Social Sciences_sociology.pdf

SOCIOLOGY FOCUS ON THE PHILIPPINES

BY RAYMUNDO AND PANOPIO 2004 Edition

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Chapter 1 THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY “Let me go to what seems to be the changing role of social scientists, particularly sociologists. I hope I am quoting Cynthia Bautista correctly when I say our role is not just as collaborators and not just as critics. We`re not just basic scientist nor applied scientist, not just technocratic, not just philosophical, not just theoretical, but something of a mixture or a blending of all these. What the actual blending, is still emerging. Bautista called it “converging”, sometimes “eclecticism,” but I think we have to underscore now that there is a great need that has been pointed out today for a systematic indigenous theory of sociology. I do not envision a Filipino theory of general sociology to be coming out in the next 10 year. But I do think that it is time for us to put our heads together and come out with a meaningful indigenous theory of special issue areas in the field.” Leodivina V. Carino, 1991 Dr. Carino, former president of the Philippines Sociological Society (PSS), made these remarks during the society`s convention in 1991 where the theme was “Sociology of/and Development: Consensus and Controversy.” She emphasized the changing role of sociologist in society and called for the formulation of an indigenous theory on specific areas in sociology. What is Sociology? All fields of study started as attempts to answer questions about one’s environment, one’s own nature. Theologians have sought to explain our 2

relationship with God’s will; scientist have tried to explain our physical environment and our physical being; painter, novelist, composers, poets, and other artists have attempted to express their interpretation of life, human conditions, and beauty through creative means; philosophers have sought through logic the causes and principles of reality and the conduct of life. Between the 18th and 19th centuries, the social sciences grew out of social philosophy. The social science drew heavily on the scientific logic of the physical sciences that yielded fruitful results. The most recent of these specialized social sciences is sociology. Sociology is the science of society and the social interactions taking place within it. It is concerned with social interaction involving social acts, social relationships, social organizations, social structures, and social processes. The social facts it gathers include the recurrent and repetitive forms of behaviour (attitudes, beliefs, values, norm) and social institutions that make up the social order. Sociology studies not only the structure and functions of social organization, but also the changes which take place within it. Some people have criticized sociology as using a lot of jargon in dealing with the ordinary and commonplace phenomena. While it is true that sociologists deal with such kinds of social relationships, it analyzes the pattern and processes of social relations in a scientific and systematic way. Sociologists formulate theories and principles about human behaviour as shaped by group life and how, in turn, group life is affected by individuals (Kendall 2000:3). Sociologists abstract various factors from the behaviour of people and develop methods of controlling observation through rigorous 3

categorization. Conclusions in sociology are in the form of generalizations, specifying the conditions under which certain forms of behaviour take place. Findings in Sociology debunk some common sense notions and myths. It is concerned with that goes on between and among people and the patterned relationships within social groups. Its fascination lies in the fact that its perspective makes us see in a new light the world in which we have lived all our lives (Berger 1967:32-33). The emphasis of sociology is on the social behaviour of the individual within the context of his or her social group or society. It is a broad discipline, encompassing the various facts of human life. The various areas of study in sociology include social organization, rural and urban communities, social change and social problems, socialization, social stratification and social class, population and demography, medicine, law, age and gender roles, modernization, social transformation, and development. It delves into topics like family life, separation and divorce, poverty, agrarian reform, ecological degradation, labor relations, ethnic relation, crime, and other issues prevailing in society. Linkages among nations have increased through communication technology and trade. Thus, Sociology currently stresses a global perspective to provide a meaningful basis of comparison among nations. Sociologist seeks cross-national comparison so that general theories about them may be formulated (Stark 1998:12-13). The Sociological Imagination C. Wright Mills (1956:12) coined the phrase. He describes it as a quality of mind, a capacity to understand the interplay of individual and society, biography and history, of the self and the world. This is the 4

ability to see the relation between our personal life and the social world we live in. It enables us to see things beyond our established ways of acting and behaving, and gain a better grasp of the situation by relating oneself to a bigger society. It is a set of mind that enables us to locate ourselves in the period in which we live and study the events in our personal lives against events in society, thus gaining a wider freedom. The various factors of our life-family, gender, social class, economy, politics, religion, and culture-are shaped by social forces and the larger social patterns in society. For example, if one gets laid off from work, one has to go beyond his or her personal self and view the problem in the context of the employment problem in the whole of society. By relating biography and history, one is able to place one`s experiences and attitudes in the context of the wider society. According to Mills, the promise of sociology is that, with the problems and confusions of modern life, it can help us understand what is happening to us and why such social phenomena occur. On the whole, sociology contributes to the development of a liberal-minded individual imbued with a sense of identity and appreciative of his or her cultural heritage. What is Science? Science is the systematized and detailed explanation of any phenomenon. The body of knowledge about this phenomenon is obtained through observation or experimentation. It entails the classification and analysis of data and making explanations or conclusions. Science is made up assumptions, concepts, and rigorous methods and answers (March 1996:C). It aims to organize findings about the natural or social world that are verifiable. 5

All fields of science are concerned with the discovery and developments of propositions, general truths, and laws primarily through observation and experimentation. Science may be categorized into two broad areas: the natural sciences and the social sciences. The natural sciences deal with objects and processes in nature and provide information on the nonhuman and physical aspects in the natural world. They include the biological sciences such as biology, botany, zoology, and bacteriology which study both human and nonhuman living organisms; and physical sciences such as astronomy, geology, chemistry, and physics which examine the non-living physical characteristics of the world. The social sciences deal with people, their behavior, and social systems. Human behaviour includes a person’s dreams, hopes, ambitions, activities, and problems which involve other people. An important difference between the natural sciences and the social sciences is that the subjects of study in the natural sciences do not talk back to the researcher. There is no human consciousness. The subjects of study in the social sciences can and do talk back, and it is possible to discern and change their behaviour. In the natural sciences, one can make accurate predictions, particularly when explaining largescale phenomena. In the social sciences, such accurate predictions are difficult to make (Applebaum and Chambliss 1995:12-13). The Relationship of Sociology to the Social Sciences The social sciences share common subject matters: social relationships, social systems, and societies. Nevertheless, there are differences in the aspects of the human being studied, in their emphasis, tools, and mode of analysis. The other social sciences are: 6

Anthropology is the study of humanity and the similarities and diversity of cultures. It includes the study of the biological, social, and cultural development of humankind. Biological or physical anthropologists study a wide range of cultures, from primitive to modern, through the examinations of artifacts and the genetic changes of human and nonhuman aspects of life. Cultural and social anthropologists study tribes, subcultures, or society as a whole, while immersing in the community that they are studying. Psychology is mainly interested in a wide range of mental, psychological, and behavioural process such as learning, human and personality development, perception, emotion, cognition, motivation, creativity, personality disorders, and mental illness. Its focus is on individual behaviour. Social psychology is a new field that integrates sociology and psychology, with interactions among individuals and groups it focus. Economics is the concerned with human activities related to the production, consumption, and distribution of goods, services, and wealth within societies, as well as commercial exchange. It uses mathematical methods to predict changes in economic indicators. Statistics on gross national products, per capita income, savings and credit, investments, trade, balance or imbalance, capital formation, and economic cycles belong to the realm of economics, but these figures are reflections of individual and group behaviour as they affect population movements. A great deal of human behavior is economically motivated. Sociologists are interested in the interrelation between the economic and noneconomic aspects of social life. Political Science is concerned with the history and theory of government. It examines political processes and power struggle, noting 7

patterns as these changes from previous elections and the nature of voters and political parties. Political scientists and sociologists are interested in the social interactions that take place within the political institution and between the political institution and other social institutions. Of interest to sociologists are the social backgrounds of political activists, the distribution of power, the sources of political beliefs of the electorate, and the role of women and ethnic minorities in political events. History is primarily interested in the study of past events of human beings. It documents the chronology of significant past events and the facts surrounding them. History studies as well important person, social institutions, or ideas that may have influenced the outcome of events in explaining the past. In searching for the underlying forces that influences human behaviour, history uses the sociological approach. The natural and social science is further divided into the ‘pure’ and ‘applied’ sciences. Pure science is concerned with the pursuit of knowledge and truth without considering its practical use. Applied science focuses on the search for solutions to practical problems. The knowledge derived from sociological research is used as a tool to analyse a particular problem and provide a practical outcome. Pure social sciences are represented by economics, political science, anthropology, psychology, and sociology; while examples of applied sciences are work, public administration, management, education, and ethics. Pure and applied science social sciences are interrelated, although they differ markedly from each other. Pure science can provide verifiable facts and general principles which the applied sciences can utilize for program planning. Applied science can provide 8

pure science new observations and new data, so that new theories may be formulated and old ones redefined. Cynthia Bautista (1985) narrated the experience of a group of Philippine sociologists who, in the 1970s, attempted to utilize particular principles of the pure of basic disciplines to social problems within specific historical and social frameworks and realized that, “sociological theories in the paradigmatic form can hardly provide the theoretical systems or concepts needed by people grappling with concrete and changing realities, and that the implicit assumption that an applied science is one which applies the principles of the pure or basic disciplines to practical concerns is a myth.” The Development of Sociology in Europe Sociology, as a science, gradually developed in Western Europe as a response to the vast social, cultural, economic, and political changes. A number of scholars were interested in developing a scientific understanding of social life. In the 18th and 19th centuries, social changes swept Europe as a result of the Industrial revolution. In France, social upheavals like the French revolution occurred, resulting in numerous social problems. Attempts to understand the social forces, their causes and solutions, were initiated by using scientific approaches. Most significant of the forerunners of Sociology are Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber. Auguste Comte Auguste Comte (1798-1857), a French philosopher, believed in applying scientific method to the study of society and social relations. 9

He coined the term ‘sociology,’ which is derived from the Latin “socius” which means social or being with others, and the Greek logos meaning study or science. As a result, he is credited for being the Father of Sociology (Timasheff 1967:17-29). Comte published the book Positive Philosophy, in which he summarized the stages of development of all knowledge about humanity. He advocated the use of positivism or the empirical method for studying and understanding society. His theory was that societies contain social statistics, the study of the structure of society and the forces for social order and stability, and social dynamics which refers to the forces of conflict and change (Kendal 2000:9) The progressive development of science was analysed in his law of the three stages of humanity: theological or fictitious, metaphysical or abstract, and scientific of positive. Each mental stage has an accompanying type of social organization and political dominance. The supernatural is the basis for explaining and understanding everything in the theological stage. The model or standard social unit for conformity has always been the family, but political dominance was invariably lodged in the priests or the military leaders during this earliest stage. In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, the state superseded the family, and the church and lawyers became politically dominant. In the third and highest stage, the whole of humanity becomes the operative social unit. Political dominance is taken over by industrial administrators and scientific moral guides. Comte believed that social physics or positivism would be the key to humanity’s on-going program. Positivism involves the study of a phenomenon by rigid observation and experiments as used in the natural science. Through this method, laws on social behaviour could be formulated.

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Comte himself did little social research; his significant contribution consists primarily of his having aroused and inspired other scholars to make further pursuits in sociology. He believed that sociology was the means by which a more rational and just society could be achieved. Karl Marx Karl Marx (1818-1883), a German economist and philosopher, was one of the influential thinkers of the nineteenth century whose ideas persist up to the present time. Together with Friedrich Engels, a lifelong friend, he wrote the Communist Manifesto in 1847. The common feature in all Marx’s and Engel’s works was an intense anger over the misery of the lower classes caused by the existing industrial order. Marx believed that history is a continuous struggle between conflicting ideas and forces, and that the most important change was economic. He recognized the existence of several social classes in the 19th century industrial society: laborers, factory workers, proprietors of small businesses, and moneyed capitalists. He predicted that there would be a constant struggle between the capitalist class and the working class. The laborers or working class representing the forces of production would be the ruled subordinates, while the bourgeoisie exploit the laborers and enjoy the economic surplus (Jesser 1975:103-110). Marx contended that all the aspects of society – work, religion, government, law, morality – are economically conditioned and controlled by the capitalists (Sullivan 1995:88). According to Marx, political revolutions are significant in the evolution of society and is the only means to attain the improvement of social conditions; all history were branded with economic determinism – meaning, social conditions and society itself were based on economic factors and economic inequality is the result of class struggles between the bourgeoisie (the 11

owner’s rulers) and the proletariat (the industrial workers) conflict, revolution, and the overthrow of capitalism are inevitable. So far, the prediction of Marx has not come true. In capitalist societies, a number of social classes continue to flourish. According to Smelser, what Marx did not realize is the capacity of capitalism to regulate itself and for the government to regulate competition in order to avoid exploitation (Smelser 1995:423). Emile Durkheim Emile Durkheim (1858-1977) was the first French Academic Sociologist conferred by the University of Paris a Doctor’s degree in sociology in 1892 and, 6 years later, the first to hold a chair in sociology. He taught and became a prolific writer and critic. Among his best books are The Division of Labor in Society, The Rules of Sociological Method, Suicide, and Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Durkheim does not believe that social events operate under the same rules as biology or psychology. He defined social phenomena as social facts that have distinctive social characteristics and determinants; social facts being, “every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual and external constraint,” such as customs, laws, and the general rule behaviour which people accept without question the general rule of behaviour which people accept without question (Timasheff 1967:110-111). Hence individuals are more the products rather than the creators of society. The idea that societies are based on social facts is the significant contribution of Durkheim to sociology. In the Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim pointed out that rapid social change and specialized division of labor produce strains in society. These strains result in the breakdown of the traditional social 12

organization, values, and authority, which eventually lead to a condition of normlessness and loss of social control called anomie. He advanced social theory and contributed fresh insights into social methodology with his classical study on the incidence of suicide as it varied from one population to another, and as it was influenced by certain social forces. In his book Suicide, he showed the relationship between the individual and the society when the values of life become precarious, he pointed out that while suicide is a solidary act. It can be understood only by analysing society. Max Weber Max Weber (1864-1920) was a German economist. He studied law and economics at The University of Heidelberg, where he obtained the best known of which are The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism, Theory of Social and Economic Organization, and Methodology of the Social Sciences. Like Karl Marx, he also foresaw the development of several social classes in society and examined the consequences of the people’s relationship to economic institutions. Weber believed that power and prestige are the major causes of inequality. Weber’s works dwelt on the significance of subjective meaning people give to their interactions with others. Aside from studying social facts and social structures, he encouraged the study of social actions, the external objective behavior, the internalized values, motives, and subjective meanings that individuals give to their own behavior and subjective meanings that individuals give to their own behavior and perceptions of the behavior of others. He believed that qualitative, subjective method as well as objective methods should be used in 13

studying social actions. A “sympathetic understanding, verstehen, of the mind of others.” Weber said, was understanding human action by examining the subjective meaning that people attach to their own behavior and the behavior of others. He contended that these could be treated objectively and scientifically. In studying social class, Weber believed in the significance of the subjective perceptions of power, wealth, ownership, and social prestige, as well as the objective aspects of these factors. Other pioneers in sociology in Europe are George Simmel, Ferdinand Toennies, Wilfredo Pareto, and Karl Mannheim. Development of Sociology in the United States From Western Europe, Sociology spread to the United States (US). The first department of sociology in the US was established at the University of Chicago. Eventually, the American Sociological Society (now American Sociological Association) was founded. The Chicago School of Sociology produced scholars, such as Robert E. Park, who pioneered in the multidisciplinary approach and social ecology. One of the earliest, popular female social thinkers was Jane Adams who made studies in the impoverished areas of Chicago. Charles Horton Cooley, George Herbert Mead, and W.I. Thomas formulated theories emphasizing the importance of social interaction in the development of human thought and action, later known as symbolic interaction perspective. William G. Summer collected volumes of data on the customs and moral laws of different societies. He argued that the state ways cannot change ‘folkways’ overnight, that social change comes only in its own 14

good times, and that morality cannot be legislated. These ideas are incorporated in his book Folkways (1960). The rapid growth of sociology in the US accelerated the shift from social philosophy to social science land, later, to the separation of sociology as a discipline of the social sciences. After the two world wars and ensuing conflicts in different parts of the world, sociology became a regular course offering in colleges and universities. Sociologists have become involved in various social research studies and are being employed by government, industrial, social, civic, and religious agencies all over the world. Their work with decisions-makers and policy implementors led to the development of instruments to measure and asses the direction, extent, and intensity of vocational or occupational aptitudes, personality profiles, consumption habits or trends, public opinion polls, and development programs. The 1930’s ushered in the field service-related national public policy, with theoretical focus on micro systems and methods of large-scale quantification. In he 1940s, more sociological research were conducted in Harvard and Columbia. Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), founder of action that analyzed social phenomena ranging from individual behavior to the larger structure of society. Talcott Parsons was a follower of Durkheim, who advocated that sociology, should be concerned with large-scale phenomena like society. He talked of the evolution of human society and the emergence of large-scale, societal institutions. Societies, he said, possess four features of great importance, namely: religion, communication, social organization through kinship, and technology. Other essential features in society are social stratification, money and markets, norms, and democratic association (Bainbridge 1967:6) 15

Robert K. Merton, known for the middle-range theory, was more concerned with linking general theory to empirical testing developing concepts of social structure – functions, self-fulfilling prophecies, deviance, and bureaucracies. From these significant works in sociology, major theoretical perspective have been developed to serve as guidelines with which to test human behavior and hypothesis. The Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology The various significant works on sociology in Europe and the United States produced diverse theoretical perspectives which have served as guidelines to analyse and test theories about human behaviour and society. Macro- or micro- analysis is utilized to examine society. Macroanalysis looks at the broad, large picture such as social institutions and social organizations. When viewing social problems, it first looks at this level and then how it affects individuals. Micro-level analysis is centered on small groups of individuals interacting with one another. Three major theoretical perspectives that have emerged in society are: the structural-functional perspective, the conflict perspective which uses macro level analysis, and the symbolic interaction perspective which uses the micro-level analysis. Structural-Functionalism Perspective Durkheim, Weber, Cooley, Thomas, and Pareto were the early advocates of structural functionalism, although parsons and Merton are credited with further expounding on the theory. Other proponents are A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, Marion Levy, and Robert Bales. Structural 16

functionalism has also been referred to as the social system theory, equilibrium theory, or functionalism. Society can be likened to a biological structure like the human body which is composed of various organs, each with a unique functions but interdependent with one another. In the same way, a social system has several parts like families, neighborhoods, schools, banks, etc. functionalism explains society in terms of structure and functions. Social structure refers to the interdependent networks of statuses and roles. Within a structure are statuses which are ascribed by birth (sex, age, race) or achieved (school, degree, corporate or social positions, professions) – interrelated sets of which are social systems, i.e., parents and children make up a family system. Associated with each status is a set of expectations that compromises a general idea of appropriate behaviour. The expectation of a behavior and the actual performance in a certain position however may not always be congruent. Role performance and behaviour are learned through the socialization process. Parsons (1955) emphasize that for societies to survive, they must be able to provide for the social needs of its members. It is also important that various institutions in the society like the family, church, government, economy, education, etc. must work together to preserve the system over time. Merton (1956) identified the functions of a social system as what the system does and the outcomes that arise from a certain type of structure. A social system can have both manifest (intended or recognized) and latent (unintended or unrecognizable) functions. Parents have the manifest function of procreation and the latent function of ensuring that their children acquire occupational skills. The 17

function of fiestas is to commemorate an occasion, like the feats day of a saint or thanksgiving to the Lord for a bountiful harvest; its latent function is to provide an opportunity for members of a family to reunite. Merton claimed that not all functions of a social system ensure its equilibrium. Some may lead to an imbalance or disintegration of the system. Theses he termed “dysfunctions,” such as spouse beating, unfaithfulness, and child abuse. Functionalism maintains that social structures exist in society in order to carry out certain functions. Proponents of this theory focus on order and stability, to the neglect of the process if change. Conflict Perspective Marx’s and Weber’s works initiated the conflict theory. This is shared by recent scholars, C. Wright Mills, Lewis, Coser and Ralph Dahrendorf, who proposed that society can best be studied through conflict and power struggle. Marx maintained that history was a series of class struggles between the owners or production and the workers, the dominant and the dominated, the powerful and the powerless; and that the structure of society is determined by economic organization and ownership of property, in which personal beliefs, cultural value, religious dogmas, institutional organization, and class hierarchy are reflected. Inequalities in the exploited classes realize their inferior status and rebel against the dominant property owners and employers. For Weber, the economic dimension is a source of inequalities that eventually leads to conflict. He viewed the industrial revolution as the result of technological advancements – new methods of mining, textile weaving, traveling, and communication. With this, the rural areas 18

became urbanized and new social classes arose. The capitalist class who hold the economic power can decide where, when, and how work will be done; while workers have limited choices. These became new sources of conflict. To Ralph Dahrendorf (1950), conflict applies to all of social life, not just economic class conflict resulting from the nature of authority. The key to conflict is not the economic relations, but the relations between the superior or the boss and the subordinates over whom the boss tries to impose authority (Smelser 1995:184). To other conflict perspectives are the Neo-Marxist approach which holds that the struggle between social classes is inevitable and is the primary source of change. Another view focuses on the racial ethnic inequalities. There is also the feminist view which says that gender is an element of social conflict, and thus change is necessary for people to achieve their human potential. Functionalists present a contrasting view. They maintain that society is balanced, consensual, and integrated, and that social processes continually maintain harmony. On the other hand, conflict theorists view society as being in a state of competition, conflict, constraint, and change; that society is continually in a struggle for improvement, neglecting its less conflictive and more integrative facets. Symbolic Interaction Perspective The structural-functional and conflict theories deal with larger units of society, the macro sociological such as organizations institutions, social stratification, communities, and nations. George Herbert Mead, W.I. Thomas, Herbert Blumer, and Charles Horton Cooley of the Chicago School dealt more on the micro-sociological orientation, the symbolic 19

interaction theory involving individuals in society, their definitions or perceptions of situations, meanings, roles, and interaction patterns. How society affects individuals and vice-versa is the core of this theory. Durkheim and Marx assumed that society was an entity existing apart from the individual, while those who advocated the symbolic interaction theory as: society is reflected in every socialized individual, and its external forms and structures are likewise reflected through the social interactions occurring among individuals at the symbolic level. Language consists of symbols representing physical objects and abstract ideas and is used for communication. The symbolic interaction perspective focuses on the communicative aspect or language that enables the individual to develop a personal identity within a society with members having scripted statuses and roles. An individual human being born in society is provided with food and other material necessities as well as formal and informal education. Human behaviour is influenced by the definitions and meanings people develop and maintain through the medium of language. W.I. Thomas’s significant contribution to symbolic interactionism is the concept of “the definition of the situation.” A person’s definition of the situation refers to the act or behaviour being examined and deliberated. This definition has behavioural consequences because, if a person defines a situation as real, it becomes real in its consequences. One has to pay attention to the subjective meanings in order to understand human activity (Wallace 1999:94) George Herbert Mead, a significant contributor to the development of symbolic interactionism, theorized that humans are set apart from animals because of their ability to use language and to create and acquire social institutions, societies, and cultures. Socialization occurs 20

at both symbolic and non-symbolic levels. Social interaction enables individuals to acquire the beliefs, values, and language of the society to which they belong. The key concept in Mead’s theory is the social self. It refers to viewing oneself or the conception of oneself in relation to other individuals’ selves. The development of the self depends on the individual’s ability to interpret the behaviour of others in the community and which behaviour is appropriate to particular situations. This requires the organization of the individual’s whole self in relation to the social groups and the community where he or she belongs. The unity of self to the individual is called ‘generalized others.’ Through the attitude of the generalized others, individuals are able to see themselves as others do and to understand the attitude of others toward the various aspects of social life (Marsh 1996:93). The idea of the self depends in the individual’s ability to take the role of the others in the community. Cooley’s contribution to symbolic interactionism is the concept of the ‘looking glass’ self, which is a set of ideas an individual has about him/herself derived from the social interaction of the judgement of other people towards us. This is discussed further in Chapter 5. Diverse theoretical perspectives characterize sociology as theories of social behaviour and society formulated. In the decades between the two world wars of the 20th century, German scholars and other sociologists shared Marx’s vision that people should be able to change the circumstances of their society to build a better one. A wave of intellectual activity shifted the unit of analysis of the nation state to a world system of society. In the 1960s and 1970s, there emerged feminist theorists who pointed out how inequalities in the 21

distribution of resources by gender are not only a form of exploitation but also a source of conflict and tension in societies. A broad intellectual movement, known as post-modernism, also arose. It argues that there are no objective truths but only texts about reality; it rejected Comte’s faith that a science of society would be possible. Sociological theories are now highly differentiated and have little coherence. Attempts to converge the diverse theoretical perspectives have failed on account of the complexity of the study of the people and their behaviour. This diversity of perspectives sometimes results in overlapping ideas. However, the various theories still emphasize human behaviour as a product of the social milieu (Marsh 1996:41) Development of Sociology in the Philippines Sociology was introduced in the Philippines during the latter part of the Spanish regime. Fr. Valentin Marin introduced a course on criminology at the University of Santo Tomas, using a social philosophical approach. When Americans took over the reign of the government from the Spanish colonizers, they fused anthropology and sociology using western models to guide the colonial administrators and settlers. This is attributed to two significant conditions: the persistence of traditionalism and the lack of a strong belief that science can be a strong force in studying and rendering social realities (Abad and Eviota 1982:131132). The first stage was characterized by the inclusion of sociology in college and university courses and the teaching of social philosophy. 22

