Musical Pattern Perception

Musical Pattern Perception Author(s): Doris Lora Source: College Music Symposium, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Spring, 1979), pp. 166-182 Published by: College Music Society Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40351765 Accessed: 15-01-2020 00:32 UTC JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at https://about.jstor.org/terms

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Aspects of the Profession

Musical Pattern Perception Doris Lora

University of Toledo

the human mind structures its complex environment is a topic

has been explored for generations by individuals from a wide varie disciplines. Musicians now seem to be generally aware that pattern perce is highly relevant to their interests. In fact, much of the most insightful, research into musical problems involves some aspect of human pattern p

tion. Certainly there is an enormous amount of empirical evidence t

structure our environment by finding patterns in what we see and hear sequently, a great deal of literature supports the hypothesis that our perc of sounds which we call music begins with organization of these soun temporal and pitch /sound patterns. Insights from this literature, then, p a step toward verification of assertions which musicians make about wha hear in a musical composition. There is a need, then, to review this liter

which is rich with implications for teaching aural and analytical ski subsequently, for musical performance. The rather lengthy bibliog which follows suggests the enormous range of studies related to music,

versity of which is a stimulating challenge to music educators who broaden their bases of inquiry into musical problems. The list, while not claim it to be comprehensive, is up-to-date and representative.

To summarize studies on patterning, it is necessary to touch on

range of human knowledge, and to begin as early as the evolutionary gr of life itself. Further, the study of human pattern perception involves o tion of behavior from many different perspectives: in the physical s there is acoustics, physics, chemistry, biology, and their behavioral conc tants, psycho-acoustics and psycho-physics; in the social sciences and ities, there is psychology, philosophy, anthropology, sociology, linguisti the arts. This scanning of disciplines includes so-called subjective-intuitiv ports, ostensibly objective-scientific studies, and all of the gray area in be

Having acknowledged the tenacious art-versus-science polarization, suggest that such a division is by no means precise, real, or even nec Esthetic or intuitive judgments contain aspects that can be measured precisely. Scientific or empirical studies measuring human responses are means completely objective. Further, this polarization is unreal since

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MUSICAL PATTERN PERCEPTION 167

fication techniques have been introduced in nearly

fields, especially philosophy, history, linguistics, and human pattern perception is of necessity an interdisc

varied milieu, a "fusion of emotion and intellect''

perspective. My method for discussing musical pattern percept rize evidence for three hypotheses: first, that patter human behavior; second, that we structure aural stim

that we respond to sounds called music at the same that occurs in other life processes. Patterning in General Human Behavior

The consistency of results which emerge from experiments on perception

in many different fields is amazing. The body of empirical evidence abou

aural perception is strikingly redundant in its insistence on the need for and perception of structure as part of human mental processes. The fundamental tenet which runs like a thread through the literature is the basic human tend ency to structure stimuli in the environment into patterns. The pattern-forming process of the mind dates back at least to the explosive evolutionary progress of the brain in the last two million years. Consider the millions of nerve pulses which are carried to the brain in any one instant and the gigantic sorting process (structuring) which must take place in order to bring some kind of order to the chaos. Studies of animals at various evolutionary levels indicate that responses to aural patterns take place as a guide to adjustment to environmental changes, particularly related to sex and self-pre ervation instincts.1 The sorting process is manifest in the behavior of the orga nism which then learns whether the response has positive or negative results and thus at the next juncture selects the appropriate response. For example frogs do not react at all to musical tones, but they give biologically serviceable responses to certain complex vibratory patterns. The splash by one frog jumping into water stimulates others to jump too . . . these patterns of vibration have important temporal aspects; they cannot be defined merely in terms of pitch, timbre and intensity at any one moment.2

This selective process of patterning goes back to the beginning of life itsel

as Platt points out in his discussion of symmetry- that is, shape-pattern. Sym metry can be found at all levels of life from: ". . . single-cell animals, spores, blood cells" to the cylindrical symmetry of "equi-distant segments" of low •P. E. Vernon, "Auditory perception. II. The evolutionary approach," British Journal Psychology, 25, January, 1935, p. 268.

