Osprey, Men-at-arms #060 - Scandinavian Armies In The Napoleonic Wars (1976) (-) Ocr 8.12
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PREY· MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES
cScandinavian ~rmies in the :J\€1l0leonic"J1IJrs Text by
JACK CASSIN-SCOTT Colour plates by
MICHAEL ROFFE
JC01ldi1l0vitlll ~rmies ill tlte ~oleollic mrs
IlItrOnl/Clioll The involvement of Denmark/Norway and we
period of the armistice a demonstration of British naval might brought both Sweden and Russia to the negotiating table, and on I] June a convention was signed which bound the previous members of the 'League of Neutrality' to a f;'l.r morc restricted interpretation of that word, but which 'saved facc' for all parties. For six years thereafter the Scandinavian nations prospered by their foreign trade, particularly in timber and iron. By 180] Napoleon was convinced that he must incorporate both Denmark and Norway into his Continental System, either by aggressive diplomacy or b)' naked force.
Adlfti...1 Sir Hyde Parker, Britiah lIaVIII cotntnander at
~':;~hh~t!ftp:.t:r-:aOa~~;fJa;D:~;~.:~.e(;ari~~:ri:rtn~ Mua..utn}
n.\TTI.E OF
COPENHAGEN.
The battle p"itiolu of die Briti.b and Da.ni5h fleet. befor.. Copenh.alJe1I, I AprilISoI.
Gopelll7agnl 1807 The year 1807 found the continent of Europe seemingly prostrate al the feet of Napoleon. Austria and Prussia had seen their capitals occupied by hostile armies, and the battle of Friedland had convinced the Emperor of Russia of the necessily for peace. On 24 June an interview took place between the Emperor of Russia and Bonapane, on a raft on the ri"er Niemen. Final ratifications of the peacc wcrc completed at Tilsit on 9 July, and on thc S<'lIllC day peace was also
signed between Frana and Prussia. The treaty between Russia and Francc, ralher than suggesting the diAcrcncc bctwt'en victor and vanquished, expressed more Napoleon's desire to draw Russia into his continental system; it was presented as a grand alliance. a European combination, which might havcdestroyed England ifit could have been put into eflcctive operation. Russia summoned Sweden, Denmark and Portugal 10 adopi this system and 10 close their pOrts against the British. The expected arrival of a British force at Stralsund, and the prcsenn' of I}russian troops already there, raised the Swedish king's hopes. In violation of an armistice concluded with General
Brune, the French command~r at th~ tim(' ~h('n 1Itg00iatiol1s at Tilsit had Ix:~n openn:L h(" reJ:IIt'\loed the war single-handed. Tht· French invaded Swedish Pomerania, From iMir various strong·points th~ Swedish fol'"Co reur:3tro without sustaining any regular action, ~ fell back to the fortress ofStralsund. This was quickly surrounded on the land side, making it highly untenable. so the army was withdrawn by IJta to the island of Rugen. The French then lOok O\'er and occupied Stralsund on 20 August 1807; tht) also capturccl the island of Danholm which b.y between Stralsund and Rugen. It was now n-K!('nt that Rugen could no longer resist, so a mttting took place bet\,'een the French and ",,·edish commanders on 7 September and a conTntion was signed by them. by which the Swedes _ere to cvacuate Riigen and retire to Stockholm; that island, and all those 011 the German coast, "ere ceded to France. Denmark up to this timc had remained UllIDOlestcd, prOlcctcd by the ri't"id observance of a
strict neutrality and the temperate politics of her court. She had watched the gelleral policy of the French Emperor, who had maintained an army at h~r frontier, thus forcing the Crown Prince of D~nmark to drain his other dominions of their forces and for three years to keep the cream of his army assembled on the borders of Holstein to pro· teet the onlv forseeable avenue of invasion. To the overbearing determination of France and Russia to terminate this neutrality Denmark could oppose no effectual resistance. The mere threat of a temporary occupation of Holstein, Schleswig and Jutland might suffi· dentl)! alarm tht' Danish court. Temporary occupation by France was usually follo""ed by requisitions and oppressions, waste and ravage. Threat of the appropriation of the most fertile of the Danish territory was within the limits of possibility if she refused to co-operate, and with Holstein once occupied, Zealand and the Danish ~av) would be at the disposal of France. Such was the state of affairs when the British Covern.
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men! decided 10 dispatch an expedition to the Baltic with increased haste. When evcrylhing was ready this powerful force, consisting of some 20,000 troops under the command of Lieu lena 1lIGeneral Lord Cathcan. commandcr-in-chicf of the land forces. embarked and set sail in a fleet of twenty-seven ships of the linc, and OIhe. vessels of all descriptions (about ninety vessels in all) under the protection and command ofAdmiral Gambier. When news of this formidable fleet was first received in Copenhagen it was supposed that the British intended to co·operate with the Swedes in defending Stralsund and reconquering the rest of Pomerania. Within a few days, the visit to the Danish capital ofa represelllative ofl-lis Britannic Majesty confirmed that Copenhagen was iLSclfthe object of the expedition. Although the tcrms were fair, the British negotiator was unable to convince the Danish court. Accordingly, on 16 August, Lord Cathcart disembarked his troops at Wybeck; almost simul· tancously. British troops from Stralsund effected a landing at Kcoge Bay, bringing the total number of troops under British command to 28,000 men. The Danish Crown Prince hurried northwards
from Kid on the southern borden of his territories to lead the defence of his capital. The British troops advanced from the landin~ points in three columns, and the Danish co,-erin~ force was driven into the fortr<."Ss. Ten days later, relieving Danish forces occupied a strong Jl'O!'ition in front of the village of Kji)ge; they were dislodged and driven back with considerable lossn. The way was now open for an attack on Cope.nhagcn, which was effected on the north and south by the military forces, and by the navy on the east. The regular works began and advanced rapidly; frigatcs and gunboats stationed themselves near the entrance of the harbour within easy striking distance of the town. The British Brigadier-General Decken cap· tured frcderickswork, a cannon and powder depot, along with 850 Danish soldiers. The Oanes, all hough late in the day, made great e/lons under Gencral Castellschield, who collected around him a voluntnry force of irregular troops and three or four battalions of regular soldiers. As this might pose a serious problem, Sir Arthur Wclk"Slcy, in command of a brigade, was given the task of dispersing it before it was capable or any serious resistance. On the 26th he attacked and defeated the hastily gathered force with a loss for the Danes of sixt)' officers, 1,100 men, and ten pieccs of artillery. With this mission accomplished the British general advanced towards the centre of the island to disarm and quieten the populace, which he did effectively. (It was during this campaign that the famous chestnut horse 'Copenhagen' was born toa marc of Lord Grosvenor, and was later purchased by Wellesley in 1810.) Danish gunboats now threatened the entrance to the harbour, forcing the British to retire. The British batteries which had been erected on shore and the Danish gunboats exchanged lire, the Danes in their \Urn being forced to retire with considerable loss. The besieging British army had now advanced into their prepared positions, having driven back the last remaining resistance in front of the city and in the suburbs on the north bank, induding some post positions within 400 yards of the city ramparts. With the final land· ing of the heavy ordnance, and with the platforms laid by the 31st, the siege was ready to commence. A summons was dispatched from the British commanders to General Pieman, Governor of Copen-
hagen: this callcd upon him to surrendel'" the Danish f1ect into British custody for the durntion of the war, after which it would be returned intact. In return the expeditionary force would restore all materials seized during the campaign, and withdl'"aw. Pieman courteously but fil'"mly refused this offer. The bombardment of the city commenced on the morningof:2 September. The mortar batteries uected by the army and the bomb-vessels stationed around the harbour began the shelling, and in a very short time the city was on fire in several places. This incessant bombardment lasted until the evening of the 5th by which time a considerable part of the city was destroyed and thc conflagration threatened the destruction of thc Temainder. A flag of truce was sent from the Governor of the city, desiring an armistice to afford time for a capitulation. In reply, the Bl"itish repeated their previous request that the basis of the capitulation must be the delivering up of the fleet; this was accepted, and on the morning of the 7th the Articles of capitulation which had been settled during the night of the 6th were ratified. By these Articles, the British forces were to take immediate possession of the city and dockyards; all ships of war and the naval stores of His Danish Majesty were to be delivered up; prisoners were to be mutually restored; all private property was to be respected; the functions of the civil and military officers were to continue uninterrupted; within six weeks the city was to be restored to His Danish Majesty, in the state in which it was occupied, and the British troops would evacuate the island of Zealand. In consequence of this capitulation the Danish Navy delivered to the British 16 ships of the line, 15 frigates, 6 brigs and :25 gunboats, as weB as ships standing on the stocks. The stores in the arsenals, which included masts, spars and timber, amounted to some 20,000 tons, sufficient to load 9:2 transports and other vessels chartered for this purpose. British losses were light for such an operation, not exceeding :200 men; those of the Danes were much heavier, about :2,000 people being killed and 400 houses destroyed. The British foreign secretary, Canning, did promise to return the Danish fleet three years after the end of hostilities; but the Crown Prince ~
understandably-sequestered all British property, and forbade all contact between his people and those of England undel'" severe penalties. He turned to France, with whom he concluded an alliance on 31 October 1807 at Fontainebleu, and at the beginning of November the dual kingdom of Denmark-Norway declared war on Britain. This declaration of war had a serious effect on the Norwegian economy. She depended wholly on her overseas trade to exist. The country's needs depended on her imports, especially corn, which had always come from Denmark, but which ceased as soon as the war began. A government commission (Regjeringskommisjonen) was established to deal with this situation, but due to mishandling in Copenhagen it failed to display the urgency that was demanded. The situation worsened with the failure of the 1807 and 1808 harvests, and atlempts were made to make meal from birch-bark and lichen. But despite this the Norwegians survived, and because of the lack of
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to Denmark which, provided she surrendered her fleet to France, gave her the Hanseatic towns as an indemnity in lhe North of Europe. As to Sweden, Russia was given a free hand regarding Finland, which at this time was a part of the Swedish dominions. Britain imposed a blockade on both Denmark and Norway and occupied Heligoland. Denmark, who had thrown herself completely behind the cause of the French Emperor, viewed Sweden as England's ally. For this reason she senl 14,000 Danish-Norwegian volunteer troops to join the 22,000 French and Spanish forces under Marshal Bernadotle in Zealand. (The Spanish Rommana Division included the Prince's Cavalry Regiment and the Princesa Inbntry Regiment, who attracted considerable attention from the Danes because or their exotic appearance.) This force was to attack and invade southern and western Sweden in the event ofa Russian attack on Finland. With such a situation in the offing, Sweden entered into a convention with Creat Britain, who had offered every assistance within her power. Britain improved Sweden's financial position with a grant of £t,200,000 pounds sterling in equal instalments of [100,000 a month.
'R.!!JSia illVtldes:J'inltllld The Russians began their invasion on 8 February r808 when Finland was covered with icc and snow, which provided the best means of transport - by sledge. Nearly 4°,000 Russian troops crossed :~~m:il~::r~at::~I~~:t(:.~~~~,:wo~c;:fts ::~u~:~a:~~ their own frontier under the command of Ltbuttons. Dark blue pantaloons, helsian boots, y.,Uow silk Ceneral Von Buxhoevden. They smashed their sash with interwoven crimson slripes; sword hilt and 6uinll:s way through the thinly.hcld Finnish defences, and ofblack scabbard ~Id. LiKIot I ..f ..rotry: b.,adll:ear as Line, but dark srefll plume. Dark green tail coat faced and lined. black; proceeded as far as Hclsingfor without any great silver bUllons and ""Paulettes (unfringed. on rigbl shoulder). Dark Ilrey pantaloonl; lasb and sword as Line. opposition. Ceneral Klcrker, the Swedish commander in Finland, hastily concentrated some 22,000 Swedish-Finnish troops to defend the communication from Copenhagen they took upon country. The king of Sweden sent reinforcements to Finland's defence, with the new appointment themselves more of an independent policy. The secret clauses in the treaty concluded at ofCeneral Klingspor as commander-in-chief; he Tilsit between Alexander Ru~sia and Bona- was a courtier of uncommon talents and exparte, contained many articles indicating their perience. The Russians pressed on and within one month grasping ambitions. Among them was a reference Danish officers, .802: (left) of the Line, and (ri!!ht) of Light hlflUltry. Li.. e: tall black curled-brim hat with Ilold hurton and loop on lefl; Ilold cords wound round lUId lerminatm!! at top rill:ht, th.,n hans-lnll: to fasten 08' with flounders and tassel. On the right side of the tUDic; la,"!e white feather
or
of the invasion gained possession of Abo, the capital of Swedish Finland. The stronghold at Biorneberg fell, with the Swedes suAering heavy losses. General Klingspor decided that resistance was useless at this stage, and in order to keep his army intact he ordered a general retreat, leaving only 7,000 men in a few scattered strongholds with orders to delay the advancing Russians. The Russians, under the command of General Tutsch1I;0w, failed to outRank tbe retreating Swedes. Almost every day over the following weeks skirmishes took place between the Russian ad\'anee guard and the Swedish rear-guard. Notable during this period was the counter-attack by General Aldercreutz who, acting without orders, smashed a Russian attack at Siikijok. The retreat continued over some 400 miles of a country almost without roads and covered in deep snow. Klingspor not onty conserved his army but managed to preserve his magazines, stores and ammunition, and finally succeeded in uniting his harassed forces with another division under Cronstedt. The first full-scale battle was fought at Lapua near the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, with the Finnish troops atlacking on 14July. Battles were fought throughout the following summer, large areas being lost and recaptured. The Finnish peasants became guerilla fighters, attacking and destroying the Russian supply lines. Aldercrcutz defeated the Russian troops soundly al Rcvolahti. Sandels smashed the Russian communications and defied the Russian General Barclay de Tolly with his second Russian army on Ihe Eastern Aank. D6bcln and his Bjorneborg Brigade dislodged the invaders between Tampere and the Aland Islands. The morale of the Iroops was now high after the long depressing retreat and successive defeats. In the southern part of finland the Russians directed a large-scale atlack on the grc,lI fortress of Sveaborg which guarded the cntrance to Helsinki. This place had a strong natural position, being built on a group of four inter-connected islands just ofT the mainland, helped by the reinforcement of its defences; it was justly called ,he 'Gibraltar of the North'. By the beginning of April the Russians began to bombard Sveaborg, but it proved to be almost impregnable, and the
damage and loss of life was negligible. The 7,000 troops inside the fonress outnumbered the besiegers, and their firepower, food and ammunition were amply provided for. Nonetheless, despite all these advalllages, the Swedish Governor ViceAdmiral Cronstedt, who seems to havc underestimated the whole situation and position, surrendered Sveaborg. By the late summer and autumn Russian reinforcements began to pour in: experienced, seasoned troops direct from the fighting in central Europe. The Swedo-Finnish troops began to fall back steadily northwards, and November 1808 saw them retreating across the Kemi river. General Klingspor withdrew to a pre-fortified position at Oravainen which was flanked by the sea on the right and protected by a squadron of gunboats. The Russian Count Kamensky ordered his advance guard under General Koulneff to attack the Swedish left Rank, but the very nature of the ground proved too much for the attackers, and the Swedes repulsed the constant assaults. The weakened Russians were then confronted with a determined counter-attack by the SwedoFinnish troops under Generals Aldercreutz and Vegsack, who descended from their held positions
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10
and routed the Russian attackers in some vigorous hand-to-hand fighting. However, the gallant Sweda-Finnish troops could not withstand added reinforcements put into the field by the retreating Russians, and they in their turn were routed. The battle of Oravais was over; although it only lasted a few houl1i the losses were some 2,000 dead. Klingspor knew his troops were exhausted and, painful though it was, ordered a general retreat to the homeland, with Degyllenbogel's irregulars acting as the vanguard. Throughout the summer of 1808 the British and Swedish navies combined to control the seas. The threatened invasion by Bcrnadotte with the French, Spanish and Danish-Norwegian troops under his command could not take place, for the Skagerak was under the control of the British and Swedish·ships. The Swedish king was becoming more and more unpopular; many assumed him to be insane, and his treatment of friend and foe alike forcshadowt:d his ultimate downfall and dismiss.:,1 from the throne. In ~1ay 1808 the British General Sir John Moore arrived at the Baltic port of Gothenburg with an expedition of about 14,000 men; but. for some reason which has never been fully explained, some difference arose between the commander of the British force and the Swedish king in respect oflhe employment of the troops and where they could best be used. The king was so enraged at SirJohn'S refusal 10 comply with his demands thai he placed him under arrest; after some difficulty, the British commander escaped, rejoined Ihe British fleet (the army having remained on board for several weeks without disembarking) and relurned 10 England without having been of the least service 10 the king of Sweden.
FIRST BATTLE OF NORWAY
The Spanish troops which wcre stationed in Northern Germany and Denmark and on the Danish Islands in the Baltic, mutinied at the news of the revolt of their cduntry against France. On 9 August 1808 6,000 Spanish troops under the command of the British Admiral Keates took over the fortress of Nybourg in the island of Funen, reinforced by a thousand more from J ulland. A
British roc:ket boau in action - Copenh.-.!5-' 2 105 September .ao,. Some 40,000 rOl:kets were fired In thi. auack, (rom mme. fi:sed to the (orem.ast; sail. were cooltandy wetted dOWll to avoid fire hazard. (R. Willtia_.L.lbam)
further thousand men were thrown against Langland. One Spanish-regiment in Jutland was capturl'Cl and two regiments were disarmed in the island of Zealand; the Danish Kongens Livjaeger Corps took part in their disarmament. The Danish garrison on Xybourg made no great effort in opposition. The Spanish troops, now amounting to 8,000 men. were embarked on I I August to the island of Langland between Funen and Laland, where a further 2,000 Spanish troops were stationed. From here the Spanish were transferred onto British ships and transported to England; in leaving the large fortress of Koldinghus, they destroyed it by burning. \\lith their departurc the threatcned invasion of Sweden by Franco-Danish forces was ended. An attack on Sweden was now only possible through Norway, and orders were issued to the commander of tile Norwegian army, Prince August of Augustenborg, to strike through Baahuslen. With about 17,000 men, the Norwegians began to mobilize, but because of the tight blockade numerous things were in short supply, with many of the troops still wearing uniforms of the previous century. Sweden foresaw the threatened invasion and
struck first. On 15 April General Armfelt, eommande-rofthe Swedish Western Command, made a three-pronged attack. He succeeded in defeating the unprepared ;..rorwegians and advanced be· yond the frontiers; attacking at Lier, south of Konsvinger, he forced the ~orwegjal\s across the Glomma river. This success, howevcr, was shortlived, as the second prong under Col,lnt Axel ~'Iorner was defeated and captun.'.d at Toverud. The NOlwegian commander Staffeldt then counter-attacked, and defeated and captured the Swedish commanders Weibyc and Galm, whereupon the Swedish advance faltered and stopped. With inadequate provisions, camp fever rife among the troops and a certain lack of enthusiasm, further operations against Norway ceased and the Swedish army was ordered back across the border. The iXorwegians, having gained the initiative and with their morale soaring high, acted offensinly with some success against ·the Swedes, defeating them at Prestebakke. The Swedish army withdrew to the frontiers and there was a change of command, with Ceneral Ccderstrom commanding the centre, General Aldersparre the right flank and General Posse the
II
left flank. Thus prepared, the Swedes awaitl;{\ a Norwegian invasion. The war was disliked by the soldiers and populace of both countries, and despite outside pressures to invade Sweden from Russia, France and even Denmark, the ~or wegian Prince refused to continue the struggle and a truce was signed between the two countries by the end of 1808. Ski-troops (Skiloberkorps) were used -although not extensively - in this expedition. They were already in existence in the 17th Century. On 13 August 1747 they were formed into corps at Sonden and Nordenfjaeldsk, each with three regiments and one Volunteer company (Landevaerns-Kompagni). In 1768 a further four companies were formed, and by 1769 these ski-troops were attached to other regiments, the Sonden to the Oplandske and the Nordenfjacldsk to the Trondhjelllsk Regiment. In 1801 the ski-troop corps caine under the NorskeJaegerkorps, and in 1810 under the Akerhusske Skarpskyclle Regiment.
GeaeraJ Lord Carh"an. "ornm.aader oCBritiah land forutl in dlleCopenlt.aSeD e",peditiOlll .flBo]. (N.riOlllal Army Mu"e,un)
The Sonden troops were commanded during the Napoleonic period by: Henrik Reus Bang from 1800 Kristian Vilh Kluver from 1804 Frederik Vilh Bruenech Stabell from 1805 Sven Arntzen from ISag The Nordenfjaeldske troops were commanded by, K. G. Bang from 1804 Joh. Frt"dr. Matheson from 1809 Elias Heltberg Lund from 1811
END OF RUSSO-SWEDISH WAR
Norsk Skil~ (Norw~ dU-troopen) oC lSoL 1De..-..d blado ur .... dKOra1lrd witll the li_ iaaipiaj the whole wUCorm waa blue wirll ~U_ collaraad a&Jfa; tbelM.tla_re wlUre aod the aide-pack ia IUde.
12
The Swedes, both in the north and the south, were being driven out of Finland; to the SOuth Dobeln had retreated from the Aland Islands. The Russians issued a proclamation to the Finnish soldiers serving in the Swedish army, asking them to desert with their arms and equipment and offering two roubles for a gun, one rouble for a sabre and six roubles for a horse. During the winter the Russians took over and fortified themselves in the Islands of Aland; with
three corps in the centre, commanded by Kulner, Bagration and Barclay de Tolly, they made Ihe famous march across the frozen Isthmus of K"arken to Umea and carried the war into weden proper. Count Chouvaloff, the Russian commander in Ihe nOrlh, defeated the SwedoFinnish forces and drove them southwards until the whole of southcrn Westro·Bothnia was under Russian occupation. It now became necessary to open negotiations, to which the Russians agreed. The Swedes evacuated Uleaborg and retired to the west side of Ihe river Kieme, the limit of the Finnish border. Thus hopefully the campaign was terminated. The war between Russia and Sweden would probably have been renewed as soon as the spring of the year permitted the respective armies to march, had not a revolution in Sweden by a group of military moderates suspended hostilities. General Aldersparre, commander of the army facing Norway, occupied Karlstad in Varnland and gathered a force to march on Stockholm to depose the king. Gustavus IV, realizing the
D6bcln counter-attacked and drove them back in turn. A convention concluded between Denmark and Sweden involved the withdrawal of this division. Witb tbe Gulf of BOlhnia still under their control the Swedes, in co-operation with the Brilish Reet, attempted a large-scale amphibious landing; although not highly successful they were able to retreat and re-embark ill good order. A simultaneous allack by the Swedish main forces on the weakened Russian lines drove them back to Pitea, where they were cuI off from their supplies. The Russians, realizing that their main objective - the invasion of Sweden - would be impossible to achieve without a long-drawn-out conRict, agreed to a treaty. On 17 September 1809 peace was concluded al Fredricksham, and lhe boundaries of Sweden were permanently fixed on the cast. Sweden ceded Finland to Russia as far as the rivers Tornea and Meconio, the Sea of Aland and the Gulf of Bothnia. Those islands at an equal distance from Aland and Finland were ceded to Russia, whilst Sweden retained those nearest to her own coast. Sweden promised 10 adhere to the continental system with certain modificalions, also to close her ports to Brilish ships, and not to allow any importations other than salt and certain colonial produce. Peace was signed with both France and Denmark. The SLlccession problem still remained, as ,806 smoothbore pisiol. Charles XIII had no children. The claim of position, attempted to escape to the south where Prince Christian August of Augusten.burg, the h(' hoped his army in Scania would still remain Danish commander-in-chief in Norway, was loyal to him. There was no bloodshed; Gustavus looked on with favour by General Aldersparre, was captured on his escape, placed under arrest who harboured the hope that the prince would and confined at Drottingbolm with his family; bring Norway along with him to supplement the but a short time later was granted his liberty. loss of Finland. After consultation with the King Under the title of Colonel Gustafsson be travelled of Denmark, Christian August agreed, was duly in Europe. never to return to his native land, and elected by the Rikstag and carne to Sweden to died in Switz<:rland in 1837. Duke Charles of take up his duties as Heir Apparent. Suderrnania, the ex-king's uncle, was asked by the Meanwhile, in April 180g, with the northern military jUllta to assume the position of Regent, German states in open rebellion, the King of and was subsequently offered the crown, be- Denmark ordered units of his army into Germany coming Charks XIII of Sweden. to join forces with lhe Dutch Corps already at The Russian Tsar was not satisfied with the Wismar. This Dutch-Danish force attacked the truce and resumed hostilities. A Danish.Nor. famous Major von Schill at Stralsund on 31 May. wegian Division joined the Russians under the Fierce and bloody fighting took place at the city command of General Kamensky and swept Ihe gates ofTriebseerther and Knieperthor, and after Swedes back at Hjerpe; tben the Swedish General the gates were taken fighting continued in Ihe
13
market place and the street. Major von Schill was killed and the official version stated: 'Danish Hussars Lorenz and Crohn captured an enemy officer in the street fighting. He was wounded and asked for pity. A Danish officer who was passing ordered the Hussars nOt to kill him but 10 take him along as a prisoner. When requested to accompany the Hussars he resisted and was shot. He was recognized as von Schill, his military order was taken as evidence and the body removed'. Later the Hussar in question was awarded a medal. The Danish Corps under the command of Major-General von Ewald consisted of the following: 1st and 2nd Baltalion, Oldenborgske Inl:'lntcriregiment 3rd Battalion. Holstcnske Infanterircgiment 4th and 5th Companies, 2nd Battalion, Hoi. stenske Infanteriregiment 2nd and 6th Squadrons, Hussarregiment One troop of Holstenske Rynere (A total force amounting to some 2,500 men.) After two cellluril'S of Swedish domination thc Finnish Diet met in the small townofPorvoo, there to offer Tsar Alexander the loyalty ofthc Finnish people. The Tsar accepted and Finland became a self-governing Grand Duchy under him.