This approach was used until the 1950s when sociology was taught from the normative point of ‘what ought to be,’ with the little emphasis on the scientific nature of sociology. This was followed by similar courses under the initiative of American educators A.W. Salt and Murray Bartlett at the University of the Philippines in Manila and Clyde Heflin at Silliman University in Dumaguete. Filipino social scientists Conrado Benitez and Luis Rivera also taught sociology courses, using materials that were western in orientation. The view of sociology as a problem oriented discipline was introduced by Serafin N. Macaraig, the first Filipino to acquire a doctorate degree in sociology and to write a sociology textbook, An Introduction to Sociology, in 1938. He attempted to introduce the scientific view but with little success. Although sociology was taught in colleges and universities outside Manila, the course’s contents and teacher’s orientation were substandard in terms of sociological theory and method (Abad and Eviota 1982:132). Sociology made very little dent on the academic communities. Some social research studies were made by western social scientists on Philippine ethnic groups, when sociology and anthropology were merged into a department headed by H. Otley Beyer. Although sociology gained more academic recognition in the 1940s, very little systematic social research was conducted in the field. In the 1950s, a scientific orientation started to seep slowly into sociology with the increased number of educational exchange program grantees, the establishment of social science research centers and councils, the growing frequency of conferences, and the publication of professional journals. A number of Filipinos enjoyed foreign scholarships in the United States, with a number of them training at the University of Chicago and Cornell University. The returning scholars 23

ushered into the country a number of theoretical perspectives, like the functional theory of Durkheim, Parsons, and Lundberg, the neopositivism of George Lundberg, the social psychological theories of Cooley and Mead, and Weber’s value free sociology. There was also an impetus to social research. Public and private agencies became increasingly aware of the significance of social facts in the decision-making process. Data collected by pioneer Filipino sociologist Benicio Catapusan on rural Philippines for the government became benchmark of the distribution of economic aid to the different regions. In 1952, Filipino educators and visiting professor from the University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University, and Silliman University organized the Philippines Sociological Society (PSS). The objective of the organization was to increase knowledge about social behaviour, to gather data about social problems, to train social science teachers and researchers, and to develop cooperation between Philippine social scientists and those from other countries. Dr. Chester Hunt, a visiting professor from the US, played an important role in organizing the PSS. The society soon published its quarterly journal, the Philippines Sociological Review. Although membership in the PSS has not grown considerably through the years, it has organized meetings, conferences, conventions, seminars, and roving lectures yearly. These activities focus on empirical research on vital issues and current sociological development within the Philippine setting. In 1957, the Community Development Research council (CDRC) was created to conduct or support social science researches. Among the several sociologists who availed of its research grant was Mary Hollnsteiner whose work, The Dynamics of Power in a Philippine Municipality, became a benchmark for studies on value and power 24

structure. Other research grantees were Prospero Covar, Agaton Pal, Fr. Francis Madigan, S.J., and Felicidad Cordero. In 1960, the Institution of Philippine Culture (IPC) was founded at the Ateneo de Manila University by Fr. Frank Lynch, S.J. who was its moving spirit. IPC spearheaded researches on economic development, modernization, and problems of education with the aim of understanding the Filipino way of life using the interdisciplinary approach. The researches were printed as IPC papers. In 1968, The Philippine Social Science Council (PSSC) was formed to improve the quality and relevance of social sciences. Hence the different social sciences, through their respective organizations, set as their goal the improvement of their performance through communication and collaboration (PSSC Social Information, May1973:3). PSS represents sociology in the Council. The PSSC Research Committee also drafted a set of guidelines regarding the rights and responsibilities of social scientists in the “New Society” (the term used by President F. Marcos when he declared Martial Law). It stated that Filipino social scientists had made significant contributions to society and urged them to continue their tasks under the new social order. The PSSC has awarded research grants, subsidized researches and publications, ran research training programs for both basic and advanced level trainees, and conducted seminars, conferences, and conventions for the various social sciences. It has put up research networks in various parts of the country. Regional research consortia setups are the Visayas Research Consortium (VRC), with its center at the University of San Carlos, Iloilo; the Eastern Mindanao Research 25

Center (EMARC), with its center at Ateneo de Davao University; the Bicol Research Center; and one center in Cagayan Region. The scope of Philippines sociology expanded with the increasing industrialization, urbanization, and modernization and their corresponding social problems. Researches, therefore, focused on rural and urban communities, poverty, agrarian reform, and population. The resulting studies were essential aids to leaders and decisionmakers who needed scientific knowledge as basis for policy-making and program implementation. At present, the importance of sociology in Philippine society cannot be denied. Gelia T. Castillo, a rural sociologist, says that “sociology’s greatest challenge lies in the creative translation of practical problems into researchable ones which will yield answers or solutions to practical questions which have been asked by developers” (Castillo 1974:4) The first school to offer major in sociology was the U.P., while the first school to offer Ph.D. program in sociology program was Xavier University in 1972, followed by the U.P. A number of schools offer sociology as major in the undergraduate level, while most colleges and universities offer basic courses in sociology. Since the 1960s, empirical researches have been undertaken by the sociologists from different colleges and universities throughout the country. De La Salle University established a social science research center. Incentives for research came from the Rockefeller and the Ford Foundations, National Economic Council, U.S Agency for International Development, and UNESCO. Grants from Europe, Canada, and Japan also poured in. Some sociologists have left the academe to test their models in the field. (Bulatao 1979:90). 26

One trend evident in the social science is the indigenization of concepts, methods, and theories. Attempts to re-examine the use of western concepts and models have been made as early as the 1960s. Gloria D. Feliciano, former chairperson of the U.P. Department of Mass Communication (1965), pointed out the need to develop methods and techniques suited to the local conditions. Efforts in indigenization process are most evident in the local graduate training program. The appropriateness of western-derived methods and theories continues to be a topic of contention. In the 1970s and 1980s, some social scientists started to question and challenge the ideological assumptions of earlier researches. This was influenced by Marxist ideas which diminished the functionalist and positivist paradigms in sociology. Sociologists as well as political scientists researched on the organization and impact of transnational corporations, the operation of joint venture companies, and the political economy of agriculture (Bautista 1998;68-69). Randolf David (1980), a prominent Filipino sociologists, succinctly depicts in his paper Philippine Underdevelopment and Dependency Theory (Philippine Sociological Review 28 (1-4): (81-87), the social realities that Filipino sociologists grapple with. In the Philippines, as perhaps in the rest of third World countries, he says we can see the growing unstoppable domination of the national economy by transnational corporations, the impossibility of repaying national indebtedness, the increasing pauperism of the rural masses, the total degradation of the marginalized urban workers, the intensification of political coercion as the economy increasingly fails to provide for the needs of poor majority, the intensifying participation of the military in national life, and more aggressive intervention by the United States and Japan in national affairs result of the greater need to secure and protect 27

their investments from possible expropriation under another regime. He urged the utilization of university time to deepen understanding of how Philippine society works and articulating this critical knowledge in every conceivable forum. The First Social Congress was held on November 17-19, 1983 with the theme, ‘towards Excellence in the Social Sciences in the Philippines.’ This was important event for the social sciences, including sociologists. Subsequent social science congresses have been held to assess the role of the social sciences in the life of the country. Another issue raised by social scientists is how to close the gap between the research they produce and utilization of these by policy makers and program managers. In her analysis, Cynthia Bautista (1989) bewails the under-utilization, if not the non-utilization, of social science research, which she attributes to the poor linkage between the research and the people at the grassroots, popular organizations, and government agencies. Another reason is the academic framework. Linking people and real problems entails expense. Bautista (1989) says: “It forces social scientists who are used to the safe haven of the university, to wrestle with issues of objectivity and commitment. The moral dilemma of value-free social science partly explains why social scientists stick to the usual theories and methods, even at the price of being irrelevant.” Furthermore, the symbolic interactionism and phenomenological ideas also became popular and eroded the prevailing framework (Bautista 1998:70). There were shifts in the methodological frameworks of the positivist position which advocated rigid observation, a theoretical framework, and objectivity, and that of the interpretative explanatory 28

phenomenological, anthropological, position, and the Marxist position. Methods of participatory research were developed; these aimed to raise people’s consciousness and organize some kind of social action to solve their problems. The University of the Philippines Center for Women Studies, with Dr. Sylvia Guerrero as Director, took the lead in producing and field-testing manuals, sourcebook, and multimedia packages to meet the needs of policy makers, planners, researchers and other practitioners and professionals on health, population, and gender (Guerrero 1999:1). According to Guerrero (1999), the 1990s saw the increasing convergence of social science theories and methodologies, and the collaboration of various sectors – academe, government, NGOs, people organizations, and women’s group. The social science organizations belonging to the PSSC continued its thrust in social transformation. In line with this, the Philippine Sociology Society organized a convention in 1991 with ‘Sociology of Development’ as its theme. Fr. Renato A. Ocampo, S.J., PSS president reiterated “the role of sociologists as developing its research capabilities at the service of information, effective delivery systems, and monitoring and evaluation of private and government agencies.” In this same convention, Dr. Ledevina V. Cariño, two-term PSS president, called on sociologists to formulate an indigenous Filipino theory in specific issue areas and the integration of specific areas, e.g., literature, fieldwork, etc., as suggested by Dr. Sylvia Guerrero. Filipino sociologists are optimistic that the indigenization and the formulation of a Filipino sociological theory will be accomplished soon. The Question of a Value-Free Sociology A critical issue that has long confronted sociologists is the question of a value-free sociology. The basic question pertains to the main role of 29

sociologists in society. Should sociologists stick to the goals of their science or should they actively get involved in social reform? The issue of value-free sociology still rages. The positivist stance is that only the use of the scientific method can provide the truth in its research, so sociologists must be neutral, objective, or value-free in their outlook and not take sides or make personal judgements. They maintain that the main focus of sociologists is to take a firm and conscious position of neutrality. Their foremost task is to discover and organize knowledge about human behaviour. Moral, political, and other significant convictions have to be set aside. What is essential in the evaluation of any scientific work is not so much the perspective but the degree to which the work has been carried out with clear definitions and a systematic collection of the material, so that an attempt can be made to assess the reliability and validity of the observation. Science requires the sociologist to be objective, to avoid bias when interpreting data and investigation findings. To abandon this position of ‘ethical neutrality’ is to relinquish the position of sociology as the ‘queen of the social sciences’ and the ‘science of the sciences.’ The activist sociologist challenges this position and argues that it is impossible to be ‘value-free’ in contemporary society. To be value-free is to support the status quo. This radical view of sociology states that, sociologists’’ technical knowledge puts them at a certain advantage in proposing and advocating reforms. They should, therefore, take the initiative and active leadership in espousing the improvements of conditions for humankind and the creation of a good society. Since sociologists have allowed their talents, knowledge, and expertise to be availed of in business and 30

industry, they should now take an active role in fighting for the cause of the underdog, the downtrodden, the poor, the minorities, and the disadvantaged. These sociologists rally their colleagues in the struggle against social injustice, inequality, and any sort of abuse. To them, the sociologists’ main role is to be an innovator in solving social problems. Sociological research cannot be value-free. It is difficult for one to objectively study both sides; a study must inevitably lead to bias. C. Wright Mills (1970) as mentioned by Marsh (1996:113) pointed out that social scientists cannot avoid choices of values in their research. Political and moral concerns are central to sociology, hence, it is impossible to achieve value freedom. In recent years, sociologists have become less hesitant to voice out their findings, thus helping shape public policy. According to De fleur, D’ Antonio, and De Fleur (1974:389), activism based on the sociological knowledge has become increasingly acceptable as the stature of their discipline has become more secure. Most sociologists are now willing to make their vows known on public issues, whether or not they wish to become actively involved in seeking social reform. Kendall (2000:3-4) adds that all sociologists still strive to discover patterns of behavior or commonalities in human behaviour. Sociologists seek out the multiple causes and effects of such behavior on all people. The Future of Sociology What are the trends and prospects of sociology in the 21st century? How relevant is sociology in a world of increasing globalization and rapid social and technological changes? In the world today, particularly in the United States, sociological perspective still remain diverse. Yet, despite all the niches today, the core ideas from sociology’s first one 31

hundred years of theorizing can still be found. Some sociologists feel that sociology will always hold out the promise of sociology, perhaps, never to fully realize that theoretical attention to social problems can help solve them. Whether sociology can once again become important and relevant depends on the degree to which sociologists of the 21st century begin to build anew on the theoretical foundations provided by the first theorists (Turner, Bieghley, and Power 1998:401-403). Sociologists support the idea of a global sociology, going beyond the studies focused on one’s country and developing a more comprehensive global approach. Robert Af-Klineberg (1998:29-37) wrote of his field experiences from all over the world for over three decades, using his sociological know-how and methodology in tackling issues in rural development and the mitigating of natural and humanmade disasters. His observations bolstered his conviction that sociology is a useful tool for studying problems brought about by social change. He assert that because sociology is pragmatic and practical, the need for it remains and is in the solution of social problems and in helping people understand each other and themselves. In the Philippines, sociology has moved toward a multi-disciplinary and pluralistic approach in the 1990s. it is open to new methodological and theoretical approaches and has been involved in diverse issues, including the economic, political, and social-psychological phenomena. Its loose boundaries, increasing pluralism, and lack of a distinctive substantive sociological focus in the discipline has led to speculations on the demise of sociology in the 21st century, but this has been quickly reputed by practitioners in the field. David (1998:76-84) talks of our post-modern world where the forces of globalization and information technology have encumbered one’s 32

behavior thinking due to the forces of speed. The usefulness of sociology for any kind of meaningful social planning has been placed in doubt. In such a situation, the conventional modernist paradigm may not work. But, there is still hope for sociology of any kind of rethinking is made base on transformative politics and social philosophy. Bautista (1998) holds a similarly optimistic view on the future of sociology. She affirms that sociologists, with their habits of analytical and critical thinking coupled with the ‘sociological imagination,’ will flourish in the 21st century. Sociologists especially the younger ones, will continue to explore new perspectives and methods and make use of their sociological imagination.’ Bautista (1998) adds: Given the way sociology has developed vis-à-vis other social science disciplines in the last four decades, sociologists will be at the forefront of research on critical issues in a rapidly globalizing environment. They will pursue studies in areas ranging from ergonomics, health, the environment, women, deviance, and literature. They will never be engaged in rethinking social arrangements and institutions in a new age, in exploring cultural issues including questions of local or natural heritage and roots, and in critiquing theoretical discourses and implicit framework. They will be exposing the new generations to debates on identity, memory, and the invention of self in a world where familiar conventions will no longer hold and the routines of daily living will have changed dramatically (Philippine Sociological Review 46 [Jan.-June. 1998] Nos. 1-2. pp72). Summary Sociology is the outcome of people’s search for a valid, reliable, and precise knowledge about people and society. It developed from the 33

attempts of social thinkers to build up a science of society by developing sociological theories and methods of data gathering. It is the science of society and the social interactions taking place. As a science of society, it studies behavior, social issues, and problems arising from social change. With the leaps in science and technology, particularly in communications, countries have been drawn closer together. Thus sociology stresses a global-perspective. The study of sociology broadens our experiences, and we learn to discard our prejudices and develop a broad attitude toward people and events. We acquire the ‘sociological imagination’ which enables us to understand the relationship between individual and society and to see things beyond our established norms. Auguste Comte, a French social philosopher, gave the name sociology and advocated the use of positivism or the scientific method in the study of social phenomena. Karl Marx, a German economist, analysed that history is a continuing struggle between conflicting ideas and forces and of social classes. He believed that the bourgeoisie and the elite exploit the proletariat or the laborers, and that the basic cause of the conflict is economic. Emile Durkheim, another French thinker, made use of the scientific method in studying phenomena such as suicide, religion, and division of labor. A number of theories have been formulated in the study of society. Among them are structural-functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism. In the 1960s and 1970s, feminist theorists pointed to gender inequalities in resource access and management. Attempts to unify these diverse theoretical perspectives were made, but failed.

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As we stand in the 21st century, sociology is still relevant in a world of increasing globalization, despite diverse theoretical perspectives. In the Philippines, sociology has been open to new methodological and theoretical approaches and involved in multidisciplinary researches. The idea of indigenous concepts and theories is being promoted. Study Guide 1. What is sociology? What is social phenomena and social issues does the sociologists focus attention on? 2. Why study sociology? 3. Explain Mill’s “sociological imagination.” 4. How is sociology related to other social sciences in contributing to an understanding of ourselves and the society we live in? 5. Discuss the various sociological perspectives in the study of social phenomena and society. 6. Trace the development of sociology as a science. How did sociology develop in the Philippines? 7. What are the trends and prospects of sociology in 21st century?

Critical Thinking Questions 1. Is it possible to have a value-free sociology? Should sociologists take a stand in the discussion of social issues like poverty, human rights, Balikatan, charter change, and others? 2. Do you favour the formulation of indigenous concepts and theories? Explain your answer. 3. What are the advantages of using the scientific method as a way of acquiring knowledge? 35

Chapter 2 THE LOGIC AND METHOD OF SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY AND RESEARCH In making their study on “Student Organizations and Conflict Gangs” at the University of the Philippines (U.P.) Diliman campus, Prof. Ricardo Zarco and Dr. Donald Shoemaker used two methodological procedures in gathering data. First, they reviewed police records on violence in the university campus during the period January 1, 1991 to December 31, 1994. The information consisted of (1) the names of individuals suspected of involvement in the incident; (2) their social organization membership, if any; (3) the identity of the victim(s) and assailant(s); and (4) a description of the incident. The police supervisor was also interviewed about the police reports. The second methodological procedure involved personal interviews with members of 20 fraternities in the U.P. students conducted the interview under the supervision of Prof. Zarco. The interviews were held in various campus locations, including the fraternity hangout or tambayan. A total of 138 respondents were interviewed about their attitudes regarding social values, educational or academic goals, peer relationships, parental knowledge, previous involvement in fraternity activities, and general perceptions on the image of their fraternity. Prof. Ricardo M. Zarco and Dr. L. Shoemaker, 1995The above are illustrations of methods used by sociologists in the sociological inquiry on any social phenomenon. 36

What is Sociological Inquiry? Sociological inquiry, like any scientific activity, is like playing a game. It has goals to achieve, roles to follow, and strategies to use in order to obtain a high probability of success. It involves participants: the players and the spectators. The players - the scientists, their assistants, and other workers - work as a team to achieve results. The spectators interested or disinterested, appreciative or inappreciative benefited or not - are the recipients of the results. Sociological inquiry is primarily intended to find answers to questions on the observable social world and social actions. Social actions are the ways in which humans interact with each other in social units such as the family, the school, the church, and other social institutions or associations; they are the primary concern of sociological inquiry. This concern goes beyond the study of face-to-face contact; it is also the systemic analysis of the motivation and behavior of individuals within groups, the study of social groups as a whole, and of institutions such as government, the church, professional groups, trade unions, or recreational units. The Goals of Sociological Research The basic goal of sociological research is to understand the observable social world. Its main function is to test or verify a hypothesis. Merton (1968:103) describes social research as initiating, reflecting, and classifying theory. This involves having a scientific and theoretical perspective about the aspect of the social world the sociologist studying. Sociologists follow certain steps as they go along; in the process, they acquire a set of generalizations on the nature of human behavior and society, the patterns of social life, and the forces that lead 37

to social change. The ultimate result is the accumulation of scientific knowledge that describes the realities that surround people (Timasheff and Facey 1956). This body of knowledge stands for scientific truth. Science is based on conclusions which are approximate, provisional, or tentative, and agreed upon by trained and qualified scientists at a given time. It is not absolute. Science is subject to change and refinement in accordance with changing conditions. Being conditional, it is stated in terms of probability, such as “If X exists, then Y will follow.” It is nonmoral or amoral, not immoral. People may use it for moral and immoral purposes. Sociological inquiry is concerned with the repetitive patterns in human behavior, presented according to logically related hypothesis and supported by empirical evidence. To be meaningful, these facts have to be ordered according to a conceptual scheme or theoretical framework. Conducting Sociological Inquiry Sociological inquiry abides by certain fundamental procedures. The steps are follows: 1. Define the research problem and review related literature. Our social world is made up of a broad and complex range of topics which can be researched on. Select a problem that can be investigated. It is necessary for the researcher to limit the scope and breadth of the problem. Sometimes, a specific experience, such as meeting a drug addict, may stir an interest in the problem. The topic may also be selected in order to fill a gap or correct a misconception in an existing research. Above all, researchers have to locate and evaluate what is already known about this prospective area of inquiry. Scour the 38

literature and see what has been written about the subject; look also for unpublished materials. Talk to sociologists or other social scientists to find leads that you can explore and to avoid duplication. It is best to have computerized methods of library research and storing data. 2. Formulate the hypothesis. In social research, one begins with a hunch or a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a proposition or assumption stating what is to be resolved. Facts can prove it to be true or false. Among the sources of hypothesis are common sense, ideas, folk knowledge, personal and social experiences, values, and even theory. The hypothesis refers to specific statements of relationships of two or more observable social phenomena. Circumstances and challenges along the way may induce the researcher to revise his/her procedures. Precision is needed in doing research. Sociology involves many concepts like social group, social interaction, cooperation, conflict, and network. They do not explain anything, but they are the building blocks of theory (Stark 1988:22). Key terms or concepts used must be isolated and defined. A concept is a general term that refers to all cases or a particular class of objects, events, persons, relationships, processes, and ideas. It is a unit of meaning, symbolizing or labelling a particular segment of reality. It helps the researcher to identify and classify regularities of phenomena from a very complex world o0f reality or facts. Every field of study develops concepts which become part of its technical vocabulary or jargon for communicating its findings. The concepts vital to any scientific activity are the operational definitions or empirical referents. These are 39

specifications of an abstract concept in terms of simple, observable procedures. The measuring procedures constitute the full extent of the definition as well as the method of observing the phenomenon. Thus, concepts are tied to readily measurable and communicated phenomena, and, in a sense, one determines what one wishes to define by finding an acceptable way of measuring it empirically (Theodorson and Theodorson 1969:284). Operational definitions are then usually worked out by developing some indices. Examples of indices are: social interaction in terms of gossiping at one’s backyard, social class in terms of attendance at meetings, and democracy in terms of turnout at the polls. 3. Plan the research design. After formulating the hypothesis, the researcher has to select a research design that includes the subject of the study, the method of conducting the research, and the specific techniques for collecting data. The research design is a king of strategy or blueprint for an efficient and effective way of carrying out the research. Methods of social research may be classified as qualitative or quantitative. The quantitative method makes use of statistics and mathematics in studying social behavior. Experiments and social surveys fall under this category. The qualitative method refers to research techniques that are descriptive and enables one to secure a subjective understanding, interpretation, and meaning of social behavior (Curry, Jiobu, and Schwirian 1999:19). The goal is to arrive at a deeper understanding of what people are doing, by interpreting their behavior. Qualitative methods include participant observation, field study, and historical method. 40

During the 1960’s, controversies raged on the merits and drawbacks of the two methods. Proponents of quantitative research called the qualitative researchers “soft sociologists” and considered them “poets” instead of scientists. On the other hand, proponents of qualitative research called the quantitative researchers “number crunchers” and “crass empiricists.” The controversy has cooled down since, and proponents of both sides have come to a common understanding. Most sociologists agree that each method can provide by the other hand (Ibid: 24). These research methods overlap, and most sociological researches today use aspects of both the quantitative and qualitative methods. In fact, it is considered sensible to combine these methods to enable one to gain a fuller picture of the subject being studied 9Marsh 1996: 115). At present, non- conventional research strategies are used to investigate societal problems. 4. Gather the data. In order to meet the fundamental aim of sociological inquiry, a more immediate goal is to stimulate a model that can be shown to correspond to certain principles, e.g., a sample of the total population to represent the whole as accurately as possible. The researcher also chooses the techniques to identify and record the data to be studied. Data gathering is an important part in the research process. It is time consuming but essential to gather information which .forms the basis for the conclusion. The data gathered is usually encoded into the computer. 5. Analyze the data. This involves testing the hypothesis or answering questions or assumptions using the data gathered. At 41

this stage, the problems of measurements arise. Measurements are yard- sticks that sociologists create and endow with meanings. Reliability and validity are major issues. Sociologists have to ascertain that what is being measured is actually the phenomenon in which they are interested. Test of the validity refers to the accuracy by which the research measures at different times and the same results are yielded, the measure is deemed reliable. Reliability is the consistency in results yielded by a study or research instrument. 6. Formulate the conclusion. After analyzing the data, the researcher formulates the conclusion. The hypothesis is either accepted, rejected, or modified. The researcher may link their work to other bodies of knowledge and theories. A theory is formulated. A theory is a statement of the logical relationships between facts; it is a set of interconnected concepts and propositions presenting a systematic view of phenomena, and provides direction for research (Timasheff 1967:9-10). The theory helps to explain and predict the social world in which we live. A good theory is characterized by the following: a) The parts of the theory are consistent with each other. b) It can be tested and refuted by available evidence. c) It is valid and simply stated, i.e., it is consistent with the available evidence. Researchers aim to affect their audience. Possibly, they will have different audiences whom they want to interest, inform, and convince. In general, researchers go over the outline of the topic to be covered and carefully follow this in preparing the report.