2Vernon, "Auditory perception." 11, pp. 2b7, 2b8.

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168 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

plants and animals such as the bamboo, worm, and symmetry found at the "molecular level in long-c

molecules, and higher up, in helical plant stems concludes from his broad biological and anthro "there is evidently a happy coincidence between symmetries imposed by evolution and the prim

volved in perception."4 The patterning process seems to rest on two fu logical principles"- needs, if you will: first, the ne or "repetition" and secondly, the need to find "dif ments in the environment.5 These two categories clarity, but in experience they function as part of Perhaps it is only pointing out the obvious that our

in the judgment that something is either old (r

(novel, stimulating) or varied (mixture of old and Time is the spectrum in which we relate experi his study on patterning of time: in the "psycholog the present, recollect the past and anticipate the f process.6 At a basic level, the pattern-forming pro sibly merely a result of the ability to detect that ferent.7 Doob's three-faceted time-patterning is r of three related perceptual processes: (1) sensatio

sponse (2) association (memory, the past) (3) att

elements resulting in discrimination.8 Meyer also when he spoke of the listening experience as per related to past experience and furnishing expectat way humans select from their environment and m lieve the anxiety of continuous uncertainty or cha Paisley and others have established that persons see

nomical, problem-free patterns to structure th ways.10 3J. R. Platt, "Beauty, pattern and change," pp. 82-107 in Perception and Change: Projections for Survival (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970), p. 97. 4Platt, "Beauty," p. 98. 5Platt, "Beauty," p. 83; Leonard Meyer, Emotion and Meaning in Music (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 1956. "Leonard W. Doob, Patterning of Time (New Haven: Yale Universitv Press, 1971), p. 13.

7H. A. Simon and K. Kotovsky, "Human acquisition of concepts for sequential patterns," Psychological Review, 70, 1963, pp. 534-546. 8Kurt Koftka, "Perception: an introduction to the Gestalt-Theorie," Psychological Bulletin,

19, October, 1922, pp. 553-570.

9Meyer, Emotion and Meaning.

l0Fred Attneave, "Some informational aspects of visual perception," Psychological Review, 61, 1954, pp. 183-193.

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MUSICAL PATTERN PERCEPTION 169

Patterning is fundamental to life processes in regar

the rhythm of life. Perhaps "music, owing to its rhy

somehow harmonizes and synchronizes neuromuscu generally."11 All human experience consists of highs

argy, tension and relaxation. The complimentary p

expected stimuli) and repetition (expected stim

rhythms of life processes, where a balance of the pr results in a stimulating yet structured life pattern.

Pattern perception becomes concrete in the beh havior is visible and can be studied, so observation behavior provides the most precise insight into the p

ioral scrutiny has been systematized most thoroughly It follows that, while finding useful information fro

ries of pattern perception are built primarily on a We will examine psychological insights about aural cifically, musical perception. Aural Pattern Perception

Musicians, of course, are interested primarily in aural pattern percepti

that is, the perception of sounds. When individuals respond to and me

sounds in the environment, the results are often quite different from mach

measuring acoustically the same sound. Machines simply record, while mans discriminate and evaluate. Sounds are modified by our perception of

sounds. Cobb pointed out that after sounds have been mechanically (ph

cally) generated, our hearing mechanism receives them, structures them, e braces parts, rejects others, so that a reproduction by humans of the so originally generated may or may not resemble the original.12 For example,

sons organize series of equidistant, uniform sounds (metronome clicks)

patterns. Further, the relative vividness of the clicks is affected by percep And when a person taps successive beats, the tendency is for the beats to v

Wendell R. Garner, Uncertainty and Structure as Psychological Concepts (New York: John W

& Sons, 1962). H. W. Hake, "Contributions of Psychology to the study of pattern vision," USAF W Technical Report, No. 57-621, 1957.

