were for growingrice,or kalai,or jute,for the land which they now use Cassava plants, they will jump to the conclusion that you have of your own motive to serve and you are merely ulterior some them a as catspaw. using to tellthem
to set
It should be noted that there are two varieties of Cassava, both used in America for extracting tapioca, thoughone of them, The Manihot t he i s. Utilissima, Manihot Aipi or poisonous. viz., the sweet Cassava, the roots of which can be eaten raw, is the
varietyto grow. There ia a considerable proportionof prussicacid in the bitter Cassava,which, however, is dissipated the action of heat in the process of manufacture of tapioca. t"y safest
340
HANDBOOK
OF
spreadout thin, exposedto the same day, if possible.If the tank overnight, say, from 9 P.M.
AGRICULTURE.
to allow of its
sun
crude
roots
are
gettingdry the
left in the wash-
to 5 A.M., and the decorticating and by 8 A.M., the sliced roots left in the soakingtub slicing got over by 10 A.M., and extraction from 8 to 9 A.M., the pulpinggot over
by midday, all the afternoon will be available for the pulp to get dry. As the manufacturingshould be done at pressed of the year, viz.,February to April,there should the driest season in be no difficulty gettingthe pulp thoroughlydry and ready for At Sibpur,the grindingwas done with grindingby 5 or 6 P.M. and stone-mill hand the flour afterwards was separated an ordinary fully beautiwith an ordinary hand-sieve. The resultingflour was out for and it and than sweet sweet white more a tear. kept of the farina
The
farina
or
which
starch
settles down
the bottom
at
the troughsis collected quiteeasilyby pouringout the water starch occurringin a compact and heavy mass The them.
of from does
starch is allowed to settle again,and the water not flow out. A fresh quantity of filtered water then poured off with the water. The
being poured out, the starch is exposed to the sun and collected The moist starch of some in a dry state. verted troughs may be conor tapioca-meal
into
Brazilian
by
arrowroot
dryingin
the
above, and of others into tapioca. The tapioca-meal as sun, in London, can Brazilian arrowroot be used which is sold as cornflour. for arrowroot substitute or ordinary as a and made into The moist starch is simply exposed to the sun "
"
.
tapioca-meal.But or
aluminium
with
constant
pan
it into
to convert
in the
with stirring
moist a
state
brass
tapiocait and
khwnti.
is put into
heated As
over
soon
a as
a
brass
slow the
fire meal,
of tapioca,it should be taken granular appearance down from the fire and left to dry more perfectlyin the sun. the actual quantitiesobtained at Sibpur out These were of 220 Ibs. crude of Ibs. of Cassava : nine roots, 149| plants pressed but moist pulp,33f Ibs. of Cassava flour,5| Ibs. of tapioca-meal, and 6f Ibs. of tapioca,or a total quantity 45| Ibs. of dry food, with avidityby cattle, eaten were also 107 Ibs. of leaves which 937 and cuttings. Planted five feet apart, an acre would hold about 1,700 plants. is If the Sibpur experience repeatedon a largescale,we ought to assumes
the
"
of crude roots and over maunds 210 maunds of greeni it When is recollected how difficultit is,to get fod4er per acre. of India in fodder some duringthe driest months, the parts green
get
over
450
fodder for cattle,which is a mere sufficiently inviting.If the value of the bye-product, is estimated at two annas have an outa maund, we turn fodder alone Then there is another bye-product in the of Us. 30 per acre. shape of cuttingsor fuel,which would be 175 to 200 maunds per represents another Us. 50. acre, which in Calcutta. The priceof tapiocais six annas a seer Putting Cassava of whole and tapiocaat the flour,tapioca-meal, produce
produceof
240
maunds
seems
of green
CASSAVA
value
,the lowest
produceof Rs. nothing but in
500
annas
Rs. i.e.,
seer,
5
a
maund,
we
Sibpur experiment, expect the flour and meal.
a gross In practice,
probably be obtained on a largoscale, in Lower be very profitable crop should
the
case
341
FOOD.
a
from
acre
per like this would
any
two
basis of the
the
on
may,
of, say,
FAMINE
AS
Bengal. Working on a large scale,the produce of flour will come, The instead of 100 maunds. perhaps, to 50 maunds per acre of produceof Cassava account flour givenin Dr. Watt's Dictionary but as this is the only authoritywe could lay is rather conflicting, hold ""
The
would
we
on,
quote
acre.
per
dried roots gave This means Ibs." times
as
much
Though
his
here from
passage
Dictionary
;
estimated in Ceylon at 10 tons of green This weighs one-fourth when dried,and if the half their weight of flour it would amount to 2,800 is three 34 maunds of course, per acre, which,
produce has
roots
a
been
gets out
one
as
Cassava
be
can
of
an
of wheat.*
acre
plantedat
any
and harvested
season,
which is a great advantagelookingat the question at any season, from the point of view of famine only,the best season prevention for harvesting, and consequently of replantingof cuttings,is strike which may yield50 maunds one viz.,that Cassava very forcibly, meal ing of flour and besides leaves,etc.,must be an exhaustper acre after the first fall off very much crop, and the produce must
February and
If
year. jf one
to
Rs. 20
or
expect a
Rs. 30 per
of ashes is the
acre
only and
acre
per
plantingshould When on
be is
one
is
now
pointwhich
one
used, the produceis bound
must
to falloff.
But
crop of Rs. 300 per acre, one oughtto spend A handful after the first year on manures. that
manure
cuttings,but twenty added
There
is
manure
no
were
March.
cart-loads worked
done
need of
into
be used while
farmyard
plantingthe should
manure
the soil six weeks
later.
be
The
three inches deep. horizontally,
working on
a
large
scale
one
cannot
depend
the dried pulp slicing roots, and quirnsfor grinding But cultivators need not work on a largescale. They
for
knives
into flour.
the plantsin small patchesand utilize the roots either eatingthem fresh,or convertingthem into flour by such simple described. nave If a capitalist is to launch out processes as we extensive he scale, must use machinery for slicing, an on pulping, and moderate If Cassava to a grinding. one were on pressing grow can
grow
for
^cale, say,
five
on
or
ten
acres
of land,one
must
use
such
simple
a"d a turnip-slicer, a cheese-press a turnip-pulper, grindingmill to cope with the work of harvesting. The
machinery
as
a
small cultivator will need
nothing that he
cannot
easilyprocure
in his
in his own or even own village, cottage ; gamlas,and dao and dhenki,and a couple of big stones, are all the special appliances
required. "
For
India."
later information,see
Booth
Tucker
in
the
"'
of AgriculturalJournal
342
OF
HANDBOOK
The next
AGRICULTURE.
would be interested in is,how to make is when has got it. Tapioca-pudding use one produce used as a nourishingfood by Europeans,but this would not probably be relished by Indians. be used in But tapioca-mealcan Jt is more sava Casplace of arrowroot. nourishingthan arrowroot. flour is still better as an article of food suited to Indian taste
questionone
"
of the
it
be
making various articles of food which we flour may eating. Out of Cassava be made biscuits. chapatis, puris,malpoas,halua, puddings,and Et does not make very first-class chapatis, and biscuits,but puris,
as
are
caji
utilized in
in the ordinarily
it makes tastes
habit of
excellent
malpoas,and halua, and Cassava-pudding The chapatisare tapioca-pudding. able, palatvery
nicer than
but
little too elastic,though quite soft. For should be used ; otherwise Cassava flour and wheat flour are used exactly in the same In making way. halua out of Cassava flour the syrup has to be made first over a with sugar and water. When the syrup is somewhat fire, sticky, a proportionatequantityof Cassava flour mixed up with water is put in. The flour should be mixed up with the syrup by prompt When the colour of the flour changes,a little ghee and stirring. almonds and pistachio to be added and the mixture nuts are kept stirred for another few minutes. The halua thus made keeps long and it tastes very much like Muscat halua. In making 100 tolas of halua 13 tolas of Cassava flour mixed with 40 tolas of water should be used. The syrup is'made with 40 tolas of sugar and 20
they are making dough, hot
tolas of water.
a
water
Ten tolas of
and
ghee and an anna's worth of almonds for givingthe halua a rich taste. It
pistachionuts are used is a cheap and delicious sweetmeat. Frozen with ice it is further In Cassava flour and three-fourths biscuits, making improved. one-fourth
The
wheat
Cassava
flour should roots
could
be used. be
thus
variouslyused,
arid the
the most epicureancan make use of them either in into flour. The well developed their fresh state or manufactured be eaten either raw roots weigh 2 to 5 Ibs. each, and they can or cooked (i.e., either boiled, or fried in chips or curried). As a as a nourishingfood drought-resisting crop, as a heavy yielder,
poorest and
stuffwhich is easilymanufactured, which comes up to Cassava. The roots tastingquitenice
we
when
do
know
not
raw,
anything
liable to very for poisonmade ing
are
be Some arrangement must the attack of rats. be secured undamaged and undiminished. Tats if the crop is to be mentioned Of other drought-resisting root-crops, may the 61,yams and a bulbous vine grown at Kalimpong called Ishand Geonkhali are famous. kosh. The 61 of Bolepur,Santragachi Of yams may be mentioned an African yam which is grown at the phant's SibpurFarm and which is almost gs good as potatoes. The eleThe leaves of Ishfoot yam of Malabar is also famous.
kosh oue
are
eaten
to two
the edible roots from under each vine.
by cattle,while
maunds
sometimes
weigh
343
ARROWROOT.
CHAPTER
LXXV.
ARROWROOT. THE
is extracted
the bulbs of various plants:" Bermuda from is obtained Maranta arrowroot common arundinacea. have This is the common which arrowroot we and in seen Jail gardens. The plantgrows some growing at Alipur 2 to 3 ft.in height; the flowers and the tubers are white. (2)The Brazilian arrowroot have extracted which from cassava roots we arrowroot
from
(1) The
already described. (3) There is another variety of arrowroot in Queensland from a Canna, the flowers of which chiefly grown beautiful bright are The not unlike Indian shot flower. scarlet, of Canna edulis from 9 in and 8 ft. to plants a single height grow stool 15 to 20 stalks
eightypounds
to
up, each
come
of bulb
are
stalk
bearinga big bulb.
often extracted from
a
Sixty
singlestool.
The starch or arrowroot extracted from this plantis known as tous-les-mois. Rich alluvial jungleland, or river or creek banks suit this plantbest. It is also grown rich countries in open on
deep soils.
It
Maranta
prefersa
more
soil than the
root, ordinaryarrow-
sold in Queensland are extracted from it sells at about prefersshade, and the bulbs of this are plantedabout a foot apart in the lines and l" ft. from line to line. In growingCanna edulis, make holes burn the jungle, for "2
arundinacea.
sandy The
bulbs
lOs. per ton and the arrowroot Qd. a Ib. Ordinaryarrowroot
and 4| ft. from each other in the lines. If apart in rows be used, ploughingand pulverising and trenchingsix a ploughcan inches deep and planting ft. of bulbs,should be done, 4| single apart the rows being made 7 ft. to 8 ft. apart. As the land gets poorer closer than but never by cropping,the rows should be made closer, 6 ft. apart,the hilling or earthingonce is all the subsequentoperation 6
or
7 ft.
needed.
The roots are dug up from December to nine months after planting, the planting i.e., beingdone or
April.
June. A
Ordinary arrowroot
does
better
February,
plantedin
in March
May
or
good test for ascertainingwhen the ordinary arrowro'ot are readyfor harvest is to observe at the outer leaf of the slit pointingdownwards a triangular ; if the slit is white
bulbs bulb the bulb is still immature it turns purpleit is ready as ; as soon for harvest. It can be left for two seasons as times sugarcane is someleft. Each day's diggingmust be operatedon the same on day. effect Every day of exposure to sun and weather has an injurious the colour of the manufactured starch. Twelve to forty upon obtained if the plantsare tons of tous-les-mois bulbs per acre are 5 ft. by 6 ft. apart. 15 to 30 cwts. of starch per acre is the average root produce. Up to 4 tons have been obtained. The priceof arrowin the London market varies,but an average may be taken as can
"15 per ton. If machinery is used 10 to 30 cwts. of arrowroot be extracted per day. For a mill capable of turningout 30
344
HANDBOOK
of
cwts. :
OF
AGRICULTURE.
sary day, the followingappliances are necesroot-washingtank, one elevator,one grater or grinding
arrowroot
one
per
mill, rotary sieves, shaker
centrifugalpump calico for drying the
for
sieves,one
chute,
drainingwater
roots
raised
are
from to
the
agitator,one
one
and
Tables
vats.
highest part
of the
mill is about building.The cost of erecting an arrowroot Rs. 18,000,plus Rs. 3,000 for a drying and storingshed.
CHAPTER
LXXVI.
BAMBOO, GREWTA, MAT-GRASS Bamboo.
growth
Alluvial
"
loam
and
clay
AND
RUTSA-GRASS.
are
the
soils for
best
the
of the thicker
kinds of bamboo, and gritty soils for the There are various classes of bamboo, varieties.
thinner mountain the four commonest
ones
growing in Bengal being the B/idlki-bins,
the
Ber-bdns,the Kdntd-bdns, and the Taltd-bdns, beingthe strongest, longest and thickest of the
the
Bhdlki-bdns The two
four.
which cornmonlv in Bihar are the Chap bamboo bamboos is grown which hard and solid and the Kdyji bamboo is soft and hollow, though thicker. For making mats, baskets,etc.,the Taltd-bdns and the Kdyjibamboo the best. The Kdntd-bdns is also very strong are and long,but it is full of spinneybranches, and it is very inconvenient
of clumps and stripping. On the whole, the Bhdlki and the TaUd-bdns are the best to cultivate. Forty or fiftyyears after sowing (ifseed is used) bamboo die. The trees seed and
cuttingout
bamboos
propagated
time
from
older bamboos
root-cuttingsand from
seed, and
sterns, seed at
where
the
takes
as seeding placein a particularvarietyof bamboo, all the clumps of that varietyin a particularlocalitydie off simultaneously. The seed and (which is eaten like rice)should be collected at this season
same
sown carefully
the and
stock.
in
of the
Naturallymanv
producea
fresh
propagated from that break
preparedseed-beds
and
seed
to transplanted
take
stocks
or
culms
dug
root
Bamboos
growth of bamboos. out
with
renovate
in forest-lands are
roots.
ordinarily Bamboos
and bend down the ground and throw on young out roots, are the best to choose for propagation. Bamboos may bent down on the ground while in the clump, say in be artificially September,and the followingJune it will be found they have sent fit for making cuttings. down roots into the ground and become planted uprootedand transThey may be then cut into sections,carefully In moist localitiesthe plantingof bamboos in June. should take placein May, and in dry regionsof Chhota Nagpur and South Bihar in July. Plantingtwenty feet apart is advisable. months beforehand should The holes made in the field two or when
^hree
be filled with rotten dung, before the cuttingsare planted. In to June, the first year in the dry season, i.e.,from November afterwards will be but occasional only an required, watering
of application
From
MAT-GRASS
GREWIA,
BAMBOO,
silt one
the fifth year
AND
345
RTIISA-GRASS.
year, and of ashes the next, in be cut, two or the ripeculms can
Aprilor May.
three being cut out of every clump in the fifth year, and the number gradually November t o to ten or increasing eight February year. every is the proper season A clump of bamboo for cuttingthe bamboo. will go on yieldingfor 40 or 50 years (unlessseeding takes place in the meantime in bamboos if the clumps from cuttings), grown
kept yield Rs. are
tenth
manured 100 A
year.
\n described above. and Rs. 200
as
clump
yieldup
may
and the average after ten Burma solid bamboos more
Young shoots In
acre
in the fifth year
Orissa and
the
than
of bamboo
Central
may
years
even are
Provinces
per annum bamboos
20
to
be the
eaten
the
of bamboo
put down BJtalki-ldns as
a
wood
may
after the per at are
delicate
annum, ten.
In
able. obtain-
vegetable.
of Grewia
restrict
(Dhdmin
for making or Kulita)is used as a substitute for bamboo is remarkable of this wood banqis. The toughness and elasticity and its propagation is recommended also. For making bows, shafts of carriages and other similar purposes, the wood of Grewia vestria is likelyto prove useful. most in This the most is of Mat-grass. one crops grown paying and in Bengal,chieflyin ihe districts of Midnapur, Burdwan of the districts of E. Bengal and Assam. In Midnapur, it some has taken the place of mulberry in the Sabong thana, the .soil which which this crop is grown being the same on sort of soil on mulberry does best,riz.,clay-loam above inundation level. If the silkworm crop is a success, then only an acre of mulberry yields of about Rs. 300, and the cost of mulberry cultivation return a is rather high. The cultivation of mat-grass costs about Rs. 45 "
per
Rs. 300, and the but the gross outturn to about comes is certain. The are root-cuttings planted in May and
acre,
return
June. of land commences in the previousNovember Preparation when the land is dug up with a spade, and weeds carefully picked As soon out. there is good rain in May or June, the land as levelled with the ladder, and the be made six inches deep and one foot apart. The trenches should are toot-cuttings plantedalong these trenches nine inches apart in In July the trenches are levelled up. regularlines and in planting November In and October and August two weedingsare needed. should
be
ploughed
up
and
the flower-stalks appear and attain a heightof about four feet, After when they are sold off as a standing crop to mat-weavers. with silt the stalks have been cut away, the land is manured the from the bed of tanks or nullahs. In February or March and siltis heaped up on when the sides of the land, and dry aerified sufficiently it is spreadout in April, after givingthe land a
superficial scrapingwith kodalis. November the flower-stalks are cut from onwards, heads left three the flower are land the for four on or they are days, into two and the stalks are each split then rejected, longitudinally four with knife. The is of thick stalks or a scoopedout pith parts When
346
and
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTUEE.
making highclass fine mats, the splitpieces afterwards further split. put If the scrapingof the land and puttingon of siltis continued for ten annually,the crop will continue to yieldthe same profit to fifteen vears. also. rejected in water
are
For
and
Ruisa-yrass.Andropogon schcenanthus,known Gandha-bend in Bengal and in as Ruisa-grass
or
Central India,is of various aromatic
exportedto
that
the
extracted
where Constantinople
the manufacture
of attar
known
arid
Southern
kinds,all aromatic, but
oil
of
from
it is said to
The
Agyd ghas
as
"
and
fully beautiso is seed-heads the basis for
some
the form
Ruisa grasses are It is collected best. the being from jungles in Khandesh, Baroda, Malabar and Hyderabad, and the oil is distilledfrom the seed, 1,000 seed-heads being put into the retort at a time, the retort being an iron vessel with a wooden lid,whence the essential oil is distilled out into a bottle. An experimentconducted with 373 Ibs. of the grass yielded1 Ib. 5| oz, as
Motia
of oil. In Western It
roses.
best
Sophia,Motia
India
the oil is sold
is
considered a medicine extracted for export. It is
for
for locally
rheumatism,
Rs.
but
10
it
a
is
pound. chiefly
and a cultivating, grass well worth IB Bengal. The grass experimentshave been recentlyundertaken is eaten by cattle also, and it imparts a fragrance to the meat and milk of cattle livingon this grass.
CHAPTER
LXXV1I.
ORANGES.
and four principal localitiesin which oranges are largely cultivated in plantations, are Sylhet,Sikkim, Delhi and regularly undertaken has been also successfully Nagpur. Orange cultivation THE
in the Bamra some
of
hills oranges
State,in the district of Sambalpur,where in found wild. We get five different varieties are the differences being, no the five localities,
from A moderate conditions. doubt, due to difference in climatic of ber Novemfrom cold a degree during fairlyprolongedperiod, say to April, is needed for the proper growth of the trees and the formation of fruits. We have known of persons taking proper oranges
the trouble of importingalongwith from Sylhet seedlings orange much soil as practicable to givethe seedlings, as as theythought, and soil of Calcutta. But it is the climate a good start in the the difference. A plantationof orange not the soil that makes from any strong breeze, specially trees should be protected strong breezes. Screens of living forest are the best. The soil should be well drained and above inundation level, and fairly rich, that is, richer than soils chosen for growingtimber trees. If chemical it should be ascertained if the soil chosen analysisis possible, is particularly rich in lime and phosphates.Nepal cultivators sea
348
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
CHAPTER
LXXVEII.
INDIA-RUBBER [Profitablenessof tho rubber
GUTTA-PERCHA.
AND
industry; Experiments
growing
and rubber Difference between rubber ; Ceara rubber in carbon-bisulphide ; Para Method rubber ; Coagulation with alum water;
Principalsources
all
India
over
;
gutta-percha ; Solubility
;
;
Uie-tree rubber
of
;
propig-itionof
Indiaeach
variety.]
output and
THE
by increasing be
mav
bounds,
brisklyall
acre
about India
over
of India-rubber
and
priceof
the
usuallyexpectedas
productionper on
consumption
leaps and
maund
200
the
product,and the annual Experiments are going in Ceylon and Mysore
maunds.
two
Ceylon, and
and
annually
are
Rs.
250
to
per
largetracts of land have been put down under rubber. The of India-rubber are Africa, Central and South principalsources hardened Rubber and Burma. is the America, Ceylon, Assam latex of several families of tropical plants,and any plant which of white latex on the leaves or stems exudes largequantities being rubber looked of be to a possiblesource as injured,ought upon and other supply. The common (Euphorbianerifolia) sij-manasa of latex abundant which quantities Euphorbiaceousplants yield be readilyconverted into rubber can by addition of alum water. latex from is large trees belonging Gutta-percha the hardened does soften to one not family onlv. viz.* Sapotacese. Rubber
very
in moderate
like
heat
gutta-perchadoes. and
Rubber
it retains for
is
impervious
long periodits gases and strength,while gutta-perchabecomes soft originalelasticity and it in hot to on given plastic water, retaining any shape and it becomes hard is soluble cooling when rigid. Rubber used for in carbon solution is and the repairing bisulphide,
to water,
most
acids and
a
cracks. Para
rubber.
"
The
rubber is the South American hraziliensis, a valuable
most
obtained from Hevea is thriving very well in Cevlon Settlements
in low
elevations.
Para tree*,
In
rubber which
tho Straits
and In the Madras is flourishing. India the tree is not growing Bombay Presidencies and in Northern the well. In five years after planting in suitable conditions Para rubber is fit-for tapping. The tree may attain a height of 60 ft. and of is poor, soft and The wood 6 8 ft. to a girth also Para
rubber
perishable.The
seed is very oilyand on this account easily gets rancid and spoilt. It was, however, despatched from Ceylon to the Kew Gardens all right,packed in canvas bags only, and it travels better,packed in moderatelydry soil or cocoanut fibre. It
is propagated also from cuttings and stools or green shoots. The tree grows in well-drained soils,beyond the reach of floods,
althoughin
South
believed at one time to grow on This is, however, a mistake. The rubber is brought swamps. down malarious and a regionfrom high and dry through swampy and merchants had mistaken idea it in the coast a localities, America
it
was
INDIA-RUBBEA
GUTTA-PERCHA.
ANt"
349
The latex is alkaline,and the addition of a grew in swamps. solution of ammonia it f rom indefinitely preserves ^spontaneous coagulation.In favourable localities120 to 140 Ibs. of Para after the seventh rubber are obtained per acre per annum year. The sometimes the sixth on when tapping commences year, each
yields about
tree
10
If
ounces.
Ibs.
as per acre, as much from six-year-old trees, but
188
can
300
300
trees
be obtained per
acre
planted
are
of
out
(i.e.,when
an
the
acre
trees
ft. apart) are too many, when the trees are older, At 5$. a lb.,the yield and they have to be thinned out. per acre (130 Ibs.)would be about Rs. 500, and the margin*of profitmay are
planted12
half
to
come
this
amount.
rubber is the
Ceara
product of Manihot
a plantwhich glaziovii, it attains resembles the cassava, of 30 ft a though height over this where the rainfallwas in Ceylon, The experimentof growing too
great,failed,but in the seventh per The
The
tree.
bushes
staich
at
the
well in South
Ule
tree
the
Mysore
year
experimentis succeeding very well,
live Ibs. of rubber much as than a littleless valuable
as
rubber
is
be also grown
can
like the
in
for their roots which
Ceara rubber
ordinary
cassava.
Rajnagur Garden
in
Darbhanga
is
and
a
to (belonging
the
Para
rubber
yielda valuable fully growing successit is
Behar, Chhota Nagpur and Orissa. rubber,which is almost as good as Para
product of Castilloa Elastic
beingobtained
to likely
do
rubber, is the
a Central Moracea?),
growingtree, allied to the bread-fruit tree. It is easilypropagatedfrom seed or cuttings. Seven or eight-yearold trees yield1 to 2 Ibs. of milk per annum, 25 per cent, of the milk being pure rubber, separatedby centrifugal machines. This India and Ceylon,but tree has been also introduced into Southern far have not given very encouragingresults, experiments so Castilloa milk flows more freelyand does not coagulatereadily, machine is used. ISo which is a great advantagewhen a centrifugal be expected within eightyears after planting.The return can Castilloa successfully introduced inW Ceylon in 1876,isthe Castilloa from Darien Markhamiana, (Panama). They flowered in 1881. The growth since 1886 has been slight.It does well in warm, American
steamy,
fast
does not do well in elevated fall below temperature should never
alluvial localitiesand
tracts
The in swamps. CO"F., nor the rainfall should not be below 70 inches,and it should be well distributed. It should be plantedin sheltered placesnear streams, The seeds should be sown in but where the land is well drained. a well prepared nursery, one inch deep and eightinches apart, and The nursery should be kept covered mould. with lightly vegetable lightlyshaded and watered, and in ten or twelve months, when
high,they are plantedout. Cuttings should also take. Planting from main sljoots(not lateral branches) be done twelve inches apart and the plantsleft in shade for two or three years. Weeding and watering have to be done until the When take of themselves. trees have attained a care plantscan the
are seedlings
two
feet
350
girthof
2 ft.
tapped. Cuts should be
in Para rubber
1 ft. apart as
4 ft. apart and not
be obtained, and
tapping may
per
be
2" ft.,they can
or
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
three
four
or
3 ft. or
Five
trees.
ounces
tappingsper
year.
product of Ficus Elastica,Artocarpus and Alstonia Scholaris. The ArtocarpusIntegrifolia, "Chaplasha, 60 ft. high in the dry forests of last is .a largetree which grows and "Ceylon,Singapur Penang. 35 years old,the average yield In a Ficus Elastica plantation, per in
India-rubber
is the
tree
is 600
per year
is
yield, however, another
grammes,
in the
rubber is 200
of solid rubber.
grammes
great.
very
tree
variation
yield
may
100
yieldof Castilloa
plantation(theplantsbeing eightyears old)
same
of solid rubber
grammes be about
One
kilogrammes. The average
12
The
per
tree
per
year.
But
as
there
Castilloa trees planted in the as many the difference in favour of the Castilloa area as same trees, Castilloa rubber is also more is decidedlyconsiderable. valuable could
times
four
Ficus
.and it
gatheredfrom
be
can
much
younger
trees.
Forests of Ficus
the Government
Elastica in Assam India-rubber that (not Ceylonrubber) is derived. The latex is collected during the dry months. Eight obliquecuts with downwards made the dao, sloping at a little distance from are It is from
of the
much
another,
one one
bark. tree
as
should four
be
not
can
be tied round
the
tree
as
only on the main ground.
be made
feet from An
eightmud-pots These
remain on the whole day. The cuts is secreted just below the milk the outer deep, number incisions should of A great not be made each on and weaken kill the tree. The incisions ultimately they
below
should
that
so
the other.
ounce
and
stem, the lowest
being made
one
the of
powdered alum
mixed
A
well.
few
should be taken in
a
tea-cupful
of this solution spoonfuls
should be put into each vessel containingabout 3 pints of the milk after The milk will coagumatter. strainingthe milk from extraneous late
"of water
immediately,the rubber^is then exposed to air on sticks and After a month it is ready for the .allowed to drain for a week. market. The price has varied from Rs. 20 to Rs. 250 per maund within A full grown India-rubber tree fiftyyears the last 20 years. old yields,at the very lowest/ five seers of rubber each time, if and this tapped, quantitymay be expected about very carefully in successive 16 is a safe estimate for 16 times years, which At of the rate of ten trees t he rubber tree. a calculating yield maunds of rubber per acre in of while timber Rs. 10 at an acre 4,000, would Rs. 500 or 600. It is only Government tree only bring per landlords afford rich who wait to for 30 years before can or very but the propagationof India-rubber^ trees the return comes, per acre, the yieldcomes 16 years, valued at Rs.
should Court
be of
always kept in Wards
to
view
estates,
20
by Managers of Government
where
immediate
return
need
and not
351
SERICULTURE,
be or
of
The
for.
looktd
epiphytes propagationis
be
seedlingsmay other
on
as
also
either on mounds, grown (jootior "jnlknltim system
The
trees.
practised. largely
CHAPTER
LXXIX.
SERICULTURE. [Various fW
classes
feeding J^I Larva,
of
under
silkworms
silkworms
;
The
tusser
Attacid;c worms
;
Bombyeichx' ;"'The mulberry
and
Three
main
of
classes
tusser,
"
the
rearing; The reeling of tusser of mulberry from seed of varieties Propagation The mulberry ; cocoons ; of leaf; Tree- mulberry ; and cuttings; cost of planting mulberry ; Out turn of mulberry cocoons; The Silk Keeling Rearing of mulberry silkworms; Muscardine, Klacherie, (Jatine, of "silkworms ; Pe brine, fibre; Diseases Dennestt-s The fl\-pest ; The Double-cocoons; (Jrasserie, (Vmrt, vnlpinus ; The
Eri silkworm
Various some
on
Daba
Bujjui and
trees
and
classes
;
the
The
spinningof
of silkworms
in the open,
of
method
which
Eri
are
i
cocoons,
reared,
indoors
some
spin cocoons,
of which
out
obtained
of various
Silkworms main The
and
reelable
the
ones,
latter
and
into
spun The
cotton.
un-
have combed like
yarn,
mulberry
silkworms silkworms
reelabie
which
carded
and
Bom-
A ftadder.
make
and
cocoons
two
the the
former
to be
silk is classes.
fall under
groups"
hyudw
and
ing feed-
and the tusser
of
all
commerce
under the Bombyn"la\ come while the Eri silkworms long be-
the Attacidaj. The
to
Aliaats which
Atlas
is the
(Fig. 67), largestcocoon
of all,out of the most moths,
are
which
ccme
magnificent
unreehiblo
wild
cocoons.
mulberry feediny
The
silkworms, most are
which
are
of allto profitable
the rear,
ing divided into the follow-
mori
"(1) the Bombyx the (Fig. 68), or
annual
silkworms
groups:
FIG.
67.-ATTACU8
ATLAS
COCOON.
Europe,
China,
reared in
Japan,
352
Kashmir
OF
HANDBOOK
and
of
some
the
AGRICULTURE.
Asiatic
Western
countries ; (2)
Barapalu, the annual Bombyx textor, the of which are flossyand not Bengal,the cocoons
silkworm]of
the
Bombyx
mori
FIG.
and
cocoons,
63." BOMBYX
MORI
the eggs
COCOONS
(The vessel underneath the
of which
^IIUNG is for
do
VP
maggots
parasiticflyto drop in ace una nl ate.)
and
FOR
of
hard
not
like the
requiresuch
SEEDING.
SERICULTURE.
cold
the
of
353
Bombyx
mori
for
their hibernation ; and the Barapdtof Assam (3)the Bombyx Arracanensis of Burmah closely allied to the Bombyx textor ; (4) the Bombyx Meri-* are which dionalis of Mysore and Kollegal, yieldsseven or eightcrops in the year instead of one, the cocoons of cocoons beinggreenish-
intense
as
almost
white
and
Crcesi breed
(Madrasi eighttimes
as
good
Barapalu
as
cocoons
;
(5) the
Bombyx
Nistari),the golden yellow
or
in the year
soft silk ;
fine and
eggs
in
which cocoons, which produce very fortunatus(theDeshi or Chhoto-
Bengal
(6)the Bombyx
and
of Bengal containinga larger portion proof -stronger silk than the Bombyx Crcesi silk ;*and (7) the Sinensis or the China the which smallest are cocoons,
palu),a brighteryellow cocoon Bombyx
of all,reared in Sinensis also reared
Midnapur. There is a white variety in Midnapur, .which is called the of Bombyx found the mulberry trees in Bulu ; (8)the Theophilacocoons on 69 wild and are the Himalayas (Figs. 70). yellow cocoons
FIG.
70."
MOTH
THEOPHILA
OF
HUTTONI.
FIG. 69." WILD HUTTHEOPHILA SILKWORM. TONI
The
which a
tusser
the
cocoons
are
also
Anther ia Yamamai
silk,somewhat greenish-white
divided
of
into
and
of China
Japan
groups,
Japan (Fig.71), which rougher and
Bombyx mori or Bombyx Pernyi(Fig.72) or the China tusser, comes is just as good Assama or Mug a of Assam The Antheria mylittaor the Bengal tusser textor
several
silk,is the
is reared
coarser
best. next. as
the
of
yields
than
white Anther ia The Antheria China tusser.
The
proper,
comes
oak-trees.
last.
The Muga on the Sualu (Machilusodoratissima), t he monopetala), Mejankuri (Tetranthera (Tetranthera polyantha), The
tusser
of Assam
M,
is reared
HA
on
the Sum
?3
354
O*
HANDBOOK
the
AUKlCULTURE.
Champaka (Micheliachampaka)and other trees. The Bengal the Asan or Sdj tree (Terminalia tomenis reared chiefly on
tusser
be
also on sal,arjuna,sidka, freelypollarded, and other The moths trees. from tusser dhau, baer,country-almond out very irregularly, the cocoons when come cocoons are especially and within out three weeks their some of coming strong, large tree which
tosa),a
can
others
formation, while for
accounts
seed, hard from one
for two
out
come
choosing thin and from
of moths
eclosion
as
not
may
rearers
experiment conducted
An
is
tusser
by
such
is
cocoons
the
years.
This
cocoons
for
small
regular.
more
author, largeand if seed, the chrysalidsare extracted can cocoons and kept exposed or buried in saw-dust. the cocoons This which be can taken in amelioratingthe important step be used
FIG.
of
condition
the
that
for
COCOON.
YAMAMAI
71. -ANTHKRIA
which silk-industry, of genuine wild The use
tusser
of disease.
ascount
showed
is
going down
cocoons
on
for seed is
another step. classes of Bengal tusser, the Narya,the There are three main Doha and the Bugui. (I) The Narya (Pig.73) is obtained out of
72." ANTHERIA
FIG.
the
small
or
generallywild, though domesticated sold as wild cocoons. Prom the fraudulently
cocoons,
often
are
cocoons
wild
sized
Dhuria
domesticated an
Ampatia
August,and
from
COCOON.
PERNYI
or
this
or
summer
flimsycrop of
Ampatia
crop
cocoons
cocoons
of June
are
tained, ob-
(Fig.74) in July and the regularcrop
is obtained
of the year, the Barsati crop, in October (Fig.75). A Jaddui or taken ; but cold weather crop (Fig. 76) of Narya is also sometimes it takes nearly three months takinga Jaddui crop. (2) The Doha is now always taken from the domesticated stock and not from
356
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
is the The method of rearingof all the three classes of cocoons about 4 P.M. At The moths begincuttingout of cocoons same. those About 3 A.M. or fly away. 9 or 10 P.M. the male moths To facilitatethe visit to the female moths. other male moths come females out of doors his must keep of the male moths, the rearer bow-like sticks)and watch on are kept perched
they (usually them againstthe
75." BARSATI (Small-sized,Hard
FIG.
up
attack
LARVTA
etc. of bats, birds,lizards,
COCOON
Cocoon).
FIG.
76." JADDUI
The
LARYA
moths
COCOON
(Light-coloured,Long Small-sized
Peduncled, Cocoon).
remain paired till about 4 P.M., when they either separate themselves or are separated by the rearer, the females beingkept and the males given to domestic pinneddown in leaf receptacles, fowls. The eggs are collected after three days,and keptin smaller leaf
the eggs of two or three moths (about 500 eggs) receptacles, each receptacle.On the ninth day the eggs hatch,
beingkept in and
as soon as they hatch, they are gut out on trees in which they secured by pinningthem on to leaves. The trunks of trees should be brushed clean of ants and other insects and afterwards are
SERICULTURE.
Fro.
TS.-AMPATIA
DABA
77." MUD-A-MUOA
COCOON.
357
COCOON.
FIG.
TQ.-BARSATI
DABA
COCOON.
358
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
each given a circle of Bhela oil to protect the worms are To each tree about half a dozen to from the attack of ants, etc. of seed-receptacles a dozen are pinnedon at different places,that the whole of the tree may and not get covered with the worms have to be kept low for any particularpart of it only. The trees
they
of watching the facility
insects
againstants,
birds,squirrels,
wasps,
bug called
a
chdn-
a yd, mantis, pedes, scorpions, centia large
led carabid beetle cal-
chhabundia, and
other
vermin.
In
this
matter
great
is
care
The
necessary.
principal epidemic from tusser
which the silkworm
suffers, serie FIG.
SO." Buoui
COCOON.
readily,both
is
gras-
(Fig. 82),
which
is
a
which
is
produced
disease
and
tusser
among
mulberrysilkworms by feedingthem with
than leaf,thinner, i.e., sappier,
leaf
that
the
have
worms
eatinghitherto. the ground, a heavy As
makes
sap rises from shower of rain
the greatest difference of in the leaf in
short
trees.
kept
on
five
feet
No
from
annual
done,
FIG.
81."
BAK-RA
mustard
COCOON.
oil and
the
the
sistency con-
of
case
should
worm
branches
branches should be the very first. For the
been
within
be
four
ground, or
or
such
lopped off from tusser
pollardingshould
rearing be
so
that all the
be branches may above five feet and below ten feet from the ground, that grasserie be avoided, while the worms may be kept under close supervision. may A stick with bird-lime mixed (peepultree gum up with
kept covered
with
bamboo
tube when not in use) ought to be alwaysin the hand of the rearer, that he may and birds. A bow of and pellets scare effectively away wasps mud are also of great help. In tusser rearinglocalities, one scarcely the watch the a sees bird, rearers kept by being so strict. When warm
a
359
SERICULTURE.
the leaf of
tree is eaten
away, the branches are loppedoff with and transferred to another tree,or several trees, this continued until the cocoons the formed. When are all formed, they are broughtdown with the adhering cocoons are branches of trees, carefully separatedfrom the branches and sold
the and
one
in them
worms
off in hats. killed. For
pot),and
When
they cannot be sold so readily, they must be the cocoons, they are put inside a kulsi (earthen killing
inside the mouth
of the pot a few sticks are inserted,so the pot is upset with its mouth of the downwards, none The fall is cocoons then in out. this condition reverse may pot put another in which is boiling over fire. In about water over a half an hour all the cocoons killed with the steam from are rising the one pot and going into the other. They are then dried in the and sun kept for reeling. The effect of domestication of tusser
that when
(i)the cocoons get smaller,(2) they
cocoons
are
tend
to
:
"
get lighterand lighterin colour,(3)the silk gets finer, (4)the peduticle gets longer and longer, (5)the worms get and
more
subject
more
disease. Domesticated
preferredby weavers, they produce the whitest
is done the
Bengal, soda
or
the chief solvent A
use.
off the
to
"
"0
0 "
0
c
"
O
"
as
and
cocoons
factories
O 0
o
Q in
O
in o
0
0
potash being in ingredient
singleperson silk
" gT
O
"3 tusser
by patent processes
European
G
cocoons
are
finest cloths. The reeling of
"
from
250
can
Pl0t
reel
OF
82.-MicRoscopic APPEARANCE GRASSERIE CRYSTALS (x 600).
tusser
native process factories. The of Asan, which ashes to cocoons Kenja,or other tree or plant (such as linseed plant ashes), about half a seer are added, or saji. For five hundred cocoons of ashes are used, or half a chhitak of saji. A refined method
cocoons
a
consists in
day
in
boilingthe
European
in water
be the using of lye instead of the crude ashes. The lye be obtained out of the ashes by repeatedly passingthe water may throughthe ashes kept over a pieceof calico,until the water looks The cocoons be boiled in this lye for oily in appearance. may ing, not softened equallyby the boilabout an hour. All cocoons are would
off easilywhile they are being those that do not work reeled,are kept separate and boiled the next day with a fresh lot of cocoons. requirestronger alkali and Large and hard cocoons and
longerboiling.When kept in a pot between
been some
boiled, they are ashes,and reeling
boiled in the morning, One day'scocoons are from a reel to t o able fifty one hundred cocoons person being
commenced one
have the cocoons folds of a cloth over
at
once.
360
HANDBOOK
day. the
The
OP
reelingis done with
a
AGRICULTURE.
latai on
the
righthand,
with
and
twisted on the three to five cocoons are with the round wound righthand. being twisted reeled and cocoons are by the be this method cannot operationper day, primitive regarded
left hand
fibres from
thigh,while the latai is As fiftyto one hundred same
a
as
method the
ineffective very of preparing material
raw
the
Usually spinning of tusser
the
is done
cocoons
weavers' it
is
the
(
for
loom.
families,and done
never
of
bv
kuhnv
\
rearers.
1,280)
=
in the
cocoons
produces from
three
quarters of a seer of silk two seers
to cording ac-
qualityof
to
used.
cocoons
The
mulberry wild
tree
all
along Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam,
grows
the
and
the
worm mulberry silk-
known is phila,
found
abundantly these trees.
on
The
Theo-
as
variety
of
found
Himalayas
in is
From large. Moms gigantic
berry mul-
the very the
serrata
the Morus dwarf indicti, the gradation
to
is slow. soft
Some
have
succulent
others leaf ;
leaf,
rough, spiney have
some
a
large and abundant others supplyof fruits, their blossoms drop Fiu.
83." MULBERRY STRIPPED
FOR
and TREE
PRUNED
AND
TRANSPLANTING.
hardly
are
known
with leaves
gummy
close to one another and littleor bearing sap,
set
The Moms for silk worms. best varieties to choose.
on
ever
ties to fruit.Varie-
stems, smooth
and
large-sized thick with
the best to choose are fruits, Is one of the alba,varietyIcevigata,
The
no
mulberries
in
common
use
in
361
SERICULTURE.
alba, varieties indica and Bengal and Mysore are the Morns sinensis. The former known as Pheti or Sultani tunt is the better of the leaf being thicker. It ha" varietyof the two, the gum tion and it more planate leaves, requiresmore manuring and cultivato keep it in condition. sinensis (the Kajli or The Moms Chini tunt)has thinner and sappier but it is hardier. It is leaves,
quite suitable
for
worms
wards, their fourth moult, but afterand moult of well the out are quite given the stronger Morns indica leaf. of into very largetrees, and one grow that could be introduced into the Indian up
to
i.e.,when the worms strong, they should be These two varieties do not the chief
improvements
industryis the introduction of Morns
other similar onlyfor rearingthe poor
or some Icevigata
superiorvarietyof mulberry,suitable not but also the superiorBombyx mori Bengal cocoons, The tree system of propagation of the mulberry is natural and once healthy. Trees when up grown
cocoons.
also
more
little keepingup, while the shrub-mulberryplanted eighteeninches totwo feet apart costs about Rs. 75 an acre to maintain. Propagationof mulberry may be either from seed, or from seed produce leaf from cuttings,or from grafts. Trees grown which like Morus indica is not quitesuitable for rearingworms the last stage. Morus the Morus at Icvvigata, Philippinensis, cost
superiorvarieties of mulberry can is done usually and propagation readilygrown cuttings, from cuttingsonly. The Japanesemulberry, however, does not from cuttings,and it is grafted.Though the Japanese grow to all the requirements of a first-classmulberry mulberry answers
European Morus
be
alba and
other
from
r
it is
better than
no
of the best Indian
some
mulberries,and there
the Japanesevarieties in India, For from seed one growing any mulberry precautionis necessary. in a Before sowing the seed it should be put in camphor water bottle is for an Germination hour, and then sown. stoppered otherwise very partial. Mulberry seed is smaller than grainsof is
no
occasion
mustard,
to
introduce
and seed for
post from
a
largetract
of land
can
be
easilysent through
the seedlings are country grown the first cost from cuttings, and thus up, propagationmay go on of setting saved When cuttingsare up a plantation very much. available, propagationshould be from cuttings.When trees are be there should be a nursery on high irrigto able sought propagated, and cultivated and protected land, well dug up, manured with ditches and fences. The cuttingsor seedlings should be
plantedin
When
to nine inches apart, and transplanted on feet* distance of feet at a eight high, twenty all the full formed-leaves should be nipped transplanting,
fields,when While
to another.
one
the nursery or
ten
off and all branches within 5 feet of the Leaf from seedlingtrees should not be last stage.
83). (Fig. groundrejected in their given to worms
of the shrub-kind The cost of starting a mulberry plantation is abotit the same for trees. In as starting a mulberry nursery
362
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OP
ihe
former case, the cuttings are plantedabout eighteeninches instead of nine inches apart and four or five cuttings apart planted At each spot instead of one. The cost of establishing a mulberry nursery,
in area, for the firsttwo
acre
one
years, is givenbelow Rs.
(1) Wages of 90
men
employed
in digging the
September, at
4
as.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
..
to
or
"
December
.
..
213 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
180
180 300 15
0
0
0
0
12
0
0
141
3
0
240 .
.
.
15 300
..
.
180
.
180 780
..
.
0
870
.
..
..
.
..
Expenditurein connection with be incurred annually, about i.e., Outturn.
.
..
..
0 0
780 2130
...
..
..
14 0
900
.
.
.
.
16 30
.
.
.
(5) Wages of 15 men making cuttingsat 3 as. making hollows in regular lines (6) Wages of 15 men planting cuttings (7) Wages of 45 men (8) Hand-hoeing in October by piece-work (9) Cutting away the first shoots in December (10) Ploughing afterwards in April (11) Cost of putting tank-earth as manure (12) Ploughing in May (13) Irrigation(ifnecessary) in May ". (14) Weeding in July (15) Cutting away of stumps in August or September (16) Ploughing in September lund (17) Digging with spades after the November (18) Two years'rent .
p.
"
field with
spades in the cold weather, at 3 as. (2) Ditcningand fencing (by piece-work) (3) Cost of 12 ploughings,the plough-man with bullocks and ploughs being hired,at 4 as. a day (4) Cost of getting 30 loads (about 30 mds.) of mulberry stalks in
A.
:
(10) to (18) has
items Nos. Rs. 75.
The first crop of leaf which when plantingis done in
ready in November September,or in April is
is done in February,is cut away, as the leaf is very when planting thin and sappy and not very suitable for silk-rearing. The crops bund by bund that are obtained afterwards are : "
A alue.
24 maunds 36
48 60 45 45
Total
258 maunds
of leaf (with stalks)in
January
Rs.
24
March June
30
August
30 90 45
24
November December Total value Rs.
.
.
249
An "cre of
lished, mulberryfrom the third year, when it is well estab300 is maunds which of with leaf yields usually stalks, sold as a standingcrop, cocoon-rearers buying it up and cutting it away from day to day. The purchaseat the above pricesis usuallyon credit,and often the buyers,when they lose their crop of Silkworms from diseases, berry. unable to pay the priceof mulare The mulberry grower aijd the silk rearer therefore are
both'interested in the eradication of diseases. From 300 maunds of leaf 600 seers (l,2001b.) obtainable as the of fresh cocoons are maximum result per acre. The value of this quantityof cocoons
364
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
vigorous growth of leaves,can be readilybent, and the leaver picked with the help of a crook without climbing. The rearingof mulberry silkworms (Fig. 84), and of Endi bamboo Eri silkworms indoors on or dalas, proceeds on much the
Fio.
Leaves
method.
same
85."
FECUNDATION
AND
(castor leaves
OVIPOSITION
OF
in the
ENDI
case
OR
ERI
of the Eri
MOTHS.
the newly-hatched worms, cut up very fine; the worms with the leaves separatedfrom the eggs after three or four hours,,and put separatelyat the lowest shelf of a machan (called The eggs hatchingthe next day are put gharain the silk districts).
silkworm) are
higherup
put
in the
on
machan, and the third day'sworms
stillhigher
365
SERICULTURE.
notice is taken of the eggs, except more no up, after which usually in the case of the Barapalu eggs, in which the hatchingis much fed five more tardy. The worms up to the last moult are usually times a day at regularintervals. At the last stage the worms moult or change fed three or four times a day. The worms are their skin four times during this interval,i.e.,from hatchingto the worm Inside the cocoons moults twice, spinningof cocoons. and the second time in changing in changinginto chrysalis and as moths Inside the cocoons into a moth. they eat nothing. and after and moths As a few days die theypair layeggs (Fig.85), after laying off. Strong and healthy moths may live for a fortnight once
FIG.
86. "THREAD-NET
FOE
CLEANING
AND
THINNING
SILKWORMS.
eggs ; but a moth dyingwithin a day or two after layingeggs may be healthyand their eggs fit for rearing.As leaves are heaped up to dalas by repeatedfeeding,cleaningbecomes necessary. Native rearers neglectcleaningat least in the earlystages. But neglectin this matter and in the matter of keeping the worms thin in numbers, and the room well ventilated (thoughthe worms themselves be from a current of air), must always kept away result in worms at the last stage. dyingin largenumbers specially and clean and the room thin in numbers well Keeping the worms
ventilated
(thoughin
even
temperature)and
free from
dust, is
from the first. Cleaningand thinningof the worms are facilitatedby thread nets (Fig.86) of meshes of about half an fresh inch. A net is spreadover the worms on dirtyleaves, resting leaves (cut up fine at the two earlystagesand whole leaves with stalks beingput from the third stage)scattered over the net, and after half a minute the net may be removed to another dala. This has the effectof separating the worms evenly into two lots. Nets for be used w hether the need thinning to are worms or cleaning necessary
366
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
have to be divided up into three dalas after the firstmoult, into nine dalas after the second not.
A dala of
worms newly-hatched
FIG. 87." CHANDRAKI
OR
SPINNING
SCREEN.
moult, into 27 dalas after the third moult, into 81 dalas after the fourth moult, and at the last stage the worms occupy twice as
367
SERICULTURE.
much
162 dalas)before they make (i.e.,
space
from
net
dala with the
a
and
worms
mid-day feed, removed
Dailythe
cocoons.
litter are
to be lifted at
the
fresh dala, and
to a on the older dala removed outside and thoroughlycleaned. If, however, worms are be assumed found underneath the net, they must to be moulting. They should not then be disturbed,but kept on a lower shelf on a separate machan where no feedingshould be done for about 24 The worms hours. the net removed to a fresh dala are to be on and without food for then left about 24 hours. Great given a feed is necessary at moultingperiods.The care to remember point
is,it does them
for
is known
the worms of moult. dull and
givingfood
harm
more
hours
few
a
until the
to
moultingworms
worms
well out
are
than of
fasting
moult, which
and hungry look. If on blowingover by their agility knows they are properlyout move they very fast,one If,on the contrary, the movement they exhibit is of a listlesskind, they are not quiteout of their sickness,and be stillleft without
they should when
the
harm
; but
food.
An extra feed at the time does not do them moult much going Experienceis needed feedingtoo early does harm.
worms
off to
are
in this matter.
Worms much
as
in the
possible.That
machans, and the late
room,
is
early ones If
moultingtimes.
should
room
same
worms
be
why tardy
all of the
worms
are
lower down, both of different ages
suffer
at are
same
age,
as
kept high upon hatchingand at kept in the same
Worms from disease. when they translucent and they constantly At this time in the case of Indian and transferred to a spinning quicklypicked
worms
more
are ready spinning become spitout silk from their mouth.
for
silkworms
they
are
(or-Chandraki,
screen
for bearings
vide
Fig. 87) where In the
making cocoons.
case
they get
of the
convenient
Bombyx mori, dry
and make their the worms ripe worms hot from these In in arches. the weather, cocoons hatchingta spinning,only about 20 days are spent in the plainsof Bengal,and in the coldest weather about 40 days. But cocoon-rearing is best uniform. done when That the temperature is about 75" and fairly is March is why the November the best crop and the bund or crop
twigs
bund two
are
arched
the next best. If largemulberry leaves are But when the shrub crops would be taken.
rearingmust too
over
be
done
on
other
seasons
are great heat,or cold,or damp, rearings
Two
ones
at
used, only these mulberryis used, of also,when, on account
of
less unsuccessful. eightindifferent
or
more
better than
good crops (eventhe two good crops beingsubjectto infection).Indeed, of the parasitic account flypest (Fig.84) it is not feasible to cocoons
are
take a take all the eightcrops in the year, and this is why rearers for distant and the then seed next and omit to some place, go crop is three or four. and the actual number of crops taken in a village When the cocoons are formed, they are gatheredfrom chandrakia cribed the third day and sold off at once, or killed in a kalsi as deson in connection
with tusser cocoons,
or
in
a
basket
put over
a
368
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
of water, the basket beingcovered there is hot sun the rays of the sun are
boiling pan When
in two
cocoons
or
three
with a blanket. sufficientto killthe
over
days.
Reeling. Except in the
rainyseason,
however killed, be steamed must immediatelybefore reeling.Steamed cocoons should be reeled off in three or four days. Steamed cocoons should not be spreadout in the sun to get dry, but should be kept spread out indoors in machans and reeled off as fast as possible. "
cocoons,
the steaming can be done itia cocoons of fire in the of blank basket over a pan as a case killing, space being left in the middle of the basket, so that cocoons about six inches For
thick way
of quantities
small
rest
may
all sides and
on
through the
from the bottom
When "cocoons
the steam
minutes
for ten
top, and
the steam
and out
cocoons
is
be considered to be
may
the
coming
out
of cocoons large quantities for steaming. In the rainyseason
its
of the blanket.
of the
properlysteamed.
blanket,the
When
specialerections
with
work
dealing
anfu
necessary the air is naturally steamy and beneficial effect the the it exercises ficially artisame on cocoons as an of But the steam. in atmosphere cocoons produced spun unravel in weather do and basins not properly they are a rainy source
water
in two cocoons
silk is reof great loss to European factories where even quired made. be Steamed reeled off in to cocoons are a .basin of (Fig.88) which is kept boiled with fire or steam, and passed lots to
a
reel,which
get worked
as
it is wound
off. As each
round
and
gets worked
cocoon
round, the
off,its place
suppliedby another, the end of which is kept ready for the by the reeler,and an expert reeler can reel off as many purpose he has to make the best four Jcahans of cocoons as per day when kind of silk,and ten kahans a day when he has to make native khangru silk. Silk Fibre. There is no fibre so long,so strong, so fine,so
is
"
When talk about the we fibre of that it is 1| or If cotton we mean staple beinglong, only talk of jute fibre beinglong,we inches in length; when we only but it is 13 that 12 the ft. has tusser or cocoon an interrupted unmean long,
soft,and
smooth,
so
as
the
silk fibre.
.
800 yards long,and fibre,
some
varieties of
mulberry
fibre of 900 yards,and yet the fibre uninterrupted is so fine that in the case of the tusser this single fibre from a cocoon and in the case of the mulberry silk it is 250 is 700 milligrammes milligrammesin weight. So fine is the thread, that although cocoons
one
of its strength there is no difficulty, account to draw out the on in practicenever fewer than three thread out of single cocoons, and in the of the fewer than four or five tusser case cocoons never for in the case of the mulberrycocoons, used simultaneously are thread silk-muslins finest from. for out the It is the or drawing
that thread silk-gauze five or mulberrycocoons cocoons
reel without
a
is made
by drawing out the fibre of four berry together. So4 strong is the fibre of multhat it is quiteeasy to draw out the fibre on to a singlebreak, though this fibre is so fine that for
369
SERICULTURE.
FIG.
88." A
REELING
NEW
MACHINE
WITH
PEDAL
B"
feet diameter). Reel (*2$ Pulleyat right-handend of the reel (weighted).
C
Pin
A
"
"
screw
or
on
B.
wire.
T)
String
or
E"
Plank
(pedal).
"
ARRANGEMENT.
end of E for tyingstringor wire. Hole at the other end of E for tyingthe pedalto a pin fixed into the ground with wire rope. H- Pin fixed to the ground for keepingthe pedal in position. the temperatureof water in the basin for boiling J for testing Thermometer F
Hole
"
0
at one
"
"
"
and
reelingthe
*
cocoons.
" L-"Two
K M N
croisures.
Stringgivingmotion to the eccentric. Pulley on which the eccentric rests.
"
"
Steam-cock.
()
"
used for making fabrics in these practical purposes it is never of the Koan vests days, though perhapsin olden times the And silkfibre. out of such single Roman yet empirewere woven fibreof silk is made of two ultimate fibresagglutinated each single "
with together M
HA
a
natural gum
which
givesthe
"
fibreitsbrilliancy.
24
HANDBOOK
370
OF
AGRICULTURE,
out of the spinarette ultimate fibres or haves come at of the silkworm, and ultimatelyderived from two These glands situated on two sides of the interior of the worm. taken* of out the of sometimes the body silkworm, two glandsare
These two the mouth
put in vinegarand afterwards drawn out in the form of silkworm hooks to the line. For its weight gut which is used for tyingfishing such is no there and pliancy strong substance as the silkworm gut. But though the fibre is the strongest,finest and softest fibre silk fibre differsfrom another so much that one is valued of all one a at Rs. 10 a seer, while another at Rs. 30 a seer, and country
which* habituallydeals
with
Rs.
fibre can illcompete 10-per-seer which Rs. a habitually fibre. produces with a country 30-per-seer of India called Kliangru or Ghangru silkThe native-made silk Rs. and 10 Rs. 12 per seer at sell be only sometimes per seer, may of taken as the average price Khangru silk. The European filature It sometimes sells for only Rs. 16 or reeled silk is much better. Rs.
17
per
seer,
but
a
its average
priceis
about
Rs.
20.
Italian,
French, and Japanese silks are stillbetter and they sell for about Rs. 30 a seer. Why is there this difference in pricei Let us first see the of difference between European filature reeled silk and cause much be reeled by a one seer a as As silk. day may Khangru
coupleof
on
men
is nine chhitaks.
the As
Khangru system, thoughthe average quantity much as 4| chhitaks per day is sometimes
in European filatures, but the pairof operatives chhitaks. This at difference taken be 3| comes of may average and the Indians chiefly to quantity. the Europeans lookingto quality which combine to make the Europeanfilature There are three causes superiorto the country Khangru silk:" reeled silk so much the number of cocoons factories reeled regulate /I) The European
turned
out
by
a
smaller number, five or six cocoons (2) The European'factories insist on instead of twenty cocoons. knot being put whenever there is a break. (3)The European a factories cross two adjacentlots of fibre twice on themselves to while the country reelers not giving of fibres, effect an agglutination knots reel away very fast and get and puttingno can any croisure largerabsolute and relative produce. Is it worth while for our country reelers to follow the European system, and produce a smaller quantityof superiorfibre ? Not for silk at Rs. 12 a seer in India is the demand at present,when There is practically and very keen. demand for no more
exactlyand usuallyuse
very
large'
a
Ask the large silk-mill20 silk in the Indian market. silk what want. of they Bombay They will tell you silk owners of the value of Rs. 5 or Rs. 6 per pound ; and as for handloom the cheaper silk. A few skeins of what as a rule, use, they prefer, the Us.
"
silk/'that is,European I^atin is called by our country weavers used are reeled silk, always by exceptionally filature good weavers demand, but it is the Ktumgru silk that they special some to meet from Benares, Lahore. accustomed to handle. The demand are
372
OP
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
therefore contain about four times fewer joinings than the Crcesi or Bombyx fortunatus silkmade out of Bombyx of cocoons fibre o f on The a Mysore length is cocoon about average Bengal. and the Bombyx meridionaliscocoons of Madras there300 yards, fore must
littlebetter silk than the silk producedby the out of Bengal machine in Bengalfilatures cocoons. into India is thereHow to introducethe Bombyx mori cocoons fore
producea
same
I have worked the Bombyx mori for a number of years in Bengal, and theyhave successfully cocoons The Kashmir also. in with regardto the been worked difficulty
problembefore
the
FIG.
us.
90."MICROSCOPIC
with spores (a) Hyphae
OF
MUSOARDINK.
old branch which is producing spores by with spores, the youngest of which are terminal ; (c)two sporogenous branches from which allthe spores have fallen except the youngest and uppermost (enlarged500 diameters) ; (d) young 700 diameters). eporiferous hypha (enlarged and abjnnction
of rearing
is
;
(6)End of
APPEARANCE
an
covered thickly
this class of
is in the matter of conservation of cocoons of intense dry cold,and The a period eggs. eggs require from hot winds at other times. In every theymust be protected of India the be reared (andin many can Bombyxmori worms part at some time or other successfully partstheyhave been reared), from February But the conservation of the eggs from to June.
seed
or
likeKashmir, few places where but the cold is in winter Dtlkcwsie, severe etc., dry. There with regard to the Bombyxmori. The epidemic 10 aoofcber difficulty be must by annual examination of keptsuppressed to April
next
Januaryis possible onlyin a
373
SERICULTURE.
the seed with between
lished is estab-
microscope.If railwaycommunication
a
Kashmir
and
the
rest
"
of India, and
"
Kashmir Pasteur, she if
establishes the system of grainage as devised by can supplythe rest of India with seed. This will giveone good Rs. 30-per-seer silk. But a crop in the year ; which will make a
separate organisationof having a
grainageand
hibernating
be also tried, station at Dalhousie may Diseases silkworms. The greatest obstacle to sericulture of In Bengal is the prevalenceof certain diseases among silkworms. the flyand Pebrine (Fig.89), Muscardine (Fig.90), Grasserie, of damage ; pest (Tricolygabombycis),do the greatest amount and the while other diseases, such as Flacker ie, Court, Gatine "
.-./
FIG.
Denmstes
91," MICROBES
OF
FLACHERIR.
valpinusalso
do some of harm. In Mysore amount the does most (Fig.91) harm, while other diseases are scarcelyknown. Pebrine (Bengalikata)is caused by a microscopic organism Flacherie
looks like grainsof mung magnified600 diameters, seed. a slow-acting disease, takingthirtydays for complete the development, so that, when the seed is badly pebrinized, die off at the last stage. If rearingis completed worms suddenly in less than thirty days, pebrinized worms spin poor cocoons. the seed is not very badly pebrinized, When i.e., some worms, those producedfrom pebrinized die thirtieth off the day, on eggs,
which,
when
It is
,
while
others which catch the infection from the pebrinized worms die later oa, or make cocoons and come out as moths, which show and then die. Some worms from eggs foee pebrinecorpuscles, from pebrinehappen to escape infection. These spin cocoons,
37't
HANmiOOK
out
some
moths, and
as
AGRICULTURE.
OK
show
pebrine corpuscle*.The
no
eggs
moth to Kach is made from. these moths are safe to rear and after at lay eggs under a separate cover, on sheets of paper, under a microscope. The eggs of least five dayse^ehis examined
from
blood of which show
those moths, the
retained,the
rest
being
an1 pebrinocorpuscles,
no
The
burnt.
selected out
eggs
then
are
sulphateof copper
from diseases, by a dip in a purified superficially cool but airy placeto get dry in bath (|% solution), a hung up which with its rearingapand then taken inside a rearingroom, pliances has been alreadydisinfected (Fig. 92) witJi sulphateof and sulphur fumes. The rearing from eggs thus copper wash fail from pebrine. thus disinfected cannot selected and in room Where a rearingtakes place once year, disinfection of appliances for protecting the worms is not necessary againstpebrine.provided loses its vitality the seed itself is selected. The germ of pe.brine in
months
seven
and
local infection thus dies out
Natural
is taken.
annusyt rtsjp
freedom
by
is naturallyfree* iiysore
of
microscopic-
-iM'Jnrmc. and
from
selection is not
this
is
giving good
results
A
lot
selected
to """V
!% ."
I.' KB KOU
selection
from
OK
per
in the seed, a sort
of
a
pebrinenot gettingtime ft onlyweakens the worms,
to
and
'20%,
and
on,
until
so
or
30%
crop to
to
be
is obtained
with SO in the
developso fullyas
i
pchrmizetl. copic micros-
therefore, secure
or
"
i
,
,
seed
of pebrinc left without even
moth
""vorv '"
,
pebrine in the
of
less,though
or
c
generation to
every
cent,
affectthe result,but 20, 30 more
50%,
again is found In this case, at
free
out
l .
-TITION.
is needed
5
generations
few
a
Krr.Aiu
DISIM
variety Bengal.
in
from pebrinized
more
from
'20 to
,,
pebrine. Five
thu result spoils
and
more
from "
seed
ing rear-
pebrinealways tends againto
from
get
of
in
necessary
this variety,and
92. Fi". IV" VAPOIITSKK
more
secured freedom microscopic selection. Thus, worm Kombji'.fHtjeridinualw silk-
the
,,
is
jwhriw
from than
desirable
in
the. next
before
exemption does
not
selection,
90% of pebrine
hot weather, the to kill the worms.
that they either make so poor cocoons, thus lot of succumb A worms other to diseases. or pebrinized and Grmtacrir falls an easier victim to Flacherie* Muscardinc. which is free*from /W"'/w. 11 is essential Court*than a lot of worms number of nurseries in each silk-districtin Bengal,where the system of microscopic selection will he rigorouslyfollowed obtained from selected eggs sold for seed-purposes, and the cocoons stock where free from* yWw/'w is reared. The few a or naturally to have
a
nurseries that, have are
been
doing very good
established
work.
by
cocoon-rearers
in
Bengal
375
SERICULTURE.
Mascardine is another epidemic of the silkworm which is due to a higherfungus,quitevisible to the naked eye in its fully developedform when it partakesof the nature of a white mould, which have this mould The worms on the bodies of dead worms. Chunakati. Thja get like sticks of lime, hence the Bengaliname disinfection is of eggs and epidemic also readilycontrolled,by "
in a clean manner. all the appliancesused, and rearingthe worms If through neglectof disinfection of the rearinghouse and the
the eggs at the commencement, mu^cardine doe$ with nets, break out, it can be stopped,by cleaningthe worms for a few hours and by burningsuipliur keepingthe worms fasting The cleaning afterwards in the room, thoroughlyshutting it up. will have to be done dailyafter this and a littlesulphurburnt after of appliances,
with smeared sulphate of copper solution. muscardine thus saved from was in,connection Many a rearing with the experiments with which the author was, entrusted for
the
ten
has
room
been
years.
berry Flcwherie is an epidemiccaused by the fermentation of mulSuch fermentation leaf inside the stomach of silkworms. mdy be caused by various microbes, but the microbe which is mainly instrumental in settingup the gastricfermentation is the disease is known Bacillus magaterium bombycis.The in Bengal black. Kalsira because the dorsal vessel of the worm trefaction Puas gets
however, black and in
putrid Mysore, because nine
to
seven
sets
times
in very
rapidlyand
after death.
soon
there the custom a
day instead
the whole This disease is
or
be either in the spoilt, dusty or may in the intestine of the silkworm. Weak
organism leaf,
or
to take greater proclivity
the
common
of feedingthe prevails of three
so epidemic,
that
a
gets
worm so
worms
The four times. heated mulberry, worms
haye
feed of the
a
same
to mulberry may give Flacherie to one rearingand none also another. The state of the rearingroom has a considerable effect on the disease. A stuffy, would give Flacherie close room while a well-ventilated room to silkworms, gives comparative d ust raised at immunity. Dust, specially delitage, aggravates the epidemic. The remedies are : (1) disinfection of eggs, rearing house and appliances with sulphate of copper solution. (2)Feeding of the worms than five times duringthe earlystages and not more than four times a day duringthe last stage. (3)Using of not more
lot of
fresh unfermented ture, leaf,without dust, without dew or other moisand of leaf that has not been submerged under water OF otherwise got under the control of microbes in the field while
well-ventilated. (5) growing. (4) Keeping the rearing room no dailyand yet raising dust, by takingthe Cleaningthe worms and for the floor instead of sweepingit. leeping dusting, trays out Gatine (BengaliSalpJia) is a form which i? of indigestion caused by excess of heat or excess of cold, which takes away the. and though they are given leaf they do uot of the worms, appetite The worms look elongatedand eat, or eat only occasionally.
376
HANDBOOK
white. and
not
In
OF
pebrinealso the worms elongated.The ultimate
AGRTCULTUBE.
look white, but they look short which gatinetakes is the They become black and putrid. form
of Flacherie. is not so Gatine,however, fatal,and it does not spreadso rapidly from the cold place, removed if the worms as Flacherie ; and are same
as
in the
case
heat can be lessened,the worms punkha or other means and the epidemicis arrested. It is best to avoid recommence eating rearingin Aprilor May, and in December and January, when the be easilycontrolled. temperature cannot ^Grasserie(BengaliRasd) is a disease which is not associated with any microbe. It is caused by a sudden changein the character or
if by
a
from a less sappy to a more sappy condition. Worms ought to be givenstronger and stronger leaf as they get older and older ; but if owing to a heavy shower of rain following protracted drought,or change of field,the consistencyof leaf changesinto a The remedy breaks out. more sappy condition,Grasserie at once is to use leaf gatheredfrom trees and eschew the use of shrub leaf of food
much as possible.The recommendation to grow largemulberry is very importantfor this among In Europe other reasons. and in Kashmir where leaf from trees is used, Grasserie is never in the epidemic form, while in Bengal more loss takes known place from Grasserie than from Flacherie. In fact, Grasserie is looked upon sign,as an by the French peasant as an auspicious indication of a full harvest. Court,called in BengaliLdli, Rangi or Kurkutte, is more an affected with Court, turns abnormalitythan a disease. A worm into the chrysalis without making a cocoon or making a very flimsy The chrysalis turns into a moth which may one. lay eggs, and as
trees
examined But
the
under
the
microscopeit may not show from such seed givesCourt in reproduction
any a
more
disease. gerated exag-
form in the next generation, and it'is, mality therefore,an abnorbe avoided. that must If worms fed on naicha leaf, are that is,on leaf from a new from or or shady places, plantation, mality given an insufficient supply of leaf at the last stage, this abnoris noticed, and it seems to be hereditary. Double-cocoon (Beng.Genthe-koa) two worms or one
common
forming jointly
in abnormalitywhich is not very common in Japan and China, and fairly common in Europe. The tendency is hereditary, and as double be reeled,they are cannot used for often fraudulently
cocoon,
Bengal,but cocoons
is
an
it is very
seed obtaining
for sale. The use of such seed has resulted in breeds that show the abnormal tendencyto an exaggerated degree. In Bengal,cocoons beingalwaysbought for seed, there is no fear of this abnormalityassumingalarmingproportions. The
does very great harm fly-pest
to the silk crop in Bengal: which is tachinid fly,laysits eggs only a bombycis Tricolyga silkworms. The eggs hatch into maggots which penetrate into on the body of the silkworms, and in time kill the silkworms either before or after they have made cocoons. If a silkworm dies after
The
377
8ERICULTUBE.
making
its cocoon,
of
out
the
instead
cocoon.
every
cocoons,
the are
jtime go to
however, a
and village,
(1)For
:
moth,
of flies come rearingroom, and it
a
number
rear
some
few
some
all the
a
infest the silkworms at the next generation. giveup rearing every other generation, distant placefor seed. With the seed-
becomes impossibleto That is why Bengalrearers and
of
These
of the
damage
is always done.
to seed villagers
into
alwayscome parasite
maggots
their cocoons
The
remedies
in the distant
only eggs. they go bringhome succession allow in to take two crops (2)Never to any villager but to make all to stick to the three or four regular crops. (3) If
where village
to
buy them,
and
be are to adopt and if the flymast precautions impossible dealt with, the rearingroom be built in a special must manner, these
the
windows
away
from
the entrance
FIG.
being fitted up with
wire
93." FLY-TRAP.
gauze, and outside the windows vessels of water with a few drops of kerosine oilto each being of five or six feet from keptat a height while before the entrance,which should be kept shut the ground,
in
a cow-dungfireshould be always daytimeas much as possible kept,which should evolve smoke. This has the result of the parasitic dows winthe outside the entrance, congregating fly avoiding and rushing and againinto the troughs of water every now and drowningthemselves, be them entrances to the to believing In Fig.93 a parasitic rearingroom. flyis shown ready to drown itselfin a troughof water outside a ventilator or fly-trap. The Dermestes vulpinus is a beetle which eats up silkworms, and both in the larval and imagostages. These chrysalids moths,
also
come
with the seed-cocoons. Thev
also harbour
in
cocoon
378
HANDBOOK
It
godowns. rearing rooms
seedingis done outside rearingrooms, and if the aud appliances clean, there are kept scrupulously loss in an epidemicform from this pest. Once only
fear of has the author is
no
AKIUCU/ITRK.
OK
villagesnear
ruiningthe roaringsin
Dermc-xtM
the
seen
a
few
Berhamporo.
The Kri silkworm is reared in the
same
way
as
other
Polyvoltiue
be reeled, however, cannot of Bengal. The cocoons, and the method should therefore he of dealingwith the cocoons from the should be allowed bo escape described. The moths in the and the insects should not be allowed to remain melons, The in tusser uocoons or cocoons. as rearing reelingmulberry silkworms
and
of spinning,therefore,of the Kri silkworm involves no killing is popularamong and lor this reason alone AV/ silk-rearing
animals,
.
in this
amateurs
Kndi Eri
cloth is
on
silkworm,
The
country.
is
not
escapedfrom them,
cocoons,
have
ashes
better stillwith
lye,
when
as
cool, well kneaded
kneadingin clean water,
and
spun
with
and
spinning must
But
Eri
wool in
cocoons
lye.and
wrung
are
for years to carded and combed
scale anywhere, large,
a
when
ranfaric
the on
out
wheel
a
remain
are
En
or
and
and
then washed dried in the
sun
at leisure.
come
and
a
boiled with cocoons,
of tusser
case
warm
spindle(Fig.94) or
European mills,and
established.
in the
in thr
constant
a
fibre also is strong, and
of the very popular,and the roaring of than that mulberry or profitable altogetherwithout advantages. The
after the moths
or
PIKR"!KI"
OK
this account though less
silkworm,
tusser
94." SPINNING
by
Eri
rearing cottage industry.
spun
like cotton
industryis established,on
European principles may
or a
be*
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
ing succulent branches and graduallythrowover spreading incrustations. of One foot of seed-stick is sufficient for ten feet or more tender branches. A bundle of seed-sticks containing o ne-foot fifty When 1-8. be usuallypurchasedfor Re. 1 to Re. sticks, can
sticks and out
throughheat
cold seed becomes
or
scarce,
Rs.