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Readers should be treated with respect by providing them, in a coherent fashion as can be possible, the major points they need to grasp and evaluate,. The report’s introduction summarizes all the main findings expected, which are checked against the originally stated hypothesis. Pictures, tables, charts, graphs can be used as effective aids for easier understanding of the results. Logic should be used for strength and soundness. Citation of original sources in footnotes, bibliographic entries, and suggested readings are useful guides for in- depth reading. The conclusion may include the study’s limitations and point out other areas for further research. 7. Check or verify results. Further verification of findings is necessary. Assess the results and make adjustments or corrections, as needed. 8. Communicate the results to others. The research results should not stay only with the researcher; they must be communicated to others. The most common way to do this is to have it published. In the Philippines, there is the Philippine Sociological Review, the PSCC Social Science Information, and other social science journals. The summarized results may also be published in book form. It may also be presented in a sociology or social science conference or in school fora. Methodological Designs In Sociology Experimental Method An experiment best meets the requirement for scientific research to accept or reject a hypothesis. It is a method for studying the relation 43

between two or more variables under highly controlled conditions. A variable is a measurable dimension of a concept, which can vary or change. Examples of variables are age, sex, educational attainment, occupation, I.Q. or intelligence quotient, and socioeconomic level. The independent variable is changed systematically and is expected to bring about a change in the other variable. The dependent variable is the behavior being observed and is dependent on the change in the independent variable. Two sets of subjects- the experimental and the control groups - are matched to resemble each other as closely as possible. The experimental subjects are exposed to the experimental conditions (variables), while the control subjects are not. One experimental condition is varied at a time, while the others are kept constant so that cause and effect and other types of relationships can be determined. The result is observed to check if there is any difference between the two groups. Precautions should be taken to ensure that the experiment is carried out under controlled conditions. For example, to know the effect of using Filipino instead of English in the teaching of sociology on the students’ grades and developing nationalism. The researcher can set up two classes and match them for certain variables like age, sex, health conditions, socio- economic status, and I.Q. In one class, the experimental group, Filipino is used, while in the control group, English is used as the medium of instruction. Every grading period, the researcher checks for differences in the students’ grades and in the manifestations of nationalism. In the natural sciences, experiment is commonly used. This is not always the case in sociology because of limitations in using experiments. First, it is difficult to control the independent variable and keep the dependent variable stable. In contrast the laboratory scientists, sociologists have no control over unexpected entries of 44

factors that may reduce or destroy the effectiveness of the changes made. Second, there is the ethic al question of involving people without their knowledge or consent. Some feel that this is alright as long as it does not disrupt a person’s daily schedule and the independent variable does not harm them (Zanden 1993:22). Another problem is the difficulty of duplicating experiments in the larger society. In the natural sciences, the experiment is performed in a laboratory setting. Sociologists usually want to maximize the natural setting of the group. Thus, the experiment may be held in a factory, office, school, or prison. Survey Research This is a common research technique in social science. It involves a systematic and large- scale collection of information from people and about people through the use of a questionnaire. The questionnaire is intended to determine people’s characteristics, opinions, values, attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, motivations, and feelings. It is crucial to phrase questions correctly so that bias or confusion will not arise. Information may be obtained through face-to-face interviews, by telephone, or by mail. In general, however, the mail does not ensure high returns. Surveys are often done before elections to predetermine the people’s choice of president, vice- president, and senators. Sometimes, surveys are criticized as being manipulated and funded by vested interest groups. The sample survey method involves a sample that closely represents the particular population from which it was chosen, e.g., the barrio, province, housing project, university, or hospital. A statistician may be consulted in setting up the sampling techniques and tools to be used so that the margin of conclusions drawn will be valid for the whole population, with a very small margin of error. 45

The two kinds of sampling techniques used in surveys are the random sample or the stratified random sample. In the random sample, everyone in the population has a n equal opportunity to be picked out. In the stratified random sample, the population is divided into age, sex, religion, socioeconomic status, and ethnic group. Generalizations are made on the basis of the respondents’ answers. Researchers look out for patterns of behavior in term s of sex, age, social class, or regional grouping. The weakness of surveys is that results can sometimes be superficial since the responses are short. Field Research (Participant Observation) As the name implies, the researcher goes to the field (usually a community), lives with the people for some months, and participates in their activities in order to know and feel their culture. This is a popular strategy used by anthropologists in studying pre-literate groups or indigenous peoples. Felipe L. Jocano, one of our foremost anthropologists, made a study of a slum neighborhood in Sta. Ana, Manila in 1973 by living with them and participating in their activities. Through participant observation, sociologists get in-depth information and intimate knowledge about the people. Field research is, thus the study of the way of life of a group or people in its natural setting. The researcher interviews ad observes people at work and play, and acquires information and an understanding of the various aspects of their life- economic, political, religious, and cultural. In the daytime, the researcher converses and interacts with the old people and the children, and in the evenings with the workers. After a few weeks or months of research, the research hypothesis is organized around specific themes. As the days roll on, the researcher acquires 46

deeper roots in the community, enabling him or her to have more dialogues with the informants. By being in the community where activities take place, the researcher can describe and explain both the behavior and its contexts; these become the basis for interpreting the social dynamics and deep feelings that are part of group life. The researcher can also gain insights into their problems and can get the meaning and significance of their behavior and motives (Curry, Jiobu, and Schwirian 1999:21). After collecting the data, the researcher starts to organize these. The researcher may also have inner thoughts, feelings or emotional reactions to the local people’s words and actions (Hicks and Gwynne 1994:33-36). The disadvantage of this method is the length of time involved. It may take up to a year or more to effectively observe and participate in the various activities of the people. Participatory Research A current trend in development programs is participatory research. This method utilizes the people, who are the actual targets of development projects, in the entire research process. The project is first presented to the people who decide on the research objective, with help from the researcher. According to Hollnsteiner (as cited by Abad 1984:21), participatory research involves the people’s conscious reflections on what action and goals they consider possible and desirable. Thus, the research becomes meaningful to them and they more readily mobilize their resources to attain their ends. Participatory research is an attempt to develop a people’s science so that research becomes relevant not only as a way of achieving socioeconomic development but also as a learning process for the group being studied (Abad 1984:2). This is the essence of people-centered development. According to Bautista 47

(1985:31), participatory research refers to the process by which the people, together with the researcher, investigate their problem, analyze the results within a broader structural context, and draw long-range and short-term action plans. The people and the researcher are involved in meaningful relationships. The respondents are not passive objects; they are actively involved in the planning and investigation. This methodology is gaining around in Sociology, especially at the grassroots level, and has prompted ideas on concrete alternatives in social action. This methodology has also been very useful in feminist research. More women are now involved as subjects and participants in research, as well as in actions aimed at changing women’s situations (Guerrero 1997:XI). This type of research can be used for the accumulation of knowledge, as well as for social action, program evaluation, and extension work. Techniques and Tools in Sociological Inquiry Techniques used in sociological inquiry may be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative techniques do not involve the intensive use of universal values in the research process. They include the examination of tools such as historical records, biographies, autobiographies, diaries, speeches, editorials, and videotapes. However, the researcher must exercise great care in checking the reliability of the sources and in drawing generalizations from them. Observation Observation is the foundation of social research. One makes use of the various senses in studying a social phenomenon or social behavior. Observation can be open (overt) and Secret (covert). If done overtly, 48

the respondent is informed about it; if covertly, people are observed without their knowledge. These highlight certain ethical issues about not informing people that they are being observed. Sometimes, the observation is detached, i.e., one simply notes what is going on in a ritual, ceremony, or crowd behavior. Observation may be nonparticipatory or participatory. In nonparticipant observation, the researcher enters the situation as a third party and simply observes and records what the subjects do or say. Tape recorders, cameras, and other electronic devices may be used for recording behavior. Interviews The researcher also obtains data by interviewing people. If the interview is non- structured, the researcher leaves it to the interviewee (also referred to as the respondent or the informant) to guide the conversation. In structured or directed interviews, the researcher follows a more definite order of questions. The interview may be guided by a set of written questions, and the interviewer records the answers as these are given. A questionnaire is another tool for securing answers to written questions. It can either provide space for the respondent’s written answer or allow them to choose their response from a list of answers. Questions may be open- ended, but it is best for the researcher to probe for more specific and detailed answers. The problem here is that sometimes respondents are reticent about expressing their feelings or may give answers that they feel the interviewer wants to hear. Sometimes, respondents also have a tendency to overestimate the frequency of exciting events in their lives.

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Historical Research This involves a continuous and systematic search for information and knowledge about past events related to the life of a person, a group, society, or the world. The researcher studies records like official chronicles, letters, diaries, baptismal certificates, publications, or information from sources who have witnessed a certain event. These sources may provide broad explanations of one’s origin and place in history. Conducting historical research can be difficult because of inaccuracies or incompleteness in the information obtained. For example, there may be adequate records about prominent people, but only scanty materials about the poor, the powerless, the minorities, and about women. Life History This is the study of the personal life of a person through a series of interviews, the researcher can probe into the decisive moments in their life or the various influences on their life. Life history can provide a vivid picture of the culture to which the respondent belongs and shed light on the norms, values, concerns, and problems of their culture. Case Study Extensive examination of a specific group over a long period of time is carried out in the case study method. It is necessary to carefully record significant events and evaluate these against the original set of hypotheses. Case studies aim to acquire in-depth information about an individual, a group, or population at one point in time. This technique is mostly descriptive. One can make a case study of a drug addict, a prostitute, a professional, or a gang. By analyzing several cases of the 50

same nature, one can learn much about this particular social behavior. Although case studies do not necessarily lead to conclusive generalizations, they are rich sources of fresh and deep insights for further research. Content Analysis This involves the analysis of how people communicate and the messages people talk or write about. This is usually used to study the contents of books and mass media and how they transmit messages. For example, one can make a content analysis of textbooks to see how women are treated compared to men. The researcher can determines the number of times males and females are featured and whether the things said about them are complimentary or biased. Use of films and tape recorder For field research, one can make use of photographs and films/ video to record interesting events or records visual information about houses, tools, occupations, clothing, events, rituals, and ceremonies. The use of the tape recorder enables the researcher to preserve information more accurately. Data derived through qualitative techniques can be subjected to statistical analysis, which deals with a mass of data and permit more precise statements of their relationship. The techniques involve the classification and enumeration of data, analyses of the quantitative relationship involved, and assignment of numerical values to their relationships. Tools that can be utilized are census and vital statistics; local, national, and international reports; sampling measures of central tendency; the mean, the median, and the mode; measures of variability 51

–the negative or the positive, and tests of significance; the chi-square and probable error. Feminist Research Dr. Sylvia H. Guerrero (1999), a prominent sociologist and former director of the University of the Philippines Center of Women’s Studies and former president of the Philippines Sociological Society, states that feminist research advocates the qualitative methods which “permit women to express their experiences fully and in their own terms…offer a more human, less mechanical relationship between the researcher and researched.” Feminist research emerged from the women’s liberation movement of the 1960s. Feminist researchers levelled criticisms against positivism, orthodox sociological methodologies, and the processes by which sociological knowledge is formulated. They conceive of knowledge as socially constructed and are the product of social and cultural relations. Sociological knowledge has been primarily andocentric or centered on ‘man,’ such that sociological theories and methods seem to be derived from the visions of the social world afforded to men (Acker et al. 1983 as cited by Marsh 1996). The focus of feminist research is on women’s experience and women’s oppression. Its objectives are to understand, advocate for, transform, and empower women. It aims to help not only women but also men to improve their situation and the quality of their lives. The traditional norms of objectivity and detachment are deemed inadequate. Instead, feminist research stresses connectedness and partisanship with the women being investigated and their needs, interest, and experience. A friendly and egalitarian relationship between the researcher and the researched comes to the fore. The dialogues are also occasions for consciousness-raising and women empowerment actions. Feminist 52

research is guided by the principle that it must move beyond knowledge for its own sake and that the knowledge generated must contribute to women’s liberation and emancipation. The researcher becomes an advocate, wherein the knowledge acquired contributes to the cause. Research designs employ participatory action strategy. They also use naturalism, life stories, case studies, and oral history, as well as traditional tools like surveys and experiments combined with community validation and networking. All these involve action and collaborative research. Feminist research of the University of the Philippines Center for Women’s Studies makes use of research methods which are gender-sensitive, women-centered, and integrative with policy, planning and programs on health, population, and gender. It goes beyond knowledge generation and into advocacy and action (Guerrero 1999). Ethical Concerns in Sociological Research There are certain considerations in researching on human beings. The respondents must be informed of its object and objectives. Sociologist must not obtain any information or data for any purpose except for its research value. The people or groups studied are entitled to their privacy, confidentiality, and full anonymity throughout the whole process and when the results are reported (Appelbaum and Chambliss 1995:17). Care must also be taken to ensure that the subjects of the research are not exposed to any physical or mental danger or subjected to violations of human rights. Questions about the ethics of using tapes, recording machines, and cameras should be resolved. Thus, the researchers must be responsible and accountable for their research procedures and findings. 53

Patterns of Behavior Required for Sociological Inquiry To be performed well, sociological inquiry demands and consequently enhances certain types of behavior. For instance, sociologist must posses a good grasp of the basic premises of their field. They must realize that sociological inquiry is more rigorous and more systematic than common sense. They study people’s reactions to their social environment and interactions in social groups, and look for repetitive patterns of human behavior from a variety of social experiences. Sociologists delve beyond the face value of an individual’s claimed relationships with others into the actual happenings, including the unspoken, unexpected, and unintended results that occur (Merton 1968:3). They scrutinize the nature of change taking place within the society. Sociologists should be aware of two predominant traditional thoughts regarding the treatment of their data. One is closely associated with Max Weber who believed that objective measurements are not sufficient and advocated the use of Verstehen. Subjective meanings from the point of view of others must be included in order to fully explain social phenomena. Another traditional thought is positivism, expounded by Auguste Comte, which claims that the methods of the physical and the biological (or natural) sciences can be applied study of the human being. Because the natural and the social sciences have basic similarities, both can be approached with scientific techniques and tools such as experiments and statistical analysis in the study of social phenomenon. However, scientific tools alone are inadequate for studying the social sciences. Objectives knowledge can also be accumulated from the social as well as natural environment.

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Positivist scientists also try to observe objectivity, i.e., being unbiased and free of personal opinions or prejudices. Popular opinion opposes the possibility of the total objectivity in either the natural or social sciences. The sincere desire to be objective does not necessarily result in complete objectivity. The social scientist may be biased without being aware of it. For instance, the whole process involved in working on a sociological problem becomes largely a matter of personal judgment on the part of researchers. Of great importance is the researchers’ ability to keep their observations and conclusions independent of their values and beliefs, and personal feelings from influencing their findings. Whether the sociologist should take a partisan outlook or a neutral stance on social issues has also been a controversy. At the turn of the 20th century, sociologist focused their attention on resolving social problems; after World War I, sociologist felt that their primary responsibility was to build up scientific knowledge about society. This ethical neutrality or value-free position was criticized by C. Wright Mills in the 1950s and by Irving L. Horowitz in 1960s. Some groups emphatically believe that sociologist should be deeply involved in and committed to the resolution of social problems. However, quite a number maintain that sociologists should not abandon their value-free position if sociology is to develop as a science. Sociologists must distinguish between, and keep separate, their roles as a concerned citizen and as a scientific inquirer. This issue has to be resolved by each student of sociology. Reflective skepticism is also necessary for sociological inquiry. One has to clarify an assertion or to ask questions before accepting it as true. For example accepting it as fact, one has to ask for evidence to 55

support the statement and then look closely at the quality of the evidences. Although researchers have to be open-minded about new and unique ideas, they need to be sufficiently skeptical to reserve conclusions about these ideas unless and until they derive tested answers to fundamental questions about them. Researchers must develop critical thinking. Critical thinking involves reflective skepticism and skilful judgment in the pursuit of the truth. A persistent critical spirit is important sociological inquiry is to go beyond common sense or presumptive speculation. It should not be bound, limited, or encapsulated by traditional wisdom or conventional knowledge. Not only should researchers determine whether an idea is interesting or pertinent, they should also weigh whether it is testable and can be subjected to detailed analysis. Scientific behavior requires operation, honesty, and liberalism. Each researcher’s work is dependent on the activities of others. What remains to be explained should be related to what is already known; thus, every researcher’s findings need to be freely shared with others. If sociological inquiry is to develop cumulative and self-correcting knowledge, then the findings must be presented honestly, no matter how unexpected the findings are. They should likewise be reported regardless of the personal characteristics of the subjects who are involved. Social researchers must be sensitive to how people in the community where they work feel about scientists and their work. Lay persons generally conceive of scientists as weird and antisocial. They believe that scientific work is performed only in laboratories amidst test tubes and other equipment, and that its results have immediate application to daily life problems. People are seldom aware that scientists are 56

dependent upon groups. Current research trends require them to work alongside other scientists in order to reduce or remove the barriers of communication that isolate varied scientific disciplines from each other. Scientists are obligated to present findings in a manner that can be understood by the ordinary person. Furthermore, people generally do not realize that scientific studies result from generations of work consisting of the required testing of theory with facts or fact with theory, and that solutions to human problems may be drawn from scientifically verified knowledge. Science, as a way of life, is dependent on the extent to which society institutionalizes the recognition and acceptance of scientific attitude and behavior patterns ion the development of natural and human resources. A researcher may be rewarded or penalized, depending on his or her performance. ‘The penalty for anyone who does not work according to the standards of scientific inquiry could be ridicule by one’s colleagues or rejection of one’s work. Reward for excellent research may include citations, awards, medals, enviable consultative and academic positions, and substantial monetary grants. Less tangible rewards would be acceptance of one’s work as having withstood testing and checking against empirical observation by one’s peers. But whether the researcher performs well or not, a science-oriented society provides incentive for exceptional persons or groups who use their capabilities for common social ends, foster communication of ideas, and encourage employers and employees and even the total population to support rather than to suppress the use of scientific knowledge and method. The history of humanity reveals certain periods when the development of science was retarded because of restrictions on these conditions. However, when society provided an atmosphere that was conducive to the pursuit of knowledge, science progressed 57

rapidly. In general, modern society has become more favorable to science. Summary Sociological inquiry is a scientific activity to acquire valid and precise knowledge of our observable social world and to increase our understanding of our social groups and ourselves. Its main focus is to test or verify a hypothesis. It involves having a scientific and theoretical perspective about the aspect of the social world the sociologist is studying. The sociologist follows basic procedures such as defining the research problem and reviewing related literature, formulating the hypothesis, planning the research design, gathering the data, analyzing the data, formulating the conclusion, checking and verifying the results, and communicating the findings. Social research entails either qualitative or quantitative methods. Qualitative methods of research include participant observation, field study, historical method, life history, and case study. Quantitative methods, on the other hand, make use of the statistics and mathematics in studying social behavior. Social surveys and experiments fall under this category. A trend in research in the Philippines is participatory research. There is also the feminist research approach, which uses qualitative methods. Feminist researchers view knowledge as socially constructed and the product of social and cultural relations. Research also has ethical concerns: the researcher must assume responsibility for their research procedures and findings. Certain types of behavior patterns are required for sociological inquiry. Among these are a good grasp of the basis of premises of their field, objectivity, a critical spirit, skeptical receptivity, communality, and 58

liberalism. A question that has nagged sociologists is whether or not to be directly involved in resolving social issues. Study Guide 1. Concepts to master: Concepts Hypothesis Theory Fact Positivism

Qualitative techniques Quantitative techniques Sample universe Observation Critical spirit

2. What is sociological inquiry? What are its functions? 3. How does the social researcher conduct an inquiry on a research problem? 4. Explain the patterns of behavior needed in sociological inquiry. 5. What is objectivity? Can social researchers be completely objective in their inquiry? Why? 6. What are the research methods which social researchers use? What are the techniques and tools used? 7. How can social researchers effectively communicate their findings to the intended audience? Critical Thinking Questions 1. How does sociological inquiry differ from research in the natural sciences? In what ways are they similar? 2. How do sociologists select the research design for their studies? 3. What position should sociologists take regarding social issues? 59

Chapter 3 CULTURE: ITS UNITY AND DIVERSITY Among the Jews, a Kiddushin marriage ceremony requires husband and wife to have an exclusive relationship and to be sanctified to each other under the Law of Moses. Traditionally, parents relied on the services of matchmaker to select a proper spouse for their child. Today, dating is the common practice. Engagement in Jewish law carries legal and social significance. The official Jewish engagement takes place with the signing of te naim, a mutual agreement between the bride’s and groom’s parents to discuss the date and financial arrangements of the marriage. The te naim creates the status of being “engaged” and is often read by a prominent rabbi or close friend. The mothers of the bride and groom break a China plate to signify the completion of the engagement agreement. On the morning before the wedding, the groom is usually called to read the Torah (Scriptures) in the synagogues; this serves to announce the forthcoming marriage. The couple abstains from seeing each other before the wedding day. On the wedding day, they recite special prayers as a “day of atonement” and fast from dawn until the chupah ceremony is completed. The bride and groom traditionally wear white as sign of purity. The marriage contract is signed and witnessed by close friends or respected teachers. The groom is asked if he is prepared to fulfill the obligations in the contract. Singing and dancing precede the marriage ceremony. 60

The ceremony is the combination of symbolism, tradition, and religious binding acts. The central physical symbol is the chupah, the marriage canopy supported by four poles. The chupah represents the home that the couple will create together, with the Divine Presence to bless them. The bride and groom are escorted by their parents, with the groom preceding the bride. Nine blessing are recited. Two witnesses are called to examine the wedding bond. The groom places the ring on the bride’s index finger. They are then declared married. The new couple is secluded for a while. Then, they break the fast entering the banquet room where they are greeted by joyous dancing and singing. A reception follows. The bridal celebrations continue for the entire week. Then, the couple settles down to normal life. Ma. Patricia P. Stock, 2011 Do you detect similarities or differences with our marriage customs and traditions from the above? Why do Jews behave this way? As we go from place to place, we note differences in people’s beliefs with regard to dressing, food and cooking, love and courtship, marriage practices, ways of worshipping God, earning a living, leisure time activities, etc. The Chinese, Japanese, Indians, Arab, Americans, Russians- people in general- are brought up differently; thus, they acquire different ways of behaving. The behavior patterns peculiar a group of people compromise what sociologists and other social scientists call culture.

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The Concept of Culture We often hear the expression ”that lady is highly cultured” why? Is it because she speaks English Spanish, or French; appreciate modern art; listen to classical music of Beethoven, Mozart, and Bach or the compositions of Buencamino, Santiago, and Kasilag; watches operas, concerts, and plays; visit museums; reads class novels and bestsellers? The popular view of culture is that of a state of refinement of being well versed in the arts, philosophy and languages. To social scientists, however, this is a limited view of culture; to them every member of a society is cultured. “Culture” can also refer to expressive culture, which includes plastic and graphic arts, such as sculptures and painting, and language when utilized as an artistic medium. These have aesthetic appeal for those who arrange them and to others who appreciate and enjoy them (Hicks and Gynne 1994:313). There is also the so- called popular culture, which includes activities, products and services that are assumed to appeal primarily to members of the middle and working classes. This includes rock music, spectator sports, movies, and TV soap operas. Sociologists and Anthropologists define culture in a broader context. Culture refers to the total and distinctive way of life or designs for living of any society. It encompasses learned behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and ideals characteristic of certain societies. Weinstein (1996:82) defines culture as a human invention that has a fundamental role in the population’s adaptation to its environment. Its essential features found in the people’s collective life include norms, values, language, tools and other material object. The units of culture or traits are combined and organized in a number of ways to create large structures like artifacts, complexes, and culture patterns. These are 62

shared by the members of the society and passed on to others through socialization. Culture is the sum total of human creations- intellectual, technical, artistic, physical and moral. It guides social life, the things generation must follow and to which they may eventually add. Culture interprets our surroundings, gives them meaning, and allows us to express our selves. Language, religion, science, art, nations of right and wrong, and explanations of the meaning of life are all part of culture. It also includes the various materials and objects that people learn to use (Stark 1998:64). Culture is a people’s social heritage; it refers to the customary ways in which groups organize their ways of behaving, thinking, and feeling. It is transmitted from one generation to another through language and the arts. It presents people with ways of relating to others and their surroundings. Culture represents the designs or recipes for living, the interrelated network of norms and roles. It encompasses modes of thinking, acting, and feeling found in a society and includes everything and individual has acquired as a member of a society. It tells one what to do, what not to do, and how to do things. Culture is the aspect of our existence which is familiar to some people but different to others. It is the way of life common to a group of people which enables them to share ideas and patterns of behavior that distinguishes them from others. Hence, they are able to live in relative harmony. Culture varies from one society to another. It is what makes us Filipinos different from the Chinese, Vietnamese, Spanish, or American. It is culture that identifies us as Filipinos.