BERNADOTTE BECOM ES CROWN PRINCE Sweden suffered yet another disaster regarding the choice of a Crown Prince. On 10 May 18lO the Heir Apparent, Christian August, had a seizure whilst reviewing troops at a military manoeuvre in Skania, and fell dead from his horse. After lengthy debates the Swedish Rikstag now had two choices: the late Charlcs' brother, the Danish Prince Frederick Christian of Augustenborg; or, as the Swedish Francophiles suggested a candidate selected by Bonaparte. Napoleon was at first non-committal as to his choice at a meeting with thc chosen Swedish cnvoy, Lieutenant Baron Karl Otto Marner, who thcn turned to the French Marshals, and approached the independcnt Bernadolte. Jean
14
Nonk Iftfantryofficer, .808, in a ,u,iform aimilartothal wo.... by aU Daniah officera of 'hal period. Searl'll lail coal with yellow .:ollar, plutroft and cuffa and white Msm!; ailver buttona, white turnbacka, allver epauleltea. Ta""elled aaah in sold wilh crimaon nripel; btue breechea wo.... with .ilve... trimmed huaiana.
BaptistcJulcs Bcrnadotlc, 47-year-old Marshal of France and Princc of Ponte Corvo was a popular choice who was liked by the Swedes for his good treatment of Swedish prisoners-of-war during the 1806 campaigns. He was an able adminiSlrator and had a valuable relationship with the Bonaparte family; his brother-in·law was Louis Bonaparte and his wife was Kapoleon's ex.fiancce. He was now semi-relired and living in Paris.
Nouk B0"8"rbevupnins (c:iri,.e. militia) officer, 1808. Btac:k
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breeche•. Sa.h, .ilver_t rimlDed he...;a....nd .word (undt\lre were .ta.dard Datli.h types.
Napoleon allowed Bernadotte's name to be put forward and although he had at that time other ideas for Danish-Swedish union, eventually gave his consent in Bernadoue's favour. Full support came from the Swedish Rikstag when it was suggested by the French Viceroy that a further loan wasin the offing upon the Marshal'sselection. He was unanimously elected heir to the throne! Bernadone accepted the Swedish Constitution
and the Lutheran faith, and on 21 August 18lO became Charles XIV John, Crown Prince of Sweden. Theold King Charles XI II adopted him as his son, and his forceful personality and many talents soon won him a place in the Swedish people's affections. The Crown Prince studied the situation of his new country. Finland had been annexed by Russia; to regain this by force of arms would be IS
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-f;--(~~.~.:.'S)'_~ A famoa • .celIe from. me Napolecnoie Wan_Major YOlO 5dUU i••hoc oal of dIe ....ddle duriall n..-.611otia« al Suaboutd OB 3' May 1&09- He rni.ted capttlre, c1uHlllh wou.ded, a.Dd wa. kiUed by hyO Daai.h lroopers. (Kaolel)
both costly and dangerolls, yet his people yearned for their lost empire. Norway was the obvious answer; what better compensation for Finland? A combined Scandinavian state of Swedcn and Norway had great economic and cultural possia much easier defence bilities, and more problem. Of the two alternalives, Norway was by far the better solution for Bernadotlc. To achieve this ambilion he had to manoeuvre carefully, although he had no intention of becoming Napoleon's lackey; when France wanted him to wage war against England, he did so only with reluctance. Relations between France and Russia had grown strained, with Napoleon massing his armies on the Russian frontier, but regardlcss of this Bernadottc made friendly overtures towards Russia. In Swedcn he reorganized the country's production. The overhaul of the army was another problem: the Swedish system of tenure4
16
establishment had many weak points, especially in the raising of rescrves. At a meeting of Ihe Rikslag at Orebro in 1812 he introduced compulsory military service, which ordered 12 days training each year for all able·bodied men between the ages of 21 and 25. The curious system of hiring another person to substitute for one during this conscription service was permittcd. Nonetheless the tenernelll regiments'" remained and continued to be the core of tile army. Due to the great natiOnal debt, the supply of uniforms to his army was a \·cry grave problem. Swedish lack of cnlhusiasm for the war against England did not appease or please the French Emperor, and relations with France became strained. To show his displeasure Napoleon ord· ·The 'lenem('lIl r~imenlll· .....·hich made up Ihe hulk of Ih(' S,,·o:dishllrenltlh.....·ereunilllofpart-timesoldien-·TerritoriaIJ·.in Ih(' modern British I<:n5<:. Thr 1}'Jtem ,,--as oprn 10 man) abu..,.. ....·hich Bcrnadolle "'orkcd 10 rliminalC. but he was unabl(' to ..rap thean:haicprO«dureemirrll'
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the invasion of Swedish Pomerania at the beginning of 1812 under the command ofCeneral DavOUL There, a large number of the garrison were taken prisoners. This was a blow to the wed ish Francophiles, who at last saw the true path of Bonaparte's ambition. The Crown Prince dttlared Sweden a neutral country, and with the promis~ of help from Russia to secure Norway for weden, he formed an alliance with Russia in April 1812.
'['he 181J Gumpuiglls Although Sweden took no pan in the Russian campaign it is said that Bernadott~'s advice to the Russians aided them in def~ating the French army. In March 1813, with the Grondt Armet in retreat, the Allies again aligned themselves against France. Bernadotte signed a treaty of alliance with Creat Britain, with the understanding that if Sweden committed her forces to co-operate with the Allies on the continent, Creat Britain would support her plans for annexing Norway. The treaty also included a grant of I million pounds and the Fr~nch \Vcst.lndian islandofCuadaloupe. For this enterprise BernadoH~ gathered together an army of 30,000 Swedish troops. On I April he signed a treaty with Prussia, and the same month wed ish troops und~r the command of Ceneral Sandels landed in Pomerania, already evacuated by the French. On 18 May 1813 the Crown Prince Charles John arrived at Stralsund, and the same month Prince Christian Frederik, heir to the Danish throne, arrived in Norway to take com· mand of the army. The Swedish army lransponed to the continent at this time was dressed in a motley collection of uniform styles, the variations being copied from their various allies. Some were wearing the earlier type uniforms, as the issue of 1810 had not yet been completed. Captured and borrowed uniforms and equipment were also worn; these included French shakos and Russian kiwtr'J, the latter becoming very popular especially with the Swedish offic~rs. On 16 May 1813 the King of Denmark ordered the Danish Division which was standing by in
Dam.h D.val weapoa. (left to riKbt), coa.t S-rd pike, lBoI aDd 1808; ...val ••bre 'Hol.tda' improviHd from FreDcll.767 haDllerl boardin( aJle, 18o?-141 ...val ..lore 18o?-a.. au.o made from tbe Frl!Bcb bul(er; _val cutla••808-'4, improviud rrom tile cavalry broa.bwordl.ad board.Uoll pike or c. 1800.
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17
Holstein to join the French Army Corps under the command of Marshal Davout. During the brief armistice from 4 June to 16 August, this Division was brought up to strength, and named the Danish Auxjliary Corps; it was placed under the Danish commander, Prince Frederik of Hessen. The Advance Guard was under the command of Colonel Waldeck: Slesvigske Jaegerkorps II HoIstenske Skarpskynekorps I and II 2nd and 6th Squadrons of Hussars One Horse Ballcry of Artillery (three-pounders) The First Brigade was under the command of Major-General Grafvon der Schulenberg: Oldenborgske Infanteriregiment I, II, IV and the light company from III
eoate...porary print of D.nilh leaeral in dre.. umfonn, IBog. The blad< bicorae bordered wilh white fe_therll . .d had a white pl1l.llOe. The o:n..mloa tall o:oat had tilht blue
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18
Holstenske Infantcriregimcnt IV Dronninggens Livrcgiment I and the light com pan} from II HoISlcnske Regiment R}'Hcre and one FOOl ArtilJen (six-pounders) The Second Brigade was undcr the command of Major.Gencral Lasson: Fynske Infantcrircgimcnt I and II Siesvigske Infantcrircgimclll I and II Hoistenske Infanterircgiment III J)'dskc Regiment Lene Dragoner One Horse Battery (thrce·pounders) Onc FOOl Battery (six·poundcrs) The main force of this Danish Corps organiza. tion thus consisled of thirteen baltalions, two in· dependent companies of lighl infantry, ten squadrons of cavalry and four batteries with forty pieces of cannon, amounting to 11,000 men. The French Marshal Davout marched north· wards for Hamburg which was defended by the Russians under General Tattcnborn; being considerably outnumbered, they withdrew. Danish Auxiliary troops entered the city 10 hold it againSt the Swedes, but on [9 May Ihey evacuated it when news was received of the advance of four Swedish banalionsunderGencral OObeln. Dobeln occupied Hamburg, but to the astonishment of the Allied commanders, Bernadotle ordered him to be replaced by General Lagerbring, and on 26 Mayordered the withdrawal ofthe Swedish troops from the city. The conduct and cautiousness of the new Crown Prince of Sweden so angered the suspicious Allied commanders that many could not give him credit either for his professed enmity to Bonaparte, or his attachment to the Allied cause. However, he had his difficulties; as he could not speak Ihe language of his adopted country, he surrounded himself with soldiers and advisors of many nationalities. He was too cautious to commit his Swedish troops, a fear which annoyed the Swedes themselves, since in the eyes of the other Allied troops they appeared to be cowards. Bernadotte seemed to be content only to send into action his beloved artillery. After the battle of Bauzcn in which Ihe Allies were defeated, partially due to the inactivity of Bernadotte, Ihe Allied command gave the Crown Prince more responsibility for planning the offen·
sive and command of the Northern Army. This was made up 01'3°,000 Swedish, 40,000 Prussian, 10,000 mixed German and 2'2,000 Russian troops. The Prussians were under the command of Generals Bulow and Tanerzien, the Germans under Wallmoden and the Russians in four corps under CzcrnischeO', Tettenborn, Winzergerode and \Voronzow. By 1'2 July 8ernadotte's famous Trachenberg Plan was issued. This formed the strategy of the Allied command for the eventual defeat of :\apoleon; its main points were to split the Allied armies into three groups: I In south Germany, Russian and Austrian troops numbering some '2'20,000 under the command of Schwartzenberg. '2 In the centre, 80,000 Austrian, Prussian and Russian troops under the command of 8Wcher. 3 In the north, 100,000 Swedish and mixed nationalities under the command of Bcrnadone. Bcrnadotte placed his main force al Treuenbreilzein, concentrating about '20,000 troops to guard the Danish frontier (in the event ofa Danish attack in that quarter) and the Hanseatic League towns. SWF.D1SIl ANI)
~'INNISII
UNITS W"'CII
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IN TilE IWSSO-SWEI)ISII CAMPAIGN:
["he Artillery Regiment of Finland The Infantry of bo (CapitalofSwl:dish Finland) Rusthall's Battalion Bjornchorg Brigade (orCeneral Dtibcln fame) Colonist Battalion Infantry Regiment Tavastehus Tavastehus Light Horse The Queen Dowager's Regiment TheJagerHorn Regimelll Aldcrcreulz's Regiment
Vargering Infantry Vargering Cavalry Nyland Regiment of Dragoons Nyland Infalllry Regiment Nyland Light Horse Ostro-Bothnia Regimcnt Kajana Battalion Sa volax Cardia Dragoons Savolax Infantry Regiment Savolax Lighl Horse Artillery Regimenl of Savolax The Kardske Light Ho,""
(A total combined strength of some '20,000 men.)
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On '2 I August, Bernadolte reccived information via intelligence sources that Bonaparte was can· centrating the corps of Oudinot, Victor and Davout, and of Generals Bertrand and Regnier, ncar Bayreuth, the force amounting to some 80,000 men. Napoleon was preparing a powerful offensive through 8erlin. Bernadotte took appropriate measures, placing the third Prussian Corps under the command of Bulow between Hernersdorf and Klein Beren, and the Fourth Prussian Corps at Blankenfelde. The Swedish army was concentrated at Ruhlsdorf, and the Russian army was brought up to the rear. Be-
19
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cause of their rapidity of movement the cossacks and light infantry, under the command ofGeneral CzernicheIT, were ordered to stay close to the rear of the enemy's columns. On 22 August the French attacked the advanced posts ofBernadotte's army. As the attacking force was greatly superior in numbers, the Swedish troops retired. On the morning of the 23rd the French made a desperate
20
-.
attack on the Founh PruSSlan Corps; they were held and some prisoners were taken. The village of Gross-Beeren came under heavy fighting, with the Seventh French Corps and the Fourth Prussian Corps both being successful, and it was retaken. With the occupation of the village the enemy was exposed and Bernadonegave orders to General Bulow to attack. For some hours the battle raged, the Prussians advancing under the protection of the Swedish anillery. About this time the village of Ruhlsdorf was menaced by the enemy; Bernadoue ordered some battalions of Swedish troops, together with a few pieces of artillery, to reinforce the advanced posts. In this operation the French were taken in the flank with a battalion of flying anillery, and retired closely pursued by the Russian light cavalry. The booty consisted of twenty-six pieces of cannon, ',500 prisoners and a large quantity of baggage. Napoleon, seeing his plans defeated, replaced Oudinot with Marshal Ney. In August the Danish Auxiliary Corps received further reinforcements of dragoons, the Danish Fynske Regiment Lette Dragoner accompanied by one company of sailors. On 16 August Davout with his XIII Army Corps began to march towards Berlin to support the French troops that were advancing on that city. Danish troops marched on the left flank of this army towards Lubcck-Krummesse. The operation was accompanied by constant running fights with bands of cossacks under General Walmoden, and the Von Lutzow Freikorps. On reaching Schwerin, Davout halted his army and awaited information about Marshal Oudinot. By I September he received news of the Marshal's defeat at GrossBeeren, and gave orders to fall b
and Russian cavalry preceded the atlack, followed by 70 battalions and 10,000 horse, supported by 150 pieces of artillery. The french began to retire in great disorder, Swedish and Russian artillery completing Marshal Ney's disintegration at Dennewitz on 6 September. After this battle it was ~timated that the french had lost, in killed, .....ounded and prisoners, 16--,8,000 men, 50 pieces of cannon and 400 ammunition.waggons. Among the Allies the Prussians came off worst with upwards of 5,000 killed and wounded. Swedish losses were extremely light, with some twelve men ""ounded; Bernadotte was again accused by both the Allies and the Swedish soldiers of not committing his own Swedish troops. Every day l'apoleon's position became more critical, bUI he still remained al Dresden. The Allies, failing in their attempt to capture Ihe city, continued with a plan of campaign 10 weaken him by attrition. They advanced from the valley of Topiitz, in the direction of Bohemia, towards Dresden, and on another occasion from the direction of Silesia; when Napoleon came out to attack them, they retreated. At length his troops were becoming exhausted. French communications were constantly under attack, and convoys of supplies were harassed by the reinforced Russian cossacks. Davoul, who had advanced from the vicinity of Hamburg into Schwerin with the express purpose of co-operating with Oudinot, was being held in check by Count Walmaden, and having learned of Oudinot's fate he thought proper to commence his retreat. The cautious Bernadotle ordered General Vegesack to attack the Danes if Davout withdrew his support from them during his retreat. Prince Schwartzcnbcrg continued to advance from Bohemia, whilst Blilcher pressed forward from the direction of Silesia. Austrian, Prussian and Russian troops re-entered Saxony, and advanced to within eight miles of Dresden at Pirna. Again Bonaparte was forced to leave the city, but as usual the main Austrian army retired as he approached, drawing him towards the mountains of Bohemia. On 4 and 5 October Bernadotte and Bli.icher, having crossed the Elbe at different points just twenty miles apart, were in communication with the main army, drawing a line across this part of Saxony. With General Ben-
Drawiall from contemporary print, officeu of Sjaet_ tand.lle Jaq:erkorp. and (riSln) Hot.ten.ke Skarp.kytter Korp', .8'0-11. The uniform. dlff'er only in epaulette and ,hako loop colour _ ,ilyer (or the (ormer . .d sold (or the latter. The black ,hako ha. a larSe sree.. feather plume and sold ta..eUed cord. in both can•. The sreftt jacke" have black collan, pl."ron, and cull'" a ..d Sree.. three-poi..t c:uJf. .Ia,hu, all edlled white. The rq:vlalion ..,h i. wOrD., . .d the white pa..'aloo... are tucked i,no black he..i. .,; tbe 'word, have ,ityer furniture and sold and crim'on kGo".
ningsen advancing tOwards Dresden, and the cossacks under Platoff in advance at Lutzen, Napoleon's communications with France were completely destroyed. On 7 October he finally left Dresden, taking with him the royal family of Saxony. By the 9th Prince Schwanzenberg had established his headquarters ncar Leipzig.
21
LEIPZIG
the occupation of the village was essential for thefun her operations of the Allies, so a rocket. The French position now occupied a front of brigade attached to BcrnadOl\e's army was called about 120 miles from the fortress on the Elbe, in· into action against it. Only one salvo of Con. eluding Dresden, Torgau, Witlcmbcrg and gre\'e's formidable weapons was fired, but the Magdeburg, the course of the river being nearly effect on the solid square of opposing infantry was north-west. From Dresden, Torgau is about 45 and Wittemberg 70 miles; 17 miles below Wittcmberg, on the left, the Mulda Aows into the Elbe. Leipzig stands between them, about 18 miles from the river Saalc, 13 from thc Mulda, and 35 miles from the Elbe. By I I October the combined armies of Bernadotte and Blucher lay on the river bank of the Saalc west and north of Leipzig, with Blucher in the more advanced position. The main object of the Allies was to force Bonaparte into ballle, whilst he in turn was trying 10 weaken them by drawing off sections of their troops. BeT;lin had been left exposed by the Crown Prince's march tojoin the main Allied army. The French Emperor advanced, pushed a corps across the Elbe at Witlemberg, and Bernadotle retreated to Cothen, halfway between the Saale and Etbe rivers. General Tauenstein with 12,000 men had fallen back to protect the capital, so that the French force, having failed in its main objective, was recalled. On 18 October, after receiving reinforcements from Bliicher, of 30,000 men. infantry, cavalry and artillery, Bernadotte undenook the attack on the enemy dircctly opposing him; a strong position on the left bank of the Panha, with its right resting on the heights of Faucha, and its left to· wards Leipzig. To gain the heights Bernadotte ordered in the Russian and Prussian troops under General Winzingerode while he himself, in com· mand of the Swedish army corps, endeavoured to effect a passage across the river at Plosen. The Russians achieved their objective and took some 3,000 prisoners and pieces of cannon at Faucha. Before Bernadolle could complete his Aanking movement, French infantry abandoned the line of the river and retreated in the direction of Leipzig, (1..,(l:), J.~~ DC Lon-dslu, J.~erkorpa, 11510-11. Bladr sllaJoo, «"'I'll tas_lIed cord., s~ pluDle .pparelltl,. Ur defending the villages they passed through to safe- wb.he metal CaueaUrs. Blackjadret. pa.o,alooaa . .d saiters, guard their retreat. The Allies continued their {.::.~':~-:o,:~, ~IU:dN~~:;.:~~t~~~; Ib: advance, meeting only token resistance, but General Langeron under Rliicher's command met p~~:.::~~lf:::r~=:: a heavy concentration of French troops in one of :;:'1:US::~:~:~~,:.i~:~~::"~:; Tke ja"ket is eatiret,. bla"k "s"ept for WlUle Iuroba"ka, the the villages, and was forced to retire. However, palltaloo..s dark sre)' a..d the sa;ters bla"k.
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23
staggering; they were panic-strickcn, and surrendered. In this pcriod of the battle the Saxon artillery with twenty-two picces of cannon, two additional Saxon battalions and two Westphalian hussar regiments deserted the French ranks and joined the Allies. The guns were immediately turned against the French, Bernadotle led these new troops against their former allies, resplendent on his white horse and dressed in a uniform of violet laced with gold, his hat adorned Wilh white plumes surmounted with a larger plume in the Swedish national colours, and in his left hand his baton covered in violet velvet ornamented with golden crowns. The French held out more determinedly to the south. Napoleon was in a dilemma, whether to retire to Leipzig and hold out from there or to esc'~pe by the line of the Upper Saale. With casualties of some 50,000 men as well as 65 pieces of artillery 10SI, he hesitated for some time, but finally chose the latter alternative and evacuated lhe city only two hours before the Allies entered. After a brief resista nce the victorious Allied lroops attacked and carried Leipzig. The Emperor of Russia, the KingofPrussia, and lhe Crown Prince Bernadotte entered the CilY at different points at the head of their respective troops, and formed up in the main square. where they were greeted by the liberated inhabitalllS with cheers and much jubilation. With lhe victory of Leipzig, the Napoleonic Empire crumbled fasl. Gone was the allegiance of the German princes; lhe Confederation of the Rhine lay in tatters, and was dissolved. All that remained 10 Napoleon was the attachment of the King of Denmark, who even when Napoleon was at the extreme crisis of his fate declared war on the Emperor's enemy, Austria. The pursuit of the French army continued. Napoleon's straggling dispirited soldiers, some 80,000 strong, were attacked by Bavarian and Austrian troops under the command of General Wrede. In anticipation of the final result of the battle for Leipzig, Wrede had been sent forward by a route calculated to reach the French before they reached the Rhine. At Hanau a desperate conflict was fought and despite their numerical superiority the French were defeated with a loss
24
of about 10,000 men. When they finally reached the Rhine, Napoleon garrisoned all the strong points on the river and the frontier, and departed for Paris. Although the light troops of the Allies pursued and harassed the remains of the French army as far as the Rhine, Bernadolte had no wish to share in the final extermination of the enemy. The liberation of the COuntries of Europe wa.~ now the Allies' chief problem. The defence 01' France called for the withdrawal of all the troops which still remained beyond the frontiers. The Tsar's plan was that Paris should be encircled, and France invaded from all sides; the main army would attack rrom Switzerland, the Austrians from Italy, the British from the direction of Spain and the south, Blucher from along the Rhine and Bernadolte with his army through Holland. Bcrnadotte and his Nonhern Army marched in the direction of Cassel, with the object of implementing the Tsar's plan to liberate the Dutch. Here the plans were altered for obvious reasons, as the French were still in strength on the right bank of lhe Elbe. The small army under Walmoden was insufficient to either hold or attack them in any great strength; before the Northern Army could act effectively or safely in Holland, the rear had to be made entirely secure with the utmost expediency. On 29 October Bernadotle branched northwards towards the French XI 11th Army Corps under the command of Marshal Davout, who were grouped in and around Hamburg; these amounted to some '3°,000 men, many in isolaled fonresses. This plan had the added attraction that by marching against the French there was the probability that Hamburg could be liberated and through it an opening made for immediate communication with England. Bernadolte also decided to attempt the liberation of the Hanoverian dominions, and by r November he had achieved this ambition. Sir Charles Stewart, the British representative at his headquarters, said in his official despatch: 'The enthusiasm, loyalty and the joy of the people can not be described, and, although it is some ten years that this coulltry had been separated from their legitimate sovereign, it is obvious he lives in their heans with the same deep-rooled affection'.
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• and \I Denmark, Holsunke Ryuere, Officer andTrO
H
As soon as Bernadolte had reorganised and arranged a suitable provisional government in Hanover, he marched against Davout. At first the French commander appeared to stand and await the full onslaught of the Allies behind his so-called Stecknirz line. Bernadotte, to appease the Allies and keep alive the Tsar's plan, sent Cenerals Bolow and Winzingerode towards Hoi· land whilst he took command of 60,000 men and continued northwards. With a change of plan, however, Marshal Davout withdrew from the Stecknitzline and retired to Hamburg, which he started to provision and fortify. When called upon to surrender by Bernadotte, he replied: 'I will defend the city to the last burning debris'. Bcrnadotte marched against LObeck which was defended by a Danish garrison; resistance was brief, the inhabitants greeting the Swedish soldiers with open arms, and lhe commandant sued for capiwlation. Negotiations with Davout having failed, Bernadolte sent a Russian corps of about 16,000 men, under lhe command of \Vorintz, to surround and besiege Hamburg. The Swedish forces under his own command took on the left wing of the Danish troops in position at Lubeck. Ceneral Walmoden with a mixed corps took on the Danish right wing situated at Boden, southust of Oldesloe. The advance guard was commanded by Major-Ceneral Dornbcrg. In the general retreat before Hamburg the Danish Auxiliary Corps were now cut offfrom the main French army corps. Prince Frederik of Hesse gave orders for a general withdrawal to Holstein to defend Ihe Danish frontier from the now obvious threat of an Allied army advancing under Bernadotle. Further reinforcements arrived as late as 3 December; these were the Jydske Infanteriregiment I, Leite Kompagni Slesvigske Infanteriregiment (III Batlalion), one company of Hertuginde Louise Augusta Livjaegere, and the Ahonaiske JaegergrenaderKompagni. The Danish commander sent out couriers ordering all units to fall back to the main Danish position at Oldsdoe, but it was too late: on the morning of 4 December the Danish 2nd Brigade under the command of Major·Ceneral Lasson had made contact with part of the Advance Cuard of the Russo-Cerman Brigade under Warden burg in the village onVesterau.