5 per bundle
has to
be paid for seed. A fortnight after inoculating a newly pruned tree, the empty sticks are to be taken down and used for the extraction of lac. If insects are seen the coming out even after a fortnight, all seed-sticks should be taken down and tied to fresh trees. When the fresh branches have got insects uniformly distributed over them, the inoculation has been done fully and properly. If the branches show
be expected. insects in many places,a full crop cannot tion be Cultivation. For lac-culture the trees must kept in condiand free from ants and other insects as possible.The as cultivation of the soil under the trees is of great help,and crops and ginger, suitable for growing under shade, speciallyturmeric The trees remain should be grown of manure. by application vigorousowing to the cultivation of the soil under them, and they no
"
largerquantity of lac. Pruning. To obtain vigorous growth
produce
a
"
of
branches, pruning
of the trees is essential. Trees should be pruned in February, that in June it may become full of longand tender branches, when For inoculation is done. November inoculation,the pruning of full of long So pruned, the trees become trees is done in June. and
tender
in November. insect. The the Developmentof branches
insects remain stillafter they have once spreadout and theysimplysuck the juiceof the branches. thus While them engaged, the lac covers up from all sides. As the insects develop,the incrustation round each also develops. Male insects The insects are eithtr male or female, mostly female. have their lac-incrustationsomewhat longerthan the incrustation round almost The females females. round are incrustations "
spherical.The proportionof male to female is about as 1 to 5,000. The male insects when fullydeveloped become winged and they flyaway.
The
female insects continue
to
inside their cells, the incrustation which
grow
and they get completelycovered up with thicker and thicker. In this state the female becomes and makes round each egg a separate coveringof lac.
lays eggs, When
the is its within of t he female finished, body a laying eggs develops At this stage red liquidwhich is to act as milk for her young. the seed-sticks are gathered. The eggs after becoming insects eat throughthe substance of the mother and then spreadout into the The seed-sticks branches of trees into which they are inoculated.
kept in cool and dark rooms, and when they begin to tached out, they should be exposed to the sun for a day and then atto trees by tyingor by being hung up on mosquit6-net bags. Kusumb trees Quality." produce the best lac. Phalsa tree is also good. Raer and yhut-baerlac is only slightly inferior,
should come
lac
be
LAC
Palas
and
Palas
the
though
lac, which
tree
Manufacture.
twigs, they
then
is
dust
the
is
into
in
to
with
water
with
cotton
while fire
out,
is
as
of the
cent,
dust
wool
dyeing
The
a
up mercial com-
feet red, etc.
The
In the washed
Resin resin
of the
is
up
ground
and
used, cloth
long
a
end
a
state
mixed
seed-lac
post and the other the bag. As the under
to
taken
(dltd)has
within
is inserted
helps
colouring matter.
sometimes
is
weight
is washed
cane-baskets
appearance.
shell-lac.
light
baskets, which
seed-lac.
in
golden
bag is tied kept between
gathered
for
dust
woven
red
the
cotton
purposes,
the
proceeds,the dust and
the
state
make
to
goes
fire is
a
from
sifted
the
is
the
sides of the
*
be
which
close
in
and
eliminate
When
gradually red colouring matter
the
should
of
end
the
on
free
sifted, and fifteen per added, and the mixed One
water
dye is placed
it
strained to
of
out
heavy. The by repeated change of containing the lac dye
and
settles.
other.
any
scraped
are
then
of lac
The
out.
the
for domestic
seed-lac
with
water,
after it is dried is sold
dust
seed-lac
the
clean
wool, in which
value washed
in
water,
dust
the
The
fine dust
it is rubbed
(dhamas) and make
the
where
vats,
querns,
from
separated
of clean
vats
in
and
poorest of all,
than
incrustrations
fanning whicji helps
with
put
lac is
water run
and
matter
extraneous
the
After
"
red, is the
frequentlyused
more
ground
are
chalnies
with
is the darkest
is
tree
381
CULTURE.
are
bag.
twisted,
twisting over
into a liquidform and gets converted the surface of the long bag, with from
comes
brass
plates or plantain leaf-sheaths, in the form of shell-lac. The long bag is only about 6 inches in circumference, but the length may be 15, 30 or 300 ft., according to the quantity of the dust treated. The
shell-lac
should
The
shell-lac
can
quantity
further
taken
of
manufacture and
is beaten is
evenly distributed
on
slab
a
in the
red-lead Yield.
inaimd
buy
of
form
of
"
red-lead about
According
to
on
in the
form
red-lead, yellow arsenic,,
soft the
lac, in which
For are
Rs. the
lac is obtained
the lac, either
moulded
colouring matter, for the lac, with the colouring matter,, state, until the colouringmatter
slate smeared
or
be
can
other
some
The
in the
sealingwax.
costs
crude
or
through
marble
of Chinese
papers
The
or
it
is inserted
sealingwax.
kneaded
black.
or
with in pots, and a stick, a the rolled on stick until it gets
state
which
bone-black, prussian blue,
red
not
melted and
out,
cylinder,into
hollow
a
light golden colour,
solidified in which
somewhat of
be
be
can
of*
be
with
over
of
seer
one
sufficient 4-8
per
size
of
from
lac is put lard, and moulded the
state
shell-lac,one
to
give
tree
from
it
a
or
two
rich colour.
seer. a a
twigs,or scraped
tree.
from
ten
The the
seers
to
manufacturers
twigs.
a
382
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER
LXXXI.
APICULTURE. is carried
APICULTURE
is carried
wax
as
an
on
as
on
in boxes
as
entirelyartificial
an
Even the breeding of queens In India gatheringof honey and industry. and no attempt at domestication forest industry,
and in America.
in Europe industry, is carried
on
a
As except in the Khasia hills and in Kashmir. flavour the to has different nature a according England honey is made,
in of
a region,so has certain Indian honey a and quality. The honey which is prized medicine for ophthalmic is the as a diseases) the highest(chiefly lotus The is Kashmir. of lotus honey honey gathered purest
flowers that
prevailin
fine peculiarly
flavour
the best is gathered of lakes full of lotus, and from the vicinity flowers themselves. the found on from littlehives Orange honey honey is gathered in Sylhet and is very rich,and thick orange But largequantities of Khasia hills where orange trees abound. from forests allover the country,and apiculture, honey are gathered of honey, is a profession carried on systemrather the gathering atically or
by
certain
Murshidabad
and
that it plentiful
castes, the
in
can
be
usuallyby State
of
bought for
fowlers.
In
the
Mourbhanj,wild four
annas
a
seer,
district of
honey
is
so
it i.e.,
is
as
why the artificialmethods of sugar. This is one reason in Europe and America, which involve that are practised apiculture not as yet suited to this country. The a greatdeal of trouble,are varieties of bees in India are also different and various,and they domestication which to that study and have not been subjected The Italian bee has not thriven European varieties have been. the honey it produced. In the than in India. It ate more sugar cheap
as
bees had to be fed the artificial system of rearing, lib. of of loz. o f common salt,and with a syrup consisting sugar, mixed with of of 6" vinegar, pints water, and up a tablespoonful with the hills. In warm on quilts they had to be kept artificially
winter, under
givenwater to drink,which was kept close after this method is carried out, the If apiculture to the hive. honey is either taken out and sold in the comb, or the honey is machine. extracted from the comb by a littlecentrifugal they had
summer
to be
Among all bees the queen is the
sole
producerof eggs, and she
producingeggs for five years at the rate of 150 eggs a bee has a short lifewhen itis workingin summer. worker day. Th" It lives and works only for about six weeks then, though out of The wonderful fertility the worker bee lives for six months. season of the queen therefore results in a continuous supply of young bar frame," workers readyto supplythe placeof dead insects. A may
go
on
"
or a fortythousand workers,may queen and thirty in and 30s. 5s. for The a cjueen for about England, be bought straw-hives of the Khasia hills are an approachto domestication, pean and they are bought and sold like European hives. In the Eurowax foundation and American box hive, there is an artificial
stocked with
PROPAGATION
OF
383
TREES.
hexagonalcells which
the bees make use of in forming the combs withdrawn from under the When are restored be their to artificialfoundations, they can original places machine. after the honey has been extracted with a centrifugal and not needingto The bees readilymake use of their old comb double the quantity elaborate wax, they are able to accumulate foundations 85. The cost of honey. wax a lb.,and a Ib. of pure bees-wax is sufficientfor making 75 foundations for 75 pound combs, moulded in their comb.
of largecombs. smaller number The whole operationof managing an artificialhive is practiceand confidence. Nervous people seldom succeed or
a
gloves and
with
does practice
and
nerves
veil and
smoking tin
not
requireto
;
but
of
even
with
good person any of these protections. of trees, with the passage
use
should be kept under the shade for for bees to the south, and the means
The
one
boxes
a
opening the combs in the througha glassthe operator can watch the He gentlyopens out the frame, takes out the
direction,where opposite bees and the combs.
them after extracting the honey, where the replaces i n whore the comb is requiredfor honey is not required combs, or they are removed one by one for good, leavingthe top parts, wax,
combs, and
When it is i.e.,the foundations, only for the bees to hang on. remembered that the bees use up 201bs. of honey to make lib. of wax,
to
be
it may the
hive.
A
the combs readilyseen, it alwayspays returning hive may or yieldas little as SOlbs. per season
America is the country where an average of has been obtained in the season, and much 250 Ibs. per hive as in accumulated of hive. The best are 121bs. a as honey per day The art of rearingqueens Englishaverage is 1201bs. per season. as
and
much
of
as
2501bs.
managing
hives
be
must
CHAPTER
learnt
by practice.
LXXX1J.
PROPAGATION
OF
TREES.
[Utilityof growing trees ; Trees helpfulto agricultureand the agricultural popuTrees ; Trees yieldingTans, Dyes and Drugs lation ; Slow-growing Timber Trees yielding Soap ; Propagationof trees suited for capitalists best ; The to utilize Fruits if they cannot be sold fresh ; Some nottrees to grow able ; How
,
examples of profitableFruit-culture ; Gabions and their substitutes ; of Seedlings, Why some crops do not grow under shade of trees ; Prop*igation Transplantation,Grafting, layering, budding, inarching; Cuttings ; Gulkalam trees
Grafting War ; Pruning; Hoot-pruning ; Cultivation of land under and Cross-fertilization.] Watering of trees ; Hybridization
; ;
of growing trees. The propagationof trees which Utility and fibres, is of vast importance yieldstarch,oil,sugar, vegetables to a country where failure of ordinaryagricultural crops through drought or inundation is of frequentoccurrence. Apart from "
their uses
for
food,fodder,and timber,trees
breakwinds in localitieswhere exercise a beneficial effect on
high winds
are
are
an
beneficialas highly objection..They
the climate and temperature, when
384
OF
HANDBOOK
there are much as
too
not
AGBICULTUBE.
of them.
many
A
moderate
fortygallonsof water
sized tree
day, which
transpires reduce
the per goes while radiation is hindered at night temperature of the atmosphere, the exercise influence of Thus trees perature. trees. equalisingtemby food materials from the depth of Trees bringingup in leaves which are afterwards shed, are a soils and storingthem as
for fertilizing agency rich layer of humus a
to
surface
soils. Beneath the which keeps the in winter, besides absorbing and and warm roots of It is in this way water. that trees retaininga great quantity the even on poorest soils and change the character grow luxuriantly Trees also have a binding of the soil permanentlyfor the better. them would be liable to be washed effect on the land, which without rain. believed to induce Trees denuded are a heavier or by away rainfall. In the delta of the Nile there used to be on the average only six rainydays in the year ; but since the plantingof millions of eucalyptustrees there,during the last fiftyyears, there are now most
valuable
shade
of trees cool in summer
the average caused millions on
fortyrainy days of trees
to
be
per
planted,which There
rainy days in that country. through Australia, Africa, etc., but The a
as
side of the
eastern
of
largenumber The
and
W.
has doubled
distribution
the
over
propagationof trees fodder
of the
is
it maintains
ought
to
of
also results in
highestvalue, and
arid
rainfall a
when
the
belt
forests
Australia, there
using up wood-fuel, may
been
an
wherever
Himalayas which
big rivers and
Algiers, Napoleon
is
destruction of forests in Western
of mills have influence
Wales
South
in New
In
annum.
of
belt
is formed
ber num-
running
cross
that
is a fair rainfall.
heavily timbered, has immense an tion. populaIndia where have in
is cut
hundreds
deteriorating
a
those
parts.
perennialsupply of tree
FII
down
The
fuel and its
place suppliedby fresh planting as is done in Germany. Trees act as a barrier againstepidemics,and such aromatic trees valuable cis the eucalyptusand the coniferae are considered especially The wwarina tree yieldinga good fuel for this purpose. is a very fast-growing tree, and its propagationis recommended on a
be
propagationof the babul for fodder and timber is also highly recommended. purposes, requiredfor agricultural valuable but such as mahogany, tun, timber-trees, Slow-growing sal,teak, sissoo,should not be.grown in agricultural tracts, but in which considered unsuitable tracts arid for ordinary are poor and pursuits.Trees or shrubs producing tans and dyes, Agricultioral such as myrabolan,divi-divi (Ccssalpina coriarea),CcBsalyrina digyna, kamela cheli, lodh, (Mallotus Philippinensis), annatto, rtsan, arjun, poor
soils. The
with specialeconomic localitieswhich are also not special
and other trees in
purposes,
Trees from
e.g., in
various
value should be grown only quitesuitable for agricultural parts of the Chhota Nagpur Division.
shrubs. of Jaypal (Croton Tiglium),which yield a nut valuable purgativemedicine is tl^eseed, of which the most or
obtained ; andffrom
trees, of
the swd
kusvm wjiich yield lac, (Schleichera trijuga), of which oil which is the basis of Macassar oil
PROPAGATION
is obtained, are
also
OF
valuable
very
385
TREES.
trees
to
grow.
The
ritha
or
(SapindusMukorossi) should be grown more largely and the soap-barktree (Quilloja Saponaria)should be introduced from Chili more it has been introduced with success as in largely, Ootacamund and it is likelyto do well in elevations rangingfrom 3,000 to 4,000 ft. For agricultural tracts,the trees that should be and fodder should or food, they should be so fastyield grown that fuel in and without much abundance they may yield growing waiting,relievingcattle-dung for manurial Lastly, purposes. with regardto trees, it should be mentioned that they cpst scarcely anythingkeepingup after they are once grown up, and a plantation of mangoes, cocoannt, guava, lime-trees, bamboos, date, plantains, and fruit other some trees, though expensiveand troublejack,papaya valuable property for a capitalist who can to set up, is a most afford to wait for the return. it is much Indeed, for a capitalist safer investment takingup poor land for such a plantationthan in for ordinaryagricultural going pursuits. soap-nut
tree
Best trees to grow.
yielders
are
a
: "
"
The
starch which is used for
have
been
trees
pounded
and
which
making bread, washed
with
best to grow as foodof the mango fruit yield i.e.,after the kernels
are
Stone-kernels
(1) Mango.
hot
water. (2) Jack. (3) Bael Babul (5) (6) (7) which is a moderate (Prosopisspicigera), sized, of the Punjab, deciduous, thorny tree, found in the arid dry zones and the Deccan. This tree Sind,Rajputana,Gujarat,Bundelkhand valuable carob-beans in times of scarcity. The pods, is as as which ripen before and during the rains, contain a considerable quantityof a sweetish farinaceous substance. The pods are eaten onions and green or dry and raw, by themselves,or boiled with salt, ghee,with bread or mixed with dahi. The bark ground into flour of into cakes is also edible. This tree was and made the means saving thousands of lives during the Rajputanafamine of 1868-69. As a food and fodder-yielding that can be tree, there are not many and (8) Sajna compared to this one. najna (which is a variety of of Sajna which two yields legumes in the year) i"ay be crops tree. also mentioned as a (9) The mulberry. (10) food-yielding The bamboo. (12) The palms (toddy palm, (11) The mahua. and the date palm). (13) The cocoanut areca-nut palm palm, locust or carob-bean tree of the Mediterranean region has been is and there introduced into no Gwalior, reason why successfully flourish elsewhere. this valuable fodder tree should not (14) of Plantains and dates beinggrown as crops in some Bengal parts have been (Schleichera trijuga) separatelydealt with. Kusum Its timber is used for making oil has been already mentioned.
Breadfruit tree. Jhand or Shami
(4) Cashew-nuts.
mills (Kalus or Ghanis). Preservation of fruits.Fruits can be variouslyutilized if and be sold The fresh. strained juiceof mangoes they cannot in the form jack fruits is spreadout thin iu the sun and preserved the juiceof fresh fruit of thin cake. A method of preserving "
M, HA
25
386
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
it into wine, has been described 'converting maybe bottled up fresh pineapples.Lime-juice
without on
in the chapter with the addition
of powdered charcoal for an indefinite period. Rapid of desiccation of fruits and vegetables by the action of a current hot air is now largelyresorted to in many countries. Fruits are also preserved Jams by convertingthem into jams and jellies. fresh and whole fruits in syrup. The sugar made are by boiling and water are firstboiled into syrup and the fruits put in afterwards of jellyfrom the pulp or the and boiled. The preparation of addition the fruits of by juice sugar, has been described in fresh chapteron plantains.For transporting
fruits to great devices have been made use of with more less or in Calcutta In the Municipal Market the fruits that success. small cork of with best. The come come particles packed up be also sealed with sealingwax broken end of the fruit may and in tissue paper and despatched. each fruit packed up separately varieties of certain fruits keep longer fruits and Some some the Khatmabil than others. Of superiorBengal mangoes Khoer of Dumraon perhapskeeps the longestand is safer to export to than Europe any other superiormango. Profitsof fruitculture. Lord Sudeley'sfruit plantationin England (inconnection with which Beech's Jam Factory is worked), which a capitalist attain by fruit is an example of the success can of be calculation No initial can outlay,annual given farming. the
distances,various
"
and outturn, which will apply to fruit trees generally, expenditure trees such as plantains, as some palms, etc., may be planted six cubits apart, while others such as mangoes or or seven jackshould 25 30 the ft. But above estimate of income be planted or apart. from
mixed Under approximation.
orchard
be taken as a reasonable favourable stances, circumexceptionally of over Rs. 2,000 per acre however, a net profit may be There suitable fruit from is trees. obtained tree in one mango Malda, for instance, which is leased out annuallyfor Rs. 30, paid be the number of fruits finally obtained in advance, whatever of Rs. 25 per
acre
a
may
this tree. Seventytrees grown on one acre might thus give of Rs. 2,000 per annum. But one must not base his a net income and exceptional calculations on very extraordinary circumstances, of the country. but on the average experience For the first three or four years trees must Gabions. be with gabions. There are various devices used for saving protedted A circle of useful thorny plants, the expense under this item. such as agaves, is often plantedround a tree. At other times a coil of rough and spineygrass (e.g. Sacchwram spontaneum or Kans grass)is put round the trunk of a tree, which is made further from
"
with cowdung paste, or repulsive
castor-oil.
Crops that grow under shade at trees. A questionof some theoretical importance with regardto the utilizationof the land underneath trees, in connection with the difficulty in growing under whether the roots of trees suck up too much trees, is, crops "
388
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
the stock and the scion must be tied together firmlybefore grafting, One recipe consists of the earth is brought round the union. a slow fire, over equalparts of bee's wax, resin meltingtogether, tallow till dissolved and thoroughlymixed, when to apply. Another good recipeis the following
it is
and
ready
"
"
Bee's wax Tallow Resin .
1 Ib.
i Ib. 1
Ib.
2
oz.
.
Turpentine
add the wax" Melt the resin and tallow over a slow fire ; then and when melted, mix well together.Then add the turpentine and stir well,when it is ready for use.
FIG. A." B-"
95." GRAFTING.
Root-grafting. Saddle-grafting, E."
Crown
C."- Cleft
p." Whip or
or or
Wedge-grafting. Splice-grafting.
Rind-grafting.
is appliedhot with a brush to the graftwhen Graftingwax tied iriposition, care beingtaken to cover the wound completely, exclude air. A simpleand convenient to as so of using the way in the case of nursery stocks,is to dip a sheet of thin calico wax and when sufficiently into the boiling wax cold,tearingthe waxed calico into narrow o f suitable strips length. The graftbeingplaced in position the waxed tie is wound round it so as to completely the the union heat of cover the hand being sufficientto soften ;
that it sticks well and is air-tight. so The principle of grafting is to so underlying every method unite the scion or graftwith the stock as to bringthe cambium the
wax,
OF
PROPAGATION
389
TREES.
layeror wood-producinglayerof each, together.When the two layersare broughttogetherand kept togetherwithout air,they each throw
out
cells which
new
jointogetherand
form
one
layer
of wood. known of grafting, various modes Cleft or Wedge-grafting(Fig.95 Bark-grafting,
There
are
variouslyas
C), Crown or (Fig.95 B), Whip, Rind-grafting (Fig.95 E), Saddle-grafting 95 the o r D), (Fig. principle underlying Splice, Tongue-grafting in all cases. Root-grafting(Fig.95 A) is also being the same practisedby gardeners.A small pieceof root is either graftedon the scion is graftedon to the to a scion of the desired variety, or the ground where the stock is. root-stock just below The \Bark-grafting.
bark taken from bud several buds on it. When one is called budding; when several buds
the
have scion may the is used, only operation used the operation are is called bark-grafting, or multiplebudding. Either old or new but old bark does better. The lengthof bark taken bark answers, in the case of should be twice that of the breadth (circumference "
one
or
should be no wood adheringto the bark. the bark from the scion tree, cut out a corresponding portionof bark of the from a branch the thickness on same
There bark-grafting).
Having
secured
stock scion
FIG.
FIG.
96." BUDDING.
97."
LAYERING.
and bark
make take
the the bark of the position thus cut out, then bind it with cotton, but not tightly.No clay
need graftingwax be used. Six or eightinches above this graftthe stem should be ring-barked, but leaves above the ring-bark left for shade for two or three weeks, after which the branches above the ring-barking should be cut or sawn off,and all shoots appearingexcept those the bark on graftedon, should be rubbed out, that all the of the buds on the ascendingsap may go to the nourishment or
bark. a simplebut delicate operation.It consists in removinga bud (Fig. 96) from one plantand making it grow on be of the same another which must related, familyand closely fruit flowers of It inferior it character. or an although may yield to bud an orange on a lime tree and a peachon an is possible English
Budding proper
plum tree, but
is
binations very curious comachieved by budding. A singlebud is are being now removed from the tree to be propagatedby inserting the carefully budding knife about half-an-inch above the bud, and cutting inwards and downwards, bringing the knife out about slightly half-an-inch below the bud. If there is a leaf under the bud it is
not
a
rose
on
an
orange.
But
The littlebit;of wood firstto be cut off carefully.
that will come
390
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
alongwith the bud and the bark will be found in the middle of the scion immediatelybehind the bud. This bit of wood is carefully removed with the knife without cutting into the bud from behind. A T-shaped cut is then to be made into the stock not deeperthan the bark, that is only the bark is to be slit.open, and the scion introduced
into the longitudinal carefully portionof the slit,the operation beinghelpedwith the insertion of the thin ivory handle
of the budding knife between the bark and the cambium of the stock on both sides of the slit. When the scion has got rightin, of the bud the t he out cut edgesare to be closed slit, only peeping of the and tied with plantain tree fibre. From the beginning over November and to for is the monsoon December, proper season
budding. Layering. This
is another
method (Fig.97) of propagation. If the branches to be layeredcan be broughtdown to the ground, be made to touch a slitshould be cut at the firmest part that can the ground by inserting the knife at the lower side near to and bud and of the the centre branch, beyond a cuttingnearlyto about the end of the branch drawing the knife towards inch the in A small should stone be placed or an more. slit and the cut portioncovered with sand or powdered brick. A good sized stone should then be put on the bend, so as to keep the layersteady, and water supplied the soil gets dry. When a as be broughtdown branch cannot the to ground, arrangement may be. made for takingpots of soil to the branch and keeping the layersmoist high up. "
method commonest It this in consists in bringing a second practised year's country. or a plantfrom cuttingobtained from an easilypropaseedling, gated and wild or inferior plant, in a pot, properly rooted, to the it in such tree from which the scion is to be obtained,and placing within the embrace of a bamboo or a position (on a platform, split that the portionof the tree of the superior at the top, for instance), kind which it is desired to propagate, can be broughtinto direct ling contact with it. A thin sliceis then taken oil one side of the seedwild stock,about two or three inches in length, and a coror responding slice is taken off the branch of the tree that is to be
Inarching,or grafting by approach,is the
used
scion,the
branches
The diameter. beingof the same barks it is that the inner seen beingplacedtogether, the two beingfirmlytied with soft both sides of the cuts join, on cloth. The graftis not waxed but is kept moist stantly by water condroppingon to it. When union has taken place(which it does completely after several months)the scion issevered very carefully from the parent tree and the young plantis readyfor removing. It is not easy to obtain successful grafts method. this by is possible in the case of some from cuttings Propagation plants and trees. Well ripenedbranches ta"en from near the ground,at where one branch joins another,make the best cuttings. i.e., a joint, There should be about three joints in length cut close beneath a bud as
out surfaces
two
PROPAGATION
OP
391
TREES.
and inserted about
one-third of their length in fine sandy soil or Lower in venient dry season, Bengal,when it is inconknown the cuttings to keepthe soilwatered, and when are rhea and the of to send out shoots freely, case sugar-cane, e.g., in three or four inches cassava, plantingmay be done horizontally under the surface of the soil. Cuttings should be plantedas fresh those of mulberry,cassava as possible, though some cuttings(e.g., and sugar-cane)are known for more than a retain their to vitality
brick-dust. In the
month
kept in
tainty, shady place. Where there is uncerfresh the cuttings precautionof dipping should "be taken. immediatelybefore planting,
damp
a
and
the additional in
camphor water which is commonly Ring-barkcutting.This is another method employed in this country for propagatingorange trees, "
india-rubber
trees
gul-kalamsmay much
harm.
Hundreds of gootees or tree without doing the tree of the rainyseason, healthy a ring of bark, one to three
etc. (Ficus Elastica),
be formed on At the commencement
one
and mature stems are chosen, and inches in lengthaccording to the thickness of the stem chosen, cut The bark should be cut out immediately below a leaf-bud. out. A ball of clay made sufficiently by working it well between plastic the palms, is then put round the ring-barked portion,so as to it This of secured by an then ball earth is over. completelycover and the whole tied up with envelopeof coir,or a pieceof sacking, fish mixed up with of Fish rotten a manure (i.e., piece string. used in placeof the ball of clay. The roots will be earth)is largely found
protrudingfrom
the ball of earth and its enveloping rials, mateand then the new plant may be regardedas beingready for severingand for plantingout in the field. Small fruit trees must be protectedby gabions,and watering i"ust be resorted to if the does not persist.In the Darjeeling hillsand in Assam, rainyseason where the gootee or gul-kalam system is largelyemployed in propagating the orange and the india-rubber tree, the rainfall is so while the gooteesor gul-kalams are copiousthat artificial watering, is the trees and after they are plantedout, on scarcelyever found necessary.
Pruning. Experiencealone "
trees,
whether
annual
can
of
pruning best root-pruning,
alternate year, or growth of fruits. In the case useful than branch found more
branch-pruninganswers
decide for each class of fruit
branches, answers
pruning every encouragingthe has been root-pruning or
for
of mangoes, pruning,while in the case of lichies better. In the case of mulberry trees
for leaves for silkworms, pruningof branches every alternate has been found economical of dealing with the most year way well as manuring and wateringof trees them. as Root-pruning, should be done, not at the immediate base of the trees, but at the limit of the shade caused by the branches and leaves. A circular feet wide should be dug out at the proper trench about two grown
distance from Bones done.
the or
and manuring are to be trunk,if root-pruning into this trench make a good and put
bone-meal
392
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
All trees are benefited by the for fruit trees. cultivation of land underneath them, and the growing of crops with manure The cultivation of land in October and if possible. action of the soil and the conseNovember breaks the capillary quent from this In certain moisture loss of cause. dry localities in the dry season watered to keep them trees have in to be is resorted to, condition. But if cultivation of land underneath for at least large trees. The this will be found unnecessary the mulch soil to underneath, helping ploughed up soil acts as a
lastingmanure
it to retain moisture.
CHAPTER AGRICULTURAL
LXXXIII.
CALENDAR
FOR
LOWER
BENGAL.
January. Sugar-cane harvesting and gw-making. Sowing of kulibegunand deshi onion seeds. Plantingof 61 for the August of potatoes, cabbages and Final irrigation to September crop. other English vegetables.Picking of cotton bolls. Pittingof cuttings, or 'topping' of seed-canes. Harvesting sugar-cane "
and Kaldi. bitaceous crops.
Preparationof land for sugar-cane of deshi onion. Sale Transplanting vegetables. Threshingof paddy. Arrowroot and cassava peas
and
of
cucur-
English ing. harvest-
February. Harvestinglinseed,mustard, mung and til. Sugarcane harvest and gw-making. Plantingof sugar-cane and sowing of cucurbitaceous crop seeds (ucche,jhingd,water-melon, mashmelon, gourd, pumpkin, etc.). Transplantingof kulibegun. for Sale of o f land kharifcrops. Preparation Englishvegetables. Pickingof cotton. March. Harvesting of barley, oats, wheat, gram, musur, of khesari and other pulses. Plantingand irrigating sugar-cane. and ashes ceous on) cucurbitamanuring (chieflysprinkling Watering vines. Pickingof cotton. Sowing cotton seed and maize if "
"
there is
heavy shower
a
of rain.
Preparationof land
for
kharif
crops.
April. Watering
and cucurbitaceous of sugar-cane vines. Plantingof yams and 61 for the December crop. Sowing of maize, juar9Reana, jute,and mestd pdt seeds,after a good shower of rain. and other perennial Manuring of mulberry,plantain,bamboo with tank with cattleAus fields canal silt. or Manuring plants dung, villagesweepings,tank-silt,weeds or compost. Sale of cucurbitaceous vegetables.Preparationof land for brinjaland sowing of seed. "
May. Sowing of Aus paddy, maize, juar,dhaincha,arahar9 Reana, jute. Sale of cucurbitaceous^ vegetables.Transplanting "
brinjaland cotton plants,if heavy showers of rain obtained. Earthing of maize, juar,and Reana if sowing done in March ot showers not obtained in April,or sowingof seed of these,if Ireavy of
AGRICULTURAL
March
or
Sowing of
CALENDAR
FOR
393
BENGAL.
LOWER
April. Final preparationsfor kharif crops generally. cucumber, gourd and pumpkin seeds. Final manuring,
Sowing of chillie seed in sugar-cane. in be done June also). Sowing of Aman paddy
of earthingand irrigation seed-bed
(thismay
in
seed-bed. June. Sowing of Aman paddy. Sowing of seeds of trees. of brinjals and cotton, if not done before. Planting Transplanting of plantainand other trees in Aus paddy fields. Weeding of Aus paddy, arahar, juteand mestd pat. Sale of green cobs of maize. forward. Sowing Earthingof brinjalsand cotton, if sufficiently of edible hibiscus,arahar, turmeric, ginger,kachu, yams, sweet "
potatoes, sankalu, sags (amaranths, etc.),and ground-nut,may take placein May or in June. Gourds, pumpkins, jhingdand cucumber seeds may be sown Bhadai in this month also. kaldi, kurthi,arharia sim, popat beans and country beans may bhringi, be
also
this month. Guinea be plantedor grass may of aman if possible. plantationextended. Transplanting sown
the
of July. Transplanting aman paddy. Transplantingof chillies (may be done in August and September also). Planting "
of trees,
and bamboos. cocoanut especially Weeding of cotton, turmeric, ginger,etc. Sale of green cobs of earthingof brinjals, of maize. ting Weeding jute,arahar,etc. Tying of sugar-cane. Letof water from out arahar, cotton, sugar-cane, juar, Reana 61,yams, etc.,and keepingwater in aman jute,kharifpulses, paddy fields.
August. Transplantingof aman during the first half the month. Harvesting of Aus paddy, leguminousand other "
of
fodder
shim, sags and country generally.Sale of brinjals, vegetables. Earthingof chillies, cuttingof dhaincha,jute,mestd of the of fibres also commence the two latter may pat. Washing this month. in verandahs. Sowing of seed of English vegetables crops
September. Preparationof land "
circumstances.
Bhadai Pdlam
pulses. Tying
for rabi crops
Harvesting of maize,
A
us
under
tional excep-
paddy
"
and
of sugar-cane.
Country beans and peas, Chukd Kanak note pdlam, sag, sag, radishes, pumpkin, Patna and cauliflower nip (from early gourd, seed),also mustard, turand til may be sown, cauliflower alone beingsown in seed-bed under
the rest in well drained fields. Palval and sweet be also sown. Land to be got ready for the potato cuttings may and seed-beds prepared. regularEnglishvegetables Transplanting of trees and seedlings of juteand Sale (Papaya,plantains, etc.). cover,
vegetables. October.
of Englishvegetablesgenerally, cabbages, cauliflower, knol-kohl,artichoke (on sandy loam),Brussels sprouts, "
Sowing
turnips,celery,lettuce,tomatoes, radishes, carrots, onions,French .and palvals, beans, peas, potatoes,sweet potatoes (Batatasedulis) to
be
from
sown.
the
Last month's Early cauliflower
sun.
and Brinjal
logging. sowingsto be protectedfrom waterto be transplantedand protected
cotton
fieldsto be
dug,also
sugar-cane
394
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
t
fields.
Bulbils
other
trees
water
made
land
for
of
Rabi
month,
be
agaves loosened
round
newly
to
sowings in
as
is
end
month
of
this
or
raised,
gram,
linseed, til, khesari, musuri, the
may
of
this
kaldi
should
November. loosened
be
to
potatoes
cucumber
pulses, including Hoeing of early and
if of
and
sweet
Irrigation
of
may this
of
61
if of
for
hill
to
and
month.
this
cabbages
potatoes,
vested, har-
be
Hoeing kachu
of
Harvesting
necessary.
the
of
English
early
districts, time
be
may
also
cane sugar-
be harvested
may
month
this
palval
ol, of
Cutting
sown
of
Sale
ing Harvest-
and
radishes
sag
and
trees
chillies.
and
cotton,
vegetables.
round
Hoeing
etc.
turmeric,
note
operations the
of
ground-nut, August-September crop. and Kaldi mustard if early.
brinjals
Bengal districts
Sale
irrigation available.
The
NOTE."
the
if
Picking
Champa
sale
Eastern
chillies
gourd,
onion
paddy may be picked.
Winter
cabbages,
plants.
commence,
January,
in
irrigation of
and
harvest.
ginger,
month.
while
irrigation
during
and
oats
melons,
coriander,
sown
be
may
vegetables
English
cotton,
be
may
necessary.
bolls
potatoes,
yams,
sowing
be
Aman
"
perennial of
mustard
crops,
potatoes.
December
other
the
bolls
cotton
Barley,
of
crops,
and
plots
Cotton
early.
Radishes,
catiang,
sown
also.
Sowing
wheat.
cucurbitaceous
may
sugar-cane
and
then
Vigna
cauliflowers
of
brinjal plants,
month
this
continue.
may other
and
in
Sowing of got through
be
to
mung
and
cotton
trees,
during
and
sown,
October.
of
this
first. of
cleaned
for
vigorously during preparation Bengal usually continuing to
possible. Picking ordinary agricultural rabi
sown
Bases
"
and
pulses and
be
and
holding of Preparation
a
trees.
middle and
plantain
basin
if
month, all
Of
commence.
and
Lower
the
to
even
on
go
rains
the
before
end
and
transplanted
feasible,
not
of
Bases
sown.
and
generally to places in
most
September
be
to
or
in
commence,
may
continues. for and for
ktuirif crops a
month
different
generally
later
in
operations
take
Bihar varies
place
and
a
month
earlier
Chhota
Nagpur.
the
elevation,
with
In and
in
bo grown kharif the in the high elevation only rabi crops can sowing season, the March October. and to and being February time, August harvesting In the hills and lower is applicable. In the Bengal valleys, the Eastern system Sonthai and rabi the take Bihar, Chhota districts, Pergana Nagpur, operations time
place
a
month
earlier
and
in
the
Eastern
Bengal
districts
a
month
later.
396
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
to studied yet as to enable one crops have not been so minutely requirementsfor each variety givea tabular statement of minimum of Chemical of every crop. analysis may prove certain amounts ally in an available form, which are theoreticplant-food present,even in But maximum the for even sufficient yield. obtaining such cases, manuring has given good results. Chemical analysis of a soil for also does not take into consideration the potentiality
due to the growth of microbes under proper accumulatingnitrogen, conditions of moisture, porosity,heat and presence of lime. As from be accumulated Ibs. of nitrogenper acre may and the this during the the air, in particularly year way, during minous preparationof soil and growth of the crop. The growingof leguland in which is another inexpensiveway crops in rotation ized is enriched. Dr. H. H. Mann, the Indian tea expert,has popular-
much
as
100
growing of Dhaincha and other leguminouscrops in tea of enriching method and the same gardens,with excellent results, the
.soilsis recommended
ordinary cultivators.
to
the Notwithstanding
device
growing leguminous crops does cropping without manure of
and again,continuous every now result in the gradualdeterioration
soil. The cultivators of Bali and Uttarparahave noticed,for instance,that of late years, they are unable to grow pulsecrops, and their mango and cocoanut be due to the fruits. This may trees have ceased bearing possibly of the
and lime being requirementsof these crops for phosphates but also to now wanting,owing not only to continuous cropping, a to the local bone-mills without the systematicsale of bones countries In some of bones being used here for manure. particle minimum
of a by the application crop is grown in course the yieldof crops instead of diminishing, of special increases. The application manures, every
In these,
manure.
of time time
gradually
after time,
tends to impoverish beneficial effects, General manures, of time. being less soluble the land in course nourishment, are, therefore often, and supplyingall the requisite
in immediate thoughresulting
though not always,preferable. Manures
are
divided into several classes
:
"
dissolved manures (1) Phosphatic e.g., bone-meal, bone-ashes, of This class manures "tc. of lime,apatite, bones, superphosphate "
possesses the
: properties special following "
the fruits and roots sweeter. tendencies and fruiting (6)They tend to increase the flowering roots. and and also increase the absolute yieldof seed of plants, of crops to take placeearlier. (o)They make ripening (d)Young plantscan resist the attack of insect and fungus in them if they are grown they have more vitality better,i.e.,
(a) They tend
to
make
pests
on
soil manured
with be can
phosphates.
Indian merchants in of many had now Bone-dust Calcutta and Bombay. Oil-cakes and ashes also contain large horsedung ashes are of phosphates.Cowdung and proportions of manuring rich in phosphates.The indirect method specially
with oil-cake by feedingcattle liberally as
is better,in many Once to the land.
manure
397
SUMMARY.
GENERAL
and
their excrements utilizing oil-cake cases, applying in five or six years every plot than
direct as manure of land might well be left fallow,and on it cattle should be tethered in and given oil-cake to eat, so that their excrements, or huddled enrich the soil. Liquid manure solid and liquid, is better may than solid manure. The principal nitrogenousmanures (2)Nitrogenousmanures. "
are
sulphateof ammonia, saltpetre,
hair, horns, hoofs consists
manures or
leaf
and
The
soot.
nitrate,blood, flesh,
specialvalue
of this class of
the vegetative capacityfor increasing
in their
producingpower
sodium
of
plants. Those
crops
that
are
valued
only,such as cabbages,potherbs,mulberry, tobacco,pan, benefited by nitrogenous For allother specially manures. tea, crops, except leguminouscrops, the applicationof nitrogenous at an manures earlyperiod of growth after germinationgivesa good start. Saltpetreis speciallybeneficial for cereal crops*
for leaves are
maunds the rate of one to two Ifas been per acre should be used on found to double the yield. Saltpetre fertile soils only or used in conjunctionwith a phosphatic it as manure, at Application
the constituents of soil soluble and liable to be washed The best result is obtained by the application of boneaway. rich in phosdus,t with saltpetre.Oil-cakes are generalmanures phorus, and lime. Bones about potash, nitrogen, containing 23% acid and 3'5% of nitrogenmay of phosphoric be regarded either makes
phosphaticmanure. Being a general tendency to impoverishthe soil by continuous of Superphosphateof lime contains 20 or 30 % or more use. acid but hardly any nitrogen. Oil-cakes contain 5 to phosphoric acid. Urine contains a 6% of nitrogen and 2 or 3% of phosphoric than dung. Solid manure of nitrogen also,e.g., dung, largerportion and than therefore be contains more acid, phosphoric nitrogen may regardedas a nitrogenousmanure, while it is also a generalmanure.
as
a
generalmanure it has
manure,
or
a
no
cowdung contains about 5 to 7 seers of phosphoric acid and 5 seers 2 to 4 seers of nitrogen, of potash. of nitrate soda and ammonia of are genous quicklyactingnitroSulphate leave the land but they comparatively manures, poor after of the raised of been them. by application one a crop has Blood, solidor liquid excrements of animals,aquatic flesh, bones,oil-cakes, weeds and black earth dug out df old tanks, in renovating them, the commonest Though not quick acting are generalmanures. and though they may be all called nitrogenous manures manures, the all the to do contain a s more soil, good they they permanent a nd have the plantrequires as no they special ingredients power the soil and renderingits constituents too readily of dissolving leaf productionis sought,the available as plant-food.Where should be resorted to without any hesitaof saltpetre tion. application and even It should be noted, however, that saltpetre cakes oilbe applied should never at the time of germination or brought A ton
or
about
27$ maunds
of
OF
HANDBOOK
398
AGRICULTURE,
or sprink They are to be mixed up with soil, in contact with roots. to the soil in led diluted with water, ashes or earth,or applied afterwards irrigated. of plantsthat are between rows
(3) Potash manures. ashes derived from soft (a) Ashes of all kinds, especially parts of plantsand from seeds,as for instance,cowdung ashes. (6) Animal excreta, vegetablemoulds, rotten leaves,tank earth, indigorefuse,etc. "
is also
helpfulto certain vegetative of leaves, elaboration of acid functions, i.e.,to the production o f juicesof fruits,deposition starch,formation of roots and also of cow-dung containing to floweringagd fruiting.A maund of nitrogen," seer of phosphoric acid, about J seer of potash,J seer of cowdung are applied if 20 maunds per bigha,the soil receives an of nitrogen, 3 to 4 seers of potash addition of about 3 to 4 seers of oil-cake contains and 2" seers of phosphoricacid. A maund of phosphoric 1 seer of nitrogen, acid,and a littleover about 2 seers This
class of
manures
other words, oil-cakes
12 times richer than a nd phosphorus, 3 times richer than cowdung As potashis more manure. or less abundantly cowdung as a potassic of 1 the maund of oil-cake is application present in every soil, of cowdung ; in other words, to that of 8 to 12 maunds equivalent
"
of
seer
in potash,
8 times in nitrogen,
2 to 3 maunds
all
per
ordinary crops
are
in
of oil-cake for bighais an adequateapplication rice,jute,etc.). Crops valued for their (i.e., benefited
of ashes by the application valued their for benefited oil-cakes. pods,though than Crops by damaged by nitrogenous manures. manures, may be actually potassic of animals are Saltpetre,oil-cake,solid and liquidexcrements Ashes contain therefore often unsuitable for leguminouscrops. as a rule 5 to 10% of potash. leaves
or
for
pods are
(4) Calcareous
more
manures.
snails,kankar, gypsum,
"
E.g., lime, shells of cockles and
etc.
is best suited for leguminouscrops, This class of manures make the other constituents of soils to function chief being their available. Like phosphorusand potash,lime also increases readily tendencies of plants. Whenever fore therethe floweringand fruiting it is noticed that leaves, but backward
plantsor or
trees
reluctant
in
vigorousin producing puttingforth flowers and are
of lime, ashes, and bones should be fruits,the application
xesorted
at once
to.
of any value as a manure except for (5) Salt. This is scarcely such as cabbages,mangold,asparagus, cocoacertain special crops "
Impure salt and Khari nimak are better manures of saltpetre contain an admixture and pure salt,as they sulphate. Salt strengthensfibres of jute, cotton, etc. checks exuberant growth of leaf. nut,
etc.
than sodium It also
advice of Lawes and Gilbert, the greatestagricultural practical should of be chemists always borne in mind in England, for special Use phosphates manures choosingspecial crops :" The
"
GENERAL
for and
399
SUMMARY.
like root-crops,potashfor active nitrogenfor grain." this head may Indirect manuring. Under
turnipsand such
leguminousplants be
"
included the
following (a) Feedingof cattle with oil-cake on fallow land. (6)Growing of leguminouscrops, for pulse,for fibre dhaincha and sunn fodder, specially hemp which are very : "
for rich in or
root-nodules. but not too free irrigation. (c) Growing crops by irrigation wells every two or three (d) Cleaningof sewers, tanks, foils,
includingvegetableand cleaningthem oi all impurities remains or growthsand applyingthem as manure to fields. of weeds when they are in flower and pitting (e)Gathering
years, animal them
manure.
as
\
round a farm, and of large (/)Growing of trees, generally in for sericulture trees and utilising the silkparticular, worm mulberry
droppings,etc., as manure. (g)Burning weeds and junglesand be
then
done
rich forest
rainy season,
when
the cultivating
land. This should hill tracts. It or only on of the soil being corrected, insect and other results in the acidity removed, ashes pests destroyed,weeds beingeasilyand effectually from burnt weeds gettingmixed up with soil and thus addingto its fertility directly,and indirectly by the manurial constituents soluble as plant-food. of the soil beingrendered more (h) Cultivation of land as long before the sowing season as
except possible,
in the
land should not
be left
tilled without
a crop. of certain insecticidal and fungicidal substances that time. have a manurial value at sowing or transplanting These substances are castor-cake and rape-cakedust, soot, salt,ashes of lime) which can and lime. Spent lime of gas works (sulphide
(i)Use
be had a
month
as
or
bye-productfrom gas works, may be appliedto land two before sowing,and the land worked thoroughly in
a
It acts as a poison both for weeds and insects, the meantime. but by aerificationit becomes converted into sulphateof lime and to the crop that follows. acts as a manure of manure to a previous (j)Application crop, say to the aus benefit the the for of succeedingsugar-cane or potato crop, crop. In this matter of applying manure. the most Instead of applyingthe proficient. the land,they put it at the base of each plant. over manure dung, etc.,in a very finely Applyingcowdung, dried human powdered immediate benefit than applying condition,one derives more in a more natural condition. In Mauritius this these manures
Economical
the
,
Chinese all
manner
"
are
for sugar-cane cultivation,a measure of powdered dung each For of set o ver more cuttings. beingapplied forcing manures, such as nitre,oil-cakes, blood, etc.,manuring at the base of each plantis riskyand should not be done.
is done
400
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
,
Covered
pit. Every cultivator should have a covered pit for refuse matter as sweepings of all kinds,weeds, lichi stones), or hair,feathers,useless seeds and stones (likemango "
throwingin such
bones,flesh, blood,shells, nails,ashes,besides dung and
urine. Over
time to time gypsum or sulphate refuse of all kinds treated with lime or is called compost." The addition of copper sulphate gypsum is recommended iron of or only when there is any sanitary sulphate need for it. Urine givesbetter results when it is applied Liquidmanure. But being in the fresh state than when it is allowed to ferment. this pitshould be of iron or copper.
from sprinkled Mixed
"
"
rich it should be diluted with 10 or 20 times as much water, or appliedbefore preparingthe land for a crop. If it has to be stored for some time before use, the addition of one part of sulphate of iron to 2,000 parts of urine stored, is recommended, both for version sanitaryreasons, and for preventingfermentation and the contoo
of
urea
into
ammonium
carbonate
CHAPTER
LXXXV.
(which
is
a
volatile
substance).
EXHAUSTION,
RECUPERATION
AND
ABSORPTION.
[Whether soils getting graduallyexhausted, or if there is a permanent minimum of recuperation ; Amount of exhaustion means fertility ; Natural by ordinary cropping; Recuperationof phosphates and potash ; Value of manuring undoubted experience ; Available phosphoricacid and potash ; planters' ; Tea Available lime and magnesia ; These as affectingthe question of utilization of soil ; Chieflywith reference to phosof phosphates; Absorptive power phoric silicates ; Physicalabsorption; Absorption acid and potash ; Double without exchange of bases and with exchange of bases].
cropping without sufficient manuring has been exhaustingIndian soils or not, has been usuallyanswered, steadily affirmative. Professor until lately,by experts in undoubted Wallace of Edinburgh University, however, says : Temporary the qualities accumulation fertility, possessedin virtue of some but when this is be dissipated, of material useful to plant,may reduce the land to a lower point. gone, no system of croppingcan in The greaterportionof the land India,which is not newly broken fertility in, annually producesits minimum yield. Where declining WHETHER
"
has been recorded,it was which had accumulated fertility
no
doubt due
to loss of
temporary
fessor during periodof rest." ProWallace assumes without any a as agriculturist, practical natural and that the of soils that this can differs, proof, fertility dismiss from consideration, We be exhausted. can never silica, and lime alumina, soda, even iron, potash,as being magnesia, a
But the every soilfor thousands of crops. is different with phosphoricacid and nitrogen.That soils may become poor in these constituents and may be benefited by well known a nd facts. At are manures phosphatic nitrogenous
abundantly present in case
EXHAUSTION,
AND
RECUPERATION
401
ABSORPTION,
that there are three natural of nitrogenwhich is the most important of recuperation
time,it should
the same methods
be remembered
: (1) by rainfall, (2) by the return determiningfertility in form the of excrements, of the produce of the soil to the soil bodies of dead animals,straw, etc.,and (3)by the action of bacteria, in connection with the roots of leguminous crops. The especially in India has been estimated at eighty total produce of food-grains at 2,500,000tons. million tons and the total export of food-grains
factor
in
aif about i.e.,
3 per cent.
So
we
may
assume
that 3 per
cent,
of this
lost to the country the soil is absolutely There loss due is also another of the to burning of some annually. excrements as fuel,the nitrogenousportion of plant-foodbeing the proportion of such entirelydispersedby burning. What that are burnt, is,cannot be determined. excrements Now, one from takes soil the of about 15 Ibs. an acre graincrop up per average of nitrogen and 7" Ibs. of phosphoricacid. The grain is only 3 and not So it is of an amount the straw. cent, only exported per Ibs. of and Ibs. of acid per acre, less than 15 1\ nitrogen phosphoric that is iost by export,and we can add the nitrogenwhich is lost by the total loss of nitrogen burningof cowdungto this: Most likely derived from plant-food
and 3 or 4 Ibs. by croppingis less than 3 or 4 Ibs. per annum, per acre down by rain alone in the form of of nitrogenper annum comes Then there is the accumulation nitric acid and ammonia. by
So,
leguminouscrops. far
Wallace
what
Wallace's
nitrogenis concerned.
as correct, as of phosphoricacid
manures, phosphatic
Professor
by
conservation
of
opinion is probably questionof supply bones or applicationof The
is therefore of the utmost
calls the
permanent
value
for maintaining
of soils,as fertility
it is
far as phosthe permanent fertility so phoric of where the proportion this constituent
perhapspossibleto exhaust acid is concerned
in the soil is only '05 or less per cent. of phosphoricacid,on In the case
the other hand, we should take into consideration silt depositwhere this takes place and meteoric dust. Permanent or the settlingof cosmic fertility where there is annual movement be exhausted in the case cannot rainfall. For of silt from higherto lower ground by the monsoon remark that the permanent certain localitiestherefore Wallace's is But correct. that such minibe mum exhausted, never can fertility be added to by manuring and more of fertility can grain of doubt. The fuller admits no utilisation of producedper acre, first the is human of and and then consideration, animal, excreta, also be considered. of manure other sources can It has been said, that chemical analysisis not a sufficient guidefor judgingthe actual value of soils but only its potential value ; in other words, that it does not giveany idea of the amounts available form, but only the total in an of plant-food existing of present. This is probablytrue in most quantities plant-food in cribed spiteof the fact that an empiricalmethod has been descases, in of and successfully certain London cases by Dyer applied M,
HA
26
402
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
of phosphoricacid and potash existing find out the quantities in an available form for the immediate use of plants. With regard has yet been satisfactorymethod to nitrogen,however, no discovered of findingout the proportionof available nitrates, of nitrogen,etc.,present in the soil. Indeed, and other sources as nitrates it is difficultto find this out with reference to any soil, there time be At much w ashed out. one as as are so easily may 0-25 per cent, of available nitrates, etc.,in the soil,but if the soil to
is left ploughed up
and bare for a few days and if 0*05 soil may show less than
heavy
ifcinfall
of cent, takes placethe same per Loss to much nitrates. available by drainagemay come as up but this is not what 80 or 100 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre, as lands in with takes water such swamped place even ordinarily chief protectionagainst The the rice fields of Bengal are. as all indeed of soluble and nitrates of loss the plant-foodis the generationof vegetableand animal life,visible and microscopic, When the rainy season at the beginningof the rainy season. under fields which not are actuallycommences, crops, have a of weeds and minute vegetation and also of animals, largeand small. The animal and vegetablelife growing rapidlyin the soil throughout the rains, prevent to a great of fertility. The the washing away extent question of loss food-materials soluble other and of nitrates by drainageis very luxuriant
growth
so very great in the tropics owing and animal life of all sorts of to the rapid propagation vegetable before the advent of the regular vert rainyseason, which helpsto coninto insoluble soluble nitrates,etc., comparatively plasmic proto-
but complicated,
the loss is not
bodies. of plant-foods Availability depends upon four conditions soil of size the of particles ; (2)on the degreeof solubility (1) with which soil particles the soil in water ; (3) on the readiness "
on
acted upon by the carbonic acid gas which is the main active ingredientfor roots being able to utilizefood-substances in the them out of soil particles soil by dissolving ; and (4)on the extent of the to which root developmenttakes place. While the question of phosphoricacid and potash is of the first available quantities have proved that the relative importance,Japaneseinvestigators of lime and proportions magnesia,and the compounds in which are
they are present are of great importancein retaining fertility. have of lime that the and These investigators proved proportion magnesia most favourable for the growth of cereals is as 1 : 1 ; abundant foliage 2 or 3 : 1 ; and for tobacco for crops with more as of lime and magnesia is different 4: 1. But the availability as the As sulphateof state in which they occur. according to available to plants than as magnesia, magnesium is more burnt available pulverizedand magnesia,and.the latter is more varies with than the carbonate of magnesia; but the proportion character of the soil and to the proportionof humus the physical matter
present, less harm
beingdone
when
there is
excess
of
404
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
whole and partlydecomposed. Cut off of a largebottle and placethe bottle vertically with the bottom the mouth its mouth downwards, being secured with a plug of Fill the bottle with clay loam slightly wool. moistened cotton dilute ammonia Then pour water in small quantities with water. It will be until the liquidbegins to drop from the lower end. little than mere In this more water. found that this liquidis
absorbed by the soil
as
a
of ammonia absorbed by clay. are quantities tion If you repeatthe above experimentwith sulphateof potashsoluinstead of ammonia will be out water, the water percolating of found to contain only traces of sulphateof potash, but more of of soda. If of and lime, sulphate magnesia sulphate sulphate out will be percolating you use sulphateof magnesia,the water found to contain littlesulphateof magnesia,but more sulphateof and soda, sulphateof lime sulphateof potash. If you use sulphate of soda, the filtratewill contain littlesulphateof soda, but more of magnesia, of sulphate sulphateof lime and sulphateof potash. nitrate If you use solution,the filtrate will be found potassium nitrate but more of calciurr.. nitrate, to contain littleor no potassium In nitrate. and sodium of nitrate each these cases magnesium retained by the soil by chemical agents the bases suppliedare way,
considerable
.
lurkingin it,while lime, magnesia or
some
other base
is removed
Ammonia water with the acid radicle,if any. not containing an while in the other out acid radicle,the water comes cases pure, nitric acid combines with the bases of the soil. the sulphuric or If similar experiments be tried with phosphate of potash and silicateof potashit will be found that both phosphoricacid and silicic acid and and potash in the one case potash in the sorbed other are retained by the soil. Alkaline carbonates are also absoil without the hardly any decomposition.Speaking by nitrates and sulphatesare chlorides, decomposed,while generally,
carbonates and phosphatesare silicates,
absorbed without position. decomSoil has also the power of absorbing minute quantities of In and nitric acid. each the acid, case chlorine,sulphuric absorptive time the a fter filtrate the is a water limited, i.e., or ing percolatpower of the cotton wool end of the bottle will be found to out contain the salt poured in without decompositionor absorption. Soils do not absorb all the bases with equalreadiness. They have for ammonia, then for potash,then the greatestabsorptive power then soda and for lime. When for the material for magnesia, lastly is readyat hand the maximum of for absorption degree absorption is reached within a few hours, except in the case of phosphates. there is phosphoric acid readyfor absorption, the maximum degreeof absorptionis reached after several days. Relatively is absorbed out of a dilute solution, more though from a strong When
solution absolutely is absorbed. a larger The quantityof quantity4 bases (and acid radicles in the case of phosphates,silicates and tive carbonates)absorbed,dependson various conditions : (1) the relamasses
of soiland the solution ;
(2) temperature, less being "
RECUPERATION
EXHAUSTION,
AND
ABSORPTION.
405
absorbed at a hightemperature ; and (3)the state of the combination For instance,more of the substance to be absorbed. potash is the soil form Absorbed when it is givento the in of phosphatethan as
chloride
or
The
nitrate.
againslightly by water,
bases absorbed
by
more
water
are
only dissolved
out
carbon dioxide, containing
When base has been a completely by or absorbed,it may be partially wholly replaced by another base, absorbed is if soil saturated with a potash given a dose of e.g.,
and
hydrochloricacid.
of soda solution in the above described manner, sulphate part of the potash will be removed, (i.e., much more than if the soil had been washed only with water) and its placetaken by soda. If now the soil is washed with a solution of lime, more of the potashand part of the soda will be washed out and their placetaken by lime. The absorptive of soilsis diminished by ignition and entirely power with A soil,the destroyed by treatment hydrochloric acid. is of which diminished or absorptivepower destroyedby either of back these ways, may get its power if it is treated with carbonate of lime. of soda or carbonate All soils have not equalabsorptive of the greater the absorptivepower Speakinggenerally, power. All good soils decompose to a the soil the greater is its fertility. certain limit salts of potash,magnesia,soda and lime in such a that the bases, and the phosphoric, silicic and carbonic manner acicte,if they are present, are retained in the soil,and nitric, dissolved in the form of hydrochloricand sulphuricacids become compounds of lime,soda, magnesia,etc., taken from the soil,and of plants or then either taken up by roots washed or away, depositedin the dry weather as an incrustation or inflorescence on the surface. Though clay-loamspossess the power of absorption in a very marked degree,absorptivepower has been noticed even in compact rocks,such as basalt,shale,or marl zeolites. The Soils with double silicateshave high absorptive power. double silicates in the soilresemble w hich contain zeolites, hydrated
lime, magnesia,potash and acid. hydrochloric
soda
and
decomposed easilyby
are
Some
of the natural double silicatesof the soil have been actually identified as zeolites, and those containingsuch of have the highabsorptive zeolites. An artificialpreparapower tion of silicateof alumina and soda possesses an absorptive power that of clay-loams.The artificially resembling prepared hydrated double
silicatewhich
shows
the
highestabsorptive power,
contains 46 per cent, of silica, 26 per cent, of alumina, 16 per cent, of soda When this artificially and 12 per cent, of water. prepareddouble silicate is treated with a lime salt,most of the soda is replaced and when afterwards is it treated with potash,lime is lime, by
by potash. In partlyreplaced can
be made
to
enter
the same way, magnesia and ammonia into the compositionof this artificialmixture be called soil. That natural soils contain
which may now similar double silicatesto those of this artifically preparedsoil, is rendered certain by the following facts : (1) Soils which after "
treatment
with
acid yield to hydrochloric
a
solution of carbonate
406
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
ment of soda a much larger quantityof soluble silicathan before treathave with hydrochloric a acid, generally high absorptive which a cid lose their with treated Soils hydrochloric (2) power. of carbonate of addition this on absorptive regain power power
silica to carbonate of lime which enables the precipitated or re-form hydrated silicates. (3) Hydrates of iron and aluminium of ammonia, have the power of absorbingsmall quantities potash, when or carbonates, phosphates; but etc., presentedas hydrates, they have very littlepower of absorbingbases when presented in
soda
the form of chlorides, or sulphates
They have the power absorbing small quantitiesof
nitrates.
of
acid and also fixingphosphoric acid and acid, fixingthem as highlybasic hydrochloric sulphuric compounds. (4) Hydrated silicicacid has an absorptive power
of also has the power for free bases or carbonates. (5) Humus absorbingbases when they are in a free state, or as carbonates or silicates. When phosphoricacid is presentedin a soluble form of lime),it first acts acid phosphateof lime (Superphosphate as the in carbonate the of soil lime to form a less acid phosphate on and afterwards (DicalciumPhosphate)
neutral
phosphate(Tricalcium
Phosphate); possiblysome phosphateof magnesia also is formed. These combiningwith the iron and alumina of the soil become fixed as phosphatesof iron and alumina. The reactions that take place be expressedby the following equations: may "
'
(1) 3CaH.P208
+
2Fea03
(2) 3CaH,PA-t-2Al203
=
-
2Fe,Pa08+ CasP8Ot+ 6H2O.
2AI.P.O.
The absorption of phosphoricacid is more rapidin calcareous soils than in clays or sands. sands and Clays absorbing go on ate phosphoricacid for several days. One of the functions of carbonacids of lime in soilsis to supply lime with which of certain salts may The combine, so as to enable the bases to be absorbed. calcium carbonate of the soil naturally added as manure, present or
helps to keep compound
up proper silicates.
between equilibrium
the
bases
of
the
The three kinds of absorption be shortlyillustrated thus : may (1) Physicalabsorption, colouringorganicmatter e.g., when is removed from buffalo-dung such as the dung of buffaloes fed on
absorbed by the soil. without (2) Absorption exchangeof bases, as
mango
leaves, and
in the
case
of
hydrates,carbonates, phosphatesand
silicates. Hydrates of iron and humus take an active part in this absorption. (3) Absorptionwith exchangeof bases,in which the hydrated compound silicates are the active agents. For ordinary fertile soils this kind of absorption playsthe most importantpart. Those ash constituents of plantswhich are most valuable and least abundant those which aj:e fixed in largequantities in the soil are ; acid and in when liberated the These potash. e.g., phosphoric soil by the action of weatheringof rocks or soil particles, mediately imare and aluminium
fixed
by this absorptive power.
Those
saline matters
NITROGENOUS
407
MANURES.
which
and nitrates, are easily washed away, e.g.,chlorides, sulphates either requiredby plantsin (with the exceptionof nitrates) or are very insignificant quantities, abundantlypresent in the soil,or suppliedto it without human aid. are
CHAPTER NITROGENOUS
LXXXVI. MANURES.
highest value ; Bacteria utilizingfree nitrogen of the air albuminoid in foot-nodules ; Nitrites useless as matter accumulating sodium, Nitrates in nature, as plant-food; Sewage-water for irrigation; potassium and calcium nitrates ; Nitrogenin relation to bases ; Ammonium sulphatea product of gas works ; Crude gas liquorto be diluted if applied; than be more Urea also utilised by plants ; Loss of nitrates by drainage may earth N itrous ;* made Conditions ; suitable for nitrification ; up by nitrification of saltpetre JVitre-beds ; Manufacture of nitrates ; Bhadoi and ; Application
LNitrogenas nitrates
of
and
benefited ; Leguminous crops sometimes injured; early Rabi crops chiefly and putrefactionretard nitrification in farm-yard Compost heaps ; Antiseptics vation to be used, not caustic lime ; Consergypsum of nitrates into nitrites and free nitrogen in ; ; Originof nitrates in soil ; Nitrificationof urine ; Export of saltpetre swamps Value of nitrogenas compared to those of phosphoricand potash; Causes of of composition of dung ; Nitrogenin urine"its variation proportionand the torms which of different animals ; it occurs urine and m of dung Composition ; Litter; Urine earth; Box-manure; Value of Indian cow-dung and urine about in one ton the same of plant-food as of English cow-dung and urine ; Amounts ; Calcium of manure
manure
ot
farm-yard
carbonate
manure
;
Poudrette
;
or
Reduction
;
;
determined ments by experirefuse ; Ammonia ; nitrogen; Albuminoids; Green
Practical value of cow-dung
as
; Silt ; Vegetable Town-sweepings
acid; Conditions affectingloss of ; Aquatic weeds ; Straw ; Saw-dust ; Leaves ; Seeds ; Oil-cakes ; silk,indigoand glue factories, particularly Megass ; Refuse of sugar-refineries, Nitric
^
manuring
Blood ; Flesh ; Skin ; Horn ; Hair ; Feather ; Carcasses of fish ; Guanos ; Utilization of sewage ; Deodorizing and sewage processes ; Practical value of sewage grass ; Crops suitable for refuse of Animal than value more irrigation vegetable refuse.] ; sewage
rich of
;
; Soot ^Coal
animals
;
;
Refuse
tuents constiOt the four principal manurial of Nitrogen." requiredby plants"nitrogen, potassium,and phosphorus,
Sources
calcium" nitrogenis the most important,and, on the whole, it may be said,the richer a substance is in nitrogenthe greater is its value as a manure. Green plantsare not able to make any use of the free nitrogen of the air,but alga3, and possibly some fungi called in this form. make some of nitrogen can use Minute fungi,
bacteria,having a tendencyto accumulate nitrogenous organic of the leguminous order, compounds at the roots of plants, chiefly air these plantsderive benefitfrom the free nitrogen of the through the to
help of
these bacteria. As nitrites also,plantsare of nitrogen.The nitrates contained in use coming in contact with sewage, may become more
make
water
reduced
in which form the nitrogenis of nitrites, with sewage water is therefore not plants.Irrigation of effective means manure applyingnitrogenous very to
Nitrogen
is
absorbed
by
in the form plantschiefly
not
able
irrigation or no
use
less to
always a
to land. of nitrates
408
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and ammonia salts. Nitrates occur (KNOS), in nature as saltpetre Chili saltpetre walls, inflorescence and on saline also as (JfaNO.) which is largely nitrate calcium nitrate (Ca)(N08)a. Ammonium Chili and also occurs in air and in rain water. Saltpetre Of nitrate are largelyused for manure. is ammonium used for manure salts the substance most largely and ammonium of gas-liquor, out sulphatewhich is manufactured is therefore a bye-product crude gas liquor of gas-works. The wheat diluted with water is also sometimes used for application on
saltpetreor
and
sodium
other cereal crops. Nitrates. In connection
with the questionof recuperation of nitrogen in the soil,the agency of bacteria is to be considered the most important. Loss by drainageis generally made entirely "
In fact,while by this natural recuperation. of nitrogenper acre by croppingis only about under an treatment drainage come injudicious may up
the 15
expenditure Ibs.,loss by
up to as much to been also known
80 or 100 Ibs. per acre, but bacteria have accumulate in a singleseason. 80 or 100 Ibs. of nitrogenper acre On the one to this fixation hand, a free and moist soil is helpful of nitrogen, while on the other, such soil is also liable to loss by drainage in wet weather. A free and open soil kept moist, but time protected at the same from rain,is therefore most helpful The of nitrates. to the fixation of nitrogen and the production The also essential. of is in the soil some presence organicmatter from the productionof nitrates (whichmust be clearly distinguished bacteria] fixation of nitrogen, determined by althoughit is also
as
in conditions which naturallyprevail used manure and and old homesteads as village sites, dug up known to give good results. But artificialnitre-beds under are used shade may be formed on every farm, and the earth regularly Further refined and purified, as this nitrous earth,or manure. lona mati, so extensively the United Provinces in used as manure
agency) is produced under
and
of the saltpetre parts of Bihar, yields
commerce.
and to a certain extent in several districtsof the United Provinces, and the Punjab. More than two-thirds of the saltpetreexportedfrom Calcutta from Tirhut, Saran and Champaran. The climate best comes suited for the productionof nitre is where dry weather follows the the rains and thus by evaporation allows the salt to effloresceon is manufacturedlargelyin Bihar Saltpetre
is helpful of carbonate of lime in abundance for the districtof Tirhut to the generation of nitre, and this accounts being so fruitful in the productionof nitre,for almost half of its in Bihar is in the hands of a soil is calcareous. The manufacture sites and mud caste called the Nuniahs, who revel in old village
surface. Presence
walls. They make pilesof loose earth after the rains are over stuff may not and build mud walls round them, that the precious be washed away. This earth is obtained by scrapingoff an inch into conical heaps 2 to 4 ft. two of the bed chosen and made or high. By March or April,when a largenumber of these heaps
409
MANURES.
NITROGENOUS
have been collected, the processes of solution and filtrationbegin. The best temperature for nitrification is 98"F.,and if this and of moisture could be given artificially in presence of carbonate lime and organicmatter, nitre-beds and heaps would give the best results. Kalsies are placedon tripods, each kalsi having a hole it at its bottom. A layerof straw is put at the bottom, over ashes from indigorefuse,and then the vessel is nearly filled with the saline earth, in a loose manner. Under each kalsi filledwith saline earth is placed an empty kalsi and above it one filledwith water in which an having an orificeat the bottom, in the manner ordinarykalsi filter is arranged. A series of these stands are kalsies is erected side by side,and the liquidfrom the bottom removed from time to time and boiled until the liquorcomes out from obtained free is worth salt that The so it not liquor boiling. contains two to five per cent, of saltpetre. Oval iron pans from to two feet in diameter and six to nine inches in depth are one used for boiling the liquor. The diminishingliquidis from time to
that rise replenishedby fresh supplies.The impurities skimmed off. On attaininga certain degree of concentration, carefully
time
are
shallow vessel and the is copiously This impure precipitate impure saltpetre precipitated. is scooped out from the bottom of the pan at intervals. After 30 to 36 hours of continuous labour,8 to 16 Ibs. of crude saltpetre made Solar heat is are ; the larger pans yieldingup to fortyIbs. is realso used for evaporatingthe liquor. This crude saltpetre crystallisedand then exported to Europe,where it is further refined. the
The
is set apart to liquid
cool in
a
chlorides of potassiumand sodium. than potasnitrate is a richer manure sium it contains seven nitric cent, more per
principalimpuritiesare
Weight
for
weightsodium
nitrate,inasmuch acid.
In
the
as
manufacture
of
gunpowder, however, potassium
nitrate is in use, but for the manufacture of nitric acid, sodium nitrate. In India,potassiumnitrate being much cheaper,it is the
best
manure nitrogenous
to
use,
the
potassiumalso beinga
able valu-
plant-food. Utilization of
Nitrogen by plants. Nitrogenis absorbed "
by
of nitrates than
other in any In water-culture experimentsnitrates are relied upon as the form. best source salts are less certain. Nitrates of nitrogen.Ammonia the of and impart to them a rich leaves chiefly growth promote
plantsmore
readilyin
the form
colour. In Peru, crude nitrate of soda is found incrusting the soil of a desert. Hence this article rather than saltpetre is chieflyused for manurial purpose in America and Europe. Scrapings from pucca walls or damp and dirtylimestone buildings are rich in nitrate of lime which is also a good manure. Action of nitrates in plants. Nitrogenis principally assimilated of nitrates in combination with inorganic as bases. The liability nitrates gettinglost by washing when there is a crop growingin the field,is not, therefore, great. The change of nitrates into amides and finally takes placefairly into proteidsusually rapidly green
"
410
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
in very immature the nitrogen grass or fodder is it is therefore not of and indicative albuminoids, necessarily advisable to use fodder plantsbefore they flower. Manner manure. of application of nitrates as Saltpetre,
in the
plant,but
not
"
nitrate and Calcium nitrate should be Sodium or Chili-saltpetre other substance, diluted with mixed and some as applied manure, such as water, loam or dung,at the rate of 100 to 150 Ibs. per acre. It should not be mixed with dung, as the latter contains many organismswhich reduce the nitrogenin the nitrates to the free The application the when state. should be only as top-dressing plantsare six to nine inches high,as germinationand growing of young is in
seedlingsare
much benefited by the of that the application
not
showery
application.It
nitrates weather proves beneficial. It is,therefore,applicable to earlyBhadoi crops or benefited,also those earlyRabi crops. Grain crops are chiefly which are valued for their leaves,such as pot-herbs cabbages, (sags), most
mulberry, etc. are
Onions,
also benefited
by
table
and vegetables
nitrates.
Leguminous
root-cropsgenerally be
may
crops
actually
injuredby
the application. Nitre-bed. Each farmer can
easilyhave
"
and enclosed nitre-bed as fields. It is important to 98"F. as is possibleunder
a
perpetualsource
his of
own
manure
covered for his
uniform temperature as near Below 40" the climatic conditions. 45"F. and above 130"F. nitrification ceases. The earth should or be kept loose. There should be enough of moisture, lime and secure
a
Warington organicmatter in it,but not too much of the first two. could not ordinarily discover nitrifyingbacteria below a depth of eighteen inches and the looseness of soil in the nitre-bed need therefore extend beyond this depth. Darkness not also favours nitrification. This is one dark cellars and sheds. trees
sheds.
or
should be kept in why manures Compost heaps should be also kept under reason
Salt,coal-tar,spent lime of gas works, ferrous
sulphate and process
the disinfectants or germicidesgenerally,retard of nitrification. Rapid putrefactionalso hinders nitrification,
and remain
it is therefore
sweet.