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Society and Culture Sociologists define society as a group of people occupying a geographical territory, with a common culture, and interacting with each other. The members are united by social relationships, share a common language and beliefs, and consume similar goods. The society has social boundaries that set off members from all other persons and groups. However, some Sociologists do not emphasize the geographical territory. In this age of increasing communication, migration, and globalization, people may share a common culture even if they are geographically dispersed. For example, Filipino migrants all over the globe continue to share common ways of doing thing with their mother society. Functionalists consider society a social system which has set of components related to one another in a more or less stable fashion through a period of time. Functionalists view the family, religion, economy, education, and the state as the major social institutions. For the society and work efficiently, there must be balance or equilibrium among the various social institutions. Change in any of the social institutions will affect other parts of society. On the other hand, conflict theorists analyze society based on conflict and power. While they also pay attention to social institutions and their structural relations, they focus on conflict and power within society and the process of change which disorganize and brings instability, if not chaos. According to conflict theorists, wealth, power, and prestige are scantly and dominated by the elite, resulting in conflict for scarce resources. When the lower class feels their inferior status and become aware that they are exploited, they rise against the upper class. 64

Certain arrangements are possible in the face of conflicting interests. One arrangement is for the group which enjoys sufficient power to make and enforce rules and shape institutional life to serve its interests. The government has this position to promulgate rules for its own benefits. Another arrangement is for overlapping and divided interest group to cooperate against outsiders (Zanden 1993; 56-57). According to Zanden, the functionalist and the conflict theory approaches complement each other. Functionalisms shortcoming is its difficulty in explaining history and social change. On the other hand, conflict theorists have difficulty dealing with aspects of consensus, integration, and stability. While some proponents of the functional and conflict schools have difficulty reconciling their differences, a number of sociologists support the view that functionalists and conflict theorists are simply studying two aspects of the same reality as consensus and conflict are paramount features of social life. Language and Culture What distinguishes human beings from lower animals is the possession of culture. While animals like dogs and chimpanzees can learn tricks or imitate certain activities, they cannot transmit what they have learned to their young and so they cannot accumulate things that have been learned. Symbolic language is responsible for the existence and development of culture. Language refers to the systematized usage of speech and hearing to convey, communicate, or express feelings and ideas (Eshelman and Cashion 1983;93). It is made up of a set of verbal and written symbols used within a certain culture. A symbol is anything that stands or represents something else and is not immediately present to our senses. Meanings are conferred on them. The existence of culture is made possible by the use of symbols as these enable 65

people to share ideas. Symbols may be colors, emblems, gestures, designs, marks, or words. The word ‘chair’ connotes something to sit on or a presiding officer of a committee. The cross is a symbol for Christians or street crossings. After the assassination of Ninoy Aquino on August 21, 1983, the ‘L’ sign was used during mass actions or rallies to designate ‘Laban’ meaning ‘fight’ and yellow flags symbolizes support for Cory Aquino, widow of the assassinated senator. Culture is inculcated orally and by writing through the medium of language. Language is an abstraction and is made up of rules for generating speech. Social and cultural factors influence its vocabulary. The Eskimos have different words for different types of snow; fisher folks in the Philippines have different words for various types of nets and bancas; the Samals of Mindanao have different words for many kinds of fish. Research shows that vocabulary maybe influenced by the cultural, environmental, and physiological factors. For instance, not all languages have the same number of words for color; some have just few words while others have as many as eleven or twelve. The increasing number of words for a certain item or object is attributed to the increasing economic and technological complexity of a society (Howard and Hattis 1992;339). Moreover, language helps determine our cultural practices and how we organize our perception of the world. Language is an integral part of culture, and human culture cannot exist without it. All societies have languages. Even in simple societies where people cannot write or read, they have a spoken language, through language, wide vistas of reality have been opened. Our observations, norms, value, and ideas exist because we have learned to identify or experience these through language (Perucci and Knudsen 1984;6465), and share and transmit these from one generation to another through the process of socialization. 66

Language enables people to transcend time and space. Through language, we recall what happened in the past and discuss what are possibly forthcoming. Language enables us to communicate with others, design complex plans and projects, develop abstract ideas (Lindesmith and Strauss 1968;27-29) There are over seventy languages and dialects in the Philippines. Because of the multiplicity of languages and dialects, the American educators introduced English as the medium of instruction when they established the public school system. Likewise, English was used to introduce democracy and other aspects of the American culture. During the commonwealth period, Pres. Quezon advocated the national language based on tagalong, but this was strongly opposed by the other ethnic linguistic groups, especially the Cebuanos who constitute the largest language speaking group. Filipino is used in everyday social interactions as well as in the market space. In 1974, the policy of bilingualism was introduced, purportedly to develop competence in the use of both Filipino and English. It was to be gradually implemented from grade I to the high school. In college, it was implemented in the teaching of certain subjects, particularly the social sciences. However, the problem of implementation depended on the training of teachers and the preparation of materials. The 1986 constitution provided for a national language of the Philippines which would be developed and enriched on the basis of other existing Philippine and other languages. For purposes of communication and instruction the official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, unless otherwise provided by law, English. There is an increasing perception that the Filipino’s competence in the use of English is deteriorating. Thus, there are proponents for the 67

strengthening of the teaching in English. They claim that English is fast becoming the global language, so proficiency in the use of English gives Filipinos professional workers an advantage over Asians and non-English speaking groups. The characteristics of culture Culture has qualities which are the same everywhere and through all times. Among the universal characteristics of culture are: 1. Culture is learned. The norms, skills, values, and knowledge which constitute one’s culture are acquired during the course of one’s life and not transmitted genetically. While animals also learned behavior patterns, the advantage of humans over them is the use of language symbols. Humans also have the longest period of dependency so there is a great dependence on learning. Culture is derived from the family and other instruction, and mass communication. 2. Culture is transmitted. While all animals are capable of learning, only humans can transmit their acquired habits and knowledge to their offspring. Apes can be taught to operate machines, or dogs and seals can learn certain knowledge on to their offspring. Humans are able to convey their ideas to the next generations, which may add to the accumulated behavior patterns and knowledge. Culture is transmitted by conditioning children to acquire attitudes essential in social life and training them in accordance with expected patterns of behavior. 3. Culture is social, collective and learned. It is developed through group interaction and results from the accumulation of knowledge and group expectations. For a behavior pattern, belief or value to be 68

considered part of culture, it must be shared by groups of individuals. Ideas, like children should respect their parents or fiestas should be held to honor the patron saint, are part of the culture shared by members of our society. We share cultural characteristics with segments of our population based on ethnicity, religion, or occupation. The group habits and knowledge are shared by the group members and are kept relatively uniform by certain social sanctions and pressures. 4. Culture is ideational. Within the culture are group habits considered as ideal patterns of behavior which the members are expected to follow. Humans assign meanings to their environment and experiences symbolizing them. These are internalized by the individual who perceives and responds to the world in accordance with the culture of the group. This is what W.I Thomas calls the “definition of the situation.” 5. Culture is gratifying. Culture has provisions to satisfy the biological and sociological needs of people. It allows for the reasonably efficient and spontaneous interaction in the group for the satisfaction of these needs. There are some basic needs common to all humankind which demand uniformly similar forms of gratification. These are also referred to as universal culture patterns. 6. Culture is adaptive. All cultures are always changing and these changes represent adjustment to the environment. As mentioned earlier, culture plays a fundamental role in the people’s adaptation to the environment. Culture adapts to meet specific sets of circumstances such as climate, level of technology, population, and geography. Culture enables people to adjust to their physical as well as social environment. Culture enables the members of society to 69

develop ways of coping with the exigencies of nature, as well as ways of harnessing the forces of their environment. People learn to relate themselves with other in order to survive. No culture is static. Cultures are in constant flux, but change at different rates. Change occurs as a result of discoveries, inventions and cultural borrowing. The acceptance of change depends on the exposure of the members of society to new ideas and ways different from their own and their opportunity to accept ideas and ways through diffusion. Change may be a response to internal or environmental factors or external influences such as trade, migration, missionary activities, international relations and war. 7. Culture is an integrated whole. The various parts of the culture are closely interrelated and integrated into a whole. Durkheim stressed that culture is the product not of single individual but of a collective. A collective consciousness exists beyond the individual. The various elements should tend to fit each other for a better adaptive process; this is what summer terms “strain” of consistency such that friction among various elements are lessened, leading to mutual support. However, these elements are not always in perfect harmony because “stresses” and “strain” have unequal rates of change. Society tries to work out balance between them. Components of Culture Culture is made up of many elements which are interrelated and unified in order for all its aspects to function effectively. There is a network of social relationships involving a complex series of reciprocal responses. Modes of acting, thinking, and feeling in various social situations are 70

defined by the members of the society who learn and share these. According to Kendall (2000;4), our cultural toolbox has two major aspects; the material and nonmaterial culture. Material culture refers to the concrete and tangible objects that humans create, use, and share, serving as buffers against the various elements in the environment. Nonmaterial culture consists of knowledge, social norms, beliefs, and sanctions which are abstract and intangible creations that influence human behavior. Knowledge The total range of what has been learned or perceived as true is knowledge. This body of information is accumulated through experiences, study, or investigation. However, what is considered to be the truth may change. What in the past was thought true may be considered an error today. Scientific discoveries rectify supposed errors of the past and produce new knowledge. People action the basis of what they to be true. Culture includes natural, supernatural, technical, and magical knowledge (Richter 1987:149-50). Natural knowledge refers to the accumulated facts about the natural world, including both the biologist and physical aspects. Technological knowledge pertains to the knowledge of nature which are useful in dealing with practical problems like methods of acquiring food, dealing with diseases, means of transportation, tools and implements, and weapons of war. Supernatural knowledge refers to perceptions about the actions of gods, demons, angels or spirits and natural beings like shamans, witches or prophets who are held to possess supernatural powers. Magical knowledge refers to perceptions about methods of influencing supernatural events by maintaining certain laws of nature. In simple 71

societies with a traditional way of life, supernatural and magical knowledge influence social behavior. In contrast, modern societies rely more on natural and technological knowledge. Social norms In norms ordinary everyday activities like reading, talking, dressing, cooking, courtship, child rearing, working, spending leisure time, as well as in special occasions like weddings, burials or Christmas, there are certain prescription or standards of behavior called norms. Norms are rules or group expectations of how one should behave or act in certain situations. They define what behavior is required, acceptable, or appropriate in particular situations. Stark (1998:84) states that, because of our attachments to other people, we are prompted to conform to their expectations of how we ought to behave. What we choose to do is greatly influenced by what our friends want us to do. A norm is an idea in the minds of members of a groups put into a statement specifying what the members should do under certain circumstances (Homans 1950:123). Any departure from the norm is followed by some kind of punishment or sanction. Norms are usually in the form of rules, standards, prescriptions, and socially shared expectations. Some norms apply to everyone, like those revolving around honesty, truthfulness, or loyalty to country. Other norms apply to particular categories of people who assume certain roles. Folkways Folkways are commonly known as the customs, traditions and conventions of society. They are general rules, customary and habitual ways, and patterns of expected behavior within the society where they 72

are followed, without much thought given to the matter. Summer (1906:IV) says: Folkways are the habits of the individual and customs of the society which arise from efforts to satisfy needs; they are intertwined with the goblinism and demonism and primitive nations of luck, and so they win traditional authority. These eventually become regulative for succeeding generations and take on the character of a social force. They arise no one knows whence or how. They grow as if by the play of internal like energy. They can be modified, but only to a limited extent, by the purposeful efforts of humans. In time they lose power, decline and die or are transformed. These customary ways are accumulated and become repetitive patterns of expected behavior which tend to be self-perpetuating. Some evolve into the present form out of a slow but continuous process of trial and experimentation. Some are rational, others are not; some are explicit, but most are implicit. They are handed down from generation to generation and gained the widespread support of public opinion. They sometimes guide people’s sentiments and attitudes toward given issues or topics. Some folkways change slowly while others change as the culture changes. Folkways includes innumerable group expectations like rules of eating, drinking, dressing, dancing, and working, forms of greetings, rituals, and polite behavior in institutional settings. There are a number of folkways observed during Christmas, lent, and special occasions. In the Tagalog rural areas, people eat three times a day with merienda (snack) in the afternoon. They eat with their hands. They greet each 73

other with a smile, asking where the person has been or is going. Children say “po” to elders. In courtship, a boy may seek the help of the relative or a friend for an introduction to the girl. He may serenade her (although this practice is now waning) or send love notes directly or through an intermediary. Visiting the girl in the afternoon or early evening is another folkway. Sumner (1906:5-6) sums up folkways as a great mass of usage of all degrees of importance, covering all interests in life, embodying a life philosophy and forming a character. Mores Mores are special folkways which are important to the welfare of the people and their values. They are based on ethical and moral values which are strongly held and emphasized. They are social norms associated with strong feelings about what is right and what is true. Having strong moral sanctions, they are the “must” and “should” of a society. They are the expected behavior current in society which individuals follow as they satisfy their needs and desires. Mores are coercive in nature as they are considered important to societal welfare. Observance of mores is compulsory. They embody the codes of ethics and standards of morality in a society. Most of the mores have been enacted into laws. Mores consist, in large, of taboos. The Ten Commandments constitute an important source of mores. It applies to sexual behavior, marriage and family relations, physical and moral aggression against members of the in-group, betrayal of a group, attitudes towards authority, religion or the unfortunates in society, business deals, and other vital issues which involve group welfare.

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Laws Laws are formulized norms, enacted by people who are vested with government power and enforced by political and legal authorities designed by the government. Laws are enforced by formal sanctions like fines, imprisonment, or death. Some laws grew out of the folkways and mores. They have the strong support of public opinion and tend to reinforce folkways and mores. It is hand to enforce the laws when these do not reflect folkways and mores. For example, the ban on smoking and traffic regulations are not strictly followed. The antismoking ordinance passed in Metro Manila in 1991 has been very difficult to implement. It was also difficult to pass a law against smoking in congress because of the strong and powerful tobacco lobby, lobby, despite the fact that smoking is hazardous to health. Some laws such as those contained in the constitution, the civil code, and the declaration of human rights have strong public support. On the other hand, people are divided in their opinion of whether some laws are advantageous to them or not. Some laws are related to innovations which bear little moral significance for the people concerned. Examples of these are corporation laws, association laws, and government agency laws, the meanings of which are variously interpreted in subcultures of the larger society. The needs for increasing formalization of laws become necessary with the rapid social change and with the migration of people. This makes the regulation of behavior according to divergent sets if folkways and mores unsatisfactory.

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Collective Forms of Behavior Fashions, fads, crazes, and other passing fancies operate primarily as forces of social change, yet these may be considered short-lived social norms. Some styles of dresses and decorative items which were fashionable years ago appear funny or ridiculous today. The same is true of styles of houses, furniture, cars and gadgets. Fashions or vogues are powerful regulators of behavior in urban areas and industrialized societies. The prestige and status of a person depend on their use of these new styles. Those who do not keep up with fashions or fads are subjected to ridicule or are called “old-fashioned”. Sanctions Despite the great influence of culture, not all members of society follow its norms. This may be due to ignorance or lack of knowledge, the tendency to follow the norms of one’s subgroup, or personal reasons or principles. To ensure that the norms are followed and expectations obeyed, sanctions are used. Sanctions are a system of reward and punishment. Rewards are positive sanctions for those who behave properly, while punishments are negative sanctions for those who behave improperly (Popenoe 1977:87). Sanctions maybe formal or informal. Informal sanctions are gossip, unfavorable public opinion, and giving or withdrawing love or friendship. Lavishing children with love by kissing, coddling or verbal admiration may be enough to make them follow what parents would like to do. Formal sanctions are used for violations of norms in organizations or associations.

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When a person violates folkways, sanctions may come in the form of ridicule or disapproval, being considered as funny or eccentric, and being labelled as an “odd ball”. Violations of the folkways involve only mild censure compared to violations of the mores. Violators of mores are considered immoral, sinful, vicious or antisocial. They may be ostracized, subjected to ridicule or mob violence, banished or exiled. Sanctions for violators of laws are fines, imprisonment or death penalty. Deviants, such as those who commit murder, rape, arson, or treason are meted very severe sanctions. Values While norms are standards, patterns, rules, and guides of expected behavior, values are abstract concepts of what is important and worthwhile. These values are the basic of our judgment, of what we consider good, desirable, and correct, as well as what is considered bad, undesirable, and wrong. Frequently, we hear people label those who have done wrong as having “no sense of value”. This remark is made when a person’s behavior is considered undesirable. We place a high value on love of God, honesty, cleanliness, and love of country, so when someone’s behavior belies these values, we are appalled. Values are linked with actual events and are often emotionally charged. They are the standards by which persons, individually or in groups, define their goals, select alternatives, and judge others as good or bad. This concept of values will be discussed further in another chapter. Beliefs When one hears the word “belief,” what often comes to mind are superstitious beliefs- but these are just one form of beliefs. Beliefs embody people’s perception of reality and may include the primitive 77

ideas of universe as well as the scientist’s empirical view of the world. They result from one’s experiences about the physical, biological, and social world in which the individual lives. Beliefs, such as superstitious and those that relate to philosophy, technology, art, and science, are usually incorporated into the whole vast body of knowledge which has been accumulated through time. Some of these ideas have not been scientifically proven but are considered facts by those who told them. For example, the Pinatubo Aeta’s idea that nature spirits help them in times of danger or punish them when they are bad, or the idea held by barrio folks that one has to ask the help of the Almighty God for a bountiful harvest, are just as regulative as the idea held by modern societies that one must follow the doctor’s advice when one is sick or rely on the use of fertilizers, insecticides, and selected seeds of bountiful harvest. Even with advances in science, superstitious beliefs of the older folks prevail. People consider, consult, and depend on their body of beliefs for certain courses of action. There are value-oriented beliefs that lead to some form of collective behavior which seek to reevaluate the existing social structure and its fundamental values. Material Culture and Technology Through the use of technology, raw materials are converted into objects that can be utilized by society. Aside from the nonmaterial aspects of culture, which include language, social norms, values, and beliefs, there are certain material techniques and products used by societies. Technology refers to techniques and know-how in processing raw materials to produce food, tools, shelter, clothing, means of transportation, and weapons. Technology applies the principles of science and mechanics to the solution of problems or to accomplish a specific task. The material objects that are produced by technology are called artifacts. The extent of the use of artifacts depends on the 78

society’s level of technological development. Simple societies have stone tools, mortar and pestle, nipa huts, hand-woven clothes, or carts as their artifacts. In agricultural societies, animals and simple machines are used to accomplish work. As societies move toward industrialization, more sophisticated tools and machines are used. With post-industrialization, technology shifts toward cybernation where machines make decisions where robots can be programmed to monitor assembly lines (Mooney, Knox and Schacht 2000:367). New technologies have advance in leaps and bounds since the 1960’s. There have been outer space explorations, automation, advances in medicine, new transportation, and communication facilities. With the onset of the twenty-first century, there have been considerable advances in information technology. Information technology refers to any technology that conveys information like photography, telegraphy, rotary power printing, telephone, wireless telegraph, motion pictures, magnetic tape recording, radio, television, and the internet (Mooney, Knox and Schacht 2000:373). Media is the central arena in which consent is won and maintained (Shaughnessy 1999:17). Technology and media have enormous impact in society. Some people have withdrawn from groups or organizations into the more private sphere of home and family. There has been a decline in visiting and socializing with the neighbors, as well as in membership of clubs and organizations. It is said that television provides sufficient entertainment so there is no need to go out of the house. In households with several television sets, the family members do not even need to interact with one another anymore. People can also now interact through cellphones or the internet which involves less social presence. Many of the social cues that guide the interactions between persons, such as facial 79

expressions, vocal intonation, or body gestures, are missing (Sullivan 2001:143-144). Modern technology contributed immensely to the increasing material culture, such as the use of automation and electronic communication which have had a tremendous impact on the workplace. In its various forms, technology has increased the speed by which aspects of culture are transmitted and shared. The use of new technology, like computers, has lessened the need for supervisors and facilitated control of the employees. They make the workers more accountable by gathering information about their performance. At the same time, employees are now able to work even in their homes (Mooney, Knox, and Schacht 2000:373). According to Cortes (2002:2), with computers becoming more affordable even to underdeveloped countries, computer networking can connect schools, laboratories, and other sources for scholars or researchers, thus making possible the instantaneous sharing of information. With increasing research and development activities, learning will be a lifelong process for everyone. Communication technology can mobilize people more easily for popular resistance. This was utilized in calling on people to assemble at the EDSA Shrine on January 20, 2001, after the eleven senators voted against the opening of the second envelope in the impeachment trial of Pres. Estrada. New technologies have changed the concept of society. Travel between communities or countries have considerably eased. It takes a matter of hours instead of days or months to travel between continents. The use of e-mail, text messaging, fax and video conference have 80

changed the conventional means of communication. The interconnections between societies have been strengthened, leading to the development of a global society. However, post modernism, an emerging worldview, maintains that scientific and technological innovations do not necessarily provide the “truths”. They were presumed to bring about a better, safer, and more human world. But questions are raised by post-modernists about the validity of the scientific enterprise and the negative consequences of the resulting technologies. They point to the outcomes of technology such as pollution and damage to world ecology, occupational and social dislocations, threats to the privacy of the individual, and social and psychological weakness (Mooney, Knox, Schacht 2000:367-369). There are issues raised vis-à-vis the goals and consequences of the high level of technology. What are its effects on happiness and family life? Does a high level of technology necessarily bring about a healthy and clean environment? Does it ensure the preservation of natural resources or employment and security? The Organization of Culture The elements of culture - symbols, knowledge, norms, values, and beliefs- are not accumulated in isolation from one another. Rather, these are organized and patterned so that they fit each other and integrate to compose a unifying theme for social behavior. Those interested in the study and analysis of a particular culture can look at its content and the way the parts are related. In culture are small units called culture traits. A culture trait cannot be broken down into smaller units. It is related to a particular need for a 81

particular situation. Each trait, whether material or nonmaterial, is a product of social interaction and conveys some meaning. Material and nonmaterial traits are closely associated with each other. Material traits are concrete or tangible objects associated with an idea, a social norm, or a technique, i.e. the use of a cup, a nail, bottle, doll, or cross. Nonmaterial traits are abstract and include folkways, beliefs, or values. Examples are shaking hands, making the sign of the cross, and saying “po” to elders. Culture traits do not operate singly but are related to other traits in some kind of a meaningful relationship. They are generally clustered, and each trait in the cluster derives meaning only in dynamic relation with other traits. This cluster or combination of traits forms the culture complex. The traits are functionally related to each other and revolve around themes such as family, economy, religion, politics, education, health, or leisure activities. Not all members of a culture participate in all activities. Their degree of participation varies according to age, sex, occupation, or the demands of the culture. The levels of cultural participation are classified by Linton (1936:272-273) into three, namely: 1) Culture universals, which are the norms, values, beliefs, and conditioned emotional responses common to members of the society. They are necessary for the existence of a given society. Among these are language, norms, and laws that define family relationship, government, economic, and educational activities. 2) Specialties, which are the behavior expectations confined to certain subgroups. These often require unusual skill or training and reflect the division of labor and hierarchy of statuses in a culture. These are not shared by the total population. For example, occupational and work groups require particular skills and 82

attitudes. 3) Alternatives are behavior expectations which permit a certain range of choice in human behavior and specify the tolerable variations in behavior. These are shared by some individuals but are not common to all members of a society or even to all members of any one group. There is a range of alternatives in activities such as cooking, rearing children, spending one’s leisure time, or worshipping God. Sub-culture As a society becomes more complex and industrialized, there inevitably arise smaller groups which develop distinct norms, values, beliefs, special languages, and life-styles. These subgroups may be based on age, social class, occupational, political, educational, or religious interests or inclinations, regions, nationality, or ethnicity. The group develops its distinctive set of cultural norms and beliefs which differ significantly from the larger society. While members of a subculture participate in the mainstream society, they tend to associate with one another more personally than with the members of other groups (Stark 1998:39). In the Philippines, there are subgroups which reflect regional or ethnic differences, such as the Negritos, the Cordillera group, the Muslims, Tagalogs, Visayans, Pampangos, and others. Even among the Tagalogs, there are differences among the Batangas, Laguna, and Quezon Tagalogs as well as those coming from Rizal and Bulacan. There are subcultures which remain even in modern society, developed around ethnic traditions, occupations or professions, regions, religious beliefs, or common experiences. Some subcultures may find themselves physically distinct from others, as in the case of slum 83

dwellers or squatters in Metro Manila vis-à-vis the residents of exclusive villages like Forbes Park, Dasmariñas, and Ayala Alabang. There is also the youth subculture. Youths develop their own patterns of behavior as in eating, conversing, styles of dressing, sports, and recreation. They evolve a specialized language which distinguishes them from the wider society, so that outsiders like the elders cannot understand what they are taking about. They are susceptible to fads and crazes in entertainment and adornments. While these subcultures have distinct cultural specialties unique to them, they still contain the dominant values and norms of the broader society. This is what has been called a culture within the culture. Subcultures arise from individual needs to obtain assurance and security from others or an inability to cope with the dominant culture. Some subcultures have symbols or badges which enhance solidarity, a feeling of esprit de corps, and a sense of belonging. The existence of subcultures in a society gives rise to the concept of multi-culturalism, which denotes a number of subcultures living together with tolerance and respect for each other. Some subcultures adhere to standards that come in conflict with and oppose the conventional standards. Many of their norms and values contradict those of the dominant culture. When the subculture emphasizes conflict between a group and a larger society, as seen by the presence of an inverse or counterculture, it is labeled “contraculture.” (Yinger 1960:625). Among these are the groups of juvenile delinquents, drug addicts, prostitutes, racketeers, and kidnappers. Their behavior is called deviant. What they do and what they believe in are not shared by majority of the members of the society. It is a creative outlet that poses an alternative to the majority culture. The existence of 84

contra-cultures may open the possibilities for social conflict. As such, these subgroups become a threat to the prevailing social values and are considered a social problem. The existence of subcultures is inevitable as society becomes more complex. Specialization, as a requirement of industrialized society, tends to increase them. Although society may be pulled apart by such culture differences, there are also unifying factors, like the presence of the government, a common language, and the mass media. Ethnocentrism There is a tendency for people who belong to the same cultural group to define reality from their own point of view. One considers his or her ways as right and normal, and those from other groups as wrong, strange, or queer. The tendency to regard one’s culture as the best and better than those of others is called ethnocentrism. Literally, ethnocentrism means a belief that one’s group is at “the center of everything and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it” (Sumner 1906:13). Considering their group as superior, the members sometimes look on outsiders with contempt. The group regards its cultural norms as the basis for judging others. There is the attitude that “my culture is right and yours is wrong.” It may take the form of extreme allegiance to one’s group and a feeling of superiority of one’s culture and the inferiority of others. This may develop negative derogatory phrases for immigrants whose norms, beliefs, and values differ markedly from their own. For countless years, this has been the view of many cultural groups. The Pharisees of Biblical times considered themselves righteous compared to the other Jewish sects; the ancient Greeks looked with 85

contempt at foreigners; the colonizers from the West considered the societies they colonized in Africa, South America, and Asia as barbaric, primitive, or uncivilized; the Americans consider themselves as the most progressive nation in the world, a view also held by the Germans, Japanese, English, Russians, and Chinese. The Filipinos take pride in calling their country as the “Pearl of the Orient,” “Gateway to the East,” or “the show window of democracy in the Far East.” Even within society, there are subgroups who consider themselves as superior to other groups. The Tagalogs think of themselves as superior to other groups, a view similarly held by the Muslims, the Pampangos, and others; one’s religion is spoken of as the true religion in contrast to that of the others; or a school may claim to have the highest education standards. These are all manifestations of ethnocentrism, which is produced by training and socialization. It is encouraged by the schools, media, the church, and the government. In imbuing the individual with the ideal of loyalty to one’s country, the ideas of national commitment to one’s group are enhanced. Ethnocentrism serves a society by developing greater feelings of group unity and affirmation of loyalty to the ideals of the society. A shared sense of oneness especially during times of unrest can help the group to overlook internal differences and conflicts and instead encourage one’s appreciation and commitment to one’s cultural group and develop coordinated activities. On the other hand, extreme ethnocentrism blocks one’s understanding of other cultures and leads to intolerance and prejudice. This can cause intergroup conflicts and problems; a group that does not like to socialize with other people may become isolated and eventually stagnate. Ethnocentrism can also prevent a person from learning about and understanding other cultures and deny 86

basic oneness. It develops enmity between groups and is a barrier to unity. Xenocentrism When people reject their own group or some part of their culture, we call this reverse ethnocentrism or xenocentrism. This is the idea that what is foreign is best and that one’s life-style, products, or ideas are inferior to that of others (Eshleman and Cashion 1983:95). Those coming from foreign lands and the exotic are particularly favored. Xenocentrism is centered on a product, an idea, or a lifestyle. In the Philippines, some people manifest a mania for imported goods and western lifestyles. Some even prefer to live abroad and enjoy the climate and lifestyle of the society there. A reason for this phenomenon is our colonial past and the sociocultural imposition of the colonizers. We call this attitude colonial mentality. In the words of Santos-Cuyugan (1951:101-102): The Filipino has not had a chance to pull together the “shreds and patches” of his cultural traditions. He has been too busy keeping up with the invading joneses from across the seas. As a result, the Filipino in the 1960’s have developed “reverse ethnocentrism,” which is somewhat unusual – the vast majority of known cultures are ethnocentric. The Filipino is more likely to use standards from outside his cultural system, standards that contravene, even debase his own. The true, good, and beautiful to the Filipino is what looks Greek, Semitic, or generally Caucasian. Thus, many of the youth are focusing their goals 87

on going abroad after graduation. They believe that it is more exciting to live in foreign lands where they can easily earn more. Doronila (1986:53-80) made a study to determine how successful the public elementary school was in developing a sense of national identity, which is one of the objectives of education in the Philippines. The sample consisted of 207 Grades I-VI pupils enrolled in an urban public elementary school. While this constituted only one case study and therefore limits generalizations, it is interesting to note its findings vis-àvis national identity. The results showed that the pupils had not developed national consciousness to a significant extent. When asked about the preference for a mother country or where one would want to be a citizen, only 4.83 percent of the 207 students preferred to remain Filipino citizens. The author concluded that the orientation of students to national community is one of neutrality with the Philippines coming in third or second best in the students’ knowledge of its history and culture, in their affective orientation towards the nation as a whole, and in their evaluation of the importance of national traditions of the Filipino people. The students’ attitudes were unfocused, and there was no organization of attitudes which may be called a Filipino identity. Culture Shock The cultural values and norms of behavior are internalized in the socialization process. Consequently, one behaves in accordance with the expectations of their culture. But, what happens when an individual goes to a different society? He or she loses the familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse and experiences unpleasant sensations or frustrations. What the individual undergoes is called culture shock.