W. J. Paisley, "Identifying the unknown communicator in painting, literature and m

The significance of minor encoding habits " Journal of Communication, 14, 1964, pp. 219-237

"Vernon, "Auditory Perception." II, p. 273. I2G. F. Cobb, "On certain principles of musical exposition considered educationally

with special reference to current systems of musical theory," Part 1. Proceedings of the Mus Association, 10th Session, 1883-1884, pp. 125, 126.

Also see W. Poland, "The perception of sound as music," Paper presented at the Ame Association for the Advancement of Science Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, 1971.

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1 70 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

in intensity and cease to be equidistant.13 Human b inclination to impose patterns on random auditor Sumner found that persons hear orderly sequences to treat elements which do not fit their imposed p The Gestalt idea that a listener responds to a stim consistently supported in a wide variety of experim we have difficulty forming patterns without hearin Hornbostel is illuminating: "Various distortions wer

tials of the vowels and consonants, S, T, I, and L unrecognizable; and yet when the same distortion

STIL, it remained recognizable."15 It is a fundament chology that ua knowledge of the parts is insufficie

nomenal properties of the whole."16 Music is a part whole being more than the sum of the parts."17 It Vernon, "that a melody is determined, not by its but by the pitch and temporal relations between th of a profile is more important to the eye than the

it may be analyzed."18 Vernon's listeners could

chord which was played for them, but they were a group of chords. Royer and Garner found further evidence that t perception has validity. In a nine-element sequenc more significantly to the repetition of the total gr ments in the group. Two perceptually good pattern

in and its reversal were preferred over the first

changed, a choice made only if the listener heard th

The Gestalt figure-ground concept further ill perception. Sounds possess figure-ground prope

properties are "high frequency, large amplitude, m ity of change . . . the 'brightness' attribute of sound

I3R. B. Stetson, "A motor theory of rhythm and discrete su 12, 1905, pp. 250-270; 293-350. I4H. A. Simon and R. K. Sumner, "Pattern in music," Unp tute of Technology: Complex Information Processing Paper # 15E. M. von Hornbostel, "Psychologies der Gehorerscheinung malen und pathologischen Physiologie, XI, pp. 701-730. (Berlin Vernon, "Auditory perception. I. The Gestalt approach," British ber, 1934, p. 126. I6Vernon, I, p. 125. 17 P. E. Vernon, "Method in musical psychology," in section ican Journal of Psychology, 42, January, 1930, p. 128. 18 Vernon, I, p. 124.

l9Fred L. Royer and Wendell R. Garner, "Perceptual orga

tory temporal patterns," Perception and Psychophysics, 7 (2), 197 20Vernon, II, p. 269.

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MUSICAL PATTERN PERCEPTION 1 7 1

where space is part of the perceived structure, namely perception, rests or silence apparently become the grou tener awaits a noise or figure. A ground may be still or the character of a substance while the figure has more o

Discrepancy between acoustically-measured sounds tion of sounds is particularly evident in the matter of

tone sustained at a barely audible level comes and goe tion of about ten seconds. Here the pattern of fluctu listener. Bekesy describes this as "nervous inhibition

attends the transmission of sensation.22

The apparent difference of intensity between two sou

in duration is a patterning phenomenon of considera

tend to hear a longer sound as accented and also tend, w patterns, to accent the beginning of groups by heari

durational accent as ending a group. After a certain

crease in relative duration causes the listener to hear th a group.23

When a person can detect periodicity in a group of sounds (repetition of a group or part of a group), pattern is established.24 Pattern is not simply rep-

etition but one kind of regular alteration of repetition and change. Expectations are aroused as a result of patterns. Good continuation (Meyer's phrase) is the result of the right balance, in the listener's opinion, of predictability and surprise. Further, there is immediate repetition and there is return, which is repetition after a period of delay. Different levels of repetition form patterns on various levels simultaneously. Musical Patterns

The human brain, then, is an organ of pattern processing which struc the environment, at a most basic level, with discrimination between same

different. Fundamentally, musicians are concerned with how sounds ar ceived as music. Platt's provocative thesis is that musical pattern perceptio the same patterning process as biological selection, occurring at a diff level of complexity.