A
heaps should necessary that manure and puddly pen or cow house is not so of nitrificationas a stallin which the dung
wet
suitable for the process is
spreadabout
and
and only occasionally kept moderatelywarm with urine. The lime used for nitre-beds should never be in the form of caustic lime which sets free ammonia and hinders but in the form of carbonate. nitrification, Warington has pointed that out if gypsum is mixed with strong solutions of urine so that moistened
the carbonate
is converted to sulphate of ammonia and the excessive of the liquid annulled,they could be nitrified more alkalinity Excessive fication. is inimical to the process of nitrieasily. alkalinity * ^
Conditions suitable for
The nitrification. practicallessons to be deduced from these principles : are (1) Cattle (except,of in be should when they are not course, dairy cattle) kept stalls, "
"
412
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
More
than three-fourths of the value of nitrogenit contains.
dung depends upon
the
Trade in saltpetre. The quantityof saltpetreannually exported 40 valued at over from India is nearly 600,000 maunds Jakhs of rupees. Most of this goes to Great Britain and the United States of America for the manufacture of gunpowder. It is more "
form in a comparatively pure than five or six per cent, of impurities (say,containingnot more which in Calcutta about Us. 6 per maund), than crude costs of foreign cent, which contain 30 to 50 .saltpetre per may to satisfactory
use
this
manure
matter.
withstanding Relative values of nitrogen, acid, and potash. Notphosphoric the potentiality of soils for accumulatingnitrates "
under
circumstances, the
speciallyfavourable
applicationof
to soils has for its chief objectthe addition of nitrogen in a of manures In estimatingthe value available form. ammonia, phosphoricacid and potash may be practicalmanner, manures
in
an
valued valued
Gas.,3as.
at
in
and
2as.
England even in
poor
at
8d.
nitrogenand
Ammonia lb., respectively.
a a
lb. Indian
nitrogen being the
plant-food,the proportions of nitrogen that
are
or
be
can
soils
used to enrich the
in
being particularly
most
various
soil, should
is
be
valuable substances
carefully
studied. is
which easilyavailable manure into the soil used for bringing and indirectly nitrogendirectly
is
farm-yardmanure.
Farm-yard
manure.
"
The
most
It consists of solid and
liquidexcrements much in composition.
of all farm animals and litter. It varies very the variation of The conditions that determine
compositionare
: "
of the animal producingit; (2) condition of the animal, whether lean or fat ; (3) the speciesof the animal ; (4)food of the animal ; (5)temperature ; (6)accommodation generally ; (7)quantity and kind of litterused, and (8) management during accumulation and its after-treatment. Loss in digestion.During the passage of food through the
{!) age
"
.alimentarycanal of and
the mineral
an
matter
animal, nearlythe whole of the nitrogen are got back either in the solid or the
with adult and fattening This is the case chiefly animals. In the case of young animals and milkingcows, the is e xcreted than half the quantity much less. A little more nitrogen
liquidexcrements.
of
nitrogentaken in as food is givenoff in urine,which shows what urine is. The remaininghalf (or manure nitrogenous and partlystored less)is partlyvoided with the solid excrement the the of in animal. body up Adult animals void a larger of nutritive matter than amount animals The animals milk. in latter or a use growing good up "deal of phosphates, nitrogenand mineralsalts requiredfor the formation of bones,blood,and muscles,or milk. Pregnantanimals and lean animals also absorb a good deal of nutriment, and their Animals excrements are poorly poorer than those of fat animals. a
valuable
NITROGENOUS
MANURES.
Animals ripegrass)yieldpoor manure. fed on carrots, oats, pulses, chaff,bran, fresh green herbageand richer manure. oil-cake,yield specially voided by cattle. The average amount Quantityof excrements be put down at about 50 of dung voided by cattle in Bengal may fed
(onlyon
straw
and
"
of urine at 10 maunds and the average amount obtained at The actual averages Sibpur in 1894 were
maunds
per annunu 46 maunds
of urine,and in 1896, 73 maunds of dung dung and 11 maunds The for urine. of urine is and 5J maunds European average would be expected, viz.,, third much largerin proportion oneas of
weightof dung. The followingtable of animals. Compositionof excrements and Johnston Cameron's Elements of Agricultural compiledfrom of and the idea an gives Geology, Chemistry composition animals of dung and urine of the various classes of farm in
or
more
of the
"
1,000 parts :"
Pig'surine and human urine are very similar in composition, in the highpercentage of phosphoric especially acid. The excrements of sheep are the most concentrated,then of the horse then of the ox, and last of all of pigsand of men. Cow-dungcontains of water and is poorest in the largest proportion nitrogenof all the dungs. Horse-dung is drier and richer, sheep'sdung is the richest. Bird's dung and insect droppingsare still richer in and acid. In potash, phosphoric order of value,insect nitrogen, first,then bird's dung and bat's dung, then droppingscome sheep'sdung and goat'sdung, then horse's dung,pig'sdung and human dung, and last of all dung of oxen and buffaloes. The d ifferences in principal composition between dung and urine, besides the difference in the proportion of water, are : (1)Urine is richer in nitrogen (exceptin the case of pig-urine) and in alkaline salts (potashand soda),while dung is richer in the earthy salts (lime and magnesia),and phosphates.(2) Silica "
AGRICULTUKE.
OF
HANDBOOK
abundantlypresent in dung of animals
is
because chiefly
lot of earth with their food. Human of other animals,differ very much excrements
eat
they
excrements,
a
accordingto
like the
food eaten. As the watery portionof urine and Gain by evaporation. evaporates, urine gets richer and richer in nitrogenthan
dung dung, 75% of
"
90% of
over
In
moisture.
being water, while dung contains 70 to allowingurine to get evaporatedand concentrated,
urine
kept in check by adoptinga quick method substance. or by using an antiseptic evaporation,
fermentation of
be
must
used straw Litter. Buck-wheat and so does the straw of the manure, used value of cereal straws manurial "
the
proportionof nitrogen they
and young
litter,as
leaves of all kinds used contain
they
in
of the straw contains straw
return as
rice straw
*5%
per
the value
leguminouscrops. The depends on
litter mainly
as
contain.
Dried
litter have
ferns, rushes,
as
a
other to the land is very essential of nitrogen,1% of potash and *3% of of land acre an as yieldsabout 2,000 Ibs. form
some
phosphoricacid, and of
of
to
specialvalue as high proportionof potash. The
very
a
litter adds
as
or
the restoration
annum,
of the straw
is
a
great
that the total quantityof nitrogen, matter, considering phosphoric acid and potashtaken out by a crop of rice (grainand straw) is about no
10
bedding
cattle. Use
Ibs.,
Ibs.,and
5
material
or
of dry earth.
51bs.,respectively. Practically
litteris used in India for the comfort
of
a Cawnpore Experimental Farm the floor of the cattle stall, of on dry system of scattering it and and in the it for it sun using drying again removing daily doubt, mattering on the floor,has been introduced. This, no "
the earth
In
more cakes,the urine-earth getsgradually
and
concentrated in nitrogenuntil as much as 1% of nitrogenis accumulated when But the extreme the earth is used as a nitrogenousmanure. of the earth and the exposure to sunlightboth alkalinity go nitrification. Nitrification, however, proceedsafter this against The use of dried leaves, urine-earth has been used as manure. crushed f or litteris advisable, (i.e., sugar-cane) or straw, or megass the floor of which should of cattle in covered stalls, also the feeding more
inches below the level of the surrounding be about eighteen ground. of dung and urine and litter may until The accumulation on go it when reaches the level of the ground, be removed can the manure to the
pitor appliedto
fields.
Gypsum should be scattered
on
the
and again, if this system is adopted,to prevent now of carbonate of ammonia. Gypsum is also a mild The system of converting urine into urine-earth by antiseptic. in it the also be sun adopted. drying may which gives such good The stall-fed manure Box-manure. has found in been to givegood results in the Nagpur results England manure
every
formation
"
ExperimentalFarm Indian
also,and this system therefore is to be and urine cattle-dung
the (specially
mended. recom-
are latter)
415
MANURES.
NITROGENOUS
and
poorer than Englishcattle-dung results of analysesgiven by Dr. Voelcker not
urine, as will show
the
following
:
"
character of dung-manure. In one ton of farmyard Different 9 Ibs. 15 of there to 4 are Ibs. 10 to of phosphoric manure nitrogen, acid and 5 to 13 Ibs. of potash. Manure made in boxes contains 30 Ibs. to twice as much nitrogen(18 dung is per ton). Rotten "
soluble and is a better manure than fresh dung, but it contains which is combined with vegetable acids. During fermentation, dung loses water, carbon dioxide, marsh gas which evolved and in the process, are (methane),hydrogen nitrogen concentrated. About one-third of the and thus it becomes more if it is not allowed to wash is lost even ammonia Dung, away. which is not pittedbut kept spread out, loses two-thirds of its nitrogen. Voelcker gave it as his opinionthat on the whole it was better to use dung and urine fresh on fallow land and use the land afterwards. for cropping In manure four or five months pits the value of dung is reached in a temperate climate in about maximum that the older the four months, and it is a mistake to suppose old dung may contain a very the better it is. Three-years manure
more
littlefree ammonia
small quantityof nitrogenremaining. Practical results. Experiments conducted in the different farms in India have led to the conclusion that the Government of about six tons of cow-dung per acre results in an application "
increased
of 300
400
Ibs. of wheat
(Cawnpore and f or increase of 200 to an Nagpur give figures the of maize 300 Ibs. case average increase at Cawnpore has been 400 to 500 Ibs. per acre. or Poudrette, night-soil-manure pittedwith ashes and town much in varies refuse, naturally composition.The poudrette very outturn
to
The In the
Dumraon).
in deep municipaltrenches gives rise to an and the Meagher system of utilising smell, night-soil by
formed
offensive
depositing
416
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
sive, coveringthese with three inches of soil is lessoffenin the latter as in the dry decomposition case, especially weather, is very rapid. The poudrettemade by dryingonly,on the continent of Europe,contains about 25 per cent, of moisture, 3 per cent, of phosphoric acid and 3 per cent, of nitrogen, 1 J per Mixed with of of cent, sulphate lime,earth,etc.,the poupotash. drette is less valuable,containing only 2 per cent, of nitrogen or less. made at Poona was found to contain about 1 per cent, The poudrette and J to 1 \ per cent, of phosphoric acid. The poudrette of nitrogen made at Cawnpore was found to contain *4 to -7 per cent, of nitrogen. from poudretteat Cawnpore from the appliThe increased outturn cation it
on
beds and the
has been 500 to 1,000 Ibs. of maize and of six tons per acre in excess of the unmanured 400 to 600 Ibs. of wheat per acre plots. has been for found better manure a weight,poudrette Weight Grass Farm, the amount than cow-dung. At the Allahabad of the appliedper acre (on Meagher system) is 168 tons night-soil The 10 in of green grass obtained at once acre weight years. per varies 10 30 from farm to tons this which is per acre per annum, from of three A to ten tons to more extended of hay. use equivalent is and for urine manure highlydesirable. It is in this night-soil of Chinese is in advance of the the that agriculture system respect Town less valuable Indian. as sweepings are as manure, they
contain about *3 or '4 per cent, of nitrogen, but as they have no be should used for manure. offensive odour, they At readily Poona such sweepingsare used for sugar-cane and at Allahabad for results. The sullagewater of grass land with very satisfactory into the nearest run town drains, which is usually river,is also Mr. a valuable manure. Wyer, a Collector of Meerut,utilized his its value to cultivators. small farm for the purpose of illustrating it with doubled Two the outturn of cotton, maize, irrigations that and with obtained well oats over water. There is, juar,
indeed, which
a
is may
largesupply
of
usuallyallowed be made
conducted, and under
to
a source
proper
in cities and
manure
go of
to
waste.
mofussil towns
Conservancyarrangements
if municipalities profit are properly
management
the utilization of sewage
for
would better sanitary a agriculture secure other of than mode o f disposing the materials. any improvement of value The canal and tank silt as Silt. river, is manure difficult to ascertain than the value of dung, urine or stillmore refuse. Silt is a very importantsource of plant-foodand town In Eastern land. of recuperation Bengal,largetracts of country silt The results of analysesmade by only for manure. depend pp. Dr. Leather with the Upper Eastern Jumna Canal silt show that the the silt depositduring monsoon than sufficient periodis more and 41 Ibs. of phosphoric for the rice crop (32 Ibs. of nitrogen acid and
sweepings "
havingbeen accounted for from this source),while during per acre the cold weather when the canal water is clear,the amounts of nitrogenand phosphoricacid suppliedby silt depositare very aftd 1 Ib. of phosphoric (only| a Ib. of nitrogen acid insignificant
NITROGENOUS
417
MANURES.
however, per acre). All silts,
not
valuable.
Sandy silt may the soil. in soilis of littledirect use to plants. Humus or have even Some suggestedthat humus is poisonous experimenters of balance but evidence the shows that indirectly to plants it is a ; lower and valuable source of plant-food, to the forms of vegetable of food. life it is a direct source Ammonia and nitrates, which are forms in which the principal is taken nitrogen up by plants,are the greaterproportionof present only in very minute proportions, and non-available nitrogenremainingin the soil in a non-mineralised be
depositedon
good soil and vegetablerefuse
Peat
form.
contains
from
are
cause
damage
to
to four per cent.,
one
usuallyabout
of nitrogenin soils per cent, of nitrogen. The usual proportion -01 -5 from soil When contains more to than -5 per is a per cent. two
cent,
it should nitrogen,
of
Humus
constituent. form
of
ammonia.
is lost
The
very
rich in this
important
in the alkalies, givesoff nitrogen
nitrogen in and
unavailable
by the
be considered
boiled with
humus
exists
in
various
combinations, of alkalies, Part of the nitrogen by fermentation. free nitrogenin course of fermentation,but the greater it is only
slowlyrendered
available
action as
less or organic combinations which are more decompose, and, without decomposition, they are probably useless to plants. Nitrates are undoubtedly valuable of all plant-foods the most and these are slowly formed out of the ammonium formed position humate, ulmate, etc., by the decominto
portion enters and
insoluble
of
Urea.
"
difficult to
humus.
Ammonia, urea, uric acid, hippuric acid and guanin in urine)are also easilydecomposed givingammonia
(which occur ultimatelynitrates,and
and
so
are
very
valuable
sources
of nitrogenous
plant-food. soil under The Ammonia. ordinary circumstances absorb o f from the atmosphere, and condense minute quantities ammonia of the soil is also beingcontinually but the ammonia diffused into the air. If a soil contains of deal ammonia and is in a a good in plant-food,but on moist state, it is rich drying such soil with its ammonia. On soil again and this readilyparts moistening ammonia is given out and so on. The constituents dryingit,more of soil which have the greatest attraction for ammonia are clay, ferric hydrate and aluminum hydrate. With acids of the humus and with compound silicates, ammonia forms compounds group which are soluble. Ammonia in the air very sparingly escapes and If sulphateof lime probably as carbonate of ammonia. smells mixture carbonate of ammonia mixed are together,the of ammonia, but ifthe mixture be thoroughlymoistened strongly with water, the odour of ammonia nium ammois no longerperceived, If the mixture sulphateand carbonate of lime beingformed. of is dried, carbonate of ammonia is againgiven off and sulphate formed. The latter is,therefore, lime is called a ^ixer of ammonia, but itis onlyin the damp state that itis a fixer. Potassium chloride, Of these,gypsum kainit,clayand peat are also fixers of ammonia. "
M,
HA
27
418
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
dung-heapsand stables,but kainit and then gypsum. then peat,then clay,
be used in
may
is the best substance
It is difficult It is manure. to estimate the amount into acid and nitric of also is it changed part being continually i nto If air. a quantityof soil is boiled constantlybeing dispersed is ammonia the not only caustic-alkali, with actuallypresent to use,
of ammonia
but also obtained in the distillate, the
from
in soil and
additional
an
present. If
organicmatter
magnesia is used instead of
quantitiesof ammonia
potash,much smaller of ammonia actual proportion is
There
a
in soil is
the
sea
to
per
air,more
air of hot countries
and
percolation.But than
in the hot weather of towns
contains
than of temperate climates and The subsoil contains less ammonia respectively.
proportionof ammonia country
The cent.
between water, air the final reservoir for much
givesoff ammonia The
-0005
interchangeof ammonia
constant
in the cold.
obtained.
are
only about
and soil,and the sea appears to act as washed of the ammonia by drainageand away also
quantityliberated
a
larger of
the than
below a depth of about the surface soil,and there is no ammonia six feet. and in some Nitric acid is formed in the air by electricity cases and then down rain and of and the action brought dew, by ozone, by with ammonia other meteoric waters, nearlyalways combined as first noticed the formation of nitric nitrate. ammonium Priestley Nitrates acid in the atmosphere and Liebigfound it in rain water. and nitrites are formed in the soil also and in manure heaps,and and removal and their formation by plants drainageare questions
of very of are
science. great importance to agricultural
Some
chemists
nitrates are formed nitrogenof of soil is intervention but there certain the no proof only, by formed of this ; but that they are by the intervention of bacteria
opinionthat
from
the
free
air
also
by
that
of
algaehas
been
proved. Nitrates are very in combination soluble and theyare washed away out of soils chiefly with lime as calcium nitrate. Soils containing much ferric hydrate (FeaOa 3HaO) are better able to retain nitrates as basic ferric much air has to which nitrate. Soils containing organic matter have their nitric acid reduced to ammonia not free access partly nitrous In a nd last forms oxide. free the two to nitrogen, nitrogen is useless to vegetation.This is one reason why humous soils should
and
cultivated whether there are crops on them or not. When a soil is in good condition as much as 80 Ibs. of nitrogenmay into nitrates per acre be converted to annum a depth of per twenty-seven inches, the largestquantity being formed in the top nine inches. The ratio has been found in England between the first nine inches,the next nine inches and the third nine inches to be 100 : 60 : 30. residues Crop being easilynitrifiable, those crops which leave behind a largequantityof organicmatter of any consideration as regards go to improve soils irrespective root-nodules,etc. Again, old nitrogenous qrganicmatter in the be
kept well
soil nitrifies much
more
slowly than
recent
organic
matters.
420
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
first stage of putrefactionwith excess of the evolution of some is which H9S gas, cultivation from poisonousto plants. Aerification by constant the end of August to the end of October or middle of November into sulphateswhich are valuable as plantconverts the sulphides food. Destruction of weeds and luxuriant plantsgrowing by the that the
remembered
moisture
givesrise to
edges of fields when they are serves using them as manure,
in
flower
also the
before seeding)and (i.e., purpose
of
destroyinga
pests and
natural harbour parasites.Other crops used in other countries for green manuring are, mustard, turnips,rape, tares, lucerne, lupin,spurry, and clover. Residues of many crops and be considered as a kind of greenshed leaves after harvest may In and roots stubbles, manure. usually half of the quantity of but in the case harvested is left, leguminous crops, the residues of
are
equalvalue
of
point
to the crop
Root behind
littleresidue
very
harvested,from
a
chemical
or
manurial
(potatoes,cabbages,"c.), leave crops and are therefore more exhausting than
Barley leaving little residue should be considered exhausting crop for the surface soil. Lucerne, a perennial
other an
of
view.
crops.
four tons of crop residue as crop, leaves as much therefore fyeregardedas a in the top ten inches of soil and it may for soils. The useful residue of four tons of fertilizing crop very
leguminousfodder
vegetablematter contains over 100 Ibs. of nitrogen. Aquaticweeds. Of other easily available nitrogenousmanures "
may be
be mentioned
appliedat
weeds and
sea-
which aquaticweeds generally
of ten to
the rate
tons
may
In fresh
twenty per and 10 to 14 per cent, 70 to 80 per cent, of water The true ash is only 3 or 4 per cent. of ash which includes sand. The nitrogenvaries from -15 to -5 per cent., usuallyabout a quarter state
per
and
acre.
they contain
They
valuable
taining confarmyard manure, of weeds, seaonly nitrogen. The value "c., is,however, greatlyenhanced by the presence of shells
cent.
animals
are
not
half
the
and
animal
so
as
proportionof
remains, which
raise
the percentage of
acid and nitrogen. Where weeds are available in large phosphoric it is advisable to use them fuel and inexhaustible quantities, as collect the ashes for manure. and then carefully Straw is another readily available manure. pending deThe value of the proportionof nitrogenand of ash. Straws on than *4 per cent, of nitrogenand 4 cereals rarelycontain more of ash. Straws of leguminous crops, however, often per cent, contain as much two as more per cent, of nitrogen. Straws are valuable as cattle food than as manures, except barleystraw, which
has a tendency to produce colic. Perfectly ripestraw is not so fodder nor When wholesome valuable as manure. too ripe, as so fectly Perstraws in than straws. cereal are leguminous nitrogen poorer in nutritive value as fodder by being ripe straw gains stacked. Saw-dust is a poor manure if there is much resinous especially in the wood. The saw-dust Irom gas-worksabsorbinga matter of ammonium large proportion sulphateis a good manure.
NITROGENOUS
Sawdust
improvesthe
421
MANURES.
mechanical
of
texture
and it should soils,
be utilized wherever available. Leaves of trees either ploughed in or firstused as litter and then applied to fields as manure are a fairlygood fertilizer. Their
composition varies, but usuallyleaf-mould contains *5 to -1 per cent, of nitrogen,*1 to *3 per cent, of potash,and '1 to -4 of
phosphoricacid.
Sedges,rushes, and
ferns
richer in
are
potash.
Peat is sometimes
rich in nitrogen used to fertilizesoils, as it is fairly often very rich in ash constituents (5 to 20 per cent.),especially Peat may be used in cow-houses and in phosphoricacid.
and
stables
it absorbs
as
scarcelyany per cent,
liquidmanures
manurial
nitrogenand
of
also, decomposing very burnt and oil-cakes
the ash
used
well.
When
value. when
dry slowly,is a as
fibre has
Cocoanut
fresh,it contains -2 per poor
It should
manure.
Of all
manure.
only *06 Tannery refuse
cent.
be
vegetablemanures,
richest in nitrogen. Rape-cake, earth-nut-cake, cotton-cake, linseed-cake and cocoanut-cake should be first used are
cattle-food and
the excrements rancid, and neem-seed-cake,castor-cake and as
getting mouldy
as
or
but cattle-food,
as
appliedas
Oil-cakes
manure.
such
oil-cakes as mustard-cake, ma^wa-cake, should not be used in
generalmanures,
preferenceto dung.
richer in manurial Seeds of all plants are constituents than flowers richer than leaves, and leaves richer than steins. Rape-cake used alone for turnipsand potatoes encourage It should be used along with too luxuriant growth of leaves.
flowers,and
phosphates. Two farmyard
Oil-cake is
dry
soil and
castor-cake some
more
are
cwt.
and
manure
of oil-cake is
the two
manures
may
one
be used mixed
ton
of
together.
weather than in in dry weather. neew-seed-cake and Rape-cake, valuable,as they prevent the attack of specially
insects.
effective in moist
substitute for
a
Rape-cake contains
soil and
3"
to
in wet
5 per
cent,
of
nitrogen,
per cent, of phosphoricacid,and two-thirds of this latter Castor quantity of potash,the total ash being4| to 7J per cent. and maAwa-cake are oil-cake,European mustard-cake poisonous
1J to 3J
to
cattle.
Sugar refuse. Sugar-canerefuse "
fairlygood
"
(called
megass
")
is
a
as nitrogen.Refuse from sugar-refineries, bone-charcoal containingalbuminoid and i.e., other impurities, if it is used is a very good manure, especially manure
it contains
*5 per cent,
of
mixed powdered first in closets and the night-soil up with this of bonecharcoal The utilisation used as manure. powdered charcoal refuse of sugar-refineries palities in a powdered state by municiand its subsequent use for croppingin trenching-grounds would be a great agricultural and sanitaryimprovement in places where such bone-charcoal is available. Coal contains one per cent, of nitrogen which occurs in a form distillation of too inert to be of much In process manurial use. in gas works, however, about one-third of this is converted into into*cyanogen, into organicbases such as ammonia, some some
'
422
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
aniline,a considerable portionbeingleft in the coke, and
a
little
acid is givenoff as free nitrogen. With the addition of sulphuric the ammoniacal is evaporated and the residue is sulphateof liquor ammonia. This crude ammonium sulphateof gas works contains ammonium chloride and ammonium thio-cyanate.This last named and the crude ammonium constituent is poisonousto plants before it is sold. and purified sulphateis,therefore,re-crystallised The ammonium 24 of to 25 per cent, contains sulphate commerce When
of ammonia. cent,
The
of ammonia.
about
2J per
pure
cent, of
sulphateof ammonia ammoniacal liquorof
about ammonia, i.e.,
gallon.Each ton of liquor.Besides ammonia,
per
coal
four
contains 25*5 per gas works contains ounces
of ammonia
distilled produces 10
gallonsof
this liquor contains ammonium ammonium carbonate, ammonium sulphide,
ammonium
compounds, hydrocarbons, and
cyanogen liquoris used for
irrigating crops
it must
chloride,
sulphate,
If gaswith four be diluted or
organicbases.
five times its weight of water. it should be If Ammonium Sulphateis purchasedfor manure, that it is fairly seen or ninety-six containingninety-five pure, i.e., sulphate.The puritycan be judged per cent, of pure ammonium the tests : by (l)Ifa small quantityis heated, it should following leave no residue ; (2)it should be dry ; and (3) it should be crystalline in appearance. for lands naturally It is an excellent manure and it is profitably rich in .phosphates applied to cereals and It sodium does act not or as so potassium quickly quite grasses. Ammonium phate SulLike sodium and potassium nitrates, nitrate. "
should not usually be appliedto leguminous crops. it is a favorite manure. sugar-cane, Sodium nitrate,imported from Chili and hence called
For
Chili
contains 15 to 16 per cent, of nitrogen. Three parts Saltpetre, of ammonium sulphate are equal to four parts of sodium
Sodium nitrate contains nitrogen is concerned. than It nitrate. nitrogen potassium giveslargerincrease of crops than either potassium nitrate or ammonium sulphateand it is an excellent top-dressing but it for cereals and grasses, and the sulphate should not be used too freelywithout of ammonia nitrate
as
far
as
more
phosphaticand potassicmanures.
When
cereals show
a
tendency
much to straw, common salt should be applied mixed of soda. is the usual dose both with nitrate One cwt. per acre up for ammonium sulphateand 'sodium nitrate. In England the values of ammonium sulphateand sodium nitrate are about the than Rs. 5 per maund. "11 per ton, which is rather more i.e., same, of We cannot for less than Rs. 7 either these articles expect to get in this country,and as potassiumnitrate is on the whole per maund for this better economical this is generallymore a manure, into country. The conversion of each municipaltrenching-ground to
a
too
for agricultural use regularnitre-bed where crude saltpetre
may would afford for sale to cultivators, unions and to village object-lesson great sanitaryand agricultural
be a
run
manufactured systematically
423
MANURES.
NITKOGENOUS
other rural and local bodies,and the
subjectis earnestly put agriculture.
forth
for the consideration of students of Indian
Other
Of other easily available be mentioned blood, which contains 3*7 nitrogenousmanures may fresh,and from five to fifteen per cent, per cent, nitrogenwhen in the state of dried blood/ as blood is dried usuallywith contains the addition of gypsum and sulphuricacid. Blood as twenty-three per cent, of dry matter, i.e.,almost as much and flesh,which contains twenty -five per cent, of dry matter four per cent, of nitrogen.Flesh after boiling and dryingcontains manures. nitrogenous
common
' '
"
'
12 per cent, of water, 9 to 9| per cent, of phosphates. Boiling is done to
nitrogenand
of
get rid
4
per cent,
Skins,
the fat.
of
their natural state 4 to 8 and in the dry condition about 15 percent. per cent, of nitrogen Woollen rags and refuse called shoddy also a good manure are
hair, horn, and
featherscontain
in
*
'
containing5 cent,
to 6 to 10J per of nitrogenequivalent and jute refuse are, however, almost as Leather though it contains as much 5| to
9 per cent,
to
of ammonia.
useless
as
Cotton
manure.
6 per 'cent,of
is also nitrogen
useless
tanningrenders the nitrogen of tallow-makingfactories,rum
as
as
and silk factories, are fish,frogs, snails,"c., are
in
largequantities.When
the process of Refuses from glue as
value. and spiritfactories,indigo,
no
and
sugar
manure,
a
also valuable
valuable
as
manures.
manure
dry, they contain
All
when
animals, available
5 to 7 per cent,
of
phosphoricacid. Refuse of per fishes,"c., contain about 5 per cent, of nitrogenand 5 to 30 per cent, of phosphates, and is called fish-guano."Soot is topdressed as an insecticidal manure cereals. Its manurial on chiefly value depends on the proportionof ammonia it contains,which nitrogenand
12
to
18
of
cent,
"
varies from 1 to 4 per cent., the average being about 2 per cent. Soot consists mainly of finely divided carbon with from 16 to 40 per cent, of mineral matters. Guano used is another nitrogenousmanure which was largely in use
England and America, of, as the supplyhas
at the rate
of 2 to 3 cwts.
but which now
per
we
are
not
likelyever
to make
entirelyfailed. It is applied and (=50 to 60 Ibs. of ammonia
almost acre
phosphoric acid).Two classesof guanos are distinguished. Of these,the nitrogenous obtained from the dry regionsof guanos contain much 12 as Peru, as per cent, of nitrogenand 12 per cent, 100 Ibs. of
of
acid,and the phosphatic phosphoric guano *9 per cent, of nitrogen, acid,and 3 to 4 of potash. Being very phosphoric variable in compositionit is usuallypurchasedon analysis. Bird's moisture (about25 per cent.) more dung and bat's dung containing But dried,they are of equal less valuable. are, weightfor weight, 32-5 per cent, of
value to guano
(1J to
and 6 to 30 per cent, ammonia than birds fish yield richer manure
10 per cent,
phosphates).Birds livingon livingon grains,"c. While on this subjectof nitrogenous manures, more
revert
to the
questionof utilization of sewage
we
and
may
once
study the
424
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
been devised for
that have
methods
OF
making town-sewage
sive inoffen-
We have already for use as manure. and less objectionable the use of dry earth,powderedcharcoal and trenching recommended of lime and the employment of the Meagher addition with the in system. Green vitriol (FeSO,, 7 H,0), alum and lime are inoffensive. In the human excreta in Europe for rendering use of urine, calcium and case magnesium phosphates are used. and filtrationin India to purify by precipitation t
Attempts
sewage
be said to have passed the experimental stage. that of deodorising Another cultivating process appliedis, from sunlight bacteria in tanks protected throughwhich the sewage is covered In of the is made to run. going out passage which to be without odour, with kankar, the filtrateis perceived strewn for This, the septic to and fit application gardensas manure.
cannot
in India. system, has been adopted largely
tank
40 to 60 tons
absolutelywasted These
estimated that for every head of population This is not of sewage is formed per annum. nourished by it. the fish and sea- weeds are crements exconsist mainly of water, solid and liquid
Englandit has
In
as
40 to 60 tons
been
forming only a small quantity contains only about The
conclusion
proportionof 10
drawn
as
ammonia.
in
sewage-farmsin England is, that by
sewage
per
acre
30 tons
of grass
may
This
nitrogen calculated
Ibs. of from
the sewage.
experimentsconducted
of 5,000 tons of and the value be expected, the
use
Id. per ton. Leguminous with manured a sewage water. pasture plantsare killed out Weight for weight unsewaged grass is better fodder than sewage the se waged grass which grass, but for equalweightsof dry matter contains more nitrogenhas a better nutritive value. Milk increases with sewagedgrass, but cows in quantity but is reduced in quality
of sewage
has been
calculated at
%d.to
in
oil-cake every day sewaged grass, if they are given some From of and give good quantities rich milk. thrive beautifully
kept on
to 1 judiciously 5,000 tons of sewage applied
acre,
about 75 maunds
of green grass tons be expected per annum, as of milk may each cow for one would keep three cows being allowed year, of oil-cake per day and the 30 seers of green grass and one seer (ifa select class is kept) may be taken at average yieldper cow The rent of the land 5 seers per day for 200 days per annum. being calculated at Rs. 10 and the value of the oil-cake (3 srs. with sewage at the cost of irrigation X 365 days)at Rs. 60, and Rs. 144 (2 men employedfor pumping out the sewage with a don the total the same and also tendingthe cattle), and distributing of of 75 maunds expense may be put down at Rs. 214. The value calculation This to Rs. 250. milk at 12 srs. to the rupee comes of sewage and ton of value small idea the per givessome practical 30
would of utilising it in placeswhere a largecapital the difficulty milk does not where make of be required to use sewage, or command a ready sale,or where land Js dear. But it also shows be made to yield in favourable that localitiesgrass farms can
PHOSPHATIC
425
MANURES.
of sewage, and the Government grass farm at Allahabad is a case in point. Cabbages,mangolds and strawberries have been also grown with sewage. Lightsoil,restingon sandy or gravelly successfully subsoil is the best for sewage Sewage water should irrigation. the
large profits by
use
to be sprayedor sprinkled a over crop, but alwaysapplied be used It should furrows. not the land put up in ridges, along at the last stage of the growth of a crop.
never
LXXXV1I.
CHAPTER PHOSPHATIC
MANURES.
minerals ; Trichinopolynodules ; Bones bones ; Animal ; Boiled charcoal ; Slag ; Christmas Island phosphate; Tests for phosphates; Available phosphates; Grinding of bones without mill ; Superphosphateits manufacture valued ; Why Composition of superphosphates; How ; tion manufacture of superphosphate of no great importancefor India ; Estimaof monocalcium and dicalcium phosphates; Dr. Dyer's method.]
[Phosphatic
"
Mineral
rocks in soil and Phosphates.Phosphates occur of tri-calcium phosphate,mixed with various "
chieflyin the form impurities.If
it is mixed
fluoride it is termed mineral
was
bagh,
and
"
made
and apatite, some
years
the mineral
uncrushed
or
combined
or
Rs.
was
in
3
a
ago
very in the
with
find interesting
Koderma
the market
put
on
the
crushed
chloride
calcium
or
this forest,Hazari-
at Rs.
condition.
of
2 per maund It contained
of tri-calcium
phosphate. Tri-calcium phosphate more mixed carbonate and silicates of with calcium frequentlyoccurs rock phosphate. iron and aluminium, and in this form it is termed 61 per. cent
Large depositsof
rock
phosphate do
not
appear
to
occur
in
India,
found near are thoughconsiderable quantities Trichinopoly.These are, however, of low grade,and are littleuse for manurial purposes. The Christmas Island phosphate is the richest found near India, 80 and 85 per cent, of tri-calcium it does, between has It been phosphate. suggestedmany times that this should be imported and used in India, but no action has been taken in the matter.
as containing,
"
Bones, bone-dust, bone-shavingsand ivory-shavings are rich in
contain
phosphates.They very of phosphateschiefly tri-calcium as the form
4| per
per
of
cent,
of
cent,
lightof
from
45
to
55
per
also cent,
phosphate^and partlyalso in also 3| to magnesium phosphate. Bones containing of nitrogen, 3 per cent, of calcium carbonate, and 4 other ash (including be regardedin the silica), may
generalmanure. (whole or dust) are richer in phosphates(45 to alkaline per cent.),calcium carbonate (3 to 9 per cent.),and a
Boiled bones
60
salts including silica(4"to 13 per cent.)than fresh bones, but they bone-meal are poorer in nitrogen(1| to 3 per cent.)..Steamed is used for the manufacture of bone-superphosphate.
426
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
Animal
charcoal is stillricher in phosphates(64to 87 per cent.) Bone-ash contains as much but poorer in the other substances. and 4 to 6 per cent, of calcium 77 to 88 per cent, of phosphates as carbonate, but it contains no nitrogen. The basic slag producedin the manufacture of steel by the is of phosphatic basic Bessemer another important source process of as much 78 sometimes as containingthe equivalent per cent, of tri-calcium phosphate. The detection of phosphoricacid in rocks and minerals is of be done by finelypulverising considerable importance. It can it in nitric acidy a tolerably largesample of the substance,digesting off the solution and treating it with ammonium molybdate. filtering will follow,and If phosphoric acid be present,a yellowprecipitate manure,
the precipitation which usuallytakes accelerated by frequentstirring with When
substance
a
phosphoricacid,its the flame
contains
presence
a
glassrod. than
more
three
be detected
may
be
place very slowly,may
in
per dark
a
of
cent,
by
room
little of the mineral, or substance to be tested^ is powdered and made Then into a stiff paste with water. a heated loop of platinum wire is to be dipped into this paste and returned to the flame of the spiritlamp (or blow-pipe). If phosphates are present,a characteristic dull green flame will be given A
test.
in a dark room cannot reaction is obtained if the mineral hydrochloricacid.
be mistaken.
out, which
Export of
importance
as
Bones.
"
has been
more
certain
previouslytreated
with
of very great soils in Indian are phosphates
Phosphatic
though the available
A
manures
are
and though there is no immediate probably not deficient, lity possibiof phosphates,yet the of Indian soils gettingbarren for want soils is relatively small of phosphates in Indian total amount so and the denudation of phosphates by the export of bones, grains is so and oil-seeds, that the question of supplying persistent,
phosphatesto
soils
by
of fertilizersmust
way
serious importance. the most The Bones for fruit trees. "
most
sooner
or
later assume
readilyavailable
source
of
far as phosphatesare concerned, is bone. The be is should effect of bones used in large but they applied pieces slow, in this state, when fruit trees are planted. It is curious that the of bones in each of puttinga number Nepalesehave the custom pitmade for plantingfruit trees and they say this makes the fruit soil fertilizationso
sweeter
for all time.
It is
a
rightnotion, and
if this custom
of
bones under fruit trees had been widely followed, have lain would bones not neglectedand been carried away from of manure India to other countries for purposes to anythinglike the present extent. Of the phosphatesin bones, two per cent, occurs as magnesium phosphate. Bones are phosphateand the remainder as calcium steamed or boiled for making glue and gelatine. The greater part and of the organic matter in this process. Steamed is removed
stowingaway
428
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
go to form of lime. superphosphate
phosphatespowdered and treated with sulphuricacid the The
known
manure same
as
'
'
superphosphateor be
process may of all kinds into
converting
for
used
phates phos-
superphosphate. of superphosphateare million tons
More
than half a annually in England alone for manurial purposes. that takes place be expressed by the formula may
S04~CaH4P1108+ 2CaS04. the calcium carbonate like the presence of used. The
mineral
The
present. much
The
reaction
Ca^Pa08+2H9 decomposes
sulphuric acid
first
Manufacturers
therefore
calcium
carbonate
made
do
not
minerals
in the
of superphosphate used in the manufacture of commercial kind the is which acid,' cheapest of 69 per cent, about contains sulphuric acid. Chamber acid
is
'
sulphuricacid
chamber
H,SOA.
100 parts of pure acid to act on
tri-calcium
of chamber
requireas much 262
parts
it,while
phosphate require91 parts parts of
100
calcium
carbonate
140 parts ; 100 parts of oxide of iron 100 require as much parts of alumina as
and
require as
405
acid. The freer therefore the mineral is from parts of chamber calcium carbonate, oxide of iron and alumina the better it is.
followingway : The steamed bones or mineral raw phosphates are finely powdered with a powerful mill. This powder is placed in a closed vessel or chamber which is called a mixer, the necessary quantityof sulphuric acid being dripped into the chamber by slow degrees from a tank above it. The gases given off pass out througha long tube where As some of the gases are they graduallycondense. dangerous to health,this condensingof the gases or vapours passingout is very The dioxide, but necessary. given off is chieflycarbon gas also hydrofluoricacid, silicon fluoride and iodine vapour are given off. As the acid is graduallylet into the powdered mineral, a strong shaft provided with rakes keeps the powder continually agitated. When the proportionalquantity of acid has been used and the of the chamber up mixing completed, the contents (which is usuallyJ a ton to 1 ton) is allowed to fall into a brick
Superphosphateis manufactured in
chamber
known
the
"
the 'den,' which, when full,is there until its temperature is reduced, the rise of temperature being due to the mixing of* the phosphates with the acid. The contents of the den afterwards dug out and passed are
or
stone-ware
closed.
The
mass
allowed
to
'
'
as
remain
'
which througha disintegrator, powdery condition,in which state superphosphatein this country '
renders the it is sold. The is beyond the
if sulphuricacid has to agriculture, But a sulphuric acid manufactory can
manure
into
a
questionof using pale of practical be purchased from abroad. make superphosphate profitably
be created, in any as well,if a market for this manure can the of part country. Superphosphatemanufacturinghas been in one of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, actuallycommenced where phosphaticdepositsof great purity have been discovered.
PHOSPHATIC
MANURES.
sulphateof ammonia, Superphosphate, are manures alreadymanufactured by Calcutta ; and
429
and other concentrated Messrs. Waldie " Co. of
by Messrs. T. Stanes " Co., of Coimbatore. Superphosphateis usuallymixed with blood, soot and refuse, also
of all kinds, or with vegetableand animal matter nitrate of ammonia of soda or sulphate it into a generalmanure. to convert of superphosphate The composition varies very much according to the mineral used in its manufacture. Ordinarily superphosphate contains 25 to 28 per cent, of soluble phosphates, but it is possible to have a product with as much as 45 per cent, of soluble phosphates calculated as tri-calcium phosphate. The soluble phosphate of the manufacturer is,on the Englishsystem, always expressedin the terms of tri-calcium phosphatewhich has been rendered soluble. 20 per cent, of soluble phosphates 20 per cent, of tri-calcium mean which soluble made is actually15 per cent, of monocalcic phosphate phosphate(CaH4PaOe). Superphosphateis also sold at so much per unit," unit soluble phosphate" per ton. meaning 1 per cent, of The valued in insoluble phosphates are not purchasing mineral but in purchasing bone superphosphateafter analysis, phosphate superthe insoluble phosphatesare also valued. The following table gives the percentage compositionsof the tfc
"
principalvarieties
of
superphosphate: "
soluble phosphatescost 3s. per unit (i.e., for 1 per cent, 4 0 of ton of soluble cent, containing per superphosphate per ton), would be valued phosphatemade soluble) phosphate (tri-calcium When
a
at 40 X 3s.
"
"6.
kept for a longtime is reduced in its solubility Superphosphate of the total phosphates.This five in water by per cent, or more in superphosphates reduction takes placechiefly alumina containing The aluminic ferric and of iron. oxide and phosphatesand the
430
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
formed are insoluble in water. Dicalciuin phosphates is x not phosphate(CatPf08 CaH4P208 2CaJIH4P900) altogether In the precipitated insoluble in water. phosphatesof gluemanufactures, the dicalcium w orks, phosphatesoccur as gelatine phate. phosin some This form of phosphateoccurs also. It guanos is more soluble in water chargedwith carbon dioxide and in saline solutions. Dicalcium phosphatetherefore is found to be of equal manurial value with monocalcium phosphatesin certain soils. In sandy soils and soils containinglittlelime, dicalcium phosphate also reduced or retrograde phosphate)givesa better (called and even tri-calcium phosphate result than monocalcium phosphate, tri-calcium
"
'
'
in
a
finelydivided
state
*
'
is sometimes
found to
in such soilsthan the soluble monocalcium
or
phosphate. The
phosphatecomes (but not phosphateis immediatelyprecipitated
for this the
soluble
is,that when
give a better
in soils deficient in
lime)in
in contact
a
in
result reason
with soil,
sandy
gelatinous form, in which
state
soils it is
though extremely soluble,,
not easilywashed out, and it gets and quickly. It gets gradually diffused throughthe soil very easily reduced and converted into dicalcium phosphate, afterwards into tri-calcium phosphateand eventually into phosphatesof iron and But in sandy soils and those containing aluminum. little lime, does take not and at the gelatinous soluble place once, precipitation phosphatesare apt to get washed away before completeprecipitation takes place. In such soils therefore it is best to apply phosphatesin a less soluble form. Soils poor in lime treated with
superphosphatemay get too acid, and lose in absorptive power of superphosphate and capacityfor nitrification. Five maunds for root-crops and two is the best quantityto use to per acre for cereals. A crop of 150 maunds three maunds of potatoes takes up only about 10 Ibs. of phosphoricacid while 5 maunds of bone-dust adds about 90 Ibs. of phosphoric acid to the soil. manures. hasten the of phosphatic Phosphaticmanures Effect developmentof young plants,make them so healthythat they resistthe attack of insect pestswhich thrive better on weaklyplants. and fruiting They also hasten maturity,increase the flowering and assist in the elaboration of sugar and tendencies of plants, "
starch. Available
phosphates.According to
Dr. Dyer of London, there should be at least 300 to 400 Ibs. of available phosphoric acid within of nine -01 per cent, of phosa depth inches,i.e., phoric, per acre acid soluble in a 1 per cent, solution of citricacid. Most than this. Total phosphoricacid Indian soils have more may be determined by the use of strong hydrochloric acid which dissolves the whole of lime and phosphoricacid,though only a portion 700 or 800 of the potash, A soil containing Ibs. of available phosphoricacid per acre within the first nine inches would "
3,000 Ibs. of total phosphoricacid. Of the 700 Ibs. of available phosphoric "acid a crop of 1,000 Ibs. of
probablyshow wheat
or
2,700
rice per
acre
to
removes
from the soilonly 7 Ibs.of
phosphoric
POTASH
431
MANURES.
The straw in each case another 3 Ibs. removes of phosphoricacid which is returned to the soil in one form or another. In the case of paddy 3 Ibs. per acre go to the husk, 4 Ibs. and 3 Ibs. to the straw, the total quantitybeingthe same to the rice, of wheat, though the outgoings, if the husk and in the case as less in the case the straw are returned to the soil are of paddy.
acid in either
case.
and irrigation is a gain of phosphoricacid by silt deposition the than where deal and is it more siltno only good outgoings takes place that the questionof recoupment depositor irrigation considered. soils need be of phosphoric acid in Indian So have given no decisive results in some far, phosphaticmanures farms of and should be of manures the value India, experimental from the proportionof nitrogen judged principally they contain. used for irrigation much is Well-water richer both in purposes water phosphoricacid and nitrogenthan rain or canal-water. Rainacid and only four parts of nitrogen contains no phosphoric The
in two
million parts. Clear canal- water parts of nitrogen and ten parts of
ten
usuallycontains only phosphoricacid in ten parts of nitrogen and
million parts,and muddy canal-water,four twenty parts of phosphoricacid in ten million parts, while wellcontain one hundred and fiftyparts of nitrogen water and may of hundred in acid ten million one phosphoric parts parts.
CHAPTER
LXXXVIII.
POTASH
MANURES.
mica ; Zeolites ; Admixture of lime and felspar ; Test for potash ; Kainit ; Ashes ; Sugar-refuse ; to root-crops and Adaptabilityof potash manures pulses; Silt ; Irrigationof poorly fed cattle ; Ashes water ; Saltpetre should be specially ; Urine, Reclamation of saline soils ; Potash over in different sprinkled compost ; actions of potash ; Dr. of parts of plants; Physiological Dyer's method of available potash; Available nitrogen ; Percentagecomposition estimation substances of principal removed manures ; Manurial by different crops.]
orthoclase, and chiefly [Felspars, Other
potassic minerals
;
"
Mineral
potash. Potash
in
nature in felspars and into the compositionof every soil. The pink which is so common coloured orthoclase felspar in Indian granites, is is the richestin potash. In felspars, in a more contained potash and its solubility soluble form than in mica, is enhanced mixture by adwith lime. Zeolites also contain potash and beingmore
mica, which
"
occurs
enter
position) ordinaryfelspar(with which they resemble in comand fertilisers, are they are abundantly present good soils. Potassium some sulphate (KflS04), potassium chloride a nd kainit also occur in sylvine(KC1),potassium nitrate,
soluble than in or
nature.
In
Europe,potashmanures
kainit which
is obtained from
are
used
in chiefly
Prussia,where it occurs
the form as
a
of natural
432
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
The
compositionof kainit is represented salt often by the formula K,S04 MgS04, MgCla-6H,0. Common kainit in kainit as impurity. Ordinary contains 13 to 15 occurs 17 and kainit calcined of to 18 per cent. cent, potash per of made this. out Other sources Concentrated potashsalts are of the from water after are sea the manure mother-liquor potash depositat
Stassfurt.
salt,and vegetable ashes. common The commonest is ashes of potash manure potash. Organic distillationof obtained beet and extraction all kinds. by Liquors of sugar from beet or sugar-cane, are rich in potash. Crude gur
extraction of
"
nitrate and the refuse of sugar contains a great deal of potassium contain five to factories is therefore rich in potash. Wood-ashes seven per cent, of potash; straw-ashes less. Wool and hair are particularly rich in potash. Ashes obtained from alltender and green
parts of plantsare, as a rule,rich in potash,e.g., ashes of sun-flower stalks,of plantainand other tender leaves, of maize-stalks,of All such refuse, of tobacco leaves and midribs,"c. sugar-cane ashes
substances
should
be
stored carefully
in the
manure-pit. growth of leguminous root 61, kachu,potatoes, crops, e.g.,yams, crops, leafycrops, " c. finedark coloured Silt, e specially c abbages, groundnuts, gram, in available much that state an so no silt, brings potash potashneed be appliedto any land which is occasionallyrenomanure vated Potash
or
are
manures
helpfulto particularly
water with silt. Irrigation potash,as it contains about ten
also to
the
bringsa
certain amount
of
twenty parts of potash in
a
contains million parts. Rain-water, of no course, potash. nitrate and cattle urine are the best potash manures Potassium ordinarilyavailable. The urine of poorly-fedcattle is richer in potash than the urine of well-fed cattle, because the former feed contains a on largeproporprincipally grass and straw, which tion of potash than better food- materials. Compost. In making compost it is better to use ashes than lime and salt. The object of adding alkaline substance to the As its is hasten to decomposition. potash is in itself a manure valuable food-substance than lime or soda, ashes containing more some potashin addition to lime and soda are to be preferred. The make the nitrogenof the soil available for power of potash to well and also the application of potash manures is known, plants, "
Ashes also increase the is therefore of great indirect value. of the soil,and Lorain observed that the ground where capillarity had moister than the surroundingsoil. been burned was log-heaps of alkali is often outwardlyrecognizable Indeed excess by the of which is drain. difficult to character clay puddly Hilgard.says, * soils impregnatedwith alkaline carbonates may generallybe *
recognised by their extreme compactness and refractorinessunder and by the fact tjiat low spots in they are apt to form tillage, non-alkaline of surface the general kmd, i.e., placeswhere turbid '
clay water, dark with dissolved humus higherland appears dry."
will lie for weeks
'
after the
POTASH
433
MANURES.
The potashin the soil occurs in the form of hydrated chiefly of potash and alumina. double silicatesor hydrated double humates Had it not been for the double silicates, the potash in the soil would have been washed out and carried into the sea. It is because soda is less readilyretained than potash by these double silicates, that the sea water is charged chiefly with sodium chloride washed out from soils instead of potassium chloride. Sodium chloride is dissolved out from the soil and carried away to the sea by the water of percolation more freelythan any other salt. This fact makes it so easy to reclaim saline soilslike those of the Sunderbans. In of rocks,soda salts are most the decompositionand disintegration readilyparted with and washed away into the sea, potash being or less retained by the soil by absorptive action at the expense more the first to be washed of soda salts,which are In the away.
condition,for instance, a piece of basalt cent, of potash and 7| per cent, of soda, but
natural per after and
decompositionas
soil may
show
may the
contain same
1J
basalt
equalproportionsof potash
soda.
in fruits and seeds as in Potash does not accumulate so much which returned leaves the soil in one and to are straw form or In a well managed farm, therefore,whence another. and grain will not be found of much animals only are sold,potassicmanures But that certain crops, such as root-crops,especially use. beet, and tobacco benefited is are matter a by potash manure, potatoes the crops sold are of universal experience. It is only where of a soft kind, such
fodder
crops, beet, mangold, carrots, cabbages, turnips,onions, potatoes, tobacco,or where straw is systematically as
sold, that the need of potash manures time, and these are best appliedin the
becomes form
felt in
of ashes.
of course Sun-flower
bean stalks and maize and juar stalks beingparticularly be should but these not neglected potash, carefully heaps in their bulky state or converted into ashes, put in manure and the ashes appliedto land mixed up with dung and other vegetable manure as compost. Seventeen to twenty pounds of potash
stalks,pea and
rich in
can
be obtained
from
1,000 Ibs. of dry sun-flower, pea bean, juar
stalks. or in the extremities of plants,i.e., Potash accumulates more elsewhere. than leaves and 1,000 Ibs. of wood contains twigs, green and a half pounds of potash. only from half a pound to one rich in cereal straw, though potash, contains it chiefly Ordinary in the form of silicate of potashwhich is not readily soluble in The ashes of ordinarycereal straws are therefore not such water. ashes of maize stalks, sun-flower stalks as good potash manures Tobacco of divested leaves and straws. stems leguminouscrop desiccated stalks contain are extremely rich in potash. The about 5 per cent, of potash,0'7 per cent, of phosphoricacid and small quantityis in the 3*5 per cent, of nitrogen,of which a form of nitrate. The refuse tobacco stalks and midribs are therefore be looked upon as a special a high class fertilizerand potash may maize
M, HA
28
434
HANDBOOK
and also
manure
Ashes
generalmanure. potashmanure.
a
as
AGRICULTURE.
OF
from
cotton
seed
husk are a They contain 18 to 30 also 5 to 10 per cent, per cent, of potashin a very soluble condition, acid of which 1J to 2 per cent, is soluble in water. of phosphoric Lime-kiln ashes contain only 2 per cent, of potashand less than 1 per cent, of phosphoricacid. Brick-kiln ashea contain only 1| firstclass
also
per cent, of not
These and ordinarywood-ashes are therefore valuable as ashes derived from burningtwigs, leaves soft parts of plants, In applying or from cattle-dung.
potash.
nearly
so
and green or ashes as manure
to crops, this very
importantdifference must be The greater alkalinity is desirable,not from a borne in mind. of but from the linity fact that it is the alkamanurial mere point view, enables the ashes to rot weeds and to ferment peat. be noted that the Stassfurt salts of potash,so largely It should inferior to ordinary woodused in Europe as potashmanure, are ashes for manurial purposes, and there is littleoccasion for us in India to look for kainit,and other Stassfurt salts. The explanation that the and chloride of be of furt Stassto seems potash sulphate devoid of the alkaline qualityof carbonate of potash are which is the effective agent in ashes obtained from wood, branches, which
But
merely as a potash manure and beet, nitrate of potash is leaves, "c.
manure
potashis the best America, and
nitrogenousand
priceat which
should
we as
a
to now
all the
potashmanure,
or use.
nitrate plant-food, For
of
potatoes, tobacco,
largelyused in Europe and it both as a use more readily for the as it is a cheap manure
be had in India. action of potash. Potash portant plays certain very imphysiological be in and these may mentioned vegetable physiology parts here : of enabling starch to (1) It has been found to be a means from one reason move* part of the plant to another. This is one found are adapted for yams, 61, particularly why potashmanures other and which valued for their starch. are root-crops potatoes it can
"
"
helpsthe
freer
circulation of starch from leaves to roots. to fruit formation, especially are (2) Potash manures helpful formation of fruits containing sour viz.,fruits containing juices, The
potash manure
malic,tartaric or oxalic acid. -citric,
In most cases these acids are combined with potash. Jails in Bengal are requiredto At lime trees. hundreds of Berhampore jailthere were grow lime trees that had never borne fruits, several althoughthey were The advised old. ashes and bones. to As w as jailor apply years the there was of the of the t o on objection jailor part using bones,
found
ashes and
mustard-cake were The result was
after applied,
the plantswere dug luxuriant of fruit a at growth up the next season. Phosphateshave the power of intensifying tendencies of plants. Hence the advice floweringand fruiting of applyingbones also. A mango faee in Malda that had never all round.
fruited
was
dug
all round
and
bones
put into the ditch and the
436
HANDBOOK
OP
AGBICULTUEE.
The percentage of nitrogen(N), and and potash(KaO)in different manures table : following
phosphoricacid (Pa04) be judged from the can
"
Sulphate
(1) Ammonium
(2) Sodium
Nitrate J
(3) Potassium
(Crude) (Pure) (4) Street Sweepings .
.
'
(5) Fresh
Cattle
(ordinary tors')
c
.
.
(6) Well-fed oattk ._-p.(7) Rotten " partlydried
farmyard manure (8) Cattle urine (9) Horse dung do. (10) Do. and hand
wi
litter,
dry
(11) Horse urine (12) Poudrette (Poona) (13) Poudrette (Cawnpur) (14) Sheep dung (15) Sheep urine (16) Fish manure (17) Droppings of domestic fowls
.
.
(18) Bones (19) Dissolved bones .
.
(20) Castor-cake
(Bengal) (21) Til cake
..
(23) Safflowercake cake
(24) Earthnut
(25) Cocoanut cake (26) Poppy cake (27) Decorticated cake
(28) Rape cake (29) Linseed cake
(30) Kankar (31) Silkworm
.
.
droppings dry chrysa (32) Powdered lids (Filature leaves (33) Bamboo (34) Paddy straw (35) Wheat straw (26) Barleystraw (37) Maize straw (38) Fresh grass .
"
(39) Nil aiti (Indigc (Ohuntia) (40) Dung cake (41) Dry and rotten tank "
weeds
The
removed below.
1'64
..
amounts
from
one
of acre
"42
"
1'77 "
Phosphoricacid, Nitrogen and Potash by various crops (bumpercrops)are shown 4
CALCAREOUS
CHAPTER
LXXXIX.
CALCAREOUS Mineral
sources
;
Occurrence
437
MANURES.
MANURES.
in India ; Effects of this
manure
; Dangers
of using it ;
Application; Marling ; Silicate of Calcium ; Lime in farmyard manure lime charged with carbon dioxide ; Unslaked Solubilitygreater in water Magnesia waters.]
and
soda
;
Occurrence
of
manurial
constituents
in
; ;
irrigation
kankar Marble, chalk, dolomite and (or minerals lime. Limestone the commonest containing ghuting)are rocks are rarelypure calcium carbonate (CaC03). They usually have some magnesium carbonate (MgC03),and also clay,silica, with them. When stone iron and organicsubstances,combined a limecontains more than twenty-threeper cent, of magnesium When it contains fossil remains carbonate it is called dolomite. Mineral
Sources.
"
of animals, it has a certain proportion of calcium phosphate with it. Tt occasionally in a pure crystalline combined occurs state, as calcite or calcspar.As stalactite and stalagmiteit is found depositedby springs.Marble and chalk are also Limestones contain fossils more nearly pure calcium carbonate. often than dolomites, and and they effervesce more found all in Limestones are limestones
and
marbles
they are more easily scratched, readily with hydrochloricacid. formations,as crystalline geological
in
old
formations,
as
chalk
in the
438
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
kankar limestone middle age of the geological or as era, and often assonodules in alluvial regions. Limestone rocks are ciated with gypsum, the former undergoinga local conversion in contact with decomposingiron pyrites(FeSa). Where gypsum rock-salt may Marble, dolomite
occurs,
also occur. and kankar
in almost all the districts occur of the Madras Presidency in Jaintia hillsin Assam Khasia and the ; ; in the Sambalpur, Raipur, Jubbulpore,Nagpur and Wardha in the Bombay districtsof the Central Provinces ; in Kathiawar Presidency; and in Baroda, Hyderabad, Mysore, and Burma. Kathiawar marble is used even in Calcutta for building purposes. The best limestones are found in the north of Jubbulporeand ih the Vindhyan range. The Makrana marble quarriesof Rajputana are
famous.
very
the Sonthal Parganas is about 7,000 tons per annum ; in Monghyr,about 28,000 tons ; in Mozufferalso about tons. Cuttack, Balasore and Manbhum 13,000 pore, produce some. Singhbhum, Ranchi and a few other western there districts also contain limestone rocks. In Mozufiferpore kankar quarriesalso,the annual outturn of which is about are some mated In Monghyr the annual outturn of kankar is esti13,000 tons. The
production of marble
at
lime
28,000
tons
is also
Burdwan, Lime
and
in
in Manbhum
at
40,000
tons.
Kankar
Cuttack, Balasore, Birbhum,
produced Midnapur and Murshidabad. is not a as mere plant-food largelyin
of much as consequence, sands be used up by thoulime than can every soil contains far more of crops. As plant-food, shells and limestones rich in animal the remains and containing calcium phosphate and nitrogen are best manures In the district of Pertabgarhin Oudh, the to use.
cultivators
As plant-food kankar use as manure. an argillaceous this is a better substance to use than pure lime. If a soil to the depth of 1 ft. weighs 3,250,000 Ibs. per acre and if it contains only 1 pet cent, of lime, it will have as much as 3,250 Ibs. of this constituent. But a crop of 1,200 Ibs. of wheat and 2,000 Ibs, of straw contains only 6 or 7 Ibs. of lime, arid of
Ibs. of peas and 1,200 Ibs. of pea straw only 28 and 29 Ibs. The to the soil,if proreturned respectively. farmyard manure perly 2 per cent, of lime, i.e., as rotten, may contain as much if only one ton of rotten manure it would add is appliedper acre 40 Ibs. of lime to the soil,which is more than sufficient for the o f meal contains Ibs. of bone 100 requirements one singlecrop. refuse of soda about 27 Ibs. of lime,and 100 Ibs. of crude gypsum sufficient for water much 30 factories,as as Ibs., quantities supplyinglime to almost any crop. Action of lime. It is not, however, by way of direct supply of food to plantsthat limingproves of benefit to the soil. Liming alters the texture of the soil either for good or for evil. In some soils it acts as a mortar if slaked and renders jt hard, especially condition. is soil hard smooth in lime appliedas a thick, paste on 600
"
"
CALCAREOUS
439
MANURES.
In other soils,e.g., in peat, constant limingmay interfere with action by making the soiltoo open. however, capillary Ordinarily, better capillary and a a soil rich in lime maintains action, liming Lime improves the texture of soils by making them more porous. action which may be called floccuexerts another kind of physical
lation,finer particles beingconverted into coarser ones. Schlcesing discovered that two parts of lime in the form of chloride,nitrate or sulphateof calcium, immediatelycaused flocculation in 10,000 parts of a turbid liquorthat contained a good deal of clay,that .
when the proportion reduced to was was perceptible that half but this the effect had of lime on 10,000, no quantity of six weeks. Another experi* liquorin questioneven in the course be exerted tried to the of ment out influence nature the bring may soils. Let a quantityof toughclaysoilbe worked by lime on plastic with water and let a portionbe then dried,the into a plastic mass of stony hardness. result will be a mass To another portionof
flocculation 1 in
the paste add
half per cent,
will plasticity
be obvious
of caustic lime and
a
diminution
of On
is wet. at once when the mass even will fallinto crumb's at a mere touch. By liming, mellower, and of better tilth. This clay soils are made warmer, effect lasts for years and is never lost. lightening entirely Another effect of lime is to set free for the use of crops, potash, ammonia and magnesia from hydrateddouble silicates. Experiments that gypsum have shown does this better than lime. Lime in a caustic condition has a highlybeneficial effect on soils rich in humus) and on compost peaty and boggy soils (i.e.,
dryingthis
heaps.
mass
It hastens into
substances
putrefactiveprocesses
vegetable
reduces
'mould.'
green-manuringis done,
When
and
limingis advisable
to hasten
say,
with dhaincha
decay before the
next
in
crop,
August, potatoes
sugar-cane, is sown. in the form of carbonate promotes the formation of Lime nitrates in the soil. Slaked and hot lime destroyinsects,and other vermin and also funguspests. Limingof seed grainfor preventing is practised rust and smut by European and American farmers. When any crop shows any fungoiddisease lime should be scattered or
over
it.
sandy soilsare also benefited by limingifit is done before of farmyard manure, inasmuch it cements their as application togetheras mortar, making them stiffer and charging particles them with hydrous silicates and thus adding to their absorptive Poor
the
power.
An
its power
admixture
to absorb
of carbonate of lime with soil increases and fix potash, soda, ammonia, etc.,from their
solutions. the
land by neutralizing sour any of free humic acid. Liming reduces the proportionof rushes and sedgesand en* courages the growth of good grasses and leguminousweeds in pasture lands.
Liming
excess
corrects
acidityof
440
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
soils limingshould not be done without very of plant-food, fact,lime sets free such an amount greatcare. that it givesan immediate good return at the expense of the There is a proverb which says, of the soil. permanent fertility But
on
poor
In
beggarsthe son." It is better to when it is intended to "use ashes, bone-dust, apatiteor gypsum lime soil. the to supply Seeds and young plantsshould not be broughtin close contact Lime
enriches the father but
be with lime, as the caustic action burns up seedlings.Grass can with lime water. actually killed by wateringit has been The action of lime in decomposingorthoclase felspar in mentioned connection with potash manures. Soils already stone fragmentsof felspathic containing of by the application lime.
therefore
benefited
are
Liming of the soil makes the crop earlier. Phosphateshave effect of hasteningmaturityof crops. similar a One or two tons per acre in every seven once years is the best has method of applyinglime on lands suitable for liming. Lime into soil; hence the necessity of repeatto sink gradually a tendency ing reous the application from time to time. Generallyspeaking,calcafertile specially for pulse crops. regionsare particularly in lime is rich fertilefor most Clay-soil crops. Soils are sometimes marled,i.e., given a dose of claycontaining of marl to The application 80 per cent, of lime. 5 to 50 or even sandy soils alters their texture for good. But marl must be found the spot ifit is to be economically 70.000 or 80,000 Ibs. on applied. per
acre
every
10
or
12
years
is the rate
which
at
marl
is
applied. the important exists in most soilsin sufficientproportion, The presence of in the form of calcium carbonate. part occurring of over be calcium carbonate in proportions one per cent, can detected by the addition *of any dilute acid which results in Lime
yard effervescence. Calcium silicate is much insoluble. Farmmore in the soluble forms of contains calcium chiefly manure in minute also occurs a nd but calcium silicate carbonate, sulphate Lime, slaked lime and gypsum are proportions. readilysoluble also soluble in water ; but ghuting and limestones (CaC03) are in water chargedwith carbon dioxide. Rain water contains no well-water and muddy canal or tank water but lime, usually less. contains much and clear canal and tank water, somewhat Unslaked lime (CaO) hastens the decompositionof organic
spores of fungiand decomposes double free the bases, potash,etc. In poor soils,the silicates, setting free of bases is not desirable, and, on the whole, slaked lime setting
matter, kills'grubs and
to hot lime,even when it is used preferred fungicide.Lime renders clays lighterand
is to be
and The
as
an
insecticide
sands less dry. of lime soil in is also useful for phoric storingup phospresence acid in seeds where it occurs as calcitfm or other phosphates. oxalic acid in It also neutralizes acids generally and precipitates
GYPSUM
AND
441
SALT.
particularas oxalate of lime,which exercises useful functions in leaves and
stems.
contains about four parts of nitrogenin every ten million parts,but no other manurial constituent of importance. "lear canal water contains in ten million partsabout two parts of 10 parts of phosphoric nitrogen, acid,100 parts of potash,900 parts of lime, 700 of soda ; while in a of and 200
Rain
water
parts
muddy
the
state
magnesia proportionsin
parts
ten
million parts
mightbe above,
follows
as
"
Nitrogen Phosphoricacid
4
parts.
20 parts. 200 parts.
Potash Lime
1,100 parts.
Magnesia
1,000 parts.
Soda
220
parts.
Well-water which is known contains
parts. is
to vegetation, to be helpful usually million deal of 10 in about good lime, i.e., 1,000 parts The result of an actual analysisof a sample of well-water a
given
below
: "
Nitrogen
150
Phosphoricacid
100
Potash Lime
parts in 10 million parts.
100
1,000 1,000 3,000
Magnesia Soda
Well and
harmful to vegetation, water Canal a larger rarely contains such excess, but well-water often does. Hence the belief of some and the well-waters for irrigation unsuitability of current Bengal cultivators of the generalunsuitability among canal water
contain
for
well-water
which
are
known
to be
magnesiaand soda.
of
excess
irrigation.
CHAPTER GYPSUM
AND
XC. SALT.
soil ; Other effects of gypsum Effect of gypsum usar on ; benefited by gypsum ; Sources of salt ; Crops Application; Crops particularly tions particularlybenefited by salt ; Disintegratingeffect of lime and salt ; Objecwheat to salt as manure rust, etc. ; Mechanical ; Gerraicidal effect on within fiftymiles of the sea-coast ; Caution action ; Applicationunnecessary
{Occurrence
of gypsum
against free
of
lime
and
salt.]
in the natural state in the following localities: and Nellore in in the latter Madras Trichinopoly, Chingleput ;
Gypsum
-at
use
;
occurs
of Selenite placesas crystals-
; in Cutch and the Kirtha range in Bombay ; near Nagore the Jodhpur State in Rajpu tana ; at Bijawarand Baraundha in Central India ; at Bannu and Kohat and the Salt Range in the Punjab ; and in Kumaun and Garhwal in the United Provinces. Burnt gypsum is used as a cement. It two
of Sind in
is
a
valuable
manure
for leguminousplants, chiefly though it
is
442
HANDBOOK
OF
AGBIOULTURE.
The Salt Range in the Punjab is overlaid by a of ing deposit gypsum fifteento twenty feet thick,enough for supplythe needs of the whole world. The refuse from aerated water It should be used mixed up manufactories is artificialgypsum. Calcined of acid. with lime as it is liable to contain an excess and models for of pariswhich is used is plaster making gypsum not used in India.
casts.
Usar soil is very characteristic. If of water and the a considerable volume a be then poured over the water extract will a filter, muddy liquid come throughrapidly.This,however, is not the case with Usar extract of Usar soil takes several hours or even soil. An aqueous of gypsum days to pass through. The effect of small quantities Usar soil of mixture other salts,added to the muddy and some The
effect of gypsum good soil be mixed with
on
and the water, is the curdling togetherof the soil particles, sodium carbonate, The renderingof the soil more permeable. is also which is the most harmful substance presentin Usar soil, by sodium sulphate,which is less harmful. replaced Gypsum also exerts a powerfulaction in settingfree potash which has been absorbed and fixed by the earth, that is to say, is fixed double silicates in the earth. The lime of the gypsum
and
by
in the soil,while solution.
a
quantityof potash corresponding
goes into
manner in the same Gypsum sets free magnesia and ammonia as potash,for the use of the crop. Gypsum scattered on moist placesin cow-houses and stables does excellent service by checkingthe fermentation of urine and nium of the odours which arise from it. The ammoby absorbingsome is volatile nonof more a addition the gypsum sulphateproducedby
carbonate which is evolved substance than the ammonium urine. The reaction is expressed from putrefying by the following formula : (NH4)aC03+ CaS04-CaC03 "
+
(NH4)2S04.
known to the Greeks and of gypsum was as a manure used in Europe and America for manuring It is largely Romans. potatoes and clover. It is very desirable to extend the use of this for claysoils. It benefits in India especially substance for manure arahar, gram and other pulse crops, tobacco, rhea and potatoes. in three or four years on but once It should not be used annually, The
use
It is a soil at the rate of five to ten maunds per acre. than lime,the sulphur of calcium sulphate useful manure more being also 'an essential constituent of plant-food. salt in India are, of common Salt. The chief native sources (1)the salt lakes and pitsof Rajputana; (2)the salt mines of the Salt Range of the Punjab, and (3) the sea and the estuaries. the from The evaporationsalt of Rajputana is derived Sambhar Lake, the Didwana Lake and the Pachbadra Pits. The
the
same
"
Lake is the most importantof these three. It is situated Sambhar the borders of the Jaipurand Jodhpur States. It is a shallow on
444
HANDBOOK
second
and
from
OP
AGRICULTURE.
the second
into the pans, beinggraduallyconcentrated The it flows from one basin to another. as from water the sea is admitted througha sluice and is thus exposed to evaporation tillit forms brine. With this brine the pans are charged to a depth of an inch and a half,and within a few hours, in favourable shallow pans, a layer of crystalsis on weather, especially
formed, generallyabout one-quarter salt is then racked re-charged. Salt
of
The inch in thickness. dry and the pans are the town of Madras
an
ridgesand left to manufactured near
to
on
is
also.