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When people encounter another culture whose patterns of behavior are different from their own, they may get disoriented or disorganized. The inability to communicate with the new society. They find themselves smothered and disgusted by the customs and beliefs they encounter. When people go to societies which are regarded as primitive, they may be shocked by the state of sanitation, the raw food being eaten, the lack of such comforts as electricity or a soft bed, the premarital relations between the sexes, or the practice of polygamy. A conservative Filipino who migrates to the United States may experience culture shock in the courtship practices, the open display of love and emotions, the liberal ways children interact with their parents, the frankness of conversation, and the practice of allowing ageing parents to stay in old peoples’ homes. Even people from the provinces who migrate to Metro Manila may experience culture shock with the city lifestyle, the hustle and bustle in the streets, the lack of open space, and the food. Culture shock is experienced by Filipino workers who go to the Middle East where the culture, particularly the religion, is very different from ours. An American who comes to the Philippines might be repelled by some of the food, such as balut (cooked duck egg embryo) and bagoong; the driving habits; the lack of punctuality; or use of euphemisms and circumlocution; and the concept of utang na loob (debt of gratitude). Some people are never able to overcome the dismay, loneliness, and ennui over the new culture and become disorganized. Others are able to adjust and get to like the host culture. Even social scientists require some effort to understand another culture.

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Cultural Relativism When people first come in contact with another culture and observe that its patterns are different from their own, they tend to judge the new ways as strange, exotic, weird, or immoral. They may laugh or scoff at the new norms and values. We hear people ask why do Aetas refuse to eat canned foods? Why do Mangyans worship a hierarchy of spirits? Why do European males kiss in greeting? Why do Americans leave their parents in old people’s homes? These questions bring out the realities of cultural diversity. Cultural practices and values which we consider queer, funny, or immoral may be considered right, appropriate, and moral in other cultures. The norms, beliefs, and ideas of another society must be understood and viewed in terms of the context of their culture. Culture is relative, and no cultural practice is good or bad in itself. It is good if it integrates smoothly with the rest of the culture. This is the concept of cultural relativism which is an alternative perspective to ethnocentrism. The concept of cultural relativism states that cultures differ, so that a cultural trait, act, or idea has no meaning or function by itself but has meaning only within its cultural setting. A trait is good or bad only with reference to the culture in which it functions. (Horton and Hunt 1985:56). There is no single standard to evaluate a particular cultural trait. It should be judged within its cultural context. People devise their own ways of dealing with various circumstances. Culture traits and values cannot be studied unless the meaning and function they stand for in that society are taken into account. When doing field work, one has to use relativism as a research tool for understanding or studying another culture. Even if the custom seems inhuman or irrational by one’s own values, the behavior must be 90

studied objectively if one wishes to develop a scientific understanding of human behavior (Crapo 1990:34). Because of cultural differences within and between societies. The sole judge of a culture’s values is the people in the society themselves. Deeper insights into cultural diversity can be deterrent to extreme ethnocentrism and can lead to greater and fuller realization of people’s common humanity (Chinoy 1967:55). Cultural Universals At first glance, we immediately observe the differences in patterns of behavior, beliefs, values, and ideas among different cultures and societies. Yet as we look more closely, we note features and elements common to all culture, called culture universals. These are similarities in the general features of society, rather than the particular or specific cultural traits. Murdock (1945:1240) listed about 88 of these, which include age-grading, sports, body adornment, calendar, cleanliness, community organization, cooking, cooperative labor, cosmology, courtship, dancing, decorative art, division of labor, education, ethics, ethno botany, etiquette, faith healing, family forecasting, folklore, food, taboos, funeral rites, games, gestures, gift-giving, government, greetings, hair styles, hospitality, housing, inheritance rules, joking, kin groups, language, law, luck, superstitions, marriage, mealtimes, medicine, modesty concerning natural functions, mourning, music, numerals, obstetrics, penal sanctions, personal names, personal rights, puberty customs, religious differentiation, surgery, tool making, trade, wearing, and weather control. Other identifiable elements can be added to this list. Culture universals are accounted for by people’s biological similarities, psychic unity, dependence on group life, individuality, and the limited possibilities within one’s physical and social environment. Another 91

factor for the existence of cultural universals is that all societies are confronted with more or less the same problems in sustaining social life. For a society to survive, some social provisions must be provided. Among these are the socialization of new members, production and distribution of goods and services, ways of coping with the supernatural, assignment of tasks, and accomplishment of work. Patterns of behavior are instituted to meet these problems. Diversity Of Culture Cultural diversity refers to the wide range of differences in cultural patterns, ideas, beliefs, knowledge, forms of social organization, and practical responses to the environment. There is an enormous range of cultural differences between societies and within the society. When two societies meet, tremendous change may ensue. This happens especially when the two societies differ greatly in economic and political power. In some cases, a native population becomes extinct. There can be subordination of one way of life by another. This may occur peacefully, but it can be a shattering experience both psychologically and culturally. Factors that promote cultural diversity: 1. Presence of social categories. This refers to a collective of persons who share common social characteristics like age, sex, and religion. They share patterns of behavior which are different from the others. For example, the behavior patterns of children differ from that of the adolescents, adults, and the elderly. There are also differences in behavior expectations of males and females. 92

2. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, there also exist groups that somewhat separate from the mainstream society. These subgroups are called subcultures. 3. Cultures differ in ideas and practical responses to the environment. How people harness the natural resources around them differs from group to group, leading to differences in occupation as well as technology. The comparative characteristics of culture are deduced not only by looking for similarities but also for variability, integration, and relativity. Cultural variability. Cultures differ because of the great variety of solutions evolved by people from different societies. Aldous Huxley (in Farson 1965:69) points out that the intellectual capabilities of human beings changed over the last twenty or thirty thousand years. Currently available social science evidences indicate that cultural diversity is not due to people’s inherent learning capabilities. Although comparative testing is difficult to carry out, members of all human societies have exhibited approximately the same level of intelligence. Huxley’s argument indicates that among the important factors which give rise to cultural differences are the kind of environment within which the society lives, the human and natural resources available within this environment, the extent and intensity of exposure the society has to other people from which they can borrow ideas, and their cultural heritage. While biology presents the basic preconditions for all cultures, it leaves room for variations of meeting them. For instance, the staple crops produced and the technologies used in producing these vary. Cultures vary according to what and how people eat, drink, and provide for 93

shelter. Some people like American Indians and Filipinos relish eating seafood; others, like the Navaho and Apache of New Mexico and Arizona, are repelled by the thought of this. Some are carnivorous; others, herbivorous or vegetarian. Some eat dog meat; others cannot imagine doing so. Eating beef is taboo among the Hindus; pork, among the Muslims. Sex differences are based on biological differences. However, the way a man or a woman is expected to act is prescribed by society. Sex roles differ in different societies. There are different patterns of behavior for males and females. The division of labor by sexes is universal, but task assignment according to the sexes is a matter of cultural definition. Maleness and femaleness are institutionalized as statuses and become the core of their identities. Mead (1935) contends that the so-called masculine and feminine characteristics are not based on fundamental sex differences but reflected cultural conditioning by these societies. Among a number of African societies and polygamous groups, the female status is inferior to the male. In the Mexican-American and other Hispanic families, the male role is influenced by the macho personality characterized by male dominance, sexual powers, and physical strength. In matriarchal societies, men are the baby tenders and housekeepers. In Russia, the women perform heavy physical work and are active in professions like medicine (Ruderman, in Epstein and Goode 1971:51). In the Philippines, empirical studies by Gonzalez and Hollnsteiner (1976) on male and roles that are unequal when compared to those of the men, even if both husband and wife work outside of the home.

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Diversity is also present in childbearing practices, like the length of time for suckling the infant, the type and degree of affection to be expressed, the introduction of new food, toilet training, play activity, and discipline. A study of childbearing practices in six cultures (Kenya, India, Okinawa, Mexico, Philippines, and the US) was undertaken by a group of social scientists to explore cross-culturally the relation between the diverse patterns of childbearing and differences in personality (Whiting 1963). Historical accidents, which personal and social experiences attributed to Divine Providence, luck, chance, and destiny, are also deemed to bring about variations in culture. Cultural variability also arises from society’s tendency to preserve cultural practices that were at one time necessary and reasonable but which later became outdated or useless. Traditional practices in community fiestas, mourning rites, religious activities, and so on are illustrative of this Cultural integration. Cultures vary significantly in the consistency of their patterns of values, belief, and behavior. If the ideals to which people commit themselves are consistent with what they believe in and do as family members, teachers, or professionals, or when students are consistent with what they believe in and do while engaging in economic, political, and other activities, then their culture is one where there are no outstanding contradictions between people’s beliefs and their behavior. Within a society, one set of beliefs or actions can differ from another, between institutional goals and means. To illustrate, educational institutions do not. Banks emphasize thrift, frugality, and savings, while commercial agencies stress buying and consumption. This contradiction is also seen in the electorate’s perception that the elected are engaged in “lip service” only. 95

Cultural relativity. Differences in culture also arise from the relativity of the standards that societies uphold and use for evaluating truth, right, propriety, virtue, morality, legality, justice, and beauty and the means of adhering to these. While there have been many attempts to establish universal, absolute standards of “right” and “wrong,” they have never been fully accepted by all people at the same historical period. Standards of propriety, morality, legality, aesthetic, rationality, and religious truth have been as varied and changeable as fashion, hairstyles, and body ornaments. Standards of behavior must thus be understood within the context of a society’s culture. To impose one’s own standards on other societies which have contrasting cultural standards, to assume that one’s own is superior to all others, exemplifies ethnocentrism. To regard one’s own as inferior to others, to despite one’s local culture and admire other foreign cultures as superior is xenocentrism. Summary All societies have culture, although their cultures may differ. Culture refers to that complex hole which consists of all knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by an individual as a member of society. Culture is that complex social heritage or general design for living within a society which has been transmitted by human being interacting with one and other. Society is a group of people occupying a geographical territory with a common culture and interacting with one another. Functionalists emphasize the relationships of the society’s component parts and the resultant equilibrium. Conflict theorists emphasize the power structure 96

and the conflict among the various social classes, resulting into disorder and instability. Culture enables people to adapt to their physical environment and cope with its changes. Culture determines our behavior. Various elements comprise culture, namely: knowledge, norms, beliefs, values, technology, and material things. Knowledge is the body of facts and learning accumulated through experience, study, or investigation and includes natural, supernal, magical, and technical information. Norms are standards of propriety, morality, ethics, of legality and are made up of folkways, mores, and laws. Values are abstract concepts of what are considered as good, desirable, beautiful, and correct, as well as what are bad, undesirable, ugly, and wrong. Beliefs are the embodiment of people’s perception of reality, ranging from the ideas of the primitive societies to the empirical findings of the scientists. Material objects are the products of technology that reflect the nonmaterial culture. As society becomes more complex, subgroups are formed on the basis of age, sex, social class, occupation, religion, or ethnicity. These subgroups develop certain cultural specialties and become subcultures or small cultures within culture. Ethnocentrism or the feeling that one’s culture is the best may develop among members of a group in the process of socialization. This imbues loyalty and a feeling of solidarity in the group. Reverse ethnocentrism is xenocentrism, which is the rejection of one’s own group or some part of it. The opposite view of ethnocentrism is the principle of cultural relativity. The essence of cultural relativity is that there is no single universal standard of behavior to be used to judge any culture.

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All cultures are similar to as well as different from each other. Unity and diversity of cultures can be studied through the use of the comparative approach. Study Help 1. Concepts for study: Culture Society Folkways Ethnocentrism/Xenocentrism Mores Laws Beliefs

Values Subcultures Cultural relativity Cultural universals Cultural diversity

2. How does the lay person’s view of culture differ from that of the sociologist’s? 3. Discuss Wilson’s theory of culture. 4. How does the functionalists’ view of society differ from that of the conflict theorists’? 5. Explain the relationship between language and culture. 6. Discuss the various elements of culture. Give examples of each in your community. 7. Enumerate the culture patterns in your community. Break these culture patterns into culture traits. 8. What were some of your unpleasant experiences when you came to Manila or when you stayed in remote barrio? 9. Contrast the concepts of ethnocentrism and cultural relativity. To which view do you subscribe? Why? 10. Why are there similarities and differences in cultures? 98

Critical Thinking Questions 1. How has culture affected the daily lives of people and society as a whole? 2. How does Wilson’s theory of behavior differ from the theory of culture held by sociologists and anthropologists? Which one do you subscribe to?

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Chapter 4 PHILIPPINE VALUES “Pakidala” and Pasalubong” Why do Filipinos love to send food and consumer goods to relatives and friends halfway around the world? From the Philippines, people package everything from shirts, jeans, halayang ube, pastillas de leche to send to relatives in California. Somebody should tell them that everything that is in the Philippine groceries are available to buy in Asia areas in US. At Ranch supermarket I went to in Las Vegas, I counted 11 brands of patis from Vietnam, Burma, Philippines, Korea, etc. There are shelves and shelves of bagoong, Asian noodles, bins of mangoes, tilapia, sinkamas, gabi, boneless bangus, kangkong. Even inch-long dulong fish is available in Asian supermarkets. Now, going the other way. Designer jogging shoesare cheaper in Manila than in America. So why would anyone buy these in US to send to Manila? Any type of clothing suitable for the Philippines can be bought for a few pesos more in the Philippine malls. The same with clothes and food- chocolates, candies, cereals are all in supermarkets in the Philippines. A family in the Philippines was puzzled when the coffin their deceased mother arrived from the US sent by the sister. The tiny corpse was jammed so tightly into the box that their mother’s face was flattered against the glass lid. When the family opened the coffin they found a letter pinned to their mother’s chest. Dearest brothers and sisters: 100

I am sending you our mother’s remains for burial there. Sorry I could not come along as the expenses were so high. You will find under mama’s body 12 cans of Libby’s corned beef, and 12 cans spam. Just divide these among yourselves. On mama’s feet is a brand new pair of reeboks(size 8 for junior). There are four pairs of reeboks under mama’s head for Miloy’s sons. Mama is wearing six Ralph Lauren T-shirts, one for Manong Roy and the rest for my nephews. Mama is wearing one dozen wonder bras and two dozen Victoria’s secret panties to be distributed among my nieces and cousins. Mama is also wearing eight pairs of Dockers pants. Kuya, Diko, please take one each and give the rest to your boys. The Swiss watch Ate asked for is on mama’s left wrist. Auntie Sol, Mama is wearing the earrings, ring and necklace you asked for. The six pairs of Chanel stockings that mama is also wearing are for the teen age girls. I hope they like the color. Your loving sister, Nene. (Dahli Aspillera, Malaya, 7 May 2002:5) What values operate in these cases? What are Values? Sociologists define customs as the values, beliefs, behavior and material objects that constitute a people’s way of life (Maciones 1997:62). Values are defined culturally as standards by which people assess desirability, goodness, and beauty. Some are good 101

guidelines for social living. Values are statements about what ought to be. (Maciones 1997:70) Values also express the goals or purposes of social action (Inkeles 1964:74). According to Parsons, the concept of shared values refers to a consensus of morals, principles, and standard of behavior. They are society’s moral imperatives that deal with what ought to be and therefore considered desirable and important by the members of society. In contrast to social norms, values are general in nature (Popenoe 1974). Values influence a person’s behavior towards a large class of objects or persons although they are not related to that specific object, person, or group (Banks and Cleg 1973:445-446). They are standards for determining whether something is good and desirable or not and serves as the criteria by which norms themselves are judged (Williams 1974:442). Material goods may refer to food, money or housing. Values also include truth, honesty and justice. Truth, as a value, commands in us as an inner commitment that in turn translates itself into our daily speech and action. Truth is good and desirable; therefore it influences our attitude and behavior. (DECS 1987 Values Education Framework). Human behavior is judged by the standards of “good” and “bad”. Members of a society tend to pattern and standardize their behavior in accordance with values. Those who fail to do so or violate accepted behavioral patterns face the prospect of being ostracized or censured by other members of society. 102

The values of a given society can be deducted from ordinary conversations and from works of travellers, missionaries, folklorists, novelists, journalists, social scientists, and social engineers, such as educators, social workers and community development workers. From Loarca and Morga (1600) through Jaime Bulatao, S. J. Horacio de la Costa, Gelia T. Castillo, Richard W. Coller, Onofre Corpuz, Frank Lynch, D.J. Marry Hollnsteiner, Chester Hunt, Leopoldo Yabes, Felipe L. Jocano, Marcelino Foronda, Leonardo Mercado, and Virgilio Enriquez, whose works present insights into the basic values of the Filipino, we are given an understanding of the forces that have shaped these values. Film heroes, like those in Ang Panday, Darna, and Captain Marvel, have been portrayed as an individualistic persons relying on personal skills and prowess. When people applaud these characters, the action is an expression of judgment, or values. Values are culturally defined standards by which people assess desirability, goodness and beauty. All these serve as “guidelines for social living”. These are statements about what ought to be. Values are broad principles which hold to be good and true. They color our perceptions of our surroundings which form the core of our personalities. The Study of Values Sociologists are interested in examining values. However, these cannot be readily identified since they are abstractions from reality. One has to deduce these values from social action. Sociologists derive meaning from what people do, think, or feel. 103

They study what lies behind or motivates specific actions of people. Thus, they observe the way people behave listen to what they say, and note the comments and insights made by others who observe these actions. To identify the values operating in a given society, one may apply the fourfold test of Robin Williams (1970:448). These are: extensiveness, duration, intensity and prestige of its carrier. Extensiveness refers to the extent the value is recognized by a representative number of people within the society; duration is when the value has been shared and practiced in common for some time; intensity is if the value involves the emotions and is taken seriously and sought after by many; and prestige of its carrier refers to when the value provides ready-made means for judging the social worth of persons or groups who share or practice it. Individuals who do the “right” things or those who conform to the values of a given society are therefore given the feeling of merited esteem (Fichter 1957:302). In this way, values act as means of social control and pressure. Forces that Shape Contemporary Values The Filipinos of the last quarter of the twentieth century are the sum total of the social strains and cultural influences of the Aeta, Indonesian, Malaysian, Hindu, Arabian, Chinese, Spanish, and American people. This one reason is why Filipinos are cosmopolitan; they are both oriental and occidental, so they are 104

familiar and adjust easily with the ways of different peoples and countries. The Aeta, Indonesia, Malaysian, Hindu, Arabian, and Chinese elements are the foundation of the Filipino’s oriental culture- the core of their moral and social conscience and cultural identity. The oriental side of the Filipino evolved from the early trade and commerce and intermarriages between our Filipino ancestors and the Chinese and Hindu merchants, as well as the wave of settlements from other Asian neighbors into the country. Interpersonal and social relationships revolved around blood ties, marriage, and ritual kinship. Spanish and American cultures compose the Filipinos’ occidental ways. Through centuries of Spanish colonial rule, Influences found its way into our religious, political, economic and educational life, As well as into our language, dress, and diet. Spain reduced Roman Catholicism, the encomienda, galleon trade, fiesta, parochial school, municipal building, village plaza, and the compadre system. Through the Roman Catholic church, Spain emphasized the spiritual aspects of life and the preparations for life after death. This set the foundation the foundation for the contemporary Filipino attitude towards divorce, birth control, fiesta and ceremony, and gambling, along with involvement in charitable activities and the faithful attendance of mass (Manis 1964:20). The compadre system initiated the Filipino into the practice of extended families. This has served to strengthen the notorious practice of nepotism and favoritism in the social spheres. The oppressive policies of the Spanish colonizers, such as forced labor to build their ships and churches, developed in the Filipino a hatred for manual labor. 105

The Americanization of the Filipino consisted mainly of the introduction of a democratic system of government. The Americans also popularized education as the most essential channel for social mobility and imposed the use of the English language as the medium of instruction in the school systems that they established in the Philippines. This reinforced the Filipino’s preference for the academic white- collar occupations and encourages the use of honorific titles. The English language and the diploma system served to further the stratification of Philippine society because the initial and primary beneficiaries of AmericanSponsored Education were the Filipino elite. The Americans infused new ideals pertaining to the family, economy, government, education, religion, recreation, and health and welfare. The Americans also introduced into the Filipino way of life the values of materialism and consumerism. Other western influences include the secular orientation of the French Enlightenment from which many Filipino revolutionary thinkers and heroes against the Spanish regime at the turn of the 20th century drew inspiration from, and the romanticism of the literary, musical, and other arts (Yabes 1965:5). The years of the Japanese occupation in 1941-1945 deeply impressed upon the Filipino a rugged materialistic outlook. However, the impact of the Japanese in the Filipino way of life was weak because of the widespread resistance to Japanese rule and the short period of the occupation. The plans of the Japanese-Sponsored government to introduce a new social order did not materialize. In recent years, the Filipino has been exposed to a wide variety of and often conflicting cultural elements from education, mass media, educational exchange programs, economic and diplomatic 106

exchange missions, religious pilgrimages and missionary work, socioeconomic developmental programs, multinational business and industrial establishments, and increased overseas employment. In all those situations, Filipinos have displayed remarkable adaptability, resulting in a “many-sided” cultural heritage. Whatever elements in Filipino culture were borrowed had been “filipinized” and in the process had become distinctly Filipino (Corpuz 1965:5-6). This also resulted in a dichotomous outlookoriental and occidental. While adhere to the predominantly gemeinschaft nature of their society, they are pressed by other forces to incorporate gesselschaft aspects into it. Thus, they are caught in a web of conflicting values and engage in a “strain for consistency” among different value orientations. Values: Inconsistency and Conflict Cultural values can be inconsistent and contradictory (Lloyd 1967;Ballach et al 1985), like the pull of an individualistic attitude against the need to belong and contribute to a larger community. Value inconsistency reflects he cultural diversity of society. This leads to a strained or abnormal balancing act of how we view the world. Values are not called full values unless they go through the cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes. 1. Cognitive. Something that one’s values should be chosen freely from alternatives after careful thought. After considering all choices and carefully thinking about these 107

choices a person makes a decision without any outside pressure. For example, a woman who decides to marry must have a good reason in doing so. It should not be because her father wants her to marry nor because the man she is to marry is her only suitor. She will marry the man because she loves him. 2. Affective. A person’s choice is prized and cherished, and the person publicly affirms it. One who decides to buy an expensive dress after considering its style, price and her other priorities, takes care of it and uses it; one’s chosen career must be valued, loved, and affirmed- one must let people know about it (but not by, for example, saying, “teacher lang po ako”). 3. Behavioral. If one values something, he or she knows this is in his or her actions, acts positively about it, and does it habitually. One who values honesty does not cheat because it is the right thing to do and not because somebody is watching or there is the risk of being caught. Furthermore, one must do it consistently, because a value is not a value unless it is acted in this context. FILIPINO VALUES Four Basic Filipino Values Based on the studies of Jaime Bulatao: 1. Emotional closeness and security in a family. It is in this value where the family, including the extended family like uncles, aunts, ninong, ninang, give support to members of 108

the family. In return, Filipino children are loving to their parents. However, closeness in the family has its weakness. It tends to make the Filipinos a nation of independent people. We have to think on our own. One reason why products are copied in the Philippines is the fact that many Filipinos have no independence to make original ones. 2. Approval from authority and of society. This value brings about the Filipino image as amiable, personable, and the like. Filipinos have the desire to please and be accepted by the authority. 3. Economic and social betterment. This refers to the Filipino value of uplifting one’s state in life. This can be considered a positive value, but negates itself if one goes to the extent of “selling” oneself and sacrificing other values. For example: a Filipina who leaves her family to work for a better paying job abroad and give her kinfolks a chance of living in dignity can be viewed as with a positive value. This gives people resiliency in hard work. However, if she “sells” her body so that she could earn double and thereby sacrificing her morality, then the original value is lost. 4. Patience, endurance, and suffering. This value shows the matiisin attitude among the Filipinos. It enables us to bounce back easily when tragedy strikes. However, it can also be the representation of a battered wife saying “Mahal ko kasi siya eh”. When asked why she still prefers to live with her cruel husband. 109