The 2nd Brigade consisted of: 6odragoons rrom the Fynske Lene Dragoner Regiment 50 huss.'lrs 1St and 2nd Battalions, Fynske Inranteriregiment 1St and 2nd Battalions, Slevsigske Infanteriregiment Rifle Company rrom the 2nd Battalion, Dronningcn Regiment Rifle Company rrom the 3rd Battalion, Holsten Regiment Rifle Company rrom the 3rd Battalion, Oldenburg Regiment 3rd Company of the SlevsigskeJaeger Korps Fighting took place around the villages of Siebcnbaumen and Steinhorst, and before Dorn. berg had time to organize his division his front tine had been driven back. The Hannoverian Brigade pushed the Danes back from Steinhorst, causing lhem to retire to Cross Boden. The fighting continued for some hours with the Danes counter.attacking and forcing the Hannoverians to break and retire. The Allied Advance Cuard units regrouped and again advanced. This time the Danes did not give fight but joined the main Danish position at Oldscloe, subsequently making their way to their own border.
THE FALL OF DENMARK
By 5 December the main force of the Allied army of Russo-Swedish troops, containing ~bout 18,000 Swedish soldiers had advanced into Danish Holstein. Fighting took place at Bornhoved and Sehestcd. The last ever Swedish cavalry battle, in which the Marner Hussars distinguished them. selves, was fought at Bornhoft. The Danish army, after retreating through Holstein, drew up in a position on lhe Eyder where Prince Frederick of Hessen requested an armistice. Talks extended into January, with both armies drawn up in position and fortresses besieged. As the basis of the negotiations laid down by Bernadotte was not acceptable, hostilities were resumed and the town of Cluckstadt was taken. When the frontier town ofJutland Kolding was reached the Danish government decided to conclude a peace with Sweden and Creat Britain, and on '4 January 1814 the Treaty of Kid was signed. The condi-
25
26
Swo:dish troop. o( 1813-14 campaign. Resulations (or uni. (orms u:isted, but due to the S"reat po...eny of the Swedish • ation the soldiers we", badly c1otbo:d and equipped. When the uniforms deteriorato:d with use a ..d "0 replacement. were fonhcominS", the .oldier. worewbale_r was available, allied and captured uniform. and equipment being worn "";Ih equal freedom. The uniforms 0" this plate depict tbe Swedish mililary 'fashio'" during tbe period of .8IJ~14 througboul the Nonh Gel'........ c.mp.ign., the .......lIio.. of Denmark, the Iibe.... tion of the Netberland••nd finally the ia....s io.. ofNorw1ly. The figure 011 tbe left, a pri...ate of tbe Nonh Skiin.ka Resiment, ill we.ring a c.ptured Frencb IIh.ko, .nd p.rt of hill equipmenl is from hi. (now) Runian allies. R"'!'JI.tion. bid down that .ll unit. wore tbe t ....dition.1 higb rou..d felt bt all shown on tbe figure On tbe ri!ht, but replacement. were .carce. The j.cket was the .8'11 p.llern, dark blue with red collar and cuff"s, tbe cuff". being piped in dark blue. Shoulder.lltl'1lps were in tbeuniform colour of blue and piped in red. The turnback. were in yellow and buttons were brall. The panl.loo... were i... medium grey colour ."d decorato:d wilh an Au ..trian knot and Illripes down the out..ide lIeam in red. Dark grey g.iters were worn o"'er the boot•. Around the waill was the lance....style girdle. Crotll-beh., .rm-strap. and chest-eonn.,.,tingltraps were in white leather. A h.yo..et Kabb.rd was att.cbo:d to the b.ck of the black le.ther ....munition pouch, whicb bung dllwn on Ihe ri!bt hip. The kn.p...ck wa. of brown hide witb • copper cant.,.,n (the Sgure ..bown i. wearin!. Ru ...i....type white met.1 cant.,.,n) .....!o.. the back. A wate.-.cont.iner was not ...,.,e.....rily pan • • •oldier's ",,!uipment, .0 tbese co..t.iners ranged from pllll bottle. wilh .ome prot.,.,ti...e co...eri,,!, to captured ..elale.ntcenll.
~:ri:~I~~efi:::i~:.t.".::(:ii;::):~:.::.~:g;:;~:"i~:
wilh tbe Swedes. The uniform ill tbe 18topattern of dark blue with tbe coUar a ..d tbe round cuff ill red. The shoulde... Rrapl are the lIame colour al Ihe uniforln, edSed in red. The nlmbac". were in yellow and bUllons were bra.... The waist wa. encirded wilh Ibe la"cer-Iype girdle in the national .,.Iours of yellow and blue. P.ntaloons were Inedium grey ...th Austrian knOll and lide .tripes in red. Dark srey piters were worn. All the leather equipme"l wa. white with tlte e:sception oftbe black alnrnunition poucb. The back_pack was of brown hide with a S"rey blanket roll On top, aecured by whiteleather .. trap...
Tbe figure 0.. Ihe riSht i. a pri....le of the Uppland R~ment. He wore the r"'!'Jlation taU round hat with the left .ide brim dongaled 10 reach Ihe top of the crow" and fa.te"ed wilh a ,..-Uow cockade a"d a hutton and loop, o"'er which wa. a _hile standin! 'bru.h'. Around the hat wa. a while hat-band. 110e u.,;corm wa .. dark blue wilh a while collar, lapel...nd caffl being yellow edged witb white. The turnback. were Jlellow, .houlde....strap. were dark blue ed!ed yellow, hulto.... ~re brass. Thepa"laloon. were medium 8rey with Au.trian bOI. and .ide .tripes in yellow, .nd the resul.tion l.ncer prdle w•• WOrn. The ",,!uipment was the regul.tio" p.uern wilh the addilio.. ofthe brown gourd carried On the left side ..,. • cord, all a" impro......ed canteen.
lions of the treaty were that Norway should be ceded to Sweden, in return for which Denmark was to have Swedish Pomerania as compensation; that Stralsund should become a depot for British goods; that the Danes should, on receiving a subsidy of £40,000 from England, join the Allies with a force of 10,000 men; that Britain would return to Denmark all that she had captured from her, except Hcligoland; that both Sweden and
Britain would use their good offices to negotiate a peace between Denmark and the other Allies . Later, Denmark exchanged Pomerania with Prussia for Lauenburg. With the question of Norway all but settled Bernadolte evacuated Holstein and as rapidly as possible headed south to fulfil his obligations in Holland. The first of the Swedish troops crossed the Rhine on 24 February, finally halting at Liege where Bernadotte made his headquarters. The centre of the Northern Army under Blucher had sufTered heavy losses, and he appealed to the Tsar for more reinforcements; Ihis request was granted, and the corps of Winzingerode, Billow and \Voronzo were placed under his command. To compensate for the loss of these corps Bernadolte was given the overall eommand of the forces besieging the French fortresses, which included the Dutch and British troops in and around the Netherlands . in April of 1814 Bernadotte returned to Paris. The Tsar and some of the other Allies offered, indeed urged him to accept a position as mediator between the Allies and the Royalists, or even as the leader of the opposition; the post of Generalissimo was even mentioned, but all these Bernadotte refused. He had secretly entertained high hopes of obtaining the French throne, but was a very disappointed man, since the French thought of him not as a saviour but more as a traitor to their cause. He had become completely alienated from his own people, the French. VVith promises of Allied influence and aid in his conquest against Norway, he returned to his northern kingdom, Sweden. THE iNVASION OF NORWAY The refusal of the Norwegians to submit meekly or to surrender their fortresses, Konsvinger, Frederikshald, Frederikstad and Akerhus on the borders, boded ill for a peaceful settlement. Scarcely a month after the signing of the Treaty of Kid, a representative body of Norwegians met in the town of Eidsvold and drafted a constitution for all independent monarchy with the Danish Prince Christian Frcderik (cousin and heir to Christian VIol' Denmark) as its Regent. Norway prepared for war, but her military plans were ofa
27
their strength and the defcnsive nature of their country. Had they not thrown back the invading Swedes in 1808--g? They could do it again! They had not reckoned with Bernadotle, who had brought the new Swedish army up to a high standard of discipline and preparedness. Bernadotle informed Essen of the reinforcements he was sending, which amounted to about 30,000 men who were being landed at Carlshamn. There were further Russian and Prussian troops amounting to another 20-30,000 men. There was a promise of more troops from the Tsar - 5-6,000 men who would bc despatched from Archangel to land at Trondhjem. By July Bernadottc was ready to invade Norway. On 26July the Swedish fleet sailed from Stromstad to eapture and take possession of the islands at Hvaloerne, which the Norwcgians had already cvacuatcd. Amphibious landings were made on Krangcrocll where some 6,000 men took over the fortress of Frederikstad with little or no opposition. The garrison under the command ofColonci Hjerman retreated with all haste. General Galm led a Swedish detachment of (Ldt to risbt) , artiUery .word (or NCO., I~; approximately 2,500 men with instructions to artillery .word, I~; cadel'• •word, I~; artillery ·Stral.wod' .word, .Bog. attack and harass the Norwegians; he crossed the border at Solor with the intcntion of marching to Kongsvinger, and made contact with an equal force of Norwegian troops under the command of wholly defensive nature. The army took up Colonel Krebs. The Norwegians retreated before positions along the German river to oppose the the Swedes until they reached Lier where they threatened invasion. Norway then made strong were able to secure a fortified position. The Swedcs appeals to the Allied powers, for without outside advanced and attacked on 2 August, but were assistance their cause would be lost. They ap- beaten back with heavy losses. Galm moved back pealed to Britain, but although sympathetic, in and established a camp at Matrand. During lhe March 1813 she had signed a treaty with Sweden night Colonel Krebs approached the camp with a assuring her of British military aid in return for her few hundred troops, sending his main force or assistance against Napoleon. With this alliance in l,ooomenon a flanking movemenl. Thcyattacked being the other Allies, although distrustful of at dawn; the fighting was brief and bloody. Gahn Bernadotle could do nothing, so Norway was left was able to extricate his troops, but only after to her fate. great difficulty, with the loss of some 300 men Bernadoue was still at this time at his head· killed, wounded or taken prisoner. Thc Swedish army of two corps numbering quarters in Belgium, so the command of the Swedish troops was in the hands of Count Essen. about 45,000 men was in position at North Although well-equipped the Swedes were few in Boluslen. With volunteers and militia the Nor· number, being only 16,000 men strong, but to wegians could not muster more than 27,000 men. counter-balance this they had a strong British and The balance of sea power was even more alarmSwedish naval force. The i':orwegians had some ing. The Swedes had four ships of the line, five 20,000 men; they were confident in their cause, frigates, one brig and about So--9o smaller craft:
28
to back this up they had the helpofthe formidable British fleet, against which the Norwegians had only eight brigs, one schooner and some hundred smaller vessels. The Second Swedish Corps advanced through Enningdal under the command of Field Marshal the Count Essen, and the Norwegians retreated before them. Fredriksten was besieged by 6,000 Swedish troops under General Vegesack. At Svinesund, to escape being cut off from the main army by Essen, the Norwegians under the command of General Butensdhon withdrew. The Crown Prince Christian Frederik went to Rakkestad where the main army was concentrated. There his chief-of-stafTGeneral Seirsted informed him that he would be unable to defend his capital Christiania (Oslo). There was no other way: the Prince ordered a general retreat across the Clomma river, and the Swedes occupied the border towns. Bernadotte wished to negotiate; he wanted a quick settlement that he eould present to the great powers, as sympathy with the Norwegian cause could well sway his former Allies. Although these negotiations ended on 29 July with the Norwegians still holding out in various positions, the capital was already open to attack. Outflanked, outnumbered, and with a weak leadership, Prince Frederik surrendered Norway to the Swedish crown. Bernadotte·offered to accept the Eidvold constilUlion, with added amendments made necessary by the union of the Norwegian and Swedish crowns. To this the Norwegians then agreed. The control of foreign policy was to be determined in Stockholm, and the Swedish king was to appoint a Viceroy to represent him in Norway. Whereas in Sweden the king had absolute veto over ordinary legislation, in Norway his veto was valid for only six years. The former Independencies of Norway such as Iceland, the Faroes and Greenland remained under the Danish crown. The small island ofSt. Bathelemy in the West Indies was the only dependency she had left outside the Scandinavian Peninsular. The West Indian island ofGuadeloupe was, under pressure from Britain, returned to France. Britain gave Sweden compensation for this island in part payment of her' national debt. Wiesmar, although only mortgaged to Mecklenburg, was never relUrned to Sweden.
Sweden has never fought another war, and has remained neutral throughout the many subsequent world conflicts. By the end of the Napoleonic period in 1814, Denmark was bankrupt and five-sixths of her territory had been lost. Norway remained under a foreig,:! yoke, and had to wait almost a hundred years before she gained her independence.
rile 'Plates A / Denmark: Officer of Den Kongelige Livgarde Til Hast, 1800-/3
The Royal Horse Guard was formed in 1661 and apart from a shan period of one year (1771-1772) continued in service until 1866, when it was disbanded. The strength of this corps was very small, consisting of no more than about '200 men. Its main function was that of a personal bodyguard to the king. The only action in which the corps
29
took any part was in 1807, this being in defence of Copenhagen against the British attack on that city. During 1800-1815 the main duties were guarding the King and patrol duties around the coast surrounding Copenhagen. There were two squadrons, differentiated only by the tops of their coloured feather plumes. The first squadron, known as Livcskadronen (the Life Squadron, had a white feathered plume with a red top, and the second squadron had a white feathered plume with a light blue top. The uniform pattern of this organization changed very lillie over the years, except for minor details. The sword carried was the 1772 pattern; the hilt was of silver, with a black grip bound with silver wire. A scabbard of black leather had silver mountings, and the sabre knot was gold striped crimson. The horse furnishings consisted of a red shabraquc with silver lacc edgings. The harness was of black leather with gilt ·fittings. Pistols carried were the 1807 model with the 'internal' flint-lock by C. \·V. Kyhl. A2 Denmark.' Guardsman (Lirwskadronen) in Parade and Guard-Duty Uniform
In earlier years the helmet tail decoration was more in the form of a sausage-shape which hung down the back, but this was replaced by a horsehair tail. At this period the helmet had a black leather skull, straight at the back. Two metal bands, one on either side, were fixed to give added protection from sabre cuts, and the 'up-turned' leather peak was edged in white metal with a metal band above the peak over the front of the skull. The turban, contained by three silver chains
.
"
~~.~mm.iil ~
(Top to beetOIll): IS·S.........hore rifled c:arbu.e, 1"1; 16"lIIm .horerifled.c:arbi.e,I."s; 16"IIIID carbiDe, lao,.
30
on either side, was of a red coloured material. The helmet was surmounted bya fur crest with a horsehair tail which hung down the back. White metal chin-scales were adopted in March 1808. On the left side was a cut feathered plume of red over white, attached in a socket beneath the turb."!n. The uniform was a shan (just below waistlength) coatee of a light yellow cloth, fastening down the front by means of hooks and eyes. Two strips of lace ran down the front on either side of the fastenings. The collar, shoulder straps. cuffs and turnbacks (in the front) were red with lace edging; prior to 1802 no turnbacks were shown. The bottom of the coatee was also edged in lace. Rank distinction was shown by types of lace and buttons. The breeches were of a similar malerial to the coatee. a light yellow c10lh without ornamentation. The boots were high, covering the knees, and fitted with white metal spurs. It was llsual to wear the black leather cross-belt from the left shoulder. For parades a silver cross-belt plate was worn. On active service tbe cross-belt hung from the right shoulder and a black leather carbine belt with a swivel and hook hung over the left shoulder, crossing the body. A black leather waist belt had a silver belt plate decorated with the Danish coat of arms in gih. Black leather sword slings and sabretache with silver embroidered monogram FR VI were worn. The sword carried was the 1772 paltern with the hih in brass, the scabbard being of black le'lIher and steel. The carbine carried was the shoft riRed 16·8 model of 1807; like the pistol it was fitted wilh the so-called 'internal' flint-lock, made by
C. W. Kyhl in 1806, and approved in April 1807, made in the Kronborg Arms Factory. B I Denmark: Kongens Livjaeger Corps, Jaeger, 1807
With the threat of the British Reet offJudand on 12 March 1801, volunteer corps were hastily formed. One of the first open to the citizens was the Kongens Livjaeger Corps (King's Life-Corps of Riflemen), recruited mainly from the middleelass youth. With General Von Holstein as its commander-in-chief, it was formed on 25 March 1801. The corps consisted of two companies under Captain Count Holk and Captain Von Stibolt. Although it did not take part in the baltIc of Copenhagen, a small contingent was stationed with a battery on Amager. After the bailIe the strength was increased to four companies of 100 men each. For every twenty-five men an officer was appoinled, elected by the riRemen themselves. The original regulations for the uniform laid down on 15 April ended with the order: 'Everyone who is a member of the Corps must provide himself with the above-mentioned field-uniform, sabre, cartridgebox, knapsack, greatcoat and all matter to support himself. For this service in the corps, the King will provide him a rifle and ammunilion'. The greatcoat had a round cape with green tassels and lace, both of which could be easily removed to convert it back lor civilian usc. Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadoue, Marshal ofFraace, Prince of PODte Corvo. At the age of 47 he was m.ade CroWD Prince of Pelisses trimmed with black fur were permitted Sweden with the aame Charles John, ...d later took the for officers, and also the growing of beards by the throne as Charles XIV. men. on 21 July 1870. The Jaeger wore all unusual variation of thc New regulations issued on 3 I January 1806 increased the strength of the corps by 80 men; the czapka, a six-cornered tall hat with parallel sides. officers were upgraded from Civic Guards status It had a Icather body and peak, neck and earto that of the Militia. Minor changes of uniform (laps, ornamentcd with a grcen turban, ball tuft look place: the parade-uniform for thc riRemen and cords. Non-commissioned officers worc a was to be discontinued; officers were to wear lhe green cockade under lhe balt-luft. The short Oust same czapka as the men; and gold cords and below waist-length) jacket was dark green, with a black collar, lapels, pointed cuffs and the turnepauleltes were to be worn by the officers. In defence of Copenhagen during the battle of backs in lhe front. A black leather pouch belt 1807 the corps conducled themselves with great hung from the left shoulder across the body. The bravery, their casualty rate being the highest waist beIt of black leather was fitted widl a brass among the defending Danish troops, amounting buckle. Non-commissioned officers (Overjaegere) to one quarter of their effective strength. After the wore white cords and a gold epaulette on the right peace treaty of 1814 this was the only volunteer shoulder, and a black shoulderstrap edged with corps which was allowed 10 remain in service. For gold on the left. Grey pantaloons decorated with purely political reasons the corps was disbanded black braid at the waist were worn with plain
31
Hessian-type boots. Overjaegers' boots were fitted with a tassel. On the left-hand side a brass hilted sword-type bayonet (hirschranger) was carried, with a green sabreknot for the riflemen and a white knot for N.C.O.s. A Rat triangular-shaped powderhorn made from cow-horn was suspended from the waist belt by straps on the right. All ranks wore the black cravat plaited and allowed 10 hang down in front. The rifled musket was carried by all personnel.
Swedi.h .rtillery troop., .&0,. The fi~re Oil the le(t i. a p""er (Kaaoaier) o( the V,,"du Artill....ir~ ...ellt.., who wOn th.. taU rOUlld f..1t hat with the ..IOIIpted Calae hri... 011 the Idt-haad .ide, C••t_ed with a Y"Uow how aad huuo.. aad loop oC th.......e coto.r. The hat w-. •• rulO..-ted hy. ...hite pl....e, th.. hat_buld. _ . h The .iDSle-h,.....ted -.ifor... _ . dark bl".. with clar" bt (.ciDS" .bouJder.lrSp.. cuB"....d tv..... hack.. The collar _ ....hite Ihld decorated with two yello COUOll coreb or lact bar-. The .iDsle ro o(lnalt_. d the (roat Lad those OIl the aIH. wen ill b Fro... the Idt .boulder 11-. • huB" leather
~r:-~~:thi"'~~e·=:'~t·:.~tufi:'tt.:':=r:~ftl:
belt p'f:te. he c1.......fitti.llS pLatd oC clar" bl.e ...e", deeonr.ted with A".tn- ....011 ill yeUo Blae" booll wert fiued with .ilver met.1 .p"n. The .rtillery pat""..... ....ord witb th...tirrup hilt ill a .leel Lad leather Kabb.rd wa.c.rried.
"'0rD.,
82 Denmark: Jaeger Officer in Field Uniform Prior to 1806 officers had worn for service dress a leather skull and peak helmet, with a leopardskin turban contained by chains. It was surmounted by a fur crest and a green feathered plume. Their epaulelles were green, and their sashes yellow striped green. Under the new regulations ofJanuary 1806 the officers' uniform came closer in appearance to that of the men, with only minor differences. The officers now wore the czapka filled with gold cords, and gold epauleltes to distinguish their rank. A gold sash with crimson stripes was now worn in line with the regular army. Grey pantaloons with a slightly heavier braid ornamentation at the waist were worn with the tasselled Hessian boots. Both the crossbelt and the powderhorn hung from the left shoulder across the body, the latter supported by a green cord. A stirrup-hihed sword in a scabbard of black leather fitted with brass mounts was carried on black leather slings. Both pistols and rifles were carried by the officers.
The gold·edgcd black leather crossbelt bore the belt plate of the Danish coat of arms. The pantaloons were green and decorated at the waist, down the sides and around the back with gold lace. The Hessian boots were ornamented around the top in gold lace and had a gold tassel.
83 Denmark: Jaeger Officer in Parade Uniform Following the new regulations this uniform had these notable differences. The czapka, apart from the gold cords and flounders, was also decorated with gold cord at each corner, around the green turban, around the leather peak, earflaps and neck flap. The uniform was green, and lhe short black lapels were edged in gold lace and decorated with gold loops and buttons. Gold braid and bUllons reached the waisl. The black turn-ups in lhe front, the pointed black cuffs and the hallom of the jacket were all edged or decorated with gold lace. Gold bullion epaulettes were worn. A thin black leather belt edged in gold with a gilt two-bossed buckle was worn around the waist.
This, the 2nd Regiment of lhe King's Life Guards (Gustavus Adolphus IV), was one of three such regiments, the 1st being 'Kongungens Svea Lif Garde and 3rd 'Kongungens Finska Garde' After the Russians invaded and conquered Finland in I BoB, the srd regiment was disbanded according to the treaty of Fredricksham on 5 September 1 Bog. Prior to 1807 the guardsmen wore the black bicorne, but at this date the Swedish headdress, the 'kusket', was adopted. This helmet was peculiartothe Swedes. Madefrom black leather, it was tall with a rounded top and the left side of the brim elongated and turned up nearly to the top; this was ornamented with a
32
The c_tre fipre (h.ck vie...) i. La officer i.. the Ve.du Artillerir~m"'"".Th.. lUliforrn ......irnil.r to that oC the p""er with the CollowiDS e"ceptio•• : the decoratiOIl Oil the white coDar _ . o( cold lace; the e.......beh ..... leather ...d
t:~o:e:..d:I=:.P.f:;''::~t~::~':'~::~ct':t~~~:.~r;~~
lact. The clar" bl"e tv..... back....ert o........_ted with • sold
feft':~,:~::,c:,:';~':;;':I~~~I~;I:"~~~:''':.~~:
....m.ofthebl.epalltalooo.. ne ....ord ••pportedbySold. lace .IiDS...... Ih.. .rtillery palt__ ill • hlack leather _hbant with Jilt fittiar•. The .word"'01 _ . oC lold lact. O'Ih..Ie(t ...... w-. the white 'bra rd', traditioaally wo.... by all S...ed.i.h offict,..., ill co oratioa oC the Palact rtvol.tio.. o( "772. A .ilve......ohbed uick _ . carried.