It now appears that the requirements for aesthetic enjoyment are simply the r

quirements for perception itself, raised to a higher degree; and the essential thin in each case is to have a pattern [same] that contains the unexpected [different.] T

21Koffka, Perception, pp. 554-558. 26.

"Reported by Merle Lawrence in "Audition," Annual Review of Psychology, 19, 1968, 23H. Woodrow, "A quantitative study of rhythm, Archives of Psychology, 14, 1909, p. 65. 24Simon and Kotovsky, 1963, p. 540.

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1 72 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

seems to be the heart of what we call beautiful, and it that men need it as they need food.25

The notion that the "unexpected" provides th value is an intuitive assertion, and perhaps a log expectation for its good continuation which mean

tition and a certain amount of surprise, providing This aspect of perception assumes attentive listen two kinds of listening: definite and indefinite, by w attention or just allowing sounds to intrude vaguely ual perception, certain features in a total field stand background. "Definite listening is equivalent to the definite listening is a general response to the ground A same-different judgment is dependent on defi

sion of sounds and silences which we organize in

into groups takes place after a statement of a musi

of durationally-organized pitches) which is the o

Somewhere in the time span after the original elem on the amount of information in the first statemen

The relationship between the original and the fo

number of forms: a series "reproduces, continues, c ops the original."28 This relationship was investigat

who used distorted melodies to measure pattern familiar folk melodies such as "On Top of Old Sm "Bicycle Built for Two," he transformed them in

tion, retrograde, altering interval size, and by main found in the original melody, but changing their t

that simple transposition of the tune had little o Techniques which impaired recognizability least w vals their original size or left the sequence of up retrograde version of tunes greatly disturbed recog conclusions was that "Those transformations are preserve the relative magnitudes of the intervals b do not change the temporal sequence."29 "Platt, "Beauty," p. 83.

26 Vernon, I, p. 131. 27H. P. Held, "An experimental study of musical enjoyment," A

23, 1912, pp. 245-308. The idea of "expectation" was then d adopted by Platt.

28George Dickinson, "Analogical relations in musical pattern sicological Society, 13, 1960, p. 262. 29Benjamin W. White, "Recognition of distorted melodies," A

73, 1960, pp. 105-107.

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MUSICAL PATTERN PERCEPTION 1 73

We perceive sounds as music, in part, by the relative hig of pitches (contour). Ortmann discussed the psychological st tones, concluding that the highest and lowest tones of a mo in perception, and that the final tone is retained better t single tone influences perception of the whole, but does no

Guilford and Hilton found that when only one tone is a

melody, several tones sound altered. An "altered tone seeme the whole melody."31 These studies and others indicate that a readily-patterned element of music.32 The contour furnis Altering intervals undermines recognition of a previous me the general contour (the good gestalt) is retained.

The temporal-motion aspect of music, however, canno

arated from the total gestalt. Cooper and Meyer not "marked for consciousness" also by its pattern of accent.33

response, or some kind of kinesthetic reaction to musical m sistently evident that it is an important part of any theory to musical patterns. Roger Sessions maintained that even so ond to movement. He believes that "music is significant for

principally because it embodies movement of a specifical

goes to the roots of our being and takes shape in the inner body our deepest and most intimate responses."34 Vernon observed the wide diversity of kinesthetic respo

parts of the body in his own listeners as well as those of body registers responses to "pitch motions of the chief

changes in the intensity and rapidity of the music, to simp complex, rhythms." He also noticed "a rough correlation

groups which are predominantly employed in musical pe duction, and those which have been trained for perform strument."35 Vernon opts for a motor theory of perception

30Otto Ortman, "On the melodic relativity of tones," Psychological Mo 39.

3IJ. P. Guilford and R. A. Hilton, "Some configurational properties of short musical melodies," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 16, 1933, p. 33.