Basic values are universal. They have strengths and weaknesses. Values could be influenced by others, but it should only be towards the good. Conflicting values and norms are reality. One may face a conflict between the value of abiding by the law and the value of maintaining ethnic solidarity. People have to make decisions about their behavior in the face of equally compelling values. Individuals are exposed to the influence of momentary needs and mass examples (Popenoe 1974:535). Conflicting values are the results of rapid social change or the introduction of foreign culture. This happens, for example, when a young individual from the rural area moves to the city and is confronted with the different values prevailing in the cities. Many times, Filipinos are caught in a web of conflicting values and engaged in a “strain for consistency” among different value orientations. But, generally, we have displayed remarkable adaptability. Values adapted in Philippine Culture Sociologist Robin Williams (1970) identifies ten values which are central to the American culture. Since the US controlled the Philippines as a colony and thus influenced its culture, these values were adapted in Philippine culture. 1. Equal opportunity. Which means that society should provide everyone with the opportunity to be successful. 110

2. Achievement and success. Are encouraged by competition so that a person’s rewards reflect his or her personal trait. 3. Material comfort. Refers to making money. Once we have this, our first impulse is to buy symbols of wealth, such as a house and lot, automobiles, jewelry, and others. 4. Activity and work. We tend to prefer action to reflection and try to accept hard work than accept our fate. 5. Practicality and efficiency. When what is preferred as practical and not theoretical. Today, our educational goals have tended to focus on the practical course, which means those that bring in money, such as nursing, computer programming, etc., over that of medicine, engineering, and law. 6. Progress. The preference for products which are identified as the “latest” therefore the “best”. This is emphasized in commercial aids. 7. Science. The recognition of the works of science experts as the source of knowledge; at the same time giving less attention to emotions and intuition. 8. Democracy and free enterprise. Reflected during elections, when we emphasize our needs and choices. 9. Freedom. The belief that individuals should be free to pursue one’s personal goals with little or no interference from anyone else. Taking this in dogmatic sense, in Metro Manila, drivers stop and park anywhere they prefer backed up by the notion that no interference should be given to their being able to pursue their earning capabilities. 10. Racism and group superiority. Individuals rate others according to sex, race, ethnicity, and social class. 111

Key values that dominate in Philippine way of life The key values that dominate in the Philippine way of life are the following: 1. Non-rationalism-Rationalism. The philosophy implied in non-rationalism is the idea that people have to adapt themselves to nature and the forces outside themselves. Non-rationalism involves an uncritical acceptance, reverence, and the protection of traditions and rituals. There is a resistance to scientific methods, an unswerving loyalty to the group, and unquestioning obedience to authority. Rationalism is the belief that one can actively control and manipulate his or her destiny by systematic planning, studying and training. A person is thus greatly responsible for determining his or her success or failure. The rational person is futureoriented rather than present or past-oriented. His or her thoughts and actions are scientifically oriented and continuously guided by curiosity, observation, and experimentation. He or she gives high priority to el-expression and creativity over group conformity and security. Filipinos have been influenced by western rationalism, although they are still fundamentally non-rational. They view the world as one over which they have little or no control; laying success or failure largely dependent upon supernatural beings or spirits. This is reflected in the expression “bahala na”. This fatalistic outlook rests on the strong dependence on “the spirits” to take care of everything for everybody. Filipinos often say this 112

expression when about to perform a particular task that is difficult to accomplish, although this attitude also prevails when undertaking any task- from the simplest traditional manner of performing household chores, planting and harvesting crops, using and maintaining water and forest resources, up to the more complicated setting up of a business enterprises. “Bahala na” mentality has led to a lack of foresight, contentment with the past, indolence, and a lack of initiative, self-reliance, or pioneering spirit. Because of this attitude, people may become segurista, meaning, they demand a demonstration of assured success before any undertaking. The “bahala na” mentality has also led to the lack of punctuality, vulnerability to awa, dependence to the espiritista, the mangkukulam, or witch. However, the “bahala na” expression also underlies the Filipinos’ determination, courage, fortitude, and willingness to face danger. It is the reason for their readiness to accept and bear the consequences of difficulties in life- the source of their patience or tiyaga. It involves a deep abiding faith that the supernatural spirits will, in the long run, reward with good fortune one’s struggle against difficulties. Other Filipino expressions of this orientalism are in phrases such as, “itinalaga ng diyos,” “iginuhit ng tadhana,” “gulong ng palad (life has its ups and downs, or life is like a wheel of fortune)”, “malas (bad luck)”, “napasubo (forced into something).” Filipinos are also inclined to status-oriented behavior, hiya (shame), utang na loob (dept of gratitude), amor propio (selfesteem), and SIR or the desire for smooth interpersonal 113

relationships. All of these interwave with one another and add up to an accentuation of authoritarianism in the Filipino (Lynch 1962:82-89). The studies by Felipe Landa Jocano (1965:32-56) and Robert Fox (1956) reveal that child-rearing practices emphasize obedience to elders. While Fr. Bulatao (1962:32-44) states that the Filipino is an authoritarian, even dictatorial, when given power and flaunts to everyone the fact that he or she is the boss. This stifles initiative, self-reliance, and sharing of ideas among subordinates or followers. Ruben Santos Cuyugan ( 1961:9-13) points to the prevalence of paternalism in formal organizations, especially in business organizations where greater consideration is given to status. This encourages subjectivity or emotionalism, which leads to demoralization and inefficiency. If greater consideration is attached to function, objectivity is maximized in the use of standardized criteria, like in the areas of recruitment, training, evaluation of performance, and promotion of personnel. Coller points out that the Filipino leans more towards statusoriented rather than to function-oriented behavior. Filipinos are shame-oriented, meaning their major concern is social approval, acceptance by a group, and belonging to a group. Their behavior is generally dependent on what others will thin, say, or do. Their desires and ambitions depend on what pleases or displeases others. Hiya still controls much of the Filipino’s behavior. Amor propio is high self-esteem and is shown in the sensitivity of a person to hurt feelings and insults, real or imagined. This is the manifested in hiya, utang na loob, and SIR. Utang na loob refers 114

to a debt of gratitude for a favor or help extended to a person that is impossible to quantify. Failure to discharge partial payment in the form of gifts or services will cause hiya. Filipinos resort to SIR patterns, such as the use of polite language, soft voice, gentle manner, and indirect approaches like employing intermediaries and euphemisms and biguous expressions, to avoid directness and frankness. The Filipino finds it difficult to say “no” to a request or an invitation and instead use expressions like kuwan, marahil, tila nga, and pipilitin ko. Pakikisama means good public relations or the avoidance of open disagreement or conflict with others. Forms of amor propio are behavioral patterns, such as hele-hele bago quiere or pakipot, which requires that a person initially refuse, be prodded on, before accepting an offer; and delicadesa, which means conformity with the ethnical practices or expectations of the group. Filipinos are observed to be imitative ( gaya-gaya), and such imitativeness gives rise to the penchant for façade, palabas, pakitang-tao, and pagyayabang (Roces 1964:4). This has led Filipinos to be escapists and shut their eyes to problems and postpone to some indefinite future time the performance of tasks that can very well be done in the present. For the Filipino female, the training in the family stresses “patient” suffering. “This results in a double standard of morality and the consensus that it is only the woman who has the duty to attend to the home (Bulatao 1962:32-44). 115

2. Personalism and Impersonalism. Personalism attaches major importance to personal factors which guarantees intimacy, warmth and security of kinship, and friendship in getting things done. Impersonalism refers to the tendency to eliminate the influence of friendship or kinship in working situations. Behavior is depersonalized, standardized, or institutionalized. Thus, the function of a position, and not of the person occupying it, sets the pattern of behavior in the group. Many Filipinos remain personalistic inspite of the rise of impersonalism in the urban areas. This is evident in the frequent charges of nepotism, favoritism, and particularism hurled against public officials. Graft and corruption have been analyzed as products of kinship reciprocity relations (Santos Cuyugan 1961:124-125). Personalism has a deterring effect on the economic, social, and political growth of the Philippine society. The Filipino way of doing things is centered too much on personalities. The inability to dissociate personalities from function and positions makes it extremely difficult for them to be really objective in making judgments. Filipinos persist in settling matters in a roundabout way. They resort to pakiusap, areglo, and lakad, which weaken the merit system specially in employment (Bulatao 1975). 3. Particularism – Universalism When a person’s concern is centered on subgroups or made up of relatives, friends, colleagues, associates, religious affiliates or members of his or her ethnical regional group, that individual is 116

called particularistic. When one’s main concern is the advancement of the collective national good, he or she is said to be universalistic. In the Philippines, ethnical rules stress particularistic interests, while legal rules are universalistic, meaning, these were formulated in consideration of the whole society’s general welfare. The Filipino’s concept of tayo-tayo strongly denotes particularism (Jocano 1964). The kinship group is enlarged through ritual kinship such as marriage, baptismal, and confirmation rites. These extend the group of relatives to the compadres, ninong, bayaw, inaanak, and so on. Often, Filipinos are regionalistic and generally think of themselves, first and above all, as members of their local region and only secondarily as Filipino. 4. Filipino Nationalism Nationalism is the advocacy of making one’s own nation distinct and separate from others in the intellectual, social, cultural, economic, political, and moral matters. It is the feeling of oneness among the nationals who seek to establish the identity and the good of the nation in these matters. More than just a sentiment of love or affection or feeling of patriotism for one’s country, nationalism is a philosophy or a doctrine of what a country is, what its goals are, and how it is to achieve these goals. Nationalism can be a factor for either evil or good. If carried to its extreme, it may take the form of ethnocentrism, racism, or xenophobia. Nationalism is constructive when it encourages analytic self-knowledge of the weak and strong points of the country and supports the universalistic values. 117

As a sentiment, nationalism has neither strongly swept nor deeply penetrated the entire Philippine nation. Some observers note that Filipinos suffer from “national amnesia” and “colonial mentality”. Filipinos have a strong preference for imported goods and easily adapt themselves to foreign ideas and ways. Many attribute this to our lack of national integration. However, schools, people’s organizations, groups and individuals are now exploring more about their cultural roots and searching for a national identity. This may eventually lead to a stronger sense of nationalism. The increase in social and technological inventions has made it more difficult for any society to isolate itself from the rest of the world. Awareness and understanding of contemporary values in society will put us in a better position to determine what we gain or lose in a predominantly gemeinschaft society characterized by intimate, informal, reciprocal, and warm social interpersonal relations stemming from non-rationalism, personalism, and particularism; or in a predominantly gesselschaft society characterized by anonymity, formality, contractualism, and coldness arising from rationalism, impersonalism and universalism. Summary Every culture has its core a basic set of values. These values consist of ultimate ends, goals or purposes of social action. Value orientation represents the social conscience internalized and integrated within individual members of society and the ethos which gives culture its unity, form, and identity at any given time and place. Varied forces operate in shaping people’s value orientation. 118

Contemporary Philippine values manifest a “strain for consistency” among values in a gemeinschaft society and those in a gesselschaft society. Present-day Filipinos are confronted with contradicting values with varying degrees of nonuniversalism as they search for a national identity. But whatever the present orientation, Filipino values are seen to be moving toward rationalism, nationalism, and universalism. Study Guide 1. Define the following key values: Personalism Impersonalism Non-rationalism Particularism Rationalism Universalism Bahala na Nationalism Utang na loob 2. Why do sociologists study values? 3. How are values studied scientifically? 4. What are the positive and negative implications of the value orientations of Filipino on national development goals? 5. Summarize the works of social scientists regarding Philippine value orientation. Critical Thinking Questions 1. Study the value orientations prevailing in the campus, factory, professional associations, and your barangay. How do they differ in content? Why? 2. What is the value content of mass media products, such as in television, movies, radio programs, newspapers, comics, and others? 119

3. What values have a deterring effect on the economic, social, and political growth of Philippine society?

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Chapter 5 THE PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION “My first playmates were my brother, since I had no sister. I tried to join their games, which were, of course, boy’s games such as tug-of-war. I enjoyed the challenge, but at the end of the day would go home crying because I’d gotten wounded in the skirmish. Father would then scold the boys for being inconsiderate towards me, a girl; mother would tell me that I was not supposed to play their games because I was a girl. On my birthday, my mother gave me a huge box containing toys for playing house. She tried to impress upon me the virtues and behavior expect of girls, like modesty, helpfulness, and neatness. Such was my first distinction between feminine and masculine roles.” Excerpt from a student’s term paper The story above illustrates a girl’s experience in the socialization process. The girl is exposed to boy’s games but constrained by the behavior patterns expected of her. She is introduced to the distinction between masculine and feminine roles. Human Development How does newly born baby become a human or social being? We are all born helpless and dependent on other people, like on the family, kin, and friends, for survival. We are taught society’s ways of behavior, thinking, and feeling. We learn how to walk, talk, eat, 121

and relate to others and other patterns of behavior from our family or friends. Even the manner of expressing grief is learned. In the human infant’s development, there are two important factors at work – heredity and the sociocultural environment. How much our personality is determined by our biological inheritance (nature) and how much is determined by social-cultural environment (nurture) is hard to ascertain, although most scientists agree that both heredity and the social environment, interacting in complex ways, influence personality development. As mentioned in the chapter on Culture, sociobiologists believe that many social traits are genetically determined, although they have not identified which genetic potentials would be developed as a result of restrictions on a given physical, social, and cultural environment. The biological traits transferred from parents to offspring though genes in the chromosomes of the sex cells are composed of the biological structures, psychological process, reflexes, urges, capacity, intelligence, and other physical traits such as pigmentation and stature. These provide the ‘raw materials’ from which personality is formed. These affect socialization because the way we define ourselves is, to a certain extent, determined by the other people react to our appearance and capacities. Cultural definitions also affect socialization. Some biological traits, for example, are regarded as more socially desirable than others. A physically fit individual can easily qualify for sports activities; physical fitness is a requirement in the work force. A beautiful face is an asset for jobs like those in the entertainment industry. A high I.Q. enables one to enter professions like physics, 122

engineering, or medicine and gain scholarship grants and recognition in professional fields. These genetically determined qualities set limits on the range of things a person can do, but the extent to which these traits can be developed depends on the sociocultural environment. The basic biological capacity for some type of skill or aptitude, like singing or painting, is an important determinant for achievement, but it cannot be used to its fullest advantage if there are no opportunities for its development. The sociocultural environment influences one’s action patterns and motivational skills, factual knowledge, values, and tastes. Society has role prescriptions for age and sex, which markedly shape our social identities. However, biological inheritance is also significant in human development for it enables the person to learn or, inversely, sets limits to learning. Heredity involves passing the genetic traits from parents to offspring that provide the basic materials for human development. The cultural and social environments are distinct but interrelated. The cultural environment refers to the learned ways of living and norms of behaviors – folkways, mores, laws, values, ideas, and patterned ways of group. Cultural norms are present once the child is born and these are constantly impinged on him or her. Culture determines what a child will learn as a member of society and of specific social groups. The culture also regulates the type of behavior which is considered appropriate to the individual of a particular age, sex, and line of work. Through some normative pressures and sanctions, one acts as the culture approves, although one is also offered situations for personal expression and satisfaction. Studies of cultural anthropologists have shown 123

the relationship between child-rearing practices in a particular culture and the traits developed among its members as well as on personality formation. The influence of a cultural environment is not limited to childrearing techniques. Culture continues to shape a person’s personality throughout life by providing them with models (Linton 1936:143-144). Thus, personality is shaped according to and depending on one’s culture and subculture. Personality refers to the sum total of all the physical, mental, emotional, social, and behavioral characteristics of the individual (Landis 1998:47). Social environment, on the other hand, refers to the various groups and social interactions going on in the groups of which one is a member. Membership in a group implies exposure to a social environment. The social environment provides a crucial role in the development of human infant. The literature of American sociology cites cases of extreme social isolation where early social interaction is absent; there is no training and inculcation of social values, norms, attitudes and beliefs, no warmth, comfort, and love in relation to the infant. From birth onwards, a child normally joins various groups, and each group imposes certain norms and a set of expectations on each member. From the structure and size of the social group and the kind of social relations and interactions, the child’s personality is formed. The family structure determines the nature of the child’s interpersonal experience, which in turn is affected by the wider society. Through parental training, the child is prepared for effective adaptation to a changing social order. The size of the social group and the position or status one has in a group also 124

affect one’s social experiences. An only child’s experiences will be different from the child of a large family. The oldest child will have different experiences from those of the middle child or the youngest in the same family. The individual is exposed to varying social experiences in the various groups that he or she joins; these affect his or her attitudes and values. Likewise, the restraints which these social groups impose on the person serve as a means of social control (Parson 1961:686). Thus, the kind of social groups and the social experiences on has, exert a great influence on one’s personality. How do the determinants of personality combine? While biological inheritance provides the raw materials for personality formation, the sociocultural factors determine the extent of the development and expression of the biological potentialities. A child with average intelligence placed in a high standard school can surpass one with above average intelligence studying in a low-quality school. Inherited potentials establish the range of socialization, but the sociocultural environment greatly affects the extent to which the inherited potential can be realized (Light and Keller 1982:117). Behavior as biologically based While sociologists and anthropologists hold that culture determines our behavior, sociobiologists have formulated a new theory of behavior. Sociobiologists are biologists by training, and hold that behavior is biologically based. Edwards Wilson, an entomologist from Harvard University and a proponent of this view, formulated a new theory of behavior in his book, Sociology: The New Synthesis. He suggested that social behavior is 125

determined by inborn genetic traits similar to the influence of genetic traits on lower animals. Wilson’s theory is based on Charles Darwin’s principle of natural selection. Wilson held that genetic traits are transmitted from generation to generation through heredity. Biological variations take place through mutation or change in genetic composition. The process of natural selection acts on this mutation and becomes the principal factor in the origin of the new species, as well as in new patterns of behavior. Social groups adapt to their environment through the evolution of genetic traits or be genetic mutation and natural selection. Human culture and social behavior evolve through natural selection and natural transmission. Behavior like aggression, love, greed, or spite can be explained in terms of genetically based transmission. Wilson held that both altruistic and warlike behaviors are thus biologically based. Culture and symbolic language and meaning attached to social behavior are essentially products of natural selection and are the result of millions of years of evolution (Time 1977:35ff.;Shepard 1984:75-77). Wilson observed certain social traits found in all cultures which, upon close examination, are as diagnostic of humankind as are the distinguishing marks of other animal species. These behavior patterns are called culture universals which indicate that much of culture is biologically inherited rather than learned. Wilson’s theory has stirred both interest and criticism. Some anthropologists point out that because there are tremendous variations and diversity of human behavior and cultural elements, the theory that social traits are biologically determines is 126

unacceptable. Sociologists maintain that behavior varies from culture to culture. For example, the expression of sexual behavior varies from society to society. It has also been noted that altruism and warlike behavior are not found in many societies. Some sociologists point out that sociology underrates the emergence of the human brain, consciousness, and culture. They believe that genetic heritage and culture influence human behavior, but genetically inherited reflexes and drives. One is taught how to eat, when and how to cry, when and how to share things with others, and other forms of behavior. Theories of Personality Development and the Social Self Various theories have been formulated explaining the development of personality. However, we shall limit our discussion to just three theories: the Freudian Theory, the cultural determinism of cultural anthropologists, and the symbolic interactionism held by some sociologists and social psychologists. Freud’s Theory of Socialization Sigmund Freud, foremost Viennese psychologist, formulated the first comprehensive theory of personality, which had a great impact not only on the social sciences but also in art, literature, and philosophy. Freud’s theory is a form of biological determinism which holds that socialization is a process characterized by the internal struggle between the biological components and the social-cultural environment. Freud proposed that personality consisted of three major systems, namely: the id, ego, and superego. 127

The id is the biological component which is the source of a number of drives and urges. It centers around the satisfaction of basic needs like food and sex, and operates on the pleasure principle. The ego is the mediator between the needs of the individual and the real world, and strives to delay tension until the suitable environment exists. The cognitive and intellectual processes are controlled by the ego. The moral arm of personality, representing the traditional rules, values, and ideals of society, is the superego. The id, which represents the biological drives, and the superego, which stands for the values and morals of society, is continually in conflict, while the ego mediates between them. The first five years of the child’s development plays a decisive role in personality development, as this is the period when the basic personality structure is formed. Personality development undergoes different stages, which show the unfolding of the sex instinct. This psychological development is fraught with tensions (Hall and Lindzy 1978:36-38) The various stages of development are as follows (Giddens 1989:70-71, Crain 2000:240-246): 1. Oral stage- from birth to one year old.in this stage, eating is the major source of satisfaction. Sucking the mother’s breast is the most important thing for the baby, as it provides nourishment and gives pleasure. In the first six months, the baby has no concept of people or things. Even if the mother comforts and nourishes the bay, the latter does not recognize the person as such. Freud described this stage as one of primary narcissism or self-love. Sleep is the basic narcissistic state where the baby feels content and lost to the outside world. After six months, the baby develops a 128

concept of the mother as a separate, necessary person. Frustration or overindulgence at this stage can lead to overeating or alcoholism in later adulthood. 2. Anal stage- from ages one to three years. The anal zone becomes the center of the child’s sexual interest. The influencing factor at this stage is toilet training. People who are fixated at this stage are grasping and stingy. 3. Phallic stage- between the ages of three to six years. At this time, the greatest source of pleasure comes from the sex organs. This is when the child desires the parent of the opposite sex, so that boys desire their mothers and girls desire their fathers. The first is termed as Oedipus complex, and the second is called the Electra complex. Eventually, the child feels erotic desire toward the parent of the opposite sex and hostility for the parent of the same sex, but identifies with the parent of the same sex. The boy resolves the Oedipal desires towards the mother by relegating his sexual feeling into his unconscious. He overcomes his rivalry with his father by repressing his hostile feelings and identifying with him. To overcome the oedipal crisis, the boy internalizes a superego by following his parents’ moral prohibitions. On the other hand, by the age of five the girl becomes disappointed with the mother as the latter does not give her the constant love and care she used to show. She develops the Electra complex and gradually settles the crisis because she fears the loss of parental love. 4. Latency Stage- from ages six to eleven years or early adolescence. The child enters this period with strong defenses against the oedipal feelings. In this stage, children turn their attention to people outside their families, like teachers and friends; the erotic impulses are dormant. Their 129

energies are redirected into concrete, socially acceptable pursuits such as sports, games, and intellectual activities. The child possesses new composure and self-control. 5. Genital Stage (Puberty) - starts at about age 11 for girls and age 13 for boys. During the adolescent years, the oedipal feelings reoccur, and the child develops contempt for parents. The child tries to avoid all physical pleasures, like sumptuous food, attractive clothes, dancing, and other kinds of fun, and instead adheres to asceticism. They may also adhere to intellectualism and delve into abstract, intellectual projects. Eventually, they focus on the opposite sex, look around for a potential love partner, and prepare for marriage and adult responsibilities. Freud’s theories encountered a lot of criticism. His stress on the sex instinct and his attribution of biological drives for human behavior were widely criticized. Critics pointed out that his ideas were vague and hard to define and that many portions of his theories did not have any empirical basis and thus were difficult to check empirically. However, his theories continue to exert a great influence on the social sciences and have been the basis of further theorizing among the so-called Neo Freudians. Culture and Personality Cultural determinism, the personality development theory held by anthropologists, views the cultural environment as the main factor for determining human behavior. Franz Boas, an American anthropologist. Together with Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict, Ralph Linton, Cora Du Bois, and Edward Sapir, were the proponents of this theory. Boas’s view is that personality 130

development results from learning what is found in the culture, and that significant differences in personality are learned. Boas believed that regardless of how a given culture comes into being, the behavior of all persons socialized within it is determined by cultural forces (Stark 1987:148). Ruth Benedict maintained that individual personalities of members of a society are tiny replicas of their overall culture, with the culture as a summing-up of their personalities. Because of the tremendous influence of culture on members’ behavior, including their world views, anthropologists talk of the formation of a national character, a modal personality or basic personality which manifests similar personality characteristics and patterns of behavior of the members socialized in a given society. Culture presents uniform and patterned ways that influence behavior, so that the members of society tend to share many elements that differentiate them from members of other societies. Likewise, members of a society are subjected to similar childhood experiences, producing similarities in personality. Cultural determinants of personalities range from matters of social graces and rules of etiquette to attitudes toward society and the universe. The cluster of behavior patterns, attitudes, and values shown by members of a society may be termed as the society’s basic personality. Anthropologists believe that culture leaves deep and permanent effects on the individual during early childhood. Practices revolving around feeding (whether a baby is breast-fed or bottlefed), toilet training, and weaning (whether the child is weaned 131

early or later in childhood) affect the formation of the basic personality. In the Philippines, studies on the relationship between childrearing practices and personality development have been made. Lagmay investigated the socialization process, characteristics of the early emotional relationship between parents and child, and the social relationships in late childhood and adolescence to the transformation to adulthood. The study revealed that child-rearing practices had influenced the development of values such as nonaggression, obedience, respect, sociability, and achievement orientation. However, critics point out that the anthropologists’ observations were based on small simple societies where similarities in behavior and values are likely to result. In large, technologically advanced modern societies, there would be more variations in behavior, and general descriptions of society cannot be made. Lindesmith and Strauss (1956:540) wrote: “The dangers inherent in general descriptions of societies and in the postulation of common national characters are great. Any social scientist who seeks to characterize a modern nation has to handle a host of detailed problems and meet a number of exacting requirements. These have to do with sampling, regional differences, migration, ethnic differences, social classes, diverse group affiliation and standards, cultural conflicts, and enormous bodies of literature and historical materials.”