~(:"r':nriC:a;::eo.~=;~t~:.s:~t~~::ts='..:~'-:::
pluD1e Cor thi. r~D1_t w .. y..llow. The C.ciDS coto"r ..... the .am.. (or the coll.r, cuff. Lad t" b.ck., t>,.iDS d.r" hl"e. Gold Cri..selu. ep.uleue. were wo A sotd.l.ud cro.._ belt .upport"'CI • bl.d. po"ch. Blue breeehu "'ere ... 0 .... with hiSI> ........ boot•. The ....ord _ . uraisht hl.ded .ad ...ora ill • Cros Crom the ....i.t_belt. (Kllotet)
Cl Swtden: Andra LifGard, Guardsman, 1807
white brush plume with a yellow loop and button. The 'chenillc' or bearskin crest was placed obliquely across thc top ofthc haL The metal hat band was adorned with thc crest of Vasa with a crown abovc.
Swedi.1a d .....Soo.u and I"...ar, '807. TJoe Iwo ceatre 6sures are _ effic"r _d trooper ortlae Wutptha n...Soo.u. Apart rrom miaor difI'"reaces tIl..-e -ue....... ar" .imilar. TJoe black I"a~r laetmel _ . fitted wilh 10....... eraa.meeta_ tioa, willa a 1I0id cockade ror officers witb a sold bunoa_d
""I')'
=.::r:It::.:i~·C;:"'~:I~Ufu.:,b:::~::
::ri~~~
comla _d ha.asias dOWlll ~ back o(llae lael.o..",. TJoe -uorm _ . darlr. blue witla red coUar and aaJr•. The half-rariaS (roat _s edlled ia wb.i'e whicla coatiaued doWD rhoe (roal aad aloellibe botro... orrhoejackel. Officers wOre lIotd epaul"ues, olher .......... had nOn". Arouad tla" waist w .. a wid", yellow sa.1a willa cords _d la..el. laooked up oa tbe righl .id",. TJo" breeclaes w"rt! lauffleather and worn witla hes.i_ bool •. Th" .word .upported On !l0ld .lings w .. Ihe .tandard r"S'ulalion
C2 Sweden: Andra LijGarde, Offiur, /807 Thc Guards rcgimcnts carnc undcr the Varvadc or pcrmancnt establishment of thc army. These either occupied the many fortresses which sur~fa~~~:~~7,. ~~':l~I: ~~~:~:.::~::::(::~:t:e: rounded Sweden, or were housed in barracks in ~h;:::;1:h: h:;~.~:afi&,~: :=s~~ ~:t::l:: various towns. Their status and pay was higher .hako had a deep lold laced bordn- arouad rhoe upp"r parr than thai of the regular Linc army. The total witla a sold lace 0 ........_1 ia IlIe cnllre; rho., wmle ph....", was strength of a Guards regiment was two six. aflised witla a y..Uow bow, laulloa _d toop oa the tert. ~~:ed';"e:I~:~t~:d;j~~ company battalions, each company consisting of ~":~n ~ wa. dark bl...., wirho ,be .ame (arias colour (or collar aad 100 men; added to this was an attachment of cuff•. Fromjasl betow tbe co,.... 10 tile bottom tlae dolman _ . deco.....ted witb gold lace. TJoe cro...betl was orleld lace about 100 men of a Chasseur company. Officers aad teather _d tbe barr"I••a.h, cerds aad tas..,l. (which still retained the bieorne for certain occasions. In [=:::~rb~:"~~:::.::r~llh~~:ct1:~:'e~oe"::::t:da~na::: common with Ihc practicc of all Swedish officers i:a7':e~::=Ia~:e:::em':::~tfo;:t~~:"~:~I~::~..~I~ thc white 'brassard' was worn on the left arm. b.... ian hool •. TJoe .abretacbe was .u.P""'ded by gold diall"
. t:::=r:i:t
C3 Sweden: KongungtnsSua LijGarde; Officer, /807 Being of the 1st Regiment there were certain differences ofa vcry minor nature in the uniform of the officers, but apart from the facing colour these were essentially the samc. The Chasscur company (mounted riRemen) had a green uniform piped yellow. They wore the kusket with a green chenille and grcen brush plume. The Chasscur company of the 2nd Regiment wore a similar uniform but with orange piping. As wilh the guardsmen, thc crest of Vasa with the crown above was worn on the metal hat band. D / Sweden: Liu Grenadier Corps oj the Lije Brigade, Officer, /8/3 The Crenadier Corps of the Life Brigade was formed in 1808 from the Liv-regiment Brigade's 'Latta' Indelta Battalion. The Indelta unilS were made up from the militia, a form of tcrritorial service. Under the ncw Crown Princc's guidance the grenadiers were drawn from their regimental units and placed into regiments of their own, possibly augmentcd with the Indelta regiments within his new infantry organization. The uniform of the Grenadier Corps was similar to that of Ihe other Linc regimenls. The kusket was worn, but with the following differences: Ihe brim was small and did not have the e10ngaled upturned left
_d had a blue backSroUlld deco.....ted willa tlae rhor.... cro_. ia sold lace. TIle .word _ . alIsto,,".t witb. sold .word....ot. eKuelel)
brim, and the chenille was placed from back to front centre. The white plume, yellow cockade and button and loop were fastened on the left side. Thc Chasseur detachment had a similar uniform. D2 Swedrn: Kongungt'ns LijGarde Til Hast: Trooper, /807 The Royal Life Cuard was made up of six squadrons; like thc Crenadier regiments it had'l further attachment, in this case one squadron equipped as mounted Jaegers. The troopers wore the pale blue service uniform, and the yellow barrelled sash belt applicable to all dragoon regiments since r795, as were also the three gold crowns (the Swedish coat of arms) on the sabretache, under the regulations of that year. The kusket was worn with the elongated Icft brim upturned, fitted with the chenille centre, from back to front, and decorated with cords. In the reorganization of the army under Bernadotle the kuskel was replaced in 1813 by a shako. D3 Swedm: Lijgrmudier Rigimrnt, O.ffictr, /813 The cuI of the uniform was similar (Q the olher grenadier and line infantry regimcnts, now being
35
blue in place of the lalO uniform colour of grey. The formation also followed that of the other line regiments. Earlier Ihey had worn the bearskin cap with the red patch at the back, and a while plume worn on the len side. In 1813 Ihis was replaced wilh Ihe kusket, worn without the upturned left brim, thechenille being worn at righl angles across the top of Ihe hat. The while plume remained on the left side with the bUllon and loop.
.... cer-IYJN'~~horizOllt.u,..friped ......e . .t1or:t.al colo..... of hI.. e -et y..now wa. wo..... C.--d.,..lt., pIl'>ch......d .u
D4 Sweden: Kongllllgens Lif Garde Til Hast,
officen. H
Officer, fOOl The Royal Life Guard was part of the standing army, and had six squadrons, including a jaeger squadron. Each squadron consisted of 125 men. The officer is shown in full dress. The 'brassard' was worn on the left arm as a reminder of Ihe Palace Revolution of 1772. The mounted Jaegers wore a uniform of similar cut but in dark green. £f Denmark: Hussar Regiment, OJficer, 181j The Hussars saw most of their service in Northern Germany. Many accounts of the various ballles fought mention squadrons of Hussars fighting alongside the Dragoons and Line troops. To the Hussars goes the credit for killing the rebellious Major von Schill of the 2nd Regiment of Brandenburg Hussars, during the street fighting in Stralsund on 31 May IBog. Stralsund and Boden are but two of Ihe battles in which the Hussars fought. Their uniform followed lhe general pattern of all hussars, the exception being lhe hat (Shachtclhue) which was a high black shako with silver bands around lhe lOp, the lace band going diagonally down lhe front - although regulations allowed the French-lype colpack which was sometimes worn. The troopers wore a similar uniform with white cOtton tape in place of the silver lace of the officers.
Thi. pl.fe .ho...... II:roup of Swedi.h Li.ne lnf....fry .oldie... we.n"'fIl ,he '807-10 r~la,iOll inue of ulliform. The ulli.
. . =.m.. .,,~ ~m:~e~ ~..:;-~~o'";~ fi:~;~ :::::
:;im=~
~~= ~!.:.:J~..':;::::::'°btu:r::~~r:~~a;:;
:~:::::.tij:=b:~l=~~~"::?::;~=fl::'~; ~;::~::::':.~:rh;"'S.eh;C:::d:t;ow:":~d:·f~':;:~
loa,. Oft the ... fr.. m .. leff i .... officer of "'e Kron.obers:
r~~~~Etfr'~~:~:~1~~~~E:t:~~~:~~:: iaD boota were wo..... Th.. bl M .... the Kron. ...
=:=a~esime t cod,.de of. yellow hac"fIlrouDd with a blue
CeDlre leff i•• private of the Elf.borfll Resim~nf w~arinfll • fIlrey fIlrdtco.' with. d ..lachable c.pe, which alao h.d tbe fad"'fIl colour of dar" blue. Kifllh hlac" pife... wer.. worn. wi,h b...... hUflOD fa&left"'••. The bf cockade bd ... o .......lI:e bac"fIlrou.Dd wi.... red cron ... ,he Cefttre. The «Ilf", fill"""" (fro"'f ...d back view)1U'e privaf'"
of"'~
~;-~;e~~~~f~~;':Ir::'~h~..aeY:""do;~:".t-=a~ arm MiD. red.
ulrem.. ri.ht i. a prinl" of SOcIum........d Resim...f. Nococlr.adewa.woraonfhefro toffh.. hat. TheUAiformW&lO daJo.. hl..e wi'" • yellow collar, cuB'. aud ....... bac.... The
l"ther equipm_, wa. of wh.i1e le....~r. aud ,he . .,iOllal. coloured sinU.. waS worn.. The pautaloo.... were whi,e ao.d worn. wi'" bl.c" sai,u. 10 ,he ..0 ..... All ~me.>Is carried 110.. hayo...et aU..ched und .. rn._th Ih~ hl.c" ammunition po..ch; ,he m .....e.. bd red l...ther .tiufll•. (Knotel)
aulettes and sash. The black bicorne with the deep laced edge, white feather border along the top and white plume was still worn, whether on the stan' or Wilh a regiment. £j Dtnmark: OJfiurofth., Cuid, Corps, 181j
This corps was an csscmial part of the arm)'. liS personnel were specially chosen officers and noncommissioned officers, who were trained for staff duty service. The uniform was red with black facing colour, and they wore a distinguishing coloured plume of yellow with a crimson top.
£2 Danish. Ceneral, 181j
PI Denmark: J),dskeRegimtnl ulteDragorur, 181j; Trooper in service dress
The Generals wore a special type of uniform when serving on the General Staff, this being in Ihe national colour of red with the facing colour of blue. Epaulettes were of gold bullion with three silver bars. The sash was a little different from lhat of the other general officers. If the general was in command of a regiment he usually wore the regimental uniform with the general's ep-
This regimenl saw most of its sen'ice in Northern Germany in the Auxiliary Corps, which was the Danish Division attached to the French XIII Army Corps under Marshal Davout. In command of the Danish Corps was Prince Frederick of Hessen and in command of the 2nd Brigade, in which this Jutland regiment served, was Major. General J. C. Lasson.
36
37
The helmct worn was the samc pallcrn as llscd from 179510 1815, and a similar patlern to that worn by the Royal Life Guards. I t had a black leather skull with a straight leather peak I:x>und with metal. and a metal band abovc the peak over the front bearing the regiment's name. It bore a crcst of black feathers. and the blue turban was contained by chains. The uniform followed the s.ame style as the infantry, with the turn backs in buff and the collar. lapels and cuffs in the regimental colour. The overalls were dark blue with a red stripe down the side and black leather strappings. The carbine was the short rined model of 1807. F2 Denmark: ]yiskt Rtgimrnt LeU' Dml:rmer,. mounted Officer, /813 Thc total strcngth of the regiment on a war footing was four squadrons, each squadron con· sisling of 175 oAlcers and mcn, but whether this figurc was cver reached is not quite certain. Officers had their ranking shown on the lower slce\'e, a system introduced under the army regulation of I August 1812. The jacket was the tail-coat with buff·coloured turnbacks. The horses were somewhat smaller than in other rcgimcnlSof cavalry, but were chosen for their hardiness. The shabraque was crimson with silver lace embroidery, and the harness was of black leather dcr:orated with shells. Owing to the British blockade and the financial problems of the country, the crimson material was gradually going out of use through lack of supplies. GI and G2 Denmark: Grenadiers, Oldntborgske hifanleriregimenl Originally part of the Danish Division st,lIlding by in Holstein, this regiment was ordered to Northern Germany by the Kingan 16Ma)' 1813, there to be attached to the French XIII Arm)' Corps commanded by ~1arshal DaVOli!. The Danish Division was now called the Danish Auxiliary Corps, under the command or Prince Frederik of Hessen. The Oldenborgske Infanteriregiment I, II, I V and the light company from the III "'ere part or the First Brigade under the command of Major·General G. L. Graf \'on der Schulenberg.
38
c....up
of Sw~.U.h dnSOOD' aDd c..ira..ie" i.. 1807. The typieal head-dre.. wa' the btack bico....e wo.... i.. the f..re aDd aft po.ili...., w;lb y",Uow hat pullil at "'.ch ead. SliShdy len or Ce»lr", the hat deconted wilh a y",lIow bow w;lh a bull.......d loop, ...rmO....led by a while feal.her pl..m",.
wa.
0.. Ihe e.-I.rt!me I",fl ill a lrooper of 110... Scani Rqi.m....t of O.... lII;oo.... The IUliform ill 110... l']98-tllo7 pan be"'lII; d.rk blue ... colour. noe lIf;ir.Ue tbe Iatlur-type of yellow UKI 101..", Io..rn.... I.1 .tripes. Buff b~h W"rt! wo.... with killl;h k..ee boot.. A whil" I..."ber belt {ro 110.. riCbl .b..uJd.. r 'cros. Ihe body .upported th.. beary ca_try ~latioa .word oa t .... lef,. A wai.t bell .....d ..r th", lIf;irdl", .upported th.. sahretacbe. 11M: hd leath..r carlo.... belt from the kft
wa.
::-::.~n"'h:"..=f~b~~::..~":'::r~a:":::~~:~:
.. ... yellow; ,b.. dark bt..e pistol caven we" d"",ont...t with 'h.. IIor.... cro_.... yellow.
The fiK"" sec d from lbe lefl i.... officu of the Scania.a O .... Coo.... The iform i••imilar to lhal of the lroopo:r other thaD tb I"'ri.l, ...d cold lac", ....Iead of th.. yell_ couo.. lau. Buff'S'''Dd..,. w",r.. w...... by.1l . Th", c....t .... ficure i.... officer of tb.. Life Cui ier Rqi._ me..l. He won th", bl.d< t",atl.er I.cqu",red h",lInet 0 .....• me"led with ,ill fitti"lII;'; the et.1 plale which covered Ihe p".k·p;ece j .....ed the Cilt c t, 0" which w •••tt.ched • white worsted co...h. noe b.ck of Ihe helme' wa" al".. o.....m"'..ted wilh lII;ilt fitting. which ror...ed ...eck lII;u.rd. no", if..rm w•• of. h..ff' c..l..ured c1..lh with the coll.r, cuff d tu .... b.ck...f dark btue. The .teet cuir••• waa edlll;ed in lII;ilt bra.. trim ...d gilt b ...... domed lI..d •. I.. Ihe ceatre ofth.. cui...... w •• the Swedi"h R ..y.1 Co.t or Ar.... u. gilt. Btue vetvet wilh a crimped edge (wkich .b..wed) tined Ihe cui....... The .h..ulder -.tItS ..f b...... a ..d leatber wbich f..leaed 0" Ibe f...... 1 .upported the cui....... A cold.laced cr bell fro... 110... rillhl "bowder carried Ibe .word, aad f m a waist belt UDder the cui.......tinlll;' .upport...t lbe ...bret.che, both 0 .. the leTt .ide. HiCh k.._te..p bool. filted wilh steel 'pun w...... wo.... The wkile ·bra....rd· ...... wo.... o .. t .... lef,.rm. noe figure .... lhe rillhl i.... officer of the Life 0"'1_ Rqi.m",al. He i. w ...riaC the 1&0, pan...... W>ifOnD with the
....Ille r _ of gilt hun...._; it wa. dark lot..",. ia Ihe cu'.away tail coal slyle. noe callar, cafI'. ...d lu".back. were'" "",kite. ~~ ~:=kte:'::~t:.",:r:.'~Il-;~:::'''':=~ft ~:=
=:
ri!bt .b....lder .upported • sword ia a f"'l Ihe teft .ide. noe wai•• wa. eacircled by. IlAJ'TOW 1l..1d 10 with ..,k wbich hu..! dowa Ihe left .ide. BuR' caloured breeches e ....
;;':'":a:~s~f: ."::r;-'O~~:'':;:':-e''''~;~~";it::'::;:'~
walk...! stick "",as ..fte.. carried by officers. (K..otel)
The backview figure has the calf-length greatcoat or medium grey worn during lhis period; the red coat of an earlier pattern was somctimes scen. The standard infantry equipment of white leather and fawn hide pack was worn. Grenadiers had an infantry sabre in addition to the bayonet. The feather was remo\·ed from the bearskin under orders issued on 8 September 1813, but restored later when the bearskin was replaced with the shako, on 12 :\'ovember 1813. The second figure is wearing the lBog patlern red jacket. of which the cut was out of fashion with the rest of Europe.
39
G] Dtnmark.' 3dir )]dskt hifa1/lairtgimtnf. OJliar, 18J]
This shows the uniform as worn in 1813 after the order of I August 1812 had been issued. This order forbade the wearing of gold or silver epauleues and sashes, and a system of stripes and buttons to denote rank was imroduccd. The figure shown is that of a second lieutenant. Both blue and grey pantaloons were worn. The colours were carried either by junior officers or senior N.C.O.s. G4 Drnmarlc.' Oldrnborgslcr InJanlerirrgimrnt, OJlicer, 1809
The officer is wearing the IBog pattern uniform; this was the period when both gold or silver epauleltes and sashes were customary. This uniform was worn at the battle of Stralsulld during service in a combined Dutch·Danish force. It was due to ~he lack of both money and supplies (be· cause of the British blockade) that the later pattern of uniforms lost most of their finery of gold or silver cords and epaulettcs. HI and H2 Drnmarlc: Holslmlct RyUert, OJliur and Troop", 181]
The uniform of the Danish Heavy Cavalry was similar to that of the infantry and the Horse Artillery. The officer's tailed coat and the trooper's short jacket had the standard flaps and turnbacks in buff. Collar, lapels and culTs were in the facing colour of green. The black shako had a white plume with cordsofrcd and yellow. On the diamond-shaped metal hat plate were the letters 'R.R.' for Rytter Regiment. The overalls were dark blue with black leather strappings; troopers had red stripes down the outside, the officers gold. The sword carried was the cavalry broadsword pattern of 1774, in the scabbard of 1786. The troopers' sword knots were black, while the officers had the gold and crimson sword knot. The pistol and carbine were the 1807 patterns. The shabraquc:s for the troopers were red with a white edging, for the officers crimson with a silver
Swedi."lw",lve-potUId""('lA0(c. 17!IOteaL 12"2;&.11 AusEhrfturird dKip wit.b cradl.. &.lid limber, it .laDd. i tra.iliosS peKino•. (Ro)'1lt Army MUHum, Swedea)
edging. Parade dress for the officers was coloured breeches and black Hessian boots wi lassel. H3 and H4 Dtnmark: 3dit ))'dslct Infanttrirtgim )arger Company, Corporal and Troop", 1813
During this period infantry regiments , formed into four battalions. The first two talions were made up of "eterans or the r experienced professional soldiers, the lhird fourth from the militia (Iandevaernet), which beell stood down since 1808. A battalion cons' of four companies of musketeers and on jaegere (riRemen); the first battalion had a ( pany of Grenadiers instead of jaegere. I company consisted of some 167 officers and I The Jaegere N.C.O. and trooper wear the s uniform as the infantry with the exception 0 distinctive dark green feathers and cords 011 shako and the all-black leather equipment. smooth-bore infantry musket Model 1794 used after the Crown Prince's request for a lig musket; a special sabre·bayonet, the 'Hi, fanger', was carried. The undress forage ca 'bonnet de police' were often worn on ocea~ other than fatigue duties. \Vhite trousers , worn for the summer uniform.
Men-at-Arms Series THE SEVEN YEARS WAR ,\10:-.'1'C.-\I..\I'S AR1-1Y WOLFE'S ARMY TilE i\l'STRO·IIL:N"G,\RIA'\' AR.\IY OF THE SEVE:\, YE.\RS WAR FREDERICK TilE GREKI"S ARMY
NAPOLEONIC WARS rOOT GRF.:'IAD[F.RS OF TilE [,\II'ERIAL Gl'ARl) (:1I.\'3SECRS OF TilE GUARD HL(.l(:HEI{'S Mo.·l\'
RllSSIAN AI{;\IY OF TilE :"\AI'OLEO:\'IC WARS
BRITISH REGIMENTS TilE IIl.ACK \\"ATCH THE COL])STR~:AM GUARDS THE ROYAL SCOTS GREYS THE ARGYLl. & SUTIlERLAND 1l1GIH.ANDERS THE CO:'lNAUCHT RAXCERS THF. HUFfS THE ROYAL ARTILLERY TilE "I:'IG'S RECI"IF.NT TltE GURKHA RIFLES TilE 30TH I'U:-."jAIIIS THE SOUTH WALES 1I0RDERERS TilE ROYAL CREE;': JACKETS
THE IlLACK BRU;.IS\\,ICKERS
AllSTRO·Hl":"
,\RTltU:RY
NM'OI.F.O"'S DRAGOONS A:'\D lA ....CERS SCA.\'I)IX,\VIA:"I AIC\llt:S IN THE ;>; ..\I'OI.l:ONI(: WARS
OTHER 19TH CENTURY CAMPAIGNS Rl'SSIA\' I\R~IY OF THE CRIMEA IlR! fiSH AR:\IY OF TI1E CRIMEA AR,\IY OF THE GERMA:'I DIPIRE lA70 A8 THE SL'f).\\ CA.\1Pt\IG~S 1881 98 nn: ZL'LV W,\R
WORLD WAR II THl: WAFFt.::'I SS LLwr\\"M'FE AIRROR'\F. A:'ID FJELD lI:-."ITS ['HE PA,\ZER DI\"ISIO:'lS TilE jAI'.\XF.SE AR:'1Y OF WORLO \\"AR II TI-lE SOVIET ,\R:.n· RO:'1:.1t.:L'S I)I:SERT ARMY
AMERICAN SUBJECTS TilE STONEWALl. IIRIC,\DE THE IRO:'l lllUGADE TilE U,S. C,\\'ALRY GEORGE WASHI;':(;TO\"S ,\RMY TilE UNITED ST,\TES MI\RINE CQRI'S TilE A.\1ERICA,'\ I'RO\'I:\,CJAl. CORPS THE IIRIT1SII AIt"'IY L\' NORTH M.n:RIC,\ Ins 83 THE A,\1ERIC,\;': WAR 1812 II TilE ARMY OF THE l'OTO:.lAC THE MU\1Y OF XORTHF.RN VIRGINII\ THE ,,1[XICA:'I·.":'IERIC,\:\, WAR IIl16 IA WOUES AR"1Y ;\IO;>;TCALM'S AR:'1Y
MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS TilE I'RE:"1CIl rOREIG"I U:GIO.'>I TilE COSSACKS ENGLISH CIVIL WAR AR"IlES THE RO:'IA:"1 AR"1Y FRO"I CAESAR TO TR,\J."'1 MEDIEVAL EUROPE,\,'>: ,\R:'1IES 1300 1.'lOO THE 1.,\'\OSK:-.:ECHTS THE ,\RAH LEGIO,'>I
PREY· MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES
cScandinavian ~rmies in the :J\€1l0leonic"J1IJrs Text by
JACK CASSIN-SCOTT Colour plates by
MICHAEL ROFFE
JC01ldi1l0vitlll ~rmies ill tlte ~oleollic mrs
IlItrOnl/Clioll The involvement of Denmark/Norway and we
period of the armistice a demonstration of British naval might brought both Sweden and Russia to the negotiating table, and on I] June a convention was signed which bound the previous members of the 'League of Neutrality' to a f;'l.r morc restricted interpretation of that word, but which 'saved facc' for all parties. For six years thereafter the Scandinavian nations prospered by their foreign trade, particularly in timber and iron. By 180] Napoleon was convinced that he must incorporate both Denmark and Norway into his Continental System, either by aggressive diplomacy or b)' naked force.
Adlfti...1 Sir Hyde Parker, Britiah lIaVIII cotntnander at
~':;~hh~t!ftp:.t:r-:aOa~~;fJa;D:~;~.:~.e(;ari~~:ri:rtn~ Mua..utn}
n.\TTI.E OF
COPENHAGEN.
The battle p"itiolu of die Briti.b and Da.ni5h fleet. befor.. Copenh.alJe1I, I AprilISoI.