32G. E. Burroughs and J. N. Morris, "Factors involved m learning a simple musical theme, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 32(1), 1962, pp. 18-28.

Phillip J. Chamberlain, "Pitch and duration in recognition of music-like structures," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 38(2), April, 1974, pp. 419-428. Stephen Handel, "Perceiving melodic and rhythmic auditory patterns," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 103 (5) November, 1974, pp. 922-933. 33Grosvenor W. Cooper and Leonard B. Meyer, The Rhythmic Structure of Music (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960), p. 8. 34Roger Sessions, The Musical Experience of Composer, Performer, and Listener (Jfnnceton: fnn-

ceton University Press, 1950), p. 19. 35Vemon, II, p. 275.

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1 74 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

tain gestalt principles. In his theory, "figure perce opment of a discriminative reaction to a 'good gest then evoked when the figure recurs as a 'poor gest

If we organize sounds into the most simple an

finding a good gestalt, this, in musical terms, is ide melodic motive. The necessary conditions for retain

tivic pattern are a sufficient number of consistent d

contours. Changes of pitch (from a fourth to a fift heard as disruptive changes, if the durational infor

remain the same.

Musical pattern perception also takes the form of finding unity within diversity, the most obvious structural scheme being that of theme and variations. The unifying aspect of tonality in tonal music, with its hierarchy of harmonic relationships, probably furnishes the catalyst for all the other musical

elements. In La Rue's words, the sense of unification which the ear recognizes as tonality results not so much from how many times we hear the central chords such as tonic and dominant, but more from how they occur, the emphasis that they receive from rhythmic stress, melodic climax, strategic position with reference to articulations and other

sources of weight. Hence, it may even be possible to show that tonality is not merely a harmonic phenomenon- perhaps not even mainly a harmonic phenomenon-but rather a symptom of increased general control over musical elements, resulting from greater coordination in matters such as climax and articulation.37

While tonality obviously plays a significant unifying role, less obvious is

how a complete work, lacking a conventional tonal center, contains a unity which is "felt" more than it is aurally or even visually apparent. Walker was intrigued by the seeming unity of "contrasting" themes within a particular composition, and asked the question "Why that particular transition or that particular second subject?" Pattern perception, he concluded, takes place at more than one level of consciousness.38 An unconscious or background unity (Ehrenzweig, 1953)39 was his explanation for the ability of his listeners to relate a twelve-tone mirror form to its original in a Schoenberg composition. Already

in the 1890s, Warthin reported that when his hypnotized listeners were instructed to pay attention to Wagner's "Ride of the Valkyries," their pulses rose in some cases from 60 to 120 per minute and they began to perspire freely.40 Under hypnosis, these responses were apparently subconscious. 36Vernon, II, p. 281. 37Jan La Rue, Guidelines for Style Analysis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1970), p. 203. 38 Alan Walker, A Study in Musical Analysis (London: Barrie & Rockliff, 1962; N.Y.: The Free

Press of Glencoe, 1963), pp. 9-23.

39 Anton Ehrenzweig, The Psycho-analysis of Artistic Vision and Hearing (London: Routledge

and Kagan Paul, 1953.) *UA. b. Warthin, borne physiological effects of music on hypnotized subjects," Medical News, 65, 1894, pp. 89-94. Reported by David Butler, An Historical Investigation and Bibliog-

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MUSICAL PATTERN PERCEPTION 1 75

Walker experimented further with a group of

trasting themes, two of which sprang from the sam

majority of listeners related the two themes despite la The results of Walker's experiments seemed to sugge ception in the realm of the intuitive rather than the

responses, in addition to providing emotional insight cause they reflect commonfelt experiences. Also they hypotheses for further investigation. Pattern perception at several levels of consciousne a minor variation in a good gestalt registers on the s A variation perceived inarticulately at one level ma

at another level. Or a small change in a pattern is

pattern, with the variation heard only partially as it gives an example of this "fortunate elasticity of hum of 4 + 4 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 4 bars may often be perceived as despite the inequalities."42 That is, the four-bar mod quently are retained as the reference pattern, while