The
total
productionof
salt in India is about million one Less than half this quantityis imported chiefly tons per annum. from Great Britain, Germany and Arabia. As an article of food for man and beast, the value of salt is As a manure, well known. at the rate of 2 cwts. per acre, salt has been found useful for the following plants: Cabbages,cauliflowers, "
beet, mangold, tomatoes, celery, horse-radish,onions, asparagus, and cocoanut, date-palm,cashew-nuts, radishes,arums, mangoes In reclaimed in the Sunderbans and lands bread-fruit tree. of sea-salt is too much elsewhere where the excess for the healthy be successfully those of mentioned just growth ordinarycrops, may
providedadequate provisionis made for grown from the field during the growth of the crops.
keepingout water Paddy seedlings
free front salt can be successfully highland comparatively lands and of salt. In containingan excess transplanted grown on grown
on
cereals,tobacco and soils,
benefited cotton are considerably is Salt should be when seed not by applied germinating, and seed the appliare as plants injured by cation. germinating young It may be ploughedin longbefore sowing or mixed with soil after the plantshave grown a bit. It should not be used as a top-dressing.The inferior kinds of salt are better for manurial chlorine is essential for plantlife, Neither sodium nor purposes. of soda is therefore of more value as and salt containingsulphate
certain
salt.
a
Impure
manure..
salt
often
contains
also
sodium
carbonate,
other substances which are direct inSodium chloride itself has however also useful as manure. an soil in lime. rich manurial action on the soil,especially on in the hydrous As gypsum replaces potash,magnesiaand ammonia
sodium
double
nitrate,potassiumnitrate and
also silicates, so
common
salt
replaceslime
first and
then
Wolff grew a quantityof manured which half of field was one heavily upon a On with common salt,while the other half was left unmanured. he the buckwheat that ashes the found of the straw, analysing portion of the crop which had received the salt contained less of common soda but more potash,than the other. An application salt to the land might thus exert a decided fertilizing action,by
magnesia,potashand phosphoricacid. buckwheat
lime and potash in the surface layersof the soil merelyreplacing The and sendingthem down to where the root^of the crop are. rocks soil of and and salt lime effect on particles disintegrating
GYPSUM
is of
the
in
great importance
AND
445
SALT.
formation
soils
of
and
the
growth
vegetation. Salt is injurious to leguminous crops generally. To cereal does there often is any when it good, especially tendency crops and for a crop running to straw producing a small proportion of of magnesium of cereals. Chloride grain. It toughens the straw of potassium have chloride and the same effect of reducing the of Tobacco with salt as a tendency crop running to straw. grown flexible leaves. manure produces tougher and more Hemp produces
of
larger
a
better
of
amount
have
Potatoes
tendency
a
fibre
become
to
with
used
salt when
waxy
as
manure.
is used
salt
as
manure.
For
It makes
lime.
soils
cotton
and
It increases
better.
useful manure a on very bear longer in the season, the quantity and improves
salt
is
germicide other and fungoid
As
a
rust
to
salt is
cotton,
a
very diseases.
useful
is an excellent used per acre gypsum other vermin. Salt kills leeches, snails and of
soda
which
can
dissolve
to soils rich in lime
rich
soils
on
in
producing
in
a
account.
salt
when
rendered
with is
more
in
against
Ibs. rust.
of
salt
phosphate
extent
of the
of
use
it to or
flocculated
held
minute
a
to
saline also
are
in
other
clay soils, should
salt,
long
or
into
together and
from
sprays
less salt washed a
taken
the
with
soil
i"
friable.
distances
As
substances,
be
proportion, and
water
of salt in soils.
source
one
with
get
we
appreciable
an
subject 200
addition
effect fertilising
of salt, like most
clay
occurs
permeable
more
rain
tilth of
it
carries
Air
action
good
Granules
even
by the
and
lime.
mechanical
The
indirect
is another
This
of iron.
of salt
preventive
is formed to
lands
for
Ibs.
of
Carbonate
the
manure
300
fairlyrich in droughtquality of lint. stand
down
the
and
sea
into the soil.
general rule, the
This
of salt
use
as
is unnecessary, speciallywhen the land is situated within a and hundred fiftymiles of the sea-coast, and crops which are one need benefited be manured not with salt by salt manure specially fertiliser
fiftymiles of The application
within
be done
at all,should to
part with
at
once
by
matter
be
such
are
also.
of lime, with
gypsum" and
care.
application. the
It is rich
salt soils
plant-food that Where
applicationof
a
gypsum
if done
manure,
only that are
soil is poor
lime,
hesitation.
as
made in
and
can
afford
available
potash
and
salt should
Clay soils rich in organic great the cally application both mechaniparticularly benefited by rich are not in salt chemically, provided they already
done
and
sea-coast.
large quantities of
phosphoric acid, only
the
with
PART
V.
OF
METHODS
CHAPTER GENERAL
ANALYSIS.
XCL REMARKS.
nics, to agriculture are Geology,Mechamainly helpful and riology. BacteBotany, Chemistry,VeterinaryScience,Zoology scientific or agriculturist It is not expected that an sciences
THE
farmer
be
should
an
expert
in all these sciences.
In
treatingthe
it is impossibleto in a systematicmanner subjectof agriculture mechanical, botanical,zoological, gical, physioloignorethe geological, of chemical various or questionswith aspects bacteriological, has to do, and in the preceding which the agriculturist parts of this related book facts culled from these sciences which are intimately of in explaining made the use have been freely with agriculture, have those We and principles underlying questions. reasons of soils,crops, manures, deal will only with the methods etc.,and in this part,therefore,we follow for himself,without goingto that an educated farmer may and food-stuffs. chemist, in analysingsoils,manures a The main purpose of a knowledge of agricultural chemistry enable is him to to the of analysesoils, the agriculturist, on
alreadydealt with the chemical
aspect
part
crops, manures,
purchasedfood-stuffs,milk,
and
industrial products, In fact, the tans.
indigo,tea, sugar, dyes and much. There so chemist is not expectedto do even agricultural of indigo, tea, sugar, dyes, employed for the analysis -are specialists chemist is ordinarily expectedto do etc.,and all that an agricultural such
is A
to
as
analyse, with
chemist
who
cannot
sqils, manures do this much, but who
accuracy,
food-stuffs. and has a great deal of of chemistry,is of
the different branches chemist. Chemistry is a vast subject, an agricultural as use no work one's is to produce if one to specialise and it is necessary reliable results. Accuracy of manipulation,purity and sound the chemicals used, and a systematizedarrangement helpful or tions the essential condia largequantityof work, are for getting over work. The student of agricultural in analytical of success
generalacquaintanceof
wor" chemistry should begin quantitative him
to methods
of accuracy.
at
once.
This
plines disci-
One year of preparatorywork
GENERAL
in
quantitative analysiswill enable
result in the second do
work
the
He
year.
in the
447
REMARKS.
the student
should
required for
manner
produce
to
accurate
from
aim
a
the very first to commercial analysis.
analysingsoils,for instance, he should aim only at getting the proportionsof soluble matter, sand and other insoluble matters, lime. In nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and analysinga sample of nitrate of potash,however, the proportions of sand, sodium chloride should sulphate,calcium sulphate and sodium be ascertained,as these are impurities commonly present, and which have been actuallyused by way of adulteration. In fact, may
In
adulteration are
is
so
universallypractisedin
largelypurchased,that it is
countries
where
considered
never
manures
safe to
purchase
without
and the time of the agricultural chemist in analysis, is those countries occupied,therefore,in analysingmanures. largely In analysingcrops, the agricultural should chemist also bear in the object,which is in most mind the ascertainingof their cases manure
Another
nourishingvalue.
the proper manurial of the tobacco
objectof analysinga
substances
needed
leaf, for instance, leaves
manurial
ingredientsrequired by lime, sulphur,and potash and one saltpetreand
that
for its
this crop
crop is to ascertain lysis growth. The anadoubt
no
gypsum
the
chieflynitrogen,
are
naturally arrives would
that the
at
clusion con-
materially benefit ihis
crop.
The
chemist agricultural
should
well
acquainted with
aims, needs and difficulties of the farmer, that his analyses be aimless, but directed to the elucidation of only those not
the may
pointsthat would be of help to chemist be an must agricultural chemist. an as agricultural The
farmer
chemical
sell off
to
also should
rather
or
of his farm
out
be
be
the farmer.
who agriculturist
have
the manurial
and
he
those
of the substances
value
as
words, an specialised
has
general acquaintance of the
a
buys for the farm.
articles
only such
In other
have
His
he
aim
little manurial
sells
should
value, such
fibres,India-rubber,sugar, and rice,maize, oil (not oil-cake), butter, and he should buy such food-stuffs only as are particularly
as,
rich in the manurial would he
constituents
quicker,but
his animals
fatten
which
purchase cotton-cake, as
should
the
he
needs.
Linseed-cake
it is sometimes
latter
better that
brings in
far
more
to his soil. fertility
The
of
can
be
14, Cross
best
agricultural
for all the
chemist do
chemicals
and
required by an work he is likelyto be analytical procured for about "200. Messrs. Baird
apparatus
English firms
however, Darmstadt
Garden, London, E. C.,
Street, Hatton
the are
firms
to go
of
the most
to
for these.
Kahlbaum famous.
of
For
and
and
are
purity
Berlin
called
on
Tatlock
among
of E.
to
the
chemicals, Merck
of
448
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER STANDARD
THE THE
XCII.
of strength
ACID
the dilute
ALKALI.
AND
acid sulphuric
estimation of nitrogenshould be determined
to
once
be used for the for all and noted
jarsor bottles. This is done in the following way : Twenty cubic centimetres of the sulphuricacid should of a pipette into a clean beaker ; then another taken by means on
c.c.
the
; and much
into another beaker
beaker.
Ten
times
each, i.e.,about
200
should then be added
as
A
c.c.
to
third quantityof 20 distilledwater should
a
few
each.
dropsof
The when
dilute
contents
c.c.
in
a
be 20
third
be added
to
hydrochloricacid
of the
beakers are then successively boiled,and boilingjust commences, a state should be gradually solution of barium chloride in a boiling added, and the contents of the beaker stirred with a glassrodr The liquidis to be kept near until all precipitation ceases. the
boiling pointfor
some
time,
and
then
covered
up
and
left in
a
sand-bath. should then be brought to the boiling The liquid point and filtered the next day through Swedish filter-paper ; the precipitate the paper being washed several times with hot water, on in the beaker. also*the residue of the precipitate When all the into has transferred been the t he filter, funnel with precipitate is to be covered up with a pieceof paper and left on the precipitate to dry. One precautionshould be always taken the water-oven of a beaker into a filter, the contents before transferring etc. : the be and should beaker of the a greased edge glassrod should be
pouringthe contents of the beaker into the filter. The should be moistened with water blown out from a washfilter-paper is pouredon to it. bottle before the liquid is to be carefully Next day, the precipitate scraped out into the burnt crucible, filter-paper rolled up in a a white, weighed and ash added wire the to the coil, platinum precipitate.The crucible is to be placedon a pieceof black glazedpaper, while and the paper ash are beingput into it. The cruthe precipitate cible is then to be placed on a Bunsen flame or spirit lamp and the substance thoroughly ignited.The crucible should then be left ten minutes and then weighed. The inside a desiccator for over in the three beakers is treated exactlyin the same precipitate way, of the sulphuric the estimation of the strength acid beingmade in to ensure accuracy. triplicate chloride in the presence The addition of barium of hydrochloric acid results in the whole of the sulphuric acid in the beaker beingconverted into barium sulphate; barium sulphateis nearly insolublein water, but in dilute acid itis altogther insoluble. Hence the addition of a few dropsof hydrochloric acid. The weight of the barium sulphate4 being ascertained,the be acid of can deduced. easily weight pure sulphuric used while
STANDARD
THE
AND
ACID
'449
ALKALI.
ash of Suppose the weight of the crucible 4- precipitate + the 31 and -921 of the crucible weight filter-paper grammes, 29*336 grammes, alone the weightof the barium sulphate, precipitate ,
the
=s
"
ash of paper 2*585. A deduction of -002 is usually of made on account the ash of the paper ; but this point may be separatelydetermined by actual weighment of the ash from a of the size and quality used. The remainder, pieceof filter-paper is the weight of the precipitate. 2*583 grammes, The weight of all the three beakers beingthus ascertained, of the precipitate If the weights come of the three weightsis taken. the average and
=
2-583, 2*584 and 2-583 + 2*584+2*6
ro_ 0 =2*589
-
----
the respectively,
2*6 grammes
to
is
average
a
grammes.
o
BaSO.
Now
:
S04
H
+ 32-06+4x16
i.e.,173
(
:
:
2 +32-06
:
x:
has
--
be
to
-4- 4x16
=
used
233-06
=
followingway
x
.
m
20
c.c.
"
the
sulphuricacid, the This is done
in the
:
"
of HaS04 i.e., 20 pipetteful
A
:
1-089 grammes
of neutralised by 20 c.c. of the standard exactly strengthof which has been just determined. made
be
should
2'589
:
Hydrate. The alkaline solution that determination of nitrogenin all analyses such a strengththat 100 c.c. of it should b6
Sodium for
:
98-06)
(
-
253-87734
233W"
standard
The
: x
233-06)
=
98-06x2-589 "'
2-589
c.c., is
taken
in a white porcelain of distilledwater and
It is diluted with about 200 c.c. A buretteful with methyl orange.
basin.
of
the alkaline solution is then taken, and it is found, say, that the whole of the 50 burette is taken up without of the alkaline solution in the c.c. buretteful is then taken and the acid. Another neutralising now,
coloured
is requiredto neutralise only 2-44 c.c., i.e.,52-4 c.c. altogether, the acid (when the colour justturns pink). The whole of the alkali
say,
in the bottle is then transferred to another bottle. back into the former measured
solution much
water
requires47*6 of
must
be added
to make
water
to the
bottle,and say, 1,100 c.c. line Now, as 52-4 of the alka-
1,100
it into 100 c.c., how
c.c. to make
it of the proper
strength? 52-4 ..
:
1100
:
:
47*8
:
x
^=999-237.
x
has to be added to the solution in the So 999*2 c.c. of water solution,and the probottle ; and the burette filledwith the new cess with methyl the 20 c.c. of H"S04 coloured of neutralising orange,
repeated.After
attained. Now, we have seen of pure 1-089 grammes
can
two
or
three
trials the
exact
strength
be
is neutralised by 100 M, HA
acid contains pipetteof sulphuric acid. But one pipetteof this acid sulphuric that
c.c.
one
of the standardized alkali. 29
450
*~~;DBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
^
= -01089 of HfS04. But of the alkali represents acid neutralises two molecules of ammonia molecule of sulphuric 98-06 parts by weight of sulphuric 2+3206+4x61 H8) i.e.,
.". 1 c.c.
one
{N
=
acid is equivalent (14+3) x2 to
x 14
and 2
"
28
parts by weightof ammonia
parts by weight of nitrogen.
by weightof Ht S04
'01089 grammes
,\
34
=
'01089
x
alkali represents
34
of
grammes
,
or
1
c.c.
of
NH8
98'06
-01089x28
and
98-06 Every 1
grammes
of N.
of alkaliused represents-00377586 of ammonia grammes of nitrogen. and -00310952 grammes .*.
c.c.
CHAPTER
XCI1I.
ANALYSIS
OF
SOIL.
analysinga sample of soil,for all ordinaryagricultural constituents alone are quantitatively purposes, the following IN
determined
: "
(1)Moisture,(2)Organicmatter, (3)Matters soluble in water, (4)Nitrogen,(5)Potassium, (6)PhosphorusPentoxide,and (7)Lime. be taken from different parts of the field, It should mixed up well,and must be thoroughlyrepresentative. in out to before it is bottled divided,spread be finely dry shade, used for analysis.A steel box nine inches deep and six up or down and then dug out for getting inches square is hammered samples of the top soil. In Bengal for ordinary representative 6* x 6" x 6* would answer. crops, a steel box of the soil should be weighed (1) Moisture. Three grammes and left in a water-oven out in a watch glass, over-night.It is when cool the in next and desiccator, day weighedagain, weighed The
sampleshould
"
having been again left in
after
then
and found
the water-oven for a few hours, cooled in the desiccator. The weight should then be
The loss of weightis due to moisture of the soil. Ten grammes of the soilshould be weighed (2) Organicmatter. and out in a platinumdish, graduallyheated to a low redness. The heat is maintained tillall blackness disappears.It is then and afterwards weighed. The loss left to cool.in the desiccator, water matter and combined of weightis due to organic as also to ten of the soil. the moisture in grammes soluble in Matters of the soil Ten grammes water. more (3) to remain
constant.
in the three grammes
"
"
200 c.c. of distilledwater should be weighedout, placedin a flask, whole the boiledfor hour with occasional and of an a quarter added" shaking. The mixture is then kept aside;for about 10 minutes, decanted off into a beaker. The proand the supernatantliquid
452
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
ignitedand weighed. Lime, phosphatesand other besides things, e.g., alumina, oxide of iron, etc.,are potash, dissolved in the filtrate and washings. These are precipitated left and for of uncovered hour ammonia, an excess with a slight Aluminium to get rid of the ammonia. two hydrate is soluble or the Therefore of ammonia solution. should ammonia excess in be got rid of by leavingthe beaker uncovered in the sand-bath out, washed, dried,
reddish brown jelly-like littlewhile. The abundant tate precipicontains all the phosphoruspentoxidewith oxide of iron the potashand the lime. The alumina, etc. ; and the filtrate, washed with hot water. is thoroughly the filter-paper on precipitate The L ime. filtrateand are boiled,and treated '(6) washings is produced. The oxalate as longas a precipitate with ammonium for
a
"
whole
is filtered and
washed, tillthe washing
shows
no
trace
of
with a platinum wire on the flame. The residue the water-oven to dry, to be afterwards ignited in left is gently The proportion of lime may be and weighedas calcium carbonate. from carbonate calcium The found of filtrate that out/ inferred in the sand-bath left uncovered to dry. The and washingsare is clean transferred residue to a porcelainbasin, and gently dry ignitedin it. The fragmentsadhering to the sides of the beaker basin when it is cool after the washed out into the porcelain are to dry. When dry, it is ignition.This is left on the steamer tested potassium,
drive off all ammoniumsalts. Pure water is then added to the basin when cool,to dissolve the potassiumand sodium chlorides and the solution filtered. The treated with hydrochloric acid clear filtrateand washings are one-third in slight of a basin, excess, transferred to the porcelain test-tubefulof platinumtetrachloride solution added,and the whole lefton the steamer to dry. The moist residue is washed out into a
again,in ignited
the
same
way,
gentlyto
crucible with 80% porcelain
alcohol. It should,of course, be washed colourless. The filter first until the filtrate comes out a on crucible is left on the steamer to dry, and afterwards in the waterWhen oven. cool,it is weighedbeingpotassiumplatinumchloride. The jelly-like obtained (7) Phosphorus-Pentoxide. precipitate with ammonia and alreadymentioned is transferred into a beaker with the helpof the wash-bottle. Some nitric acid is poured on The filtrate is to the filterto dissolve the adheringprecipitate. collected in the same The beaker containingthe precipitate. "
filledwith nitric acid when it is empty. more and half of acidifiedsolution of ammonium a test-tufye an molybdate is then added. The mixture is left uncovered in the sandThe bright iscollected bath, to get concentrated. yellowprecipitate of a The filtrate is treated with a little more on filter-paper.
is once filter-paper A
ammonium form, The
would molybdateto see if any more yellowprecipitate with ammonium the filteris washed on precipitate nitrate. It is then treated on the filterwith justenough of dilute aiumonia solution to dissolve the precipitate. A few drops of citricacid should be added to the filtrate and some magnesia
453
SOIL.
OF
ANALYSIS
It should be then left covered up in a cold placefoi and a is collectedon twelve hours. The precipitate filter-paper, is dried, ignited, washed with ammonia The precipitate water. firstgently,then before the blow-pipe, cooled, and weighed. acid and potash The determination of available phosphoric mixture.
alreadydescribed in Chapter LXXXVIIL actually obtained followingweights, etc., were analysisof a sample of soil : has
been The
in
an
"
Moisture
"
Watch-glasses and clipand raw soil Watch-glasses and clip Watch-glasses and clipand dried soil .
Loss
in 3 grammes '0249 gramme
:.
Moisture
:.
In 1 gramme-"
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"27*3707 24*3707 27*2960 '0747
grammes. "
,,
"
2*49%
"
Crucible and soil Crucible alone After ignition Loss on ignition '0732 gramme Tn 1 gramme"
Silicates and
.
"39-328 ..
..
"29*328
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
other insoluble
"38*596
'732
" .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
7*32%
"
matter
Crucible and insoluble residue Crucible alone Insoluble residue in 10 grammes Deducting "002 for paper ash
"
37*724 "29*328 -"
.
.
..
:.
.
"
.
.
..
:.
.
ignition"?
on
:.
.
,
""
.
.
.
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
8*396
"
8*394
grammes.
"83*94% Soluble Salts" Beaker and soluble salts Beaker alone Soluble salts in 10 grammes .
20*3080
" .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,,
-0615
" ..
grammes.
20*2465
"
..
Nitrogen "
solution of NaHO 97*2 c.c. of the standard were required neutralize of the H S04 solution at the 20 standard c.c. trtration. 2*8 c.c. of the NaHO was replacedby NH3 from the soil. 1 c.c. of the alkali represents "0051095 But of N. grammes 2*8 c.c. represents '0087066 of N. in 5 grammes. grammes 47*2
50"
"
to
;.
;.
-
Lime
-174%
"
Crucible and Ca C03 ppt. and paper ash Crucible
.
.
."
.
.
29*433 29*327
"
.
.
alone .
"
-106 -002
fl
Deducting *002
CaC03 in
for filterpaper
10 grammes
.
ash .
.
.
.
*104
"
.
.
.
"
Phosphates "
Crucible and Mg2P207 and ash Crucible and paper ash ..
Mg2P,07PP"":.
In 1 gramme
..
..
..
paper ..
.
.
"29-392 29*329 "
"
..
" .
.
-063 -0063
"
-
*63%
1-04%
454
HANDBOOK
Potash
AGRICULTURE.
OF
"
Crucible
12*7645 and ppt. (K, Pt. C16.) 12-6370 alone *1275 :. the ppt. in 10 grammes -01275 1 gramme .-. In "1-28% K, Pt. C16 : K2O : : 1*28 : K"O in 100 parts of the sample. 485*5 K-O in 100 parts of the : 94 : : 1'28 or : x:.x, "
Crucible
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
.
.
.
.
"
"
sample (1) Moisture being The percentage of dry But loss on ignition of which
(2) .*.
:.
In 100
Organic matter, of dry matter the 100
:
.
.
.
.
97*51
" .
.
.
7*32%
"
2*49%
"
"c.
:
..
.
-
moisture
97-51
2-49%
"
..
matter
,
in 97-51%
4'83
"
of org.
amount
4*83
:
.
'25%
"
of
dry
matter.
"c."
matter,
"
: x
483X100
4-95%
... x
97-51
(3) Si O2. Silicates, "kc. :.
In
of
100 97-51
:
100
:
83'94
:
in 97*51
83'94
"
dry soil, the
of
amount
of
soil.
dry
Silicates, "c."
"
: x
83*94 ...
100
x
86-08%
x
97-51
(4) Ca
CO3"
in
wet
1'04
: x
1-04%
97-51
100
:
: :
soil, i.e., 97*51
of
dry.
l*04x /.
100
"1-07%
x
97-51
(5) K*O
*25%
"
97-51
:
in the wet 100 : : *25 :
sample
"
x
"25
x
100
"26% 97*51
(6) P%O5.
Mg2PaO7
"
:.
222
142
:.
PaO, in the
:.
P2O5
:
97-51
:
: :
parts of the
from 100 *63 : amount
sample
wet
in the dry soil 100 : : 403 : x
sample
"
-403 :.
wet
of P2O5 in the wet "63 x 142 '403 222
100
x
*41%
x
97-51
(7) Nitrogen in the
sample
wet
In the dry soil. 97-51 : 100 : : -174
"174%
"
/.
:
x
:.
x
"174
100
x
.178% 97*51
or
calculated N.
:
NH3
14
:
17
(8).Soluble ;.
In
97*51
as
NHs
178 '178 :
: :
: :
:
NHs
In the salts the dry soil : 100 : : : *615
in the :.
x
wet
"
x
sample "
sample
-23% "615%
"
x
"615x100 ... x
97-51
*"
*63
sample.
ANALYSIS
The
sample
OF
is therefore, following,
455
SOIL.
the result of the
of analysis
the
of soil :
"
Moisture
Organic matter, "c. Sand, "c. Calcium carbonate f
.*.*
Potash
Phosphoricanhydride Undetermined .
,
100*00 Soluble salts
.
.
* Containing Nitrogen f Calculated as Lime (CaO)
"18%
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
OF
XCIV.
BONE-MEAL,
analyse a sample of bone-meal, the followingmethod
To
ents, constituseverally the following adoptedfor determining viz.,moisture, organic matter, sand, phosphates,calcium,
is to be
carbonate, and
ammonia (1) Moisture. Three should be weighedout in The loss of water-oven.
or
nitrogen. of
grammes
"
a
the
powdered bone-meal
watch-glass.This should be left in
weight (when
the
weighingis
found
a
to
day), is due to moisture. of the bone-meal One gramme should (2) Organic matter. in low heat. be weighedout in a platinumcrucible. This is ignited and the residue in the When all the black particles disappear, and when crucible appears white, it is put aside in the desiccator, remain
constant
next
"
loss of moisture cool,weighed. The loss of weightis due to the joint of the the amount but in one and organicmatter meal, gramme The remainder should of moisture has been alreadydetermined. due to organicmatter. The residue in the crucible should then be with out beaker, the crucible beingalso washed
be calculated (3) Sand. into
a
as
"
emptied
chloric hydro-
acid is then added little more to hydrochloric in in the beaker left the beaker and the sand-bath the substance ; for that day. Next day, the contents of the beaker are filtered the filter-paper is on through ordinary filter-paper ; the sand washed a few times, dried in the water-oven, ignitedin the crucible and weighed,when cool. The increase of weightof the acid.
A
givesthe weightof sand in
of bone-meal. (4) Phosphates.The filtrate and washings from the sand then diluted to about 300 c.c. ; ammonium hydrate is gradually added ; the liquidbeing stirred with a glassrod. When
crucible
a
gramme
"
are
the precipitate settles,it is filteredthroughordinaryfilter-paper The and washed on the filterseveral times with ammonia water. then rinsed the into is out a beaker, being filter-paper precipitate
456
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE,
OP
afterwards
acid, thoroughlywashed with a littledilute hydrochloric the acid being allowed to collect in the same beaker containing the precipitate. This The acid redissolves the precipitate. is necessary to free the phosphatesfrom lime still redissolving further. It is again diluted to about 300 c.c., ammonium hydrate is
again added
in the
same
in the on
way,
same
the
again collected precipitate
and the
way,
It is dried filter-paper.
in the water-oven
collected in the crucible, the filter-paper being burnt white and added to the crucible. It is ignited, put inside the desiccator and when cool,weighed. This givesthe weightof a portion of the of bone-meal. in 1 gramme But as calcium phosphate phosphates is not quite insoluble in water, all the filtratesand washingsare collected togetherin one beaker, and concentrated by boilingto about 150 c.c. A littleacid is added to dissolve the calcium bonate carcarbon dioride the is boiled It drive to deposited. again away and when cool,ammonium and when hydrateis added gradually, the phosphatesare deposited, collected a filter-paper, on they are
washed
dried in the water-oven, thoroughly, ignitedin a crucible, When added. burnt and white cool, it is filter-paper being weighed,and the weight obtained givesthe additional quantity of phosphatesin the one gramme of bone-meal. (5) Calcium Carbonate. The filtrate from the phosphatesis boiled with ammonium is collected on The precipitate oxalate. Swedish dried the in water-oven, filter-paper, gently ignitedto
the
"
the calcium oxalate into calcium carbonate. The paper is of ash also in added. crucible a Weighed porcelain known weight,the increase of weight should be calculated as of beingdue to the weightof calcium carbonate in one gramme
convert
bone-meal. is determined by the described. previously The following obtained in the course figures
Kjeldahl method
(6) Nitrogen. This "
a
sample of bone-meal
worked
out
.
of analysis is actually analysis an
: "
Moisture
.
the
will illustrate how
of
and
organicmatter
"
Weight of Weight of
crucible -f-raw crucible alone
bone-meal
Weight of Weight of
bone-meal raw crucible + raw
taken bone-meal
Weight of
crucible + ignitedresidue
Weight Weight Weight
of of
glass+ clip+ raw glass+ clipalone
Weight
of
of organic matter
raw
30*336
" .
.
moisture
+
bone taken
bone
" .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
"
"
.
.
"
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
-377 grammes. 28'428
25*428
3 grammes. 28*428
"
28*110
"
t
raw
"
1 gramme. 30*336 grammes. 29*958 "
"
""
.
bone Weight of glass-4- clip4- dry bone
Weight of glass-I-clip+
grammes.
29*336
"
..
..
Moisture and organic matter Weight of moisture lost in 1 gramme the loss is .*. the weight of organic matter
457
BONE-MEAL.
OF
ANALYSIS
contd.
"
"318 in 3 grammes. "106 grammes (I). "377" -106
:.
:.
alone
"271
Sand
grammes
(II).
grammes
(III).
"
Weight, of crucible 4- sand Weight of crucible alone
.
29-396 29-335
.
Difference
Deducting weight
Weight
"060 "002
"
ash
of paper
of sand
"058
Phosphates "
Weight
of
phosphates
crucible
+
29-694 99-335
Weight of crucible alone
Difference
Deducting weight of
"
"359 "002
"
ash
paper
Weight of phosphates
'357
Weight of crucible + of phosphates Weight of crucible alone
2nd
"
"
of paper
Deducting weight
Difference ash
29-396
29-335
'061 -002
"
"
of the 2nd precipitate weight of the two phosphateprecipitates
Weight Total
.
" .
.
.
.
.
+ -*4J6
Calcium
Carbonate
"
.
.
.
Difference
Weight
Carbonate
of Calcium
H, SO4
solution.
=
c.c.
of
/.
NH3=3*4
bulb
the
NHS
alkali,which
"0279855
grammes per
grammes. "
"135 "002
in "
Nitrogen."The
*"
29'335
"
.
- "
1 gramme
9
29*47
"
ash
paper
-357 -058
(IV).
grammes
Weight of crucible 4- CaCO., precipitate Weight of crucible alone
Deducting
grammes.
-058
"
.
.
grammes,
precipitate
cent.
took in
'133
exactly91 1 gramme
is
N"
is
'-03398
of NaHO
c.c.
equivalentto
of
(V).
grammes
equivalentto 9
-0031095 of grammes x
458
HANDBOOK
The percentage therefore :
AGRICULTURE.
OF
compositionof the sample of bone-meal
is
"
Moisture .
.
.
Organicmatter*
.
.
(III) Sand
10*62 27*15" 5'85
(IV) Phosphates (V) Calcium carbonate (VI) Saline matter (undetermined)
41-60 13-27
100-0
*
Containing 3'4%
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
OF
of NH3
XCV. SUPERPHOSPHATE.
IN
lowing analysinga sample of Superphosphateof lime, the folshould be determined : points (1) Moisture ; (2) Loss on ignition ; (3) Sand ; (4) Lime ; Soluble Monocalcic (5) ; (6) Phosphate (Ca4P808) Phosphate or Insoluble Phosphate or Tricalcic Phosphate (CaH3Pa08). bluish grey in The sample taken should be well ground and "
colour. of the sample are weighed grammes and the left in water-oven over-night. watch-glass ; Next morning it is covered up and secured with the cover-glass and the clip,put inside the desiccator,and when cool, weighed. for another hour and treated in the same It is leftin the oven way ; until the weightis found to be exactlythe same before. The as
(1) Moisture.
out
on
"
Three
a
loss of
weightis due to the escape of the superphosphate.
(2) Loss
of moisture
from
the three grammes
of the sample is weighed on Ignition. One gramme crucible of known weight,very slowlyignitedat a low red heat, for about a quarter of an hour, until the colour of the whole mass becomes much lighter.It is then laid aside in the desiccator,and afterwards, when quitecool, weighed. The loss and other readily of weightis due to the escape of moisture,organic volatile matter. out
in
"
a
residue in the crucible of the one gramme in the justignitedis emptied into a clean beaker, every particle A crucible being carefully washed out with hydrochloricacid. acid is added, altogether about 50 c.c., little more hydrochloric When the conand the beaker left uncovered in the sand-bath. tents of the beaker become dry,it is taken out, and strong hydrochloric of the beaker, added. acid,enough to moisten the contents
(3) Sand.
"
The
and Alter a quarter of an hour, about 200 c.c. of water are added beaker left covered the sand-bath The the in siliceous wer-night. residue in the beaker is filtered out, thoroughlywashed, and left to dry. Next morning the siliceous over-nightin the water-oven
460
a
HANDBOOK
litreor
500
AGRICULTURE,
OF
is measured
of distilled water
c.c.
out into the wash-
is used for the with water. *The mixing process of mixing up the superphosphate is done in the following five way : The grammes of superphosphate into a clean and are transferred,with the help of a feather finally,
bottle,previously completelyemptied. This
water
"
dry
is rubbed with a of all the water from the
outside of the
The
mortar.
lipof the
mortar
little grease to ensure the running out mortar is then rubbed to the green bottle. The superphosphate smooth added with the pestle, littlewater being to it from the a of the water in should be taken that none Great care the wash-bottle might be wasted or spilt The outside the mortar. mixture is then leftundisturbed for a few minutes, and the supernatant
wash-bottle.
is drained off carefully from the mortar alonga clean liquid As a bottle. dry glassrod into a clean and dry stoppered further security againstloss of water, a funnel is placedon the bottle,and the water drained down on the funnel. The operation is of rubbingthe superphosphate and a further quantityof water continued, several times, and each time the supernatant liquid
and
is drained
off into the
bottle, until the residue in the
mortar
is then cleaned out perfectly appears with the remainingquantityof water in the wash-bottle, and the of the mortar contents wholly transferred to the bottle. The bottle is then stoppered, and and shaken every now again for three hours together. It is then left to settle for over twelve
quitesiliceous. The
hours.
100
c.c.
mortar
through into a clean measured containingthe soluble phosphatein 1 gram
then
are
filtered
cylinder.This 100 c.c. of superphosphate transferred into a beaker ; and the calcium are carbonate and the magnesium phosphate are separatedout in exactlythe same way as in the case of the total lime and phosphate in
one
already described. Only in this case the calcium after being thoroughly washed, is thrown precipitate,
gram
oxalate
as
and the filtratetreated with described.
away,
The
sample
followingcalculations refer of super
(1) Moisture
"
"
raw
super "28-4287
..
3 grams
..
" .
.
.
.
" .
Moisture in 1 gram
.
" .
.
.
27'9350 "4937 "1645
.
ignition
on
"
Crucible -I- lid + Crucible
lid .
actual
"
..
(2) Loss
an
"
Watch-glass x clipx dry super-
Moisturein
to
:
Watch-glass and clipand (3 grams)
:.
magnesiamixture
.
.
raw .
"
super
ignitedsuper
"
(1 grm.)-30-3280 "30-0375 .
.
"2905
as
previously
analysisof
a
ANALYSIS
OF
461
SUPERPHOSPHATE.
(3) Sand" Crucible Crucible
+ .
.
lid + lid .
sand
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
.
alone
.
ash
Less paper
.
29'3955 29*3290
"0665 "0020
.
"0645
6-45%
"
(4)
Total
Crucible
Lime +
(Calcium Carbonate) "
and precipitate
paper alone
Crucible
ash.
" .
" .
.
29'7662 29*3280 "4382
paper
ash
.
*0020
.
"4362
--43*63%
(5) Total Crucible Crucible
phosphates "
+
pyrophosphate
Magnesium
ash
paper
29%""45
..
..
Magnesium pyrophosphate Deduct
"
"29*328
alone
.
ash
"
*217 .,
.
.
'002
.
"215
"21-5%
(6) Precipitated phosphatesin the soluble portion "
Crucible Crucible
+
pyrophosphate
Magnesium
alone
"
..
..
29*520
"29*328 "192
ash
Deduct
.
'002
.
"19
(7) To
the
calculate
!9""/0
"
Monocalcium
phosphate (NH4)SC,04 CaCftOA+ 2(NH4). "
CaH4P,08 + 4NH4HO + PO4. 2 (N.H4)8P04+2MgSO.-2MgNH4P04+2(NH4),S04 MgNHJ"O,(on ignition) Mg,P9O7 + 2NH8 + H,0 Mg9P.O7 : CaH4P9O8 : : 19% : percentage of CaH4P2Oa in the soluble portion. ^
=
i.e., 222
:
234
:
:
19
percentage
:
of
monocalcium
phosphate present. /.
The
percentage of monocalcium 19
of
(8) To
superphosphate
calculate
=-
the
The
Taking 19
from
the Tricalcium
x ^^
1 gram
234 "
Tricalcium
total Mg2P,O7 came the Tricalcium from
.".
"
phosphate in 20*03%
"
phosphate partlyfrom the "
mono
and
21'5, 2'5% is left as the
amount
partly
phosphate.
phosphate.
from
462
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
(NHJ8 CaO,"3CaC2 0^+2 (NH4)" S04. (NH4)8PO,+2MgS04=2NH4MgPOt+2(NH4) 2 NH MgP04 (On ignition)MgaP"07 +2NH3+H20. Mg2Pa07 : Ca8P908 : : 2'5 : percentage of CasPa08 Now, CaaP 08 +
3
2
-
(=222)
Organic matter"
"
The
total loss
goingoff at phosphateloses on
water
^
"
(i.e. 29*05%) is made ignition of 100"C, partly the water that and the rest is the water ignition on
of sulphateof lime which real organicmatter.
the
of super.
in 1 gram
310)
=
Ca8P20" present
/.
(9)
(
Now, CaH4P 08 ( 234)
cannot
be
up
partly of
monocalcium of crystallization
calculated,togetherwith
=CaP206 (on ignition)
+
2HaO
(
=
36)
=
CaH,P908 : 2Ha
0
CaH,P,08 present : % of H80 lost phosphate present on ignition.
: :
by the monocalcic lost by the monocalcium ". HaO
.*.
H,0
the loss of
But
at
100"C
16*46+3*08,
Taking away loss on ignition,
"
or
phosphateon
16*46% 19*54%
from
ignition
the
total
"
organic 29*05%, we get 9*51% as the proportionof i.e., matter, "c.," present in the superphosphate. of the sample of superphosphate The percentage composition of
lime analysed
was
: "
Moisture "
"
Organic
matter,
"c."
"
Sand
"
CaH4P208
"
16'46% 9'51% 6-45 20*03
of
(=26-6%
4t
soluble
phosphate
"
)
CaSO4 Alkalies,"c. 100-00
XCVI.
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
OF
NITRATE
OF
SODA
AND
SALTPETRE.
of nitrate of potash, a sampleof nitrate of soda, or analysing and to estimate method employedis to find out the impurities
IN
the
potash by difference. These are generally(1)Moisture,(2)"Sand and other insoluble impurities (4)Sodium and Calcium sulphate. matter, (3)Sodium chloride, the amount
of pure nitrate of soda, or "
ANALYSIS
OF
NITRATE
OF
SODA
AND
463
SALTPETRE,
of a sampleof sodium nitrateor potassium Thirty-five grammes nitrate should be weighedout, and put in a clean beaker,and dissolved in about 300 c.c. of distilled water. A filter-paper is at the time put inside a tube and left in the water-oven same to dry. Next day, the tube is stopperedand put aside to cool, weighed after an hour, and weighed again after two or three hours, and the weightis constant, the filter-paper is brought out of the tube, fitted into a funnel,wetted, and the solution of the nitrate to be analysedpassedthrough into a clean beaker. The residue is thoroughlywashed, covered the filter-paper on with a clean up pieceof paper, and the funnel left in the water-oven to dry. Next is taken out with the insoluble residue on it, day the filter-paper put inside the tube again,left in the water-oven, after an hour and weighed. It is weighedagainafter a few taken out, stoppered, the hours until more weight is found to remain constant. The difference of weight gives the amount of insoluble matter in when
of
the nitrate analysed. This is therefore the total insoluble matter, includingsand. The filter-paper is ignited in a white, and put weighedplatinum crucible. The increase of and other siliceous matter is sand due to weight alone, the usual allowance ash. being made for the filter-paper
thiry-five grams
(2) The
"
moisture
is determined
the usual Three way. in out a watch-glass, left in are the weighed grammes water-oven, weighednext day, and weighed again,both times when cool, until The loss of weightis due to the amount the weightis constant. of in
in the three grammes
of the sample of the nitrate. (3) Sodium Chloride. The filtrate containingthe remainder after the insoluble matter has been separated, of the 35 grammes, is made exactlyinto half a litre or 500 c.c. Of this,100 c.c. should
moisture
"
be sucked
of the nitrate analysed, containingseven grammes and placedon a clean porcelainbasin. of a largepipette, by means This is treated with two dropsof potassiumchromate which is used out
indicator. The
standard solution of silver nitrate is taken the surface of the solution inside the burette a stands exactlyat zero, it is gradually poured into the nitrate solution. mixture the basin The is kept continually on stirred Potassium chromate gives a reddish brown precipitate with silver of silver chromate. citrate with the formation But this is not the chlorine sodium as as chloride purity impresent permanent, as an as
in
an
burette.
When
is immediatelyattacked by silver in the nitrate-solution, When chromate to form silver chloride. sufficientof the silver nitrate solution has been used, all the chlorine gets justused up. This is indicated by the formation of a slightly permanent reddish brown colour due to silver chromate. (4) Lime is determined in the usual way : 100 c.c. of the remainder of the nitrate solution is sucked up with a pipette, in clean beaker, heated nearly to boiling, a placed ammonium added in excess oxalate and ammonia until all precipitation are ceases,
and
the
liquidsmell stronglyammoniacal.
It is
left
464
AGRICULTURE,
OF
HANDBOOK
over-nightin the sand-bath,then filtered, washed, and usual in the The weight dried,gentlyignited, weighed way. covered
up
of calcium
carbonate
determined
is due to the amount of
sulphatepresentin
the
of
calcium
seven sample grammes 100 c.c. of the solution). (i.e., 500 c.c. of the nitrate (5) Sulphates.100 c.c. of the original
of the nitrate
"
solution should be taken and made. into 300 c.c. with distilled and barium with chloride,after addition precipitated water, boiled, acid. The precipitate of a few dropsof hydrochloric is allowed It is next day filtered, to settle in the sand-bath. and dried,ignited of barium weighed in the usual way, and the amount sulphate of lime predetermined, taken in connection with the amount viously of calcium sulphate determined, givesthe amount present as
impurity.
Silver Nitrate The Standard Solution. For estimation of it is have chlorine in substances to analysed, a standard necessary solution of silver nitrate always ready. The decinormal solution "
is in
It is made
generaluse.
16-97 by dissolving
grammes
of pure
The solution must silver nitrate in 1000 c.c. of distilled water. the molecular weight of silver nitrate is 169*7, be neutral. Now contains 16'97 grammes and as the solution made of the salt,it of silver contains TVth of the molecular nitrate in grammes weight per litre. 1 c.c. of this solution therefore represents 10000 of the molecular weight of chlorine,or of sodium chloride,i.e.,-00355 of chlorine,or '00585 grammes of sodium chloride. grammes The solution in which the chlorine or sodium chloride has to either be neutral,or slightly be determined must alkaline with a acidulated with acetic acid. The potassium fixed alkali, or slightly used for titration must be also neutral and free from chromate
chlorides. calculations The following sodium of nitrate : sample
refer
to
an
actual
analysisof
"
Porcelain Porcelain
crucible 4* sodium crucible alone .
nitrate .
.
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
."
.
60*65 grammes. 25*65
35 grammes.
(1) Moisture Watch-glass-f clip-f-nitrate of Watch-glass + clip4- dry salt "
;.
Moisture Moisture
(2) Insoluble
in 3 grammes in 1 gramme
matter
.
.
soda
27*3725 27*2245
."
.
.
.
.
.
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
'148
.
*04933--4'93
per cent.
"
Glass tube + stopper + paper Tube + stopper -I-paper
-f
Insoluble matter in 35 grammes in 1 gramme :. Insoluble matter
insoluble matter .
.
" .
.
.
"
.
'00137
13*832
*048
"
.
.'.
13*180
"
.
"
*14 per cent.
a
ANALYSIS
OP
465
OIL-CAKE.
After ignition." Cruoible 4- ash Crucible alone
:,
Insoluble
.
.
.
.
.
29*3620 29*3315
"
.
^ " .
.
.
siliceous matter
"
.
.
.
"0305 '09 per cent.
t3) Sulphates." Crucible -I- Barium Crucible alone
Sulphate -f
ash
paper
29*3650 "29*3315 "
.
.
..
..
..
-0335 Less
ash
paper
.
.
Barium sulphate in 7 grammes :. Barium Sulphate
(4) Lime.-
'0020
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
'0315
"
.
.
'45 per
"
.
.
w
cent.
"
Crucible 4- Calcium Crucible alone
Less paper
Carbonate
+
paper
ash
29'3425 "29*3305 "
"
..
.
.
.
..
..
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
"0120 *002
"01 :.
Calcium
carbonate
.
to Calcium
Equal
sulphate
.
'14 per cent. '19 per cent.
.
.
(5) Chhride.-76*3 :.
But :.
c.c.
10 '9 1
The
c.c.
Silver nitrate solution
of
were
requiredfor
7 grammes
for 1 gramme
c.c.
of sodium chloride '00589 grammes chloride present ""00585 T 10*9 '06376" 6'38 per cent.
(standard)
AgNO.
"
of sodium
amount
"
compositionof the
The
percentage analysed is, therefore
sample
of nitrate
of soda
:
"
lOO'O *
Containing Sand"
XCVII.
CHAPTER ANALYSIS FODDER.
FOR
the
"
In
'09%_
OF
OIL-CAKE.
analysing a sample of oil-cake for fodder, six in number be determined are : (3)Fibre ; (4)Oil ; (5)Albuminoid matter ;
proximateconstituents
to
"
(1) Moisture ; (2)Ash ; and (6) Soluble organic matter. of moisture present (1) Moisture. To determine the amount of three the in the sample, powdered cake should be rneagrammes "
M,
HA
30
466
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and leftin the water-oven to dry. After sured out on a watch-glass hour it is weighed a few hours it is weighedagain. After another found to remain constant in weight third time, and when it is a the difference from the original since the last weighing, weight is calculated as beingdue to loss of moisture in three grammes. of coolingthe At the two last weighingsthe usual precautions substance inside the desiccator, coveringit up with another watchthem together by glassand fastening
means
of the
clipshould
be
taken. mineral matter. Two grammes of the cake should be weighedout in the platinumcrucible,alreadycleaned,ignited and cooled in the desiccator. The cake is ignited the Bunsen on rendered quitewhite, i.e., after about half an hour, flame. When it is set aside in the desiccator to cool. When cool,it is weighed,
(2) Ash
or
"
and the difference between this weight and the weightof the crucible in the two grammes. alone is due to the ash ingredients and insoluble organicmatter. (3) Fibre, or indigestible of the sample should be weighedout in a beaker. Three grammes Two scratches should be made on the side of the beaker, one at 150 c.c. and the other at 200 c.c., 150 c.c. of distilledwater should be Added to the cake, and the beaker placed on the wire gauze over the flame. The whole is broughtto boiling with continual stirring acid solution to prevent burning. At this stage 50 c.c. of sulphuric of f ive cent, acid added to the are containing per pure sulphuric mixture ; and the boiling continued exactly for half an hour after that. The normal value of 200 c.c. is maintained throughoutby "
The the addition of hot water at intervals duringthe half hour. residue from this acid-digestion is collectedover a filteron a piece of linen cloth. It is washed several times with hot water while the cloth and then when it ceases to turn litmus paper on red, it 150 c.c. of water is transferred to a beaker. added again, are and the mixture broughtagain to boiling, and at this stage 50 c.c. of a five per cent, solution of caustic potash are The added. mixture should be boiled exactlyfor half an hour again. It is againfiltered throughlinen,washed, and transferred to a weighed crucible. The crucible is left on the steam-bath over-night and in the
morning transferred to is weighed,the increase
the water-oven. When dry perfectly of weightbeing due to the insoluble it fibrous matter contained in three grammes. From this is subtracted the weightof the ash which is determined by igniting the fibrous matter iA the crucible,coolingit in the desiccator and weighingit again. (4) Oil." Two grammes of the finely powdered cake are folded and inserted in a tube between plugs up in a pieceof filter-paper, "of card ed cotton-wool ; above the upper cotton phig is placeda coiled brass spiral. It is then placedin a Soxhlet fat extractor, loosely the lower end of the extractor attached to a wide mouthed ether by a cork, and ^the flask containing upper end to a long inserted^condenser. The ether is then keptboiling for three hours
468
OF
HANDBOOK
The
AGRICULTURE.
of the sample of oil-cake analysed percentagecomposition
therefore
was
"
(1) Moisture
(2)
10-24 6*91
Ash
(3) Fibre (4) Oil (5) Albuminoids (6) SoJuble organicmatters
6-46 11-85
40*74 23-78
100-00
While sugar. should noted it be fodder,
Starch and
analysinga sample
of linseed cake if there is for any starch or sugar in the cake, which are indicative of adulteration. Two of grammes taken in small be 100 cake may of water a beaker, c.c. added, boiled for five minutes, and then allowed to cool. the mixture is to be decanted off (not filtered), One portion when quite cold, into a If any
"
basin porcelain blue colour
and
tincture of iodine ad,ded drop by drop. the presence of starch stirring,
is noticed while
is to be inferred. If an oil-cake for manure. oil-cake is used besides moisture, ash, fibre,oil, both as a fodder and manure, found which oil-cake which and albuminoids, out in analysing are of sand, lime, phosphoric is used as fodder alone, the amounts acid and potash,present in the ash, should be determined. If,
Analysis of
"
of castor-cake and ma/ma-cake, the substance is not to find alone,it is unnecessary requiredfor fodder but for manure of oil,fibre and albuminoids in the sample, out the proportions to find out the proportions of lime, phosbut it is very necessary phoric acid and potash besides nitrogen,and foreignsubstances in the
as
case
sand. as After determiningthe percentage of ash in the usual way, the ash is dissolved in half a litre of distilledwater ; each 100 c.c. three grammes of cake in the example given below, representing of cake being ignitedfor obtainingthe ash for fifteen grammes
such
analysis. 200
c.c.
of the solution
six 'grammes (representing
should
of the added
then be taken. Chloride is then Ferric ammonia to take down the jelly-like precipitate.The is washed with ammonia The precipitate is water. precipitate collected ii^ beaker, and dissolved in nitric acid ; ammonium a and estimated molybdate is added, the phosphoricacid precipitated the in of o f soil. case as analysis
cake)
and
The ammonium
filtrateand oaalate
washings are concentrated added the to precipitate
filtrate and
washingsfrom
by boiling,and lime
as
calcium
oxalate. The in
a
the
sand-bath, ignitedon case
of soil in
a
the last
taken to dryness porcelainbasin, and treated as in
estimatingpotash.
are
ANALYSIS
The
OF
followingexample
of oil-cake for
shows is worked
manure
469
OIL-CAKE.
how out
analysisof
an
sample
a
:
"
(1) For moisture." cake -f clip -J-raw Watch-glasses Watch-glasses -f clip + clip -f dry cake Watch-glasses :.
Moisture
in 1 gramme
25 '743 "24*743 25*659 '0835 8*35 % "
..
..
..
..
..
"
..
..
"
.
.
.
.
(2) Organicmatter, "kc.
"
Crucible + ignited cake (1 gramme) Crucible alone :. Loss on ignition
30*3280 29*4785 '8495
" .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
"
"84*95% Deducting 8*35 (3) Sand,
cent, for moisture
per
.
.
..
..
.
.
...
.
..
..
(4) Nitrogen calculated
.
"
ash
.
.
.
"
J c.c.=89^
6*7855 "6*1866 "
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
..
.
.
the
of the cake, the ammonia In 1 gram of albuminoids.
replacedby
would
c.c."
..
.
In 1 gramme
(6) Phosphoricacid.
"
6'61%
.
"29*402 "29*326 *076
..
..
..
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
ash ""
.
.
*0123=
.
"074
1 *23%
"
Crucible Mg2 Pa 07 paper ash Crucible alone 6 grammes :. Mg2 Pa 07 from Deducting *002 for ash ;. Mgj R, 02 in 1 gramme Mg2 R" 07 : P205 : : 2'33 : P 0$ in the cake. :. P205 in the sample "
be '066 grammes
ash
paper
"
.
..
.
..
.
.
"
.
.
"
142
"
14
.
.
.
*0233=2'33%
"
.
.
.
..
.
.
29*4675 29*3255
"
.
..
.
.
=
.
1 '49%
(7) Potash." Crucible -fppt. Crucible alone ;. 2K Cl. Pt C14in 6 grammes :. In 1 gramme of K20 PtCl42KC1 : K20 : : 5-96 : amount of KaO present ;. amount ..
..
,.
..
..
..
26'015 "25*6575 "'3575 "
..
.
ammonia
of ammonia. in '5989 grammes
-
Crucible +CaC03 from 200 Crucible alone ash :. CaCO3" paper Deducting *002 for paper CaC03 in 6 grammes :.
grm.
.
caustic standard requiredto neutralize the of
"
carbonate.-
'5989
"
c.c.
.
.
.
soda solution was acid taken sulphuric 89i = 10Jc.c. of standard caustic soda was :. 100 of the cake. coming from the *5989 grammes of the alkali represents '0037716 grammes But 1 c.c. of ammonia :. 10 \ c.c. represents '0396018 grammes the cake.
(5) Calcium
7*07%
"
"
50 4- 39
1*061
" .
.
'0707"
Ammonias
as
Watch-glass -cake Watch-glassalone :. The quantitytaken
"30*390 29'327 1*063 "
.
:.
"
cfcc."
Crucible* sand, "c. Crucible alone :. Sand, "c., in 15 grammes Deducting *002 for paper :. In 1 gramme
=4*43%
76*60
" .
.
.
.
-0596=5-96%
"
.
present. *"
=1*15%
of
"
470
OP
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
the
.-
...
Organic matter,
f
:
"
"8*35
Moisture *
analysisof
of the
results
therefore are the following for manure oil-cake of the sample The
Ash
"c.
76*60
"
...
...
...
"
"15-05
...
...
...
per cent.
.-
...
...
"
100*00 *
of
Containing34*43%
nitrogenous matter
calculated
as
albuminoids,
f Containing" Silicates,dec. Lime
" .
Phosphoricacid Potash
...
...
...
...
ANALYSIS
OF
per cent.
'69
,f
.
1'49 "1-15 "
...
...
..
...
CHAPTER
IN
70*7
"
...
...
...
,, "
XOVIII. SILAGE,
GKASS,
analysingleaves, hay, silageand
"c.
roots, some
difference
in the estimation of albuminoids from the method has to be made recommended for oil-cake for fodder,though the moisture, oil, in the case of oil-cakes. Leaves, fibre and ash are determined as contain nitrates, amides and amines, which have littleor no etc., feedingvalue. True albuminoids should be separatedfrom other and the nitrogenin these alone estimated nitrogen-compounds of the two with the by one processes described in connection of o f The albuminoids soils. is done in separation true analysis the following way : acid is put on the lid of a platinum crucible Orthophosphoric Bunsen flame. Spurting and gentlyheated on a triangle over a flame. When it becomes is avoided by moving about the Bunsen "
quite glassy,orthophosphoricacid changes
into
metaphosphoric
In this state it is put inside a beaker along with the lid of acid. the crucible and a little distilledwater to dissolve the metaphosphoric acid. Two of hay, or any other food-stuff silage, grammes of this class that is analysed, are put in a beaker, moistened with and solution few drops of the metaphosa a warm phoric phenol (4%),
acid .solution are
added. After a quarter of an hour 100 c.c. solution in a boilingstate, are of the same added, the phenol mixture stirred, and then left to cool. The whole is then transferred to a the washing being done with the help of a filter, wash-bottle containing the same phenol solution in a cold state. The albuminoids getting coagulated by the phenol solution remain
on
compounds
filter,while the non-albuminoid pass off with the filtrate. Tite contents the
dried and method as Kjeldahl's are
then
nitrogentherein alreadydescribed. the
nitrogenous
of the filter either by estimated
ANALYSIS
refer to figures following
The of
471
OIL-CAKE.
OF
an
actual
of analysis
sample
a
silage: "
Moisture.
"
Crucible -f powdered Crucible alone
silage
"
...
...
30-860 "29-327 "533
Crucible" dry silage /. Loss in 1*533 grammes
taken.
grammes
"30-755 ""105
...
-6-84% Dry silagetaken
"
1"533
"
-105"
1-428
grammes.
Fibre." Glass + stopper+ silage Glass + stopper
"37-446 "34-446 3
crucible 4-dry fibre of porcelain Wt" of porcelaincrucible alone
Wt.
taken.
grammes
12-0995
"
"10-9665 "1-1330
-37-76% Axh." Crucible" Crucible"
"30-7550
dry silage ignitedresidue
"29-4445
1-3105 org. matter, alone ash in 1'428 grammes
Crucible .-. 1175"
"29-3270 of
"8-22%
dry silage
Oil." Glass + stopper + silage
"37*446
Glass+stopper
"34-446
taken
3 grammes
"31-708
Flask + oil Flask alone
-31-922
"2-86% Albuminoids." Wt.
"36*446
of glass+ stopper -f silage
"34-446
G lass -f stopper
taken.
2 grammes of standard NaHO 50"43-5=93-5 c.c. up for neutralising20 c.c. of standard
of alkali represents of albuminoids" 1908 grammes
6-5
c.c.
6*5
x
.*.
solution
taken sulphuricacid.
"1279 gr. in 2 gr,
In 1 gramme
"064
grammes=6-4%
percentage composition of the sample of silagewa"
The therefore
; "
Moisture 37-76
Fibre Ash (includingsand) Oil ...
Albuminoids Soluble
8
6-40 ...
Ac. carbohydrates,
..
.
.
.
..
.
...
"
'29,,
37 92
'/, v
100-00
472
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTUBB.
OF
XCIX.
CHAPTER WATER THE
ANALYSIS.
farmer should be careful about the for irrigation or drinkingpurposes.
qualityof
the water
he uses of The presence nitrates is helpfulfor vegetation, but that of nitrates and of chlorine indicates sewage contamination, and nitrites are also
injuriousto
crops.
Distillation is the only means Even water. rain-water, which traces waters, contains other solid bodies. For
of
is
gettingchemicallypure
the
of all natural of chlorides, ammonium nitrate and obtainingeight gallons of distilled
purest
This ten should used. be water gallonsof ordinary water should be distilled from a copper still connected with block a The first half gallonof distilled water tin worm. is to be jected reand the next eight gallons kept. of water, the followIn testing the purityor adaptability ing
pointsshould
be noted : (1) Total Hardness nent ; (2) PermaHardness and Nitrites ; (4) Nitrates ; (3) Chlorine ; Ammonia Free Ammonia Albuminoid (5) (7) Total ; (6) ; and Residue after distillation. The points which a farmer should nitrates and the chlorine, note nitrites. are specially Total hardness the whole of lime and amount (1) represents other
salts which
"
render
water
Clarke's
hard.
soap-test
is
total hardness ; 50 c.c. of water taken are determining in a stopperedbottle of about 200 c.c. capacity. A burette is filledwith the standard soap solution,and 1 c.c. added each time When lather remains and the bottle shaken. a permanently five minutes further addition of the solution should be stopped or and the number of c.c. of the solution used read off. Then from Table of Hardness the proportion of Lime the of Carbonate
appliedfor
"
n
"
100,000 parts of water, determined. (2) Permanent hardness indicates the
of calcium and The calcium carbonate. amount
magnesium salts in a state other than and magnesium carbonates are held in solution in water by the dioxide dissolved in the water. On this gas carbon boiling, the carbonates other off and while all are precipitated, passes A high-degreeof permanent hardness salts remain unaffected. of indicate sewage contamination, showing the presence may derived from and which be both of chlorides, might sulphates is it matter. to render such water Moreover, impossible sewage In potable by boiling. estimating permanent hardness, the the water, and the result noted soap-test is appliedafter boiling hardness." as permanent "
also indicate sewage (3) Chlorine,as chlorides,may the for accounts to tamination, though nearness seacalso of the chlorine in water. placed in a beaker over
70 a
con* some
of the water to be tested are sheet of white paper and brought c.c.
.under
473
ANALYSIS.
WATER
charged with the standard solution of silver drops of the solution of potassiumchromate are
burette
a
Two
nitrate.
then added, and the silver solution carefully run
in with
constant
the solution in the beaker justchangesfrom yellow This indicates that all the chlorides have been precipitated
until stirring, red.
to
The
silver chromate will not form until all the chlorides have been removed, but whenever of silver golutioncauses this is attained,the least excess the red chromate to be produced. Each cubic centimetre of silver solution silver chloride.
as
will
indicate
silver nitrate and
red
coloured
of chlorine per litre. The grammes chromate solutions must be both potassium "00355
neutral. perfectly
(4) Nitrates and Nitrites. The
sample of water piece of sheet-aluminium
"
with in.
sodium The
hydrate
and
nitrates and
a
nitrites
reduced
are
is treated
dropped
ammonia
to
in
with the nascent applied. As nitrates
hydrogen produced and then Nessler's beneficial to plantlife and nitrites are and indicative of sewage contamination, it is important injurious if there are any nitrates and nitrites in to ascertain qualitatively the water used for irrigation and for drinking purposes. Water containingnitrates, coming in contact with sewage, the nitrates reduced become nitrites the metaphenylene to nitrites. For This reagent is dissolved diamine hydrochloride test is the best. in sulphuric acid,and a drop of it added to water supposedto be contaminated If a yellowcolour is gradually by sewage. formed, contact test
the presence of nitritesis to be inferred. the presence of nitrates,an For ascertaining
equal volume
of strong sulphuric acid should be added to a volume of the water tested,and then a few drops of indigosulphatesolution. The solution should be
that the
heated,and if nitrates
indigosolution
(5) The
are
present,it will be
seen
is decolorized.
free ammonia
is determined
in water
by
Nessler's
test.
(6) Albuminoid in the water.
is due to
ammonia
bodies nitrogenous organic
After
the free ammonia has been estimated,by distillationwith sodium carbonate, the residue remainingin the retort is heated with a stronglyalkaline solution of potassium
permanganate, sufficient being added about 500 and is
c.c.
The
to make
matters nitrogenous
the solution up to tion undergoa limited oxida-
Then Nessler's test obtained as ammonia. the distilled liquorwhich is collected in portions The alkaline solution of potassiumpermanganate is
is nitrogen
appliedto
of 50
c.c.
4 preparedby dissolving
and
100
grammes
of
of
potassium permanganate potassiumhydrate in 550 c.c. of distilled grammes
water.
(7) Total residue is what water
has been
evaporated.
remains
behind
after
a
sample of
PART
VI.
CATTLE.
CHAPTER
C.
BUFFALOES. [Division of cattle
wild buffalo ; The domesticated buffalo ; the advantage of ; The buffaloes for draught and milk purposes ; Feeding of buffaloes ; Points of a milking and a working buffalo termination for work ; De; Breeding ; Period of age ; Diseases of buffaloes.]
keeping
THE sub-family Bovinae belongingto the tribe Ruminants is divided into three main (1)the Bisontine to which belongs groups : the yak of Central Asia ; (2) the Taurine or oxen divided proper, subagaininto (a)the Zebus (Bos Indicus)or humped oxen of India,(6)the Taurus (Bos Longifrons), the humpless cylindrical "
horned cattle of Europe,and (c)the Gavceus, humpless,somewhat flattened horned cattle of India and South- Eastern Asia and
(3) the Bubaline
buffaloes. Wild
These
are
;
comprisingthe wild and the domesticated the animals ordinarily cattle. known as
The buffaloes. "
milk
of the buffalo
beingmuch
richer in
butter than the milk of cows, buffaloes should be considered as very valuable farm animals. useful In dry heat buffaloes are not so for draught purposes whole but the as on they are superior oxen, cart and plough animals. Buffaloes are found in the wild state in the Himalayan Terai from Oudh and in the plains to Bhutan of
Bengalas
and
in
Central and the
the
far west
as
Tirhut,but chiefly along the Brahmaputra,
Sundarbans.
India
as
They
far south
as
also inhabit the the Godavery, also
table-lands of
Ceylon,Burma
Malay Peninsula.
They live in the marginsof forests rather but and they never ascend the mountains interior, adhere to the swampy portionsof the localitiesthey inhabit. The wild buffalo is somewhat cated largerand plumper than the domestiIn the wild b buffalo. state they are very powerful,ut they not savage nor are unapproachableexcept where they are much
than
in the
hunted. and
They
come
to
produce their young in herds.
heat in autumn, gestatefor ten months in the hot weather. They usuallylive
The
domesticated buffalo is also semi-aquatic in its habits. female buffaloes breed first when they are three years old
The and then once in every two or three years only and produceabout six calves in all. Occasionally theycalve annually. They continue
476
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
This mixture is dividedinto two doses,one beinggivenin the morning and the other in the evening, and its administration should be repeatedfor three or four days, if necessary. While made under treatment be and animal should the given littlewater to live on dry bhusa as much as possible.
CHAPTER
CI.
OXEN. be kept distinct ; The Bankipore cross-bred cattle ; Nell ore cross-bred cows Hansi and Darbhanga ; The and Gir cows sing ; The Nagpur bullock ; The Jerseyand Kerry valuable for croswith cows should not be from cross-bred animals, but from ; Bullocks local breeds ; The heavy Mysore and Hissar breeds and Gujrat breeds best for draught purposes and Kosi breeds best ; ; For Bengal the little Mariana Points of a good cow and bullock : Breeding ; Gestation ; Pregnancy ; Food
'[Three classes
of
oxen
to
Montgomery, Meerut,
calves and bullocks at different stages ; Changes of food ; Relative of cows, value of food -stuffs ; Relation of food to weight ; Housing ; Age ; Castration ;
Dehorning.]
THERE
three types of bovine cattle, (a)draughtanimals, and "(b)milkers, (c)beef-producers. Draught animals may also be ing to have milkgood milkers or beef -producers,and it is possible of and beef-producing the in the case combined, as qualities are
"
to keep the three it is more satisfactory each of and choose the best types quitedistinct type for breeding purposes, the rest beingsold by the breeder or used after castration. This system of breedingonly from one type tends to exaggerate
Jersey
cattle.
But
the
qualitysought,which is either power of work and endurance, or qualityand quantity of milk, or qualityand quantity of beef. The Bankiporecross-bred cattle established by Mr. Taylerabout the time of the Mutiny from the local breed crossed with English of from eightto twenty seers bulls,is a superiormilker,yielding be made milk per diem. of these may A number the basis for the milking strain. Other superiormilkingbreeds are the Montgomery and the Meerut breeds ; the Hansi ; and a cross-bred race established in the Darbhanga Raj State by crossinggood country with a Jerseybull. For power of muscle and bones and -cows of action,the trotting bullocks of-Nagpur come first,and a number of animals of this class may be made the basis of the draught
strain. In? There are no
fine trotting there are bulls. very Indian cattle which producethe tasty beef which is obtained from the Highland Kylo, or the Dexter Kerry, and to "establish both beef and milk producingstrains, it is best to import bulls of the Kerry and the Jerseybreeds from England and rear them free from contamination hill with native cows, on some station.
Rajputana also
The
from Jerseybreed is specially mentionedas it comes and is an excellent is not very largein size, a, fairly warm locality, breed. and The Shorthorn breeds, though milking Ayrshire
477
OXEN.
heavier milkers,are not so suited for crossing with the smaller sized Bengalcattle,nor are they so adaptedfor the Indian climate the Jersey cattle. Of the South Indian breeds, may be menas tioned the Mysore cattle as a superiordraught animal and the Nellore cattle as a superior milk-producing cattle. Butt they and feeders sized animals and are are not therefore heavy large in the same the Bankiporecross-bred cattlerecommended as way and the Nagpur cattle as theJbasis of improvement for Bengal. The Kathiawar Gir cattle are good both for draughtand milk or and they are not so largeas Mysore or Nellore cattle, purposes,
and
form the basis of selection for both types in Western His Highnessthe Gaekwar of Baroda has broughtto the notice of the Englishpublicthe excellence of this breed. The small hill cattle are generally in size, with undevelopedhumps, may
India.
and the Burmese cattle are the Of North Indian cattle,the Hissar, Mewat and Gujrat breeds are the best for draughtpurposes, and the Hariana and Kosi breeds the best for milk. Mr. S. M. Hadi, Assistant of Agriculture Director of the United Provinces, recommends
but,
as
rule, powerful. These
a
milkers.
worst
Kosi bulls for improving both draught and milking breeds. Kosi cows small-sized animals, but they yieldas are much as seven or eightseers of milk per day. Some of the best of milkingcattle of Calcutta belong to this breed. Hundreds the Kosi fair cattle find their way from to Calcutta. annually of Calcutta belong to the The animals excellent commissariat Of Bengal cattle,the Sitamari breed alone may Hissar breed. worth keepingup. be mentioned as with the Jersey lias proved very beneficial Cross-breeding the
use
of
obtaininggood milkers, but. as as foreigncattle should be deprecated,
with a rule, cross-breeding the native breeds are hardier and less subjectto disease than cross-bred animals. As cows are certain of housed and amount treated, a delicacyof carefully do much constitution may not harm, but for draught animals, for
of constitution necessarily get rough treatment, delicacy is most undesirable. Draught animals should not be crossed with European cattle for another reason : the hump of the bullock and as European is of great service in ploughingand in carting, animals cross-bred either with cattle are without humps, the are without humps, or with ill-developed or humps. We can leave in a book on Indian out of consideration altogether beef-producing agriculture. which
must
Indian cattle of Northern India Points. Of all pure-bred which are easilyavailable for breedingpurposes for the other two types of animals, the Kosi is the best to select for Bengal. It in the United Provinces. A good Kosi is a native of Mathura should be characterized by the following marks, which should cow "
less all milch
It should have
a heavy dew-lap; a prominent forehead ; badcmi (almond-shaped) eyes ;, hair ; the hairypart of the tail should be fine,glossyand polished
characterize more
or
cows
: "
478
HANDBOOK
bushy, tapery,
OF
AGRICULTURE.
touching the ground
and
; the
belly,large
but
the size of the animal ; the horns, elegant and well proportioned larger ; the udder, large,and front teats all four well and from hind another. the The than one ones, apart The milk .veinsshould be well developedand tortuous. temper should be docile,and the animal should be slow and lazy of a cow should be assumed rather than sprightly.A bad tempered cow well
to
proportionedto
be
a
milker.
poor
tempered animal, the and
cow
the
the
more
she
more
Though a^good milker
it should
be also borne
in mind
likelyshe is to. be of a is apt to be affected by If the
is
usually a good that
temperament
nervous a
milker
the better
change in handling, lacks
the new milking or surroundings. experience, result usuallyis a permanent shrinkageof the milk yieldand early Heifers their first calf should be with drying oil of the cow. for ten or eleven months in the year, so that the habit of end of the periodof gestation almost milk the to giving very may If it is necessary be established. to introduce a stranger,let him begin milkingand let the older attendant finish off. This should be continued for two three days before the older attendant is or allowed to be replacedaltogetherby the stranger. Black and The skin of Indian white are the best colours for these cows. the colour of the hair may cattle,whatever be, is usuallyblack. A cow should be thin at its neck and slight at fore-quarters and and The is here behind. of a Meerut heavy figuregiven deep milked
-cow
belongingto
Calcutta, in which
Bholanath Babu the pointsof a
Chatter
good
cow
jee of Bhowanipur, can
be
prominent^
noticed.
FIG.
98." AN
IDEAL
INDIAN
cow
(MBKRUT
BREEDS).
A
characteristic marks good Kosi bullock has the following of which should characterize more all bullocks : The less or hoofs should be dark, round and comp"ct, i.e.,the toes not too far separated from each other. The eyes should be dark and
most
"
479
OXEN.
unlike the eyes of a deer. The forehead should be The muscles on the top of the neck should be well prominent. ing givinga greater width to the upper surface and formdeveloped, down. when bent the neck is Animals channel which show a
prominentnot
neck and no channel should be considered weak. thin upper The chest should be broad, the tail thin and the sheath not too prominent. Grey is the best colour for bullocks as it denotes strength.If a bullock is white, its hump should be black. A
a
bullock should be well proportioned, heavier,in fact,at the neck behind. Both than and bullocks should be and fore-quarter cows
good
eaters.
in breeding. Breeding. Cattle should not be allowed full liberty Bulls should be prevented from breedingfor the first three "
and heifers for the first two years of their life, Calves should be givenplentyto eat if they are
breeding animals.
Neglectingcalves in once annuallyand some
is
a
years
and
to turn
a
out
great mistake.
half.
good Some
calve two years, and occasionally calve Those that in three years. once a year should have once the after calving.Those calvingonce bull put to them two months in two years should have the bull eightmonths after calving.If cows
after
givingbirth
to its firstcalf does not
show a desire for after calving, the bull by coming to heat within four months it which will not calve every year. should be taken as one Those calvingannuallygive the normal quantityof milk for the first in two years for the first eight and those calving four months once a
cow
the quantityof milk decreases gradually, After this period months but the qualityimprovesuntil shortlybefore they go dry when somewhat saline in taste. A cow the milk becomes which gives The Ek-barsi such milk is called khero (i.e., saline). (or one-year cow) goes dry in eightmonths and the Do-barsi (ortwo-year cow) after calving.There are some in twelve to fourteen months cows, however, which givemilk for a longerperiod. The milkingperiod .
the breed, also on feedingand milking. on depends chiefly The period of a cow is 283 to 300 days, of a buffalo ofgestation 350 of 148 315 to to 156 days and of a sow days, sheep or goat 120 to 127 days. A cow calvingfrom the third to the goes on
twentieth year of her age.
Cows come in three weeks to heat once until they get jpregnant. To ascertain whether a cow is pregnant or not, it is milked of the and milk is taken out of the pail with a drop separately and dropped in a glassof clean water. If the drop a bit of straw sinks to the bottom, without much the cow dispersion, in the water, the cow is pregnant ; if it disperses is not readily Our Qowalas usuallyjudge pregnancy by the following pregnant. animal if the stands with its tail removed on one habitually : sign of milk
the vulva, it is pregnant ; if it habitually rests its tail it is not absence vulva, the of o r on pregnant. Bellowing bellowing, oestral sign, walking quietly,and the tri-weekly jumping or side from
are
other
indications.