Gopelll7agnl 1807 The year 1807 found the continent of Europe seemingly prostrate al the feet of Napoleon. Austria and Prussia had seen their capitals occupied by hostile armies, and the battle of Friedland had convinced the Emperor of Russia of the necessily for peace. On 24 June an interview took place between the Emperor of Russia and Bonapane, on a raft on the ri"er Niemen. Final ratifications of the peacc wcrc completed at Tilsit on 9 July, and on thc S<'lIllC day peace was also
signed between Frana and Prussia. The treaty between Russia and Francc, ralher than suggesting the diAcrcncc bctwt'en victor and vanquished, expressed more Napoleon's desire to draw Russia into his continental system; it was presented as a grand alliance. a European combination, which might havcdestroyed England ifit could have been put into eflcctive operation. Russia summoned Sweden, Denmark and Portugal 10 adopi this system and 10 close their pOrts against the British. The expected arrival of a British force at Stralsund, and the prcsenn' of I}russian troops already there, raised the Swedish king's hopes. In violation of an armistice concluded with General
Brune, the French command~r at th~ tim(' ~h('n 1Itg00iatiol1s at Tilsit had Ix:~n openn:L h(" reJ:IIt'\loed the war single-handed. Tht· French invaded Swedish Pomerania, From iMir various strong·points th~ Swedish fol'"Co reur:3tro without sustaining any regular action, ~ fell back to the fortress ofStralsund. This was quickly surrounded on the land side, making it highly untenable. so the army was withdrawn by IJta to the island of Rugen. The French then lOok O\'er and occupied Stralsund on 20 August 1807; tht) also capturccl the island of Danholm which b.y between Stralsund and Rugen. It was now n-K!('nt that Rugen could no longer resist, so a mttting took place bet\,'een the French and ",,·edish commanders on 7 September and a conTntion was signed by them. by which the Swedes _ere to cvacuate Riigen and retire to Stockholm; that island, and all those 011 the German coast, "ere ceded to France. Denmark up to this timc had remained UllIDOlestcd, prOlcctcd by the ri't"id observance of a
strict neutrality and the temperate politics of her court. She had watched the gelleral policy of the French Emperor, who had maintained an army at h~r frontier, thus forcing the Crown Prince of D~nmark to drain his other dominions of their forces and for three years to keep the cream of his army assembled on the borders of Holstein to pro· teet the onlv forseeable avenue of invasion. To the overbearing determination of France and Russia to terminate this neutrality Denmark could oppose no effectual resistance. The mere threat of a temporary occupation of Holstein, Schleswig and Jutland might suffi· dentl)! alarm tht' Danish court. Temporary occupation by France was usually follo""ed by requisitions and oppressions, waste and ravage. Threat of the appropriation of the most fertile of the Danish territory was within the limits of possibility if she refused to co-operate, and with Holstein once occupied, Zealand and the Danish ~av) would be at the disposal of France. Such was the state of affairs when the British Covern.
n" Daai
Mu
MUle as
("om A_I"" 1.1aad., ....ida lloe Royal Dockyard .. t .... ( D ~ (Nao-J lobrio-..
---
m)
•
Norak
Skil~berr:orp.,
.800, dark A"r...... lun;c with black
~O~~;{;~~·I~::nO~·r..:':1::~o~::~'IIIII~~:;~oe~nr;:~~;cC;:~~
lind ......I.bell., blllck ("ather pouch with b ...... I1:.......d ... The Ion! white oye....lI. bulton up Lhe oul"r liCllffll .. rift., ...d hllDI!l"r are c.rri...:l. (Tojhu.rnu_. Denmark)
men! decided 10 dispatch an expedition to the Baltic with increased haste. When evcrylhing was ready this powerful force, consisting of some 20,000 troops under the command of Lieu lena 1lIGeneral Lord Cathcan. commandcr-in-chicf of the land forces. embarked and set sail in a fleet of twenty-seven ships of the linc, and OIhe. vessels of all descriptions (about ninety vessels in all) under the protection and command ofAdmiral Gambier. When news of this formidable fleet was first received in Copenhagen it was supposed that the British intended to co·operate with the Swedes in defending Stralsund and reconquering the rest of Pomerania. Within a few days, the visit to the Danish capital ofa represelllative ofl-lis Britannic Majesty confirmed that Copenhagen was iLSclfthe object of the expedition. Although the tcrms were fair, the British negotiator was unable to convince the Danish court. Accordingly, on 16 August, Lord Cathcart disembarked his troops at Wybeck; almost simul· tancously. British troops from Stralsund effected a landing at Kcoge Bay, bringing the total number of troops under British command to 28,000 men. The Danish Crown Prince hurried northwards
from Kid on the southern borden of his territories to lead the defence of his capital. The British troops advanced from the landin~ points in three columns, and the Danish co,-erin~ force was driven into the fortr<."Ss. Ten days later, relieving Danish forces occupied a strong Jl'O!'ition in front of the village of Kji)ge; they were dislodged and driven back with considerable lossn. The way was now open for an attack on Cope.nhagcn, which was effected on the north and south by the military forces, and by the navy on the east. The regular works began and advanced rapidly; frigatcs and gunboats stationed themselves near the entrance of the harbour within easy striking distance of the town. The British Brigadier-General Decken cap· tured frcderickswork, a cannon and powder depot, along with 850 Danish soldiers. The Oanes, all hough late in the day, made great e/lons under Gencral Castellschield, who collected around him a voluntnry force of irregular troops and three or four battalions of regular soldiers. As this might pose a serious problem, Sir Arthur Wclk"Slcy, in command of a brigade, was given the task of dispersing it before it was capable or any serious resistance. On the 26th he attacked and defeated the hastily gathered force with a loss for the Danes of sixt)' officers, 1,100 men, and ten pieccs of artillery. With this mission accomplished the British general advanced towards the centre of the island to disarm and quieten the populace, which he did effectively. (It was during this campaign that the famous chestnut horse 'Copenhagen' was born toa marc of Lord Grosvenor, and was later purchased by Wellesley in 1810.) Danish gunboats now threatened the entrance to the harbour, forcing the British to retire. The British batteries which had been erected on shore and the Danish gunboats exchanged lire, the Danes in their \Urn being forced to retire with considerable loss. The besieging British army had now advanced into their prepared positions, having driven back the last remaining resistance in front of the city and in the suburbs on the north bank, induding some post positions within 400 yards of the city ramparts. With the final land· ing of the heavy ordnance, and with the platforms laid by the 31st, the siege was ready to commence. A summons was dispatched from the British commanders to General Pieman, Governor of Copen-
hagen: this callcd upon him to surrendel'" the Danish f1ect into British custody for the durntion of the war, after which it would be returned intact. In return the expeditionary force would restore all materials seized during the campaign, and withdl'"aw. Pieman courteously but fil'"mly refused this offer. The bombardment of the city commenced on the morningof:2 September. The mortar batteries uected by the army and the bomb-vessels stationed around the harbour began the shelling, and in a very short time the city was on fire in several places. This incessant bombardment lasted until the evening of the 5th by which time a considerable part of the city was destroyed and thc conflagration threatened the destruction of thc Temainder. A flag of truce was sent from the Governor of the city, desiring an armistice to afford time for a capitulation. In reply, the Bl"itish repeated their previous request that the basis of the capitulation must be the delivering up of the fleet; this was accepted, and on the morning of the 7th the Articles of capitulation which had been settled during the night of the 6th were ratified. By these Articles, the British forces were to take immediate possession of the city and dockyards; all ships of war and the naval stores of His Danish Majesty were to be delivered up; prisoners were to be mutually restored; all private property was to be respected; the functions of the civil and military officers were to continue uninterrupted; within six weeks the city was to be restored to His Danish Majesty, in the state in which it was occupied, and the British troops would evacuate the island of Zealand. In consequence of this capitulation the Danish Navy delivered to the British 16 ships of the line, 15 frigates, 6 brigs and :25 gunboats, as weB as ships standing on the stocks. The stores in the arsenals, which included masts, spars and timber, amounted to some 20,000 tons, sufficient to load 9:2 transports and other vessels chartered for this purpose. British losses were light for such an operation, not exceeding :200 men; those of the Danes were much heavier, about :2,000 people being killed and 400 houses destroyed. The British foreign secretary, Canning, did promise to return the Danish fleet three years after the end of hostilities; but the Crown Prince ~
understandably-sequestered all British property, and forbade all contact between his people and those of England undel'" severe penalties. He turned to France, with whom he concluded an alliance on 31 October 1807 at Fontainebleu, and at the beginning of November the dual kingdom of Denmark-Norway declared war on Britain. This declaration of war had a serious effect on the Norwegian economy. She depended wholly on her overseas trade to exist. The country's needs depended on her imports, especially corn, which had always come from Denmark, but which ceased as soon as the war began. A government commission (Regjeringskommisjonen) was established to deal with this situation, but due to mishandling in Copenhagen it failed to display the urgency that was demanded. The situation worsened with the failure of the 1807 and 1808 harvests, and atlempts were made to make meal from birch-bark and lichen. But despite this the Norwegians survived, and because of the lack of
~~,;r::..;n:~o~:~:~th~1:;:i.'~iu:~;~~~f=~r:a~
yeUow for the latter umt. White feath..r pluDl", o .....ralh, b..1t. and hayon..t fros-. Bla.,k c:urled.hriDl hat with yeUow loop and button On left; tum., button. bran.
to Denmark which, provided she surrendered her fleet to France, gave her the Hanseatic towns as an indemnity in lhe North of Europe. As to Sweden, Russia was given a free hand regarding Finland, which at this time was a part of the Swedish dominions. Britain imposed a blockade on both Denmark and Norway and occupied Heligoland. Denmark, who had thrown herself completely behind the cause of the French Emperor, viewed Sweden as England's ally. For this reason she senl 14,000 Danish-Norwegian volunteer troops to join the 22,000 French and Spanish forces under Marshal Bernadotle in Zealand. (The Spanish Rommana Division included the Prince's Cavalry Regiment and the Princesa Inbntry Regiment, who attracted considerable attention from the Danes because or their exotic appearance.) This force was to attack and invade southern and western Sweden in the event ofa Russian attack on Finland. With such a situation in the offing, Sweden entered into a convention with Creat Britain, who had offered every assistance within her power. Britain improved Sweden's financial position with a grant of £t,200,000 pounds sterling in equal instalments of [100,000 a month.
'R.!!JSia illVtldes:J'inltllld The Russians began their invasion on 8 February r808 when Finland was covered with icc and snow, which provided the best means of transport - by sledge. Nearly 4°,000 Russian troops crossed :~~m:il~::r~at::~I~~:t(:.~~~~,:wo~c;:fts ::~u~:~a:~~ their own frontier under the command of Ltbuttons. Dark blue pantaloons, helsian boots, y.,Uow silk Ceneral Von Buxhoevden. They smashed their sash with interwoven crimson slripes; sword hilt and 6uinll:s way through the thinly.hcld Finnish defences, and ofblack scabbard ~Id. LiKIot I ..f ..rotry: b.,adll:ear as Line, but dark srefll plume. Dark green tail coat faced and lined. black; proceeded as far as Hclsingfor without any great silver bUllons and ""Paulettes (unfringed. on rigbl shoulder). Dark Ilrey pantaloonl; lasb and sword as Line. opposition. Ceneral Klcrker, the Swedish commander in Finland, hastily concentrated some 22,000 Swedish-Finnish troops to defend the communication from Copenhagen they took upon country. The king of Sweden sent reinforcements to Finland's defence, with the new appointment themselves more of an independent policy. The secret clauses in the treaty concluded at ofCeneral Klingspor as commander-in-chief; he Tilsit between Alexander Ru~sia and Bona- was a courtier of uncommon talents and exparte, contained many articles indicating their perience. The Russians pressed on and within one month grasping ambitions. Among them was a reference Danish officers, .802: (left) of the Line, and (ri!!ht) of Light hlflUltry. Li.. e: tall black curled-brim hat with Ilold hurton and loop on lefl; Ilold cords wound round lUId lerminatm!! at top rill:ht, th.,n hans-lnll: to fasten 08' with flounders and tassel. On the right side of the tUDic; la,"!e white feather
or
of the invasion gained possession of Abo, the capital of Swedish Finland. The stronghold at Biorneberg fell, with the Swedes suAering heavy losses. General Klingspor decided that resistance was useless at this stage, and in order to keep his army intact he ordered a general retreat, leaving only 7,000 men in a few scattered strongholds with orders to delay the advancing Russians. The Russians, under the command of General Tutsch1I;0w, failed to outRank tbe retreating Swedes. Almost every day over the following weeks skirmishes took place between the Russian ad\'anee guard and the Swedish rear-guard. Notable during this period was the counter-attack by General Aldercreutz who, acting without orders, smashed a Russian attack at Siikijok. The retreat continued over some 400 miles of a country almost without roads and covered in deep snow. Klingspor not onty conserved his army but managed to preserve his magazines, stores and ammunition, and finally succeeded in uniting his harassed forces with another division under Cronstedt. The first full-scale battle was fought at Lapua near the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, with the Finnish troops atlacking on 14July. Battles were fought throughout the following summer, large areas being lost and recaptured. The Finnish peasants became guerilla fighters, attacking and destroying the Russian supply lines. Aldercrcutz defeated the Russian troops soundly al Rcvolahti. Sandels smashed the Russian communications and defied the Russian General Barclay de Tolly with his second Russian army on Ihe Eastern Aank. D6bcln and his Bjorneborg Brigade dislodged the invaders between Tampere and the Aland Islands. The morale of the Iroops was now high after the long depressing retreat and successive defeats. In the southern part of finland the Russians directed a large-scale atlack on the grc,lI fortress of Sveaborg which guarded the cntrance to Helsinki. This place had a strong natural position, being built on a group of four inter-connected islands just ofT the mainland, helped by the reinforcement of its defences; it was justly called ,he 'Gibraltar of the North'. By the beginning of April the Russians began to bombard Sveaborg, but it proved to be almost impregnable, and the
damage and loss of life was negligible. The 7,000 troops inside the fonress outnumbered the besiegers, and their firepower, food and ammunition were amply provided for. Nonetheless, despite all these advalllages, the Swedish Governor ViceAdmiral Cronstedt, who seems to havc underestimated the whole situation and position, surrendered Sveaborg. By the late summer and autumn Russian reinforcements began to pour in: experienced, seasoned troops direct from the fighting in central Europe. The Swedo-Finnish troops began to fall back steadily northwards, and November 1808 saw them retreating across the Kemi river. General Klingspor withdrew to a pre-fortified position at Oravainen which was flanked by the sea on the right and protected by a squadron of gunboats. The Russian Count Kamensky ordered his advance guard under General Koulneff to attack the Swedish left Rank, but the very nature of the ground proved too much for the attackers, and the Swedes repulsed the constant assaults. The weakened Russians were then confronted with a determined counter-attack by the SwedoFinnish troops under Generals Aldercreutz and Vegsack, who descended from their held positions
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10
and routed the Russian attackers in some vigorous hand-to-hand fighting. However, the gallant Sweda-Finnish troops could not withstand added reinforcements put into the field by the retreating Russians, and they in their turn were routed. The battle of Oravais was over; although it only lasted a few houl1i the losses were some 2,000 dead. Klingspor knew his troops were exhausted and, painful though it was, ordered a general retreat to the homeland, with Degyllenbogel's irregulars acting as the vanguard. Throughout the summer of 1808 the British and Swedish navies combined to control the seas. The threatened invasion by Bcrnadotte with the French, Spanish and Danish-Norwegian troops under his command could not take place, for the Skagerak was under the control of the British and Swedish·ships. The Swedish king was becoming more and more unpopular; many assumed him to be insane, and his treatment of friend and foe alike forcshadowt:d his ultimate downfall and dismiss.:,1 from the throne. In ~1ay 1808 the British General Sir John Moore arrived at the Baltic port of Gothenburg with an expedition of about 14,000 men; but. for some reason which has never been fully explained, some difference arose between the commander of the British force and the Swedish king in respect oflhe employment of the troops and where they could best be used. The king was so enraged at SirJohn'S refusal 10 comply with his demands thai he placed him under arrest; after some difficulty, the British commander escaped, rejoined Ihe British fleet (the army having remained on board for several weeks without disembarking) and relurned 10 England without having been of the least service 10 the king of Sweden.
FIRST BATTLE OF NORWAY
The Spanish troops which wcre stationed in Northern Germany and Denmark and on the Danish Islands in the Baltic, mutinied at the news of the revolt of their cduntry against France. On 9 August 1808 6,000 Spanish troops under the command of the British Admiral Keates took over the fortress of Nybourg in the island of Funen, reinforced by a thousand more from J ulland. A
British roc:ket boau in action - Copenh.-.!5-' 2 105 September .ao,. Some 40,000 rOl:kets were fired In thi. auack, (rom mme. fi:sed to the (orem.ast; sail. were cooltandy wetted dOWll to avoid fire hazard. (R. Willtia_.L.lbam)
further thousand men were thrown against Langland. One Spanish-regiment in Jutland was capturl'Cl and two regiments were disarmed in the island of Zealand; the Danish Kongens Livjaeger Corps took part in their disarmament. The Danish garrison on Xybourg made no great effort in opposition. The Spanish troops, now amounting to 8,000 men. were embarked on I I August to the island of Langland between Funen and Laland, where a further 2,000 Spanish troops were stationed. From here the Spanish were transferred onto British ships and transported to England; in leaving the large fortress of Koldinghus, they destroyed it by burning. \\lith their departurc the threatcned invasion of Sweden by Franco-Danish forces was ended. An attack on Sweden was now only possible through Norway, and orders were issued to the commander of tile Norwegian army, Prince August of Augustenborg, to strike through Baahuslen. With about 17,000 men, the Norwegians began to mobilize, but because of the tight blockade numerous things were in short supply, with many of the troops still wearing uniforms of the previous century. Sweden foresaw the threatened invasion and
struck first. On 15 April General Armfelt, eommande-rofthe Swedish Western Command, made a three-pronged attack. He succeeded in defeating the unprepared ;..rorwegians and advanced be· yond the frontiers; attacking at Lier, south of Konsvinger, he forced the ~orwegjal\s across the Glomma river. This success, howevcr, was shortlived, as the second prong under Col,lnt Axel ~'Iorner was defeated and captun.'.d at Toverud. The NOlwegian commander Staffeldt then counter-attacked, and defeated and captured the Swedish commanders Weibyc and Galm, whereupon the Swedish advance faltered and stopped. With inadequate provisions, camp fever rife among the troops and a certain lack of enthusiasm, further operations against Norway ceased and the Swedish army was ordered back across the border. The iXorwegians, having gained the initiative and with their morale soaring high, acted offensinly with some success against ·the Swedes, defeating them at Prestebakke. The Swedish army withdrew to the frontiers and there was a change of command, with Ceneral Ccderstrom commanding the centre, General Aldersparre the right flank and General Posse the
II
left flank. Thus prepared, the Swedes awaitl;{\ a Norwegian invasion. The war was disliked by the soldiers and populace of both countries, and despite outside pressures to invade Sweden from Russia, France and even Denmark, the ~or wegian Prince refused to continue the struggle and a truce was signed between the two countries by the end of 1808. Ski-troops (Skiloberkorps) were used -although not extensively - in this expedition. They were already in existence in the 17th Century. On 13 August 1747 they were formed into corps at Sonden and Nordenfjaeldsk, each with three regiments and one Volunteer company (Landevaerns-Kompagni). In 1768 a further four companies were formed, and by 1769 these ski-troops were attached to other regiments, the Sonden to the Oplandske and the Nordenfjacldsk to the Trondhjelllsk Regiment. In 1801 the ski-troop corps caine under the NorskeJaegerkorps, and in 1810 under the Akerhusske Skarpskyclle Regiment.
GeaeraJ Lord Carh"an. "ornm.aader oCBritiah land forutl in dlleCopenlt.aSeD e",peditiOlll .flBo]. (N.riOlllal Army Mu"e,un)
The Sonden troops were commanded during the Napoleonic period by: Henrik Reus Bang from 1800 Kristian Vilh Kluver from 1804 Frederik Vilh Bruenech Stabell from 1805 Sven Arntzen from ISag The Nordenfjaeldske troops were commanded by, K. G. Bang from 1804 Joh. Frt"dr. Matheson from 1809 Elias Heltberg Lund from 1811
END OF RUSSO-SWEDISH WAR
Norsk Skil~ (Norw~ dU-troopen) oC lSoL 1De..-..d blado ur .... dKOra1lrd witll the li_ iaaipiaj the whole wUCorm waa blue wirll ~U_ collaraad a&Jfa; tbelM.tla_re wlUre aod the aide-pack ia IUde.
12
The Swedes, both in the north and the south, were being driven out of Finland; to the SOuth Dobeln had retreated from the Aland Islands. The Russians issued a proclamation to the Finnish soldiers serving in the Swedish army, asking them to desert with their arms and equipment and offering two roubles for a gun, one rouble for a sabre and six roubles for a horse. During the winter the Russians took over and fortified themselves in the Islands of Aland; with
three corps in the centre, commanded by Kulner, Bagration and Barclay de Tolly, they made Ihe famous march across the frozen Isthmus of K"arken to Umea and carried the war into weden proper. Count Chouvaloff, the Russian commander in Ihe nOrlh, defeated the SwedoFinnish forces and drove them southwards until the whole of southcrn Westro·Bothnia was under Russian occupation. It now became necessary to open negotiations, to which the Russians agreed. The Swedes evacuated Uleaborg and retired to the west side of Ihe river Kieme, the limit of the Finnish border. Thus hopefully the campaign was terminated. The war between Russia and Sweden would probably have been renewed as soon as the spring of the year permitted the respective armies to march, had not a revolution in Sweden by a group of military moderates suspended hostilities. General Aldersparre, commander of the army facing Norway, occupied Karlstad in Varnland and gathered a force to march on Stockholm to depose the king. Gustavus IV, realizing the
D6bcln counter-attacked and drove them back in turn. A convention concluded between Denmark and Sweden involved the withdrawal of this division. Witb tbe Gulf of BOlhnia still under their control the Swedes, in co-operation with the Brilish Reet, attempted a large-scale amphibious landing; although not highly successful they were able to retreat and re-embark ill good order. A simultaneous allack by the Swedish main forces on the weakened Russian lines drove them back to Pitea, where they were cuI off from their supplies. The Russians, realizing that their main objective - the invasion of Sweden - would be impossible to achieve without a long-drawn-out conRict, agreed to a treaty. On 17 September 1809 peace was concluded al Fredricksham, and lhe boundaries of Sweden were permanently fixed on the cast. Sweden ceded Finland to Russia as far as the rivers Tornea and Meconio, the Sea of Aland and the Gulf of Bothnia. Those islands at an equal distance from Aland and Finland were ceded to Russia, whilst Sweden retained those nearest to her own coast. Sweden promised 10 adhere to the continental system with certain modificalions, also to close her ports to Brilish ships, and not to allow any importations other than salt and certain colonial produce. Peace was signed with both France and Denmark. The SLlccession problem still remained, as ,806 smoothbore pisiol. Charles XIII had no children. The claim of position, attempted to escape to the south where Prince Christian August of Augusten.burg, the h(' hoped his army in Scania would still remain Danish commander-in-chief in Norway, was loyal to him. There was no bloodshed; Gustavus looked on with favour by General Aldersparre, was captured on his escape, placed under arrest who harboured the hope that the prince would and confined at Drottingbolm with his family; bring Norway along with him to supplement the but a short time later was granted his liberty. loss of Finland. After consultation with the King Under the title of Colonel Gustafsson be travelled of Denmark, Christian August agreed, was duly in Europe. never to return to his native land, and elected by the Rikstag and carne to Sweden to died in Switz<:rland in 1837. Duke Charles of take up his duties as Heir Apparent. Suderrnania, the ex-king's uncle, was asked by the Meanwhile, in April 180g, with the northern military jUllta to assume the position of Regent, German states in open rebellion, the King of and was subsequently offered the crown, be- Denmark ordered units of his army into Germany coming Charks XIII of Sweden. to join forces with lhe Dutch Corps already at The Russian Tsar was not satisfied with the Wismar. This Dutch-Danish force attacked the truce and resumed hostilities. A Danish.Nor. famous Major von Schill at Stralsund on 31 May. wegian Division joined the Russians under the Fierce and bloody fighting took place at the city command of General Kamensky and swept Ihe gates ofTriebseerther and Knieperthor, and after Swedes back at Hjerpe; tben the Swedish General the gates were taken fighting continued in Ihe
13
market place and the street. Major von Schill was killed and the official version stated: 'Danish Hussars Lorenz and Crohn captured an enemy officer in the street fighting. He was wounded and asked for pity. A Danish officer who was passing ordered the Hussars nOt to kill him but 10 take him along as a prisoner. When requested to accompany the Hussars he resisted and was shot. He was recognized as von Schill, his military order was taken as evidence and the body removed'. Later the Hussar in question was awarded a medal. The Danish Corps under the command of Major-General von Ewald consisted of the following: 1st and 2nd Baltalion, Oldenborgske Inl:'lntcriregiment 3rd Battalion. Holstcnske Infanterircgiment 4th and 5th Companies, 2nd Battalion, Hoi. stenske Infanteriregiment 2nd and 6th Squadrons, Hussarregiment One troop of Holstenske Rynere (A total force amounting to some 2,500 men.) After two cellluril'S of Swedish domination thc Finnish Diet met in the small townofPorvoo, there to offer Tsar Alexander the loyalty ofthc Finnish people. The Tsar accepted and Finland became a self-governing Grand Duchy under him.