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Symbolic Interactionism The theory of symbolic interactionism is based primarily on the works and ideas of George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley, and later expounded by other social psychologists. This theory poses that self-identity is developed through the social interaction with others, mediated by language in the process of socialization. Human behavior differs from animals because humans use symbols with meaning attached to them. The distinctive attributes of human behavior grow from people’s participation in varying types of social structures which, in turn, depend on the existence of language behavior. Language is crucial in the development of the social self. The symbols that constitute a language represent concepts by which the person engaged in cooperative activity acquires the attitudes of others involved in that activity (Mead 1934:135). For the proponents of symbolic interactionism, the development of the social self and the generalized others are important. Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self The ability of children to visualize themselves through the eyes of others, to imagine how they appear to others, is what Cooley calls the ‘looking glass self’ or the social self. In childhood, the family, friends, the teachers, classmates, and peer group exert a great influence in forming a child’s self-concept. They constitute his or her primary group or form a part of what is called ‘significant others.’ These significant others become models for the child who usually identifies with them and patterns his or her behavior after them. In later life, colleagues or co-employees, the boss, the 133

sweetheart, and eventually the spouse contribute to the process. The individual imagines how he or she looks to others and compares ideas about himself or herself with the social norms of the group. Cooley (1922:184) thus wrote about the social self: “As we see… our face, figure and dress in the glass and are interested in them because they are ours, and pleased or otherwise with them according as they do or do not answer to what we should like them to be; so in imagination, we perceive in another’s mind some thought of our appearance, manners, aims, deeds, character, friends, and so on, and are variously affected by it.” According to Cooley, the looking-glass self has three elements: 1) the imagination of how we appear to other persons, 2) the imagination of the judgment of that appearance, and 3) a sort of self-feeling, such as pride or mortification. This means that the self is seen through the eyes of other people and how they evaluate our appearance. This self-development is a lifelong process, and personality is thus not fixed. The emergence of the self goes along with other social processes: the development of self-preferences and an awareness of role-playing (Kuhn and McPartland 1954:68-76). This conception of the self or the ability to visualize oneself through the responses of others is an important factor in an individual’s behavior. How one reacts to various social situations will be dependent on how satisfactorily or unsatisfactorily the image is formed of the self.

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Mead and the Development of the Self George Herbert Mead expanded Cooley’s idea of the social self by relating the idea of the self-concept to role taking. He believed that the behavior and perception held by individuals are influenced by the social groups of which they are members. The human infant is born helpless and without a sense of self. According to Mead (1934), the self emerges in the process of socialization mediated by language. This starts at birth, when parents hold their baby and attend to his or her needs. In the interaction between parent or yaya (nurse or caretaker of the baby) and the child, the baby begins to realize that he or she depends on other people for comfort. Gradually, the baby acquires some significant others and learns that certain actions like crying, smiling, screaming, and reaching out will elicit responses from the people around. In learning to communicate symbolically, children begin to think about themselves and their behavior by reacting to how others respond to them. Children acquire a kind of crude self-awareness around the age of two or three years. Important in the development of the self is having a name and labeled as a distinct object. As children learn a language, they become aware of themselves and talk in terms of ‘I,’ a sign of self-consciousness. Through contact with mother, father, brother, or sister, they gradually see themselves as an object. In this relationship, the parents apply certain cultural expectations or standards which children have to internalize as they mature. They learn that the attitudes of others are often in conflict with their own and that they must take these into account. 135

Children are taught how to pray, eat properly, keep their clothes clean, and respect others. Children engage in play and learn to take the role of the others, like those of father, mother, teacher, doctor, policeman, etc. through make-believe verbal play, they develop the ability to look at themselves from the standpoint of others. They internalize the supposed opinions and attitude of others, which eventually regulate their behavior. They acquire a sense of self when they develop the ‘me’ or self-consciousness by seeing themselves through the responses of others. This is what Mead called the play stage – the period during which children take on the roles of other individuals or significant others, one at a time. Then, the child enters the game stage. Children are able to consider the roles of other people at the same time and what are expected of all the others at the same time. Children are also able to respond to a number of individuals in the group and integrate the various norms of the group. This takes place in what Mead (1934:151-152) calls the period of the ‘generalized others.’ Around the age of eight or nine, children engage in games where they are able to take the attitudes and responses of others in social activity and know that these roles have a definite relationship with each other. They visualize their own action as a part of a whole pattern of group activity. This is similar to being engaged in a game like basketball where a player must see his or her relationship with the roles played by others. To play the game of life, the individual must know his or her role in relation to others and be aware of their values. In the process, the individual assumes the organized social attitudes and moral ideas of the social group or communities to which one belongs. 136

These exert an influence on a person’s attitudes toward different projects and cooperative activities, as well as social problems which the group faces, and can direct his or her own behavior accordingly (Mead 1934:208). These become the individual’s orientation toward the world and his or her frame of reference as new situations arise. The individual thinks, feels, and sees things from a perspective characteristic of the group of which he or she is a member. We develop a self-image and an identity, a conception of who we are, and become meaningful in relation to others’ self, such that we may be one thing to one person and another to others. This is the ability to take the role of the others and so with the wider community (Marsch 1996:72) Erving Goffman and the dramaturgical approach Erving Goffman made use of the dramaturgical approach with his expression, “All the world is a stage.” He said that individuals are performing and acting for their audience in everyday life. He illustrated the interactionist approach and said that our behavior continually follows intricate patterns as we follow a set of implicit instructions that influence their role behavior (Marsch 1996:73). Erving Goffman elaborated the idea of role and role performance. Role refers to acting in accordance with the expected norms attached to a particular position, while role performance is the actual conduct of the role in accordance with the position. In his book, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959), he tried to show how certain processes modify the presentation of self and the impact of role expectations on the behavior of an individual. Our presentation of self to others involves impression management, which is the manipulation of scenery, 137

communicative devices, external props, and costumes, which propel our behavior to negotiate new social situations and convey a particular role image to others. Goffman compared the behavior of people in a society to acting on stage. People play out a script vis-à-vis society’s expectations and in order to improve their chances of presenting a good performance. To impress the audience, they develop certain dramatic skills. As an individual performs a role, he or she has to see to it that the impression conveyed to others (the audience) is in accordance with the role or appropriate personal qualities ascribed to it. For example, a teacher is expected to be patient, knowledgeable, and firm; a vendor to be affable, understanding, and courteous; a priest or nun to be pious, humble and compassionate. To Goffman, everyone is consciously playing a role. When persons present themselves to others in everyday interaction, they organize their overt behavior in such a way as to guide and control the impressions others form of them and to elicit the desired role-taking response. Like the actor on stage, they endeavor to give good performance. In the presentation of the self, they give information about themselves. The management of this role-taking may be completely sincere or coldly manipulative, deliberately done or unintentional. When trying to be calculating, one may intentionally and consciously express himself or herself in a particular way or in accordance with the traditions or social expectations of the group who, in turn, may be suitably impressed by what was conveyed. The individual in this case has effectively projected a given 138

definition of the situation and has promoted the understanding of that situation. At other times, a misunderstanding of the situation may arise, and other comes to conclusions that are guaranteed neither by the individual’s intent nor by the facts. At times, the impression is unintentional, such as those transmitted by gestures or by the type of clothes worn for an occasion. When interacting with others, most people make use of gestures, language, dress, etc. to influence the impression on their behavior and make a good and desirable interpretation of their behavior. Teachers, doctors, judges, policemen, executives, and others try to guide the impression others make of them. In interacting with others, the individual will try as much as possible to discover about the situation set for meeting other people. In playing roles, one displays great skills in creating and managing impression (Marsh 1966:75). The Process of Socialization How an infant develops into a functioning social being and emerges with a self-identity, a social self, and a personality is called socialization. To become a social being, one has to learn the expectations, habits, values, beliefs, and other requirements necessary for effective participation in social groups. Socialization enables us to develop our human potentials and learn the ways of thinking, talking, and acting that are necessary for social living and are essential for the individual’s survival and human development. The child must be socialized to function effectively in society. How one eats, walks, talks, raises children, makes love, and dies are functions of the culture in which one is raised (Kendall 2000:72). 139

Socialization is a lifelong process which begins at birth and ends at death. Through this lifelong process, one takes specific points of view. Views on religion, politics, family life, sports, commission of crime, and raising children are all learned through the social process. Human beings are born without any concept of self. They do not know the parts of their body, what to eat, what to do, what to believe in, and how to communicate. But they are born into a social world with its ready-made culture. The people around them instruct them on what to do, what to believe in, how to behave, and even how to eel through a system of reward and punishment. Symbols and ways of classifying experiences are taught to children through the medium of language so that they begin to interact with others and share in the culture’s common stock of symbols, norms, and values. Socialization is the process whereby children become participating and functioning members of society. Children learn to conform to the norms of the group, acquire status, play a role, and emerge with a personality. Teaching and learning the culture enable the child to become part of society, to interact smoothly with others, to share in the culture’s common standards of symbols, norms, and knowledge. As Broom and Selznick (1977:86) said, socialization is the process of fitting into an organized way of life and established cultural tradition and includes the complementary process of transmission of the culture and social heritage and the development of personality. Through socialization, the helpless infant is transformed into a mature adult. Medina (1991:47) enumerates some functions of socialization: 1) an agent in the 140

transmittal of values, customs, and beliefs from one generation to another; 2) enables the individual to grow and develop into a socially functioning person; 3) a means of social control by which members are encouraged to conform to the ways of the group by internalizing the group’s norms and values. Socialization is directed at the problem of continuity, which occurs when children became productive adult members (Wright, Weiss, and Unkowic 1975:136). This is realized in the child-rearing process. However, socialization should not be thought of as simply molding an individual according to a standardized social pattern. Social pressures are applied to make members conform, but they may react differently. Some societies provide a range of leeway for one’s actions. This accounts for similarities as well as diversity in behavior. The individual being socialized is not a passive object. While he or she generally conforms to the standards and values, there are times when one deviates. Such resistance may partly be due to biological characteristics. In some instances, the culture provides certain motivations for pulling away from conformity, such as desires for material wealth or needs, sensual satisfaction, and power (Wrong 1968:131). Members in a society can, thus, be active agents in creating, maintaining, and occasionally changing their interpersonal environment and culture. Landis (1998:44-45) states two levels of socialization, namely, primary and secondary. According to him, citing Berger and Luckman, primary socialization occurs in childhood through which one becomes a member society. It takes place in the family where the child usually has no choice but to accept and internalize the family’s view of the world. The child learns the ways of behaving, 141

the values, attitudes, and beliefs which lay the foundation or basic structure for further socialization. Secondary socialization occurs when the individual moves into and internalizes knowledge and attitudes of new sectors of life. This occurs when one pursues a line of work or career, decides to get married, and start a family. The secondary level of socialization is not as emotionally charged as in primary socialization. One can also be more objective in secondary socialization. Secondary socialization is usually gradual and changes that take place are usually minor. Socialization is a continuous, lifelong process of learning and learning. As people move from one stage of life to another, such as from childhood to adolescence, from adulthood to old age, or from one group to another, they discard old ways of behaving and learn new patterns of behavior. This can be noted when one gets married, joins an occupational group, enters the military service, enters the priesthood, or becomes a religious. One has to adapt to the norms or requirements of the group if one is to be a functioning member of that group and drop the unsuitable old patterns. In some cases, the individual undergoes a probationary or training period, followed by formal initiation rites or celebration where established members receive newly qualified members into their fold. The process of socialization goes on as a person enters new situations, adopts new roles, and drops others. Even in retirement, one has to be reoriented to the exigencies of the situation. The loss of the previous status and the disturbance of social relationships can be upsetting to the retiree. Some persons even have to learn how to cope with death. 142

Now and then, there may be re-socialization or modifications or reconstruction in the life-style behavior pattern and modes of thinking of an individual. When people join the military, they are re-socialized Trainees are subjected to rigorous patterns of behavior, like going to bed early and waking up early, eating fast, cleaning the barracks, and unquestioning obedience to authority. When one joins a religious cult or religious order, a rehabilitation center, or when one is sent to prison, the individual concerned experiences re-socialization. Socialization for Roles Socialization is a lifelong process where individuals develop a self-concept and prepare for roles, which in turn shape personality. The responds to categories called social statues (Clark and Robboy 1986:65). The child must learn the categories or statuses by which to identify or define himself or herself, like being a daughter, friend, student, Catholic lay evangelist, secretary of the Book Lovers Club, etc. social status refers to the position an individual occupies in society and implies an array of rights and duties (Linton 1936:113). Associated with the status is a social role, which involves the pattern of expected behavior in a social relationship with one or more persons occupying other statuses. Implied in the role is the execution of the rights and duties. For example, the role of a father in our culture is obliged to support, protect, educate, guide, discipline, and love his children. Societies have developed two types of statuses: the ascribed and the achieved (Linton 1936:113). Ascribed statuses are those assigned to the individual from birth and which involve little personal choice, like age and sex. These characteristics are fixed 143

at birth by biological characteristics over which the individual has little control. An ascribed status carries with it certain expectations of behavior. Females are expected to fulfill the roles of wife, mother, and homemaker. Age is another reference point as individuals pass through the cycle of growth and maturation. An individual is labeled a child, an adolescent, an adult, and an old person. Ascription may also be based on class, caste, ethnicity, and racial groupings, which are always entirely determined by cultural definitions. The achieved status is acquired by choice or through merit and individual effort and is made possible through special abilities or talents, performance, or opportunity. The choice in occupation, of whether or not to get married, of whether to join a political party or a religious organization – all illustrate achieved status. Each individual continually learns new roles starting with his or her primary groups and, later, in a social group where one undergoes specialized role training according to expected behavior patterns. The essentials in role-playing are (Lindersmith, Strauss, and Denzin 1975:400): 1) A definition of the role and an identification of self; 2) Behavior in given situations appropriate to the role; 3) A background of related acts by others (counter roles) which serve as cues to guide specific performance; 4) An evaluation by the individual and by others of the performance of the role. Agencies of Socialization Various groups or institutions play a significant role in the socialization of an individual and in shaping that person’s 144

personality. Foremost among them is the family. But as the child grows older, he or she is influenced by other socializing agencies like friends, school, church, and mass media. The Family The family plays an important role and has special responsibility in the socialization of a child. It is usually the most influential group in the child’s life. The formative years and the development of the self and personality are undertaken by the family. The family gives care, emotional support, shelter, medical attention, and educational training. The family influences the child in choosing a vocation, career, or profession. Among impoverished families in rural areas, children are sent to work in farms and mines or to help in fishing. In urban areas, children are made to sell cigarettes, leis of sampaguita, or to beg. Some girls are even forced to be prostitutes. One’s specific position in society depends on the family’s social class. However, there are instances of people who strove to change their social status and succeeded in becoming professionals and executives. The parents are the significant others of the child. Parents give moral guidance and discipline to the children. The cultural heritage of a society is transmitted by parents to the children. The child gets affection, love, and a sense of belonging which are important in the development of one’s self-identity. In case the mother is working, there are surrogates, like the grandparents, aunts, cousins, siblings, or yayas in the urban areas. The family plays a unique role in personality development and is the main link between the child and society. Here, the child gains his or her first experiences in love, affection, kindness, sympathy, courtesy, 145

and other traits. The older members generally set examples to the child, who learns the habits, attitudes, and values of the group through some system of reward and punishment. The child either conforms to the rules or rebels against them. Performance of socially accepted behavior is rewarded, while socially undesirable ones are punished. The Child and Youth Welfare Code (1976:14) provides that the parents have the primary right and obligation to provide for the upbringing of their children and to discipline them as may be necessary for the formation of their good character. In the family, children learn to cooperate, compete, and accommodate. These kinds of interaction may eventually determine their relationship with others. The family is, thus, and ever-pervasive influence on the individual’s behavior, particularly in simple and agricultural societies. The Peer Group As the child grows older, the family’s role in socialization is gradually replaced or supplemented by the peer group. The informal grouping of two or more members, more or less of the same age, neighborhood, or school is called peer group, friends, clique, gang, or barkada. Membership in a peer group continues u to adulthood or even old age, peaking during adolescence when persons tend to form some kind of subculture. Among adults, peer groups are formed in places of work, in the practice of one’s profession, in politics, and in religious groups. Children can learn a number of things in the peer group, like engaging in competitive, conflicting, and cooperative relationships 146

with others; making decisions; engaging in activities involving selfexpression; and experimenting with new ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Eventually, they develop self-sufficiency and learn to be flexible and to get along with others in changing world (Schaefer 2001:104). With the decline of parental authority, the peer group serves as the role model and source of values and attitudes for the young (Medina 1991:248-249). Released from the dominating pressures of parents, children gain some freedom as they join playgroups. Should there be a conflict, they settle it with equals. Moreover, they learn to develop self-sufficiency and perspectives different from those of their parents. Among adolescents or teenagers, the peer group becomes an important reference group. Their life-style, consumption needs, leisure, recreation, and other activities are influenced by the peer group and aided by media. Members of a peer group are pressured to follow the expectations of the group. Some members of cause-oriented groups dedicate themselves to working for certain ideals, like human rights, social justice, upliftment of the poor, and doing volunteer work in the provinces. On the other hand, deviant behavior groups encourage stealing, shoplifting, or vandalism. When parental guidance, affection, and attention are lacking, the peer groups become more influential. In his study of Looban, a slum neighborhood in Sta. Ana, Manila, Jocano (1975) observed that street gangs were a prominent feature of slum life. These gangs were groups of young people aged 15 to 35. Most members had records of previous arrests for antisocial activities, ranging from theft to murder. Most came from broken homes. They had no definite set of goals except companionship. Among 147

the values observed were utang na loob, pakikisama, and damay or concern over the difficulties or misfortunes of another. Young people are attracted to gangs because it gives them social support, protection, and recreational activities. In this set up, the gangs replace the family and school as socializing agencies. The Church For the 80% of Filipinos who are Roman Catholics, the church is a significant agent of socialization. Children are brought to church by their parents as early as infancy and are initiated early into saying their prayers and forming a notion of God. In many cases, they are brought to church on Sundays or other days of obligation to hear mass. The church provides for the spiritual and moral needs of the child. Children learn the norms of conduct and codes of behavior set forth by the church. What is right and wrong are delineated, and prescriptions of rewards and punishments established. Expectations of what would result from doing good, fear of sin, a concept of life hereafter, and the concepts of heaven and hell motivate individuals to do what is good in order to be at peace with their Maker. Some parishes offer catechism classes and send catechists to public schools. The basic principle and tenets of the Christian religion centering on God and His love for His people are taught to the children. Likewise the practical applications of these principles on their daily lives are inculcated. Children are taught to pray and lessons in fostering loving and harmonious relations with others in the family, neighborhood, school, and the wider community are given. 148

Socialization continues as the individual joins church-based organizations or ministries. Parishioners get involved in Bible study sessions and apostolic activities which broaden their social relationships. In the Philippines, rural folks are usually oriented toward local traditions and pre-Christian beliefs in spirits, and people adapt their behavior to what they consider the demands of the supernatural. Observed also are rituals and ceremonies connected with the life cycle of birth, baptism, confirmation, marriage, and death. A number of church organizations have been established to develop spirituality and give opportunities of apostolate work. Involvement in such organizations influences the individual’s outlook and attitudes. The School A child is brought to school at the age of seven. Recent years saw the emergence of nursery and kindergarten schools. Nursery schools accept children from the ages of two to three years old. These schools help the child to get along with other kids, develop readiness for social skills, and develop them physically, socially, emotionally, and intellectually. Some children aged four to six are brought to kindergarten schools to prepare them for elementary education. The potentials of child are developed, and he or she learns to relate with others. Self-expression and creativity, cooperation, and respect for others are also developed. The child is gradually weaned from the parents, and then proceeds to elementary school.

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The school is a formal agency for weaning children from home and introducing them into the society. In school, children get their formal instruction in the 5Rs- reading, writing, arithmetic, rational thinking and right conduct- and in citizenship. It is in school where their emotional and intellectual growth is forged. They are prepared to take on their various roles in society. The culture of the group is also transmitted in schools, so that children are afforded a glance into their cultural heritage. Children learn the history, geography, and politics of their country and are socialized into the norms, beliefs, values, and customs of the larger society. The schools are responsible for inculcating knowledge and skills, which prepare them for adulthood and become productive and effective citizens of the country. With advancing technology and scientific knowledge, colleges and universities offer specialized courses which can be applicable to work experiences outside the school. However, many children from poor families cannot afford higher education. Our Constitution provides that all educational institutions shall aim “to inculcate love of country, teach the duties of citizenship, and develop moral character, personal discipline, and scientific, technological, and vocational efficiency.” Doronila (1986:53-80) studied the effectiveness of the public school system in developing their students’ sense of national identity. Her subjects were 207 Grades 1 to 6 students studying in an urban public elementary school. While her study involved only one school, which therefore limits making generalizations, the findings are interesting. In the study, national identity is defined as an attachment, a loyalty, or a sense of belonging to a political community and attitudes toward other political events, personalities, policies, and programs. The significant findings 150

were an orientation on nationalism, acceptance of the membership of the other ethnic groups in the Philippine political community, and a little headway in the objective of developing national consciousness and solidarity among the students. Regarding preference for a mother country or where one would want to be a citizen, only 4.83% preferred to remain Filipino citizens. The author thus concluded that the orientation of the students to a national community was one of neutrality, with the Philippines coming in third or, at best, second in the students’ knowledge of history and culture, in their effective orientation towards the nation as a whole, and in their evaluation of the importance of national traditions to the Filipino people. The students’ attitudes remained unfocused, and there was no organization of attitudes which may be called a Filipino identity. The possible reasons for the failure of the school to effect changes are: (a) little or no modification in the process of knowledge transmission by teachers, regardless of their personal beliefs or opinions; and (b) the inadequate orientation towards national identity in textbook contents which serves to reinforce prevailing orientations of parents and teachers. As a result, students are socialized into the existing and prevailing neutral attitude toward the national community. Mass Media In modern societies, mass media is another socializing agency. Its functions are primarily to inform, entertain, and educate. Radio and television programs transmit music and other forms of entertainment to the viewers. To children, television is very appealing and has, to a certain extent, become a substitute for 151

activities like reading and playing. Parents find it convenient to let their children view TV programs while they do their household chores or other activities. Children are usually fascinated by cartoons and educational programs, like Sine Escuela, Matchtinic, 5 and UP, and Eskuwela ng Bayan; or creative programs which develop skills in language, math, and science. Mendez et. al. (1984, XXI) decry how children, through television, radio, and the movies, are exposed to the adult world of advertisements and soap operas. The children’s world becomes entangled with models of behavior that adults condemn as socially undesirable, like aberrant sexual practices and violence. By watching distorted images and behavior patterns of the West, children may imitate values which emphasize wealth, success, or good looks. On the positive side, experiments of Cater and Strickland (1979) revealed that sharing, cooperation, and self-discipline are encouraged when children watch programs depicting these types of social behavior. In her study, Doronila (1986:63) found that children developed and appreciations for cultural products like language, arts, and literature through watching television. This positive influence is a result of guidelines the industry has set for locally produced television shows as well as parental guidance. The Workplace The socialization process of an individual continues in the workplace. When an individual joins the workplace, there is the realization that he or she passes from adolescence into adulthood. There are mixed feelings of adventure and anxiety 152

over how one will fare out at work. There is also the excitement of getting a salary to spend for one’s needs and comfort, or to support the family. At the least, there is the joy of the anticipation of having one’s own spending money. In rural communities, fisherfolks, farmers, and artisans live close to their place of work, and so their work is usually tied up with their other activities in the home or community. In urban areas, the work activity is usually distinct from their other activities. Employees are socialized according to their role expectations. Some workplaces provide formal training in the form of apprenticeships, orientation sessions, and training seminars. Or, one ‘learns the ropes,’ so to say, and gets socialized to a company’s norms and values. There are times when one feels bored or harassed but gradually one may learn the skills, knowledge, and techniques needed in the job. As the employee interacts with co-employees and the boss, they are oriented into the organization – its values and perspectives, its vision and mission. There is enthusiastic acceptance of pleasurable duties which comes with the recognition of the positive tasks of an occupation. Eventually, there is commitment wherein the work becomes a part of the person’s self-identity. At this point, the person avoids violating rules and regulations and becomes loyal to the organization. The person also joins professional associations, unions, or other groups. Should they find the workplace dull and oppressive or unrewarding; the employee can always leave and look for another job.