480
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
food producesthe effectof exciting the desire of following ration of Juar fodder with two to four for the bull : a daily the cow Ibs. of boiled cotton seed. This food givenfor three or four weeks producesthe effect. A heifer which refuses to take the bull may be converted into a Kamdhenu (or virginmilker)if she is milked will At first yieldvery littlemilk, but if the milking regularly. is persisted two to three in, she givesconsiderable quantities, i.e., be done at any time of the day. seers a day, and the milkingcan Cows in calf which have got dry are usuallygiven no special food, but simply left to graze and drink what water they can get. But some nourishingfood and plenty of good drinking-water in calf,though fatteninga should always be providedfor cows of oil-cake,or Half a seer in calf is highly undesirable. cow The
cotton-seed mixed fodder should be
grass
or
up with
basketful of bhusa
a
leaves, e.g.,
or
(i.e., straw,
etc.)
baer
(Zizyphusjujuba)leaves addition to grazing. A few
given as sani every night,in days before delivery,they should be given half a seer of boiled barleymixed with 1 pow (5 to 6 ounces) of gur and half a pow of linseed oil and half a chittack (one ounce) of common day. This mixture is a mild laxative but strengthening food, and it is also beneficial in helpingon the flow of milk.
mustard
or
salt every
food should After deliveryliquid for four or five days and the cow
be avoided
as
much
as
possible
kept on such dry food as wheatginger,and oil. After four straw, wheat-bran, gur, fenugreek, five days the colostrum givesplaceto the flow of true milk. or and it is has useful in The colostrum an aperient property, relieving accumulated foetal dung. After the or the calf of the moeconium should of has the cow passed, period colostrum get for a month rice and Jcalai) mixed with 1 pow 1 seer of boiled wheat (or mixed of gur and the milk left by the calf which is drawn, besides grazing is very helpful in inducingthe flow of milk. ad lib. This mixture weeks' milk The first three inducingdiarrhoea among children, is usuallyrejected, i.e.,givento calves and cows, or pigs, or utilized For the firstthree weeks after calving, for making butter. a cow is called kechute (orgreen). There is usuallya new accession to the flow of milk about
the twenty-first day after calving.If at is sold to a new this time or soon afterwards,the cow owner or removed from one placeto another, there is a serious interruption in the flow. This should therefore be regardedas the critical periodas far as the yieldof milk is concerned, and very careful
feedingand
be
resorted to, and on no account should the attendant be changedat this period. If it is necessary the animal,this should be done before the twentieth to sellor remove three or four months after calving. or day after calving, The followingfoods are in helpful enhancingthe quantity and qualityof milk : treatment
must
"
(1) 2
seers
of boiled mash
kalai,1
of ghol(buttermilk churned or in addition to grazing.
5
seers
seer
of crushed
curd) made
into
juar and a
gruel,
481
OXEN.
(2) Husked
dal of gram
well
steepedin water,
in addition to
grazing. (3) Cyamopsispsoralioides tion (juar)cut green before the formaof seed, in addition to ordinary grazing. from 2 A.M. when there (4) Grazingearlyin the morning, i.e., is
plentyof dew
the grass, in addition to ordinarygrazing. or green twigsof wild plum (baer)chopped seed, in addition to ordinary up into small bits given with cotton
(5) Dried
on
leaves
grazing. (6) Kanta-notea, bael fruit and mash
given in addition
water
to
kalai boiled
togetherin
grazing.
(7) Silageand bran (say 20 Ibs. + 4 Ibs.) cow (8) For a large-sized yielding12 to 15 seers of milk a economical is for each feed, 5 seers mixture of chaff, day. a very of water, given twice a day. The of molasses and 24 seers is also 1 seer of oil-cake soaked mixture following very good : of chaff and a handful of salt,twice in hot water, with 5 seers 1
seer
"
a
day.
is necessary if a good liberal supply of good drinking-water do not drink the same flow of milk is desired. Cows quantity of If they are water at all seasons. given watery or sloppy food, A middle-sized cow should be provided they requireless water. with 10 gallonsof water per day, though she may not drink it all. is the proportionin England, One part of dry food to four of water but they requiremore in India. water The flow of milk is also enhanced by rubbing the udder with castor-oil after each milking, supplemented,of course, by proper the milk-glands excites than slow also more feeding.Quick milking A
milking,and
an
expert
who
milker
can
do
the
work
quickly
can
milker. always get of twice increases the quanMilkingfour times a day instead tity of the milk, but the qualityis somewhat inferior. It is always desirable,however, to milk cattle thoroughlyand not to spare any more
milk out
of
a
cow
than
a
slow
Thorough milking not only givesone the last which are richer,but it tends to increase the flow of milk strippings and enlarge the size of the mammary glands. The septum of the median line and milkingshould be is the glands along mammary done first at one side and then at the other and not, as is sometimes done, at the front teats firstand hind teats afterwards. month to suck as much milk The calves are allowed for one But while they learn to pick up a few blades of grass. as they can after a month restriction should be put on the calf and it should be hand-fed with a mixture of ghol and barley,or with wheatmeal and linseed-meal,and allowed to pick up grass and other fodder plants. They should be kept as much apart from their when dams be the should as possible. Hand-feeding practised colostrum after the calf is only a week old, i.e.,immediately period. In three months the calf learns to live on grass chiefly, of sani in the evening, a littlebhusa and oil-cakein the form getting milk
for calves.
M, HA
31
482
OP
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
a day, up to the age of six months, after which, say two seers is if there is good pasture, no special feeding required. Working bullocks should get, as sani, straw and bhusa (" a and " a seer to maund to 30 seers per day, accordingto size), of cotton seed per day ; but if 1'seer of oil-cake or 1J to 2 seers
5 to 10 seers of straw and 1 seer of oilcake there is plentyof herbage, seed are sufficient. or cotton for all classes of animals. Sudden changesof food are injurious Boiled food, linseed and carrots are recommended for debilitated
animals. Relative value
One of food-stuffs.
equal to
hay (8th)are
"
hundred
pounds
of
good
"
(1st) 28 (2nd) 37 (3rd) 43
(4th) 44| (5th) 59 (6th) 62 (7th) 90 (9th) 317 (10th)350 (llth)360 (12th)370 (13th)370 (14th)469 (15th)670
Ibs. of beans. Ibs. of peas. Ibs. of linseed cake. Ibs. of wheat. Ibs. of oats.
Ibs. of Ibs. of Ibs. of Ibs. of Ibs. of
maize. lucerne. oat-straw.
potatoes,
guinea-grass.
Ibs. of carrots. Ibs. of mangolds.
Ibs. of
turnips.
Ibs. of beet.
Preparation.Crushingof gram, etc. ; boilingin the case of Vrd (Phaseolus mungo) and Kulthi (Dolichos uniflorus) ; parching of barley and wheat, and grindingof maize, bean, etc., are the "
Bran
should form part of the food of all it has a tendency to animals, but used in largequantities, calculi. For straw should be cut long and not cattle, produce short,as is done for horses.
necessary. preparations
of food Relation of foodto weight. The amount bullock dependsvery largely its size. A on or "
cow
only300 Ibs. as our Bengalcows same quantityof food as a cow
requiredby a cow weighing not be giventhe
often do, should weighing1,500 Ibs. or 1,700 Ibs., the Dutch The of world's champion cow of the like some cows. Holstein the time is Eosa Bonheur animal V, an cow, present Weighing1,750 Ibs. and eatingdaily174 Ibs. of food (of actually 12 Ibs. which 52*43 Ibs.is dry matter),consisting of 114 Ibs.of silage, 9 Ibs. of maize meal, oat-meal, 3 Ibs. of bran, 9 Ibs. of oil-cake, and 27 Ibs. of roots. She actuallygave duringa show-test,106'75
day, and 726*25 Ibs. in one week. Although 21 a to eat cow maunds, expect Bengal weigh over maunds of food every day,and gjve 50 seers of milk a day, can judgefrom this case what the proportionsshould be in
Ibs. of milk in we over
can
2
yet we the
case
one
never
of
a
firstclass
cow
receivingfirstclass
treatment.
The
484
OF
HANDBOOK
openingthe method
is
scrotum
is,however,
AGRICULTURE.
in usuallypractised
not
this
and always successful,
country. This
it is better to open
the testicles completelywith a knife or and remove the scrotum which grindsthe spermatic better stillwith Kendall's Emasculator of instead It is said that cord and blood vessels, cuttingthem. of testicles the salt to of mothers calves, inducing dailyapplication loss of to lick the part hard, results in gradual genitalfunctions. confirmation needs by repeated experiments. This, however, Boiled ghee and carbolic acid (20 : 1) should be rubbed dailyat has been castrated. and constant treatment handlingby persons best of the means are from early age, making animals docile. to bring about docility. As an important Castration is practised methods of rational of cattle, to securingdocility accessory animal
after an Docility.Good
the wound
"
may
be also
dehorning.
mentioned
the horns are just budding in the calf, from the skin all round and the little the hair should be clipped which with few moistened water to a horn drops of ammonia have been added to dissolve the secretion of the skin, that the potashsubsequentlyappliedmay adhere to the surface of the
Dehorning. When "
The skin is not to be moistened except on the horn where horn. the potashis to be applied. A stick of caustic potash is then held and one end of it dippedin water until it is slightly softened. The the horn. rubbed is then on It is operation to be repeated five to eighttimes until the surface of the horn becomes little a sensitive.
Only
scale
will be
formed, but
inflammation no or the part, if the operationis carefullyperformed. There are hornless or wise polled breeds of cattle which,if otheruseful,may be selected for breeding. a
suppurationof
"
Summary.
"
In
"
rearing cattle,speciallyfor dairy
purposes,
three things should be constantlykept in mind ; viz., Breed, Feed and Trouble. undoubted By breed is meant pedigree,i.e., both the sire and the dam should be known for two or three generations for the past to have been of the desired type. In arranging feed of cattle,paddockswith shady trees are a necessity. Juar, khesari and other cheap grains, kurti,millets, bran, oil-cakes and
groundnutplantsare
the
besides straw, that food-stuffs, principal vehicle to be depended upon. should be The oil-cake should be grown, if possible, should be bought,but the other things is of firstconsideration. the premises. Good water on the main
the head of trouble,comes ding, changingof Utter or bedkeepingthe house clean, avoidingall ailments by watching the progress of the cattle day by day. If they go off their feed or to ruminate, disease should be inferred. Negligent cease milking and neglectof sanitaryconditions generally, in the dairy,may result not only in diseases of animals, but the diseases be may Unddr
communicated
to human
beings. Tuberculosis, scarlatina, typhoid subject infected milk. Scrupulous cleanliness in every
cholera,and other diseases in the human fever,diphtheria, have been traced to
CALCULATION
OP
WEIGHT
OP
485
LIVESTOCK.
detail is needed, be employed for
should in dairymanagement. One man especially lookingafter and milkingonlyeightto ten cows. Mismanagementmust take placeif one man has to look after a largenumber of dairy cows.
CHAPTER
CII.
GOAT-KEEPING. crops need be one?s disposal. grown It is easy to maintain ten or twelve goats on the pasture which is requiredfor one cow. Jungleor hill land is best cleaned by having three goats per acre two maintained on it. They should be kept or within a barbed wire hurdle fence,four feet high,to keep them from doing mischief to plantations. They can be kept day and night GOATS
will eat almost for them if there is
anythingand no fodder enough of jungleland at
when shelter should be provided. out, except in the rainy season, Goat's milk being richer than cow's milk and beingmore easily -digested by invalids and children, goat-farmingshould not be despisedas an accessory to dairy-farming.Cow's milk contains about 4 per cent, of fat,4 cent, of casein and 4 per cent, of per
per cent, of fat,5 per cent, of casein and 5 per cent, of sugar, and about 4 per cent, less water. be Cream cheeses from goat'smilk are excellent. A goat mar
milk-sugar ;
bought for say, 4
a
while
rupee
goat's milk, 7|
in
mofussil
some
Ibs.)afterwards
can
places,and
be sold for
a
rupee
the or
skin even
(weighing, more.
All
or pulseto eat, say | a milkinggoats should be givensome gram the most Ib. 1 besides are Ib. to coarse herbage. Aiigoras daily, famous milkinggoats, and their wool is almost as soft as silk. The fleece 6f each Angora goat (about 3 pounds per annum) would bringenough of income to pay for the keep of the animal. But they do not thrive in the plains of India. For the plains,the Jumna-pari goat of Bihar is as good as any.
CHAPTER CALCULATION
by
WEIGHT
OF
LIVESTOCK.
ASCERTAIN the girthin inches at the back of the shoulders, the lengthin inches from the square of the buttock to a point with the point of the shoulder bfades. Multiplythe girth the lengthand divide the product by 144, which gives the
measure
in
the number
productof or
OF
GUI.
feet by feet. Then multiplythe superficial superficial of pounds per foot for cattle of different girths,the which will be the number of pounds of beef,veal,pork,
mutton, in the four quartersof the animal. For cattle of a girthof from 5 to 7 feet,23 Ibs. may be calculated of for each superficial 7 9 ft., from and to for a girth foot,
486
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Ibs. to the superficial foot. For sheep,goat and calves,of a of 3 to 5 feet,the yieldshould be taken to be 16 Ibs. girth from of a nd ft., of less than 3 feet,11 Ibs. to the square a girth persqr. foot. When animal is but half fattened,a deduction of 14 in an 31
every 280 Ibs. or
should be made ; but if the is very fat, 1 stone for every 20 should be added. Suppose it is desired to ascertain the weight of the meat whose girthis 6 feet 4 inches and length5 feet 3 inches. ox 76 inches + 63 inches 4788 square inches. 1 stone
in 20 stones
animal of
an
=
Multiplythis
by
4788 -f 144 =33-25 feet. square 764-75 Ibs. or 54| stone get
23 and you
as
The deduction or addition, the case as weightof meat. may should then be made, if the animal is too lean or too fat.
CHAPTER
the
be,
CIV.
POULTRY-KEEPING. THOUGH
this subjectcannot be included under agriculture fanners should keep poultryfor hurdlingin in their fields, proper, as they are excellent scratchers of ploughed-upland from which and other insects. A few short they pick up grubs of injurious notes will not, therefore,be out of place. on poultry-keeping
*
(1) Keep one variety only of fowls or ducks. For fowla the real Chittagongis the best for Bengal,as foreignvarieties do not stand the climate well. The full grown Chittagongfowls 2 the 8 and the to on seers ozs. each, if the weigh average eggs 1| covies fowls are Aylesbury ducks and Muskept in a healthymanner. ducks do well in Bengal, and either of thq^e varieties or Musk be selected. Their average weightis also about 8 seers. may (2) A breed that produces the largestnumber of eggs is not the best. The eggs of such a breed are small, necessarily and a very small proportion of them hatch out. Some hens would 200 eggs in the year, while others would lay only as Hens 10 eggs before becoming that lay only about -incubate broody and breed only three times in the year, generally and hatch into life every chicken out of their eggs. These
lay as many 30 '
or
40. '
the best hens for breedingand for use as foster-mothers. be and bringing up eggs artificially can (3) Incubation Tamlin's Nonand Foster-mothers. pareil done in patent Incubatqrs 200 Tamlin's Incubator, for "7-5, and eggs size, costs
are
NonpareilFoster-mother, 100 chick size,costs
"3-12 (W. Tamlin,
Richmond,
Surrey,England). never (4)Poultry-keepingcan
Personal
attention
essential. (5) The be
of the
owner
be or
entrusted member
a
to
of his
servants.
family is
*
fowl-house
where and weather-proof perfectly
hens
roost and. lay eggs must well ventilated. It must be yet
POULTRY-KEEPING.
487
dailyand ashes (and occasionally lime)spreadon it afterwards. If a wooden house is specially the construction constructed, be of too largea house where a great many fowls may kept, should be avoided. It is best to keep half a dozen birds cleaned out
(sayfive hens and
cock) in each house
or coop 5 feet square 6 8 feet to in from There should be a perch height. sloping 18 inches from the ground and 4 inches in diameter for all the A pole of garan wood six birds to roost on. answers very well. in the front This should be placed part of the house, that the hena of nests the back of the house. There straw at on lay eggs may window should be a large-sized in each house. one
and
(6) The yard in front of the fowl-house should be covered in is most wet the rainy season, as to fowls. At other injurious is not needed, and it is good to let the fowls much as as possible,and scratch the loose go about earth of the yard and pick up and swallow bits of gritor bones, which is their natural habit. As the yard gets polluted in time with the dung of the fowls,it is necessary to clean it from time to time, say once ashes over a week, and sprinkle it,and a layer of dry earth 2 inches deep twice a year. (7) A shed open in front should be providedfor the sitting
seasons
a
covered run in the open
hens.
the roostingand laying houses, the (8) The whole, i.e.', and the shed for sittinghens should be covered and open runs fenced in to a heightof 6 feet with wire nettingof 2-inch mesh. (9) The pointsof a good bird are : (1)it should be young, smooth and not rough and horny shanks ; (2) be of a good size ; (3)it should be plump and sprightly looking; (4) the legsshould be short ; (5) the breasts should be and on no healthier than town-stock full. Village-stock prove birds be chosen as should Calcutta Municipal Market account of stock. the basis a breeding (10) The stock should be always kept young, and all birds it should show i.e.,
it should
old should be used up or sold. If be recommended. (11) No fixed scale of feeding can and in in of fallow land ploughed poultryby rotation hurdling will be land little be feeding systematically practised, very up is fowls to give needed. But the rule to be observed in feeding them as much paddy, buck-wheat, oats, or barley,as they will eagerlyeat, but no more, so that very soop. after the feedingis should be seen on the ground,and yet there should over, no grains than two
more
years
eagerness noticeable on the part of the fowls to have more grain. Birds kept enclosed in fowl-houses and yards should have three meals two a day ; others, one or accordingto the f owls circumstances. pick up all their food Very healthyvillage themselves and they are not fed. The morning feed should be of be
no
rice-dust (kunra) and water, or cooked eveningmeal should consist only,of dry A seasoning of salt and pepper to the morning meal of
soft nature, such as rice and dal,and the
a
grain.
488
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
mash-kalai,or
rice and dal, keeps the fowls in very good condition. The rejections the kitchen or the table make from excellent morning feed for fowls. The best grainto use for the eveningmeal is buck-wheat, which has the effect of stimulating the egg-laying There should be plenty power of hens and ducks. of grass in the yard where birds have their run, as they are
benefited by liberalgrazing. But if the supplyof grass is scanty, the fowls and ducks must be suppliedwith green food, such as
cabbage or
carrot
leaves,etc.
(12) Fowls
must be left without a constant never supplyof water which they may drink at their pleasure. good drinking When epidemicsuch as fowl-cholera (Guti)is raging,the any vessel of water should have a few grainsof powdered sulphate of iron mixed with it,enough to give a very slightmetallic to the water.
taste
This is
an
of
excellent way
preventing the
disease.
(13) The twice
a
eggs
should
be
collected from
fowl-house
day.
(14) Not countingthe chickens that each
each
are
hatched
out
of eggs,
fowl-house
with five hens in it should produce500 eggs per If these can be sold for 100 annas Rs. 6-4, the birds or should pay for their keeping. But if they have to be fed altogether with purchasedfood, three times a day, it does not pay keeping fowls,unless one goes in for breedinghighclass fowls,which should be the aim of the owner from the very first.
annum.
(15) Eggs should
be brooded in as fresh a state as possible ; be and collected week before for are a they they kept put without any harm to brooding, occurring.Eggs which are very when than a week stale,i.e.,set more after they are laid,even they do hatch, produce sicklybirds. earthenware (16) Shallow vessels,make gamlas, or open but
can
good broodingnests. broodinghens kept in
sufficient for such gamlas are with a small shed five feet a square yard in front,situated in a damp place. Coolness of shed and dampness of atmosphereare helpfulto the chickens hatchingout Over the more easily; but draughtsand rain must be avoided. should be then fresh cut some ashes, gamlas some damp grass, put and on the top a layerof straw cut up in lengths of about 2 inches. 10 to 12 fowl's eggs and 6 to 8 duck's eggs, are quitesufficient for each hen. very three
Three
be fed once a day, and it may be necessary to lift them up by their wings and bringthem down from their gamlasto the food and water supplied Should to them. be found broken accident, they must by some any eggs be fresh soiled must found and straw removed, put on, any eggs be cleaned with salt water, and dried immediately afterwards and replaced in the nest. The breast gf the hen should be also cleaned,if it is found soiled in any way, before she is allowed to go back to her gamla.
(17) Brooding hens
must
POULTRY-KEEPING.
(18) In the broodingshed there
be a heap of sand and ashes where the hens may have their dailydust-bath which keeps them free from lice. Half an hour should be quiteenoughfor the and
must
be must with does usually of the hen from or even her nest does not interfere with the hatchingof the eggs. after twenty-one days' incubation. out (19) Chickens come For a whole day after hatching they requireno food,and as some it is best to let "eggs are a few hours later than others in hatching, recreation feeding, encouragedto go alacrity.But one
back
the mother
out
made
come
(20) The
the hen
her nest, which she hours' absence two
to
all her chicks before any
with
them. best food for
feed
to
dust-bath,after which
attempt
is
newly hatched chickens is hard-boiled
This up with stale bread moistened with milk. with and for be given the hen, that the water some barley may hen and the chickens may eat together. The hen with the newly should be kept in a separate coop. hatched chickens A big basket
yolk of
with
eggs mixed
answers
well,as
very
time
from
which
lattice work
open
to
time.
it
is
placed on After the first day can
in this country
used ordinarily
be
grass and or
two,
ground oats be givento
minced meat, should buck-wheat, also some finely be given the same while the hen food ohickens, may
in
a
or
the
coarser
Hourly feedingof chickens is necessary for one week, after feedingshould be done less often ; but the secret of in poultry-keeping consists in feedingthe chickens often
state.
which
about
moved
the
success
fresh food.
with
Potatoes
with bran and finely mashed chopped up green grass is a very good food for chickens after the have a supplyof good water also. After first week. They must four months, the best birds beingreserved for breeding, the rest substantial for table use. More converted should be sold or and
or
pens
month
coops
should
be
provided for chickens
when
they are
a
old.
be preservedin a fresh state for can of of Silicate Soda (called solution also water-glass). a One volume of the semi-fluid silicate should be mixed up with of and the fresh in this solution water twenty volumes eggs pickled will last several months. Before cookinga puncture is to be made in each egg to avoid spurting and bursting.To preserve 600 cient. dissolved in 8 gallonsof water are suffieggs, 61bs. of water-glass
Preserving eggs." Eggs
eating in
The 25
30
exact
fresh and
procedureto
be followed is this
uncracked
: "
Each
time
taken, placedin a sieve, eggs and drippedwith warm melted lard. The eggs are then removed from the sieve and when the coatingof lard has cooled they are submerged in the above solution of water-glass. Another method of preservingeggs has been also successfully to
are
followed. solution of
Eggs are placedfor five minutes in a 20 sulphateof iron to which is added 1| per cent,
soluble in water.
The
kept as ordinaryeggs
eggs are
are
then
kept.
per cent, of tannin rinsed in water, dried and
490
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
CHAPTER DISEASES
CV. OF
CATTLE.
Foot-and-mouth Inoculation ; Preparationof Serum Anthrax ; ; Disease ; Hoven Impac; Cyst disease ; ; Pleuro- Pneumonia ; Quarter-ill tion tion of rumen Water or bloody urine ; Diarrhoea ; Mammitis ; Abor; Red galls and sores ; Apthse.] ; Warts ; Yoke
[First-aid ;
THE
Anthrax, Disease, Pleuro-Pneumonia, Hoven,
diseases
commonest
Foot-and-Mouth Quarter-ill,
of
the
cattle in India
Dyspepsia,Debility, Water, Apthse,and Bye, has been alreadydealt with. In the reader should connection with this subject 475.) in Part VII of this chapteron Agricultural Bacteriology Impaction of
or Constipation
rumen,
in the Catarrh, Jaundice, Worm Abortion. Worms in the stomach
(Seepage
studythe
are
Red
the cattle diseases mentioned, the first four are due to pathogenicorganisms,and certain generalideas regardingthe in which such diseases spread and are arrested both in manner animals and in plantsshould enable the reader to apply remedies book.
Of
in particular cases. intelligently All that the agriculturist is expectedto
do is to render first aid in the case of serious ailments,and treat all ordinaryailments of cattle. For specialdiseases specialremedies have been found and some of these are given below. beneficial, Anthrax (yuti).Preventive inoculation should be resorted "
disease has appeared,careful treatment to, if possible. When does good in some When the purgingand passingof blood cases.and mucus continues for more than twenty-four hours, the following mixture is said to give beneficial results : "
Camphor Saltpetre Dhatura Chiretta
J kanehha. f tolah.
seeds .
.
2
Country Spirit When
;Jtolah.
.
diarrhoea has gone
chit tacky.
for much longerthan 24 hours, f tolah Gallnuts,finely powdered,should be added to the above mixture. The diet should consist of rice and kalai gruelwell boiled and of thick consistency,to which should be added some gur and salt. Water should be givenat the first stage of the disease on
of
when
there is costiveness,heat and dischargeof mucus from mouth ahd nostrils, but when diarrhoea sets in,the animal should be allowed to drink any water. not No straw other fibrous or food should be given. If the animal lives for eightor nine days and
gets littlepustuleson
the
Small-poxproper herd. It occurs as on pustules
recovers. body, it generally known as guti,but
in cattle is not
as
Bes-
less the teats and udder. It is a harminconvenience is felt at the time of milking but that is all. Application of carbolic oil (1 : 40) or butter, is all that is requiredby way of treatment. disease.
Some
492
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
that it will last for a much longertime, if for the life of the animals. On the other hand, the animals not showing no temperature reaction or symptoms of the disease, off their used, may wear partlydue to the largedoses of serum simultaneous immunity earlier than those which reacted to the those be got over by re-inoculating can method, and this difficulty is
no
reason
to doubt
which have not reacted within a week or ten days of the simultaneous injection, with a second dose of from 1 to 10 c. c. of
-animals
-virulent blood. " Results in
fieldinoculations. The inoculations carried out in Bareilly, manufactured at this laboratory Aligarh, by the serum successful results, Dehra districts and Bulandshahr, gave eminently "
'
Out of 339 states : .and Mr. Holmes in his report from Madras attributed to bullocks inoculated,nine died,but these deaths were old age and^ebilitated conditions,and to the fact that the animals from rinderpest were previousto inoculation. I do not suffering oculation. consider that any of the deaths occurred as a direct result of in"
lations, 1 think it is safe to say that, as a result of these inocuchecked and a heavy loss averted at once was rinderpest
among
the cattle.
to Table C. of the Assistant to the InspectorBy referring General, Civil VeterinaryDepartment'sAnnual Report for the "
find that out of 1,730 animals inoculated by the above method, only three died after inoculation. Hill cattle. There is a great difference in the dose of serum as compared with that requiredfor the inoculation of hill cattle, which is safe in plainanimals. Notwithstandingthat the serum simultaneous method by itselfhas not been found to be reliable these animals with in this particular breed, yet on re-inoculating
1899-1900,
year
we
"
"
or of virulent blood duringthe seven eightdays the method, simultaneous the protection injection by following has been brought about and an active immunity conferred. " alone causes no reactionary Serum alone. The use of serum is and full immunity fever and it affords immediate very useful in the case of dairyanimals and pregnant cows, where it is desirable
from
1 to 10
c.
c.
"
supplyshould not be interfered with, and no cases of place. The temporary immunity givenby injecting alone is sufficientto protect the animals throughout with serum The experimentscarried out at Mukhtesar proved .an outbreak. 150 and c. per c. with 10, 20, 50, 100, that the animals injected the 43rd, 76th, 103rd found immune on 600 Ibs. body weight,were and in each after serum and 164th days,respectively, injections, when tested by the introduction of virulent blood subcutanecase showing ously,only a slighttemperature reaction followed,clearly that the animals submitted to the above test were perfectly protectedand would remain so for a much longerperiodthan that the milk abortion take
.those stated above/' Foot-and-mouth disease
4
(kkura).Keep the partsclean and One part of carbolic acid mixed applications. xepeat disinfecting "
DISEASES
OF
493-
CATTLE.
other oil is the best thingto apply of the feet. In the absence of carbolic acid,camphor to the sores mixed with a pintof oil may be used. Solution of alum (1 ounce) the best of is an to ounce water) ing grains (10 thingto use for washwith
fortyparts of
cocoanut
or
Bran-mash, rice gruel and
the mouth.
salt are the best substances to use. Hoven. Starved cattle suddenly pasturing on luxuriant hoven or t hove, tympanites. Puncturinghe rumen herbage,get and it is the handiest remedy givesinstant relief. Murshidabad food
"
in hoven. If gowalasactuallypractise puncturingof the rumen and canula are available,it is of course trocar an much eight-inch better to use these than a knife. The puncture should be made in the left side at a point equallydistant from the point of the hip and the last rib. The canula is left until allthe gas has escaped. Linseed oil with a few drops of carbolic acid or oil of turpentine with it may be given afterwards. mixed Rubbing the and dashing cold water stomach it and walking the animal on beneficial if the puncturingthe stomach. or Quarter-ill galaphula. When also
constantlyare
"
in
herd, the pasture
does not
owner
a
of this
case
be
venture
on
deadly disease
changed
at once. The short fatal course, within proving generally very of the neck is practised hours. Blistering twenty-four by gowalas, but it does not seem to do any good. Preventive inoculation is but it has not been introduced effective, as yet into India.
occurs
disease
Horses
runs
must
a
subjectto
more
are
it than cattle.
This disease is
usually
anthrax, in this country. Setoningthe fewer part needle and letting the tongue with $ coarse out blood some for
mistaken of
a
from
the
country Simla or all food
congestedveins
is
practisedmost
in successfully
this disease
it is known
this
early stage (when as Siuli)when salivation,groaningand disinclination for
at
the
of
is first noticed.
The
blood
poisoningevidentlytakes of the tongue first and afterwards spreadsto the glandsof the neck and the whole system. Pleuro-Pneumonia. ed ContagiousPleuro-Pneumonia, so dreadis and to in Europe in the Punjab so fatal, supposed occur and Sind. Slaughteringthe affected animals and segregating those free from disease are the only remedies that are in use.
place at the
root
"
Cyst disease caused by
the immature Tcenia which in its mature condition is harboured a worm achinococcus, is the liver, affecting by dogs, pretty common, lungsand spleen is caused by this parasite. Exin man of cattle. Tape-worm clusion of dogs from the cattle-shed, with clean food together and that best be drink, are the preventivemeasures can
Cyst disease. "
adopted. Impaction of the Rumen. animal eatinggreedily too much "
when
it
This is usually caused by the of a palatable but dry food,e.g.,
gets very littlewater
grainor bran,
and
strong dose of
purgativemedicine
and
a
to drink. A stiffdose of country^
494
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OP
should be given. The bellyshould be handwater The animal made and the animal should to walk. be rubbed will much it water swallow. as or as gruel tepid given This usuallyoccurs Red Water or Bloody Urine. after parturition. in warm spirit
"
food is supposedto cause this disease. Poor and coarse but ushered in sets in afterwards It is constipation by diarrhoea, claret coloured and the animal when the urine becomes evinces also urine is The it. offensive in odour. The pain in voiding weak and debilitated. Death becomes animal may take place in from five to twenty-five days. Purgativemedicine,rice gruel, soft green grass, country spirit, pure air and clean surroundings prove beneficial. Diarrhcea. Calves often suffer from diarrhoea. Lime water, beneficial. Powdered and catechu are chalk and country spirit "
cinnamon
highlybeneficial both
are
in
dysenteryand
in diarrhoea
Cattle and goats suffering also to calves. to biggeranimals, as be kept on from diarrhoea should, where possible, green bamboo leaves only. Be^n meal is also a bindingfood. Mammitis caused by cold, injuryto teats, over-distention of udder, or earlyweaning of the calf,is to be treated by fomentation, gentlydrawing out of milk and gentlyrubbingthe udder, after oil or cocoanut oil. A purgative each fomentation, with salad oil or sulphateof magnesia) also helps. Bran medicine (linseed If an abscess forms, lancing should always form part of the food. w ill be and poulticing necessary. Abortion is due either to disease,or to external Abortion. Abortion is contagious to abortion. injury, oi^to predisposition The animal should be segregatedfrom other in some cases. "
animals
in
calf,and kept in perfectrest, the loins and haunches
and with cloth dipped in cold water out. wrung be given,but the animal kept on light Hot drinks should not and green food. When and sores. fresh, use brine, and give the Yoke-galls If after five or six days' application animals rest from work.
being covered
"
benefit is derived, use the Sapheda (crude carbonate oil and with | Ib. of cocoanut
followingointment
no
: "
of lead of the bazaar)J Ib. boiled well mixed togetherby stirring. and When from the add of turpentine fire, remove boiling, J ounce oil. Keep the ointment corkeid up in a bottle and apply daily is healed. Another mixture which has been found until the sore with powdered turmeric, unboiled highlybeneficial is hog's-lard turmeric being used. Apthce(chhdru).Sores on the tongue and lipsmay be treated "
with
honey and
borax.
Powdered
be also rubbed on the tongue, goes off feed from this cause
round
and when possible,
salt may animal an salivate. Another
pepper
deep beginsto appliedby gowalas is lettingthe affected remedy successfully animal salt.
lick
a
basket rubbed
as
as
and
over
with4a mixture
of turmeric
and
THEORY
OF
HEALTH
IN
RELATION
TO
CHAPTER THE
THEORY
OF
HEALTH
IN
food or fodder in their proper Animal tissues
AND
FODDERS.
495
CVI.
RELATION
TO
FOODS
AND
FODDERS.
animal
should contain all the constituents f or proportions the building up of animal tissues. againare all built or formed out of blood, and blood is therefore the lifeor vital fluid, which it should be the objectof food to keep in proper condition. Blood is not a formed, but it is the ultimate formative, tissue of all animals including It is a highlycomplex fluid and it is greatly influenced by man. circulates It conditions. through a perfectly surrounding germthere unless and the skin or in the alichannel are sores on mentary proof doors of canal which serve as of pathogenic access open to get diseased as one is not it so susceptible might think, germs, propertiesof the lookingonly to the fact of the highlynourishing in the healthiest fluid for those germs which surround us even THE
of
FOODS
an
climates. Blood
consists of fluids and solids which should be kept at ifhealth is to be maintained. Some departure a definite proportion from this proportionis constantlyoccurringand must occur ; and excessive departurefrom this proportion but a persistent of most whether they are due is the predisposing cause diseases, Even not. anthrax and anthracoid certain vitiated character of the blood as their the same as risk of cause, every animal does not run predisposing the when risk of and attacked, same victim a to attack, falling
to
pathogenicorganismsor
diseases need
them. The
a
of water proportion
parts in 1,000 parts.
owing
to its thickness
in blood
If the water is
is also necessary fluidity lime and magnesia,in
should vary
is less in
800 to 900
proportion,the blood
in its flow. sluggish to
from
A
certain
state of
keep those salts,e.g., phosphatesof
soluble condition, which are required and assimilated into the system. Besides water, to be absorbed to the blood all the materials by which food supplies the fatty tissues of the body are nourished and by which also materials of heat are supplied. and production for respiration The solid portionof blood consists of white corpuscles (leucocytes) a
and red blood corpuscles.White blood corpuscles are larger, with endowed in shape, amoeboid movements irregular ; while smaller and devoid of the power of movement. the red corpuscles are have a special connection with health. The white blood corpuscles
foreignsubstances,such as bacteria,that may invade the blood and destroy them by digesting them and ejecting wound the undigestedresidue into the blood. Wherever a rush up, preserve the tissue from the white corpuscles occurs, the accuthe attack of injurious mulated organisms,break up and remove and graduallyhelp to fillup the breach. red corpuscles have also an importantfunction to perform, The red corpuscles They attack
any
496
HANDBOOK
it is
AGRICULTURE.
OP
is conveyed to the various that oxygen of and the excess hydro-carbons up animal heat and thus simultaneously carbo-hydrates, keepingup gettingrid to $ largeextent of useless substances. The actual to which also the agent which conveys the oxygen is haemoglobin red colour of the corpuscles contains iron, is due. As haemoglobin as
by
their
means
there assisting to burn tissues,
adequatesupplyof iron with keep the blood in health. Where an
food,the blood becomes
venous
the food is therefore necessary to of iron in the there is deficiency dark in character and loses its or
brightscarlet appearance. stances subThe serum fluid portionof the blood contains two or called respectively When a nd fibrinoplastin. fibrinogen blood is taken from the body, it coagulates, the coagulation being due
to
a
ferment
which fibrinogenand fibrinoplastin,
acting on
them from a fluid to Water in food. An excess
convert
solid state.
a
colouringmatter
of the
red
in the food results in the
of water
"
being partlywashed corpuscles
out
The and the white corpusclesalso gettingweakened. turgidity of the capillaries from excessive absorptionof water, resulting leads to their walls gettingweakened lowered. and their vitality Serum which are so weakened, into escapes from the capillaries,
the tissues and
cavities
follow"a protractedcourse food.
Repletionand caused by an
of the
of
body.
and
Anaemia
feedingwith
an
dropsy
may
of succulent quently freorgans are
excess
congestion of important
when excessive draught of water, specially of horses heated a condition. Giving water to system and other animals after work the blood when by perspiration has become thick, is the rightplan,but when the heatingof the is excessive and circulation very rapid, a draught of water system in other organ. often results congestionof the lungsor of some A middle course, therefore,is advisable,i.e., in too heated a condition the
is in too
animal
be allowed
to cool down a littleby gentle is it ; but if the before to Water by wisping, walking given work has not been of a violent but of a lightcharacter,giving of water immediatelyafter work relieves the blood of excessive an
must
or
thickening and harm. Proteids in definite
consequent
while sluggishness,
it
food. Proteids should also be given proportionsto different animals. They are "
does
no
in certain
necessary is the vehicle by of muscles, and blood-serum of food find their way into the various tissues. which the proteids Febrile diseases result in excessive using up or combustion of the Hence of foods rich in proteid need proteids. matter, such as
for the
formation
milk, soup, carrots, grass, bran-mashes
gruels, during and on
the
other
of
and An
linseed and other of proteids, excess
hand, producescongestionwhich
inflammation, and bacteria find
after febrile attacks.
a
proteids.
results in local
to pathogenicdiseases susceptibility an containing
suitable nutrient soil in blood
as
the
excess
OF
THEORY
Fat in
HEALTH
IN
FOODS
497
FODDERS.
AND
in food. Pat is carbohydrates
and
also burnt up largely fat is necessary in the respiratory process heat and animal vitality, its repairby "
wasting diseases,and as for the productionof
carbonaceous All the muscular food, is necessary. less associated with fat which makes more or
of proper tissues are
means
TO
RELATION
them
is necessary to prevent concussion pliant,and joint-oil between of bony surfaces. Where fat is present,the combustion muscular tissue does not take place to the same in its extent as absence. from
the
Hence
oxidation
of fat
presence
burning.
or
On
the
muscular
the
saves
other hand,
tissues of
excess
an
car-
fattyfood, results in debilityand interference with the vital activityof the cells of the body, and comparativestagnation of the circulatory in, system. If such food is persisted infiltration of fat takes placeinside the tissues of importantorgans, and finally fattydegenerationor actual conversion of these tissues into lumps of fat. Salts in food. What has been said about due proportion a being observed in the various constituents of food, such as water, food, holds equally true as regards proteids,and carbonaceous salts the various requiredfor the buildingup of the animal tissues. Sodium for instance, is absolutely chloride (common salt), sary necesbonaceous
or
"
for the
tion It is needed for the formapreservationof health. blood, of gastricjuiceand of bile,and for the digestion
of
of albumen.
The
salt taste
of
of its presence in the blood. cow-house and stable. every the
and perspiration A
be
salt lick should
But
of
excess
is
tears
in
scurvy
man
a certain Similarly,
and the favourite
herbs, is
rich in
part,due
is,in
amount
of
to the
proof
salt is very skin diseases.
common
animal
injuriousto system, producing various Dogs fed on highlysalted food are particularly subjectto and
a
provided in
eczema
;
cause.
same
potashis needed
by
food of farm-animals,viz.,grass and
the
animal,
other
potash. Deficiencyof potash means
green
impaired
tissue nutrition.
Phosphates bones
and
absolutelynecessary
are
teeth,and
if they are
or quantities, bone-softening
of bones.
The
decay. Decayed
teeth
fracture
on
poor
supplyof Iron
pastures.
are
the
with supplied
formation
follow, and a tendency developslowlyand they tend
very common brain and
of
food in sufficient
rickets
teeth also
Nerve
for
animals
among
substances
to to
reared
also
requirea
the
blood and
phosphorusfor their proper nutriment. compounds
the liver in to
not
a
which
are
hypersemia,a condition which
Inflammations
necessary
to
keep
ingestedin excess, giverise is opposite of anaemia. to that
healthycondition,when
result from may in proteids the blood.
hypersemia,as
from
excess
of
Carbon the blood dark and -displaces dioxide gas renders But is as oxygen easilyreplacedwhen it is again supplied, oxygen. But carbon it has no permanent ill-effecton the blood. the colour of blood iixto brightred, monoxide, while it heightens M, HA
32
498
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
bringsabout such a changein the tuallyto prevent re-oxidation.
condition of the iron
effect-
as
Hence the poisoningeffect of urine we sometimes the blood-stained carbon monoxide gas see passedby animals which have been exposed to the influence of this gas in burning stables and cowsheds. and
To illustrate the effect of certain substances on urine it may additional examples: (1) If be sufficient to cite the following one puts his feet into a solution of potashor soda, these salts can bed be detected in a short time in the urine. (2) If turpentineis rubinto the skin,it is detected in the urine in a very short time by the odour of the sweet scented violet which it impartsto that "
fluid.
Diabetes in horse and sheep has been noticed (3")
as
being
connected with the use of mouldy bad foods, of hay and grass, with an excessive quantity burnt in the stack, or of hay grown of nitrate of soda. The class of diseases produced by food containingtoo much etc., are those in which lowered vitality moisture,such as foT-grass, with and debility dropsiesoccur, such as, water-braxy,shell sickness,and trembles. Low temperature and exposure to cold ture rain aggravate these diseases. Moisture within, moisdilute without, moisture above, below and around, must and soften the tissues, and impoverishthe blood and macerate the cell elements and render them incapableof perdisintegrate forming the functions of organiclife,and affect the blood cells and
winds
Hence the necesthe walls of the blood-vessels injuriously. sity of givingplentyof straw and other dry and also nourishing food in the rains and in the earlypart of the cold weather. Foods too rich in carbohydrates orders and fat produce liver disand diarrhoea. The blood becomes overladen with their from imperfectoxidation,congestionbeingthe result. products of blood Foods too rich in proteidsproduce extravasation in inflammations into the tissues resulting and red-braxy.Milk of proteidmatter is a suitable food containinga largeamount but when is for young it animals, excessively poor or excessively rich,calves and other young animals suffer from different forms of disease. In the artificialrearingof calves, skim-milk mixed with lime-water is occasionally found a suitable nourishmore than the rich from milk cow's udder. ment as it comes Innutritious food results (1)in indigeston, animals require as of it to get the requisite of nourishment amount a larger quantity and
"
or, in
other words,
quantitywhich taxes for want of (2)in debility a
digestive organs ; Dirty foods, such
the
strengthof
the
sufficientnutrition. full of as sand, etc.,are injurious, grass dirt has the tendencyto collect in the various pouches the sand or in the digestive canal,producingirritation, inflammation, ulceracolic. tion and often become seriously Horses, particularly, ill, die as the result of eatingdijrty and even food. as
Decomposing,mouldy, and decayed foods are the most of all, liable to cause as they are septicinflammation
injurious of
500
certain fodder crops, such
are
kharifand rdbi
in the
AGRICULTURE.
OF
HANDBOOK
th"t guinea-grass,
as
; others
seasons
are
both Pani-
will grow
perennial(such
as
fodder crops are more grasses ; and a portionof the be should of a leguminouskind, so that todder, say one-fourth, ratio (1 : 12 or 1 : 13) may albuminoid be secured the proper for of Of oil-cakes. fields without the addition course, enriching the purchaseof oil-cakes is always advisable,as the dung is richer of feeding when the cattle are fed on oil-cakes. But for the purpose cattle alone the purchaseof oil-cakes is not necessary, if three parts of the fodder used consist of gramineouskinds and one part of leguminouskinds. and lucerne). cereal straw than nourishing muticum
cum
if to feed
four
of
acres
is onlyfive
or
do
with cattle altogether, away natural pasture, the cultivator must of land, when the average holdingof a cultivator "
yoke
a
apart
set
said, why
be
It may
Leguminous
on
oxen
?
acres
not
It is justpossible for theoretically
"c
every
for one tain of land to mainrood of land to maintain its man," i.e., acre with the help a familyof four or five members, also for a man, wife and two of his one or children,to cultivate fairlygrown-up of land with such hand-tools as spade, hand-hoe, etc. acre one
only by dint
of hard
and
steady labour, distributed over cient with hand-labour the whole year, that a man only,get suffican, food for himself and his familyout of one of land. A acre be regardedas consisting of family of four or five members may for each s ix of food tenance, susrequiring maunds 2| adult units grains in all. An acre of land producesordinarily 15 maunds or it is
But
about
15 to 20 maunds
of
grain, partlycereals "
and
partlypulses.
happens,that cultivators are compelled,owing to death of cattle caused by famine or rinderpest, to the wholesale to spade cultivation. have recourse They are then able, by dint of hard labour, distributed throughoutthe year, to cultivate only At
times, it
about
so
acre
one
per
family and justkeep
themselves
alive.
But
happens in this
country (Bengal)that each familyhas an of of land,and it is possible five to six acres with quantity average of the labour (with assistance cattle)for the familyto earn lighter deal than bare more a good living.By the help of fodder crops it
so
only grow crops for home consumptionand sale,but his cattle in good condition, in which case they can render keep efficient help to his cultivation than they could otherwise more The importanceof growing fodder crops on one-fifth or onedo. sixth of "hisholding,should be impressedupon each cultivator through educational and other means. one
can
not
also
GROWING
dairymen,
CHAPTER
CVIII.
FODDER
GROINS.
of fodder but
there is
crops no
is not
unknown
among
arrangement anywherefor
Indian
growing
FODDER
501
CROPS.
all the year round, and cultivators generally leave their what few There cattle to pick up are plantsthat they can get. would not be eaten by cattle. Where grass is scarce they are fed of the leaves bur, peepul,baer,figs, on pakur,mango-, jack,sajna, fodder
datebael,simul a,nd other trees. In times of great scarcityeven cattle leaves are given chopped up to cattle. Ordinarily, palm
and sorguja eat neem leaves,but they have been seen to when these "eat even theycan get nothingelse. But because they will eat almost any kind of plant it is not to be supposed that all plants afford an equallynourishingfodder, or that no special arrangement is necessary for growingfood for cattle. Plants that would
not
fodder will be yieldspecially nourishing
now
described. In Bengal
there is littlepasfor fodder. When turage their milch available,dairymen give cows country peas, leaves and pods of babul trees, pods of the sirisha tree (Mimosa and Sorghum vulgare bhringi (Phaseolusaconitifolius), sirissa), (gama). To stimulate the flow of milk gowdldsgivetheir cattle a food made by boiling bael fruits,mashtogetherslices of unripe" also kalai and kanta-notia (Amaranthus spinosus). Gowdlds are
there
are
some
crops
grown
milk if they get to eat the fact that cows yieldmore simul flower (Bombax heptophylla), seed and or plants of cotton. It is also well known in this country that skins and rinds of sweet strained out after boiling fruits, e.g., mangoes, jack,etc.,the water and rice-dust bran h.usk rice, (khud), (bhusa),also mahua flower of
aware
food for {Bassialatifolia), salt,are stimulating gur and common cattle. So specialarrangements for feedingcattle are not unknown in this
country.
Introduction of
new
fodder crops is however desirable. The fodder has been alreadyreferred to. Field-
value of sun-flower as a beans form a principal as they yield stapleof Englishagriculture, a most nourishingfood for animals. The dwarf shrub of fieldbeans produces an abundance is a favourite of pods. Bean-meal than food for horses, cattle and sheep. It is more strengthening wheat and barleyand yet it does not caus.e diarrhoea. In fact,in diarrhoea bean-meal is freely On p. 482 used as a binding food. have beans first the in the listin we placed considering relative value of food-stuffs. If field-beans are popat-bean and cow-peas more grow
not
we
grown,
can
at
least
largely.In some parts of Bengal,field-beans, though an exotic,used to be grown as a crop in former years, and there is no reason why its cultivation should In the districtof Murshidabad field-bean plants not be revived. the old garden. in wild met with state in nearly every are Gardeners
remember commissariat
of
call the plants bakld, and they the be for this days grown crop used to stationed in that department,when soldiers were
Murshidabad
the
when
district. A is much as
a
sweet
root, called the
largerin
size than beet but
fodder crop in
which mangel-wurzel, alliedto it,is used extensively
mangold
or
England. Largervarieties
of
carrot, turnip,
502
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OP
Salt is used also used as fodder. and for these crops. In the Sunderbans
cabbagesare manure
as
a
stimulating
other
parts of of salt,waste land the soil contains an excess in be profitably utilized stock growingthese crops for rearinglive-
country where
the can
in Reana
systematic manner.
a
luxurians Euchlcena luxurians or (buffalo-grass) all kinds. It of cattle of kind eaten huge by grass eagerly than and it tillersmuch better,but it must sorghum grows taller be facility be grown on rich soil, for irrigation and there must if it
is
a
Nine or ten is to be successfully cultivated all the year round. months after sowing,the plantscome to seed. to maturityand run when It should be cut as fodder before seeding, it is stilltender. i.e., each clump will send rich soil and constantly Grown on irrigated, 12 cubits
high,capableof being cut from 50 to in the year, each cuttingyielding of green food per acre. 60 maunds It grows most luxuriantlyat the SibpurFarm, at least as well as juar,and cattle eat the stalks of Reana with greater relish than they do those of juar. Sown in May, one heavy crop of fodder can be had in September without 80
out
to
to
eighttimes
to
seven
shoots, 10
90
irrigation. Sorghum and Reana, may be mentioned another along with grass, which is actuallygrown
Besides
growing paddy in
annual
districts of
some
Bengal,where
(Ischamum rugosum). Of rank-growinggrasses, which i.e., practically perennial, as
a
weed,
be
may
mentioned
which once
are
grown
the
it is known
either occupy
followingwhich
as
rankaman
Era-kali
perennial,or the soil are
always by
liked
cattle : Guinea-grass(Panicum jumentorum), Para or grass Laid grass (Panicum muticum) and Sorghum halipense.Laid grass grows equallywell on dry land and in shallow water. Guinea-grass.The specialexcellence of this grass consists in its being perennial.The stumps can be removed with the "
and extended. roots
plantedelsewhere, and
the
plantationthus indefinitely
For this crop, however, rich soil and facility for irrigation The land should be also well drained,that water If the plantsare not lodgein it even in the rainy season. may the land should from be seed, prepared when the rainy grown is not quiteover ; but if they are grown from root-cuttings, season after the the land should be cultivated in March or April,soon essential.
are
sary, harvested, irrigation being done, if necesAfter soil for convenience of cultivation. ploughing,the land should be cleaned of weeds and straw by passingthe ladder or harrow over it. Before June the land should be got thoroughlyclean and readyby seven or eightploughings followed by as many or ladderings harrowings. Manure should the the land and ploughedin, and as soon then be spreadover as rains have commenced, the plantingof stumps should begin. If
winter
crop
to
the
has
been
soften the
plantsare
should be made
Holes grown from seed, a seecMbed is necessary. hole in each the seed-bed and two seeds in in put
FODDER
503
CROPS.
regular lines and
the bed again levelled up. Two days after the beds should be watered and the watering should be sowing, continued every third day until the plantscome After the up. have done plants appeared,wateringshould be every second day when
there is rain. When the plants are about nine .should be transplanted,leaf stalks beingcut high,they The field to which they are removed should be got ready in
except inches off.
the
meantime, ridgesbeing put up three feet apart and the plantingdone on the ridges. If the stumps are planted,the plantingshould always be done on ridgesthree feet apart. If seven or eightstalks with roots are plantedin each spot, they will form fine big clump. The stalks of the stumps planted a stick out seven should or eight inches above ground. The
clumps the
occupy
plantsget
the shoots
a
wider and wider
cut
away.
In
area
as
time
extendingthe
goes
and
on
as
of plantation, planted,or be dug can some
be taken up with roots and the roots after the shoots have been all cut away, the stumps up,
can
leavinga quarter
at each
spot.
Unless
the
stumps
are
ned thin-
either in one in the other way, the shoots become or and less palatableto horses and cattle. After every second of with 100 to 150 maunds cuttingthe land should be manured out
hard
tank earth or jhil earth per bighaper annum. or farmyardmanure Solid and liquid of horses,men, sheepand goats have excrements been found the best manure for guinea grass. After transplanting the seedlings to fields,wateringshould or on root-cuttings be done daily,unless there is rain,until the plantsare well established.
Afterwards
in the dry season should be continued irrigation month. In the rainyseason, of course, no irrigation once a is required. After the shoots are cut off,the land should be dug troyed, the plants,the weeds collected and desup at intervals between and manure spread over and ploughedin and the ridges formed again. The shoots should be cut off before they run to seed,that they may be gatheredquitetender. If seed is wanted, the shoots should be allowed to mature, but clumps that are constantly seeds that do not germinate. Any cut, produce weak seed stalks showing smut should not be touched but burnt off with fire. The guinea-grassis not suffer from any known to other malady. Lucerne (Medicayo sativa). The leguminous crop that is "
it called lucerne or alfalfa is also perennial. In its own home if it will stand on the same field for ten or twelve years running, In many is not allowed to seed and if it is properlyattended to. in of there has often been difficulty India,however, parts great maintaininga stand of plantfor so long. It is a most nutritious fodder for horses ; cattle should not be given too much lucerne, it producesdiarrhoea. The stomach paratively of the horse,being comas than food nutritious of a small capacity, more requires
fodder that of cattle. Lucerne, therefore, is a most appropriate for horses though not for cattle. This crop should be grown near
504
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
is There largetowns where good class horses are maintained. another special advantage in growingthis crop. The roots of this crop penetrate several yards deep into the soil. It does not, therefore,suffer from droughtwhen it has been once established, while it yieldsheavy cuttingsfive or six times in the year where facilitiesexist for irrigation. Fairlyheavy soil,rich in lime and well drained,and a dry climate,should be chosen for this crop. Lime
and tank earth have been found very good manures for this crop. Cultivation of Lucerne. In Aprilor May, after the firstshower of rain, the land should be givenone ploughing.At the end of the rainyseason about one hundred maunds of tank earth should be spreadper bigha,and the land ploughedand harrowed four or five of times. After the cultivation is finished, three or four maunds "
lime per acre of bone-dust should be sprinkled over or six maunds the land. Trenches should then be made, so as to form ridges about two feet apart,unless the land is hilly with a natural slope. The seed should be sown the top of the ridges.Little holes on be made with sickle and seed put in them and the earth a may tattered down. cient Thus sown, four seers of seed will be found suffiIf the plantsdo not come days up within ten after sowing, and ifthe soil appears to be too dry,one or two waterings be requiredbefore the plantscome The plantsbeing may up. the ridges rain is not able to spoil on or them, on hillsides, grown and the trenches between the rows be utilized both of plantscan for irrigating and for hoeing the land. After each cutting,the per
acre.
plough should be passed throughthe trenches and weeds cleared After every two or three cuttings in this way. should be manure of rotten maunds appliedin the trenches ; in other words, if thirty another and at at a maund manure are one season farmyard applied of bone-meal or two maunds of castor-cake or rape-cakeper bigha, five to six cuttings of plantsmay be had from the land during be obtained one can year, and an average crop of 50 maunds per acre 300 maunds at each cutting, of green food in all,during or With specialfacility the year. obtain 600 for irrigation can one of green stuff per acre. liar Europeansare quitefamiwith the value of lucerne as a fodder for horses, and there should be no difficulty in disposing of the crop in largetowns, The fodder is specially valued for racehorses. say, at Re. 1 per maund. If plantsare not cut, they run to seed after a year, i.e., at the next cold season, and the plantswither away afterwards.
or
700 maunds
Plants reserved for seed should not be cut but left untouched in a of a field. These should not be irrigated often as the corner so used fodder. for Plants requiredfor seed should not be plants than three years old. Any time within the firstthree years, more be set apart for seeding. The seed is usually can any of the plants sold at about Rs. 3 per seer. A whether it be in the firstyear,
afterwards.
plantwhich is allowed to seed, dies immediately afterwards, or
505
SILOS.
Lucerne in flower has the
: following average composition "
Water Albuminoids .
Crude
74 4-5
.
fibre
9-5
Carbohydrates
9'4
Ash
2
Albuminoid
ratio
1
:2
Khari sugar-cane
cut up small is an excellent fodder for cattle. of the Opuntia (Phanimanasd) class,divested of thorns and by burning given chopped up to cattle,and the leaves and tops of cassava, are also eaten by cattle. Of annual and rank-growing leguminousfodder crops, Barbati
The
cactus
or (Vigna catiang)and Arharia Sim (Cyamopsis Psoracow-pea called kurti in Oudh, lioides), nuts the first place. Groundoccupy be fodder as a as land, on they may grown heavy crop grow
in such soils like a weed for ever and they after beingonce sown, thus practically are a perennialleguminouscrop. Albizzu procera or the rain-tree of Bengal,beinga very fastgrowing tree, and doing well in the plainsof Bengal, might be largelygrown for fuel. The fruits of this tree are very sweet, cattle are very fond of eatingthem. They are probablyas good for lodder as the carob-beans of the Mediterranean regions.
Prosopisspicigeraand valuable
mulberry have
been
also
mentioned
as
trees. fodder-yielding
CHAPTER
CIX.
SILOS. SILOS are built either above above or partlybelow, or on a modified A
or
ground or below ground or partly ings slope. They are either old build-
unmodified, or they are
fourteen-inch brick
new
ones
structed. conspecially
wall carefully lined with cement is all that is required. The internal of cement coating should be as smooth as possible.If an old room be converted into a silo, the doorway requires special arrangements for closing before for and filling, the up to use openingbefore or
concrete
commencing
silage.This is by a double door
sometimes done by brick-work and sometimes of wood with saw-dust in the intervening space. The cost of silos should not exceed Ks. 10 per ton of capacity,a cubic foot of silage weighing45 or 50 Ibs. Fiftycubic feet should hold a ton. Stack-silos are also common. A stack 30 ft.
long
by
15 ft. wide (16 ft. at the base)and 14 ft. high would weigh about 100 tons. A pitat the side of a hillis the most convenient situation for a silo, be filled from the top and the fodder as it can be taken out from the bottom. can As the gieatest amount of mouldiness occurs just behind the doorway, or justbeneath the is boards, care
covering
great
506
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
in the construction of a silo. Small silos are better time the each be should as done within a filling largeones, The best size is 10 ft. x 10 ft.X 5 ft. two. or The best materials to pitare green maize stalks,arahar plants
necessary
than
day
flower, juar,Sorghum saccharatum, buck-wheat, barley straw
in
The materials should be filled chopped up, grasses. For if possible. a 10 ft. square silo,4 or 5 cwts. of material should be put in, and 1 Ib. of salt sprinkledover the mass for every cwt. and
coarse
of material used, and the sides and corners. of the pitis filledup. the
at
top,
quantityof
extra
beingused
A per square foot. 5 tons of materials
a
An
the whole
and
earth
darma-mats,
the whole well trodden down, specially at This process is repeated until the whole of the
salt should
pit covered
with
for
be
weighingthe boards at ft.x 10 ft. pit will hold
10 ft. x 10
led sprink-
boards 100
or
Ibs.
about
As the boards will gradat the first filling. ually in earth crevices be the must filled After sink, carefully up. week or ten days the silo should be opened again and filledin the
alreadydescribed, and be repeated four or filling may
again. The opening and six times, i.e.,so long as there is sinking. Properlyfilled,a pit 10 ft. x 10 ft. x 10 ft. which is equivalentto 2 or 3 tons of tons of silage,
manner
considerable
will hold 10
closed
be used six weeks after the can dry hay. If necessary, the silage has been But will cease. fermentation filling completed, when for least it will remain In 10 at two tons good England, years. of green fodder produce9| tons of silage 3 tons of dry hay. In or has generallycome to India, the loss of weight in silage-maldng a
per
21,781
1892-93,
maunds
of
at
Allahabad, 33,652
which silage,
means
a
maunds
of
loss of 35
cent.
If or
In
more.
made
grass
3
deal
great
thermometer
a
that the top available,it should be seen the materials attain the temperature of about 125" F. second is done. The maximum filling temperature reached in about six weeks, after which the normal
4 ft. of
before
the
(160"F.) is
is
is attained
in a few days. A siloshould not be opened until it has reached the ordinary temperature. About 5 per cent, is wasted of the silage at the sides and the top or at the door when
temperature
there is
a
door, on
properlyexcluded. of green
fodder
Heavy considered
are
pressure
of mouldiness ; and more, if air is not To make 60 Ibs.of silage in India,90 or 100 Ibs.
account
required. and
essential for
.
are no longer tramplingand quickfilling in the results the best making of getting
be allowed to settle of itself. When filling, may be and into made the level well pressed mass corners. It should be tightat the sides. Even a wooden the top cover over is not needed. wooden A simplecovering A of cut straw answers. silo above ground is far better than any stone or brick building under or above ground. Stackingof silage recommended is not for this country. is The waste from in decay stack-silage
silage.The the
great.
mass
should
508
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
Amountingtogetherto 215 Ibs. Allowingthese to have the same food was value as the carbohydrates, the net loss of carbonaceous Of 1,009 Ibs. or 12-3 per 100 parts of carbonaceous principles. loss the total Nitrogen in the grass employed there was no ; 151 Ibs. Nitrogenwas found in the grass and 155 Ibs. Nitrogen in the silage.There was, however, a loss of albuminoids,a portion The of these being converted substance. into non-albuminoid albuminoids in the grass amounted 449 Ibs. "
to 780
Ibs.,in the silageto only
it will be sufficient to say that qualityof the silage, the silagewas employed in a comparative feedingexperiment bullocks on lot of beasts being fed on cotton seed-cake,maize ; one and the other on cotton silage, seed-cake,maize and hay, the result of which was to show the feedingvalue of silage to be slightly superiorto that of hay. It is economical tto store the early grass as silagein those Of the
"
districts which is therefore
months, and
a
are
too
process
it may of in fodder scarcity
wet
by
admit of hay-making,and ensilage which fodder may be stored for many to
be
regarded dry years."
as
a
means
of
providingfor
is the grass to cattle and horses Next to that should be preferredgivingof silageto cattle, but as horses requiremore food richer in albuminoids, concentrated is better for horses than silage.Milch-cattle thrive better hay on silagethan on hay, althoughthey requiretheir food to have
Pasturingor givinggreen
best.
higherproteidratio than horses. They must, however, get some bran or oil-cake alongwith the silage, bulkier food is required as ruminants than by horses. by a
The
Allahabad Grass Farm.
is worked
"
As
a
Government
which
farm
details
with profit, it will be interesting to give a few of this farm taken from the report of 1890-91, i.e.,the year farm
mediately imand
precedingthe establishment of the dairy cattle and pig breedingin connection with it. The year was rather droughty, and the average yieldof grass was only126 maunds as compared to 155 maunds per acre obtained in 1889-90. per acre The extent of the farm was The rent paidwas high, 2,590 acres. Rs. total The Es. 6 16,999-6-5,i.e.,over yield i.e., per acre. of green grass came to 325,821 maunds. 250 acres were cropped with sorghum, oats, barley, 15,984 wheat and gram, which yielded of grain. maunds issued in Of the green grass obtained, 153,102 maunds were the green state, 120,739 maunds into made hay, 55,749 were
siloed, were hay beingobtained,while 51,981 maunds 34,723 maunds of silage beingobtained from 35 silos. varied The loss by dryageand mouldiness in the case of silage from 16-12 per cent, to 52-62 per cent., the average coming to
maunds
28
of
per c"nt. 4 Rs. 8,886-10-6 was the amount spent during the year on while total the to Rs. 79,797-10-8. manuring, expenditurecame
The
producewas and an Department, (1) (2) (3) (4)
Green grass
..
Kay Silage
50$
RATIO.
PROTEID
sold but
the Commissariat estimate only of its value can be given. not
suppliedto 3
@
1,53,102 mds.
8
""
51,749
..
34,732
"
,,8
..
15,984
"
"
Grain
"
"
a
as.
mnd.
"
"
PROTEID DIFFERENT even
have
the same under The the
differ in
animals
have
28705
23,'s74
"
17 361
" " "
saving to Govt.
CHAPTER
= -
"
1 Re.
Total gross outturn Deduct Total Expenditure
Net
Rs.
=
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
Rs. "
R?.
15^4 87,924 79J97
8,127
CX. RATIO.
different power
of digestion
and
animal digests differentproportionsof food-constituents different circumstances.
carbohydrates are digestible usuallyall assumed to but as a matter of heat-producing fact power, they this respectin their action in differentanimals, ruminants same
making better use of them than other animals. Differentanimals requirefoods of different proteidratios to sustain them in proper ratio is meant the ratio of the digestible health. By proteid procarbohydrates, teids to the digestible plus2-3 times the digestible '
"
fat or oil. But as the proportions of proteidsand carbonaceous food-constituents digestedare different under differentcircumstances, is ratio more the term proteid commonly appliedsimplv the proteid and the carbonaceous foodto the ratio between fat latter the which is including constituents, by 2-3 the to carbohydratefood-constituents. and then added The '
'
ffiultiplied
difference between
the true
ordinarilyunderstood ascertainingthe value the
proteidratio and
is not
very
of
food
a
the proteid ratio as great, and for the purpose of under ordinary circumstances
of its different constituents may digestibility
be left out
of
account.
different constituents of all crops are not equally ible digestin all conditions and and all crops are not equallydigestible deteriorate towards maturity crops stages of growth. Fodder in nourishment when too young. and they are wanting In the value* nutritive and the manurial of is highest Juar, diately immecase but potatoes and mangoldsimprove with before flowering, at the latest maturity,starch and sugar beingformed more freely stage of their growth. High manuring, in many crops but not in all,increases not only the bulk of a crop, but als the relative The
510
HANDBOOK
In
hay,
AGRICULTURE.
ash
and nitrogen, bijt there is a in manured carbohydrates highly crops. and root-crops, the straw, green-fodder
of proportions
proportionof
OF
water,
very safe
smaller
nitrogen
the amount of proteids. The a substances also contains a good proportion of of and the some carbohydratesalso portions wax, indigestible value. have no feeding Weight for weightthese constituents in
present is not fat in these
guide to
than in fodders. digested No experimentshave been conducted on Indian animals of the constitutents of the various foodthe stuffs, to test digestibility must at present relyon and we European and American in the matter. experience has been found affected by the following circumstances Digestibility better
grainsare
:
"
(1)Kind
of
animal, whether ruminant not ; (2) or (3) mixture adopted; (4) age of the plantused
food ; (5)the state
qualityof
properly washed,
or
the food is
in which
for fodder ;
cooked,
or
given,in the rough,
dried
or
as
hay
;
and
(6)
health. is not usuallyaffected by Digestibility
not
the following stances circumof the animal; (2) quantitygiven,(i.e., ing : (1)age by starvof the small quantitygiven is animal a higherproportion an bullocks at rest and at work digest ; (3)labour (i.e., digested)
the
same
"
The
of proportions addition
of
the
the
different
constituents).
followingsubstances
: digestion (1) Highly nitrogenousfood,
to
food
helps
"
bean-meal, etc. (2) Oil,at the
The of
such
\ Ib. per day
of
as
bran, oil-cake, wheat,
per 1,000 Ibs. of live
weight. or foods, Starchy (3) sugary e.g., potatoes, mangolds, provided ratio of the whole food does not fallbelow 1 : 8. the proteid reduces the digestibility addition of starch or sugar ordinarily
food,but
when
rate
the
proteidratio
is increased
by the addition
of the food oil-cake,bean-meal, etc.,then the digestibility
by the addition
of sugar
or
of
is increased
starch.
(4) Salt. hence (5) Agreeableflavour is also helpfulto digestion, of such materials with flavour. a advisability mixing
the
is of great value in helping proper proportionof water of cattle In the the of water best proportion case to digestion. dry food.hasbeen found in European countries to be as 4 : 1, and of sheep as 2 : 1 ; but in the Indian climate a higher in the case proportionof water is probably necessary.
The
Grains, potatoes,
and
root-crops generallyare
nearly
pletely com-
of nitrogenous matter digested.The higherthe proportion Of 100 contained in hay or straw the greater is its digestibility. and fibres, in various foodstuffs, carbohydrates parts of fat,proteids, the proportions the digested-are givenbelow,though figures in connection be understood that with the reservation animals of different d ifferent have different condigesting power must
511
PROTEIDJRATIO. in differentmixtures, and the generalidea
stituents of food
give only a
therefore figures
"
Fibre,
Carbo
Proteids.
Fat.
hydrate. Cereal grains Pulse grains Cereal straw
"
.
(not too ripe)
Pulse straw
85%
75%
80,,
85,,
85% 90,,
20
45
""
Oil-cake Potatoes
Let of
find out the
now
us
Bengal
..
..
Mineral
fibre
4*4%
or
nutritive relation
.
.
.
1
.
.
.
Jb'roin the table of
(which is equivalentto ot starch].
ia to
4'4x2'3
'5%
57%
.
6'3% 2*7%
..
..
value of which be neglected).
(thenutritive
17'1%
..
matter
..
matter
10*6%
..
..
Nitrogenous Carbohydrates
Woody
"
Very variable.
93,,
proteidratio
..
,.
Other
72,,
"
50
"
..
Proteids
"
"
40
(Cicerarietinum).Its average compositionis
gram
Moisture
Oil
"
90,,
..
"
80
90 ..
60 " 60 " 50 to 80
"
50
Hay
55
"
"
45
-"
Very yariable. 60%
.
(which may be reckoned to starch).
as
(the nutrient value of which be neglected).
digestibility given above
equal
is to
conclude
we
thai/ "
80 per cent, of the fat which has been 4/4 x 2'3 is digestible, as also,that 90
reduced
to
drates carbohy-
per cent, of the carbo-
iiydratesthe
proportionof which is 57 per cent, is digestible, that 60 and 90 per cent, also, per cent, of the fibre (6*3per cent.), of tJie other nitrogenousmatter is equal in which (1*5per cent.) value
starch, are
to
cent, ot the
We digestible.
albuminoids,the
also
conclude,that "5 per is 17*1,is ible. digest-
proportionof which
-Now the proportion between the digestible albuminoids and the digestible of reckoned the food starch is the as portions ratio of gram. In workingthe proportion out true albuminoid the have result :" we following "
171
(57
X
X
85
90) -t-(i'5 + UO)
+
(6'3 X 60) X (4'4
X
2*3 X
80)
14*535
14-536
:4'4 513
1'35 +
-t
The
3-78 +
8 '096
"
64 '256
bullock
should have a proteid milk i : 7|. ratio of 1 ; 13 ; of a horse i : 11 ; and ot a cow in Cow's milk which is .highlynutritious food has the proteid ratio of 1 : 5 and of goat'smilk 1 : 4". Food of young and growing animals should, therefore,have the proteid ratio of 1
:
food of
a
working
5.
In
mixing different foods
for farm animals the for be suitable each should borne in mind as much as
proteidratio that possible
512
HANDBOOK
OP
AQRIOULTUKE.
be attended in feedingmay economy the proteid ratio is too high it is waste
with the best of results. If of good food,if it is too low flesh-former.
the food is too poor as a ratio table of proteid The following animals : of different foods for
givesan
idea of the value
"
PROTEID
RATIO.
(Nominal) Indian "
wheat wheat wheat
(True)
Digestible proteids.
grain
7
bran
7
straw
"6
,,
barley grain oat grain Rice grain
6
"
3-5
"
5
Rice husk Rice straw Jwtr grain J
2-4 "4
6-6
straw
uar
'5
Hay
2
Linseed cake cake Earth-nut Til cake cotton-oake Decorticated Indian cotton seed-cake
72
Peas
16
26
36 38 13
Bengal gram Mangolds
14
1-2
Potatoes Maize
21 "8
the proteidratio of a mixed ration con 6 Ibs. of gram, is. We and find fronr can hay of hay, as we found in the case of the table of composition gram, 2 100 Ibs. Ibs. of digestible in contains it that every proteids food. Therefore,17 Ibs. carbonaceous and 46 Ibs. of digestible Let
us
now
see
what
of 17 Ibs. of sisting
of
hay contains
34 Ibs. of
and digestible proteids
7*82 Ibs. of
ible digest-
food or foods, calculated as starch. We carbonaceous also 14 contains Ibs. of Ibs. of know 100 that digestible gram proteids food calculated as starch. and 61-6 Ibs. (14x4-4) of carbonaceous would thus contain *84 Ibs. of digestible 6 Ibs. of gram proteids and 3-69 Ibs. of starch. In the mixed ration therefore there is and 11-51 Ibs. of starch. The albuminoid 1-18 Ibs. of digestible proteids ratio of the mixed food is thus 1*18 : 11-51 or nearly 1 : 10. The food is thus a littletoo rich for horses and bullocks,though in milk nor for young rich enough for a cow not growing animals. In mixing foods the ash constituents cannot altogetherbe and for Maize rice, instance, left out of account. beingextremely for young and growinganimals. Straw unsuitable lime in are poor acid,and as bran and and hay are particularly poor in phosphoric rich in this constituent one of these suboil-cake are particularly to should be stances given young and growinganimals and,animals So the scientificfanner should in milk alongwith hay or straw. 1ook not onlyto the proteid ratio,but also to the mineral requisites
MANURIAL
513
FOOD-STUFFS.