sions. Another example of multi-level perception w

who observed that "the effect of pulse is that of a co ularity which is felt rather than heard; a rhythmic as a patterned unity complete in itself."43 Ehrenzweig would say that a listener selects the go other elements may be passed over and register only subconscious. He makes an analogy with one's percept especially very unfamiliar ones. To a Westerner, nonsound like so many gasps and hisses because "we miss guage owing to our inability to articulate it by the pr sounds and the corresponding repression of the rest This phenomenon seems to occur in our perception of sic as well. Here the listener's reaction is analogous to familiar-in-the-unfamiliar causes laughter. The listen

will automatically try to apply his usual articulation o scale tones and rhythmical beats. ... As this is not pos held ready for the effort of surface articulation (percep

is shifted into the depth mind which spends it in laughte

raphy of Nineteenth Century Music Psychology Literature,

University, 1973, p. 349. 41Walker, Musical Analysis, pp. 142, 143. 42La Rue, Guidelines, p. 135. 43James Mainwaring, "Psychological factors in the teaching Educational Psychology, 21 (1951), p. 112. 44Ehrenzweig, Psycho-analysis, p. 105.

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1 76 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

In familiar style, however, the surface-versus-dept

ently. Ehrenzweig believed that aurally-obscure

such as retrograde and inversion are perceived as re even though the surface perception does not alwa

As noted above, Walker attempted to test this a

compositions, with the result that his listeners did ships between an original theme and its mirror for In summary, the evidence from these varied per listener perceives sounds as music by selecting a pat sistent attention, especially in a style in which he c to some extent. The need for, and the subsequent r erates expectations as to what course the music will accompanied by an anticipatory tension which bu

the music and is released as the music reaches it

which was expected. A different kind of satisfaction

from one's expectations or if the consequent is d response in either case, because in the latter event, some important way to what the entirely expected have been. Recognition of same-different sounds (t fundamental need to order the universe in some wa events, and thereby assert a measure of control ove

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MUSICAL PATTERN PERCEPTION 177 Selected Bibliography Philosophical and General Writings

Berlyne, D.E. Conflict, Arousal and Curiosity. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960.

Dewey, John. Art as Experience. New York: Menton, Balch & Co., 1934.

Keil, Charles M. H. Motion and feeling through music. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Critici

Spring, 1966, 337-349. Langer, Susanne K. Philosophy in a New Key. New York: Mentor Books, 1951. Leichtentritt, Hugo. Aesthetic ideas as the basis of musical styles. Journal of Aesthetics Criticism, 4(2), December, 1945, 65-73.

Lunney, H. W. Time as heard in speech and music. Nature, 249, June, 1974, 592.

Osgood, C. E. and Tannenbaum, Percy H. The Measurement of Meaning. Urbana: Univers Illinois Press, 1957.

Pike, Alfred. The theory of unconscious perception in music: A phenomenological cr Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 25 (4) 395-400.

Pratt, Carrol C. The Meaning of Music (A study in psychological aesthetics). New York: M

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1 78 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

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Young, Tzay Y. and Thomas W. Calvert. Classification, Estimation and Pattern Recognition. New York: American Elsevier Publishing Company Incorporated, 1974. General Studies by Musicians

Albersheim, Gerhard. On the psychology of music. International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, IV 72, 1973, 213-226.

Alden, Edgar H. The role of the motive in musical structure. Doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina, 1956. Babbitt, Milton. The synthesis, perception, and specification of musical time. Journal of the International Folk Music Council, 16, 1964,92.

Butler, David. An historical investigation and bibliography of 19th century music psychology literature. Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1973. Cazden, Norman. The systemic reference of musical consonance response. International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, V/2, 1972,217-234.

De Arce, Daniel M. Contemporary sociological theories and the sociology of music. International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, V/2.

Faulds, Bruce D. The perception of pitch in music. Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1960.

Fay, Thomas. Perceived hierarchic structure in language and music. Journal of Music Theory, 15/

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