BERNADOTTE BECOM ES CROWN PRINCE Sweden suffered yet another disaster regarding the choice of a Crown Prince. On 10 May 18lO the Heir Apparent, Christian August, had a seizure whilst reviewing troops at a military manoeuvre in Skania, and fell dead from his horse. After lengthy debates the Swedish Rikstag now had two choices: the late Charlcs' brother, the Danish Prince Frederick Christian of Augustenborg; or, as the Swedish Francophiles suggested a candidate selected by Bonaparte. Napoleon was at first non-committal as to his choice at a meeting with thc chosen Swedish cnvoy, Lieutenant Baron Karl Otto Marner, who thcn turned to the French Marshals, and approached the independcnt Bernadolte. Jean
14
Nonk Iftfantryofficer, .808, in a ,u,iform aimilartothal wo.... by aU Daniah officera of 'hal period. Searl'll lail coal with yellow .:ollar, plutroft and cuffa and white Msm!; ailver buttona, white turnbacka, allver epauleltea. Ta""elled aaah in sold wilh crimaon nripel; btue breechea wo.... with .ilve... trimmed huaiana.
BaptistcJulcs Bcrnadotlc, 47-year-old Marshal of France and Princc of Ponte Corvo was a popular choice who was liked by the Swedes for his good treatment of Swedish prisoners-of-war during the 1806 campaigns. He was an able adminiSlrator and had a valuable relationship with the Bonaparte family; his brother-in·law was Louis Bonaparte and his wife was Kapoleon's ex.fiancce. He was now semi-relired and living in Paris.
Nouk B0"8"rbevupnins (c:iri,.e. militia) officer, 1808. Btac:k
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Napoleon allowed Bernadotte's name to be put forward and although he had at that time other ideas for Danish-Swedish union, eventually gave his consent in Bernadoue's favour. Full support came from the Swedish Rikstag when it was suggested by the French Viceroy that a further loan wasin the offing upon the Marshal'sselection. He was unanimously elected heir to the throne! Bernadone accepted the Swedish Constitution
and the Lutheran faith, and on 21 August 18lO became Charles XIV John, Crown Prince of Sweden. Theold King Charles XI II adopted him as his son, and his forceful personality and many talents soon won him a place in the Swedish people's affections. The Crown Prince studied the situation of his new country. Finland had been annexed by Russia; to regain this by force of arms would be IS
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both costly and dangerolls, yet his people yearned for their lost empire. Norway was the obvious answer; what better compensation for Finland? A combined Scandinavian state of Swedcn and Norway had great economic and cultural possia much easier defence bilities, and more problem. Of the two alternalives, Norway was by far the better solution for Bernadotlc. To achieve this ambilion he had to manoeuvre carefully, although he had no intention of becoming Napoleon's lackey; when France wanted him to wage war against England, he did so only with reluctance. Relations between France and Russia had grown strained, with Napoleon massing his armies on the Russian frontier, but regardlcss of this Bernadottc made friendly overtures towards Russia. In Swedcn he reorganized the country's production. The overhaul of the army was another problem: the Swedish system of tenure4
16
establishment had many weak points, especially in the raising of rescrves. At a meeting of Ihe Rikslag at Orebro in 1812 he introduced compulsory military service, which ordered 12 days training each year for all able·bodied men between the ages of 21 and 25. The curious system of hiring another person to substitute for one during this conscription service was permittcd. Nonetheless the tenernelll regiments'" remained and continued to be the core of tile army. Due to the great natiOnal debt, the supply of uniforms to his army was a \·cry grave problem. Swedish lack of cnlhusiasm for the war against England did not appease or please the French Emperor, and relations with France became strained. To show his displeasure Napoleon ord· ·The 'lenem('lIl r~imenlll· .....·hich made up Ihe hulk of Ih(' S,,·o:dishllrenltlh.....·ereunilllofpart-timesoldien-·TerritoriaIJ·.in Ih(' modern British I<:n5<:. Thr 1}'Jtem ,,--as oprn 10 man) abu..,.. ....·hich Bcrnadolle "'orkcd 10 rliminalC. but he was unabl(' to ..rap thean:haicprO«dureemirrll'
~red
the invasion of Swedish Pomerania at the beginning of 1812 under the command ofCeneral DavOUL There, a large number of the garrison were taken prisoners. This was a blow to the wed ish Francophiles, who at last saw the true path of Bonaparte's ambition. The Crown Prince dttlared Sweden a neutral country, and with the promis~ of help from Russia to secure Norway for weden, he formed an alliance with Russia in April 1812.
'['he 181J Gumpuiglls Although Sweden took no pan in the Russian campaign it is said that Bernadott~'s advice to the Russians aided them in def~ating the French army. In March 1813, with the Grondt Armet in retreat, the Allies again aligned themselves against France. Bernadotte signed a treaty of alliance with Creat Britain, with the understanding that if Sweden committed her forces to co-operate with the Allies on the continent, Creat Britain would support her plans for annexing Norway. The treaty also included a grant of I million pounds and the Fr~nch \Vcst.lndian islandofCuadaloupe. For this enterprise BernadoH~ gathered together an army of 30,000 Swedish troops. On I April he signed a treaty with Prussia, and the same month wed ish troops und~r the command of Ceneral Sandels landed in Pomerania, already evacuated by the French. On 18 May 1813 the Crown Prince Charles John arrived at Stralsund, and the same month Prince Christian Frederik, heir to the Danish throne, arrived in Norway to take com· mand of the army. The Swedish army lransponed to the continent at this time was dressed in a motley collection of uniform styles, the variations being copied from their various allies. Some were wearing the earlier type uniforms, as the issue of 1810 had not yet been completed. Captured and borrowed uniforms and equipment were also worn; these included French shakos and Russian kiwtr'J, the latter becoming very popular especially with the Swedish offic~rs. On 16 May 1813 the King of Denmark ordered the Danish Division which was standing by in
Dam.h D.val weapoa. (left to riKbt), coa.t S-rd pike, lBoI aDd 1808; ...val ••bre 'Hol.tda' improviHd from FreDcll.767 haDllerl boardin( aJle, 18o?-141 ...val ..lore 18o?-a.. au.o made from tbe Frl!Bcb bul(er; _val cutla••808-'4, improviud rrom tile cavalry broa.bwordl.ad board.Uoll pike or c. 1800.
Daai.1l weapoe. (Iert 10 riIlllt)IIl 10" of 1790; draJ- ..10" of 1808; 10 hrl! of '7921 h...-.bword rorNCO or.-traJ .taIr..t..
....
17
Holstein to join the French Army Corps under the command of Marshal Davout. During the brief armistice from 4 June to 16 August, this Division was brought up to strength, and named the Danish Auxjliary Corps; it was placed under the Danish commander, Prince Frederik of Hessen. The Advance Guard was under the command of Colonel Waldeck: Slesvigske Jaegerkorps II HoIstenske Skarpskynekorps I and II 2nd and 6th Squadrons of Hussars One Horse Ballcry of Artillery (three-pounders) The First Brigade was under the command of Major-General Grafvon der Schulenberg: Oldenborgske Infanteriregiment I, II, IV and the light company from III
eoate...porary print of D.nilh leaeral in dre.. umfonn, IBog. The blad< bicorae bordered wilh white fe_therll . .d had a white pl1l.llOe. The o:n..mloa tall o:oat had tilht blue
_I
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_do:ri.m_ialn'WOVftl . . .h;wlo.ileh~";lold-lri.m..m.N
hnsiaa.. {R. WillUa....Latha...j
18
Holstenske Infantcriregimcnt IV Dronninggens Livrcgiment I and the light com pan} from II HoISlcnske Regiment R}'Hcre and one FOOl ArtilJen (six-pounders) The Second Brigade was undcr the command of Major.Gencral Lasson: Fynske Infantcrircgimcnt I and II Siesvigske Infantcrircgimclll I and II Hoistenske Infanterircgiment III J)'dskc Regiment Lene Dragoner One Horse Battery (thrce·pounders) Onc FOOl Battery (six·poundcrs) The main force of this Danish Corps organiza. tion thus consisled of thirteen baltalions, two in· dependent companies of lighl infantry, ten squadrons of cavalry and four batteries with forty pieces of cannon, amounting to 11,000 men. The French Marshal Davout marched north· wards for Hamburg which was defended by the Russians under General Tattcnborn; being considerably outnumbered, they withdrew. Danish Auxiliary troops entered the city 10 hold it againSt the Swedes, but on [9 May Ihey evacuated it when news was received of the advance of four Swedish banalionsunderGencral OObeln. Dobeln occupied Hamburg, but to the astonishment of the Allied commanders, Bernadotle ordered him to be replaced by General Lagerbring, and on 26 Mayordered the withdrawal ofthe Swedish troops from the city. The conduct and cautiousness of the new Crown Prince of Sweden so angered the suspicious Allied commanders that many could not give him credit either for his professed enmity to Bonaparte, or his attachment to the Allied cause. However, he had his difficulties; as he could not speak Ihe language of his adopted country, he surrounded himself with soldiers and advisors of many nationalities. He was too cautious to commit his Swedish troops, a fear which annoyed the Swedes themselves, since in the eyes of the other Allied troops they appeared to be cowards. Bernadotte seemed to be content only to send into action his beloved artillery. After the battle of Bauzcn in which Ihe Allies were defeated, partially due to the inactivity of Bernadotte, Ihe Allied command gave the Crown Prince more responsibility for planning the offen·
sive and command of the Northern Army. This was made up 01'3°,000 Swedish, 40,000 Prussian, 10,000 mixed German and 2'2,000 Russian troops. The Prussians were under the command of Generals Bulow and Tanerzien, the Germans under Wallmoden and the Russians in four corps under CzcrnischeO', Tettenborn, Winzergerode and \Voronzow. By 1'2 July 8ernadotte's famous Trachenberg Plan was issued. This formed the strategy of the Allied command for the eventual defeat of :\apoleon; its main points were to split the Allied armies into three groups: I In south Germany, Russian and Austrian troops numbering some '2'20,000 under the command of Schwartzenberg. '2 In the centre, 80,000 Austrian, Prussian and Russian troops under the command of 8Wcher. 3 In the north, 100,000 Swedish and mixed nationalities under the command of Bcrnadone. Bcrnadotte placed his main force al Treuenbreilzein, concentrating about '20,000 troops to guard the Danish frontier (in the event ofa Danish attack in that quarter) and the Hanseatic League towns. SWF.D1SIl ANI)
~'INNISII
UNITS W"'CII
~'OUCHT
IN TilE IWSSO-SWEI)ISII CAMPAIGN:
["he Artillery Regiment of Finland The Infantry of bo (CapitalofSwl:dish Finland) Rusthall's Battalion Bjornchorg Brigade (orCeneral Dtibcln fame) Colonist Battalion Infantry Regiment Tavastehus Tavastehus Light Horse The Queen Dowager's Regiment TheJagerHorn Regimelll Aldcrcreulz's Regiment
Vargering Infantry Vargering Cavalry Nyland Regiment of Dragoons Nyland Infalllry Regiment Nyland Light Horse Ostro-Bothnia Regimcnt Kajana Battalion Sa volax Cardia Dragoons Savolax Infantry Regiment Savolax Lighl Horse Artillery Regimenl of Savolax The Kardske Light Ho,""
(A total combined strength of some '20,000 men.)
::::;:t':t·k;;t~_;=1!:3.er=7~,v:=·,
::::
==
eqllipmeDt. The &"'1 rqulatlOD pane... jacket bad a ItreeD collar, cufI'. . .d .bovld_trap. aU edited white; the IJfteD (roDtal tVrDbaclo. had DO edPIt. Grey paIltaJoon. . .d.mall black It_iten. Officen' tail eoat. were o(tIIe .alDe eolour aad (aemlt•. (Tojhu.mu.eet, Pellonark)
On '2 I August, Bernadolte reccived information via intelligence sources that Bonaparte was can· centrating the corps of Oudinot, Victor and Davout, and of Generals Bertrand and Regnier, ncar Bayreuth, the force amounting to some 80,000 men. Napoleon was preparing a powerful offensive through 8erlin. Bernadotte took appropriate measures, placing the third Prussian Corps under the command of Bulow between Hernersdorf and Klein Beren, and the Fourth Prussian Corps at Blankenfelde. The Swedish army was concentrated at Ruhlsdorf, and the Russian army was brought up to the rear. Be-
19
.
~~~:.~I~t=c:::;::e;lu~~oldl~~:~
jacket willi collar, plastroa, aaK...... be..Li~...I .houJder-st...p in black, aDd IJ"fl' c.1I'. .lasbn, aU edJ:...I whitll'. Wkitll' (..-tal hll"llbe.ck.. b ..... buu-.., whitll' oye....n. buuoninS to _, black ""Iuipm"'.t. (RiSht), srftladiu o( thll' Alto_i ", GreDade~Jail'!lI'rkomp.pi, 1810-11 ia aD idll'1ltical uaifortD with thll' II'JOCeptiOIl of the tall black bear.1Iia, wid. b..... chia_Kal... aDd rll'Cl-oye"'!r_ plumll'. Notll' b ..... match..caR 011 cro..bdt.
cause of their rapidity of movement the cossacks and light infantry, under the command ofGeneral CzernicheIT, were ordered to stay close to the rear of the enemy's columns. On 22 August the French attacked the advanced posts ofBernadotte's army. As the attacking force was greatly superior in numbers, the Swedish troops retired. On the morning of the 23rd the French made a desperate
20
-.
attack on the Founh PruSSlan Corps; they were held and some prisoners were taken. The village of Gross-Beeren came under heavy fighting, with the Seventh French Corps and the Fourth Prussian Corps both being successful, and it was retaken. With the occupation of the village the enemy was exposed and Bernadonegave orders to General Bulow to attack. For some hours the battle raged, the Prussians advancing under the protection of the Swedish anillery. About this time the village of Ruhlsdorf was menaced by the enemy; Bernadoue ordered some battalions of Swedish troops, together with a few pieces of artillery, to reinforce the advanced posts. In this operation the French were taken in the flank with a battalion of flying anillery, and retired closely pursued by the Russian light cavalry. The booty consisted of twenty-six pieces of cannon, ',500 prisoners and a large quantity of baggage. Napoleon, seeing his plans defeated, replaced Oudinot with Marshal Ney. In August the Danish Auxiliary Corps received further reinforcements of dragoons, the Danish Fynske Regiment Lette Dragoner accompanied by one company of sailors. On 16 August Davout with his XIII Army Corps began to march towards Berlin to support the French troops that were advancing on that city. Danish troops marched on the left flank of this army towards Lubcck-Krummesse. The operation was accompanied by constant running fights with bands of cossacks under General Walmoden, and the Von Lutzow Freikorps. On reaching Schwerin, Davout halted his army and awaited information about Marshal Oudinot. By I September he received news of the Marshal's defeat at GrossBeeren, and gave orders to fall b
and Russian cavalry preceded the atlack, followed by 70 battalions and 10,000 horse, supported by 150 pieces of artillery. The french began to retire in great disorder, Swedish and Russian artillery completing Marshal Ney's disintegration at Dennewitz on 6 September. After this battle it was ~timated that the french had lost, in killed, .....ounded and prisoners, 16--,8,000 men, 50 pieces of cannon and 400 ammunition.waggons. Among the Allies the Prussians came off worst with upwards of 5,000 killed and wounded. Swedish losses were extremely light, with some twelve men ""ounded; Bernadotte was again accused by both the Allies and the Swedish soldiers of not committing his own Swedish troops. Every day l'apoleon's position became more critical, bUI he still remained al Dresden. The Allies, failing in their attempt to capture Ihe city, continued with a plan of campaign 10 weaken him by attrition. They advanced from the valley of Topiitz, in the direction of Bohemia, towards Dresden, and on another occasion from the direction of Silesia; when Napoleon came out to attack them, they retreated. At length his troops were becoming exhausted. French communications were constantly under attack, and convoys of supplies were harassed by the reinforced Russian cossacks. Davoul, who had advanced from the vicinity of Hamburg into Schwerin with the express purpose of co-operating with Oudinot, was being held in check by Count Walmaden, and having learned of Oudinot's fate he thought proper to commence his retreat. The cautious Bernadotle ordered General Vegesack to attack the Danes if Davout withdrew his support from them during his retreat. Prince Schwartzcnbcrg continued to advance from Bohemia, whilst Blilcher pressed forward from the direction of Silesia. Austrian, Prussian and Russian troops re-entered Saxony, and advanced to within eight miles of Dresden at Pirna. Again Bonaparte was forced to leave the city, but as usual the main Austrian army retired as he approached, drawing him towards the mountains of Bohemia. On 4 and 5 October Bernadotte and Bli.icher, having crossed the Elbe at different points just twenty miles apart, were in communication with the main army, drawing a line across this part of Saxony. With General Ben-
Drawiall from contemporary print, officeu of Sjaet_ tand.lle Jaq:erkorp. and (riSln) Hot.ten.ke Skarp.kytter Korp', .8'0-11. The uniform. dlff'er only in epaulette and ,hako loop colour _ ,ilyer (or the (ormer . .d sold (or the latter. The black ,hako ha. a larSe sree.. feather plume and sold ta..eUed cord. in both can•. The sreftt jacke" have black collan, pl."ron, and cull'" a ..d Sree.. three-poi..t c:uJf. .Ia,hu, all edlled white. The rq:vlalion ..,h i. wOrD., . .d the white pa..'aloo... are tucked i,no black he..i. .,; tbe 'word, have ,ityer furniture and sold and crim'on kGo".
ningsen advancing tOwards Dresden, and the cossacks under Platoff in advance at Lutzen, Napoleon's communications with France were completely destroyed. On 7 October he finally left Dresden, taking with him the royal family of Saxony. By the 9th Prince Schwanzenberg had established his headquarters ncar Leipzig.
21
LEIPZIG
the occupation of the village was essential for thefun her operations of the Allies, so a rocket. The French position now occupied a front of brigade attached to BcrnadOl\e's army was called about 120 miles from the fortress on the Elbe, in· into action against it. Only one salvo of Con. eluding Dresden, Torgau, Witlcmbcrg and gre\'e's formidable weapons was fired, but the Magdeburg, the course of the river being nearly effect on the solid square of opposing infantry was north-west. From Dresden, Torgau is about 45 and Wittemberg 70 miles; 17 miles below Wittcmberg, on the left, the Mulda Aows into the Elbe. Leipzig stands between them, about 18 miles from the river Saalc, 13 from thc Mulda, and 35 miles from the Elbe. By I I October the combined armies of Bernadotte and Blucher lay on the river bank of the Saalc west and north of Leipzig, with Blucher in the more advanced position. The main object of the Allies was to force Bonaparte into ballle, whilst he in turn was trying 10 weaken them by drawing off sections of their troops. BeT;lin had been left exposed by the Crown Prince's march tojoin the main Allied army. The French Emperor advanced, pushed a corps across the Elbe at Witlemberg, and Bernadotle retreated to Cothen, halfway between the Saale and Etbe rivers. General Tauenstein with 12,000 men had fallen back to protect the capital, so that the French force, having failed in its main objective, was recalled. On 18 October, after receiving reinforcements from Bliicher, of 30,000 men. infantry, cavalry and artillery, Bernadotte undenook the attack on the enemy dircctly opposing him; a strong position on the left bank of the Panha, with its right resting on the heights of Faucha, and its left to· wards Leipzig. To gain the heights Bernadotte ordered in the Russian and Prussian troops under General Winzingerode while he himself, in com· mand of the Swedish army corps, endeavoured to effect a passage across the river at Plosen. The Russians achieved their objective and took some 3,000 prisoners and pieces of cannon at Faucha. Before Bernadolle could complete his Aanking movement, French infantry abandoned the line of the river and retreated in the direction of Leipzig, (1..,(l:), J.~~ DC Lon-dslu, J.~erkorpa, 11510-11. Bladr sllaJoo, «"'I'll tas_lIed cord., s~ pluDle .pparelltl,. Ur defending the villages they passed through to safe- wb.he metal CaueaUrs. Blackjadret. pa.o,alooaa . .d saiters, guard their retreat. The Allies continued their {.::.~':~-:o,:~, ~IU:dN~~:;.:~~t~~~; Ib: advance, meeting only token resistance, but General Langeron under Rliicher's command met p~~:.::~~lf:::r~=:: a heavy concentration of French troops in one of :;:'1:US::~:~:~~,:.i~:~~::"~:; Tke ja"ket is eatiret,. bla"k "s"ept for WlUle Iuroba"ka, the the villages, and was forced to retire. However, palltaloo..s dark sre)' a..d the sa;ters bla"k.
....
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22
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t Gftoem .....p or areas ... wlLic:h SeaacliaaYia. arm.in "'.... aetiOll ia the period r801 '1.
23
staggering; they were panic-strickcn, and surrendered. In this pcriod of the battle the Saxon artillery with twenty-two picces of cannon, two additional Saxon battalions and two Westphalian hussar regiments deserted the French ranks and joined the Allies. The guns were immediately turned against the French, Bernadotle led these new troops against their former allies, resplendent on his white horse and dressed in a uniform of violet laced with gold, his hat adorned Wilh white plumes surmounted with a larger plume in the Swedish national colours, and in his left hand his baton covered in violet velvet ornamented with golden crowns. The French held out more determinedly to the south. Napoleon was in a dilemma, whether to retire to Leipzig and hold out from there or to esc'~pe by the line of the Upper Saale. With casualties of some 50,000 men as well as 65 pieces of artillery 10SI, he hesitated for some time, but finally chose the latter alternative and evacuated lhe city only two hours before the Allies entered. After a brief resista nce the victorious Allied lroops attacked and carried Leipzig. The Emperor of Russia, the KingofPrussia, and lhe Crown Prince Bernadotte entered the CilY at different points at the head of their respective troops, and formed up in the main square. where they were greeted by the liberated inhabitalllS with cheers and much jubilation. With lhe victory of Leipzig, the Napoleonic Empire crumbled fasl. Gone was the allegiance of the German princes; lhe Confederation of the Rhine lay in tatters, and was dissolved. All that remained 10 Napoleon was the attachment of the King of Denmark, who even when Napoleon was at the extreme crisis of his fate declared war on the Emperor's enemy, Austria. The pursuit of the French army continued. Napoleon's straggling dispirited soldiers, some 80,000 strong, were attacked by Bavarian and Austrian troops under the command of General Wrede. In anticipation of the final result of the battle for Leipzig, Wrede had been sent forward by a route calculated to reach the French before they reached the Rhine. At Hanau a desperate conflict was fought and despite their numerical superiority the French were defeated with a loss
24
of about 10,000 men. When they finally reached the Rhine, Napoleon garrisoned all the strong points on the river and the frontier, and departed for Paris. Although the light troops of the Allies pursued and harassed the remains of the French army as far as the Rhine, Bernadolte had no wish to share in the final extermination of the enemy. The liberation of the COuntries of Europe wa.~ now the Allies' chief problem. The defence 01' France called for the withdrawal of all the troops which still remained beyond the frontiers. The Tsar's plan was that Paris should be encircled, and France invaded from all sides; the main army would attack rrom Switzerland, the Austrians from Italy, the British from the direction of Spain and the south, Blucher from along the Rhine and Bernadolte with his army through Holland. Bcrnadotte and his Nonhern Army marched in the direction of Cassel, with the object of implementing the Tsar's plan to liberate the Dutch. Here the plans were altered for obvious reasons, as the French were still in strength on the right bank of lhe Elbe. The small army under Walmoden was insufficient to either hold or attack them in any great strength; before the Northern Army could act effectively or safely in Holland, the rear had to be made entirely secure with the utmost expediency. On 29 October Bernadotle branched northwards towards the French XI 11th Army Corps under the command of Marshal Davout, who were grouped in and around Hamburg; these amounted to some '3°,000 men, many in isolaled fonresses. This plan had the added attraction that by marching against the French there was the probability that Hamburg could be liberated and through it an opening made for immediate communication with England. Bernadolte also decided to attempt the liberation of the Hanoverian dominions, and by r November he had achieved this ambition. Sir Charles Stewart, the British representative at his headquarters, said in his official despatch: 'The enthusiasm, loyalty and the joy of the people can not be described, and, although it is some ten years that this coulltry had been separated from their legitimate sovereign, it is obvious he lives in their heans with the same deep-rooled affection'.
, o..nmar":
Offi.,~r
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Til IlaSI, ,800-13 2
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Guards paMld.. and ! .. "rd
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, Dfcnmllrk: Kon~fcn", Livjll~..r Corps, ja..!:O'r,,8
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DO'nmllrk: j".. ~ .. r offi".. r, pllradO' uniform
• Swed"n: Andra LifGard", GuardSnlan, .807
3 Swed"n: Kongung"ns S..."" Lie Gard". Offic"r,·807
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S_ed~nl Liv Gr~n.di~r Corp. oflh., Lift' Bri!.d.., Officu, .813
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• OtnTtlark, Hu,,§ar RtgiTtltnt, Offictr, .6'3 0:
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• Oflo.... r.. ' JydB"" R~;rn"D' L.,u., Dr.gon.,r, TrooperiD • .,rvic.,dr.,ltI, .8'3
2 In:a.... r.. ' Jyd....., Ro:w;rn.,,,, LUI., Drago".,r, Offic.,r,"'3
( • and,. D"""11.a.. lo, Gr.....di.. u o(Old..nbo"l!: .....