OF
VALUE
livestock,and he should consider cleanliness,flavour,etc., which are
of food he chooses for his various such
other circumstances as valuable aids to digestion.
calculatingthe total nutriment contained in a food-stuff, contained in the proportions of fibre, ash, and moisture it are ignored,though,as we have justsaid, they are not without The value. values of proteidsand of carbohydrates are lated assumed to be equal. The fat contained in the food-stuff is calcuthe either carbohydratesor as being 2-3 times as valuable as For
albuminoids. To ascertain,for instance, the nutrient value, relative to other fodders similarlycalculated,of paddy-straw,
the
which
contains
of albuminoids
T78 per cent, per cent, of carbohydrates, has simplyto add 2-19 per cent, of fat, one
40*65 and
together,40-65,
and
1-78
(2-19 x
2-3), the result coming
to
47-467.
Although chemical analysisgives no exact idea as to the and other practical value of fodders, yet the following digestible table will be fodders
found
of
some
in
use
determiningthe merits
of
"
"
CXI.
CHAPTER MANURIAL
VALUE
OF
FOOD-STUFFS.
Relation of food to growth and excrements. Generallyspeaking, animal requires, sustenance an diet, four Ibs. of food to as food and every 100 Ibs. of live weight and the relation between dry should be about 1 : 4. Ruminants water largerquantities require such as the horse,' of coarse animals with and stomachs, small food, pf the food cent, requiresmaller quantities.Four to eightper "
Mf
HA
33
514
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
is retained in the body and the rest is voided. consumed One in food voided is faeces of the and two nitrogenous part parts in about in 1 Ib. urine. A growing animal increases weight for every above the sustenance diet. The pro8 Ibs. of food consumed portion
i.e., weight in pigsis larger, they increase 4 5 Ibs. of to food above the weightby consuming only Sustenance diet is what diet. will keep an sustenance mere animal from starvingor decreasingin weight. The increase in of water to the accumulation and fat and weight is due chiefly of The matters. mineral proportion development between is fattening is and animal fat, while an proteids,water of increase of
1 Ib. in
as
1
3:7. Cattle-foods :
manurial
value
in their much vary very of food-stuffs depends almost
value. The the entirelyon portions promanure
of nitrogen, phosphoricacid and potash they contain. of these constituents From these must be deducted the proportions utilized by the animals in the building Except up of their bodies. of growing animals, pregnant animals and of milchin the case
cattle,the proportionsof manurial
substances lost to the land food-substances utilization of the as food first, are by insignificant. of nitrogen In the case alone,Lawes and Gilbert deduced 10 to 15 wasted of nitrogenthan of phosphoric per cent, of loss,as there is more acid and potash ; though it was also recognisedthat in the like oil-cake,beanof highlynitrogenous case food-substances, meal, etc.,the manurial value of the dung is specially great. As linseed-cake is best of all the that tening fatcattle-food, foods, is,more than other food-stuffs, but the manurial value of decorticated cotton-cake is much greater,as the proportions of nitrogen,
phosphoricacid,and potashcontained
in decorticated cotton-cake than much in linseed-cake. It is, therefore,from are greater of food-stuffs in these three constituents the chemical composition that we are to infer their manurial value, making a slight deduction in the case of phosphoricacid and potash and 10 to 15 per in the case cent, deduction of nitrogen.If the farmer considers the manurial value of such food-stuffs as oil-cakes or leguminous seeds, he would not grudge givinga liberal allowance of these to his cattle,as by so doinghe would his land also in good condition. All the organicmanures act
not
only have
his
animals,but
slowlyon the land, i.e.,even is taken it is assumed after a crop that half the dung applied stillremains unexhausted,and after two years, a third to the jiand is stillunexhausted. If annuallycattle are hurdled on a pieceof land and given oil-cake, or gram, to eat, while so hurdled, the land will get richer and richer,and the accumulated of fertility eightor ten years will bringit to a highcondition,after which careful croppingand manuring may help to keep the land always in condition.
this
The of
some
will give ah idea of the manurial following figures food-stuffs to be purchased: principal likely
of the
"
value
516
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
of milk differs very much The composition accordingto the food and the yield. The largerquantitygivenby a particular cow beyond a certain point,the poorer it is in fat. Watery from the udder food also results in poor milk. The last strippings The of milk out of a the richest in fat. are average composition uniform. herd of twenty cattle is fairly The butter-fat which Milk is not a homogeneous substance. has the specific gravityof *91 beingsuspendedin a solution of the specific and proteids gravityof which is 1*03, (lactose) distributed the whole through evenly quantityof milk. the therefore differs from same One sample of milk from cow another sample,and a representative sample from a particular milk of a largedairy is is difficultto get, though the mixed cow in composition. fairlyeven Buffalo butter, having a highermeltingpoint than cow's from the latter. Ghee contains butter, can be easilydistinguished and casein than butter, and it has a slightly less water gravity. Butter-fat consists higher meltingpoint and specific chieflyof the glycerinsalts of palmiticand oleic acids. The of stearic,myristic, lauric,capric,capryllic, caproic glycerides also present in small quantities. The and butyricacids, are of acids and oleic, are capric, capryllic, caproic butyric glycerides fluid at ordinarytemperatures,the remainingglycerides being
sugar is not
the solid. In summer Food also has winter.
proportionof fluid fats is greater than
in
great effect on
the fats of butter. Rapeand wheatrbran cake, cotton-cake, oats, produce harder butter, while linseed-cake, peas, and barleyproducesoft butter. When butter or ghee becomes rancid, the glycerinecompounds are decomposed and the acids set free. The butyric, and capricacids having a strong smell,produce capryllic caproic, the characteristicsmell of rancid butter and ghee. Since these soluble in water and more in milk, the acids are also slightly so smell of rancid butter can be got rid of by several disagreeable with water, or better with milk. Lard and vegetable washings a
deficient in these volatile acids,and this fact helpsthe detection of adulteration of butter and ghee. The proteidsof milk consists of casein and albumin. The is separatedout former by rennet but not the latter,while the latter is separatedout by boiling.In shar we have butter oils
and
are
albumin, while in cheese
colostrum albumin
we
have
butter
and
casein.
In
so that it coagulates OB greatlypreponderates, boiling.In ordinarycow's milk, one-ninth of the proteidsi" is casein. albumin and eight-ninths The souringof milk is caused by several microbes or bacteria. and preservation If these bacteria can be excluded by sterilization in air-tight vessels,the milk can b*ekept sweet for an indefinite is a future for the sterilized There milk trade in India. period. it into lactic The bacteria act on the lactose of the milk converting acid. This acid acts on the casein and precipitates it, which
517
MILK.
the
causes
acts
curdlingof
the milk.
Eennet
ferment a and moderatelyhigh temperature pitates precithe coagulatedcasein,but its curdlingaction is entirely the casein at
on
which
is also
a
different from that produced in the souringof milk, and in its similar acid is produced. The addition of rennet, however, case no the milk sour, other acids being generated.Any turns acid except carbonic acid,will coagulate the casein cause milk,i.e., and the fat entangledin it to precipitate. There is more than one rapidprocess in use for determination of the richness of milk. The lactometer test is largely useless,as
skimmingthe
buttet increases the specific gravityof milk and addition of water lowers this specific gravity. A dishonest dealer with the help of a lactometer can easily the fat by remove the rapidcentrifugal water of and addition then bring by process gravityto 1*031 or 1-030. up the specific The idea in all the newer rapid methods (e.g., Babcock's an
method) is to dissolve the casein by a strong acid,say, sulphuric' acid of sp. gr. T82. their action goes on, there is a great When rise in temperature, the fat liquefies, and when submitted to centrifugal the in it all the and measured surface is to force, comes graduatedneck of the test bottle. The fault in this system lies in the fact that owing to the great rise in temperature due to a of the fat, with strong acid being mixed with the milk, some
milk-sugar, gets charred to a black substance which consequently interferes with the obtainingof accurate results. Gerber's method overcomes this difficulty by the addition of amyl alcohol,and it is at present considered the best and quickest volumetric test for milk-fat. The firststage in the process is samplingof the milk by tilting is well distributed throughout it from pailto pailuntil the cream the milk is still the whole. The samplingshould be done when Irom the cow. warm of pipettes A number then got ready,i.e., 10 c. c. pipettes are for amyl for milk, and 1 c. c. pipettes for acid, 11 c. c. pipettes corks and chemical alcohol ; also test bottles fitted with rubber for
the test. The sulphuricacid used
should be of the
littlemore less does not matter. or 10 c. c. of the sulphuric acid First of all, Then the test bottle is inverted in a stand 1*82 ;
specific gravity
a
taken in a pipette. the acid is run and into it. The dropor two of acid remainingin the tip of the pipette is not to be blown in. Next is put in 1 c. c. of amyl alcohol (on which will slightly discolour when the top of the acid), coming in contact
with the acid.
The
are
care greatest possible
must
be
observed in measuringthe amyl alcohol,as an extra drop or two affects the result most remarkably. Next, the milk is to be let?in from the pipette drop by drop. all in o f the measured the ingredients, Having put proportions the test bottles are corked and well shaken and then they ate
518
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
The test bottles are now submitted to the rotary machine. machine after which in for three minutes force the centrifugal they may be taken out. The fat will be noticed to have collected on the top of the have been properly that is, if the operations performed, liquid, To colour. off the perof a palish read and it is generally yellow centage, the fat must be brought on the graduatedscale on the neck of the bottle. This is done by pushingin the India-rubber
put
on
"
The bottom of the layerof fat is to be got even with one of where the of the long graduations, sees one or one numbers, and then it is a simplematter to read off the percentage. Each divided representsone per cent, which is subspace between the numbers into 10 small divisions,each equal to -1 per cent. So cork.
and five small ones, this would represent 3 -5 per cent, of fat, which is the compositionof good In reading, it is necessary that the bottom of the fat should milk. of the largemarks, and in readingoff the decimal be exactly on one that if we
have three
percentage read up present at the top
largedivisions
of the meniscus, which
to the bottom
is always
of the fat. ash settles at the The mineral matter in the milk generally or the cork in the form of a greyish bottom of the test bottle near
white powder. The test bottle is to be cleaned
with hot water after use, and if any fat is leftin the neck, it should with a fine brush, or else it will affect the accuracy out
immediately removed
be
of the
next
test.
The test of butter in milk is
no
criterion
by
which
one
could
be so rich adulteration. One sample of milk may judgefraudulent that it contains 7J per cent, of butter and another may contain It is .very hard to say whether a only 1" per cent. sample of milk has been watered, or the cow the mjlk has producing been fed injudiciously. Ordinarygood cow's milk should give 9 to 10 per cent, of cream and about 3J per cent, of butter fat. One good Indian cow giving5 or 6 seers of milk per day should produce annually 100 Ibs. of butter or 250 Ibs. of cheese. An average One poupd of cheese Englishdairycow producestwice as much. is obtained from about ten pounds of whole milk or fifteen pounds of skim-milk. The produce of cheese is a more reliable test of the purityof milk than the produce of butter.
CHAPTER CREAM
CXII1. AND
BUTTER.
of milk which are consists mainly of the fat-globules when the the fresbstate. In the hot weather, is milk in separated
CREAM
even cream
with
a
cream centrifugal
separator,it is not
from milk, except with the
helpof ice.
easy
separating
In the cold
weather,
early in the morning or the
milk, in the cold
being
four inches
about
pans in the morning with
and
the top is cut
on resting
in shallow
weather,
through clean cloth is
strained
shallow
night,this separationcan be effected separatedfrom fresh milk by setting
at
is also
easily. Cream
very
519
BUTTER.
AND
CREAM
The
pans.
milk
after
placed in the evening
in
clean
in
ventilated house, a deep fine holes the cream containing scoop
a
If
out.
a
second
skimming is done,
of the two skimmings should be mixed up with is used, the stirrer. If a cream-separatingmachine creams
a
the
wooden
separation morning or at night in a few minutes. the separationis effected by the use of shallow pans or Whether by a centrifugal cream-separator, the fat-globules separated out be
can
effected
the
in
will be found to be stillmixed up with the casein and sugar of the milk ; the cream obtained is thus not butter. It is not even butter with diluted little milk, as fermentation a plays a part in the formation of what we generally call butter. from Although the fat-globules
be
can
churned
into
out
butter it is not
butter proper of time. length
for any
keep
There
kinds
various
are
machines
in
(Fig.99) : the being the same thrown out through a the
of
column
the middle,
separate hole separate vessel.
of
hole into
a
vessel
in collecting fat-globules
and
separators
power
tasty very that will
centrifugal principleof heavier liquid is
works gradually
a
cream
; the
use
all
and
fresh
a
a
For are
its way
through
separate spout
into
a
this country, steamwell adapted,nor not
very expensivehand separatorseither,Avhich ' The ' Lilliput Rs. 500. cost Ks. 300 to
FIG.
inches high separator which is only eighteen
CREAM-
THE
SEPARATOR.
of our needs whom of be induced some to invest dairymen (gowdlds), may if the benefit of obtaininga larger this machine Rs. 100 on quantity of cleaner butter from fresh milk throughout the cold In one be pointedout to them. of months hour a maund can best
seems
milk
suited
for
99."
the
treated with this machine, the average tained yield obof milk. being about four seers of cream per maund butter method The English is not suitable out of cream of making under ordinary conditions in the climate of Bengal,as the be
may
proper
62"
temperature 64"F.
for
Though
churning is 55"F., going graduallyup
centrifugal depend in this separator makes the best butter, we must from of butter curd on or sour-milk,or from shar making country the Devonshire of making butter. which is practically method The making of cheese is also not suited to the climate of Lower to
or
Bengal. The
sweet
temperature
by the addition of rennet
at
cream
which
is of great
got by
the milk
means
of
should
importance. 74"
a
be
curdled
to
84"F. is
520
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
the suitable temperature, the lower temperature (74" to 80"F.) for thin cheeses and the higher(80"to 84"F.)for thick. For the subsequentripeningof cheese a fairlyuniform temperature of It is difficultto secure these conditions in 70"F. is also needed. the
plains.
ing necessary for a small dairyof 25 cows, yieldappliances of 50 of milk seers are a an daily, quantity Lilliput average churn (Fig.100), two pailsfor milking, separator, a ten-gallon The
100." THE CHURN.
a
hair-sieve for
two
BUTTER
FIG.
the passing
milk into the
101." THE
BUTTER-WORKER.
of the separator, receptacle
glazed earthenware
cream,
wooden
two
cream-crocks, each holding10 seers of butter tub, two stirrers, a wooden platters,
butter-worker (Fig.101), butter prints,a marble-slab and butter scales. All the utensils should be washed with boiling and kept scrupulously water clean. The cream should be kept in the cream-crock,and the fresh skim-milk may be either converted into cheese,or given to animals, or sold as 'inferior milk. After each separationof cream an addition may be made to the same cream-crock, but at each addition the stirrer should be used for mixingup the different lots of cream, and the churningmay take place on the second or third day. The cream-crock should be placedin a cool place. The churning should be done in the a
early
morning at
a
temperature of about 60"F.
The chum
is
only half
filledwith cream. Duringthe firstfew minutes the ventilator of the churn should be opened out. The churning should continue for about three-quarters of an hour, at a uniform rate of about
forty
strokes per minute.
When
the butter has come, a difference of sound is noticed. Then the butter-milkis withdrawn from the churn, the flowingout of granulesoi butter being avoided by the use of the hair-sieve. Any granules accumulatingin the sieve are to be returned to the churn. Then the churn is to
521
CHEESE-MAKING.
be half filledwith cold water, and after a few turns of the churn the water is to be withdrawn the buttermilk. in the same as way The washing is to be repeateduntil the water comes out clean. Then the butter is to be taken out, but it should not be touched with the hand. Either the hair-sieve or the two wooden
butter has been from the churn, it is dealt by the worker, is a which and rolls the kneads which corrugated cylinder butter be also done with against a table. The kneading may wooden tub. Salt hands, well washed with salt-water,in a is added and also to now to remove the water more effectually enhance the keepingqualityof the butter. About three ounces of salt should be used for every two seers The mass of butter. is then made into rolls half or pound prints. up Further information on butter-making will be found in the
patters
to
are
be
used.
When
removed
next
part of the book, in the chapterdevoted
CHAPTER
the with
to
dairybacteriology.
CXIV.
CHEESE-MAKING. in a glazed Cream-Cheese. Take one gallon of fresh cream earthenware it heat cool to or a vessel, temperature of 68" to If the cream 70"F. has been obtained by a separator,allow it for stand four to fifteen to twenty to six hours to ripen. Add Stir this drops of Hansen's rennet diluted with a little water. in for ten minutes, afterwards coveringthe vessel,and allow it in a temperature of to stand for twenty-fourhours undisturbed 60"F. It will be now found to have coagulated,and then it should be turned into a cloth and hung inside a vessel to drain in a circulating atmosphereof about 60"F. The cloth should be "
material which should be thick enough to retain the curd tinue allowingthe whey to drain out. The drainingshould confor eighteen to twenty hours, and duringthis time the cream should be scrapedtwo or three times from the sides of the cloth of moisture. to facilitate the separation After this it should be turned into a fresh cloth and placedunder a weightof from eight to twelve Ibs. until dry enough for moulding,i.e.,for a periodof from eightto ten hours. Before moulding salt should be added at the rate of 1| oz. to 2 ozs., to the quantity. Ordinary Cheese. Strain the fresh milk through a thick piece of cloth into a vat. Eaise the temperature of the vat very a
coarse
while
"
in steam into the jacketof the vat, while graduallyby letting t he milk with a slowly stirring stirrer,until the temperature reaches 85"F. should not be attempted therefore, Cheese-making, in very hot weather,when it does not need any heatingto arrive
522
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
If the cheese has to be coloured* the temperature of 85"P. add the colour at this stage,say, 1 oz. of annatto-fluid for every fluid is to be mixed up The colouring of milk used. ten maunds with a quantityof the milk in the vat and the mixture put in so at
distribution of colour. Then add, gradually with water to the 10 of rennet mixed up one seer by stirring, Sufficient rennet is to be used milk in the vat. maunds of warm The in less than a quarter of an hour. to show some coagulation In time. this should be shut off from draughtsof air at room and then with two curdabout, half an hour the curd will solidify, cuttingcompound knives, cleaned, sharpened,and washed with
as
to
get
a
uniform
water, the curd is to be boiling and then with knife lengthwise
cut
clean, firstwith the horizontal
until the vertical knife vertically, of curd are formed in the whey. Continue littlecubical masses creased while the temperature is slowly into stir these cubical masses to 98" or 100"F., two degreesbeing raised every five this temperature is reached, graduallydraw and taking off the briskly, whey, and continue stirring whey. Then spreadthe curd over a cloth to run out all the wheyr curd the and afterwards through a grindingmill. Then
When
minutes. off the
pass
of milk mix salt evenly at the rate of 1 Ib. for every five maunds used. Then weigh out the salted curd into the hoops or moulds fitted with cheese-cloth. The cloth should be taken out from hot water, rinsed before puttingit on the hoop and lettingcurd into at the time the hoops of cheese it. The temperature of the room The pressure should are put under press, should be about 80"F. Then the cheese is be slow and repeatedat intervals of an hour. ing taken out of the mould, the cheese-cloth sewn on, and after smearthe surface with hot water , pressure is appliedagain. The next day it is taken out and left on a shelf to ripenfor two or three
months. Rennet
than a week be made out of calves not more inside out, wiped is cut out, turned old. The fourth stomach It of form the blown in a bladder. out and dry, turned back should be kept hung up for two weeks in a cool and dark room. about J:inch wide and put in a stone Then it is cut up into strips boiled of water which has been previously seer one jarcontaining Sufficient salt is to be added to supersaturatethe and cooled. should
of the stomach against rub the strips three In or four days the rennet the water and the sides of the jar. is sufficient for curdling10 will be teady. 1 seer of this rennet sary Strict cleanlinessis necesmaunds of milk in less than an hour. stirand Occasionally
water.
at *
Mr.
every
Subba has been
stage. Rao, late of the
Madras
ment, DepartAgricultural
successful in making cheese,without the addition of rennet, by addingto the milk the juiceof Epicarpwus orienleaves two stalks of thirtytalis. The milky juiceof the petiole connection this In of this tree was used for four poundsof milk. the that use juiceof sheord mentioned it may be Bengal gowdlds
524 "
of
OF
HANDBOOK
the principle force, as described above. of centrifugal have to desired capacity. The largerones
All the modern
separationby
They
cream
means
be of any
may
AGRICULTURE.
separatorsare
based
on
150 gallons as be driven by steam-power, and can separateas many of of milk per hour, while the Baby has a capacity 12 gallons Windsor and the of 35 gallonsper hour. end churn, and The churn shown is an end over Victoria unlike most churns, has no beaters inside. The absence of beaters inside is said to be an advantage,as it allows the churn to be easily washed and cleaned. It may be remarked here that in all dairy portance. imcleanliness of utensils is a matter of the utmost -operations, '
*
"
'
*
f
'
at the Metdemonstrations Mr. Howman gave a series of described in the The chief among these are briefly calfe Hall. "
followingparagraphs: "
intended to be a competitive first demonstration was of butter-makingand the trial between the Englishmethod native. For this purpose native dairyman carryingon a large a the field with induced to enter milk trade at Kidderporewas The proceedings Mr. Howman. opened by making over 136 " Ibs. of milk of the same qualityto each of the two parties. Mr. K. Societyof India, Blechynden,Secretaryto the Agri-Horticultural "
'
The
and Company the firm of Messrs. T. B. Thomson -of Calcutta, and Mr. B. C. Basu, Assistant to the Director of Mr. Howman the proceedings. Agriculture, Bengal,superintended separator, passedhis portionof the milk throughthe Windsor it make ripen and the cream was put aside in a safe place to The native next the butter on for day. and get ready churning earthen in dahi into heated his milk and set it to curdle Mr.
Irvingof
*
*
*
'
dairyman
also put aside for the night. On the next day Mr. whom were at 12 o'clock several other gentlemen,among Bengal, Dr. Greenhill, Mr. Finucane, Director of Agriculture, Tremearne, Managing Director of the Great Eastern Hotel, and the competitive to see of the Sailors' Home, came the Superintendent the made on vious pretrial. Mr, Keventer placedthe cream half than an and in less the 'Victoria' into churn, evening and hour the churningwas complete,and the butter pressed four this made. gowdldswere put to work to churn the
pots which
were
Against
Although no the butter in the native way. idea of the time attempt was made to arrive at a comparative ings occupiedby each process, the gentlemenwho watched the proceedof butter-making, that the mere to be of opinion came process full thrice the time as take would native followed dairymen, by as
dahi
and
get
out
The native from cream. of butter-making the trial seemed to be much interested in the that, apart from other compelledto own method, and were new had a decided the Englishmethod of butter-making -advantages, On of the saving of labour. in their own
English process dairymenpresentat
the
.advantageover
weighingthe two
respect
lots of butter, the
of the English superiority
BACON
method
became
AND
525
CUEING.
HAM
itsoutturn being6 apparent,*
Ibs. 6 ozs., native method. the The native butter ozs. by to contain a larger also looked thinner and appeared percentage of water in it than the machine-turned butter. To ascertain this, it was the proposedto carry the trialfurther by converting point, at once
against4 Ibs. 13
from either process into ghee,but duringthe boiling an far as accident occurred which put an end to the proceedings so The butter from the machine concerned. the native butter was butter
gave 4 Ibs. 4 of only 1 oz.
u
was
of
ghee(67 per
cent,
on
the
and butter),
a
residue
12 drs. of curd and
skimmings. of the two lots of butter,Mr. Howregardsthe quality for his own claimed superiority this pointthe gentle; but on men in unanimous not decided were giving opinion. present any '
"
man
ozs.
As
demonstration with The second buffalo milk. was It but the cream which also intended to be a competitive trial, *
Mr. Howman in
of whom native
separatedwas not small quantities to
the pronounced
dairyman
obtained
made
l\ Ibs. of
cream
butter
butter
from
tributed but diskept for butter-making several
European gentlemen,all
to be of very good quality.The out of his lot of buffalo milk and
22
\ Ibs.
of
milk, which
butter to 15 Ibs. of milk. This shows tta very buffalo's milk as compared with the cow's.'1'
CHAPTER BACON
AND
rich
is 1 Ib. of
qualityof
CXV. HAM
CURING.
in Europe and America FARMERS usuallypractisethe art consists in addingpreThe of ham and bacon curing. principle serving and allowingtime for these to substances to the meat the tissues. This inhibits the growth of bacteria and saturate for an indefinite period. to keep the meat renders it possible animal rolled is inside a vat filledwith of the The carcass
180"F. until the hair comes easilyin the hand. away Then it is put on a table and the hair removed by scrapers, after furnace in which it is singed which it is hung up above a singeing Then the carcass is lowered into about a quarter of a minute. taken and for burnt surface bath the cold second, a a up again, The intestines and offal are scrapedoff with hand scrapers.
water
at
and sorted, and the carcass after being again down the back, the vertebral column removed, cleansed,is spilt the vertebral column, the head, the and the two sides including
then
removed
weight weighed. This is called the deadThe dead-weight of an animal weighing of the animal. sixteen stone is about twelve stone ; from this is deducted 2 Ibs.
feet,and the kidney fat,are
It should be noted here that the native dairymen would have got a larger if yield they churned the dahi earlyin the morning (as they always do) instead of the afternoon. m *
526
HANDBOOK
for
etc., and evaporation,
AGRICULTURE.
OF
priceis fixed on the net weightcompletelysevered,the kidney,fat
the
the head and feet are removed, and the sides are disconnected and vertebral column and allowed to cool, hung up for six to twelve hours,according They are then placedin a refrigerator to the time of the year.
Then
a temperature of hours until the meat 40"F. registers 38"F. for the to be meat be cooled down must The refrigerator and the sides trimmed The blade bones are then removed 40"F. to laid cellar where bench and on a and taken to the they are uniform of various 40 at a Ibs. per at points pressure pumped
for twelve
square
picklemade
of
petre salt,50 parts, granulatedsaltwinter 5 i.e., (in only) parts. 5, dry antiseptic, cane-sugar
inch with
a
of water are added and stirred till To these substances 20 gallons The strengthdetermined -all the material is dissolved. by the it indicates less,add more salt salinometer should be 95". If until it indicates 95". The sides are wiped with a portionof the pickleused for pumping and are then laid on the cellar floor. A mixture
of
and dry antiseptic of saltpetre is equalquantities
then
the whole of the inside or cut surfaces,with a sieve. over sprinkled the same over Salt finelyground is then sprinkled surface,and lie in that condition for seven the sides are now or permittedto and then be cured it be washed will and when baled may eightdays be washed and dried as the sides may pale sold be smoked and smoked as bacon. they may tilated paledried state,the sides are hung up in a ven80" F. of with heated a to a steam temperature dryingroom Smoked bacon is until there and dry. quite produced kept pipe, by hanging the sides in a smoke store for about three days and fumes where it is exposed to the smoke given off by The smoke sawdust. wood store be well must smoulderinghard
for transport, or dried bacon," or If wanted in the
"
ventilated. of 5 Ibs. of simplermethod is to make a pickleconsisting 2 and of of cold Ib. gallons saltpetre salt, water, to J common added. Into this bfc which \ Ib. of sugar may picklethe whole for three at uniform is a fairly days dipped cut kept or up carcass is temperature of 50"F., and then dry salting done for nine days in the cttse of big animals up to twelve days. or The most importantpointsin the curingof bacon and ham of temperature (2) uniformity are (1) cleanliness of all the operations, of densityof the pickle of the cellar,and (3) evenness A
used.
'
is cut up into sides or smaller carcass ham. called is it Ham-curing is easier than piecesand cured, is the same. After the sides though the principle bacon-curing, into cut have been chilled, largepieceswhich are they are up
Ham-curing. If the "
in the preparation of bacon. They the until next morningwhen they are allowed to remain there are be entirely so that the blood may taken out and pressed squeezed then laid alternatelybetween They are from the sinews. out
flunginto
the
used pickling
SHEEP
CURING
layers of salt. Pumping
AND
OTHER
be done
v
527
SKINS.
a
low
a
week
pressure with and saltpetre antiseptic surface and the whole is covered the cut is sprinkled over with salt. After three days the hams are pressed again so as blood remainingin the sinews. They are then out to squeeze and covered with fine salt and leftin this positionfor laid down fifteen days if pieces weigh about 15 Ibs. They requirea day
an
pickle. The antiseptic
may
mixture
same
at
of
for every pound weightto cure, but left for if the weight is less than 7 Ibs. Then the
at least
piecesare
even
dried and
stored. is another
recipefor curinghani
gallonsof
water boiling
sides of bacon : or bushel of salt and } Ib. |a dissolves. When of saltpetre.Stir till the mixture cold, add in Put the this treacle. sides of brine and 1 Ib. keep it tinder Turn it every two days and let it remain with heavy stones. Here
Pour
four
"
to
for ten days or a fortnightaccording to thickness. Large pickle month to five weeks curing. Then simply rub hams requireone each piecewell with dry salt. Place pieceupon pieceon charcoal. in
for six weeks. Then rub a little more Leave them in this way treacle For hams salt and hang up. use or petre saltsugar and some with the salt and rub well ; for bacon salt alone does. Drip brine. After six or eightweeks take occasionallywith their own when in and to to out vermin. dry put up bags keep dry up hams the following For curingmutton recipehas been found very
reliable Water Black
:
"
.
.
horse-salt
Saltpetre
1
gallon
3
Ibs.
1 Ib. 14 Ibs.
Our Mixed
spices Juniper berries
i
Pearl ash
1
.
1
ounce "
.
"
in this picklefor three weeks, being which after they can be smoked. agitateddaily, .slightly The
hams
should
remain
CHAPTER CURING
SHEEP
CXVI. AND
OTHER
SKINS.
IF the skin is dry,soak it in water until it is quitesoft. Scrape off any fat that is present,placingthe skin on a scrapingboard handles for the purpose, and using a scrapingknife with two Then wash the skin well in warm soap and water ; wring out, but skin the for two days in the following Then leave do not rinse. To five gallonsof soft water add 3J Ibs. of common mixture. well until the salt dissolves completely. salt and stir the mixture Then add 1} Ibs. of commercial sulphuricacid and stir again. the hand to smart, but do no harm. This mixture will cause Put
528
the as
HANDBOOK
dry
the
drying,
hard
Any
scraping
part with
whitening
During out
and
Curing and
sugar
preliminary are
clothes,
washing
when
made.
knife
a
stretching left may laid
scraping, till
unkempt also
thick
scraping
be over
and
done
the with
the
fleshy
washing.
a
a
all
wool
skin
has
as
scraped. though
stone, dust
with
pumice
a
little stone.
be
should
combed
dried. of
mixture
of
portion This
and
finish,
over
the
knuckles
way
pumice As
this
rub
the
out
During
dry.
to
every
with
wring
water,
shade
in
in
answers.
and
and
cold
in
between
stretched
reduced
also
skin
the
over
not
be
it
rubbed
pulled,
smay
it
hang
be
should
skin
rinse
then
and
possible,
as
AGRICULTURE.
then
mixture,
this
in
skin
OF
is
alum, the
how
eggs,
flour
skin
after
soft
kid-skins
the
VII.
INSECT
CXVIL
CHAPTER GENERAL
REMEDIES
APPLIANCES. and
various A
pests.
"
In
there
all sorts
of insecticides
102."
NORTON'S DUSTER.
of bellows
forms
vaporizing,and
or
Fio,
are
the
illustrated third
:
ASON'S
one
for
AND
BELLOWS. FLUID.
or
spraying kerosene of the many forms of knapsack pumps presents Fig. 105 re(Fig.104), may be used. in which the general manner these and other spraying machines are The Eclair Vaporizer represented used. is provided with in Fig. 104 handle a which the man distributingthe liquid the liquid are and Air keeps working. orifice by this of the same forced out action, and of over
the a
30 Ibs. be
the result is the
enough M,
liquidcan be charged,and over a solution sprinkling
for HA
for
fungicides. mixture,
one
distribution
liquidin extremely fine particles time about Each large space. of
dusting
spraying,another
dusting insecticides emulsion Bordeaux or
for
For
for
three. different
Fig. 103
POWDER
insect-
patent bellows,
be used
may
103." WOOD FOR
againstall
of the
one
or
fungicides.In
PLANT
dry Pyrethrum leaves
of
the market
on
PARASITES.
AND
largelyused
are
(Fig. 102),
several
of which
FIG.
dust
the
patent powders are
PESTS
AGAINST
America
hand-duster
PESTS.
FUNGUS
AND
FIG.
three a
104. "THE VAPORIZER.
such
whole
ECLAIR
charges acre
of
34
will
land
530
HANDBOOK
in the
ola
course
AGRICULTURE.
OF
The
few hours.
vaporizershould be thoroughly used" and
cleaned and dried after it has been
before it is
Very largespraying machines mounted for
and
spraying orchards
away. rizers vapo-
and
carts
on
put and
intended
large plantations,
constructed, but
these will suitable for the needs of cultivators. best The knapsack
are
hardly be found Indian
Bros.,
obtainable
now
sprayers ' Success
'
of
sold
in India
Messrs.
by Bombay, and the
obtainable
are
the
Macdougall '
Spramotor
'
from
Messrs. Williamson, Magor and Co., of Calcutta. An appliancewhich is very useful for
singeinginsects
trees
on
and
shrubs, is
asbestos torch FIG. 105." MANNER (Fig. 106), The SPRAYING USING asbestos ball is saturated with kerosene MACHINES. oil and arid the lighted, lightedtorch infested branches and leaves. passed over in The followinggeneraldirections should be borne in mind used should be close, (b) The bin storinggrain: (a)The buildings OF
the
"
used
should be
allowingaccess tight-fitting, light, nor (c) The
yet granary
should be be should
of neither of air, nor of weevils and moths, and
kept clean,
its
surroundings grains
(d) Kefuse
destroyedand
not left about. be dried should Grain \e) thoroughly be before it is stored. (/) Storingcan done between thick layers of well-dried pletely leaves,or in tarred vats lined comwith dry straw, (g)Naphthalene
neem
powder, half cubic 10 of
feet
a
of
teaspoonfulfor space
once
every 15 every
10 or
100 bushels to every days, or 1 ounce also bon-bisulphi out insects, grain, (h)Carkeeps
is the best for use protectinggrains stored in godowns. The gas of carbon-
however,
substance FIG.
106." ASBESTOS TORCH.
can liquid
be thrust
to
bisulphide,being heavy, sinks and into the grain-store from the top. The use
the of
bin is recommended
a Quarantine by Mr. L. 0. Howard, of the United States Department of Agriculture. Into this,allseeds and
in, and are disinfected by grainsare put in bags as they come before they are stowed away. The quantityof carbon-bisulphide, used for carbon-bisulphide being1| Ibs. every ton of seed or grain. insects to (i)Hyrnenopterous belonging the order Chalcididae prey and their presence to grains,and destroy insects injurious upon
godowns should be encouraged, (j)Salted sacks, i.e.,sacks dipped in a ten per cent, solution of common salt,and afterwards in
532
HANDBOOK
OF
AGEICULTUBE.
Fungicides.Bordeaux
mixture is the standard fungicide, and with combines well arsenical it combined as a as poisons, with an arsenical poison, such as mixture spray of Bordeaux Paris Green, acts both as an insecticide and as a fungicide. 1 Ib. of one of the arsenical poisonsshould be mixed up finely powdered "
but
mixture. The Bordeaux mixture with 160 gallonsof Bordeaux is preparedby adding to 40 gallonsof water, 6 Ibs. of powdered mixed sulphateof copper, and 4 Ibs. of unslaked lime previously If there is an excess of sulphateof copper to a paste with water. it is apt to injurethe foliage.To see if the mixture has been
properlymade
of a knife is to be dipped or not, the clean blade minute. If the knife is untarnished, the mixture but if the knife is stained a coppery is all right, milk colour,more of lime should be added. As an all-round combined be fungicideand insecticide, may Take 40 Ibs. the sulphur,lime and salt wash. also mentioned 15 Ibs. of salt,and 50 gallons of unslaked lime, 20 Ibs. of sulphur, Boil the sulphur with the water and 10 Ibs. of lime of water. and a half hours, or until the sulphuris for not less than one in a dissolved, thoroughly strong iron (not a thin copper) boiler, when the mixture will be a lightamber colour. The remaining 30 Ibs. of lime is to be slaked with hot water, and when thoroughly When slaked but stillboiling, 15 Ibs. of salt are to be added. this is dissolved,the whole should be added to the lime and sulphur in the boiler,and the combined substances boiled for half an hour when make whole up to 50 gallons, should be the to water, longer, added. Then straining should be done through a wire sieve and the mixture should be well stirred before use. After using this with be thoroughlywashed mixture, the sprayingmachine must hot Water. Another standard fungicidal solution is the Eau Celeste. This into
it for
is made
a
of hot copper with 2 gallons When ammonia water. cool, 1| pints of commercial (strength, 22" Baume) are to be added. The solution is to be kept tightly it should when it is requiredfor be corked, and use, diluted with 20 gallons of water. Eclair Vaporizer may The be used in sprayingboth the Eau Celeste and the Bordeaux mixture.
by mixing 1
Ib. of
sulphateof
'
natural enemies, such as Insect-pests generallyhave many ichneumon-flies,lady-birds,spiders,ants, bats, dragon-flies, frogs,lizards,and certain birds, such as starlings, king-crows, domestic fowls, thrushes,shrikes,drongos,rollers, wood-peckers, tit-mice,jays, lapwings, nut-hatchers, bee-eaters and plovers. Crows destructive to unripe grainsof maize, though are very also. eat Of all the birds mentioned, starlings they (shdlik) grubs the best friend of the farmer, are 4s a rule,birds that are good to eat (such as pigeons, doves, bagariesand sparrows) or have parrots), very fine and attractive plumage (suchas linnets and destructive of grain.As these are constantly hunted by man, are
GENERAL
REMEDIES
PEST
AGAINST
AND
PARASITES.
533
they are naturallykept down. Sparrows and linnets (bdbui) do the of perhaps damage. greatest amount at night or hanging up lanterns in plantations Lightingfires with troughsof water (to which a littlekerosene oil may be added) and destroying of attracting underneath, is a good means some kinds
of insects.
Umbelliferous spices (sulpa,coriander, etc.),repel insects, and these may
be grown
here and there in the midst of and around crops that are subjectto the attack of insects,such particularly has not as cabbages,cauliflowers, etc.,but this method brinjals,
proved generally
satisfactory. fliesare largelyattracted by
Ichneumon and a
sim
country
very
(Dolichoslablab).These
plantationof
destroy
sugar-cane, borers. sugar-cane
Free irrigation is white ants, crickets and
as
ichneumon
flowers of arahar round be grown may known flies are to
great preventive against cut-worms, of their out grasshoppers.They come holes and hop away is field as as a soon thoroughlyirrigated. of land and hurdling in of fowls (scratchers) Thorough preparation in ploughed up fields before sowing, are also good preventives. a
CHAPTER
CXVIII.
ZOOLOGY.
AGRICULTURAL BEFORE
the reader to the principalinsects-pests introducing to agricultural damage crops, it is desirable that a v iew of the different orders of animals should be given, bird's-eye which may enable him to distinguish in a systematic manner,
that
cause
insects
from
known on
the various
among as
worms
and vermin. drawn up with
p. 534 has been of each A short description
of animals
that are popularly shown scheme zoological reference to insects. special
groups
The
of the above groups of animals mainly bringingout the meaning of the various terms used in the above scheme, will be of some in gettingan idea of the use classification of the animal kingdom given in the scheme. The characteristic features of this class of animals Protozoa. "
of protoplasm, without definite simplylittlemasses have no body cavity. They nervous, tive digesorgans or circulatorysystems. The protoplasmis not surrounded by a cell-wall as in the case of vegetablecells,and the protozoa of the therefore able to throw out pseudopods, are i.e., prolongations when their which of is mass they composed, body protoplasmic notice any food substance before them. Thus theypossess volition which characterizes even the lowest member of the animal kingdom. the microscope,these lowest animals Looked at under ated characteristics: (1)they are nuclepresentat least three common of protoplasm; (2)besides the nucleus they have a masses heart ; (3) the masses contractile vesicle, sort of rudimentary a are,
they are or
a
definite
534
of are
in
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTUBE.
OF
and Rhizopoda protoplasm are full of granules. The Gregarinidse the Foraminifera nucleus. fission encased at reproduced by are shells of caclium carbonate, a particleof chalk being a mass "
of such
shells.
have
distinct
but
a
Radiolaria mouth.
are
encased
Infusoria
also
in shells of silica. have
a
distinct
fission but
They
mouth,
by only by They multiply Infusoria in conjugation and gemmation. abundantly grow either of water. in presence rotting animal matter They are ciliated or flagellated. stomach.
no
not
also
r
s
s o
3-8
S
I *"* .S 2
-35.
a "
a
S 5
Tseniad worms wo
d 43
round
or o ed .
"D
s o
"8fi*
.
or
s.
AGKIOULTTJKAL
535
ZOOLOGY.
SUB-KINGDOM
IV
ARTHROPODA.
Hymenoptera
A.
bees, wasps, (c.y.%
A.
ants,
Hemiptera or Rhynchota Hemiptera heteroptera
a
ichneumons).
Lepidoptera and (butterflies
C.
B.
moths). D.
bugs.
/;. Hemiptera
f
homoptera
cicadas, plant (e.g., lice,scale insects). Orthoptera (cockroaches, ear-wigs, crickets and
Diptera
and (flies
e.g.,
^
Coleoptera (e.g beetles).
B.
Thysanura (fishinsects, springtails, etc.)
grass-hoppers). Neuroptera (dragon flies ;
U.
mos-
quitoes).
white D.
ants).
Thysanoptera (thrips).
Ccelenterata. These
have
both
mouth
and
a body cavity; circulatoryorgan, no blood. They often have distinct stingingorgans. Reproductiontakes place live in colonies both sexuallyand by segmentation.They usually "
but
no
system,
nervous
no
and sometimes corals). They are (e.g.,sponges polymorphic than one in character,i.e.,possessing more form, and the same form repeats itself at regularsuccession by a process which is
alternation of generations. known as the body cavity is distinct In this group Echinodermata. The body cavityis circulatory, from the alimentarycanal. ing belongto the water- vascular system of circulation. There is a distinct radiate nervous symmetrical. system. The body is bilaterally sea-urchins. and star-fishes Examples are The bodies of these animals are Annulosa. in segments. but less worm-like. Locomotor more or radiate, They are never "
"
which are bilaterally symmetricalare presentin the arthrotrue in but worms not (Vermes).Reproductionof worms poda, is either hermaphrodite, or or conjugal,or parthenogenetic, by* have true water-vascular no blood, a simplegemmation. They have ventral a nervous They system being present. system of Echinodermata. which is not radiate as in the case Many of
organs
Domestic the true worms animals and birds often are parasitic. suffer from tape-worms. These throw out a chain of segments is providedwith (proglottids), finishing up with a head which hooks and four cup-shapedsuckers attached to the stomach o t intestinesof the host. This may be as long as 90ft. Each prehas both male and female eggs, so that if one of these is glottis
656
OP
HANDBOOK
swallowed
by parasite.The
an
AGRICULTURE.
of the animal, it is enough for the reproduction
in the dog and onlya cystic adult form usuallyoccurs form in man, or sheep,or ox, and the superstition common among that is unclean animal is a very a dog Hindus and Mahomedans an inasmuch as it helpsto reduce the possibility useful superstition In the nematodes of tape-worm round worms the or in man. male and female are separate and the body is unsegmented. Like tape-worms they are providedalso with spinesand suckers at the anterior end. earth-worms or OligochcBtcB
have
ber segmentedbodies,the numand hundred have or four more, they segments being of false feet or pads. They have no suckers to their mouth, rows but the alimentarycanal is divided into distinct portions,such as gizzard,intestine and pharynx, oesophagus,proventiculis, and united in heart The blood vessels are two in number anus. that flows like sacs, but it is not true blood throughthese vessels, The fluid. is it a nervous corpusculated though system consists
of
one
-
of are
a
set of two
above ganglia of testes. pairs
two
the
and oesophagus
two
below.
There
leeches have a double chain of ganglia united and forminga collar round the gullet. The cords by longitudinal of a leech is triradiate, mouth i.e.,it has three jaws. In some speciesthe jaws are providedwith teeth. There are two suckers, end. The at the anterior end and the other at the posterior one There are is providedwith lateral sacs. stomach nine pairs of HirudincB
or
and a protrusible penis. The female the females but have distinct ovaries two inconspicuous, organ and oviduct. an the lobster class,spiderclass,centipede Arthropodaincluding
testes,
one
deferens
vas
is
class and insect class of animals, have a definite series of rings, the integumentbeinghard and often chitinous. The ringsdispose distinct sections,the head and the thorax themselves into two and the abdoform men to one section,called the cephalothorax, going another section. The appendagesare bilateral. The blood is true blood,but there are no red corpuscles.The heart is situated There is a double chain of ganglia the back. on longitudinally at the ventral side,the foremost pair of ganglia beingabove the gulletand they may be assumed to correspondwith the brain of ing. higheranimals. Metamorphosistakes placeby ecdysisor moult-
Crustacea.This
than eight class of arthropodahave more is aquatic The respiration of which are abdominal. of of the whole surface the body. or means by gills "
feet, some either
by
There
are
twenty pairsof
antentfse.
characterized are by having eight feet. The bers. is aerial,by means of tracheae or of pulmonary chamrespiration The head and thorax are There are no amalgamated. and no abdominal *all the eightlegsproceeding antennae legs, from the cephalothorax. Arachnida
Myriapodahswsa largernumber The
head
537
ZOOLOGY.
AGRICULTURAL
of feet than
even
the Crustacea.
quitedistinct,the thorax and the abdomen beingamalgamated into one uniform chain of rings. There is a of tracheae ending in is by means pairof antennae. Respiration distinct spiracles. is
This order will be
Insecta. "
more
fullydescribed
in the next
Chapter. Mollusca. with
These
"
coveringshell.
are
The
soft-bodied animals,
usuallyprovided
is without any distinct segmentation. The nervous consists either of a singleganglion or system scattered pairsof ganglia. Heart and breathingorgan are sometimes absent. The Mollusca are classified under two divisions, have The Molluscoida viz.,Mulluscoida and Mollusca proper. their heart either entirelyabsent or quiterudimentary. The a
body
one ganglionor a pairof ganglia. Brathe bodies of which are enclosed in a bivalve shell,and chiopoda, Polyzoa are examplesof this division. The Mollusca proper have heart with two chambers. This division consists a well-developed of univalve and bivalve animals. To the former belongthe Cephalopoda (e.g.,ammonites) and Gastropoda (e.g.,whelks). To the latter (e.g.,oysters and belong Lamellibranche nervous
system consists of
mussels). Vertebrate, These are characterized by the possession of an internal skeleton The centres nervous definitely segmented. dorsal and shut off from the generalbody-cavity.The limbs are "
.
from
than four. the nervous and never centres more the adult has a vertebral column. Pisces. Fishes are characterized by possessing a gill ; their heart consists of only one auricle and one ventricle ; their blood
are
away In most
cases "
is
cold, and
the
only limbs they
have
fins. are breathe newts toads water-lizards and or Amphibia. Progs, first by gills and afterwards by lungs or by both lungsand gills. The skull has two condyles; the heart has two auricles but one ventricle ; their limbs are fins. never These include the tortoise,vipers, lizards, and Reptilia. Ichthioalso the extinct saurians, such as Pterodactyle, crocodiles, is cold ; blood the i s etc. never by gills Eespiration saurus, ; "
"
skull has only one condyle; the integumentary covering of feathers. but never consists either of scales or plates, Aves. Birds have their lungsconnected \yith air-sacs ; the in the highervertebrata ; the blood heart is four-chambered as which facilitatesbrooding; their bodies are covered is very warm with feathers ; the forelimbs are modified in the form of wings; the skull has only one condyle. Birds are classified as : (a) the
"
"
ducks, penguins, (e.g.,ostrich) (e.g., ; (6) Waders herons, (e.gr., egrets, snipes, gulls,petrels) ; (c) cranes, fowl, pigeon,pheasant, curlews, plovers) ; (d) Scratchers (e.g., Climbers cuckoo, ; (/) (e.g.,parrot, wood-pecker) grouse); (e) Perchers (e.g., finches,linnets,larks,thrushes,swallows, crows, Runners
Swimmers
538
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
kites, kingfishers) owls,hawks, eagles, ; and (g)Birds of prey, (e.g., vultures). The Mammalia. lungs are without air-sacs ; the bodies covered with hair or wool ; the skull has two condyles; the are animals have mammary classifiedunder are glands. Mammalia two heads, viz.,Non-placental(e.g., Kangaroos),and PlacentaL Of Placental animals the following groups may be mentioned : (a) Cetacea (e.g.,whale and dolphin) ; (6)Ungulata (e.g., horse, ass and hog); (c)Kuminantia (e.g., deer, sheep and goats); oxen, (d)Pachydermata (elephantand rhinoceros) ; (e) Carnivora (e.g., seal,walrus, jackal, dog, bear, wolf, foxr ; tiger) "
"
(/)Eodentia and
hare,rabbit,porcupine,beaver, rat, mouse, (e.g.,
squirrel) ; mole and hedgehog); (g) Insectivora (e.g., (h)Edentata (e.g., ant-eater) ; (i)Cheiroptera(e.g.,bat); (/)Primates (e.g., monkey and man).
CHAPTER
CXIX.
INSECTS.* THE on
Insecta
the thorax. There is
of six legs characterized by the possession The head, thorax and abdomen are able. distinguishare
pair of
one
antennao.
The
thorax
is
able distinguish-
into three distinct segments, called respectively the prothe is the meso-thorax the and there and thorax, as meta-thorax, sternal and
the dorsal
segment, the wingsare as meso-notary or meta-notary, as the case distinguished may be. The heart, as in spiders, consists of eightchambers, and there
or
notal side to each
The spiracles are oppositecurrents distinguishable. segments only. i.e.,a sucking Hymenopetera. These have a. long proboscis, the is of the female or lappingorgan ; ing usuallya stingovipositor The well. veins. few as There four with are wings organ with naked clothed but short, wings are apparently frequently scattered bristles. The larvae are active. footless ; pupae ingenerally There are some remain speciesof Hymenoptera which and without wingsin one or both sexes. Neuter ants are wingless, the male and female ants get wings for a littlewhile only. even There is one class of Hymenoptera, of which instead the ovipositors of beingadaptedas stinging adaptedas boring organs, are specially on
are
two
the abdominal
"
instruments.
*
Insect
The
Tenthredinidse or
should be
Indian
consulted.
come
under
this
of Indian insect*the works of H. M. Lefroy (Indian Insect Life)published by Thacker, Spink " Co., Calcutta,
For excellent accounts
Pests,and
saw-flies
540
as
HANDBOOK
a
animal
rule.
Some
are
OF
AGRICULTURE.
carnivorous, such
as
Dermestes,livingon
flesh. Others feed on dung and other refuse matters others again such as the larvae of cockchafers live on ; roots of plants live in longgalleries in the solid wood ; and some of trees, feedingon the substance of the wood. Of carnivorous beetles may be mentioned the following : Oicindela in called {!) BengaliDhdmsd-poka, sexpunctata (Fig.108a) which is a tiger-beetle. Cicindela devours both the rice hispa and the rice sapper The of the principal two pests of this crop. head of this insect is large; eyes very largeand prominent ; mandibles matter
or
on
"
'
*
c
teeth. insect
*
largeand sharplypointedand armed with several prominent The elytra (or forewings)are spotted and long. The is about orientals is half an inch in -length.(2) Calosoma
black, about the size of a small cockroach ; it feeds on other insects,and has been reported locusts. as (3) very useful in the Punjab in* destroying young a
active ground-beetle(Carabidw),
and
Trogositamauritanica is a small brown beetle which feeds on some of the smaller moths which are granary pests. But in its larval stage the Trogositadoes some (4) Derinjury to stored wheat.
vulpinus(Fig.108"),called in BengaliKdn-kutur, the larvae is a dark coloured beetle,about J in. being called Shore-pokd, length with hairy larvae,which preys on silk-worms and spoils cocoons by feedingon the chrysalids.(5)Lady-birds(Coccinelidce) called in BengaliPadma-kit, are liantly beetles often brilhemispherical coloured, which are helpfulin devouring scale-insects mestes
(Coccidce), plant-lice(Aphidce)and other insects, There is one member of this family of beetles,however, viz.,Epilacfina vigintiocto-punctata(Fig.I08c)which defoliates pumpkin vines and brinjal the plants. Of ScarabidcB or dung-beetles, be mentioned here. (gubre-pokd) may
Catharseus
sabwus
Of warehouse the following: be mentioned beetles,may is a (1) Silvanus surinamensis belongingto the family Cucujidce, littlebrown beetle,with active white grubs,which has been found destroyingstored sorghum seed and biscuits. It is also to be in date fruits boughtin the Calcutta bazaars. seen (2)Mthriostoma "
to the family Dermestidce, is also a littlebrown undulata,belonging beetle with white hairy grubs,which are said to be destructive to wheat stored in godowns. (3) Rhizopertha pusilla, belongingto the familyPtinidce,a minute brown beetle,commonly found in
warehouses, attackingwheat, sorghum seed Calandra oryzce,
and
biscuits.
(4)
the weevil (Curculionidce) family,is the most destructive of all warehouse pests. It is a and jointedanbeetle with a long snout tennae. very small dark brown The larvae live inside the grainsof rice,wheat, maize, sorghum, etc. (5) Bruchus chinensis,belongingto the family Bruchidce is a small brown beetle which is very destructive to stored gram, arahar and other pulses. The larvae are littlewhite
Chele-pokd, belongingto
grubs which live in the pulse seeds. (6) Bruchus a largegrey weevil which destroysstored peas.
is
emarginatus
541
INSECTS.
beetles may be mentioned the following boringand tunnelling : (1) Oryctesrhinoceros belongingto the family Dynastinw (Goliathbeetle or mdl-pokd)is a very largeblack beetle with a protuberanceon the upper part of its head somethinglike the the head oi a rhinoceros, which on protuberance damages cocoanut trees by cuttinglargeholes in them through the young leaf Of
"
shoots.
or (2) Rhynchophorus siynaticollis, (Chinre-kota)and weevils which also bore two are (3) Sphcenophorusplanipennis and date palms. (4) The flattened into the trunks of cocoanut
larvse of various speciesof beetles belonging to the family legless into and tunnel timber of various plants. (5) stems Buprestidoe, Bamboo ghun (Dinoderus sp.) and other ghun insects are also minute beetles belonging to the familyPtinidw. Dinoderus minuof is the commonest tans perforator ripesugarcane. (G) The fruit weevil, Cryptorhynchus mangifera (Fig.66 d) is also mango tunneller.* (7) Platydactylus a sexspinosus, belongingto the is a small brown beetle,which tunnels into the family Scolytidse, stalks of paddy plants. (8) The XyJoborus perforansor Berupoka of sugar-cane is a boringbeetle. (9)The sweet-potatoweevil (Cylasfonmcarius)may be also mentioned among this class.
(*"
FIG.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Epilachna2S-punctata Cryptorhynchusmangifera.
Hispa
anescens.
Aulacophora abdominalis.
Opabrum depressum. Chcetocnemis
basalts.
Melonthini.
cockchafers brown
be mentioned leaves may The curved fleshy kord-pokd(Melolonthini). the and the black of roots destroying plants
beetles destructive to
grubs may or
(/) (q) (h) (i)
Sexpunctata. Vulpinus.
Cincindela Dermestes
Of the
108.--COLEOPTERA.
be
or seen
imagoes
may
* An interestingaccount Pests," Calcutta, 1906.
be
roots
seen
at
and
leaves from
nightfeedingon
of this insect is given in
Lefroy's "
Indian
.Insect
542
March
OP
HANDBOOK
to
AGRICULTURE.
There
June.
neighbourhoodof
two speciesof this group found in the are Calcutta,called respectively, Apogonia Blan-
and Schizonychafuscescens(Fig.108 e). The former is The larvae live for about latter brown. the four years black, in the ground,during the whole of which time they live on the fine there are roots of plants. Where largetracts of uncultivated land, the grubs can thrive unmolested and the beetles can destroy cultivated crops in the neighbourhood. But though cockchafers of damage in Russia and Southern do a great amount Europe, chardi
well as in they have so as
Upper India, to agricultural crops, been noticed as a far principally
in Lower very
rose-bush and other the pest can cultivation,
every garden pest, defoliating
Bengal
destructive
plantsin the
be kept off hot weather. By proper from uncultivated tracts in but if they come from plantations, it is very difficultto deal with the neighbourhoodof a plantation, them. Cockchafer larvae have been reported from Chittagong be said that as paddy and maize crops, and it cannot destroying in localitieswhere uncultivated there is no dangerfrom this source The fungus (Botrytis which tracts abound. tenella) causes one of the diseases of silkworms known as muscardine, or chunar-kete, is said to be destructive to the larvae of Melolonthini also. Silkworms be dried in the shade, powaffected with this disease may dered be appliedto roots and leaves of rose and the powder may
other bushes attacked by cockchafers. Of beetles which destroycrops proper, very few have been the besides noticed, Chrysomelidbeetles,Hispa cenescens (Fig. 108 /),and Aulacophoraabdominalis (Fig.108 g), which will be Canseparatelydealt with in the next chapter. A large-sized and
is destructive to the Mylabrispustulata, (kdnch-pokd), arahar and other leguminous flowers some gourd,groundnut, beetle A is said (Haltica nigrofusca) Chrysomelid plants. in of the Himalayas. to attack the leaves garden vegetables It has been also noticed defoliating indigoplantsin Rungpur. is there 108 Besides Hispa cenescens i) another of the Chry(Fig. which is said to destroypaddy somelidae (Chcetocnemis basalis), seedlings.A little flat beetle (Opatrum depressum) belonging to the family Tenebrionidce attacks linseed and wheat plants (Fig.108 h). The Lepidoptera.These include butterflies and moths. insect are covered with scales. The four wings of the mature often developedto an mouth* parts are extraordinary degree the insect sucks or tube with which proboscis forming a long-coiled insects are up honey from plants. The larvae as well as the mature coloured. The larvae eat up a great quantityof often brilliantly distinction between butterflies and The matter. green vegetable of convenience. moths is onlyjustified as a matter True butterflies have their antennae terminatingin a club and theygenerally flyabout in day-time. Of these the following of agricultural mentioned be interest : (1) Virachola as may
tharid-beetle of
"
"
543
INSECTS.
the larvae of which bore a isocrates, graceful purplishbutterfly, pium into the fruits of guava, pomegranate, loquat, etc. (2)Manci109 a),a white butterfly, or Mancipium rapce (Fig. nepalensis, the larvae of which have been known to attack gram, linseed, This may
sugar-cane. destructive
be looked upon
(3)Papilioerithoniusis a of which
as
an
Indian form of the
Mancipium brassicw. the caterswallow-tailed butterfly, pillars large
Pieris English butterfly,
defoliate orange
and
or
lemon
trees, in different
parts of India.
FIG. 109." LEPIDOPTERA.
(a) Mancipium Nepalensis*
(e) Leiicania loreyi.
(b) Alope ricini.
(/) Lapliygmaexigua. (g) Chilo simplex (larva,pupa and imago). orbonalis (larvae, (/?)Lwcinodes pupae .nnd imago).
(c) Heliothes armigera (larva, pupa and imago). (larvaand (d) Agrotissuftusa
imago). Most the moths. : "
interest belongto of the lepidoptera of agricultural be of special The following mentioned importance as may (1) The Spilosoma(sudn pokd or bhud)defoliates
jute,sunn-hemp,sesamum,
castor-oiland
other crops.
Other
544
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
like the Spilosomahave been known hairy caterpillars
to defoliate rabi and trees, tea, coffee,paddy, crops generally, mango rape in as particular.The Alope ricini (Fig.109 b) may be mentioned The Indian a common (2) Noctues,which defoliating caterpillar. thick-bodied moths with thread-like antennae, are tructive are very desin the larval stage. The larvae,usuallyknown worms cutas or
are caterpillars,
surface
pro-legsand
pairsof
their work in the earth. do
one
of destruction
The
smooth
with four caterpillars and claspers, they usually night,livingin day-time hidden
pair of anal at
followingNoctues
moths
are
of
specialagricultural
interest : (a) Achcea melicerte, a greyishmoth, with marked with hinddark-brown wings, greyishwhite streaks. The defoliate brinjals, paddy, sugarcane, Cajanus indicus, caterpillars Heliothes castor-oil plant, etc. (b) armigem called variously "
kajza,lurka,is a small greyishmoth, with dusky -brown leda-pokd, hind- wings (Fig.109 c). The caterpillars tive to be destrucare known Dolichos to paddy, hemp (Cannabissativa), khesari, poppy, and rabi crops generally, and to immature lablab and other pulses, bolls of cotton,
extrania and other Leucanidce, the destructive to young paddy plants^oats
(c)Leucania
of which caterpillars
are
Leucania
tructive loreyi(Fig.109 e) has been found very des109 /)attacks to paddy plants, (d)Laphygma exigua (Fig. lentil plants, (e) Agrotissuffusa(Fig.109 d) and (Ochrapleura flammatra both attack opium plantsin the same (3)G-eoway. smooth which metres are slender, or long, loopers caterpillars and
peas.
up the middle of the body into a loopin progressing.Their with largewings and comb-like slender-built creatures are Some of these are known to be destructive to tea and antennae. is Chilo the moth-borer coffee bushes. of sugarsimplex (4) cane.
hump moths
*
'
the caterpillars of which are aquatic (5)Paraponyx oryzalis, and attack paddy plants. (6) The Majra-pokd
in their habits
tunnels into the (Chilo Oryzceellus)
stalks of
and the a wheat. caterpillars plume moth, of which tunnel into the ponds of popat bean (Dolichos is the caterpillar of a lablab)in Nagpur. (8) Gelechia gossypiella bolls. (9)Gelechia cereaminute moth which tunnels into cotton of a minute moth which is destructive to lella is the caterpillar Tinea is the of the comstored maize. mon pellionella (10) caterpillar is (7)Sphenarchescaffer
green
paddy
minute
clothes moth, and is a minute that protects itself creature destructive woollen Other It is materials. to case. a very attack paddy, spinningthe grainstogether Tineid caterpillars into a web. (12)Pyralidmoths may be also mentioned as injurious to stored meal (hencecalled meal-worms),also to leaves and These minute moths have longwings which flowers of mustard. in
folded up slender,abdomen are
not
The antennae and legsare long and in repose. and pointed, beyond long extendingconsiderably
the hind- wings. The commonest exampleis the Lincinodes orbonfruits by tunnelling alis (Fig.109 h) which spoils holes in brinjal them.
545
INSECTS.
Diptera. The
insects of this order have only two wings with few veins, not clothed with scales or hair. The hind-wings are replacedby rudimentary halteres or poisers. The mouth is furnished with a proboscis. The female is stingless, but the last "
joint
is
often
prolonged into a process which helps it in making holes for the deposition beak-like
The larvae are footless inactive. maggots ; the pupae all the Nearly dipterous larva* IIO.-DIPTBRA (MOSQUITO). live in fluid or in semi-fluid substances the imagoes (e.g.,ordinary (e.g.,putrid meat) and even of
FIG.
flies)have
house hour
the
eggs.
of
power
living under
for
water
an
The
spiraclesare situated close to the anus or extremity of the body and they push up this end posterior of the body occasionally to get fresh air. The slender wriggling in dirtywater are chiefly larvae we the larvae of mosquitoes. see The principal families of dipterousinsects are : (1) Pulicidce fleas (pishu); (2)Muscidce or flesh and house flies ; (3) (Estridce or bot-flies ; (4) Hippoboscidce or or sheep ticks ; (5) Tabanidce or horse-flies; (6)Culicidce or mosquitoes; (7)Chironomidte or gnats ; crane-flies also or (8) Cecidomyiidceor gall-midges ; (9) Tipulidce called Daddy-longlegs; (10) Syrphidce or aphis-eaters. Of the Muscidae insects may be mentioned (1)Dacus ferrugiof which found the in and (2) are grubs ripe mangoes, neus, which is very destructive to gourds,melons^ Carpomyia parctalina more.
or
cucumbers, Of minute
etc.
be mentioned Cecidomyiidaemay Cecidomyia oryzoe, attacks which aus paddy, chiefly paddy. fly
do Bot-flies
a
great deal
of
damage
the larval state either in stomachs in their
and
to ox-hides.
of animals, or frontal sinuses.
They
in tumours
a
live in under
The
class of the their skin, or nose bot-fliescalled Hypoderma or Warbles spoilthe hides of oxen. holes made the doctor Tanners but hides can by the bot-flies, up holes are classed as second class hides. bing Rubwith such minute when cattle are troubled with these flies is the with kerosene best
treatment.
domestic fowls, dogs, be looked cats, etc., pass their larval stage in dust, and they must animals u ncleanness of the the of house and as a sign general upon Their Pulicidte fleas The without bite affected. or are wings. producesblisters in man, but they do not thrive on human skin. The best preventionof fleas for domestic fowls is the dust bath. If the dust consists partlyof ashes and lime,fleas get littlechance. We may Trycolyga justmention here theTachinid parasites, the silkworm and blow bombycisand Masicera grandis which silkworm the tusser respectively. Fleas
(pishu)which
parasiticon
are
'
Hemiptera (Rhynchota).The "
divided
into M, HA
two
groups,
the
'
Hemiptera or and Heteroptera
true
the
bugs are Homoptera. 35
546
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
(1)The Heteropterahave their fore-wingshorny and the hind- wings ; they (as also the tipsof the fore-wings,as a rule),membranous are
usually providedwith
scutellum
a
shield-like
or
protection
are the back, the antennae long,four or five jointed; the head is on This group includes the plant-bugsand the parafree. sitic generally and chair bed Cimex the lectularius, bug, ordinary bugs (e.g., head have The their completely Homoptera or chhar-poka). (2) short ; the wings when The antennae are fixed to the thorax. includes the True Lice membranous. This group present are
(e.g.,the hair-louse,Pediculus and plant-lice,
the
Coccidce
or ukun), capitis,
or (bark-lice
(") FIG
the
concinna, a It
HETEROPTBKA
thorax.
a
Aphides
or
insects).
(BUGS).
(b) Lohita grandis.
insects heteropterous pentatomid bug which has
the
(b)
111." HEMIPTERA
acuta. (a) Lsptocorisa
Of
scale
be mentioned may attacks rabi crops
prominent beak,
oval
body,
and
(1) Apinis and
tables. vege-
largemeso-
The
scutellum shield is very large,coveringnearly or the whole of the wings and abdomen. acuta (2) Leptocorisa (Fig. Ill a), the rice-sapper (Gandhi or BJwma) has a small
triangular
scutellum,longand slender body,and is yellowishbrown in colour. which has a very short scutellum, is a (3) Dysdercuscingulatus, red-coloured conspicuous It insect,about the size of a wasp. attacks
cotton,
bottle-gourds, musk-melon,
cabbages, etc. (4) Oxycarenus lugubris (verylike the chinch-bugof America, Blissus is a small,black,fly-like leucopterus], insect with a short scutellum, which Lohita
commonly attacks cotton plants and grandis(Pig.Ill 6) which attacks cotton
kapasi-poMin Nadia)is short
scutellum.
(6)
cotton
bolls.
plants(known
(5) as
also a slender insect with hard wings and Another bug (Physopeltaschlaubuschii),
548
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Tukrd.
Icerya JEgyptiacum (Fig.112
seen
of trees in Egypt some years ago, and this insect has been Calcutta and in Madras. different trees in Aspidiotus
on
b)
caused
flavescens (Fig.112 r) occasionallyattacks insects of this
Orthoptera.The "
being
a
order, to which locusts,grasshoppers
belong,have wings,the anterior ones which ones are posterior usuallyfolded than leatheryrather The horny in their texture. the
than
up, and they are larvae and pupae in
in
four
crickets
and
tea-bushes,as do,
of scale-insects.
fact,a multitude
narrower
truction wholesale des-
both active.
The
enclosed eggs are generally The hind legsare usuallyfashioned for leaping. The example of this order will be found in the Periplaneta
case.
commonest
are
the ordinary cockroach, belongingto the familyBlatorientalis,
(2) To the family Phasmidce belong the stick-insectsand with long slender bodies and legs, of which are leaf-insects, some of this insects Some are family wingless. very destructive to cocoanut trees in the South Sea Islands,and when alarmed, they blindness if it reached squirtout a highlyacrid fluid,which causes
tidce.
the eyes. is the best
(3) Mantidce, of which the well-known preyingmantis known, are not agricultural pests. They devour insects
helpfulto agriculture.They also have slender stick-like They deposittheir eggs in spongy ball-shaped nests. (4) short horned grasshoppers the Acrididce Next or come to which belong the followingIndian varieties of migratoryand invading
and
are
bodies.
Acridium, peregrinum, Acridium succinctum,Acridium Acridium melanocorne, ceruginosum,Caloptenus erubescens, Caloplocusts tenus
:
"
Cyrtacanthacris caliginosus, ranacea, To
Oxyd furcifera, Pachy-
Acrididce belong also non-migratory of which many locusts and grasshoppers destructive to crops. are small b rown is destructive thick-set, Crotogonussp., a grasshopper, of all kinds as above to young as soon they crops appear ground,such
tyluscinerescens.
the
kalai,barbati,opium, wheat, barley, linseed,rape-seed, indigo, etc. a xillaris arahar, til, castor, Catantops and bdjrd, (Kat-pharing),
as
Euprepocnemis bramina marmoratus
The
most
attack young paddy plants, (Edalus and Pcecilocera hieroglyphica defoliate sugarcane. destructive of all the grasshoppers is the Hieroglyphus
which furcifer
attacks
or Gryllidce,
the
the
paddy crickets
and
maize
plants. (4) Then
(Ui-chingri, usrang, abdomens furnished
of with
An
'Cricket
come
jhingun),the which
are
long ovipositors.
enormous
mole-
mon(Schizodactylus
struosus]is injuriousto young tobacco on
FIG.
113.-UOGRYLLUS
where
other crops growing high land in Bihar, ft is known as Bherwa.
Gryllotalpa cricket sp. is a injureopium plantsby cuttingthem off when they in growth. Acheta advanced considerably sp. is also said to
which is said are
BIMACULATUS.
and
to
549
INSECTS.
injure young young
opium. Liogryllusbimacufatus
potato,cabbage and other rdbi crops.
(Fig.113) spoils (5)The long-horned
grasshoppers(Locustidce), which, however, do not include the locusts and grasshoppers, somewhat are rare. Neuroptera.In this order of insects the four wings are of similar texture and with numerous veins. The wings are sometimes or hairy. The dragon-flies (jhinji-pokd, jhinji-pharing) the commonest are example of this order. They can be seen in Lower Bengal in the month of October specially in large numbers, chasingtheir insect prey wherever they fly,and they are to be common
"
looked
of the best friends the farmer has. Their upon as one larvae live in water, and the larvae of the few species that do live on feed The white-ant is the other commonest etc. on plants aphides, of
this order, but they are exactlyof the opposite and character,from a cultivator's point of view, to dragon-flies,
example
they have been dealt with in a separate chapter. Thysanoptera.Only the Thrips belong to this order. The wingsare long,narrow, straight, equaland veinless. These minute insects either flyor hop very vigorously.Many flowers are attacked by thripswhich with their bitingmouth keep chewingthe delicate leaves and pollen grains. The female is apterous, i.e.,without wings. The males are scarce, and propagationprobably takes The males are different in appearance placeby parthenogenesis. from females. A minute black winged thripshas been altogether noticed spoiling the turmeric Another thrips crop in Madras. has been reported the poppy in Behar where the insect as injuring while another injuresseriously at is called Ihi or lehi, tea grown in elevations Darjeeling. high mandibulate insects,with Thysanura. These are wingless, of abdomen ten composed segments, long,many-jointedantennae, which do not undergo metamorphosis. Not being parasitic on for of students have interest no though agriculture, plantsthey covered scales curious with animals. or most are are They they The caudal three long two hair. They have or appendages. tructive deswhich Fish-insects Silver-fish are so or (Lepisma), the commonest to books, are example of this order. cription detailed deswill In the succeedingchapterswe give more ject of the commonest agricultural pests and treat each subfrom the farmer's pointof view. "
"
"
"
"
"
CHAPTEK LOCUST
(ACRIDIUM PEREGRINUM,
CXX. ACRIDIUM
SUCCINCTUM,
ETC.).
importanttypes of Indian locust that found in the in Rajputana (Acridiumperegrinum)and that occurring Deccan (Acridium succinctum).The Rajputana locust usually The locust only once. breeds twice in the year, while the Deccan THERE
are
two
"
550
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
the Bajputana locust are the sand-hills of the Punjab, Jeypore and Ajmere. The chief Rajputana,Sind, homes of the Deccan locust are the Western Ghauts. They are also found to breed in the Konkan and the adjoining part of the
groundsof breeding
Deccan.
From
these two centres both varieties of locusts migrate sometimes even to Bengal. The Acrtdium the invasion of moister tracts,while the Acrisuccinctum prefers dium peregrinumchooses drier climates. Besides these two ary migratorylocusts there are others,and some varieties of stationlocusts are found in Bengaland other provinces of India. These also do some little amount of damage. The life-history of the Bombay locust has been very completely to all partsof India and
worked out by Mr. Lefroy, the Entomologist ment to the Governhis description, it appears of India. From that the flying locust emerges from the grass lands,in which it has come rity, to matuin September,October, or November, and enters the crops. In ordinaryyears, it is then observed for the firsttime. During the night,it usuallyremains motionless in the plantsor on trees and feeding,
with cold. If the nights apparentlynumb active is and the it all turbed. time, warm, hops away on beingdisDuring October and earlyNovember, it fliesduring the night,migratingfrom placeto place. As the sun rises,the locust becomes At midday, it is flying active and commences to feed. a bout the turbed, disin the air,feedingon aimlessly crops, and when The practiceof cultivators at this settlingoverhead. the locusts, time is to go into the fields and beat tins to frighten but, as a rule,this has no good effect, unless the whole field be driven by a largeforce of men in the earlymorning or not are
evening. From
November the winged locust is torpidat to March With the first night,and can then be killed in largenumbers. fall of rain the coupling periodbegins,and the locusts may at this and time be caughtby hand duringthe day, for they are sluggish The in little. females lay the eggs in a hole the ground,a move hole which they take an hour and a half to make, while the actual of deposition
eggs is completein half laid in dry soil,alwaysin that more or land fairly free from jungle. They seem
surface,and
a
of
soil not
too
an
.clayey.Many
fields. low-lying
More
hour.