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3 Dnamark: 3di.. Jyd.k_lAf",".. ri~m"llt,
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• and \I Denmark, Holsunke Ryuere, Officer andTrO
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As soon as Bernadolte had reorganised and arranged a suitable provisional government in Hanover, he marched against Davout. At first the French commander appeared to stand and await the full onslaught of the Allies behind his so-called Stecknirz line. Bernadotte, to appease the Allies and keep alive the Tsar's plan, sent Cenerals Bolow and Winzingerode towards Hoi· land whilst he took command of 60,000 men and continued northwards. With a change of plan, however, Marshal Davout withdrew from the Stecknitzline and retired to Hamburg, which he started to provision and fortify. When called upon to surrender by Bernadotte, he replied: 'I will defend the city to the last burning debris'. Bcrnadotte marched against LObeck which was defended by a Danish garrison; resistance was brief, the inhabitants greeting the Swedish soldiers with open arms, and lhe commandant sued for capiwlation. Negotiations with Davout having failed, Bernadolte sent a Russian corps of about 16,000 men, under lhe command of \Vorintz, to surround and besiege Hamburg. The Swedish forces under his own command took on the left wing of the Danish troops in position at Lubeck. Ceneral Walmoden with a mixed corps took on the Danish right wing situated at Boden, southust of Oldesloe. The advance guard was commanded by Major-Ceneral Dornbcrg. In the general retreat before Hamburg the Danish Auxiliary Corps were now cut offfrom the main French army corps. Prince Frederik of Hesse gave orders for a general withdrawal to Holstein to defend Ihe Danish frontier from the now obvious threat of an Allied army advancing under Bernadotle. Further reinforcements arrived as late as 3 December; these were the Jydske Infanteriregiment I, Leite Kompagni Slesvigske Infanteriregiment (III Batlalion), one company of Hertuginde Louise Augusta Livjaegere, and the Ahonaiske JaegergrenaderKompagni. The Danish commander sent out couriers ordering all units to fall back to the main Danish position at Oldsdoe, but it was too late: on the morning of 4 December the Danish 2nd Brigade under the command of Major·Ceneral Lasson had made contact with part of the Advance Cuard of the Russo-Cerman Brigade under Warden burg in the village onVesterau.
The 2nd Brigade consisted of: 6odragoons rrom the Fynske Lene Dragoner Regiment 50 huss.'lrs 1St and 2nd Battalions, Fynske Inranteriregiment 1St and 2nd Battalions, Slevsigske Infanteriregiment Rifle Company rrom the 2nd Battalion, Dronningcn Regiment Rifle Company rrom the 3rd Battalion, Holsten Regiment Rifle Company rrom the 3rd Battalion, Oldenburg Regiment 3rd Company of the SlevsigskeJaeger Korps Fighting took place around the villages of Siebcnbaumen and Steinhorst, and before Dorn. berg had time to organize his division his front tine had been driven back. The Hannoverian Brigade pushed the Danes back from Steinhorst, causing lhem to retire to Cross Boden. The fighting continued for some hours with the Danes counter.attacking and forcing the Hannoverians to break and retire. The Allied Advance Cuard units regrouped and again advanced. This time the Danes did not give fight but joined the main Danish position at Oldscloe, subsequently making their way to their own border.
THE FALL OF DENMARK
By 5 December the main force of the Allied army of Russo-Swedish troops, containing ~bout 18,000 Swedish soldiers had advanced into Danish Holstein. Fighting took place at Bornhoved and Sehestcd. The last ever Swedish cavalry battle, in which the Marner Hussars distinguished them. selves, was fought at Bornhoft. The Danish army, after retreating through Holstein, drew up in a position on lhe Eyder where Prince Frederick of Hessen requested an armistice. Talks extended into January, with both armies drawn up in position and fortresses besieged. As the basis of the negotiations laid down by Bernadotte was not acceptable, hostilities were resumed and the town of Cluckstadt was taken. When the frontier town ofJutland Kolding was reached the Danish government decided to conclude a peace with Sweden and Creat Britain, and on '4 January 1814 the Treaty of Kid was signed. The condi-
25
26
Swo:dish troop. o( 1813-14 campaign. Resulations (or uni. (orms u:isted, but due to the S"reat po...eny of the Swedish • ation the soldiers we", badly c1otbo:d and equipped. When the uniforms deteriorato:d with use a ..d "0 replacement. were fonhcominS", the .oldier. worewbale_r was available, allied and captured uniform. and equipment being worn "";Ih equal freedom. The uniforms 0" this plate depict tbe Swedish mililary 'fashio'" during tbe period of .8IJ~14 througboul the Nonh Gel'........ c.mp.ign., the .......lIio.. of Denmark, the Iibe.... tion of the Netberland••nd finally the ia....s io.. ofNorw1ly. The figure 011 tbe left, a pri...ate of tbe Nonh Skiin.ka Resiment, ill we.ring a c.ptured Frencb IIh.ko, .nd p.rt of hill equipmenl is from hi. (now) Runian allies. R"'!'JI.tion. bid down that .ll unit. wore tbe t ....dition.1 higb rou..d felt bt all shown on tbe figure On tbe ri!ht, but replacement. were .carce. The j.cket was the .8'11 p.llern, dark blue with red collar and cuff"s, tbe cuff". being piped in dark blue. Shoulder.lltl'1lps were in tbeuniform colour of blue and piped in red. The turnback. were in yellow and buttons were brall. The panl.loo... were i... medium grey colour ."d decorato:d wilh an Au ..trian knot and Illripes down the out..ide lIeam in red. Dark grey g.iters were worn o"'er the boot•. Around the waill was the lance....style girdle. Crotll-beh., .rm-strap. and chest-eonn.,.,tingltraps were in white leather. A h.yo..et Kabb.rd was att.cbo:d to the b.ck of the black le.ther ....munition pouch, whicb bung dllwn on Ihe ri!bt hip. The kn.p...ck wa. of brown hide witb • copper cant.,.,n (the Sgure ..bown i. wearin!. Ru ...i....type white met.1 cant.,.,n) .....!o.. the back. A wate.-.cont.iner was not ...,.,e.....rily pan • • •oldier's ",,!uipment, .0 tbese co..t.iners ranged from pllll bottle. wilh .ome prot.,.,ti...e co...eri,,!, to captured ..elale.ntcenll.
~:ri:~I~~efi:::i~:.t.".::(:ii;::):~:.::.~:g;:;~:"i~:
wilh tbe Swedes. The uniform ill tbe 18topattern of dark blue with tbe coUar a ..d tbe round cuff ill red. The shoulde... Rrapl are the lIame colour al Ihe uniforln, edSed in red. The nlmbac". were in yellow and bUllons were bra.... The waist wa. encirded wilh Ibe la"cer-Iype girdle in the national .,.Iours of yellow and blue. P.ntaloons were Inedium grey ...th Austrian knOll and lide .tripes in red. Dark srey piters were worn. All the leather equipme"l wa. white with tlte e:sception oftbe black alnrnunition poucb. The back_pack was of brown hide with a S"rey blanket roll On top, aecured by whiteleather .. trap...
Tbe figure 0.. Ihe riSht i. a pri....le of the Uppland R~ment. He wore the r"'!'Jlation taU round hat with the left .ide brim dongaled 10 reach Ihe top of the crow" and fa.te"ed wilh a ,..-Uow cockade a"d a hutton and loop, o"'er which wa. a _hile standin! 'bru.h'. Around the hat wa. a while hat-band. 110e u.,;corm wa .. dark blue wilh a while collar, lapel...nd caffl being yellow edged witb white. The turnback. were Jlellow, .houlde....strap. were dark blue ed!ed yellow, hulto.... ~re brass. Thepa"laloon. were medium 8rey with Au.trian bOI. and .ide .tripes in yellow, .nd the resul.tion l.ncer prdle w•• WOrn. The ",,!uipment was the regul.tio" p.uern wilh the addilio.. ofthe brown gourd carried On the left side ..,. • cord, all a" impro......ed canteen.
lions of the treaty were that Norway should be ceded to Sweden, in return for which Denmark was to have Swedish Pomerania as compensation; that Stralsund should become a depot for British goods; that the Danes should, on receiving a subsidy of £40,000 from England, join the Allies with a force of 10,000 men; that Britain would return to Denmark all that she had captured from her, except Hcligoland; that both Sweden and
Britain would use their good offices to negotiate a peace between Denmark and the other Allies . Later, Denmark exchanged Pomerania with Prussia for Lauenburg. With the question of Norway all but settled Bernadolte evacuated Holstein and as rapidly as possible headed south to fulfil his obligations in Holland. The first of the Swedish troops crossed the Rhine on 24 February, finally halting at Liege where Bernadotte made his headquarters. The centre of the Northern Army under Blucher had sufTered heavy losses, and he appealed to the Tsar for more reinforcements; Ihis request was granted, and the corps of Winzingerode, Billow and \Voronzo were placed under his command. To compensate for the loss of these corps Bernadolte was given the overall eommand of the forces besieging the French fortresses, which included the Dutch and British troops in and around the Netherlands . in April of 1814 Bernadotte returned to Paris. The Tsar and some of the other Allies offered, indeed urged him to accept a position as mediator between the Allies and the Royalists, or even as the leader of the opposition; the post of Generalissimo was even mentioned, but all these Bernadotte refused. He had secretly entertained high hopes of obtaining the French throne, but was a very disappointed man, since the French thought of him not as a saviour but more as a traitor to their cause. He had become completely alienated from his own people, the French. VVith promises of Allied influence and aid in his conquest against Norway, he returned to his northern kingdom, Sweden. THE iNVASION OF NORWAY The refusal of the Norwegians to submit meekly or to surrender their fortresses, Konsvinger, Frederikshald, Frederikstad and Akerhus on the borders, boded ill for a peaceful settlement. Scarcely a month after the signing of the Treaty of Kid, a representative body of Norwegians met in the town of Eidsvold and drafted a constitution for all independent monarchy with the Danish Prince Christian Frcderik (cousin and heir to Christian VIol' Denmark) as its Regent. Norway prepared for war, but her military plans were ofa
27
their strength and the defcnsive nature of their country. Had they not thrown back the invading Swedes in 1808--g? They could do it again! They had not reckoned with Bernadotle, who had brought the new Swedish army up to a high standard of discipline and preparedness. Bernadotle informed Essen of the reinforcements he was sending, which amounted to about 30,000 men who were being landed at Carlshamn. There were further Russian and Prussian troops amounting to another 20-30,000 men. There was a promise of more troops from the Tsar - 5-6,000 men who would bc despatched from Archangel to land at Trondhjem. By July Bernadottc was ready to invade Norway. On 26July the Swedish fleet sailed from Stromstad to eapture and take possession of the islands at Hvaloerne, which the Norwcgians had already cvacuatcd. Amphibious landings were made on Krangcrocll where some 6,000 men took over the fortress of Frederikstad with little or no opposition. The garrison under the command ofColonci Hjerman retreated with all haste. General Galm led a Swedish detachment of (Ldt to risbt) , artiUery .word (or NCO., I~; approximately 2,500 men with instructions to artillery .word, I~; cadel'• •word, I~; artillery ·Stral.wod' .word, .Bog. attack and harass the Norwegians; he crossed the border at Solor with the intcntion of marching to Kongsvinger, and made contact with an equal force of Norwegian troops under the command of wholly defensive nature. The army took up Colonel Krebs. The Norwegians retreated before positions along the German river to oppose the the Swedes until they reached Lier where they threatened invasion. Norway then made strong were able to secure a fortified position. The Swedcs appeals to the Allied powers, for without outside advanced and attacked on 2 August, but were assistance their cause would be lost. They ap- beaten back with heavy losses. Galm moved back pealed to Britain, but although sympathetic, in and established a camp at Matrand. During lhe March 1813 she had signed a treaty with Sweden night Colonel Krebs approached the camp with a assuring her of British military aid in return for her few hundred troops, sending his main force or assistance against Napoleon. With this alliance in l,ooomenon a flanking movemenl. Thcyattacked being the other Allies, although distrustful of at dawn; the fighting was brief and bloody. Gahn Bernadotle could do nothing, so Norway was left was able to extricate his troops, but only after to her fate. great difficulty, with the loss of some 300 men Bernadoue was still at this time at his head· killed, wounded or taken prisoner. Thc Swedish army of two corps numbering quarters in Belgium, so the command of the Swedish troops was in the hands of Count Essen. about 45,000 men was in position at North Although well-equipped the Swedes were few in Boluslen. With volunteers and militia the Nor· number, being only 16,000 men strong, but to wegians could not muster more than 27,000 men. counter-balance this they had a strong British and The balance of sea power was even more alarmSwedish naval force. The i':orwegians had some ing. The Swedes had four ships of the line, five 20,000 men; they were confident in their cause, frigates, one brig and about So--9o smaller craft:
28
to back this up they had the helpofthe formidable British fleet, against which the Norwegians had only eight brigs, one schooner and some hundred smaller vessels. The Second Swedish Corps advanced through Enningdal under the command of Field Marshal the Count Essen, and the Norwegians retreated before them. Fredriksten was besieged by 6,000 Swedish troops under General Vegesack. At Svinesund, to escape being cut off from the main army by Essen, the Norwegians under the command of General Butensdhon withdrew. The Crown Prince Christian Frederik went to Rakkestad where the main army was concentrated. There his chief-of-stafTGeneral Seirsted informed him that he would be unable to defend his capital Christiania (Oslo). There was no other way: the Prince ordered a general retreat across the Clomma river, and the Swedes occupied the border towns. Bernadotte wished to negotiate; he wanted a quick settlement that he eould present to the great powers, as sympathy with the Norwegian cause could well sway his former Allies. Although these negotiations ended on 29 July with the Norwegians still holding out in various positions, the capital was already open to attack. Outflanked, outnumbered, and with a weak leadership, Prince Frederik surrendered Norway to the Swedish crown. Bernadotte·offered to accept the Eidvold constilUlion, with added amendments made necessary by the union of the Norwegian and Swedish crowns. To this the Norwegians then agreed. The control of foreign policy was to be determined in Stockholm, and the Swedish king was to appoint a Viceroy to represent him in Norway. Whereas in Sweden the king had absolute veto over ordinary legislation, in Norway his veto was valid for only six years. The former Independencies of Norway such as Iceland, the Faroes and Greenland remained under the Danish crown. The small island ofSt. Bathelemy in the West Indies was the only dependency she had left outside the Scandinavian Peninsular. The West Indian island ofGuadeloupe was, under pressure from Britain, returned to France. Britain gave Sweden compensation for this island in part payment of her' national debt. Wiesmar, although only mortgaged to Mecklenburg, was never relUrned to Sweden.
Sweden has never fought another war, and has remained neutral throughout the many subsequent world conflicts. By the end of the Napoleonic period in 1814, Denmark was bankrupt and five-sixths of her territory had been lost. Norway remained under a foreig,:! yoke, and had to wait almost a hundred years before she gained her independence.
rile 'Plates A / Denmark: Officer of Den Kongelige Livgarde Til Hast, 1800-/3
The Royal Horse Guard was formed in 1661 and apart from a shan period of one year (1771-1772) continued in service until 1866, when it was disbanded. The strength of this corps was very small, consisting of no more than about '200 men. Its main function was that of a personal bodyguard to the king. The only action in which the corps
29
took any part was in 1807, this being in defence of Copenhagen against the British attack on that city. During 1800-1815 the main duties were guarding the King and patrol duties around the coast surrounding Copenhagen. There were two squadrons, differentiated only by the tops of their coloured feather plumes. The first squadron, known as Livcskadronen (the Life Squadron, had a white feathered plume with a red top, and the second squadron had a white feathered plume with a light blue top. The uniform pattern of this organization changed very lillie over the years, except for minor details. The sword carried was the 1772 pattern; the hilt was of silver, with a black grip bound with silver wire. A scabbard of black leather had silver mountings, and the sabre knot was gold striped crimson. The horse furnishings consisted of a red shabraquc with silver lacc edgings. The harness was of black leather with gilt ·fittings. Pistols carried were the 1807 model with the 'internal' flint-lock by C. \·V. Kyhl. A2 Denmark.' Guardsman (Lirwskadronen) in Parade and Guard-Duty Uniform
In earlier years the helmet tail decoration was more in the form of a sausage-shape which hung down the back, but this was replaced by a horsehair tail. At this period the helmet had a black leather skull, straight at the back. Two metal bands, one on either side, were fixed to give added protection from sabre cuts, and the 'up-turned' leather peak was edged in white metal with a metal band above the peak over the front of the skull. The turban, contained by three silver chains
.
"
~~.~mm.iil ~
(Top to beetOIll): IS·S.........hore rifled c:arbu.e, 1"1; 16"lIIm .horerifled.c:arbi.e,I."s; 16"IIIID carbiDe, lao,.
30
on either side, was of a red coloured material. The helmet was surmounted bya fur crest with a horsehair tail which hung down the back. White metal chin-scales were adopted in March 1808. On the left side was a cut feathered plume of red over white, attached in a socket beneath the turb."!n. The uniform was a shan (just below waistlength) coatee of a light yellow cloth, fastening down the front by means of hooks and eyes. Two strips of lace ran down the front on either side of the fastenings. The collar, shoulder straps. cuffs and turnbacks (in the front) were red with lace edging; prior to 1802 no turnbacks were shown. The bottom of the coatee was also edged in lace. Rank distinction was shown by types of lace and buttons. The breeches were of a similar malerial to the coatee. a light yellow c10lh without ornamentation. The boots were high, covering the knees, and fitted with white metal spurs. It was llsual to wear the black leather cross-belt from the left shoulder. For parades a silver cross-belt plate was worn. On active service tbe cross-belt hung from the right shoulder and a black leather carbine belt with a swivel and hook hung over the left shoulder, crossing the body. A black leather waist belt had a silver belt plate decorated with the Danish coat of arms in gih. Black leather sword slings and sabretache with silver embroidered monogram FR VI were worn. The sword carried was the 1772 paltern with the hih in brass, the scabbard being of black le'lIher and steel. The carbine carried was the shoft riRed 16·8 model of 1807; like the pistol it was fitted wilh the so-called 'internal' flint-lock, made by
C. W. Kyhl in 1806, and approved in April 1807, made in the Kronborg Arms Factory. B I Denmark: Kongens Livjaeger Corps, Jaeger, 1807
With the threat of the British Reet offJudand on 12 March 1801, volunteer corps were hastily formed. One of the first open to the citizens was the Kongens Livjaeger Corps (King's Life-Corps of Riflemen), recruited mainly from the middleelass youth. With General Von Holstein as its commander-in-chief, it was formed on 25 March 1801. The corps consisted of two companies under Captain Count Holk and Captain Von Stibolt. Although it did not take part in the baltIc of Copenhagen, a small contingent was stationed with a battery on Amager. After the bailIe the strength was increased to four companies of 100 men each. For every twenty-five men an officer was appoinled, elected by the riRemen themselves. The original regulations for the uniform laid down on 15 April ended with the order: 'Everyone who is a member of the Corps must provide himself with the above-mentioned field-uniform, sabre, cartridgebox, knapsack, greatcoat and all matter to support himself. For this service in the corps, the King will provide him a rifle and ammunilion'. The greatcoat had a round cape with green tassels and lace, both of which could be easily removed to convert it back lor civilian usc. Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadoue, Marshal ofFraace, Prince of PODte Corvo. At the age of 47 he was m.ade CroWD Prince of Pelisses trimmed with black fur were permitted Sweden with the aame Charles John, ...d later took the for officers, and also the growing of beards by the throne as Charles XIV. men. on 21 July 1870. The Jaeger wore all unusual variation of thc New regulations issued on 3 I January 1806 increased the strength of the corps by 80 men; the czapka, a six-cornered tall hat with parallel sides. officers were upgraded from Civic Guards status It had a Icather body and peak, neck and earto that of the Militia. Minor changes of uniform (laps, ornamentcd with a grcen turban, ball tuft look place: the parade-uniform for thc riRemen and cords. Non-commissioned officers worc a was to be discontinued; officers were to wear lhe green cockade under lhe balt-luft. The short Oust same czapka as the men; and gold cords and below waist-length) jacket was dark green, with a black collar, lapels, pointed cuffs and the turnepauleltes were to be worn by the officers. In defence of Copenhagen during the battle of backs in lhe front. A black leather pouch belt 1807 the corps conducled themselves with great hung from the left shoulder across the body. The bravery, their casualty rate being the highest waist beIt of black leather was fitted widl a brass among the defending Danish troops, amounting buckle. Non-commissioned officers (Overjaegere) to one quarter of their effective strength. After the wore white cords and a gold epaulette on the right peace treaty of 1814 this was the only volunteer shoulder, and a black shoulderstrap edged with corps which was allowed 10 remain in service. For gold on the left. Grey pantaloons decorated with purely political reasons the corps was disbanded black braid at the waist were worn with plain
31
Hessian-type boots. Overjaegers' boots were fitted with a tassel. On the left-hand side a brass hilted sword-type bayonet (hirschranger) was carried, with a green sabreknot for the riflemen and a white knot for N.C.O.s. A Rat triangular-shaped powderhorn made from cow-horn was suspended from the waist belt by straps on the right. All ranks wore the black cravat plaited and allowed 10 hang down in front. The rifled musket was carried by all personnel.
Swedi.h .rtillery troop., .&0,. The fi~re Oil the le(t i. a p""er (Kaaoaier) o( the V,,"du Artill....ir~ ...ellt.., who wOn th.. taU rOUlld f..1t hat with the ..IOIIpted Calae hri... 011 the Idt-haad .ide, C••t_ed with a Y"Uow how aad huuo.. aad loop oC th.......e coto.r. The hat w-. •• rulO..-ted hy. ...hite pl....e, th.. hat_buld. _ . h The .iDSle-h,.....ted -.ifor... _ . dark bl".. with clar" bt (.ciDS" .bouJder.lrSp.. cuB"....d tv..... hack.. The collar _ ....hite Ihld decorated with two yello COUOll coreb or lact bar-. The .iDsle ro o(lnalt_. d the (roat Lad those OIl the aIH. wen ill b Fro... the Idt .boulder 11-. • huB" leather
~r:-~~:thi"'~~e·=:'~t·:.~tufi:'tt.:':=r:~ftl:
belt p'f:te. he c1.......fitti.llS pLatd oC clar" bl.e ...e", deeonr.ted with A".tn- ....011 ill yeUo Blae" booll wert fiued with .ilver met.1 .p"n. The .rtillery pat""..... ....ord witb th...tirrup hilt ill a .leel Lad leather Kabb.rd wa.c.rried.
"'0rD.,
82 Denmark: Jaeger Officer in Field Uniform Prior to 1806 officers had worn for service dress a leather skull and peak helmet, with a leopardskin turban contained by chains. It was surmounted by a fur crest and a green feathered plume. Their epaulelles were green, and their sashes yellow striped green. Under the new regulations ofJanuary 1806 the officers' uniform came closer in appearance to that of the men, with only minor differences. The officers now wore the czapka filled with gold cords, and gold epauleltes to distinguish their rank. A gold sash with crimson stripes was now worn in line with the regular army. Grey pantaloons with a slightly heavier braid ornamentation at the waist were worn with the tasselled Hessian boots. Both the crossbelt and the powderhorn hung from the left shoulder across the body, the latter supported by a green cord. A stirrup-hihed sword in a scabbard of black leather fitted with brass mounts was carried on black leather slings. Both pistols and rifles were carried by the officers.
The gold·edgcd black leather crossbelt bore the belt plate of the Danish coat of arms. The pantaloons were green and decorated at the waist, down the sides and around the back with gold lace. The Hessian boots were ornamented around the top in gold lace and had a gold tassel.
83 Denmark: Jaeger Officer in Parade Uniform Following the new regulations this uniform had these notable differences. The czapka, apart from the gold cords and flounders, was also decorated with gold cord at each corner, around the green turban, around the leather peak, earflaps and neck flap. The uniform was green, and lhe short black lapels were edged in gold lace and decorated with gold loops and buttons. Gold braid and bUllons reached the waisl. The black turn-ups in lhe front, the pointed black cuffs and the hallom of the jacket were all edged or decorated with gold lace. Gold bullion epaulettes were worn. A thin black leather belt edged in gold with a gilt two-bossed buckle was worn around the waist.
This, the 2nd Regiment of lhe King's Life Guards (Gustavus Adolphus IV), was one of three such regiments, the 1st being 'Kongungens Svea Lif Garde and 3rd 'Kongungens Finska Garde' After the Russians invaded and conquered Finland in I BoB, the srd regiment was disbanded according to the treaty of Fredricksham on 5 September 1 Bog. Prior to 1807 the guardsmen wore the black bicorne, but at this date the Swedish headdress, the 'kusket', was adopted. This helmet was peculiartothe Swedes. Madefrom black leather, it was tall with a rounded top and the left side of the brim elongated and turned up nearly to the top; this was ornamented with a
32
The c_tre fipre (h.ck vie...) i. La officer i.. the Ve.du Artillerir~m"'"".Th.. lUliforrn ......irnil.r to that oC the p""er with the CollowiDS e"ceptio•• : the decoratiOIl Oil the white coDar _ . o( cold lace; the e.......beh ..... leather ...d
t:~o:e:..d:I=:.P.f:;''::~t~::~':'~::~ct':t~~~:.~r;~~
lact. The clar" bl"e tv..... back....ert o........_ted with • sold
feft':~,:~::,c:,:';~':;;':I~~~I~;I:"~~~:''':.~~:
....m.ofthebl.epalltalooo.. ne ....ord ••pportedbySold. lace .IiDS...... Ih.. .rtillery palt__ ill • hlack leather _hbant with Jilt fittiar•. The .word"'01 _ . oC lold lact. O'Ih..Ie(t ...... w-. the white 'bra rd', traditioaally wo.... by all S...ed.i.h offict,..., ill co oratioa oC the Palact rtvol.tio.. o( "772. A .ilve......ohbed uick _ . carried.
~(:"r':nriC:a;::eo.~=;~t~:.s:~t~~::ts='..:~'-:::
pluD1e Cor thi. r~D1_t w .. y..llow. The C.ciDS coto"r ..... the .am.. (or the coll.r, cuff. Lad t" b.ck., t>,.iDS d.r" hl"e. Gold Cri..selu. ep.uleue. were wo A sotd.l.ud cro.._ belt .upport"'CI • bl.d. po"ch. Blue breeehu "'ere ... 0 .... with hiSI> ........ boot•. The ....ord _ . uraisht hl.ded .ad ...ora ill • Cros Crom the ....i.t_belt. (Kllotet)
Cl Swtden: Andra LifGard, Guardsman, 1807
white brush plume with a yellow loop and button. The 'chenillc' or bearskin crest was placed obliquely across thc top ofthc haL The metal hat band was adorned with thc crest of Vasa with a crown abovc.
Swedi.1a d .....Soo.u and I"...ar, '807. TJoe Iwo ceatre 6sures are _ effic"r _d trooper ortlae Wutptha n...Soo.u. Apart rrom miaor difI'"reaces tIl..-e -ue....... ar" .imilar. TJoe black I"a~r laetmel _ . fitted wilh 10....... eraa.meeta_ tioa, willa a 1I0id cockade ror officers witb a sold bunoa_d
""I')'
=.::r:It::.:i~·C;:"'~:I~Ufu.:,b:::~::
::ri~~~
comla _d ha.asias dOWlll ~ back o(llae lael.o..",. TJoe -uorm _ . darlr. blue witla red coUar and aaJr•. The half-rariaS (roat _s edlled ia wb.i'e whicla coatiaued doWD rhoe (roal aad aloellibe botro... orrhoejackel. Officers wOre lIotd epaul"ues, olher .......... had nOn". Arouad tla" waist w .. a wid", yellow sa.1a willa cords _d la..el. laooked up oa tbe righl .id",. TJo" breeclaes w"rt! lauffleather and worn witla hes.i_ bool •. Th" .word .upported On !l0ld .lings w .. Ihe .tandard r"S'ulalion
C2 Sweden: Andra LijGarde, Offiur, /807 Thc Guards rcgimcnts carnc undcr the Varvadc or pcrmancnt establishment of thc army. These either occupied the many fortresses which sur~fa~~~:~~7,. ~~':l~I: ~~~:~:.::~::::(::~:t:e: rounded Sweden, or were housed in barracks in ~h;:::;1:h: h:;~.~:afi&,~: :=s~~ ~:t::l:: various towns. Their status and pay was higher .hako had a deep lold laced bordn- arouad rhoe upp"r parr than thai of the regular Linc army. The total witla a sold lace 0 ........_1 ia IlIe cnllre; rho., wmle ph....", was strength of a Guards regiment was two six. aflised witla a y..Uow bow, laulloa _d toop oa the tert. ~~:ed';"e:I~:~t~:d;j~~ company battalions, each company consisting of ~":~n ~ wa. dark bl...., wirho ,be .ame (arias colour (or collar aad 100 men; added to this was an attachment of cuff•. Fromjasl betow tbe co,.... 10 tile bottom tlae dolman _ . deco.....ted witb gold lace. TJoe cro...betl was orleld lace about 100 men of a Chasseur company. Officers aad teather _d tbe barr"I••a.h, cerds aad tas..,l. (which still retained the bieorne for certain occasions. In [=:::~rb~:"~~:::.::r~llh~~:ct1:~:'e~oe"::::t:da~na::: common with Ihc practicc of all Swedish officers i:a7':e~::=Ia~:e:::em':::~tfo;:t~~:"~:~I~::~..~I~ thc white 'brassard' was worn on the left arm. b.... ian hool •. TJoe .abretacbe was .u.P""'ded by gold diall"
. t:::=r:i:t
C3 Sweden: KongungtnsSua LijGarde; Officer, /807 Being of the 1st Regiment there were certain differences ofa vcry minor nature in the uniform of the officers, but apart from the facing colour these were essentially the samc. The Chasscur company (mounted riRemen) had a green uniform piped yellow. They wore the kusket with a green chenille and grcen brush plume. The Chasscur company of the 2nd Regiment wore a similar uniform but with orange piping. As wilh the guardsmen, thc crest of Vasa with the crown above was worn on the metal hat band. D / Sweden: Liu Grenadier Corps oj the Lije Brigade, Officer, /8/3 The Crenadier Corps of the Life Brigade was formed in 1808 from the Liv-regiment Brigade's 'Latta' Indelta Battalion. The Indelta unilS were made up from the militia, a form of tcrritorial service. Under the ncw Crown Princc's guidance the grenadiers were drawn from their regimental units and placed into regiments of their own, possibly augmentcd with the Indelta regiments within his new infantry organization. The uniform of the Grenadier Corps was similar to that of Ihe other Linc regimenls. The kusket was worn, but with the following differences: Ihe brim was small and did not have the e10ngaled upturned left
_d had a blue backSroUlld deco.....ted willa tlae rhor.... cro_. ia sold lace. TIle .word _ . alIsto,,".t witb. sold .word....ot. eKuelel)
brim, and the chenille was placed from back to front centre. The white plume, yellow cockade and button and loop were fastened on the left side. Thc Chasseur detachment had a similar uniform. D2 Swedrn: Kongungt'ns LijGarde Til Hast: Trooper, /807 The Royal Life Cuard was made up of six squadrons; like thc Crenadier regiments it had'l further attachment, in this case one squadron equipped as mounted Jaegers. The troopers wore the pale blue service uniform, and the yellow barrelled sash belt applicable to all dragoon regiments since r795, as were also the three gold crowns (the Swedish coat of arms) on the sabretache, under the regulations of that year. The kusket was worn with the elongated Icft brim upturned, fitted with the chenille centre, from back to front, and decorated with cords. In the reorganization of the army under Bernadotle the kuskel was replaced in 1813 by a shako. D3 Swedm: Lijgrmudier Rigimrnt, O.ffictr, /813 The cuI of the uniform was similar (Q the olher grenadier and line infantry regimcnts, now being
35
blue in place of the lalO uniform colour of grey. The formation also followed that of the other line regiments. Earlier Ihey had worn the bearskin cap with the red patch at the back, and a while plume worn on the len side. In 1813 Ihis was replaced wilh Ihe kusket, worn without the upturned left brim, thechenille being worn at righl angles across the top of Ihe hat. The while plume remained on the left side with the bUllon and loop.
.... cer-IYJN'~~horizOllt.u,..friped ......e . .t1or:t.al colo..... of hI.. e -et y..now wa. wo..... C.--d.,..lt., pIl'>ch......d .u
D4 Sweden: Kongllllgens Lif Garde Til Hast,
officen. H
Officer, fOOl The Royal Life Guard was part of the standing army, and had six squadrons, including a jaeger squadron. Each squadron consisted of 125 men. The officer is shown in full dress. The 'brassard' was worn on the left arm as a reminder of Ihe Palace Revolution of 1772. The mounted Jaegers wore a uniform of similar cut but in dark green. £f Denmark: Hussar Regiment, OJficer, 181j The Hussars saw most of their service in Northern Germany. Many accounts of the various ballles fought mention squadrons of Hussars fighting alongside the Dragoons and Line troops. To the Hussars goes the credit for killing the rebellious Major von Schill of the 2nd Regiment of Brandenburg Hussars, during the street fighting in Stralsund on 31 May IBog. Stralsund and Boden are but two of Ihe battles in which the Hussars fought. Their uniform followed lhe general pattern of all hussars, the exception being lhe hat (Shachtclhue) which was a high black shako with silver bands around lhe lOp, the lace band going diagonally down lhe front - although regulations allowed the French-lype colpack which was sometimes worn. The troopers wore a similar uniform with white cOtton tape in place of the silver lace of the officers.
Thi. pl.fe .ho...... II:roup of Swedi.h Li.ne lnf....fry .oldie... we.n"'fIl ,he '807-10 r~la,iOll inue of ulliform. The ulli.
. . =.m.. .,,~ ~m:~e~ ~..:;-~~o'";~ fi:~;~ :::::
:;im=~
~~= ~!.:.:J~..':;::::::'°btu:r::~~r:~~a;:;
:~:::::.tij:=b:~l=~~~"::?::;~=fl::'~; ~;::~::::':.~:rh;"'S.eh;C:::d:t;ow:":~d:·f~':;:~
loa,. Oft the ... fr.. m .. leff i .... officer of "'e Kron.obers:
r~~~~Etfr'~~:~:~1~~~~E:t:~~~:~~:: iaD boota were wo..... Th.. bl M .... the Kron. ...
=:=a~esime t cod,.de of. yellow hac"fIlrouDd with a blue
CeDlre leff i•• private of the Elf.borfll Resim~nf w~arinfll • fIlrey fIlrdtco.' with. d ..lachable c.pe, which alao h.d tbe fad"'fIl colour of dar" blue. Kifllh hlac" pife... wer.. worn. wi,h b...... hUflOD fa&left"'••. The bf cockade bd ... o .......lI:e bac"fIlrou.Dd wi.... red cron ... ,he Cefttre. The «Ilf", fill"""" (fro"'f ...d back view)1U'e privaf'"
of"'~
~;-~;e~~~~f~~;':Ir::'~h~..aeY:""do;~:".t-=a~ arm MiD. red.
ulrem.. ri.ht i. a prinl" of SOcIum........d Resim...f. Nococlr.adewa.woraonfhefro toffh.. hat. TheUAiformW&lO daJo.. hl..e wi'" • yellow collar, cuB'. aud ....... bac.... The
l"ther equipm_, wa. of wh.i1e le....~r. aud ,he . .,iOllal. coloured sinU.. waS worn.. The pautaloo.... were whi,e ao.d worn. wi'" bl.c" sai,u. 10 ,he ..0 ..... All ~me.>Is carried 110.. hayo...et aU..ched und .. rn._th Ih~ hl.c" ammunition po..ch; ,he m .....e.. bd red l...ther .tiufll•. (Knotel)
aulettes and sash. The black bicorne with the deep laced edge, white feather border along the top and white plume was still worn, whether on the stan' or Wilh a regiment. £j Dtnmark: OJfiurofth., Cuid, Corps, 181j
This corps was an csscmial part of the arm)'. liS personnel were specially chosen officers and noncommissioned officers, who were trained for staff duty service. The uniform was red with black facing colour, and they wore a distinguishing coloured plume of yellow with a crimson top.
£2 Danish. Ceneral, 181j
PI Denmark: J),dskeRegimtnl ulteDragorur, 181j; Trooper in service dress
The Generals wore a special type of uniform when serving on the General Staff, this being in Ihe national colour of red with the facing colour of blue. Epaulettes were of gold bullion with three silver bars. The sash was a little different from lhat of the other general officers. If the general was in command of a regiment he usually wore the regimental uniform with the general's ep-
This regimenl saw most of its sen'ice in Northern Germany in the Auxiliary Corps, which was the Danish Division attached to the French XIII Army Corps under Marshal Davout. In command of the Danish Corps was Prince Frederick of Hessen and in command of the 2nd Brigade, in which this Jutland regiment served, was Major. General J. C. Lasson.
36
37
The helmct worn was the samc pallcrn as llscd from 179510 1815, and a similar patlern to that worn by the Royal Life Guards. I t had a black leather skull with a straight leather peak I:x>und with metal. and a metal band abovc the peak over the front bearing the regiment's name. It bore a crcst of black feathers. and the blue turban was contained by chains. The uniform followed the s.ame style as the infantry, with the turn backs in buff and the collar. lapels and cuffs in the regimental colour. The overalls were dark blue with a red stripe down the side and black leather strappings. The carbine was the short rined model of 1807. F2 Denmark: ]yiskt Rtgimrnt LeU' Dml:rmer,. mounted Officer, /813 Thc total strcngth of the regiment on a war footing was four squadrons, each squadron con· sisling of 175 oAlcers and mcn, but whether this figurc was cver reached is not quite certain. Officers had their ranking shown on the lower slce\'e, a system introduced under the army regulation of I August 1812. The jacket was the tail-coat with buff·coloured turnbacks. The horses were somewhat smaller than in other rcgimcnlSof cavalry, but were chosen for their hardiness. The shabraque was crimson with silver lace embroidery, and the harness was of black leather dcr:orated with shells. Owing to the British blockade and the financial problems of the country, the crimson material was gradually going out of use through lack of supplies. GI and G2 Denmark: Grenadiers, Oldntborgske hifanleriregimenl Originally part of the Danish Division st,lIlding by in Holstein, this regiment was ordered to Northern Germany by the Kingan 16Ma)' 1813, there to be attached to the French XIII Arm)' Corps commanded by ~1arshal DaVOli!. The Danish Division was now called the Danish Auxiliary Corps, under the command or Prince Frederik of Hessen. The Oldenborgske Infanteriregiment I, II, I V and the light company from the III "'ere part or the First Brigade under the command of Major·General G. L. Graf \'on der Schulenberg.
38
c....up
of Sw~.U.h dnSOOD' aDd c..ira..ie" i.. 1807. The typieal head-dre.. wa' the btack bico....e wo.... i.. the f..re aDd aft po.ili...., w;lb y",Uow hat pullil at "'.ch ead. SliShdy len or Ce»lr", the hat deconted wilh a y",lIow bow w;lh a bull.......d loop, ...rmO....led by a while feal.her pl..m",.
wa.
0.. Ihe e.-I.rt!me I",fl ill a lrooper of 110... Scani Rqi.m....t of O.... lII;oo.... The IUliform ill 110... l']98-tllo7 pan be"'lII; d.rk blue ... colour. noe lIf;ir.Ue tbe Iatlur-type of yellow UKI 101..", Io..rn.... I.1 .tripes. Buff b~h W"rt! wo.... with killl;h k..ee boot.. A whil" I..."ber belt {ro 110.. riCbl .b..uJd.. r 'cros. Ihe body .upported th.. beary ca_try ~latioa .word oa t .... lef,. A wai.t bell .....d ..r th", lIf;irdl", .upported th.. sahretacbe. 11M: hd leath..r carlo.... belt from the kft
wa.
::-::.~n"'h:"..=f~b~~::..~":'::r~a:":::~~:~:
.. ... yellow; ,b.. dark bt..e pistol caven we" d"",ont...t with 'h.. IIor.... cro_.... yellow.
The fiK"" sec d from lbe lefl i.... officu of the Scania.a O .... Coo.... The iform i••imilar to lhal of the lroopo:r other thaD tb I"'ri.l, ...d cold lac", ....Iead of th.. yell_ couo.. lau. Buff'S'''Dd..,. w",r.. w...... by.1l . Th", c....t .... ficure i.... officer of tb.. Life Cui ier Rqi._ me..l. He won th", bl.d< t",atl.er I.cqu",red h",lInet 0 .....• me"led with ,ill fitti"lII;'; the et.1 plale which covered Ihe p".k·p;ece j .....ed the Cilt c t, 0" which w •••tt.ched • white worsted co...h. noe b.ck of Ihe helme' wa" al".. o.....m"'..ted wilh lII;ilt fitting. which ror...ed ...eck lII;u.rd. no", if..rm w•• of. h..ff' c..l..ured c1..lh with the coll.r, cuff d tu .... b.ck...f dark btue. The .teet cuir••• waa edlll;ed in lII;ilt bra.. trim ...d gilt b ...... domed lI..d •. I.. Ihe ceatre ofth.. cui...... w •• the Swedi"h R ..y.1 Co.t or Ar.... u. gilt. Btue vetvet wilh a crimped edge (wkich .b..wed) tined Ihe cui....... The .h..ulder -.tItS ..f b...... a ..d leatber wbich f..leaed 0" Ibe f...... 1 .upported the cui....... A cold.laced cr bell fro... 110... rillhl "bowder carried Ibe .word, aad f m a waist belt UDder the cui.......tinlll;' .upport...t lbe ...bret.che, both 0 .. the leTt .ide. HiCh k.._te..p bool. filted wilh steel 'pun w...... wo.... The wkile ·bra....rd· ...... wo.... o .. t .... lef,.rm. noe figure .... lhe rillhl i.... officer of the Life 0"'1_ Rqi.m",al. He i. w ...riaC the 1&0, pan...... W>ifOnD with the
....Ille r _ of gilt hun...._; it wa. dark lot..",. ia Ihe cu'.away tail coal slyle. noe callar, cafI'. ...d lu".back. were'" "",kite. ~~ ~:=kte:'::~t:.",:r:.'~Il-;~:::'''':=~ft ~:=
=:
ri!bt .b....lder .upported • sword ia a f"'l Ihe teft .ide. noe wai•• wa. eacircled by. IlAJ'TOW 1l..1d 10 with ..,k wbich hu..! dowa Ihe left .ide. BuR' caloured breeches e ....
;;':'":a:~s~f: ."::r;-'O~~:'':;:':-e''''~;~~";it::'::;:'~
walk...! stick "",as ..fte.. carried by officers. (K..otel)
The backview figure has the calf-length greatcoat or medium grey worn during lhis period; the red coat of an earlier pattern was somctimes scen. The standard infantry equipment of white leather and fawn hide pack was worn. Grenadiers had an infantry sabre in addition to the bayonet. The feather was remo\·ed from the bearskin under orders issued on 8 September 1813, but restored later when the bearskin was replaced with the shako, on 12 :\'ovember 1813. The second figure is wearing the lBog patlern red jacket. of which the cut was out of fashion with the rest of Europe.
39
G] Dtnmark.' 3dir )]dskt hifa1/lairtgimtnf. OJliar, 18J]
This shows the uniform as worn in 1813 after the order of I August 1812 had been issued. This order forbade the wearing of gold or silver epauleues and sashes, and a system of stripes and buttons to denote rank was imroduccd. The figure shown is that of a second lieutenant. Both blue and grey pantaloons were worn. The colours were carried either by junior officers or senior N.C.O.s. G4 Drnmarlc.' Oldrnborgslcr InJanlerirrgimrnt, OJlicer, 1809
The officer is wearing the IBog pattern uniform; this was the period when both gold or silver epauleltes and sashes were customary. This uniform was worn at the battle of Stralsulld during service in a combined Dutch·Danish force. It was due to ~he lack of both money and supplies (be· cause of the British blockade) that the later pattern of uniforms lost most of their finery of gold or silver cords and epaulettcs. HI and H2 Drnmarlc: Holslmlct RyUert, OJliur and Troop", 181]
The uniform of the Danish Heavy Cavalry was similar to that of the infantry and the Horse Artillery. The officer's tailed coat and the trooper's short jacket had the standard flaps and turnbacks in buff. Collar, lapels and culTs were in the facing colour of green. The black shako had a white plume with cordsofrcd and yellow. On the diamond-shaped metal hat plate were the letters 'R.R.' for Rytter Regiment. The overalls were dark blue with black leather strappings; troopers had red stripes down the outside, the officers gold. The sword carried was the cavalry broadsword pattern of 1774, in the scabbard of 1786. The troopers' sword knots were black, while the officers had the gold and crimson sword knot. The pistol and carbine were the 1807 patterns. The shabraquc:s for the troopers were red with a white edging, for the officers crimson with a silver
Swedi."lw",lve-potUId""('lA0(c. 17!IOteaL 12"2;&.11 AusEhrfturird dKip wit.b cradl.. &.lid limber, it .laDd. i tra.iliosS peKino•. (Ro)'1lt Army MUHum, Swedea)
edging. Parade dress for the officers was coloured breeches and black Hessian boots wi lassel. H3 and H4 Dtnmark: 3dit ))'dslct Infanttrirtgim )arger Company, Corporal and Troop", 1813
During this period infantry regiments , formed into four battalions. The first two talions were made up of "eterans or the r experienced professional soldiers, the lhird fourth from the militia (Iandevaernet), which beell stood down since 1808. A battalion cons' of four companies of musketeers and on jaegere (riRemen); the first battalion had a ( pany of Grenadiers instead of jaegere. I company consisted of some 167 officers and I The Jaegere N.C.O. and trooper wear the s uniform as the infantry with the exception 0 distinctive dark green feathers and cords 011 shako and the all-black leather equipment. smooth-bore infantry musket Model 1794 used after the Crown Prince's request for a lig musket; a special sabre·bayonet, the 'Hi, fanger', was carried. The undress forage ca 'bonnet de police' were often worn on ocea~ other than fatigue duties. \Vhite trousers , worn for the summer uniform.
Men-at-Arms Series THE SEVEN YEARS WAR ,\10:-.'1'C.-\I..\I'S AR1-1Y WOLFE'S ARMY TilE i\l'STRO·IIL:N"G,\RIA'\' AR.\IY OF THE SEVE:\, YE.\RS WAR FREDERICK TilE GREKI"S ARMY
NAPOLEONIC WARS rOOT GRF.:'IAD[F.RS OF TilE [,\II'ERIAL Gl'ARl) (:1I.\'3SECRS OF TilE GUARD HL(.l(:HEI{'S Mo.·l\'
RllSSIAN AI{;\IY OF TilE :"\AI'OLEO:\'IC WARS
BRITISH REGIMENTS TilE IIl.ACK \\"ATCH THE COL])STR~:AM GUARDS THE ROYAL SCOTS GREYS THE ARGYLl. & SUTIlERLAND 1l1GIH.ANDERS THE CO:'lNAUCHT RAXCERS THF. HUFfS THE ROYAL ARTILLERY TilE "I:'IG'S RECI"IF.NT TltE GURKHA RIFLES TilE 30TH I'U:-."jAIIIS THE SOUTH WALES 1I0RDERERS TilE ROYAL CREE;': JACKETS
THE IlLACK BRU;.IS\\,ICKERS
AllSTRO·Hl":"
,\RTltU:RY
NM'OI.F.O"'S DRAGOONS A:'\D lA ....CERS SCA.\'I)IX,\VIA:"I AIC\llt:S IN THE ;>; ..\I'OI.l:ONI(: WARS
OTHER 19TH CENTURY CAMPAIGNS Rl'SSIA\' I\R~IY OF THE CRIMEA IlR! fiSH AR:\IY OF TI1E CRIMEA AR,\IY OF THE GERMA:'I DIPIRE lA70 A8 THE SL'f).\\ CA.\1Pt\IG~S 1881 98 nn: ZL'LV W,\R
WORLD WAR II THl: WAFFt.::'I SS LLwr\\"M'FE AIRROR'\F. A:'ID FJELD lI:-."ITS ['HE PA,\ZER DI\"ISIO:'lS TilE jAI'.\XF.SE AR:'1Y OF WORLO \\"AR II TI-lE SOVIET ,\R:.n· RO:'1:.1t.:L'S I)I:SERT ARMY
AMERICAN SUBJECTS TilE STONEWALl. IIRIC,\DE THE IRO:'l lllUGADE TilE U,S. C,\\'ALRY GEORGE WASHI;':(;TO\"S ,\RMY TilE UNITED ST,\TES MI\RINE CQRI'S TilE A.\1ERICA,'\ I'RO\'I:\,CJAl. CORPS THE IIRIT1SII AIt"'IY L\' NORTH M.n:RIC,\ Ins 83 THE A,\1ERIC,\;': WAR 1812 II TilE ARMY OF THE l'OTO:.lAC THE MU\1Y OF XORTHF.RN VIRGINII\ THE ,,1[XICA:'I·.":'IERIC,\:\, WAR IIl16 IA WOUES AR"1Y ;\IO;>;TCALM'S AR:'1Y
MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS TilE I'RE:"1CIl rOREIG"I U:GIO.'>I TilE COSSACKS ENGLISH CIVIL WAR AR"IlES THE RO:'IA:"1 AR"1Y FRO"I CAESAR TO TR,\J."'1 MEDIEVAL EUROPE,\,'>: ,\R:'1IES 1300 1.'lOO THE 1.,\'\OSK:-.:ECHTS THE ,\RAH LEGIO,'>I
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