These
are
never
less damp, and usually in uncultivated to prefer an were
still were
found
in the
placed on
bankments em-
grass
land.*
Within five
six weeks of the layingof the eggs, the hopor pers lands locusts come the in and live out. They grass
or young feed upon some grass and other vegetation.Their life occupies six weeks, duringwhich time they are unable to flyand can only
leap. They are active almost from the moment they hatch, and dant within this hour. commence an feeding stage,when, very abunJn they can be brushed in huge numbers into bags draggedover the surface of the groundand so destroyed.
551
INSECTS.
the locusts become and November mature, collect to in and and together swarms wings, begin migrate. In Bombay, this migrationtakes them to the highland of the Western Ghats. During the cold weather they remain About
October
acquiretheir
in these
and about the second half of March districts,
the beginor ning the the from outward movement mences, April, ghat regioncomthe North-East, East, and South-East to especially. break up, and the locusts are the end of May the swarms
of About
of country. A little later scattered singlyover enormous areas of first the fall cribed. on as rain,reproduction commences already desThe stated Winged
whole
by Mr.
historyof the Bombay Lefroyto be as follows
locusts emerged and
entered
crops
migrated remained
in forests
migrated scattered
reproduced and There
died
locusts
duringthe
year
is
: "
October 1st to 20th. October 20th November to 30th. December 1st to March 20th. March 20th to May 20th. May 20th to June 10th. June 10th to August 10th.
several points in this life-history, it is at which attack the insect. We have alreadyindicated one,
are
possibleto namely,the young hopper stage before wings are acquiredand when be brushed the hoppers can up off the ground into bags, attached to bamboo frames to keep the mouths open, which are the ground. In addition to this,it is often well dragged over worth while to giverewards to children or even in a locality, to men for locusts collected duringthe cold say of \ to | anna, per seer weather the Insecticides have only or during couplingseason. been effective when mixed with food, and then have only been The spreading of fodder dipped in a small scale. applied on a mixture of lib. lead arsenate, 51bs. jaggeryand 100 gallonsof have effective been the in to water, seems killing locusts,and not The egg masses, animals. to have been injurious to cattle or large in the ground,can be found and collected for payment of rewards, '
'
described above, at the proper season. Locusts at various stages have quite a number of enemies. all very fond of them. The larvae are Crows, monkeys, squirrels in of certain flies(large the abdomen and feed upon maggots) live the tissues. A largered mite (Trombidium grandissimum)lives tinct the lower wings. The eggs are attacked by at least three dison The beetle which the firstis eats a grub organisms. -eggs. The second is a worm which is found in great numbers in the as
egg clusters. The third is one
an
indicus)which lays, (Scelis
icheneumon
egg in each locust egg. We have hitherto spoken of the
Bombay locust. The NorthWest or true migratorylocust is Acridium peregrinum.In recent years it has done much damage, and is liable to visit any part of Central common
Others Northern India. and Central Southern over
or
are
Acridium
India.
These
ceruginosum, are
probably
552
HANDBOOK
Acridium most
AGRICULTURE.
periodsfor reproduction. special is a largesolitarygrasshopperoccurring melanocorne of India,and there are quitea number of others parts
gregarious,and have
never
over
OP
no
well known districts. in their own It may catch locusts be mentioned here that Mahommedans for food, and even for this purpose, as theyregard preserve them them in the light Desiccated locusts of a holy food from Mecca. might be tinned and exported to Europe, where they are prized food for insectivorous as cage-birdsand also for game-birds.
CHAPTER GRASSHOPPERS
CXXL CRICKETS.
AND
furcifer).This acrid paddy grasshopper(Hieroglyphus and does extensive damage to Jhitka) Pharing (called very maize and jura. It attains full the paddy crop and also to young size when the paddy crop is nearlyripefor cuttingand when cracks The females can in paddy fields are be seen numerous. laying cracks in a bout end ber Novemof the the of in masses fortyor fifty eggs THE
"
insect
are beginningof December ; five or six of such masses in crevices different female. Throughout by a single deposited or
is noticed of the pest,and hidden in the dry season nothing more the crevices a certain proportionof the eggs hatch at the beginning of the rainy season. Where cold weather cultivation is practised, where
heavy showers of paddy fields submerged under hatchingof the eggs commences, or
very
rain
occur
in
Aprilor May keeping
for some days before the the few chance of hatching. get very When the grasshoppersare small in July and August, they hop about in the water of the paddy fields and live on the young paddy plants,hardlynoticed by cultivators. They begin to be in September,but it is only when the plantsare in ear in seen October and November, that the cultivators begin to recognize that the grasshoppers are doingmischief. They are non-migratory. In one instance the author noticed whole fields of paddy side of a road in the district of Midnapore,ruined by these on one while on the other side of the road scarcelyany .grasshoppers, damage could be noticed,and while on one side myriadsof grasshoppers and about the other side there o n were hopping flying, were
only stray
water
ones.
Besides locusts and Hieroglyphus there are several furcifer, and crickets which are injurious other grasshoppers Often to crops. several speciesof grasshoppers attack a crop all at once. The main difference between and a grasshopper cricket (Gryllidce) a is that the cricket is furnished with a longovipositor, while the grasshopperhas only a rudimentaryovipositor.A cricket which called spoilsindigoplants by biting 'throughthe roots, is locally Bherwa It has been identified as Schizodactylus in Bihar. monstruosus.
There
are
other
crickets
injuriousto potato crops,
to
GRANARY
553
PESTS.
to cotton, cabbage and other juarplants,to tea seedlings, seedlings.In 1893 serious damage to jute and rice crops was reportedfrom Comilla as caused by a cricket,which turned out to be the very common achatinus. form, Brachytrypes The only suggestionthat can be offered regardingremedial when crickets and grasshoppersare tructive measures found very desto an cribed ordinaryagricultural crop, is to try the bags desfor locust in the previous chapter. They are likelyto efficacious in many cases. prove Hopperdozers have proved efficacious in similar cases in America. A Hopperdozeris a long
young
"
"
and shallow trough mounted and wheels and containingwater on kerosene oil,or a quantity of tar only, and dragged or driven ed alongan infested field. The grasshoppers jump up and get drownin the kerosene and water, or get entangledand killed in the The least touch of kerosene oil kills insects. tar. To avoid spilling, the trough should have partitions of tin. The trough itself may be made of tin,say, 9 ft. long,1 ft. wide, 2 inches deep in front and 1 ft. behind. This trough may wooden be mounted a on frame having two wheels at the two ends. Two men drag may it
along with ropes attached
A
canvas
screen
trough,which the the
trough or
to the two
frame.
be added to the hinder part of the or apron may will further help in bringingthe grasshoppers into kill them
by
contact
with the kerosene
with which
is saturated.
canvas
CHAPTER
CXXII.
GRANARY THE
good
of the wooden
ends
grain
deal
of
weevil
damage
PESTS.
(Calandra oryzece).This insect 'does a stored rice,wheat, barley,maize, juar, "
to
etc., three to four seers per maund of a year. weevil in course Each female lays about 150
being eggs,
often
eaten
generallyone
up
by the
being
egg
the grain,laysthe egg in it,covers up the crevice with dust, etc., and then goes on to lay other eggs. Throughout the cold weather and hot weather this goes on, the weevils having come out during the preceding stored from in the same rainyseason godown grains vessel and remaininghidden all this time in cracks and crannies or of the godown or the vessel. The egg is almost too minute to be laid
on
one
grain of cereal.
She
cuts
a
minute
crevice
on
ing with the naked eye. It hatches and the grub goes on burrowinside the grainand eatinginto its substance, leavinga minute In a few weeks the aperture behind it,to enable it to breathe. until it and into for while dormant remains a pupa, a grub changes becomes a fullformed weevil when it bites its way out of the grain. The breedinggoes on all the year round and onlyquickerin the rains when the grainsare softer and more readilyeaten through the laid before the commences by grubs. Every egg rainyseason seen
554
HANDBOOK
gets the chance
of
OF
AGRICULTURE.
weevil ; so althoughwe may find a weevils in the cold and the hot weather, we find the godown The swarming with them towards the end of the rainyseason. time taken for the egg to developinto the perfect insect is about
becoming a
few
two on
months, though the time requiredfor development depends the temperature. The
godown or the vat where the grainis stored must be thoroughlycleaned, white-washed or tarred in the dry season, and then the grain stored and kept well covered up. The surroundings of the godown should be also clean,for the weevils crawl out of old stray and rejected grainand attack the new grainstored in the godown. The grain should be spread out very thin in the hot sun, if weevils are subsequentlynoticed in it ; but under ness ordinarycircumstances weevils can be only kept down by cleanliand care, but not altogether side inIn tarred prevented. jalas and out and kept hermetically sealed up in the dry season after storing the grain, there is almost no fear of loss from weevils. But carbon bisulphide In shops givesthe most absolute protection. and godowns where such arrangements are not feasible, a mixture of lime use
are
and of lead (Sapheda)is used, but the crude carbonate of this mixture should be deprecated. Paddy is seldom attacked by this weevil, and hard wheats The weevils are not so subjectto its attack soft wheats. as
able to penetrate a thick layerof chopped straw of dry or first of in cleaned leaves. Hence, bags neem grainstored open vats and tarred inside, and covered up simply with chopped straw or leaves, are found almost entirelyfree from weevils. dry neem At Demerara the peopleare accustomed ants into rice to attract not
godowns
with sugar, and then the ants attack the weevils. The plan adopted in this country for protectingcobs of maize kept for seed,is to hang them up in bunches at the end of bamboos and keep them exposed to lightand air and smoke inside ordinary destructive in town dwellinghouses. Indeed, the weevils are more where sweepingand leping are practised godowns than in villages, difficult. more daily,making quiet inroads of pests somewhat The weevils themselves attacked in the granaries' by are certain Hymenopterous parasitesbelongingto the order Chalcididae. Three such insects destroyingthe weevils have been noticed. The vernacular and h#na pokd. The
Grain
names
moth
of the granary
weevil
(Tinea granella).Another
are
chele
poka
pest granary of rice,and somewhat resembling spoilingclothes and furniture,is the wolf moth (Tinea granella).The larvae of this moth collect grainsof rice around them into lumps and eat them through into shells. In the chrysalis nies stage the insect remains hidden in cracks and cranthose similar to of the godown. The remedies applicable are
which may be the tiny moth
recommended
seen
"
in old stores
in the
case
of the weevil.
556
HANDBOOK
great as it appears
OF
AGRICULTURE.
first. The full developmentof the beetles But a to three weeks. eggs takes placewithin a fortnight second generationis not known to succeed duringthe same season, and it is not known how the beetles in such and swarms appear which appears at the time "disappear.Probablythe largeswarm of transplanting is the second from hispaswhich have generation bred in waste lands and jungleand come from there to attack the plantsafter they are transplanted.Closer observation can alone of the pest. Their sudden completelyclear up the life-history at
from
and disappearance are appearance in of the a" light upon mystery.
at present looked by cultivators Several remedies were tried at Sibpur. Dusting of ashes mixed with lime and arsenic,of soot, of turmeric powder, bellowing and Cyanide of Carbon-bisulphide Potassium sprayingtobacco decoction,kerosene emulsion vapour, and a solution of asafoetida and aloes,were tried in different plots with no marked effect at the time of application.But the beetles the ^disappeared next day. Another swarm, however, appeared in a few jla,ys and they were similarlytreated. At this second
attack
punctata
help
noticed
were
feedingon
than
the
largenumbers of tigerbeetles Cincidela sexof greater the hispa,and probablythey were
applications.The preventionof the carried out at the same time by dipping pest was successfully -each bunch of seedlingsimmediately before transplanting in a solution of asafoetida. Probably the stink kept the insects off, of the plotsalreadyattacked-were also treated with though some insecticidal
asafoetida solution with no immediate result. In the vernacular the hispa is variouslyknown pokd, SuJcho pokd,Senko pokd, Pdmari pokd,Pdruli The
as
MorcM
poM*
Rice-Midge (Cecidomyia oryzete).Serious injury to the paddy crop done by this dipterouspest was in first reported October 1880 in Monghyr, and since then it has been recognized and very destructive pest of the aus paddy as a pretty common "
in the Bihar districts, mechhia. where itis known as crop, specially The Hessian and of America, destructor, Cecidomyia fly Europe
which
the sap of green stalks of wheat, and the wheatwhich renders wheat midge (Cecidomyiatritici) plantsabortive allied species.The ricetwo are t"ydevouringthe pollengrains, midge is known to devour pollengrainsin the same way as the wheat-midge. The maggots which are probablydepositedon the but of rice in the living ears stage are at firstsemi-transparent, resemble linseed they get darker with age, and, when full-grown, feeds upon
The destruction of the ear-head. in the substance the wheat-midgeand the Hessian flyis so considerable
imbedded
caused by that it would be wise to guard againstthe rice-midge. The Pattanai (Suastus gremius). Occasionally butterfly belong-' green paddy plants"re attacked by the larvse of a butterfly '
'
"
and
* A chrysomelidbeetle Phtedo brassicce is known to attack the mustard another Liptispapygmcea to attack young plants. sugarcane
crop
ing one
(NOCTUIDS).
WORMS
CUT-
557
The butterfly(Fig.114) from family Hesperiidae. when of the the to other, wing extremity fullyexpanded,is the
to
If
about
it is of
and
inches
side of the
wings, with
larvae when
full-grownare both
taperingat line
The
remain shelters
they
of
somewhat
insect
in
as
a
upper
colour, with On
a
from sunny
deep green extremity pillars day the catera
one
threads
the
in
styleof
the
though
FIG.
114."
zed recogni-
SUASTUS IMAUO
(LARVA,
GREMIPS AND
PUPA).
destructive
very
and
are
This
way.
to be
pest
wash
they
this
of
tinuous Con-
rains
and
seems
the
fore-wings.The and length, cylindrical
of the back
black.
on
selves them-
for
heavy killed
in
lightgreen
are spiracles
silken
down
inch in
an
the middle
leaf-rollinginsects. them
about
colour
at the
in hidden leaves which
construct
with
pale yellow spots
ends,
extending down
to the other.
glossybrown
a
the
rice-plant by has
it
done
cultivators
of
Balasore,
serious
damage elsewhere when hitherto,it is justas well as to pick and kill the caterpillars and to depend on the hibernating they are noticed in rice fields, and long-continued killed of the constant by stirring pupae being soil before sowing, as recommended in the case of the Leptocorisu The
acuta.
not
paleyellowish-green pupae
are
formed
in the
rolls ot
but leaves made by the caterpillars, and hibernate in the soil. The down the upper side of leaves earlyin the on The larvae are known are quiteyoung. leaves
but
also
tender leaves Leucania extranea,
Leucania
on
of
they probably also crawl butterfly lays eggs singly when the rice-plants season to live not only on paddy the date-palm.
loreyiand
other
do
cut-worms
to young considerable injury sometimes paddy plants; but, as for other paddy pests of the field, has been suggested these would do littledamage if long-continued were preparation systematically the cultivators. practisedby
CHAPTER CUT-
THE
Noctuid
ledd-pokd, or
time
and
the
CXX1V.
(NOCTUIDS).
WORMS
larvae known
kdtree pokd, kdjrd,kumwah, hidden in the earth in the day*
as
remain chord-pokd,
moths
speciesventure down take them hidden in leaves
out
into
and
flyonly at night, or in the dusk. day-time,cut tender piecesof stems
in
their stems
burrows on
a
for
consumption, or brightday. They attack
Some
and
remain younj
rice,wheat, poppy, khesari,cabbage,turnip,mustard and potatoes,and perhap: linseed,tomato, tobacco, cotton, indigo,
plantsof
"558
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and they destroy far more than they can seedlings plants, Potato and remainplants possiblyconsume. poppy subjectto the attack of the pest to the last,as their stems are always very other
is often tender and the damage done to these crops by cut-worms The pupal stage is passedaltogether underground, very considerable. and thorough preparationfor a longperiodseems fore thereNovember to be the best preventive. From to February in the evening, when the moths are to be commonly seen the eggs laid on leaves in small batches, often two or three layersdeep are
and
lightlycovered with Probably there is a
then
the down
of the
parent
moth's
second generationin the rainy when active they first come season. out, like looper caterpillars, but soon become fat and in progressing like stumpy silkworms. somewhat It is at this stage .appearance is insect voracious and most of its lifethat the wantonly destructive. abdomen.
The
larvae
are
more
been known to cut down fiftyto a hundred and one night. The pupation goes plants of potatoes poppy an under the surface,and the moth in the soil three to eightincjies on month. Kerosene emulsion in about a syringed under emerges tried successfully in the jailgarden some each plantwas years ago Each
has caterpillar
againstAgrotissuffusa.At the jailgarden of Berhamproved most destructive to the potato crop sowing seed of potatoes along with a mixture ashes,salt,lime and a littlewhite arsenic consistingof rape-cake, resorted to. No loss has taken place since then from this was of Khulna
pore also this insect of until the method
and
cause, ,a
the
use
of this insecticidal
manure
is recommended
as
preventive.
there, are Besides Agrotissuffusa, other Noctuidmoths many One of these is etc. which are destructive to vegetables, poppy, the Heliothis armigera called Kujrain in Monghyr and boll-worm in America. pillars Young bolls of cotton are eaten into by these caterand they also feed on maize, poppy, tomatoes, peas, beans and khesari and other pulsesin the cold weather, and also in the to favour their growth and even Bain seems in the rainy season. "3old weather after a heavy shower of rain they carry on their work of destruction with renewed vigour. There are three generations The caterpillar feeds on the lower of these insects in the year. leaves also seeds and of the seed-podsor on surface on poppy is over 1 \ inch in length. caterpillar opium capsules.A full-grown A earth. the female of the boll-worm in moth It pupates single five hundred as .isable to lay as many eggs, laid at dusk, chiefly The cotion larvae live on leaves,but later on chiefly on plants. and bolls. buds Sometimes bore into after devouringthe they contents
boll.
of
one
boll,the larvae will
The holes made
by
the
come
out
and
attract caterpillars
attack another the chrysomelid
which beetle, Aulacophoraabdominalis, of the bolls.
It is the third
continues the destruction generationfrom January that is
the on usuallyfound parasitic August.
cottdn
plantsin about July^and
THE
SUGARCANE
SOBER
(OHILO SIMPLEX).
559
The is also a common cabbage moth (Mamestra brassicte) with transverse moth Noctuid. It is a brown black markings the centre of which is marked with white. the fore-wings, on The Ach"a melicerte (called which feeds Phulgunain Orissa), the leaves of the castor-oil plantand the arahar plant,the on attacks the gram, Plucia the Leucania nigrisigma which extmnea (calledLedapoka in Eastern Bengal),which attacks which destroys and paddy paddy plants pea, the Leucania loreyi Leucania also all Noctuids. are fragelisis another Noctuid wheat and millet plants. Prodetoia attacks which young
also belongingto the Noctuids, did a littoralis caterpillars, deal of to in the district of mulberry plantations damage great few Murshidabad, a years ago, and a serious attack on tea is likewise on record. They are also known to attack potato and tobacco plants. Jute is subjectto the attack of another Noctuid. that does most harm The Noctuid parasite duringthe hot is Agrotissegetis.It is most destructive to the indigo The moths lay eggs at night on young indigoplants in crop. In and week the eggs hatch a March or April. the larvae keep three weeks for until the leaves on they pupate, when they eating in the soil. The pupal stage lasts for more than a go down deep and formidable second of more and a a month, caterpillars crop
weather
and does far more sometimes occurs damage in the indigodistricts in July,than the first crop in May. to prove a practical remedy for Noctuids. Sprayingis not likely of and the and the use of an insoil, thoroughpreparation Long of secticidal and manurial mixture along with seed consisting is t o efficacious. ashes, etc., soot, more lime, likely prove arjenic, fliesare parasitic tuid NocSome tachinid,chalcid and ichneumon on tachinid flies worms.* silkas larvae in the same are on parasitic way also very fond of ferreting Crows and starlings are out of and cutthe larvae In and worms. cloudy devouring pupae the the to when weather come surface, caterpillars they are rainy is The the birds. same devoured after case by tion, irrigareadily and
is a very good remedy againstthis and thoroughirrigation of the grubsmay be practised. fields hand-picking pest. In poppy Dusting the plantsin the evening with a mixture of quicklime the Noctuid moths in lantern and ashes and the method of catching mixture of molasses and a traps and also in basins containing tried. vinegarhave been successfully
CHAPTER THE THE
SUGARCANE
larvae of this moth
CXXV.
BORER
(CHILO SIMPLEX).
bore into the stalks of
sugarcane,
maize, juar,and probablyalso the kashia grass (Saccharum spon*
Vide Handbook
of Sericulture
by
the author
(p.112, etc.).
560
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
stalk borer taneum). A brinjal
is also a Chile. The borer 'attacking in results often the sugarcane, that the whole so putrefaction, Often the borer is followed by a fungus stalk becomes worthless. in in the work of destruction,and the wholesale loss occurring districts to soft varieties of sugarcane is caused some by jointly the borer and the fungus,the latter in fact doing far more harm than the borer in givingrise to an epidemic. It is curious the borer
and
the
fungus have
of sugarcane
also gone
hand-in-hand
in the destruction
plantations wrought in Barbadoes, in Jamaica,
and in the United States. in "Mauritius,in British Guiana The the itself of the firstshows middle of the and by drying cane pest and the the cane thus disease is known rottingaway afterwards, The former name in Bengal both as Ma jera and Dhasha. should, confined the be caused to however, damage by the borer alone, of the borer insect being Majera-poka. The name the name be similarly Dhasha may properlyconfined to the damage caused is name fungus as the same by the agency of the Trichosphceria diseases. other Hard-rinded canes, which are fungoid appliedto comparativelyfree from the attack of the borer, are also comparatively free from the attack of the fungus. The parent moth laysher eggs upon the leaves of the young the axils,and the cane near borer, hatching in the young and days, penetratesthe stalk at or near the joint, soft tunnel the to through commences pith. The growth of the and the full size is reached in a month. larva is very rapid, The larva inch is about an full grown long,rather slender,nearlycylindrical; white in colour, usually speckledwith black and cream On attainingtits spots,with a yellowhead and black mandibles. course
of
a
few
full size,it bores a hole on the side of the cane for its future exit into its tunnel and pupates. The slender and then goes back is about brown three-quartersof an inch long. In a few pupa out of the hole already days the pupa becomes a moth, and comes made in its larval stage. The moth is light greyishbrown in colour than an inch from "vingto wing when the wings and a littlemore The hind wings of the male are are expanded. silverywhite. several broods in the course of the same and the season, ensconced in the the are plentifully or tops or cuttings sown, rejectedand left neglectedin fields. The portionsof the cane hibernation takes placein winter in the larval and pupal stages, out againin Aprilor May. and the moths come of keeping down the pest suggestedby the The methods There
are
larvae
all refuse leaves, tops, etc., : (1)collecting above description are and burningthem in a heap,and (2)pickling the tops or cuttings with an aqueous and poisonousmixture of soot, sown consisting arsenic and made ashes into a thin mixture, and lime, leaving up the canes dippedin it for a few hours before planting.If sulphate
of copper
solution instead of
plainwater is used as a simultaneous preventiveagainstTrichosphwriafungus,the seed-canes should be kept dipped in the mixture only for a minute.
(TERM1S TAPROBANES)
WHITE-ANTS
AND
OTHER
ANTS,
561
cultivation of soil is useful ; also burningof the sod, after the harvestingof canes, the stumps and leaves being Even the ratoons after the firing, will come set fire to. up if it is intended to keep the canes a second year. Certain specialmethods been effective in fire said to have the borer. These are : (a)Collecting keeping down sugar cane the eggs of the borer are all leaves on which and burning seen brownish in colour The and them. are eggs are depositedin
Thorough
"
groups
of about
twenty, and
children
can
be
taughtto recognize
afterwards employed in pickingthem from plantations. (b)Cuttingout and burningall shoots or stems that appear withered
them
and
wanting in life. Children may be taught to do this also,and they may be employed in plantationsfor this purpose, (c)Keeping lightedlanterns hanging in sugarcane plantationsat night and kerosene under with shallow vessels of water them.. By adopting this last device, one can get rid of Noctuid moths and of Kartic (October other insects in largequantities.In the month in this and prevails November) a custom country of hangingup It be not in at the night. lights may very difficultto inauce open of hanging up lights cultivators to adopt the modified custom in or
vessels of water underneath, duringthe month of Kartic, as it is during this month, as also in June and July, that moths, etc., lay eggs and do the greatestamount of damage noticed later on in the season. to crops, though the damage is most their fields with
CHAPTER WHITE-
CXXVI.
(TERMES TAPROBANES)
ANTS
AND
OTHER
ANTS.
white-ants THE social insects (Neuroptera) are well-known homesteads and in and fields, tunnels which make and galleries thus do a great deal of mischief. They destroymost of the ordinary attack roots of living timbers except teak. They sometimes plantsand mango-trees, graplants and trees, such as sugarcane dually their upwards. The males and females are working way furnished with four large wings of equal size,but the workers have no wings. Their bodies are oblongand depressed. neuters or The queen will lay 80,000 eggs in a day for a long time, and the enormous growtha colonymay undergoin a short time may thus be imagined. As in the case of ordinaryants, the white-ants leave their nest for their Carriageflightat the beginningor end of the "
"
rainy season, lose their wings, and a survivingpair after losing their wings have been said to be led into the nest by the neuters certain)when
of the female becomes the abdomen inches in length with three two or enormously distended eggs, i.e., and more than half an inch in thickness (Fig. 115 a). She goes on larvae minute. The from these eggs about sixtyeggs per laying performthe greaterpart of the work of the nest,in making tunnels The pupae differfrom larvae in possessing rudiments and galleries.
(thoughthis
M,
HA
is not
36
562
HANDBOOK
"
AGRICULTURE.
OF
"
soldier white-ants are wings. The by their distinguished and head powerfulmandibles. They are probably neuters. larger When white-ants attack the roots of ordinary agricultural rice,jute,arahar and ^vegetables, a crops such as sugarcane, heavy the shower of rain or thorough irrigation best remedy. proves of trees it is difficult When, however, they attack the roots to get rid of them. Vigorouslygrowing trees, however, are seldom attacked by white-ants. Liberal applicationof castorcake is the best remedy againstthis pest, as the insects dislike castor-cake,and the vigour imparted to the plantsaffords perhaps further remedy. a of
Dr.
Watt
recommends
"
Gondal mixture," the first preparedby the Thakore Saheb of Gondal and used by him is as a white-ant mixture of It Dekamali destroyer. a (Gardenia lucida)gum, asafcetida,bazaar aloes and castor-cake. (See The Pests and Blightsof the Tea Plant by G. Watt and H. H. Mann, the
use
of
1903, p. 343.)
FIG.
(a) Queen
white-ant
THE
115."
WHITE-ANT.
ready to
(c) Soldier neuter. (d) Male pupa. (e) Female pupa.
depositeggs. (6) Working
neuter.
,
(/) Winged white-ant.
Ordinaryants
(theFormicidte
"
Hymenoptera). Against the following several species,
order
"
with
ants, of which there are been have found useful : (1) Attracting them kernels mixed up with sugar and then destroying cocoanut
them
by drowning
ordinary remedies
them
with them
"
a
sponge
or
otherwise
dippedin
in hot water.
a
to time. fctime (2)Attracting ing of solution strong sugar, and drown-
from
(3) Stringsdipped in corrosive sublimate
HANDBOOK
564
OP
AGRICULTURE.
well in shade.
will grow
(2)Letting poultryin of servants after cultivationbut before sowing seed. (3)Allowing under the cook affected to trees. fully and others habitually (4)Careplantthat
matic
removing and destroyingall stray fruits,stones,
rind and (5) Keeping crevices and holes refuse of mango-treesgenerally. of the over or otherwise obliterated. in the trunk mango-treesplastered In Europe trunks of valuable trees are paintedor tarred insect pests. It is probablethe weevils hibernate in the crevices of the trunk, and the effectof painting Eastern Bengal the trunks on a largescale may be watched in some to
from
protectthem
districts. The larva of
a
insect (Dacusferrugineus) late dipterous spoils
in certain localities. The Malda mangoes growing are in the Katgola gardenin Murshidabad annuallyspoilt by recommended The for remedies this the these maggots. pest are the weevil. the in the case for of Probably oviposition as same mangoes ripening
the trees are bearing small fruits, the weevil takes place when before the the of fruits the in and case maggot, just ripen. Spraying with kerosene emulsion or asafoetidawater, for the purpose of
producinga
trees
that may be sprayingshould be
is a treatment the flies,
from
of the are
of vicinity
stink in the
maggot.
The
stillgreen but
wishes
to
protect
suggestedin the done
when
the
case
fruits
developed, properly
CHAPTER THE
one
INDIAN
CXXVIII.
GOLDEN-APPLE-BEETLE*.
(Aulacophoraabdominalis.) insect belonging to the familyChryColeopterous destroysvarious Indian crops and in its turn it is usuallydestroyedby a coccinellid beetle known as Palceopeda
THIS is a somelidse. It
We
both these insects in the Sibpur Farm cotton, gourd, melon, and cucumber plants. Wateron melons, and palval fieldare jhingas creepers growing in the same the In attacked. SaharanpurBotanical Garden it was hardly sex-maculata.
found
,to be
have
noticed
destructive generally
to all
Cucurbitaceous
plants. plants(Trapabispinosa) inch in length,brilliant reddish yellowin colour,the wings are yellowand do not entirely The legs reddish yellow. The underthe abdomen. are cover surface is partly yellowand partlyblack. Heavy dustingwith ashes is the remedyordinarily adopted. water-nut It is said to attack the floating is little under half an a also. The beetle
PLANT-LICE
AND
CHAPTER PLANT-LICE THESE
SCALE-INSECTS
AND
565 COCCID^S).
CXXIX.
hemipterousinsects
are (aphides)
(APHIDESAND
SCALE-INSECTS
are
(APHIDESAND very
COCCID^E).
destructive.
destructive
Plant-lice than scale-
to agricultural crops aphisof Bengal is the jdb-pokd(Aphis of the mustard crop. Aphidesare also known brassicce) to attack potatoes, cabbages,cauliflowers, tobacco, arahar, turnip,radish, etc. An aphid which produced curling of leaves of and twisting the tobacco plants fied identigrown at the SibpurFarm in 1892-93 was as scabiosa. beetles The coccinellid Siphonophora birds) (lady-
insects.
The
more
commonest
that preyed upon these were identified as Chilomenes sexmaculata. Another aphid which causes injuryto the mustard and identified by the authorities of the Indian rape crops was Museum dianthi. The females which are generas Rhopalosiphum
rallywinglessare
their viviparous,
the
yellow young
embryos
are
also brown.
abdomen
being transparent ;
be seen through the green skin of the abdomen. The colour of the insect,however, is not always it is but sometimes red, brown, yellow, or black. The green, The wing-cases pupae and the larvae can hardlybe distinguished. of the pupae are tippedwith brown and the pointsof the antennae
The
may
larvae
Males voracious. their help is not of generations
are
the most
are
quired revery rare, and for a number for fertilization. The asexual larvae usuallydevelopinto winglessfemales. The fullymature sexual forms have prominent wings, but they also are propagated asexually.The blackish
has tea-aphis
been alreadyspoken of. belief that blights, that is, the appearance coccidae insects,are due to fog or east wind, is
The and
of common
aphides not
only in this country but also in England,but it is a mere stitious superof the aphides belief. The extraordinary multiplication givesone the idea that theyappear all of a sudden, and their apparent fanciful way. sudden appearance is accounted for in some last Suppose one little aphisproduced from an egg deposited it is should appear in springon a bean creeper when autumn each of justbudding. She givesbirth,say, to ten young aphides without females few days these ten male will each produce another ten any the weather is fine and the aphides females. If agamogenetic other insects,and if the beanstalk not tracked by ants are or continues this flourishing, agamogenetic propagationwill go
which
is
female. In with a connection a
a
the twelve generations, every four or five days for about calculation of increase being, If in a say, ten every case. months is made, it will be found two that in less than the from one if rate of aphisone billionmay be produced,and
on
rate
increase be
to something hundred instead of ten, the number comes The last generations enormous. are partlymale and partly the intermediate and imperfect female, generations beingwingless one
566
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
females. The male and female pair and lay eggs in the autumn and from these eggs come males and females or in the cold weather of the following spring. The Scale-insects. The Aleurodes which invade rose bushes, the which plants; Icerya spoilvarious orange trees, sugarcane the fruit trees, etc. ; of which causes one the Dactylopius, species disease known as tukrd to mulberry trees,and other coccid insects beetles. are preyedupon in their turn by lady-birds(Coccinellidae) But the latter are unable to cope with the insects when they become when kerosene emulsion and other special too numerous, remedies described be tried with success. already may Scale-insects do considerable damage to fruit trees and other "
but they do not do such damage to ordinary perennials, agricultural have just we crops as the other hemipterousinsects (aphides) There are described. several scale-insects, the other on hand^ economic which manufacture chineal some important products. Coand lac are producedrespectively cacti and Coccus Coccus by lacca. Manna is the gummy secretion of the tamarisk tree which of comare merce punctured by Coccus manniparus. The white wax is produced by Eriocerus pela,a Chinese scale-insect. There is an Indian scale-insect also (Ceroplastes which yields ceriferus) The females of scale-insects and are a white wax. always wingless,
theyare scale-like. The their presence aphides, of the embryo.
in
male is not
is
providedwith
always necessary
two
wings,but, as
for the formation
Coccinellid beetles are very useful in devouring scale-insects an"J aphides. It should be remembered, however, that they are friends to the cultivator. The larvae of Epilachna not invariably others of the same and dodeca-stigma genus attack the leaves of
brinjal plantsand sometimes do a great deal of damage. ment For aphides and scale-insects the kerosene emulsion treatgenerallyproves most efficacious. One part of kerosene should The be used. oil to eightyor one hundred part of water oil should be mixed up with equal quantityof fresh-milk or buttermilk shaken with and worked or a (ghol) syringe thoroughly up the oil,before it is mixed up with water up in a bottle to emulsify and appliedwith a spray-pump.
CXXX.
CHAPTER INSECTS
INJURIOUS
TO
INDIAN
CROPS.
Paddy. order Coleoptera). (Melolonthini,
1.
COCKCHAFER
2.
Lasioderma testaceum, or the cheroot weevil (Ptinidae, order Coleoptera). order Coleoptera). Calandra oryzce (Curculioniftse, order Coleoptera}. sexspinosus(ScolytidaB, Platydactylus
3. 4.
LARVAE
INJURIOUS
INSECTS
TO
INDIAN
567
CROPS.
order Coleoptera). Hispa aenescens (Chrysomelidse, order tera). ColeopAulacophora afydominalis (Chrysomelidse,
5. 6.
order Coleoptera). (Chrysomelidae, o r gremius (Hesperidee, skippers,Lepidoptera). Limacodid tera). Lepidop(Nettle-grub-defoliator, caterpillars
7.
Chcetocnemis
8.
Suastus
9.
basalis
(Noctues, Lepidoptera). armigera (Noctues, Lepidoptera). extrania (Noctues, Lepidoptera). Do. Do.) (Do. loreyi oryzalis Paraponyx (Hydrocampidse, Micro-lepidoptera). Chilo (Crambidse, Micro-lepidoptera). oryzceellus
10.
Achaea
11.
Heliothis Leucania
12. 13. 14. 15.
melicerte
Cecidomyia onjzce (Cecidomyidae,Diptera). (Rhynchota, Hemiptera). Leptocorisaacuta schlaubuschii (Rhynchota, Do.) Physopelta Catantops axillaris (Acrididae,Orthoptera). Hieroglyplmsfurcifer(Acrididse, Do.) Euprepocnemis bramina (Acridida3,Do.)
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
Wheat.
3.
Coleoptera). Trogositamauritanica(Trogositidse, Do. undulata, (Dermestidae, ) Do. ) Rhizoperthapusilla(Ptinidse,
4.
Opatrum depressum (Tenebrionidsc,
1. 2.
Arthriostoma
Oryzce(Curculionidse,
Do. Do.
5.
Calandra
6.
Agrotis suffusa(Noctues, Lepidoptera), Chilo oryzceellus (Crambidae, Do.) Ortlioptera). Crotogonussp. (Acrididae,
7. 8.
)" )
Barley. 1
.
2.
Agrotissuffusa. Crotogonussp. Oats.
1.
Leucania
2.
Agrotissuffusa.
extrania.
Juar. 1.
2. 3.. 4.
Coleoptera). (Cucujidae, Do. ) Rhizoperthapusilla(Ptinidse, Do. rouxi ) (Cantharidee, Epicauta Do. ) Epicautatenuicollis(Cantharidse,
Silvanus
surinamensis
568
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Maize*
2.
Chilo Simplex(Crambidee,Lepidoptera). Gelechia cerealella(Plutellidae, Microlepidoptera).
3.
furcifer. Hieroglyphus
1.
Panicum
miliare.
Euprepocnemisbramina.
1.
Bajra. Crotogonussp.
1.
Sugarcane.
6.
beru pokd (Scolytidae, Xyleborusperforans, Coleoptera). (Pierinae, Mancipium nepalensis Lepidoptera). Achcea melicerte (Noctues, Lepidoptera). Scirpophagaauriftua(Microlepidoptera, Lepidoptera;, Chilo simpkx, majera-pokd. Dragana pansalis(Deltoides, Lepidoptera).
7.
(Edalus
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
(Acrididee, Orthoptera). Pceiilocera hieroglyphica (Acrididae,Do.) Termes taprobanes (Termitidae, Neuroptera). driver ant (Formicidae, Dorylusorientalis, Hymenoptera).
8. 9. 10.
marmoratus
gibbus(Chinch-bug, Hemiptera). Ripersiasacchari (Scale-insect,Do.) Blissus
11. 12.
Gram.
2.
Aulacophoraabdominalis. Mancipium nepalensis.
3.
Parasa
4.
Agrotissuffusa. Plusia nigrisigna(Plusidae, Noctues, Lepidoptera).
1.
5.
sp.
(Limacodidse,Lepidoptera).
Arahar. Bruchus
Achcea melicerte. Eriochiton cajani(Coccidae, Hemiptera).
t *
3.
Chinensis
(Bruchidae, Coleoptera),
1. 2.
Brinjal. 1.
Epilachnaviginti-octo-punrtata.
2.
AchcBa
3.
Chilo sp, Lencinodes orbonalis
4.
melicerte.
(Microlepidoptera).
INSECTS
INJURIOUS
TO
INDIAN
569
CHOPS.
Cucurbitaceous crops generally. i.
"2. 3.
Aulacophora abdominalis. Epilachna viginti-octo-punctata. Carpomyiaparctalina(Muscidae,Diptera). Jute.
1.
Spilosoma
2.
Noctuids.
sp.
(Arctiidae, Lepidoptera).
Cotton. 1.
Coleoptera). Sphonoptera gossypii (Ruprestidae,
"2.
Aulacophora abdominalis.
3.
Helioihis
armigera.
6.
Microlepidoptera). (Plutellidse, Dipressariagossypiella Dysdercuscingulatus(Khynchota, Hemiptera). Do.) (Do. Oxycarenuslugubris
7.
Lohita
I. 5.
(Do.
grandis
Do.)
Mustard. Noctuids.
1.
Agrotis suffusa and
2.
Aphis brassicce (Aphidae,Hemiptera).
other
Linseed. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Opatrum depressum. Mancipium nepalensis. Agrotis suffusa. Crotogonussp. Indigo.
Coleoptera). nigrofusca (Chrysomelid09,
1.
Haltica
2.
Agrotis segetum.
3.
Hemiptera). Psylla isitis (Psyllidse, Crotogonus sp.
4.
Kabi 1. 2.
3.
crops
generally.
armigera. (Rhynchota, Hemiptera). Apinis concinna flies, Do.) (Lantern FulgoridcB Helioihis
Kharif crops generally. 1. 2.
Epacromia dorsalis
Orthoptera). (Acrididae,
Heteropternis sp.
( Do.
Do.)
570
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Standing crops generally. Lepidoptera).
1.
Aloalactinea
2.
Spilosomasp.
(Arctidse, (Arctiidae,
3.
Spaliriaminor
(Lasiocampidse,
4.
Heliothis
Agrotis segetum Agrotissuffusa.
Do.
(Do.
armigera
Do. Do. Do.
(Noctuidse,
Do. (Do. (Acrididse Orthoptera).
peregrinum
Do.
Do.
9.
Acridium Acridium Acridium
melanocorne
Do.
Do.
10.
Acridium
ceruginosum
Do.
11.
erubescens Caloptenus caliginosus Caloptenus ranacea Cyrtacanihacris
Do. Do. Do.
7. 8.
12. 13. 14.
succintum
rcifera cinerascens Pachytylus
Crotogonus sp.
18.
Pcrcilocera picta
19.
furcifer. Hieroglyphus t urrita ( Tryxalis crenulata ( Atractomorpka ( Mecopoda sp. ( Euprocnemisbramina
23.
(
WHEN
an
DISEASES
Do.
Do.
Do.
)
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
) ) )
Do.
Do.
)
CXXXI.
CHAPTER ZYMOTIC
Do.
Do.
17.
22.
Do.
Do.
16.
21.
Do.
Do.
15.
20.
Do.
Do. Do.
) ) } ) ) ) ) )
AND
agricultural crop
REMEDIES or
FOR
THEM.
herd of animals dies out in the loss may be supposed
abundance without any apparent cause to be due to some microscopic organism. Potato-rot,wheat-rust, animals dyingsuddenlyafter a swelling in the neck cattle-plague, loss due tg micro-organisms. When notices one from animals some mysterious cause, one dying any crops should take some dead plantor animal from fluid out of a recently an organ that appears to have undergonespecialdecay. If the diseased organ or tissue is too dry to yieldany fluid,it should be are
examples of or
littleclean water and the fluid thus made taken slide. The fluid should be spreadout thin on a cover* to a glass on and mounted The specimensmay then be in the usual way. glass examined for identification of the epidemic. For certain leisurely epidemicsprotectiveinoculation has been found beneficial in
macerated
with
a
other countries,as for instance,(1)for anthrax, (2)for fowl-cholera, black (3) for charbon symptomatique (calledalso quarter-ill, quarter, braxy of sheep and gloss-anthraxthe disease of horsea Protective and cattle called Gala phula),and (4) rabies. "
572
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
(c)When removing the healthyanimals,their bodies should be washed with a J% solution of sulphateof copper and they should be made to swallow a littleof ferrous sulphatewith ginger -and treacle (" ounce of the sulphate beinggivento an ox). (d) When an epidemicbreaks out in potato, wheat or any other agricultural be removed after crop, the crop should not harvest,but
arrangement should be made
some
to store
it in the
field in which the plantshave grown. (e)Seeds of all kinds should be pickledbefore sowing. For -delicate seeds steepingin camphor water is recommended for two and such for as seeds, wheat, hours, ordinaryagricultural paddy,sorghum,potatoes, the sulphateof copper dip is the best.
Immediatelyafter
the
dip,the
and
seed should be got
dry with and germicidalproperties,
lime
ashes which then have also from is There little of chance a a sown. crop suffering very fungoiddisease which can be caused by the need if the latter has been pickledin this way before sowing,and the sowing is done in a field in or near which this particular disease has not been noticed for about two years. of immunity and plants enjoy some amount (/)Animals from epidemics if they are kept in a vigorous condition. For vegetables, water
bran,
and manure,
salt,fenugreekand
and for animals,oil-cakes, wheatpulses, sugar
and stimulating invigorating is,generally speaking,unsuitable are
foods. A vigorousconstitution for the growth of parasites.It has been noticed that even wheatunaerified condition of the rust, which is favoured by a damp, i.e., soil,is corrected after a good shower of rain where the crop had showed not only rust but also need for water. A list of germicides, the proportion which usually including suffices to kill the germs or prevent their growth,is given below.
The
is not applicable in the case of every germ, same proportion and it is safest to use a stronger solution in every case. Some of these have been experimentedwith only in the case of cholera bacillus. Others have not been experimented with on any pathogenic but the ferment of of witie or on only sugar-water germ, or (Bacillusaceti)
harmless germs. So the following table will only give a rough idea as to the proportionin which different germicidesshould be used. Sugar has the effect of preventingthe growth of Bacillus anthracis. The use of sugar or molasses should therefore be freely resorted to in the treatment of anthrax and in feedingof animals when this epidemicis raging. Salt also has germicidal properties and the use of salt which is in vogue in Bengal in the treatment of anthrax (gobasanta) is to be considered quiterational. some
Iodide of mercury Bichloride of mercury Nitrate of Silver
Hydrogen peroxide Iodine
..
such
.
.
.
1
.
(corrosive sublimate) .
..
..
.
.
..
..
.
to
1 to 1 to
4
1 to 1 to
200,000 100,000 50,000 8,000 6,000
DISEASES
ZYMOTIC
AND
REMEDIES
[Koch has ascertained that 1 to 100 killthe to germs of cholera.]
FOB
THEil.
of iodine is
required
Sulphateof Quinine lodof
orm
Naphthalene Sulphateof copper Mustard oil (English) acid Salicylic Cinnamon
oil
Permanganate of potash
Eucalyptusoil Hydrochloricacid Borax
Camphor Arsenic Chloride of zinc Lactic acid of sodium Carbonate .
.
Alcohol
CHAPTER AGRICULTURAL PROFESSOR
CXXXIT. BACTERIOLOGY.
HANKIN, of the Agra Bacteriological Laboratory,
few years ago that the water of the Ganges and the contained Juinna metre, nearlya thousand microbes to the cubic centithat is,in about a quarter of a teaspoonful. In European laboratories they usually find one to two hundred bacteriological thousand microbes per cubic centimetre of water. Even ordinary
reporteda
about one hundred microbes As is the water, so is the air and the the cubic centimetre. earth teemingwith microbes. Generally speaking, theyare harmless ; but occasionally the air,or the water, or milk,or even the earth,teems with germs which are capableof producingepidemics. A cubic yard of country air contains from fifty to three hundred and fifty two germs, while a cubic yard of cityair contains over thousand germs, and the air inside a house contains over five thousand where there is carpet or mat germs per cubic yard,specially of street dust may used in the rooms. An ounce contain over
contains water usually good drinking to
thirtymillion living germs.
The superficial of soil also teem layers There may be hundreds of thousands in a single soil,but at a depth of ten to twenty feet there grainof superficial On the top of highmountains and in mid-ocean microbes. are no the air is free from microbes,and springwater is also nearlyfree. fermentation and putreDuring the changes called respectively faction microbes multiplyenormously,and in this sense, these of microbes. be called the usual source When processes may juicesof fruits are fermented for making wine, when cooked or uncooked meat or vegetables when milk gets sour, when get spoilt, curd of milk is ready for churning, when cheese is getting ripe,
with bacteria.
specialmicrobes
multiplyenormously. These
are
either
useful
574
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
harmless microbes. During the processes of disease, which classed be in as fermentation,there is,however, senses, many may, of disease organismswhich are afterwards a similar multiplication
or
disseminated. All the effects which microbes are able to produce are not, however, the results of their direct action. During their growth,and in fact, during life of any kind, there are a group of soluble ferments producedwhich carry on part of the work of
Enzymes. "
troyed. the microbes or other living organismslong after the life is desFor instance,they are able to render soluble many foods which would otherwise be too insoluble to be of any use. tion Absorpof food substances in the alimentarycanal of animals takes placeafter decompositioneffected by such soluble or unorganized which termed ferments are Enzymes are insoluble in enzymes.
alcohol, but
soluble in water, and they must be in solution In be able to do their work of decomposingfood substances. the saliva,for instance,there is an enzyme which dissolves starch into it In seeds also there Ris an converting sugar. enzyme, called diastase,which is capable of converting starch into sugar. called pepsin,in the stomachs of higher There is another enzyme in the presence meat animals, which has the power of dissolving of an acid. In the intestine there is an enzyme which is able to dissolve meat in the presence of an alkali. Enzymes do not diminish or increase in amount (likemicrobes)in doingtheir work. They do their work best in the presence of moisture at a temperature of about 98"F. Heatingto the boiling point destroystheir to
In these two respects they resemble microbes,but must power. from the latter. be nevertheless carefully distinguished Microbes or ordinaryferments are livingorganisms which of tation. fermenand are multiplying. They also cause capable growing With a high power microscopethey can be actuallyseen.
Enzymes
themselves
Fermentation.
"
the Fermentations are
often
product of microbes.
of many (I) Fermentation are
kinds, of which proper, e.g. (a) the by yeast fungus
the following are examples: saccharine fermentation caused Vinous or in and certain moulds of alcohol ; (6) resulting the production caused by a microbe Acetic fermentation known as Mycoderma aceti actingon alcoholic solutions ; (c)Lactic fermentation caused by another microbe known as Bacillus lactis acting on the sugar "
caused by still another microbe of milk ; (d)Butyric fermentation the Bacterium butyricumactingon known lactic acid. as (II)Putrefaction or growth of saprophytic germs on dead waste animals. This is plantsor usuallyaccompanied by the production of mal-odorous gases containingsulphur,phosphorus, etc. and also of highlypoisonoussubstances known as ptomaines.
{Ill)Pathogenic fermentation is caused by disease-producing in the tissues of plants^andanimals. During their germs living lifethey producetoxins or poisonoussubstances which are highly deleterious to the life of the plant or the animal. It is not by
AGRICULTURAL
575
BACTERIOLOGY.
caused by an abundant growth of capillaries productionof a poisonous substance that an animal dies so suddenlywhen it is attacked by the bacilli, anthrax. by (IV) Fermentation caused by unorganizedferments from the above three classes of true which must be distinguished
the
blockingup
of
but by the Bacillusanthracis,
caused by microbes. fermentation The fever which Anti-toxin treatment. accompanies most microbes is the result of a fermentation diseases due to pathogenic ^caused by a toxin or poisonsecreted by the microbes of the disease). "
defendingitself againstthis poisonthe animal is often able to this toxin, hence capableof neutralizing prepare a body specially and if it can be prepared,a specific called an anti-toxin, against the disease. In two diseases,viz.,diphtheria and glanders, the has proved most valuable. ^'anti-toxin treatment Dr. Koux's the microbe of DiphtheriaSerum is preparedby first cultivating for The in broth weeks. meat some diphtheria liquid portionis then filtered off from the bacilliand the clear liquidis injected In
'
under the skin of a horse. Minute doses are used at firstand cause of a certain amount of anti-toxin in the blood, the production animal and so the is able to stand largerdoses of the virus or toxin of diphtheria.By gradually increasingthe dose of toxin in of anti-toxin present the blood becomes larger the amount and be increased and almost to The extent. blood can larger any of a horse thus containing of anti-toxin is serum largeamounts and successfullyused as a remedy for diphtheria in regularly Europe. The substance called mallein,which is used for diagnosing and sometimes also for curingglanders,is a fluid similarly not only from horse to horse, prepared. Glanders is communicable but also to human beings,dogs,goats, donkeys and mules. It is a disease caused mallei),which appears in by a bacillus (Bacillus the form of an obstinate runningcold,or in which the skin of the face and neck of the horse is affected by streakysores (farcy).
now
be collected from inside these sores and cultivated in broth at the temperature of 98"F. for 30 days. The culture is afterwards sterilized at the boilingtemperature for Then the dead bacilliare separatedout from the liquid hour. one
The
bacillus
can
portionand the liquidportion (which is called mallein) is used for diagnosingthe disease in suspicious cases (when an injection fever). Once
cured, even a strong dose of fever in the animal, into which the fluid is mallein does not cause injected.For diagnosticpurposes the use of another toxin is causes
temporary
Professor agriculturists. that tuberculin,i.e.,the serum separatedout
Koch discovered in a somewhat similar manner from a culture of Bacillus tuberculosis, when injectedin small doses into cattle afflictedwith tuberculosis, into an animal which producesfever,while a similar dose injected is not so suffering, producesno reaction. This is thus a good also of
some
means
of
use.
interest to
detectingtuberculosis
in cattle,and
is
now
in
regular
576
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
OF
to the appear* usuallyclassifiedsimplyaccording of the under the microscope. ance organism,as seen form of the microbe is the coccus The simplest or form, spherical which this form the retain last known to and those are as Micrococci. bell Micrococci,however, become slightly elongatedand then dumbdivide then each and themselves into But the two. shaped generalappearance of a cluster of micrococci is that of minute of a cluster of microslittlespheres. If the generalappearance copic
Microbes
are
form
and
if most i.e., fungiindicates elongation,
of the microbes in the instead of cluster are like short or beingspherical spindle-shaped, rods, in appearance, then they are called Bacteria. If the general drical appearance of a group of microbes is that of bits of thread or cylinthese are classed as Bacilli. These rods of different lengths, bent or curved, fine or fairly be straight, plump, of the sam" may
thickness throughout,or beaded, or knot-like in appearance. the bacilli are serpentine(i.e., made up of small S's), When they Vibrios ; and when they are to be recognized as cork-screw are or Spirochcetce. The common shapedtheyare called either Spirilla bacillus of cholera is to be classed of
as
a
spirillum, generallyrepresenting
only. simple forms, viz.,micrococcus,bacterium, and spiroand bacillus (withits variations of vibrio,spirillum, forms each under there Where are the complex chseta), group. in called micrococci usuallyoccur pairs,they are diplococci.The part
in chains
groups
(guti)is
of fowl-cholera
microbe occur
turn
one
these
Besides
of
they occur
they
are
four, they in the form
Where
When a diplococcus. micrococci called streptococci. When they occur in called tetrads or tetra-cocci. Where
they
are
of cubes
or
square
clusters, they are
in
called called
irregular masses, they in largeuninterrupted masses these called in the form masses are scum, zoogloea. Bacteria also occur or in pairs. Bacterium termo, the ordinary singly a double as usuallyoccurs spindleprovided germ of putrefaction, with hair-like appendages termed flagellae. of bacteria is lTFV?r^ The unit of measurement "f a millimeter, which is equalto ^-^th of an inch,and this lengthis represented The letter the lengthof bacteria usuallyvaries from 2 to /A. by sarcince.
occur
where of slime or
; and staphylococci
are
they occur
2
the
breadth
from
2/u. The
Bacillus anthracis about lO/*in help of micrometers, measuring of bacteria time as microscopic observation. is done at the same The dimensions be also judgedby comparisonwith those of a microbe may to the observer. of certain microbes, whose dimensions are known Reproduction.Yeast cells multiply by budding, whereas
10/x,and
about la length. With the rods
are
"$
in diameter.
to
Yeast
cells
are
"
and multiplyby fission,
for this reason the groups of microbes, viz.,micrococci, bacteria and bacilli, are generally Besides termed Schizomycetes. reproductionby gemmation or microbes
proper
budding,which takes placein the case of yeast, and reproduction which takes placein the case of Schizomycetes, there by fission,
AGRICULTURAL
577
BACTERIOLOGY.
is another method of reproduction, mz.} by the formation of spores in the interior of the organisms. Yeast fungiusuallyhave four in each. Bacilli and spirilla often have several spores formed do Micrococci not form spores. Some bacilli, spores in each. free access air of and anthrax bacilli, a r equire temperature e.g., 70" F. to 105" F. for free formation of spores. of between of putrefaction, Some germs, e.g., the germs are not parasitic
plant. They flourish best at the temperature microbes of 75" to 85" F., while parasitic generallygrow the temperature best with a temperature of 98" to 104" F., i.e., Most microbes stop growing below a temperof the animal body. ature of 48" F., and a few are destroyedby freezing, though the microbes remain low of only quiescentat majority temperatures Under repeatedthawings and do not actuallylose their vitality. more and freezings they succumb quickly. But spores of anthrax
on
livinganimals
or
this treatment. stand dry heat better than moist heat, and can if it is intended to destroymicrobes by the use of hot water, or by which are likely to contain microbes, heatingmilk or other liquids the to it is necessary bring up temperature to 150" F. Some microbes which live in the soil can resist the temperature of even to a heat of 250" F.,for ten 165" F., and others must be subjected before they are killed. In the ordinaryboiling minutes temperature of water it requiressix hours to kill some of the spores of Exposureto heat,not sufficientto killdiseaseputrefactive germs. producinggerms, may, however, attenuate their virulence. This survive even Microbes
possiblethat the which would otherwise produceepidemicsmore or less harmless. The action of sunlight, in the presence of air, independentof any heatingaction,specially is onlyeffective but light in destroyingmicrobes,is also recognized, that have most effect in in presence of air. The rays of the sun while the red ultra-violet microbes the are destroying rays rays, effect. Electric light to them have littleor no and those nearest microbes. of destroying has hardly any potency in tMs matter kill to a microbe, is yet Sunshine, which is not sufficiently great fact is of
great economic
heat of the
sun
makes
importance,as
it is
of the germs
most
able to reduce its virulence. there %are other potent agents Besides heat, air,and sunlight, for killing the growth of microbes. or Agentswhich restraining limate, subcorrosive called kill microbes are germicides, actually e.g., iron and copper sulphates,chlorine gas and quicklime, carbolic acid. Agents which only restrain the development of microbes sugar,
without
them killing
are
called
antiseptics, e.g., salt,
of iron,etc. of sulphate oil,and small quantities
dal substances used is the Disinfectants
in
a
Spores resist the forms. Products vegetative to the growth antagonistic at. HA
Germici-
like
antiseptics. septics. and antigermicides disinfectants of longer than power of germs (toxins, etc.)are generally
very
common
dilute form
name
act
givento
of germs.
37
578
OF
HANDBOOK
AGRICULTURE.
Decay of food substances may be preventedin various ways, of bacteriology and this is one of the most importantapplications and its allied arts : in the fieldof agriculture (1) By desiccation. This deprivessubstances of moistufe ally which is necessary for the growth of microbes. Desiccation actu"
"
microbes,e.g., the cholera microbe. Milk, meat, fruits may be rapidlydesiccated and preservedin air-tight is done by many tins. The desiccation of fruits and vegetables Gnom but the methods, Evaporators(Waas patent), probably which are sold at various pricesrangingfrom 30 shillings to "30 " L. of America Messrs. London, Lumley Co., Square,Minories, by killssome
and
"
"
the best for India. They consist of a series of trays above another in a vertical frame. Underneath is a placed of hot air,of a temperature hot air stove from which a current of 120" to 180" F., passes up through the series of trays. The E.
C., are
one
at the lowest of the series of trays process of dryingcommences where the heat is the greatest. Bv a lever arrangement, the whole be lifted up admittinga tray at the bottom. series of trays may Successive trays are thus added at the bottom and the upper trays Before the fruits or vegetablesare put in, they are removed. stance, Carrots and beans, for inor sliced,as necessary. cored, peeled, and sliced,and most fruits are peeled, are vegetables,as a for a few minutes before they are rule, sliced and steamed hundred pounds of fruits or desiccated. One vegetablesare
reduced
to
10 to 30
Ibs.,accordingto the varietytreated.
which must be continuous,as freezing does (2) By freezing killthe microbes, but onlysuspendstheir action so longas the freezinglasts. Meat, fruits,etc.,can be transportedfrom one not
another in freezing chambers. addition such as sugar, oil, of harmless antiseptics, (3) By salt,smoke, etc. Smoked and salted fish,bacon,preservedfruits, are jams and jellies, examples of this. The preservationof lime*
country
to
juicewith powdered charcoal is another example under this head. The addition of 64 grainsof borax to every quarter of milk can be w ithout 24 but it about for harm, practised only prevents curdling hours. which (4) Addition of minute quantities of strong germicides, beingpoisonousand injuriousto human health,should not be
encouraged. The
of alum use of bicarbonate of water, of this. examples*
ing drinkfor purifying and preserving soda for preserving milk, etc., are
and of wine for pickling (5) Use of vinegarand spirits
medicinal substances may etc., are (6) Curries, cooked
now
serving prein this connection. largelypreservedin tins in the be mentioned
condition always ready for use. After the cooking has been done, the articleto be tinned is put in the tins which have been alreadywashed with boiling with and fumed steam or watep The tins with their contents heated twice sulphurfumes. are tins soldered each in more water (the /time) at beingput boiling
580
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Ordinaryfresh milk may contain a3 many as fifty million microbes per pintwithout looking or tasting any the worse for it. But if the cows and the cowhouse are kept scrupulously clean and if the person milkingwashes his hands and the pail The milk as it leaves there are much fewer microbes. properly, concerned.
the udder
The
is almost free from
microbes
in
a
healthycow.
milk-sugarinto lactic acid. As milk into dahi, and as dahis this ferment is the agent for curdling less improperly curdled, the conditions or are apt to get more of dahi should be understood. for the most perfectcurdling required of skim-milk The sdnjo,i.e., the seed or culture,should be made and not rich milk, as it is not desirable to associate the butyric Bacillus lactis converts
ferments with the lactic. The skim-milk should be taken in the fresh state, heated to about 75"C. to pasteurizeit,i.e., to ternk ill all the after little and a then, porarily adding germs, watery portion of any dahi, the pasteurizedand inoculated skim-milk should be left in a cool place, at a temperature of about 16"C. i.e.,
This
can
dahi
or
be used afterwards as souringagent for making good for souringcream before churningit into butter. We often find dahi of a slimycharacter. This is due to a micrococcus t he and replacing, ing resisti n numbers or attacking milk-sugar larger the action of the lactic bacilli. This micrococcus multiplying becomes is s lime. and the slime There are a a zooglcea, zooglcea other characteristics we notice in dahi,tksmost noticeable of which coloured patches on the surf ace of pots of bazaar dahi. The are blue
patchesare
to several
due to
Bacillus cyanogenus,
the
yellow patches prodi-
and the blood-red patchesto Micrococcus bacilli,
giosus. There
is a Sarcina which producesrose and another which brown-red acid bacteria lactic and the of one produces colour, milk like Bacillus acidi lactis imparts to it a while coagulating blood-red colour if lightbe excluded. These chromogenic microbes which are fairly in milk are not known to produce common
disease,thoughthe blood-red colouration producesa superstitious horror which induces owners of valuable cows to part with them
theydo
that the cause of the blood-red colouration not present in the cow with was at all,but in impurities which the milk came Redness of contact. i n milk, subsequently due to the mixture of.blood from inflamed udder, is a different where the redness is visible at the time of milking. thingaltogether, There is not one bacillus only but many, which curdle milk and cause acid and carbonlactic into milk-sugarto splitup dioxide gas. The curdling itselfcould be caused by any acid,as in the preparation of chhdnd out of boiled milk, and also by certain of these enzymes, e.g., rennet, and the milk of sheord. As none microbes are known do to develop spores, they not requirevery much heat to kill them. A temperature of 158" F. is sufficient all except the Batillug to destroythem lactisof Hueppe, which at once,
as
producesthe method
of
not
know
The uniform dahi not readilyliquefying. heatingmay hence be used for obtainingfirst class most
DAIRY
ddhi
and
goivdUsin
581
BACTERIOLOGY.
first class butter,such as are of the Bengaldistricts. some
obtained by ordinarily
When
daki is kept too long,a visiblemould develops the on This is the Oidium lactis, is which a sisting higherfungus conof hypheeand spores. Sliminess and stringiness of dahi of which have been studied. caused by various fungi, many
"crust.
are
Cheese. Besides the lactic ferments there are the cheese ferments which break down These casein casein the of milk. or ferments being mostly spore-forming difficult to ferments are killin the milk, and these account in sterilizing for the difficulty milk. of these is the Tyrothrixtenuis The commonest of Duclaux. It can stand a temperatureof 239" to 248" F. Cultivated in milk at* a temperature of 98|"F.,itis capableof curdling milk, the "
curd at first formed being redissolved afterwards by the action bacillus. of the same effectedby this bacillus result in the productionof peptone, leucin, tyrosin,ammonia, in butyric acid, etc. Other bacteria also play a part in case of the and others in fermentation, ripening probably still
The'decompositions
cheese. It has been noticed that cheese does not ripenproperly if the milk is pasteurized, if boiled or sterilized milk is or of milk loses most used before thl addition of rennet. Such of cheese. of which in the the bacteria,some are ripening helpful have not But the bacteria helpfulin the ripeningof cheeses of the been isolated,and no ripening cheese, improvement in due to the addition of pure cultures of specific bacteria,has been as
yet effected. Besides
bacteria which specific the lactic and the curd
it is doubtful
whether
there
are
any
of cheeses, or whether helpin the ripening bacteria not principally are cerned conforming
also. in the ripening bacilliform butyric Butter. Though some of the curd-forming acid, one of the characteristic constituents of a butter, it is not Butter to be supposedthat the latter is a productof fermentation. fermented be made from fresh milk as well as from sour, i.e., can "
milk. Butter made from sour milk or sour cream keeps better^ obtained. and by souring, is o f butter a larger Butyric proportion acid,no doubt, is obtained as a residue from the breakingdown of milk-sugar which is effected by various lactic ferments (CaHl2Oa C4H809-^2C02+HJ. The presence of butyric acid of be detected in all ripenedcheeses. As the fat globules can of is the cream milk come togethermore readilyif the casein =
such fermentation plays previously precipitated by fermentation, of of the ordinary processes of manufacture a part in most milk should be used in as from cream, and if no state as centrifugal possible, separator is shallow fermentation the in should milk set employed, pans, by being preventedby renderingthe milk as cold as possible
butter. fresh a
If butter is made
rapidlypassingthe milk may
be set at
fermentation
sets
that the througha refrigerator, 55" F.). II a temperature of 12 to 15"C. (say, offers takes which in, coagulation place, fresh milk
582
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
\
resistance to fat globules to the surface. readily rising fat
globuleshave
After the
the surface, the top portion of the is This,containingall the fat globules, and, from this,butter should be made after fermentation or fresh milk can be fermented and butter made from the fermented milk or dahi. In this climate it is sour difficultto secure the proper temperature for settingof cream, and it is better therefore to obtain butter from dahi or from clotted cream as is the (sJiar) generalpracticeof the country. is practised The latter method in Devonshire also,where the milk is set in deep tinned vessels, or iron of of brass, or pans and after twelve hours' standingwithout disturbance, fire is lit and the milk heated tillthe first steam is seen in bubbles "on the surface of the milk, after which the vessels are allowed to stand undisturbed and cool until the milk is quitecool,and then off. The is skimmed (sayafter ten or twelve hours)the cream obtained is left to ferment before butter is churned out so cream of it,which is usuallydone by flapping it with the hand in a tub for about ten minutes only. This modified plan of making butter be introduced in this country. Churningshould out of shar may be done early in the morning. But if the temperature at this of warm time be below 64" F., sprinkling water, while churning
milk
is skimmed called the cream,
to
come
off
.
dahi or shar, helps to All the fermentation
bring
divested of possible, the keepingqualityare
all sugar of no
the fat globulestogetherfaster. and other processes applied in the manufacture of butter help only to bring the fat globules already existingin the milk together in as pure a state as and
If the quantity and consideration,the sweetest butter obtained of the freshest be the cream out milk, by separating can The milk in the fresh state. out of it and churning the cream to yield some also can be churned directly butter,though a less
quantitystillis
obtained
by
CHAPTER SOIL
this
casein.
means.
CXXXIV.
BACTERIOLOGY.
that land left without crop increases in IT has been known in spiteof loss of soluble matter by drainage. It has fertility soils which yieldvery poor been further observed that poor and beet are yet capable of yielding returns of cereals, turnips, of leguminouscrops.; and further,that land which good returns deteriorated by heavy croppingis recuperatedby has become growingclover,arahyr,or some other leguminouscrop on it. This recuperationof exhausted land is due to the presence of a large number of microbes. The power of microbes,and, in a few cases,, of fungito make u$e of the free nitrogenof the air has been
demonstrated
by
various
and observers, notablyby Hellriegel
Wilfartb,in Germany. the
root-nodules of It is now also known
583
BACTERIOLOGY.
SOIL
The
of the microbes in multiplication has been studied. leguminousplants chiefly
that microbes of root-nodules are not the and fixing of the nitrogenof the only capable utilizing air,and probablybacteria have a wide influence in feeding plants with nitrogen. Some nitrogen in accumulated soil in the is, fact, ones
by
whether microbes and fungi, many Berthelot's experimentswent to show
very
not.
they live on
roots
that 75 to 100
or
Ibs.
in some and 900 Ibs. of nitrogen per over was cases acre accumulated of by bacteria, independently leguminous any rather hindered than helpedaccumulation plant,and that humus of nitrogenfrom this source. Fixation of nitrogenin the soil goes
and at
on
by day
and
by night,but
high temperatures
(50 to 104"
more
in daytime, actively
of air,and moisture from 12 to 15 per cent, in the soil,are also helpful. bacteria accumulate Though nitrogen fixing largelyin the roots of leguminousplants, soilsin which leguminous crops have in which such fixation is most those not are recently grown active. Thus there is a limit to the accumulation of nitrogen by the growth of leguminouscrops, and it is not possible to go on the fertility of soils by taking one leguminouscrop increasing Rotation therefore is necessary, if the organism after another. which bring about the desired fixation of nitrogenfrom the be utilized to the best advantage. to atmosphereare Though the uppermost layers of soils teem with microbes
F.).
Free
access
there are scarcelyany microbes below a depth of three feet from the surface. Among those found in the surface layerthere are valuable from an agricultural more none point of view than the the complexorganicmatter added as manure group which convert for the nutrition of the plants. The into the nitrates required fication process by which this is carried out is called nitrification. Nitrii these when and the ganisms orso surface, freelyat goes on more the beds are made used specially for making nitrates, are with soil dug out which results from a deep pit. It is not certain ifthe nitrification, of the result in the formation of saltpetre, is chiefly the action of
layersof soil and only with the superficial
not
microbe or the joint result of that of several microbes, though since the completeand the latter is the most probable,especially made. One of of Winogradsky were convincinginvestigations one
the
in the earlier part of the process, which
microbes principal
matter wide influence in decomposingdecayed vegetable by Bacillus amylodestroyingthe cellulose of vegetablecells,is the drum-stick It is bacter discovered by Van a shaped Tieghem. anaerobic microbe, and has been stated to be active in the of JAite.Possibly the nutrition of ruminant animals,which retting
has
a
able to digesta due to this microbe. are
largeproportionof cellulose,is
also
partly
also to be one of the active agents seems etc. The in the production of butyricacid in cheese, hay, silage, commonest
microbe
It
of
matter, vegetable putrefying
and
hence
584
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
of the most importantagents in changingthe organicmatter in the soil, is the Bacterium Termo. It can be alwaysobtained by while in water some rotting pulse hay shows Bacillus ; rotting subtilis more abundantly. Bacillus subtilis.Bacterium termo, Bacterium a nd Micrococcus the commonest urece are amylobacter of all microbes and are present everywhere,and are allvery important in the changesoccurring in the soil. one
These microbes, however, the
are
only the agents commencing
into the nitrates requiredby mately by that of others,which ultiallthe o f the the into form materials of salts bring nitrogen of ammonia. These salts of ammonia then acted upon by a are which producesnitrites of potash or specialnitrifying organism, These lime. latter are finally converted by stillanother microbe for plant-food. into the nitrates required After the discovery of the organismsin the roots of leguminous plantscausingthe fixation of nitrogenit was imaginedthat the addition of a culture of these microbes would increase the crop of such leguminouscrops on any soil ; a material called nitragin" conversion plants. Their
of
organicmatter
activityis followed
"
It consisted of a jelly, which on was, in fact,put on the market. there has been sown minute organisms derived from the nodules found in the roots of leguminousplants, such as arahar,dhaincha, sold and little bottles containing in was etc., ground-nut, sunn, of jelly, two the surface of which a white mouldor on an ounce substance has claimed by the manuIt was been facturers looking grown. that this small speckof white fungus, ifmixed with about about of and the water over gallon water, sprinkled carefully a hundredweightof earth, and thoroughlymixed with it, was half an acre of land when spreadover it as capableof inoculating and that land so inoculated would in most cases a top-dressing, much of other or a beans, clover, minous leguproduce largercrop peas, half
a
plants,than uninoculated
land. root-nodules of leguminousplantswere first discovered by the famous anatomist, Malpighi,about the year 1660. For taken of them until a Eussian two centuries no further notice was careful microscopic a botanist, Woronin, made study of them. He described the root-nodules in 1866, and noticed that at a certain filledwith a slimy matter stage of their development,they were of little myriads tiny containing brightcorpuscles capableof motion allied to the and resemblingbacteria,and he thoughtthey were Vhich caused the finger and toe in turnips.De Vries, slime fungi The
he absorbers of nitrogen, in 1877, discovered that they were as lifeof whole the found they were full of albumen the plant during of the seed in the host plant, until about the time of the ripening for the use of the future generain which is stored the albumen tion. on this,Beyerinckthen Following
discovered that the
of the nodules was due to a real Bacterium, and he grew nutrient medium outside the plant,takinghis seed from a
growth it in
a
variety
SOIL
585
BACTERIOLOGY.
of leguminous plants. He gave the Bacterium the name of Bacillus radicicola. firstdiscovered that the nodules enabled leguminous Hellriegel air of the of the free nitrogen by converting plantsto make use their in bodies. it into living matter Experiments organicproteid for made in almost all parts of Europeconfirmed this pointonce alL of which I have already spoken, nitragin, conducted by Nobbe at Tharand, was experiments cultures of Bacillus radicicolain in in Germany, growing pure to which was a decoction of the added,when liquefied, gelatine, is accustomed planton which the organismunder investigation
The manufacture the resultof the
to
of
tion Nobbe found that the best results in the way of inoculaattained when the micro-organisms were got from a soil
feed. were
growingplantsof
the
with,so
kind
same
that,in order to
as
givevigourto
those he a
experimenting
was
clover crop, the soilshould
obtained by cultivation from micro-organisms Thus the Bacillus and the nodules of the clover plant, on. so radicicola of Beyerinck, by Nobbe as though it was recognized affected is powerfully the one original organismpresentin all soils, of the leguminous in its nature by the nature plantit grows on. material for inoculation,cultures made in preparing Accordingly, of leguminousplantsare from the nodules of the various species to crops be used for application that they may so kept distinct, of the same process, the speciesonly. As an actual practical method of soilinoculation by Nobbe 'smethod has proveda failure. Except in the case of a few sandy or moorland soils which have
be inoculated with
not
borne previously
a
leguminouscrop
there has
been
little
material. It was thoughtin using the inoculating ton, for this had been found by Moore, in Washing1904 that the reason of failure was the weakeningof the who stated that the cause media as had been microbes through culture in such artificial no his culture in media containing organic employed. He prepared but so far the cultures he has and only a trace of nitrogen, matter
benefit from
have been
sent out
We
are.
by
no
means
great a failure in India
as
near
an
as
the former
of the understanding
ones.
questioneven
yet. Such are
by
recent
beneficial or the
described
been in organismspresent the soil. And
useful bacteria
as
have
only by Russell and investigation no
means
others indicate not undesirable bacteria also present but
only that
also that there are many there exist .otherlarger chiefly protozoa,which actually organisms, destroylarge numbers of the beneficialbacteria which may be theamprovement in a soil which results present. This explains "
as whether by heat or 'by antiseptics, from partial sterilisation, sensitive protozoa, sterilisationdestroysthe more this partial freelv* and allows the useful bacteria thus to develop more
586
HANDBOOK
OF
CHAPTER VACCINES
AND
AGKICULTURE.
CXXXV. THEIR
PREPARATION.
importantresults of the studyof bacteriology has been the methods devised for protecting appliedto agriculture farm animals by vaccination againstseveral of the most virulent of the diseases to which they are subject. The firstof these,in which the possibility of such vaccination was proved,was anthrax^ tion or gutior go-basanta, it is called in Bengal,and the demonstraas ONE of the
most
modifications in due to Pasteur in Paris. Numberless the method of preparingthe vaccine has since taken place,but the idea remains the same throughout. vaccines The principle of these which the preparation on depends is reallythat of accustomingthe animal to weak nonwa#
the disease microbe, so that when a more virulent form is introduced into the system it is able to resist an infectionwhich would otherwise cause it to succumb. Pathogenic certain conditions,, to disease or producingorganisms,subjected either diminish or augment in their virulence. The virus of swine virulent
cultures of
increases in virulence plague,for instance,inoculated in pigeons, in each successive generation of its passage throughpigeons. Ifr in the virus the is however, passedthrough successive generations bodies of rabbits,it becomes gradually attenuated in virulence, and be after the tenth generation the virus taken from the rabbit may swine plague. used to inoculate pigsto protect them against of the in The actual methods preparation now employed the anthrax vaccines are three,the firstbeingused by Chauveau, In method. second by Arloing,and the third Pasteur's own
the virulent virus is taken from a recentlydead animal first, This with an ordinary sterilizedpipettein the usual manner. the
is sown in a sterilizedflask on broth, and the culture of the bacilli is allowed to go on in the flask by leavingit for twenty hours in a this period When chamber to a temperature of 42" C. regulated lized is sucked into sterithe vaccine (still of time has elapsed, virulent) tubes, sealed at one end and having a cotton-wool plug at the other. The sealed end is broken off,the tube passedthrough of the wrist, flame four or five times with a twistingmotion a drawn in by vaccine the of dipped into the flask,and a portion sufficientquantityhas a the other end* When
suckingthrough
in, the end is againsealed. The cotton-wool end fe also seajed beyond the cotton-wool,so as to obtain a sealed glasa been
drawn
Several of these tubes are tube containingvirulent vaccine. This rack is plunged time placedon a rack. taken at the same ment water in a vessel containing kept by a similar automatic arrangeuniform at a temperature described has been as already of time, of this period At the expiration of 48"C. for three hours. attenuated for application the vaccine in the tubes is
sufficiently^
in the usual
quickestway
Tins is the animals. of preparingan anthrax vaccine.
manner
to
simplestand the
588
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
is drunk. If the malady does not exist duringthe sucklingperiod it is best to wait until the weaning. Sheep are vaccinated in the inner part of the thigh,the firstvaccine on the rightthigh,and the second on the left : oxen and horses behind the shoulder,
sometimes before,lest the collar should press on- the placeof inoculation. It is well to shave off the hair of the part before lest inoculating,
the orifice of the syringeshould, be blocked up with a hair and prevent inoculation. When vaccine tube has a been uncorked be used a second time ; what not once, it must remains over after the first series of operations be rejected, must and not reserved for another placeor occasion.
We often 4
may
confused
from anthrax to a disease which has been in Bengal,and as it, known as gala-phula
turn
now
with
charbon symptomatique in France. The characters that distinguish anthrax '
are
from
charbon
matique sympto-
"
Charbon (1) Anthrax is fatal to almost all animals known. virus,if inoculated into rabbits,or dogs,does not have any effect.
White mice may or may the virus. The animals "ows and oxen die more
not
die of charbon
when
inoculated with cattle. are
to charbon most susceptible of charbon than frequently
of anthrax, and half the number recover. guineaSheep die when pigs are also susceptible animals, that is, invariably inoculated with the virus,whether of charbon or of anthrax. The to enable one subjecthas not yet been sufficiently investigated to say whether man is more subjectto one than to the other. from
which
about
Limpingbefore
death is an invariable symptom in charbon. (2) (Edema takes place at the pointof inoculation in both Anthrax and charbon. When incision is made of the oedemaan tous part, the appearance of which presents itself in the case -anthrax is moist, bright red. In the case and light and gelatinous, of charbon,however, the oedematous part on incision presents dull dark red, almost black, appearance. a The oedematous
part in the state ; but
of anthrax also is redder than in the natural the difference in colour in the two diseases is most case
characteristic.
(3) Both
charbon and anthrax virulent for susceptible are but in charbon its death takingplace is effect, ; quicker within twenty-fourhours ; whereas, in the case of anthrax, oftener after thirty-six for more hours,and usuallyif the animal lingers than a week, recovery takes place. Two inoculated guinea-pigs time by M. Arloing, at the same -with the objectof demonstrating the difference between found two days the two diseases,were inoculated with dead that and the other (viz., afterwards,one
animals
anthrax
virus)stillalive.
(4) The disease in the one case is caused by a non-motile in the in the case of anthrax, ajidin the other,i.e., bacillus, viz., which .case of charbon,by a bacterium, which is a shorter organism, never
forms chains
as
bacillido*
AND
VACCINES
THEIR
58!"
PREPARATION. *
"
(5) The organismsof disease are found in the case of anthrax less in every tissue, or the body, more all over but more cularly partithe in. the spleen, heart, and the liver. In the case of charbon they are found onlyin the oedematous part;and theyare localised. invariably (6) Swellingof the glands of the neck is invariably present in the case of charbon when it arises spontaneously, and onlysometimes So neck swelling of anthrax. in the case must not be regarded peculiardiagnostic necessarily symptom
a
as
in the
case
of charbon.
(7)
sound crepitating
A
presentin the
(8) Spores
charbon,never
of
case
of the
formed
are
in
oedematous
in the
the
case
charbon
part is of anthrax.
always-
organism (named
by M. Arloing,Bacterium Chauveau) in the body of the animal when it is stillalive. In the case of anthrax,the spore formation even of Bacillus anthracis goes on onlyoutside the body of the animal,, in contact with the free oxygen of the atmoswhen the bacillicome phere. (9) Bacillus anthracis than
a longer but narrower organism In artificialculture Bacillus anthracis Chauveau. long filaments ; whereas, under similar conditions,.
Bacterium
appears
Bacterium the
is
reason
as
Chauveau
being
incapableof
full
appears
even
state^ organism,'
shorter than in its natural
that this bacterium
development in
is
an
contact
anaerobic with free oxygen ~
of
the air. Chauveau
is rounded the ends, Bacillus at Bacterium Chauveau in decayingbecomes ; anthracis, straight in but a inflated narrower dry state, (as in the vaccine). more ; Chauveau is found in chains of three never (11) Bacterium
(10) Bacterium
like Bacillus anthracis. The
usual mode
of vegetation is by spore formation, sometimes, however,section takes place, than two. in a series of more but never of anthrax is almost invariably found (12) An animal dying or
more,
bleedingfrom
the
anus
and nostrils. An
animal
dyingof
charbon
this symptom. The black colour of muscles in charbon is caused by the extravasation of blood into the muscular tissues,caused by the ing solvent action of the diastase of the Bacterium Chauveau dissolvthe muscular cells and allowingblood to flow into them. of the blood losing Greater oxygenationgoes on, the haemoglobin than in the natural state, and the carbon dioxide more oxygen has
never
gas
producedhelpingthe
further
developmentof
the anaerobic
bacteria. The lightred arterial blood becomes exaggeratedly of this action. veinous and dark in consequence A vaccine for charbon has been prepared by Arloing, and in is and now in France. has proved very effective, regularuse to consider rabies, turn, now in con-* or We may hydrophobia, the o f the with which of nection highestdevelopment, principle vaccination has taken place. If the virus of rabies,be passed
590
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
it is found that it rapidly bodies of rabbits, augments in virulence. A rabbit inoculated with the virus of rabies from oculated .a mad dog dies in eighteento twenty days. A second rabbit inwith the virus taken from the dead rabbit will take less time to die, and so on, until the thirtieth rabbit inoculated with rabbit takes only six days to die. the virus of the twenty-ninth of virulence is reached,the 32nd, Here, however, the maximum 33rd, etc., do not die any quickerthan the thirtiethrabbit,but they all take,after the latter,six days to die. At this stage the standard virulent virus used by Pasteur in the preparation of the
throughthe
vaccine
is
of the virulence reached, as the strength
is
now
constant.
vaccine the dead rabbit is dissected, its taken out, and hung inside a glassjar containing spinalmarrow the jar beingplacedin a room the at bottom, regulatedat potash 20" C. of The spinalcord thus gets drier a constant temperature In
preparingthe
.and drier,the and gets more
and potashpreventingputrefaction,
in
dryingup seven days
it of
attenuated. But even after more rabbits. On the 8th day it is desiccation it is capableof killing for men. But to so harmless for rabbits,and probablymuch more is made with to man be more careful,the firstvaccination applied cord desiccated for 12 days ; the second vaccination with the spinal what has been desiccated for 11 days ; the third with what has been "desiccated for 10 days ; the fourth with what has been desiccated
for 9 days ; the fifth for 8 days ; the sixth with what has been rabbits unprotectedby "desiccated for 7 days (capableof killing weaker with inoculation vaccine); the seventh (still previous with what has been desiccated for 6 days ; the eighth stronger) 5 for days ; the ninth for 4 days ; the tenth and the last vaccination which has remained with the vaccine preparedfrom spinal marrow the in Pasteur for 3 glassjar. stoppedhere. He never days only with the vaccine which is quitevirulent. But vaccinated men vaccinated believed 10 times with the graduatedvaccines he men could be inoculated with perfect safetywith the virulent vaccines, with made and those two that is, row, one days'desiccated spinalmartaken out of the dead and with undesiccated marrow freshly the dead dog. The desiccated spinalcords are mixed with water in glasses before syringing the vaccines up severally is done with under inoculation Pravaz The a to men. syringe, and into of the human the abdominal cuticle in the case subject, rabbit
or
of lower animals for experimental purposes. be that Pasteur's method of inoculation for rabies, will be in both as a curative and also as a protective measure, in but the future adoptednot onlyin human pathology pathology,
the
brain
It may
of our than
domestic
animals
also,which
are
no
less
subjectto
rabies
men.
Pathological explanationuncertain. Why this method of fihosecaused by lower organfor infectiousdiseases (i.e., isms) "
treatment
should prove efficaciousis difficultto say. But analogy A person may that it is a most natural method.
goes to show
THE
591
FUNGI.
HIGHER
and larger himself to takinggradually doses of larger take such a w ithout he seriousharm as can quantity arsenic until kill one not so accustomed. So with alcoholic TOuld certainly customing opium, and perhapsall poisons.It is like a person acpoison, heavier and heavier weights, touching himself to lifting hot substances or performingacrobatic feats. There is an to adapt almost unlimited degreeof tendencyin animal organisms which to the circumstances bhemselves to theyare subjectedif them. This to subjected tendencyis shared they are gradually
accustom
alike by the muscles,the nerves, the viscera,and, in fact,by all in what way custom is of the body. But exactly livingportions It may be that no one can say. againstsusceptibility a protection chemibal alteration a in this process tissues the particular undergo altered tissues are no and the chemically of accustoming, longer the otherwise 'poisonous deleterious or infectious diseases is a kind of conditions. Inoculation for of in the rabies case done at several stages; is It accustoming. the in of anthrax, according case of charbon at two ; in the case and at also Pasteur's two, method, accordingto Chauveau's to the tissues come in contact methods only at one stage. When alteration chemical with the vaccines,some probablygoes on not acted upon
by injuriously
death, but producingoedema or fever,or some sufficientto cause the animals getting this slight disease over But slightdisease. in which the tissues become acquirea new constitution, evidently of virulent the attack virus also. invincibleto the
CXXXVI.
CHAPTER %
THE
HIGHER
FUNGI.
which show distinctive mycelia of these fungi, The green mould of moulds. and spores, are known by the name Pemcillium the caused glaucum. The by in cheese,bread,etc.,is
THE commonest
blue mould is caused by a fungus termed white mould by another termed a Mucor.
and Aspergillus,
The
Oidium
the of dahi
fungus. classification of the higher systematic diseaseof the principal to the description will getat once we fungi, of of the idea life-history fungiwhich will givesome producing these higher also included among are these plants.Mushrooms of the cultivation of edible mushrooms and a description fungi, will follow in the next chapter. disease,well recogmfestans)"rlhis Potato-rot (PhytophtJiora nized the of also as smell of the tubers, plants stinking by the peculiar as Phytophthora affected with it,is caused by a fungus known Dark patchesappear on leaves first,then a white infestans. the under on bloom both on upper and under surfaces,but chiefly the and finally surface of the leaves ; the stems are then attacked, before is also a Instead of givinga
spokenof
common
592
HANDBOOK
The disease sometimes
tubers.
AGRICULTURE.
makes
Fortunately for
weather.
in wet
OF
very
us,
rapidprogress specially the potato-crpp grows been so serious in the
as
dry season, the potato-rothas never Bengal as it otherwise would have been, but nevertheless of damage in Assam, Bengal, the amount does an enormous
at the
plainsof it
Eastern
or
a
The
the
generalconditions
or
tomato
and
other solanaceous
some
to the attack of the
fungus,and
of all these crops rot
where Nilgiris
An average 77" F. less humid. temperature of over 34" F. is than for its unsuitable lower temperature tion, propagasuitable beingbetween 50" to 60" F. the temperature most
more
are
the
Himalayas and
appears
in any
for two
it is
plantsare
necessary
or
to
threej years
also
subject
suspend the when
vation culti-
the potato-
locality.
FIG.
PHYTOPHTHOKA
116."
INFESTANS.
Explanation of the figure.'(a) Section through an infected potato -leaf showing greater protrusionof the fungus from the under surface than from the upper surface of the leaf ( x 50) ; (b) Conidiophore with conidia shown greatly magnified (X250). (c) and (d) Zoospores coming out of a conidiophore. (e) (/) Pro mycelium from Germinating zoospore. (g) Promycelium zoospore. growing directlyout of a conidiophore.(h) and (j)Oogonia and Antheridia inside shown the potato-leaf enlarged( x 250). (h)Germinating oospore. (I)Zoospores (m) Germinating zoospore. coming out of an oospore. "
If
of particle
affected leaf is examined
under the
scope, microit will be seen that the fungusgrows chiefly at the lower part from leaf to stem and of the leaf,and the growth is downwards The mycelium or spawn-threadwill be found from stem to tuber. of the lower branchingout and burstingthrough the stomata a
an
of these threads comes in contact with a leaf-cellthe latter gets discoloured and putrefied.Occasionally out at the upper surfacaalso (videJfig. a thread comes 116a). The stomata is pregettingblocked up with mycelia,transpiration vented, results. Conidiophores, and ultimatelyputrefaction i.e.,
surface,and wherever
one
THE
jointedbranches
HIGHER
593
FUNGI.
bearinglittlefruit-likebodies (conidia), appear
at the under surface. The conidia observed under a high chiefly power microscopemagnifyingabout 250 diameters will be found to be divided into
compartments ; and if a coiiidium is placedon moist substance, each compartment will be found coming out and as a ciliated zoospore film of sailingabout in the slightest These zoospores after a littletime become moisture. non-motile and more spherical.After restinga while each zoospore, if properly conditioned,throws out a mycelium, and thus the life of is repeated. the parasite The conidia also sometimes throw out a pro-mycelium without The conidia carried about with are producingzoospores. the and swim the surface of leaves bedewed the wind, over zoospores with moisture, and the infection spreads in this two-fold Insects and birds also act as carriers of infection from field way. the mycelia reach the tubers, they decompose to field. When the tubers rot the cells and corrode the starch. In bad cases but in mild cases the mycelium hibernates in the tuber altogether, these a nd tubers which contain the disease and becomes perennial, form in an undeveloped giverise,when they are used as seed, may But perennialmycelium cannot to potato-rot in the next crop. of heat, cold or moisture, and diseased survive an unusual amount therefore,do not necessarily seed-potatoes, produce a diseased a
crop.
Besides of
the
mycelia and
non-sexual
conidia
stage before
reproductive functions
(which usuallyform
the
zoospores
by as
means
an
mediate inter-
inpro-mycelial growth),Phyptophthora
by sexual festansis reproduced
section of the leaf ings intersectedby mycelialgrowth closelyobserved, littlethickenin the mycelia themselves as and buds will be observed from T hese and buds are called conidiophores. thickenings apart Oogonia and the enclosed cells Oospheres. Smaller buds growing out of the myceliawill be also noticed which are called the Antheridia. The Antheridia are the male cells,and these coming in ing with Oogonia,and the protoplasmof the Antheridia flowcontact f ertilisation takes into the Oospheres, placeand Oosporesare also called Kestingthe result. These fertilised Oosporesare round and sometimes and sometimes smooth They are spores. spinyin appearance looked at under a powerfulmicroscope. The means
also.
If
a
is
Oospores abound
after they have germiin diseased seed-potatoes nated The perennial and spent themselves. mycelium in the tuber, and conidia (whichrequire not beingable to produceconidiophores with free atmosphere for their development), contact develops rise As it and antheridia as give multiplies. zoospores oogonia do oospores when kept uniformlymoist The oospores are of brown colour and thus easily and warm. from zoospores, which are almost colourless. The distinguished than zoospores, and remaining oospoies, havinga longervitality and old leaves and hsttlms, tubers in in old potato fields decayed to
germinalthreads,so
M.
HA
38
594
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
and it is usually by their means the of that perennial seed-tuber, mycelia by means As the potato-disease potato-disease reappears year after year. spreadsfrom leaf to stem and from stem to tuber,and as it is never
they germinateagainnext
summer,
of the
and not
of developmentfrom observed to take the opposite course the of infection is not so much tuber upwards,the source the seedtuber as the decayed haulms and tubers of the previousyear. It the from is not necessary for the mycelial to take growth oospore placeon the leaf of the potato plantitself. The fungus can grow of at first on the moist soil and then graduallyspreadby means
zoospores to the leaves of the new crop. The source the previousyear'sdecayed tubers and of infection beingchiefly haulms whether lyingin fieldsor in manure heaps,and the oospores, which possess greater power of resisting climatic conditions than
conidia and
the non-sexual reproductivetissues,such as mycelia, conidia in the hilldistricts in springat or immeand zoospores, germinating diately the treatment before the potato 'sowingseason, indicated and curative. is both preventive of solution or Sulphate copper be sprinkled corrosive sublimate may the field with the help on before of a knapsackvaporiser the potatoes are sown. immediately watched and if any black patches Then the crop should be carefully and white bloom appear at the lower surface of the leaves at any portion of the field,the vaporisingshould be repeated. One preventiveand two curative treatments should be sufficient. But is not feasible all over if treatment tract affected with potato a is best to
it blight,
give up potato cultivation
for three
four or the the o f that die before out vitality resting-spores may years, in that tract. This is how the potato cultivation is resumed which ruined the crops in the Darjeeling hills about potato-blight, There was ten years ago, had to be faced. entire suspensionof for cultivation three all these over hills,but since years potato the disease has reappeared. was combated with "; In France, the potato-blight successfully the the helpof the Bouillie bordelaise, Bordeaux or mixture which consists of a half per cent, solution of sulphateof copper in hot to which a quantityof milk of lime is added. water This was plied apwith the help of the knapsacksprayingmachine called Eclair both before sowing and two or three times after gerVaporiser, mination of the seed, duringthe growth of the crop. Rust. This is a disease of cereal plantscaused by a minute then
"
Puccinia. There are different species of Puccinia, of which wheat is called Puccinia gra" the commonest attacking to attack oats minis. This is different from the Puccinia known
fungusknown
as
barleyplants. Barley plantsgrowingin the midst of rusted found entirely at the SibpurFarm free from rust, but were barleyis also subjectto a rust. The funguswas firstnoticed by Foatana, an Italianbotanist, first studied by the great German of 1767, but its biologywas De De discovered that the fungushas three botanist, Bary. Bary or
wheat
596
HANDBOOK
The
OF
AGRICULTURE.
Indian rust which affects judr,bajra^ shdmd, wild known of Puccinia is the some name by penniseti. grasses, The red patcheson judrand other leaves affected with this fungus due to uredo pustules. It should be noted, however, that are certain races of judr are naturallyalmost immune againstthis disease. These should alone be selected for seed. Attempts mune are beingmade to establish stocks of wheat which would be imbut far been definite have obtained results so no againstrust, varieties in India. by the use of the so-called rust-resisting Smut another This is disease of cereals chiefly (Ustilago). the judr,but noticed also in paddy, oats, wheat, barley, affecting m aize and shdmd. It is caused by a minute bdjrd, fungus called commonest
and
"
which affects the the variety Ustilago segetum (or Ustilago zeamays, affects It t he the maize). chiefly grain,while rust affects chiefly leaves and onlyindirectly the grain. The loss due to smut ,isnot,
however, in the
case
there may wholesale
great in this country
that caused by rust, except ear-head here and an ear-head be seen but affected with smut almost in any cornfield, destruction due to smut of in the case is not known
so
of
judr and shdmd.
wheat, barley,or
as
An
In June
and July are commonly seen and even smutted grass at Sibpur, earlier in the season one plotof showed a profuse of 1901. Khari sugarcane It is quantity smut in in connection with seeds, and if a disease, however, which comes is a bout it the o f for is one seed, negligent harvesting grainykept oats.
in an epidemicform ; while, on the other have smut disease which is it be easily a hand, can preventedin a largemeasure the seed. The spores of the fungus germinate after by pickling the seed of the cereal,with which they were has been entangled,
possibleto
The
germinatingspore throws out one or more promycelia of which are. thrown out sporidia conidia. These or joints throwingout minute germinal tubes penetrate the tissues of the of judror wheat, or whatever the cereal may be, and once seedling inside the tissues of the plant,the fungusgrows up alongthe stem in the grainsof the cereal forminghyphaeand finally fructifying sown.
from the
affected. This is how all the It is curious,the fungus when
the ear appear smutted. it developsinside the stem of the cereal, scarcelyaffects the growth of the cereal. The sorghum in 1898 was nearlyall smutted, and grown at the Sibpur Farm how it t he was surprising yet vigorously plantsgrew. But when the cereal plant reaches the stage of fructificationthe fungus
grainson
and prevents seedingaltogether,
where the ears of grainshould be there we of black spores. But these sooty see only a mass wafted the wind affect by healthygrainswhich get these spores and sewn unpickledthe next spores entangledon their surface,
theyagaingiverise to this fungus. In the case of the maize, smut-swellings appear on the stem as well as inside the cob. Bunt (Tilletia is also caused Bunt or stinking smut foetens). the life-history of which closely sembles reby a fungus (Tilletia f"tens), that of the smut-fungus(videFig. 118). The rice plant
year,
"
597
The grains by it,as well as wheat, barleyand oats. and emit The odour. a they abnormally inflated, putrid also affected by the black close to grainsare leaves and stems is the name Dhaner-yu given to the bunt fungus when spores. it affects grains of paddy. The same fungus affects oats also.
is affected become
Fm.
1 18.
SMUT
"
AND
FUNGI.
BUNT
\(fi)Spoiv of Ustilago (smut), (h)Spore of Ustilago throwing^out promyce(d) Spore of Tilletia sporidia. (c) A germinating sporidium of smut, (bunt), (e) Sporo of Tilletia throwing out promycelium with sporidia. (/) A liurn with
germinating sporidium
Bunt but they odourless and to
are
crop far
the
more
to health injurious
grains so
Headache,
other forms
of human
of bunt.
grain,it should
only give rise
when
smut.
the spores
bunt.|
adhering to grains not
spores
in the next
of
be
affected
spores
the face, been traced in
eruptionson
ailment have When bunt is known
steepedin
used
are
than
some
to as
of
bunt
seed,
ordinary
indigestion some
cases
amongst seeds germicidalolution before
weak
to be
Salt,
slaked with boilingwater, permanganate (jiiicklimc of potash,sulphate copper and sulphateof soda solutions,have been recommended for use. The spores being lighter than water, of in is also mere the excess the water as efficacious, grain steeping afterwards run out usuallycarries with it allthe spores which water adhered to the grains. originally Sugarcane Disease (Trichosphceria sacchari).This sugarcane use.
of
"
disease, due West
Indies and
to
a
fungus,broke
Mauritius, and
out
it has
a
few
years
ago
in the
appeared recentlyin
the
The disease was Godavari District of Madras. first observed in Barbados in 1893, then in Trinidad,and then in British Guiana. In 1896
it
wras
noticed
United Provinces, and
in the District of Mozuffarnagar in the since that-time, it has been found almost
everywhere in India where
is grown. sugarcane diseased canes first recognizedin July or August by are dark red and brown marks on the rind in one two or joints towards the middle or base of the canes. the time of to Up ing ripenin January or February,the red patchessteadily increase in The fibro-vascular bundles become size and number. less juicy, The
598
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRIOULTUBBI
red and spongy
in character. Fine-looking, thick and soft canes affected. Towards the ripeningof the canes black are specially specks begin to appear which burst open from within outwards. These first appear the roots and then work upwards, and near then finally the affected cane shrivels up and dies. The Eind Eoot and Fungus Fungus, at one time considered different,are two fungus. The yieldof sugar from stages of the same diseased i s a plantation very poor, and the fungusin its epidemic form does very extended damage to the crop. Juice obtained from diseased canes takes longer to crystallize.
only
Experienceon
the SibpurFarm has shown that superior us the s uch Patna as varieties, Kusur, and the Samsara, Chittagong far more ties are subjectto the attack of this fungusthan poorer variesuch as the Khari sugarcane. It has been also seen that if tops are used for seed and if these are dippedin a solution (1 : 200 of copper at the time of planting, the disease or 300) of sulphate The old affected fields must sometimes be arrested. be set can fire to as also the dry leaves and trash accumulatingat the time of harvestingand Eotation should crushing of canes. be invariablypractisedin cultivating the same as sugarcane, field if it is used for growing sugarcane after must year year hot-bed both for become the conidia of this fungus and a for the grubsof the borer moth. from seed Growing of canes and then gradually found has healthy stock a been establishing and other cane-growing localities where beneficial in Java
European plantersare
employed in CHAPTEE
MUSHROOMS IT must be not Some of the mushrooms
the cultivation
of
cane.
CXXXVII.
(AGARICUS CAMPESTBIS).
supposed that
all
noxious
fungi are
pests.
the highest fungi)offer among it is very the food be if and can food, digested, very palatable mushrooms nutritious. Some are very poisonous,and the most m ethods of edible mushrooms are : (a) practical distinguishing To taste a bit of the raw mushroom. If the taste is sweetish and If it is quite safe to count it as an edible mushroom. pleasant,
(which
are
"
it has
bitterish or acrid taste, it may
be rejected as a poisonous with the fingers. the littlebit of mushroom raw one. is If the cojourchanges from white into green, the mushroom is safe the to eat. If colour does it not a one poisonous. change, But, it is stillsafer to relyupon importedFrench bought spawn reliable from the Great Eastern Hotel,'Calcutta, or other some a
(6)To rub
a
'
firm, and
'
from it in artificially prepared sold loose is w ith manure by the incorporated Himalaya Seed Stores,Mussoorie,at Es. 2-4 per box of 2 Ibs. This givesvery good results. The best plac"to choose for mushroombeds is a damp godown, where a specially preparedsoil is to be The should 18". consist of five parts of of soil spreadto a depth
beds.
grow
The spawn
the
mushrooms
599
MUSHROOMS.
garden
mould,
ashes,
it
and
be
spread
to
another.
rich
of
country
European
grown,
the
of
also,
grown
population
Small
cellars
shelves
fixed
mushroom in who
of
first
crop towns
value
like
thfe
may
Calcutta
mushrooms
further
No
the
to
If
godown.
the
will in
utilized
are
be
to
are
mushrooms
in
beaten
watering
occasional
the
water
and
watered.
well
spawn in
mould
garden
atmosphere
September,
on
the
and
except
October.
mushrooms So
this
in
early
of
days
The
sowing
sun
five
or
dipped
after
up
the
to
way.
square,
inches
down
four
each
apart inches
covered 2
beaten
dampness
end
growing
deep
afterwards
needed
is done the
at
2
month
a
bed,
foot
a
days
two
fresh
of
part
one
After
godown.
about
inches
and for
exposed
the
sown
After
ensure
and
in
pieces
3
the is
spawning
in
holes
over
walls
be
horse-dung
fresh
up
out
in
firmly.
attention
for
spread
taken in
sown
down
mixed
should
spawn
should
up
is
of
parts
thoroughly
before the
10
walls
come
Europe
one
above
remunerative
prove
there
where as
a
is
delicacy*
a
VIII.
PART
CHAPTER GENERAL FAMINES
are
Famines
In India.
REMARKS
not
occur
upon
and have countries
countries trade and manufactures that peoplein them development, local
FAMINES.
INDIAN
ON
to be looked
highly civilized
most
CXXXVIIL
as
a
novel
phenomenon
always occurred, except in the of
are
modern in such
Europe. an
advanced
do not need to The yieldper acre
In
these
state
depend on
of
their
in these
tries counagricultural produceonly. and total failure of crops is preventedby the larger, and treatment. Severe adoption of scientific methods of tillage ancient in famines are works, and of historical in most spoken India it is the paucity of ancient historical records that makes the subjectof periodical stration. failures of crops so difficultof demonFamines of long duration are, however, casuallymentioned in many Sanskrit works, and they are spoken of as the the of sins of the sovereign.The tendencyof Hindus consequence there is a famine, is,therefore, to blame the sovereign power whenever It is their notions. to orthodox known, quite according and illustrious the most however, that even during prosperous In 1596, in the reignof the popular famines have occurred. reigns, famine raged in India, in which Emperor Akbar, a very severe selves reduced to such extremity that many people were kept themalive by devouring human flesh. In 1615-16 similar a famine occurred followed by plagtie, which lasted several years. It is also known famines raged from authentic history that severe in the reignsof Shah Jehan and Aurangzeb. In the famine of million people died in Bengal. The ten 1770, in nine months
is also
famine of 1784 sold for
The
a
of such bad type that four rupee, and the deaths from starvation recent of serious famines,viz.,that was
seers were
of wheat were innumerable.
in some prevailing of the India other 1896 from to than or severer 1901, was p$rt famine of 1874-78, but neither of these two famines which are within our living be compared in destructiveness of can memory most
human
lifeto the famines which
years
ago.
than
one
hundred
v
that because be4 supposed, the other hand, it must not there was land has been under cultivation now than ever
On more
more prevailed
REMARKS
GENERAL
ON
INDIAN
FAMINES.
601
in former times ; that because, on the whole, there has been steady in the export of food-stuffs from India; that because ndia has had no occasion yet to look to foreigncountries for of livelihood ; that because the agricultural population means before, than theyever were better off now appear to be generally that therefore there is nothing to fear from the steadyincrease of population and the necessary limit there is to extension of culti
Progress
Alreadythe extension of cultivation has gone on to such that there is not sufficient in the populouslocalities, extent an left for the cattle. Barring occasional famines, no pasture-land of the country. the food-supply actual stress is felt yet regarding But in another twenty years, unless agricultural improvements or plaguedecimates keep pace wjth the increase of population, the peopleat a stillgreaterrate than it has been doing,the aspect have of affairs may and India like Englandmay change entirely, take to emigration for food-supply, to look to foreign or sources vation.
India stands at present with wholesale scale. How at a glancefrom be seen reference to the rest of the Empire can the following table :
on
a
more
"
in India at 164 million Taking the area under food-grains at 840 Ibs. and the produce of grainper acre acres per annum and the population at 350 millions, we haye to the lot of each individual of the population only393 Ibs. of food-grains per annum, is for the needs, sufficient alarmingly a though present quantity,
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE,
if any future expansionof population ation. is taken into considerlittle, Of course, the conversion
for a time the difficulty will be naturally met of non-food into by food-growing areas areas, but there is a limit to this source of expansionalso. covered by the British Empire is about one-sixth The area of the area of the whole earth's surface,and the population represents fourth
a
stress
of
of the
populationof the whole
world.
The
population, though highestin England itself,cannot
result
in
famines
in that country. The followingamong other reasons be ascribed for this immunity. (1) The promay duce is much largerin England. (2) The population per acre does not depend upon agriculture mercial solelyfor subsistence as comhfve and manufacturing of the wealth increased pursuits now
of communication England to such an extent that unless all means with c ountries sea be stopped, there is no possibilican by foreign ty of food becoming scarce in that country. (3) The abundance superof food-produce in one part or other of the vast Empire can always supply the deficient produce of England. England in fact is not able now to produce the food she requiresfor her consumption. But she need not depend upon foreigncountries at all : her own in other parts of the world making possessions of fact her quiteindependentin this respect,though as a matter England stillimportsa good deal of wheat from Eussia, France, the United'States,and South America. (4) Emigrationto other is countries another means whereby England has maintained her positionas a wealthy country notwithstandingthe great stress of population.As the population of India is gettinglarge,it is by the fourfold means of England that India noted in the case in must also learn in the near future to keep herself above want of food-supply methods the matter better She learn must : (1) of cultivation whereby the produceof land may be enhanced. (2) She must direct her attention to commerce and manufacture, "
whereby stress on land will be lightened.(3) She must learn to importfood-stuffs from those parts of the Empire where meat and corn are producedexcessivelycheap,as soon as famine becomes certain. (4) She must learn to send out her superfluous tion populaand willingly to those parts of the Empire. The voluntarily in normal years, is not stress of population, yet felt in India because the allotment of three acres per individual of population is quitesufficient. But their where cultivators readily convert this surplus surplusfood into cash in a good year, and where food goes out into foreigncountries,a bad year brings sudden commercial enterprise distress,which is not relieved by indigenous be would as bringingfood-stuffs in from 'foreign sources, civilized countries., The Indian grain-dealer in more trouble himself about the priceof grain in Australia. round, and he Canada, or Cape Colony when a bad yeaiv comes of in common with the cultivator looks to Government for means need for doors. The subsistence to be brought to his very
the case does not
OF
HANDBOOK
proportionto the
AGRICULTURE.
recovered
rent
by
zemindars
or
the
superior
demand landlords from actual cultivators. The Government alone, from but the small to outturn actual land, a bearing proportion -causes no hardshipto the cultivator in Bengal. In appreciable comparison with the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, for a very carry lightburden in the shape of the actual rent paid by cultivators to their though revenue, landlords is higher, in Bihar and in Eastern Bengal,than specially in those up-country Provinces. vinces The acreage of the United Prored of Agra and Oudh is onlytwo- thirds that of Bengal. Debar-
instance,Bengal has
to
land
from materially increasingthe is Government to assess a higher obliged Bengal, the burden from most of the other Provinces, and rate of revenue is consequently in the United unequal. And yet the land revenue Provinces seldom exceeds ten per cent, of the gross produce of
by
land
the Permanent
revenue
Settlement
of
This is a "Governments on land.
than what Akbar claimed
burden lighter
was
imposed by
former
land. one-third of the gross Strabo learn of land due. From historian his the we as produce that, at the time of "Alexander's invasion of India, the Kaja's share of the producewas Manu chouth or fourth. a put the and one-sixteenth at one-sixth,one-eighth king'sshare variously of
the produce of land. The obtained total land revenue at the time of Akbar shorter than indeed about ten crores was what is obtained this But by the British Government. may be accounted Akbar able for by two causes was never : (1)
bringto completesubjectionfor the purpose of assessment of land revenue for this is owned such a largeterritory as by the present Government. (2) There is far more purpose land under cultivation and less junglenow than in the days of The development of the country'sresources Akbar. by means of roads and canals and railwayshas been very great and the than in the purchasingpower of the rupee is also far less now to
time
of Akbar.
The
collection, therefore,though revenue of less value than in the time of nominally higher,is intrinsically Akbar. It should be noted, however, that in the reign of land
the land revenue The present land revenue
Aurangzeb
former age from British Government
the present limit. systems of India are a direct hex itThe under modifications the Governments. exceeded
have been few and unimportant, the tendency been t he local at the time to customs prevailing having recognize of the codification of any law regardingland. And yet tracing the main feature of thfc Indian land oldest time to the present,one cannot has
revenue
system from
the
the change helpconfessing,
the benefit of the cultivator. The earliest inhabitants of India,known to ethnologists Kolarians, as recognizedthe patriarchalor family system. The proprietary in land rested in the familyor tribal organization by whose not
been
altogetherto
rights
labours the la"d had been cleared or Their institutions were democratic.
reclaimed from the jungle. The chiefs,though they
held
LAND
OF
SYSTEM
largerand
REVENUE
AS
AFFECTING
THE
QUESTION.
605
fertileholdings, claimed
tribute or re* no and cratic right only acceptedgifts.The demoinstinct is still ingrainedamong Kols and Sonthals who cultivate jungleland without waitingfor anybody's permission, consider themselves harshly and who treated if they are ousted as
venue
a
more
of
matter
afterwards. The Dravidians who followed the the system Kolarians extended of their predecessors.They the i n the land to rest with the actual permitted proprietary rights cultivator. The king,however, exacted a certain share of the
by the zemindar
produce from
each holding, except from those held by priests, militaryofficers and others renderingservice. The Aryans who* followed the Dravidians keptup the land system of their predecessors and
the reclaimer of land from jungleas the true recognized and all kotwals and others landholders, proprietor, except priests, who rendered service,paid a portionof the produceof land to the recognizedthe king as the proking. The Hindu system never prietor of cultivated land,but onlyits protectoror overlord. The Mahomedan acceptedthe system of their predecessors conquerors it happened to be in accord with their own laws and customs. as The first important changewas made by Akbar, who substituted It was cash payment for payment in kind. duringthe decadence and jagirdars of the Moghul empirethat petty chiefs,rajas, rose into They had sufficient local authorityto prevent power.
collectionof
by the
revenue
officers of
Government.
It became
in its earlydays to recognize for the British Government and to transfer to them the claims of Government magnates for an annual tribute paid by them to Government. In in return the and talukdars ment Governto cases revenue most paid by rajas class of peoplealso arose is of this nature only. Another of Mahomedan the decadence the to whom at viz.,one power, farmed out the rightto collect revenue, Government to retain a
necessary
these
known as Malikana), certain share of it for their trouble (afterwards This is the originof the and to pay the balance to Government. The Permanent Settlement class. zemindar recognizedpermanently collection the British Government the maximum could make at the latter end of the eighteenth century in these provinces. Lord Cornwallis only carried on the existing system by collecting
The Permanent Settlement,however, saddled with three serious mistakes,which Government have was w ithout hard to rectify its pledgewith been since trying breaking made the zemindars : (1) No survey of estates or holdingswas revenue
throughzemindars.
fixed for
irrespectiveof the
extent or the The of the cultivators estate. of the (2) rights were possibilities limit was and practically no not safeguarded, placedto the rent demand fixed for ever. was (3)In demands, though the revenue is hammeredin the for ever, Government the land revenue fixing
and the
revenue
was
ever
of taxation, zemindars, for instance,beingexempt from the payment of income-tax at the expense of their fellow-subjects. When it is remembered that half the income-tax of Bengal i"
matter
"608
HANDBOOK
OF
AQRICOT/TUBE.
the residents in Calcutta,it may be inferred how trade is undulyhampered by this limit of choice on the part of The lightburden of land revenue "Government. of about three of cent, on settled produceimposed permanently estates necessitates per of a heavy burden of ten per cent, in the the imposition "derived from
of estates not permanentlysettled, and thus the burden is as regards prosperityor unequal without any adequate reason
"case
Otherwise of the cultivator. The actual incidence of land revenue of cultivated per acre in the different Provinces of British India and net croppedarea Native States may be judgedfrom the following figurescompiled from
the
Statistics Agricultural
for 1898-99
: "
Rs.
A.
p.
Bengal
0
12
7
Assam United Oudh
1
3
4
Provinces
202
Punjab
1
15
1
1
2
10
6
0
6
0
Sind
Bombay Madras Berar Central
1 2
11 2 10
4
1
Provinces
094
Ajmir-Marwar Upper Burma
1
3
2
2
1
1
15
4
Coorg
1
4
11
Mysore
1
8
6
Bikanir
0
7
7
Jaipur
4
3
11
Gwalior
259 0 15 296
10
Lower
Burma
Marwar Tonk
11
that the Government demand in the is very light, and itis not any more in British shape of land revenue India than in most Native States. Though a rupee was far more the land revenue valuable in olden days than now, in the days about the same of the Moghul Emperors was at the present as In 1664 the land revenue of India under the Moghul Empire time. 74 lakhs,and in 1665 at 24 crores stood at 26 crores 5 lakhs. In time the land revenue assessed at 34 crores was of Aurangzeb's The
above
show figures
In the case rupees. demand Government actuallyp^idby the
of
Bengal,it will be seen that though the is only about 4 annas per bigha,the rent is cultivating raiyat seldom so low as 4 annas and it is often as much as Rs. 3 or even Bs. 10 per bigha,and the land in Bengal is about Re. 1 per average rent of agricultural To 3 Rs. the acre. or blame, when famine or distress lay bigha per in the country, on Government, and of any. kind prevails of land tasay the poverty of the peopleis due to over-assessment is absurd. Of course, the high rent actually revenue, paid by, "mltiva,torsin other than Government estates is due to the facilities for th^4. creation of intermediate pro-, at present existing and tenures between the Government and the actual prietorship
MEASURES
OF
PROTECTION
AND
RELIEF.
607
be changedonly at the sacrifice cultivator. But this system can of the Permanent Settlement,to which Government is pledgediii of most Bengal. Besides,it cannot be said Bengalsuffers parts from famine than other parts of India,or that the raiyats any more in permanentlysettled estates in Bengal are worse off than the raiyatsof the Central Provinces,for instance,though the former pay the average rent of Rs. 3 per acre, while the latter only 12 The greaterfertility and the more settled rainfall annas per acre.
Gangeticplain make our province more secure against famines, though the cultivator is burdened with largerdemands in the shape of rent by their immediate landlords.
of the
CHAPTER MEASURES
OF
CXL.
PROTECTION
AND
RELIEF.
It is not impossible for Government measures. Legislative to cultivator the methods. by legislative help (1) The exportation rice may be prohibited, this may have the effect of cultiof new vators, and dealers zemindars, mahajans, grain holding large season's prospects are certainly stocks of grain until the next It is not difficultto distinguish known. between old and new rice, be easilyenforced. and the prohibition can (2) The export of "
oil-seeds (not oils) be prohibited. (3) The minimum may between land revenue and rent paidby the actual proportion vating occupierwho is a cultivator may be fixed for ever. (4) All cultiraiyatsmay be compelledby law to maintain one food or and
bones
of land he holds,the listof such trees tree per acre fodder-yielding in being publishedfrom time to time and nurseries maintained District with connection Engineers'offices and inspection bungalows, from whence river and canal road, sides also planting may Each (5) VillageUnion may be comproceed systematically. pelled to
maintain
a
conservancy
establishment,and
allotted
fieldsfor burial of dead animals,night-soil and other refuse matter, food and fodder may where trees yielding be systematically grown, and fuel and fodder sold from this miniature forest after 10 years' growth. This is a modification of Dr. Voelcker's recommendation
regardingpropagationof
fuel and
measures. Departmental
fodder
reserves.
The
Agricultural Department may grain,by having stores of superior varieties of seed at certain recognized for sale to raiyats. centres One varietyof seed may yieldtwice as much another variety, as circumstances all other The collection ,of remainingthe same. varieties of grains,pulses, seeds of prolific etc.,may occupy the officer of the Agricultural time of a special travelling Department. teach
The
raiyatshow
to
"
store
collectseeds,tubers,etc.,of drought-resistin and flood-resisting crops. Some varieties of rice do well in dry soils their rootd by sending deep down into the soil. Some varieties, same
officermay
608
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
hand, increase in height as
the flood increases. and drought-resisting, flood-resisting prolific, crops the be after by Agricultural prepared Department gradually may careful enquiryand experiment; and seeds,roots and cuttingof be kept for sale to raiyatsin the recognized seedsuch crops may also have the effect of protecting This may distribution centres. ous raiyatsfrom taking inferior seeds from mahajans on loan on ruinof paddy seed, for instance,may A maund be valued terms. when he the it season sowing gives out for Rs. 2. by the mahajan at At harvest time he values the paddy at Re. 1 a maund, and takes the other on A list of such
arid another maund rnaunds of paddy by way of principal, by way of interest. The mahajan does not mind if the raiyat another maund of seed again to He advances loses his crop. him next year, and then if he has a good crop he takes back from back two
3 maunds of previousyear, 1" account on him 7J maunds, i.e., for that 3 maunds of interest account maunds on subsequent maunds for the 3 second and loan. Thus the year's to harvest, for the loan of 2 in two years the mahajan gets back 7" maunds he have which at seed a of maunds bought cheaperpricethan may
It is the local price at harvest at. what he sells his 1\ maunds his grain,and it is time that the mahajan considers when securing he gives it out, and if the the local priceat seed time at which he does not giveit out at all, sometimes is of seed cheap, price the but holds his stock tillnext year, or year after,when he gets the as the best bargain, grain selling grainand not as seed. It is in this way some mahajans in Bengal were found to own several of of maunds lakhs paddy in the famine year of 1897, and they The mahajani system has its advantages, let it all out that year. of of seed at better if no more supply good system be substituted in its place. But if an reasonable rates can officialsystem, or a system devised with the aid of local bodies be substituted for it,one of the greatest of bankers, can or Indian cultivator has lived from time the which under curses immemorial, will be removed.
also organizea system through villageunions and putwaries,of lendingout irrigation and other machinery, superiorbulls,etc., on hire. Behia milk without such aid,but as a matter have, no doubt, been popularized
The
Department Agricultural
may
helpinghand, as small farmers in every science can filter qther country do. The fruits of agricultural of an organized down to aqtual cultivators onlyby means agency illiterate either or are cultivators where the very poorlyeducated, of fact,the
raiyatneeds
who
accustomed the course,
are
not
Of
a
of their
own
principalever
accord to
to make move
education,but agricultural education,specially
an
new
the
tures. deparraiyat is
expert agency,
unions,may also accomplisha working in connection with village great deal. The extension of canals and railwaysare further measures has been steadily which Government of protection developing*
OF
PROTECTION.
AND
609
BELIEF.
Death from starvation even in localized famines was more general of communication when means with the in times past than now, interior are easier. But greater progress in these directions is desirable. of affording relief when famine Reliefworks. The means actuallybreaks out are detailed in the Famine Code. One suggestion, however, will not be quiteout of placein a book like this. By the end of September or middle of October it becomes quite famine is going to take place or not. If the evident whether whole for the estimated outturn the provinceby general tural AgriculDepartment, of Bhadoi and Aman crops, falls short of 50 that there will be famine, though be assumed per cent., it may peoplemay not beginto come to test or reliefworks tillFebruary. Relief works should be started in each thana where the estimated for reliefof famine crop is 25 per cent, or less. All works organized should be arranged for from October to January, the actual "
"
test-works,however, beingdelayedas long as possible.
opening of The
a
sorry
raisinga been
the
increase
to
is
of works
programme
sight to road
devoted
four to
produce five feet
include
of land
thousands
see or
should
of
directly or
and
men
high,when
lands irrigating
on
only such
calculated It indirectly.
women
their energy
and
canal
as
are
employed in might have
river sides,and
when or they might be employed more usefully raisinga food-crop, and tanks wells. even channels, canals, irrigation excavating The roads made by famine peopleare usuallyso badlymade, that makes the fact quite patent that making the next rainy season for these people. Growing of kutcha roads is not a suitable work of the year, from February at the driest season a crop by irrigation which may to raiyats, to May, would be a splendid object-lesson have a permanent effect in their learning how to avoid famines Relief works ought to aim at givingsuch for all times to come. in a tank or a well to the cultivators. Earth- work object-lessons in the largeexpanse of a is as easilymeasured as on a road, and in
paddy under
field it would
be
easy
getting5,000
supervising staff,if 1,000
one
wells
labourers are
employed
excavated
in
it
Each well would cost about Rs. 25, inclusive at regulardistances. than of the cost of well-rings, and the work would not take more of five be then Each week can a employed accomplishing. party in irrigating with leather buckets, worked by bamboo levers,an of land, one-tenth to one-fifthof an acre beingirrigated acre or two the every day accordingas the soil is lightor heavy,cultivating land, and raisinga crop from it, in three months, of maize, or millet,or aw paddy,or some pulse. The crop will justcome in when the famine is at its full height,from May to July. If 2,000\acres and be irrigated of a paddy field 5,000 acres in expanse out can 40*000 maunds of food grainsthus raised from the tract, the lesson In some thus taught is not likelyto be forgottenvery soon. suitable localitiesdons may be employed,and a thousand of these,
worked
beside M,
HA
a
canal
or
a
stream, may
serve
to
irrigate4,000 39
610
HANDBOOK
OP
AGRICULTURE.
of land, by the employment of 3,000 persons, 2,000 being the water, and employed in working the ddns and distributing 1,000 in cultivating, sowing,weeding,etc. We never hear of the o f famine labourers a energies being thus utilized in raising crop time of the year, and throwingin an extra supply at the worst the market when the food supplyusuallygets to the lowest on Another special ebb. advantageclaimed for the system of relief acres
here recommended is,cultivators will be able to go and work fields from June instead of diverting in their own their attention to famine works to the great detriment of the agricultural pects prosfor the succeedingyear. From Februaryto May is the slack time for cultivators, and if by artificialmethods a food-crop be then raised by peoplein distress, the advantage will be can work
twofold.
AgriculturalBanks. and supervision,
"
These
Government
should
be
under
Government
interest of 3 per guarantee and transfer to the Banks the duty of granting cent, per annum takavi loans on interest. Any raiyatcontributing to this Bank thus be sure of his principal and at least 3 per cent, by way can of interest,and of getting back in years of local distress the whole of his contributions and accumulated amount joint profits, or, on number of of of cultivators and a shareholders, application getting of their joint contribution. A larger back the whole amount amount be lent on joint under certain restrictions, and interest can security, thereon at 6j per cent. As shareholder,a raiyatshould charged can
an
*
to share in the profits be eligible of a Bank providedhis balance fallbelow Rs. 100, though he may does not contribute any amount of Rs. 10 per annum down to a minimum him eligible for to make the benefits in years of distress. The Banks should invest sharingin
in securities approved by Government the money tions ; but speculaof an agricultural character approvedby Government should A scheme worked be allowed. such a line will teach raiyats on and it may lay the foundation of a great many agriciileconomy,
tiiralimprovements. If 3 per Government there should
of interest is guaranteedby and if the Banks controlled by Government, are be no lack of shareholders and of capital.
CHAPTER
AGRICULTURAL
cent,
CXLI. EDUCATION.
alluded to agricultural education as one of the principal of The famines. must means means necessarily overcoming of all ; and if but it is the surest means be slow in its operation, education devised is of a sufficiently the system of agricultural character,the effect need not take very long in being practical education perceived.Foundation has been laid "jfagricultural
WE
have
Bengal ; but the arrangements formerlymade at Sibpur only education of a rather enabled Government to give agricidtural
in
612
HANDBOOK
OF
AGRICULTURE.
should be and their teaching improvement in their school-gardens, The school-masters themselves may be taught concrete thoroughly .
agriculturein
in farms attached to Normal Schools, but in village schools should be taughtonlycertain definite facts which will enable the pupils to derive some immediate benefit from their school education. If the school-going of son be of helpto his father in his own a cultivator can the difficulties, father and the son will both beginto find out that education and a
more
systematic manner
If the to each other. farming are not necessarily antagonistic school-master can be of helpto the raiyat in his own business, village the raiyat will think more than of his also business own highly he is accustomed to think at present. The tendencyamong vators cultiand artizans who of prosperity attain to some amount their own ancestral craft is to shun their craft,to by following take to money-lending, clerks of their sons. The and to make education has been antagonistic ment to the advancespread of literary of arts and industries, and it is very importantthat from the lowest stage children should have education of such a character enable them to pursue their ancestral occupationswith as may and interest,instead of despising such occupations greater ability and taking to others which are considered genteel.
The
principle alreadyrecognizedfor primary and secondary be recognized also for high schools and colleges, and permissionmay be grantedto all mofussil schools and colleges in placeof physicsor chemistry. It is less to teach agriculture gardensand farms in connection with mofussil expensiveorganizing schools and than making an adequate arrangement colleges high for teachingchemistryand physics,and and high colleges many avail themselves of the permission off schools may ploying right by emClasses,to teach passedstudents of the Sibpuragricultural However in of and physics. agriculture place chemistry meagre the arrangement that may be made by a mofussil school or college this subjectcannot for teachingagriculture, possiblybe worse tural taughtthan physicsor chemistryis at present. Facts of agriculscience abound in the mofussil, and if the teacher employed he will not need has been himself taught in a practical manner, to impart sound knowledge of such facts much outlayof money and the principles underlyingthem, to his pupils.There cannot, be such occasion for cramming in the case of agriother in words, culture, in the there is in the case of chemistryand physics, as of time, speciof mofussil schools and colleges.In course case mens insect of rocks, minerals,crops, manures, economic products, and fungus pests,will accumulate,if the teacher does his duty, atid the subjectwill be always better and better taught. In the and physics, of chemistry an opposite case tendencyis often noticed is fitted up at, what in mofussil colleges.A sort of a laboratory the part and there is is regarded on as, great cost, unwillingness of the college Authoritiesto replaceimplements and chemicals Some agricultural must as they get broken or used up. implements schools
can
AGRICULTURAL
be
bought,
and the
to
of
part
working
outlay school
the
of
faculties
and
even
of
science.
all
the
it
If
be
be
all
in
a
advanced
countries,
If and
abreast
the
years
first
and
engineer,
the
expressed sphere of have
ample
of
students
passed
in out
excellent will the walks
and work have
agricultural of
to
as
Indian
agriculture are
as
we
much
condition
of
the
enable
to
make which
them
occupation.
and
geologist
by farming. augural invirtually the
money is
Engineering College agricultural classes, we of
high
After
into
these
in
disposed the
in
classes
END.
as
who
the
work
we
number
really
were
the
and
who
men
doing such tion English educa-
are
that
remodelling
life.
THE
assert
country,
Tlie
opinion.
agricultural to
have
in
Bengalis
caste
some
years' experience
some
the
of
America,
and
botanist
and
science
Sibpur
influence of
is
particular
own
steadily increased,
feel
difficult
very
Europe
sufficient
modifying
employed
that
a
only
never
the
agriculture. admission
in
education,
is
usefulness
for
study
science
book,
the
of knowledge agriculture,
of
recognized for really needed a
their
will
of
the
reason
seeking
interested
at
opening
practical
he
branch
is
chemist
a
able valu-
more
what
find
in
this
to
delivered
doubt
had
be
to
introduction
at
ago
times
sound
developing
particular
also
farmers
training,
the
has
lecture
and
that
intelligent
with
zoologist In
and
a
subject by itself, which
a
of
of
of
preliminary
standards
detrimental
is far
one
as
manner
agricultural
scientific
farmer
a
of
life, which any
keep
easy
of various
right understanding without
agriculture
less
means
a
any a
bullocks
Thriftinese
imparting
systematic
a
be
education
in
that for
the
As
agricultural
very
students
every-day
physics.
hired
purpose. will
is to
now
training
that
with
this
authorities
it
or
is necessary out
shown
for
contended
is
pointed
to
than
sound
it
taught
manner
needed
mind,
a
sciences
may
can
the
be
can
college
chemistry of
than
to
is
agricultural education,
knowledge
in
their
great
no
on
but
613
EDUCATION.
and
it has
improving had
in
other
INDEX.
Beans, 38, 71, 115,201"206,
494. ABORTION, 84 88. Aeromotors, Agaves, 144, 148, 152, 247. Banks, 696., Agricultural
AgriculturalEducation, Aich,
"
700.
246.
Albizza
procera,
477, 478, 516.
All-stock-and-no-crop,159. Alumina, Ambari
Hemp,
Ammonia,
143.
146,
232
164. 417
(See Regur.)
Soil, 13.
Cotton
580.
Bone manure, 216, 250, 396, 425, 426. Bone 430, 458"462. super, 427 Bordeaux Mixture, 262, 532, 533, 594. Boring Insects, 531, 559, 561.
234.
"
501.
150, 109.
Bloody Milk,
144.
Amlaki,
Bhura, Bhusa, Bidia, Black
116.
Amada,
501.
Bhringi, 146, 148, 201"206,
505.
Albuminoids, 149"151, Aloe, 246, 248.
Beet, 2, 36, 147, 264"268, 272. Behia Mill/ 7, 107, 272"286. Belun Pat, 248, 249. Betel-nut, 314"315. Bhela-nut, 147, 206, 230. *
696
148.
Akanda,
264"268,
501.
"
"
"
419.
Analysis, 446"473. Anise, 147, 318. Ant, 561"563. Anthrax, 490, 570, 686"689. 575. Anti-toxin Treatment, Apatite, 14, 425.
Bot-fly,645. Bottle-gourd,148.
Aphides, 565"566.
Brussels Sprout, 264"268. Bucket-pump, 129, 132, 136.
Brinjal, 145, 148, 259, 261. Broccoli, 264"268. Bread-fruit, 386.
Apiculture,382"383. Apthse, 494.
476. Buffaloes,474 Buck-wheat, 39, 147, 200, 201. Bullock Gear, 100. "
Arahar, 26, 38, 110, 146, 147, 201" 206, 219, 244, 330, 533. Arharia Sim, 64, 146, 204, 505 Areca Nut, 385. 344. Arrowroot, 144, 148, 343 Artichoke, 147. Artesian 132. well, 131 Asan, 148.
581.
"
Bull's Dredger, 136. Bullock's Heart, 249.
596"597, Bunt, 197 Butter, 5, 518"521,
682.
581"582.
"
abdominalis,
Aulacophora
541, 542,
564.
CABBAGE, 2, 36, 38, 115, 147, 264"268.
Camphor, Canna
315"318.
edulis, 144.
Carbohydrate, BABTJL, 67, 146, 148, 154, 384, 385. 525"527. Bacon, Bacteria, 407, 576"591. Bad, 385, 501. Bahera, 148. Bajra, 38, 62, 143, 162, 200. Bakhar, 73, 102, 192. Bakla, 146, 501, 577. Baldeo
Bamboo, Banana,
Carboniferous
144, 148, 344"346, "
"
17, 18.
148. Cardamom, Carob Bean, 385. Carrot, 36, 147, 148, 194, 264"268, 268"270. Cashew Nut, 36, 148, 206, 207, 385. 337"342. Cassava, 145"148,
Castor, 145, 147, 206"208,
Balti,121, 130, 134. 251
149"151.
rocks, 15, 16
215~r218,
244. 385.
25^.
201" 206, 279, 505. Barbati, 146, 147,* Barley, 38, 67, 143, 152, 190"192. Barui, 311.
Casuarina, 384. 643"644. Caterpillars,
Cauliflower, 38, 147, 264"268. 126; Cawnpore Chain -pump, Rubber, 146, 162, 349"361.
Ceara
616
INDEX.
Celery, 147, 264"268. Pump, 91"92, Centrifugal
EABTH-NUT. (See Ground-nut.) Eau Celeste, 532. 531. Ecto-parasites, Elachi, 319. Endive, 264. Engelberg Huller, 179"185, 332. 574. Enzymes, 573 Era-kati, 144, 502. Eri-silk,215, 218.
133.
Chai, 145, 148. Chaff-cutter, 136.
Champa
Note
Sag,
148.
Cheena, 143, 199, 202. Cheese, 6, 521"525, 58L
"
Analysis,446"473. Chichinga, 146, 148.
Chemical
Chillies,145, 148, 262"263. simplex, 539, 559"561.
FAMINE, 600"603. Famine-food, 337"342.
Chilo
Chironji,206. (in soil),35"44. Chufa, 144, 148. Chupri Alu, 144. Cicindela sexpunctata, 540. Cinnamon, 317"318. Clod-crusher, 109. Cocoanut, 148, 206, 207, 209, 221" 222, 385. Cock-chafers,541, 542. Coffee,152, 328"333, Coir, 221, 222, 246. Chlorine
Farmyard-manure,
412
"
415.
149"151. Feering,105.
Fat,
Fermentation,
574.
Five-plotexperiment,44. Fodder Crops,152, 195"196,
499"505.
Foot-and-mouth
.Disease, 492"493. Fungicidal Appliances, 137, 532. Fungoid Diseases, 532, 591"598.
Coleoptera,535"539.
GANJA, 232. Garlic, 144, 148.
Colza, 20(5, 211. Milk, 579. Coriander, 147, 318, 533. Cotton, 36, 38, 62, 110, 146, 152, 240-
Germicides, 572, 577. Ghani, 137, 180, 217, 221, 225,*243. Ghi, 5, 223.
Condensed
138.
Ginning Cotton, 247. Glucoses, 294"298. Goat-farming, 485. Gohany Land, 33. Golmarich, 318. 145. Gomukh, Gondli, 141, 200. Gourds, 148, 313.
Coulter, 108.
Country Figs,148, 337. Cow-dung, 67. Cow-gram, 159"163. Cow-pea, 62, 147. Cream, 518"521. Crickets,548"649. Cucumber, 145, 148. Cucurbitaceous Vegetables,39, 41, 62. Curing, 525"528. Cut-worms, 557" -559.
Cyamopsis
psoralioides,64,
201,
206.
Cyst Disease, 493. DAHI,
579"581.
Dal-bhanga
rog,
105.
Ginger, 144, 148, 270"271. Ginjelly.(See Til.)
246.
Cotton-gin,137,
Gathering,
262.
Date, 36, 148, 272, 287"294, 385,
438.
Grafting,387"389. Gram,
38, 146, 147, 152, 189.
Granary Pests, 553 Grasshoppers,548,
"
Ground-nut, 62, 146,147,219"220, 244. Grubber, 108. Guano, 423, 424. 2, 144, 148, 502"503. Guinea-grass,
148. 239. Deshi jute, 146. Dextrose, 294"298. Deodhan. (See Juar.) Dhenkli, 120, 134, 135.
Guttapercha, 348"351. Gypsum, 18, 69, 398,
Dhaincha, 62, $7, 146, 160, 219, 229, 249, 279, 312, 396, 419. Dhenki, 136, 179, 218, 225. Dhundul, 145. Diarrhoea, 494.
Helancha
Dengo Sag, Degumming,
549. Dragon-flies, Drainage,67, 73, 119, Drilling,71, 72, 138.
Sag, 148. Hemiptera, 535. Hemp, 39, 234"235. 552, 553, Hieroglyphicfurcifer, Hoe, American " " " "
419.
441"445.
HAM, 525"527. Haritaki, 148. Harrow, 76, 109.
Diptera,535. Divi-divi, 384. Don, 120, 130, 131, 134, 135. Dracaena ovalifolia,144.
555.
549. Green Manuring, 419. Grewia, 344, 345.
567.
Hand, 111. Wheel, 111, 191. Bullock, 81, 112, 138, 157. Hand, 111, 112. Hunter, 74, J8, 81. Wh*el, 111, 112.
Hopperdozer, 553. Horse-gram, 147.
617
Hoven, Humus,
Ladder,
493.
ICHNEUMON,
Lai Lata
533.
Lau,
India
Rubber,
144.
148.
Grass, 144, 145.
Lentils.
(See Musuri.)
Lepidoptera, 535. Leptocorisaacuta,
Spinach, 165.
"
Alu, (Traranyia
Layering, 390.
(See Maize.) Radish, 148.
Corn. Horse
249.
566. Lady-ford,
Impactionof Rumen, 194, 493-494. Inarching,390. Indian Indian
109.
Finger, 146, 148,
Ladies'
417.
29, 39, 37, 38"40, Hymenoptera, 535, 538"540.
555.
Lettuce, 147, 148, 264"268.
348"351.
Lewa, 322. Lime (in soil),35
Indigo, 67, 146, 152, 298"302.
52, (a" manures), 403, 437"441. Lime Trees, 434. Linseed, 146, 147. 152, 191, 207, 208,
Inoculation, 585, 587"588. Inaect Pests, 529"570. Insecticides 137, 529. 52. 35 Iron (in soil),
"
398,
"
7, 8, 67, 73, 114"130, Irrigation, 399. 194"195,256"257,
IrrigationSpoon,
159,
212"213.
Litter,192. 32, 33, 38"40. Sandy, 32, 33, 138. Clay, 32, 33. Locust, 28, 549"552. Lucerne, 2, 40, 503"504.
Loam,
73.
"
JACK,
148, 270, 385.
Jainti, 249. Jerusalem Artichoke,147, 148, 264"268. Jhand, 385.
Jhinga,
145.
Jmr, 38, 62, 143, 195"198, 244.
150,
152, 189, 312,
KACHII, 144. Kalai, 26, 38, 79, 146, 18J). Kamela, 384. Kankar, 19, 24"30, 45, 47, 398, 437. 145.
543. Mancipium Nepaliuisis, 314.
Mandar,
Mango, 36, 148, 270, 385, Mangold, 30, 501.
563.
144.
144, 148, 249, 254. Manure, 395"445, 513"515.
Hemp,
Maple Tree, 272,
296.
Mania,
62, 143, 198"200. Mat-grass,344, 345. Mauritius Hemp, 148, 248.
249.
Melons, 13, 148, 337.
Menjhri, 143,
Kham
Alu, 144. Khesari, 39, 146,
201"206. 308. Knol-kol, 148, 264"268. Kodali, 78, 81. Kuli-begun, 145, 260.
Kurthi,
146,
323. Mosquito-blight,
147,
189,
147,
189,
505. 145. Kundruki, 146. Kunra, 178.
201"206,
Kumra,
or Kulthi, 146, 201"206, 505. Kutki, 200.
Kurthi
Kutl-laga,262. LAC, 152, 379"581.
Lao-dye,381. (See Irrigation Spoon.)
200.
Mesta, 146, 232"234. Microbes, 570"591. Milk, 515"518. Mint, 148.
Khurpi, 111,
Ladle.
Huller, 137. Sim, 146. Mammites, 494.
Manila
249. 143. 206, 208.
or
244.
Maize Makhan
Mankachu,
Kankrol, 145. Karala, 146. Kasha, 143.
Kulthi
Chloride, 116. Mahua, 206, 209, 223, 385, 501. Maize, 2, 38, 43, 62, 110, 143, 147, 152, 193"195,
Jute, 4, 79, 146, 148, 152, 226"232,
Kayon, Kenja, Keyaphul, 148, Khag, 143.
144, 148. "
249. Jira, 148, 318"319. Juan, 319.
Kasturi,
KATTI,
35 52. Magnesia (in soil), Magnesium, Sulphate, 116.
Jhumkalata,
Kankri,
MADUK
Mot, single,121, 134, 135. Mot, double, 122"123, 134, 135. Moth, 201"206. Mowers, 112. Mug, 146, 201"206. i Mulberry, 139, 145, 148, 351"378, 385, 505.
Mulching,76. Munj-grass,144, 148, 249. Mushroom, 598"599, 684. Musuri, 39, 146, 201"206. Musk-mallow, 146, 148. Mustard, 13, 26, 38, 67, 147, 152, 191. 206, 209"212.
618 Plough,Baldeo,
144. Mutha-grass,
Mylabns pustulata,542. Myrabolan, 384.
"
Furrow, 96. -mould-board or 74, 96, 102. Indian, 92"108.
"
Mcston,
Double
"
JNALITA, 220.
Neuroptcra, 535. 415. Night-soil,
.
407"425,
462. 582"585. Nitrification, 70, 410"412, Nitrogen(in soils and manures), 400
"
"
Steam,
Sub-soil,74, 96, 102.
425.
Sulky,90, 103. Swing, 96, 97,
"
Three
Furrow, Turnwrest, 90. Watt's, 95.
"
"
192.
Crusher, 141), 207,
137.
Oil-cake
Oil-cake,
209"220,
242,
405"470.
Oilseeds, 200"220. Ol, 144, 337. Onions, 30, 144, 148, 204"208. Open Furrow, 105. Opium, 152, 320"322.
175.
Pruning,391"392. Pulping, 331. Pumpkins, 148, 313. 493, 570.
LAND,
38.
147, 201"200,
Rake, 109. 140. Rambha, Randhuni, 318"319. Ranga Alu, 145.
Rape, 20, 147, 152, 191, 200, 209, 212, 318.
214"215.
Ratoon.
(See Sugarcane.)
Reana
luxurians, 148, 502. Rcd"water, 494.
*
35
"
52.
Regur, 44,
Phuti, 145.
Physical Properties of Soil, 30
"
35,
53"59.
48.
Reh, 69. Resin, 531.
Retting,230.
Pigeon Pea. (See Arahar.) Pineapple, 144, 250"251. Pittaraj,147, 206, 208. Plant-lice, 565"566. Plantain, 2, 144, 249, 251"254,
Pleuro-pnoumonia,493. 296,
209"270,
Rajgir,200.
579.
Peat, 15, 17, 32.
Polamcope,
159.
Rabies, 570. Radish, 147, 148, 204"208, 299"304, 230. Radhuni, 148. Rai, 209"212.
204-208.
Pccpul, 101, 148, Pepper, 145. 202. Payra-raater, Phapar, 200. Phosphoric Acid,
Plan,
"
Proteids, 149"151, 419, 420. Proteid Ratio, 509"513.
RABI 314,
330"337. Para-rubber, 152, 348"351. Parsnip, 204"208. Pasewa, 321.
140,
579. Prout's
QUARTER-ILL,
35.
115,
of Food, 385, 380, 578
Preservation
Papaya, 2, 145, 148,
38,
410.
Poultry, 480"489.
Long-stemmed Aman, Rayda, 175.
Peas,
52, (manures),
592.
254"258,
117, 103, 104, 172. 73, 174, 175.
Pasteurization,003, Patal, 140, 201"202.
"
431"437.
Poudrette, 415,
Aus, 38, 117, 103, 104, 192.
Pans,
35
Potatoes, 2, 6, 30, 74, 114, 139, 148,
38, 71, 79, 143, 147, 152, 104.
Paikota, 120, 125. Palam, 147, 148. Palas, 140, 148. Palval, 148, 204, 337. Pan, 32, 148, 210, 311"
320"322.
(in soil),
398,
340"347. Orthoptera, 535. 470"485. Oxen, 549"559,
Aman, Boro,
100. 90.
Wheel, 90, 97, 100.
"
Popat, 201, 203. Popped corn, 193. Poppy, 208, 210, Potash
Oranges,
if,
103.
96, 104.
"
Noria, 129. Nubian Tube-well, 13 L OATS, 2, 30, 143,
ing, Ridg-
95.
Multiple,101"102. Paring, -90, 102. Potato-digging,96, 90, 103. Pulverising, Sibpur,95.
200, 208.
Nim,
Nitrates, 73, 115, 401-402,
95.
Double
"
Rhea,
26, 147, 235"239. (See Paddy.) Rice-husker, 136, 179"185. Rice.
Ribbons. 386.
(SeeRhea.)
Rinderpest,491. Roller, 76, 109, 110, Root-cutter, 136,
620
INDEX.
WALNUT,
209.
Wind-mills,
Warping,
77.
Wind-power,
Water-analysis,
472
Wheat,
90.
87,
Water-power,
38,
143,
1J7,
332.
87,
85, 85.
147,
563.
152,
185-
Yoke,
342.
148, 100.
yoke-galls,
494. 246.
144,
188.
Soil,
563.
501
White-ants, Windlass,
1 14.
Winnowing,
Yucca,
190. Wheat
Winnowers,
YAMS,
553"554,
208,
100,
84,
148.
147,
Water-nut,
Weevils,
473. "
120"136.
Water-lift*,
84,
ZBD^ARV,
144.
"
132.
Zymotic
Diseases,
570"573.
120.
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