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Gender Socialization From infancy onward, a person is socialized according to age-sex role scripts related to the institutionalized statuses of males and females. At this point, a distinction should be made between sex and gender. Sex refers to the biological or anatomical differences between males and females, while gender connotes the psychological, social, and cultural differences between males and females. It refers to the complex social meanings that are attached to biological sex. Certain behavior patterns, attitudes, and motivations are considered appropriate for males and females of a particular culture (Thompson 1994:162) Opinions vary on whether the difference between males and females is biologically based or results from socialization. While biological factors contribute to the differences between males and females, the ways the members in a society behave are culturally defined. Sex differences are a function of the cultural patterns which prescribe differential expectations and norm for males and females. Gender socialization is an interaction with the family and other agencies of socialization. Parents play an important role in differentiating patterns of behavior for males and females. In the process of socialization, which starts from birth, social ascription and the corresponding norms are learned by the child. The sex of the child is reflected in the ways infants are handled, as well as in differences in outfits and hairstyles. Different colors are assigned to the sexes- blue for boys and pink for girls. Baby girls’ ears are pierced; baby boys are usually circumcised. While boys and girls may both wear jeans, pants, or shirts, the clothes assigned to the 154

girls usually have ribbons and frills. Parents describe their baby girls as ‘pretty’, ‘dainty,’ and ‘beautiful, and the baby boys as malikot (always active), guapo (handsome), and matalino (intelligent). In the Philippines, particularly in rural areas, girls are trained to be modest, reserved, demure, and helpful while boys are trained to be aggressive, brave, dominant, and independent. The delineation in expectations between boys and girls is shown with the different toys which are for girls- like dolls, cooking utensils, furniture, baskets, or power puff girls; and for boys- like guns, cars, boxing gloves, or archery target. In rural families, girls are expected to be restrained in their behavior and to engage in more sedate games like bahay-bahayan (playing house), sambasimbahan going to church), tinda-tindahan tending to a store); piko (hopscotch) and luksong tinik (jumping over sticks). The boys are allowed more freedom and can engage in rough-and-tumble games like baril-barilan (playing with guns), boxing, basketball, or war games. Neutral games are taguan (hide and seek) and habulan (running after one another). The boys are allowed more freedom to go to places distant from home or staying out later than the girls. Girls are made to understand that they are for the home and expected to serve their siblings and parents. Boys are expected to be brave and strong, but not to be quarrelsome. In rural areas, children are generally trained for work appropriate to their sex. Boys are trained to follow their father’s work, run errands, gather firewood, do gardening, fetch water, collect hog feed from neighbors, feed the animals, and take care of the livestock. The girls help their mother in cooking, washing, cleaning the house, and taking care of the younger siblings. In urban areas, some families train boys and girls for common 155

chores like cooking, cleaning the house, and driving the car. However, boys are encouraged to be assertive, courageous, strong, and aggressive. On the other hand, girls have to be modest, compassionate, and gentle, if not submissive. Children are thus channeled into different roles, and with these come a whole set of expectations about masculinity and femininity. The males are expected to be macho, meaning showing sexual prowess and being dominant, virile, strong, courageous, and daring. They are expected to be good providers and breadwinners, to become the head and guardian of the family. With the onset of adolescence, there are other normative elements regarding sex roles (Jocano, 1998:120-124). In rural areas, the adolescent boy is made to work in the fields, go to the poblacion to bet for the father in the cockpit or take his place in card games. He serves as the father’s apprentice. Since he does part of the father’s work, male dominance is emphasized within the sibling group. The male also takes more responsibilities, like sitting in the village council. There are less restrictions in his movements. He is allowed to smoke, drink, and join the older boys in visiting the girls, but he gets restricted to go out when he comes home drunk. He shares in the family responsibility to support the family. The adolescent girl is assigned the feminine or domestic tasks. She is expected to stay at home with mother. They cook the meals for the family, help wash, iron and mend clothes, work in the fields during the planting and harvesting seasons. Domestic training among adolescent girls is given particular attention, and they learn the skills of a good housewife. When an adolescent girl is clumsy in her work, she is admonished by her mother to know 156

her responsibilities as preparation for marriage. The girl is taught proper behavior and is discouraged from giggling and showing sexual aggressiveness. She is warned about being careful in her relationships with boys and is not allowed to go out unchaperoned, as chastity is a prized virtue. There are more restrictions with girls than with the boys. They are often warned to be careful about sex experimentation as they may become pregnant. These norms are changing as more and more girls seek jobs in urban places or overseas. In Dr. Zelda Zablan’s Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Study of 1,100 respondents, male and female aged 15-24, an overwhelming number (91.5%) considered virginity as important before marriage. The 7.6% of the females and 18% of the males who approved of premarital sex were the older respondents who had lived away from their parents, attended nonsectarian schools, rarely attended religious services, frequented discos, massage parlors, night clubs, and beer houses, who had used drugs, had brothers and sisters who came from poor families, and whose parents had unstable marriages (Torrevillas 1995:9). The school complements the rest of society in assigning role training for males and females. Through the curriculum and textbooks, role differentiation is reinforced. In the public school, the duties of girls are to clean the room and yard and to plant flowers; boys take up shop and practical arts, while girls take up home economics. Some division superintendents have taken steps to give home economics also to boys. Boys are engaged in strenuous games and become varsity players, while girls are the cheerleaders. 157

Through their books, children learn what is expected of them when they become adults. A review of books used in the elementary level shows that the texts stress old-fashioned roles. Furthermore, most stories and pictures focus on the males. There is now a move to revise textbooks and do away with those stereotyped roles. In college, there are distinctions between courses for males and females. Education, nursing, home economics, home services, caregivers, social work, nutrition, secretarial education, and the like are regarded as women’s courses; while mathematics, natural science, engineering, aviation, medicine, and law are regarded as more fitting for men. Even in medicine, specialization for male and female doctors is usually differentiated. However, there are now more women who have invaded the courses supposedly defined for males and are exceling in their work. Eviota (1978:155) points out that the education men and women receive reflects sex role biases and that despite the large proportion of female to male students, there is no equality on account of the concentration of females in certain disciplines. The UNICEF and Ateneo Wellness Survey (1999:56) points out that there are no significant differences in literacy rates, as well as innate cognitive abilities between boys and girls. However, citing Ventura (1994), it disclosed that males related to more analytic, impersonalistic task-oriented and field-independent ways of thinking. Girls scored higher than boys in domestic competencies, like household chores and caring for bodily needs. Boys earned better marks for competency in outdoor chores. These differences in capabilities reflect the different responsibilities given to children in household chores. 158

Women are usually engaged in laundering, washing, cooking, teaching, or secretarial work. Women are into occupations related to education, although there is a higher percentage of a woman in professional and technical work, in sales, services, sports, and upper professionals. According to Layo (1977), women tend to cluster in sales and the upper professionals. These groups may be considered as feminized occupations. Men tend to join ‘masculinized’ occupations which include administrative work, farm labor, highly skilled occupations, transport, and fishing. Summary A newly-born baby becomes human or a social being through the process of socialization two important factors, heredity and the sociocultural environment; interact in complex ways to influence the development of the social self and personality. How much of the social self and personality. How much of the social self and personality is developed due to heredity or sociocultural environment is hard to ascertain. Heredity furnishes the raw materials, but the sociocultural environment determines how the individual will learn and be developed. Personality may be viewed as an organization of forces within the individual and is made up of attitudes, values, and modes of perception which account in part for the consistency of behavior. The social self is the ability to visualize oneself through the eyes of the others and imagine how one appears to them. It is the ability to visualize oneself through the eyes of the others and imagine how one appears to them. It is the ability to take the roles of the others and of the wider community.

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Various theories have been formulated to explain the development of personality. Foremost is the Freudian theory whose central theme is biological determinism. It considers the first five years of the child’s development as decisive in personality development. Anthropology hold that society and culture, including its worldview, influence the individual’s behavior and show the links between childbearing and adult personality traits. Symbolic interactionism, espoused by some sociologists, asserts that personality arises as a result of the individual’s socialization mediated by symbols and, in particular, language. Mead suggests that the self emerges in the process of socialization or the process of social interaction mediated by language. The self consists of two parts, the ‘I,’ which is active and idiosyncratic, and the ‘Me,’ or the self-consciousness. Cooley calls the social self as the ‘looking-glass self’ or the ability to visualize oneself through the attitudes and responses of others. He or she also acquires a generalized others, which represent the organized responses of all the members of the group and their acknowledged attitudes and values. Socialization is the process by which children become participating and functioning members of society and fit into an organized way of life as mature adults. Through socialization, the culture of the group is transmitted, the individual develops into a socially functioning person, and the members of the group are encouraged to conform to the norms of the group. Socialization is realized when children become productive as adult members. However, socialization is not simply molding an individual according to a standardized social pattern, as he or she is afforded some leeway in his or her action. 160

There are various agencies of socialization. The family serves as the main link between the child and society and is the first, the closest, and most influential social group in the child’s life. In the peer group, the individual is more or less in cooperative interaction with persons of the same age group and is influenced by its norms, interests, and values. The church and religious organizations provide spiritual guidance, norms of conduct, and rules of behavior. The school is the formal agency for weaning the child from home and introducing him or her into the society. Mass media is also an agency of socialization. It informs, educates, and entertains. It affects the audience’s behavior and attitudes, positively or negatively. In the workplace, the individual gets socialized to its norms and values and finds his or her place in its hierarchy of statuses. From infancy to adulthood, an individual is socialized according to gender role expectations related to the institutionalized statuses of males and females. While biological factors contribute to the differences between males and females, the culture defines how males and females are to behave. Sex differences are a function of the cultural patterns, which prescribe differential expectations and norms for boys and girls. Study Guide 1. Explain the factors that determine human development. 2. Assess the Freudian theory, the culture and personality theory, and symbolic interactionism in explaining personality development. 3. How does Goffman explain the expression “All the world is a stage”? 161

4. Describe the process of socialization and the emergence of the social self. 5. What roles do the family, the peer group, the school, the church, mass media, and the work place play in the process of socialization? 6. What differentiates sex from gender? What do you mean by socialization for gender roles? Critical Thinking Questions 1. Which factor plays a more important role in the development of personality: heredity or the sociocultural environment? Support your answer. 2. In your experience, which agencies of socialization – the family, peer group, the school, the church, mass media, and the workplace – play a crucial role in the development of your social self? 3. How do biological inheritance and socialization account for sex differences?

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Chapter 6 DEVIANT BEHAVIOR The homosexual who is married with children but hides a secret lover somewhere; the screaming, screeching hairdresser who has no qualms about his sexual preference; the effeminate but dignified artist who carefully select s the social circles he moves around in; the scared teenager who would rather die than let his parent s and friends know how he daydreams of the handsome basketball players rather than the pretty cheerleader; the macho dancer who has hide into the homosexual life-style by virtue of his occupation – all these are examples of different stages and types of homosexuality. There is a great debate on the cause of this condition. Do the elevated levels of certain hormones cause homosexual activities among men, or do the homosexual activities cause the levels of these hormones to rise? To what extent do a dominant mother and/or an absentee or ineffective father play a role in the shaping of the homosexual personality? Does one traumatic homosexual experience predispose a person to future same- sex experiences? Is homosexuality hereditary or purely environmental? All these issues arise because homosexuality appears to be one of the most commonly observed and most openly accepted deviant behaviors. Ma. Teresa C. Panopio, 1990 The introductory quotation in an excerpt from an essay on homosexuality, a condition which is considered as different or deviating from conventional behavior. 163

What is Deviant Behavior? Despite the general tendency of the socialization process mechanisms of social control to enforce conformity, there are instance of variations, disregard for, defiance of, nonconformity or flaunting of the social norms or established standards of the group. Such types of behavior are considered deviant because they stray from the accepted norms, beliefs, or values of the group. The expression of radical or unusual politics or religious beliefs are considered as deviant. To sociologists, deviance is a function of the pigment of particular group who observed the behavior (Sullivan, 2001: 155). Aside from studying conventional and deviant behavior, sociologists also study the mechanisms of social control that groups and society use to bring deviants into line. When sociologists study deviant behavior, they do not judge such behavior as being “good’’ or “bad’’. They attempt to determine what types of behavior are defined as deviant and study how society deals with deviants. Deviance is relative, what is deviant for one group maybe acceptable to another group. Abortion premarital sex, polygamy, and divorce do not constitute deviance in some societies, but are strongly disapproved for or punished by Christians in the Philippines. What is considered deviant may vary in time and place? In history we see some persons who were called radicals and fanatics during their lifetime, but who were lauded and appreciated by the succeeding generations. Inventors, formulators of new theories, or discoverers like Galileo, Darwin, and Freud were held in contempt by their contemporaries and were censured or ridiculed, but were later hailed as intellectual giants. Claro M. Recto, who espoused nationalism, was labelled 164

as communist in his time, but is now considered as a real nationalist. Deviations from orthodox political and religious thinking and approved sexual or certain legal codes may encounter strong disapproved sexual or certain legal codes may encounter strong disapproval (Clinard and Meir 1979:12). However, rules can also be broken without disapproval when the deviance can be justified by pointing to a higher cause (Popenoe 1977:12). This was shown, for example, in the assumption to the formal declaration of approval by the Batasang Pambansa, but rather on the basis of people’s power after an almost bloodless revolution and the extension of recognition by the various nations in the world. Deviant behavior may be tolerated, approved, or disapproved. Modern societies encourage some amount of deviation, which moves in the direction of the ideal pattern of behavior. The positively overt and upwardly deviant person or group varies from the common place patterns, as may be found in the extraordinary person, the saint, the hero, and one with exemplary conduct. In our society, outstanding scholars, professionals, leaders in government, science, arts, education, mass media, labor, agriculture and the law, the national beauty, and inventor are culturally approved deviants. The fearless and daring priests, nuns, and lay persons who defied death by trying to stop tanks from attacking the mass of people at Camp Crame and Camp Aguinaldo on February 22-25, 1986 are all kinds of deviants widely lauded not only by Filipinos but by many people all over the world. 165

Aside from being a variation from the normative behavior, deviant behavior can be viewed as pathological phenomenon, as in the case of mental illness or psychological disorder. Deviance involves behavior that is seen as going beyond the expectations of approved behavior. Deviance is thus the judgment by members of society that an individual is departing from social norms. What is considered deviant depends on how those who have socially significant power and influence define the act. All societies, from the simple sacred society with a homogenous culture to the large modernize societies with their heterogeneous culture, face the problem of deviant behavior. The degree of deviation depends on its variations from the norms and the value placed on the norm. Infractions of the sex code and laws on life, liberty, and property are considered serious compared to breaches of etiquette or good taste in dressing, and violators are punished accordingly. Highly industrialized, urbanized, and modern societies experience rapid technological changes and higher levels of education and individualism. Such conditions encourage personal freedom and self- expression. Modern society also encourages the weakening control of the family, and the state to sanction and limit individual behavior (Bradshaw, Healey, and Smith 2001: 144) Likewise, societies have diverse groups, each with its own set of norms and role expectations. It is possible that as people conform to the norms and their group and perform its prescriptions, they go contrary to the norms of bigger society. Such is the case of an adolescent member of a juvenile gang. Deviant behavior disapproved of by society, whether committed by an individual or 166

a group, may become an addict and reject the norms of the group and become an individual deviant. Deviations that are considered serious social problems include drug addiction, crime and juvenile delinquency, alcoholism, prostitution, homosexuality, mental aberrations, abortion, aberrant sexual behavior, and marital and family maladjustment. Some types of deviant behavior are highly organized, such as drug pushing, smuggling, pick pocketing, car napping, begging, kidnapping, and other forms of criminality, and the deviants develop levels of professionalism similar to those found among integrated occupational groups. Explanations for Deviant Behavior Various theories on deviance have been formulated to explain its occurrence. We shall focus on some sociological theories which examine it against the socio-cultural processes and structural organization of the society. The biological explanation states that deviant behavior stems from one’s physical or biological makeup. Cesare Lambroso (1911), an Italian doctor and criminologist, held that some people are born criminals and have abnormally large jaws, high cheekbones, good eyesight, and insensibility to pain. The chief criticism hurled against this view is that the sample studied was limited to criminals in prison. Some biologists hold that deviant behavior is a result of aberrant genetic traits, as in cases such as homosexuality, criminality, and mental illness. Again, these studies are criticized on the basis of unrepresentative samples. In answer to some studies which claim that biology is a contributing factor, but not the only cause of the aberration (Sullivan, 2001: 157). 167

The psychological approach stresses that deviant behavior is a result of personality disorder or maladjustment that develops during childhood (Ibid., 157), brought about by inner conflicts or by the inability to control one’s inner impulses or failure to structure one’s behavior in an orderly way. That lack of means to defer gratification in the present for some future benefits causes’ behavior as a form of aggression against others or against society because of frustration. Sociologists accept the role of personality and psychological processes as causing deviance, but they also stress the role of culture, social structures, and social interaction in causing deviant behavior. Sociological Approaches to Deviance Functionalist Perspective The functionalist stresses the normative social structure and the interrelatedness of parts. The rapid social changes in norms, values, and life-style increase the opportunities for deviant behavior like drug use, crime, and mental illness. Emile Durkheim holds that deviance is a natural part of all societies and serves important functions. Rules are strengthened as deviant behavior is punished and clarifies their meaning. Deviance unites the members of a group as they stand together to oppose deviant behavior. Deviance may also promote social change. Norms may be changed when they are violated. Protest may be instituted to correct unjust actions (Kendall 2000: 158). Durkheim (1897) holds that there is a desirable normative structure, but in times of rapid social change, a variety of 168

conflicting norms give rise to a condition which he calls anomie or a state of “normlessness.” This comes about not as a result of the absence of norms but because of the existence of many sets of norms, none of which is closely binding upon everybody. It connotes a condition which the person becomes normless and has no strong sense of belonging. Norms and values are ambiguous, resulting in social strain and inconsistencies. For some persons in this condition, life becomes meaningless, uncertain, or fraught with conflicts. This makes them drift and resort to other types of behavior not acceptable to society. Robert K. Merton (1968) explains deviance as a result of anomie in contemporary modern society like United States. According to him, the inconsistencies and differences or even contradictions result into deviant behavior. The acquisition of material success in the form of wealth and education are the accepted status goals in modern society, but the institutional means or norms for achieving these legitimately are limited. When people are unable to achieve such goals on account of hindrances, they resort to deviant ways. Most people are conformists, accepting the culturally approved goals like4 using education, their prowess, intelligence, and legitimate occupational careers to achieve their goals. Some disadvantaged groups with limited access and opportunities for doing so become confused, and anomie results. These groups thus make illegitimate adaptations to achieve the culturally achieved goals. Merton’s theory questions on whether different groups within a society aspire toward the same cultural goals. It doesn’t follow that all people in a society aspire for success. The theory does 169

not also explain the reason behind differences in people’s response to anomie (Sullivan 2001: 160). The control theory raises developed by Walter Reckless (1967) explains the occurrence of deviance but is largely applicable to delinquency, youth crime, and suicide (Clinard and Meier 1979:88- 91). The theory asserts that deviance and conformity are both learned in the same process of socialization whereby one acquires norms, social roles, and self-concept. Participation in subcultures and counter-culture is significant in the socialization process becoming a deviant. Deviance is caused not so much by a force that motivates persons to deviate as it is by the fact that deviance is not prevented. Social control is crucial in preventing deviance, the most important of which is the bond between an individual and society. Conflict Theory The conflict theory (Horton and Hunt 1985: 176- 177) focuses on the heterogeneous nature of society and the differential distribution of political and social power. A struggle occurs between social classes and between the powerful advocate the rules and laws that serve their vested interests and power advocate rules and laws that serve their own interests. For instance, laws against crimes are legislated to maintain order because crime conflicts with the interests of the powerful segments of society. Criminal control and administration of criminal laws through such agents as the police and court are enhanced. Strong sanctions against suicide, prostitution, pornography, abortion, and drunkenness come from church 170

groups. All these work against the interests of the powerless. The conflict between the powerful and the weak affects the creation of deviance and society’s response to it. The dominance of one class over another is characteristic of capitalist society, and this can only be corrected with socialist principles. This theory does little to inform us about the process whereby a person becomes deviant. What it explains is the formation and enforcement of certain rules to enhance the power of some powerful or elitist groups. The conflict perspective also states that what is criminal and what is not are defined by those in power; their definitions reflect the ruling class. The laws formulated by those in power favor them. On the whole, those who benefit most are the ruling class. Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic interactionism focuses on the importance of definitions, labels, and the social meanings associated with the deviant act. If the experience is defined as pleasurable by the actor, the deviant act is repeated until the person eventually earns the deviant label. The child socialized in the subculture of juvenile delinquents will learn and internalize the norms, attitudes, and values of that group. Cultural transmission and differential association theories explain deviant behavior vis-à-vis the social interactionism approach. Edwin Sutherland reinforced the notion of cultural transmission theory and used the concept of differential association. He affirmed the idea that the deviant behavior, like conventional behavior, is learned through interaction with others in small 171

intimate groups. As persons interact with deviants, they also acquire the techniques, motives, drives, and attitudes appropriate for such behavior. They become a deviant as they learn and internalize the unfavorable definitions, which eventually exert impact on their behavior. These theories of cultural transmission and differential association explain the formation of urban youth gangs (Curry 1999: 82-83). Another social interactionist theory explaining deviant behavior is labelling theory. This theory focuses on how crime and deviance become defined and labelled by official agencies and by other persons because of their deviant behavior, and the impact of both social definitions and the social sanctions which exert pressure on individuals to engage in some deviant acts (Clinard and Meier 1977: 73). Becker, in his book The Outsiders (1963: 9), considers deviance as the result of the application of rules and sanctions by others to those who stay away from the norms. The deviant behavior is the behavior so labelled. Once people are labelled as deviant, they are thrust into a deviant role and are reacted to by others as deviants. After the commission of a deviant act and being labelled as such, the individual is stigmatized. Their label leads to further deviant behavior as they are denied occasions for engaging in conventional behavior. Moreover, the labelled persons internalize the label which becomes their self-concept, and thus act accordingly (Money, Knox, and Schacht 2000: 104). The gang provides social support, group identity, protection, and a sense of identity. It becomes the important group for the individual, replacing the family and school. 172

Feminist Approach to Deviance Kendall (2000: 171- 172) points out that there is no single feminist perspective on deviance. There are three schools of thought on the issue, namely, the liberal, the radical, and the socialist approaches. The liberal approach avers that deviance is a rational response to gender discrimination experienced in marriage, the workplace, and interpersonal relations. It is also ascribed to the lack of educational and job opportunities and the stereotyped expectations on women’s roles in society. Radical feminist attribute deviance to patriarchy, defined as male dominance over women. The double standard of morality is lopsided. This is evident for example in prostitution, where it is acceptable for a man to pay for sex, but it is improper for a woman to do so. Socialist feminism holds that in capitalistic and patriarchal society’s women receive low wages, if at all. They have few economic resources so they resort to prostitution or shoplifting to earn a higher income or acquire a product they desire. While it is generally believed that social deviation is bad by nature, this is not always so. Social deviation also performs some positive functions (Clinard and Meier 1979: 23): 1). Social deviance makes people aware of the possible dangers emanating from such deviation. They may develop a common interest in conforming to group norms as they acquire a common sense of morality. They tend to unite in common defense against criminals – rapists, hold-uppers, or drug addicts – and conduct incessant campaigns against them. The recognition of deviance makes the group aware of the limits of tolerance for some standards or norms. A certain amount of deviance may ensure the safety of some persons and minimize the strain on society. Deviation may 173

serve as a warning device for some imperfections or faults in the society, which may cause discontent and unrest and lead to changes that intensify morale and efficiency. Drug Abuse Drug abuse is a deviant behavior which has aroused a sense of awareness among people of the danger of such deviance and has developed a common sense of morality. This are also considered as a social problem. Drug abuse has become so widespread. Despite the government’s intensified campaigns, the drug is any substance that brings about physical, emotional, behavioral, or social impairment; there is violation of the acceptable social standards of drug use. This leads to disastrous physical, physiological, or psychological changes and drug dependency. Drug addiction is a state of physical or psychological need of a drug which stems from its continued use. Physical dependence ids manifested in withdrawal symptoms (i.e. vomiting and muscular tremors) which happen when that person stops using the drug. Psychological dependence exists when a drug becomes necessary for the person’s well being. In such a state, the person loses that power of self- control, thus endangering themselves and others. The most commonly abused drugs listed by the dangerous drugs board in the Philippines are: Sedatives, which exert calming effects on the nervous system; they reduce anxiety and excitement. However, an overdose may so depress the brain’s respiratory control as 174

to lead to the cessation of breathing and eventual death. Examples are barbiturates, tranquilizers, and alcohol. Stimulants, sometimes called pep pills, which increase alertness and physical disposition they hide fatigue and create exhilaration and states of euphoria. Excessive use may lead to insomnia and, later, exhaustion and deep depression. Examples are amphetamines, cocaine, and caffeine. Hallucinogens, also called psychedelic, which affect sensation, thinking, self-awareness, and emotion. Taking are leads to changes in perception of time and space, delusion, or false beliefs. Examples are LSD, mescaline, and marijuana. Narcotics, which relieve pain, make one drowsy and relaxed, and induce sleep. they are taken by injection, subcutaneously, intravenously. Continuous use leads to physiological and psychological dependence, which makes addiction a serious problem both or the person concerned and for society. Among the favorite drugs used is marijuana or canabis sativa, often called grass, pot, or weed. It remains to be the most heavily trafficked drug in the world (world drug report 1997). In the 1970s, marijuana was cultivated in only nine provinces in the Philippines. By 2002, 98 plantation sites were found in different regions. Marijuana acts as a sedative or hallucinogen and contains a mind altering psychoactive ingredient. The drugs is sourced from the flowering tops and leaves of an Indian hemp plant, canabis sativa. 175

The leaves and flower are dried, crushed into small pieces, and rolled into short cigarettes taking marijuana is often the first step to other more potent drugs like cocaine or heroin. Shabu, or methamphetamine hydrochloride, comes in the form of large crystals, similar to chucks of ice, shards of broken glass, or rock candy. It costs about P1, 960 per gram (Philippines national police, 2002). Shabu is smuggled into the country from China, India, and Pakistan. It is processed in laboratories and sold in powder form to users. Shabu continues to be smuggled into the Philippines through the international airports, seaports, and mail and parcel services. Shabu, also called ice, crack, or chalk, is extremely addictive. It is used by both affluent families as well as slum dwellers. Shabu can be brought anywhere—near school campuses, burger joints, in the streets, or even in police camps it can be taken orally, snorted (transnasal), or intravenously. It gives the user a feeling of euphoria, alertness, paranoia, decreased appetite, and increased physical activity. “Ecstasy’’ or MDMA refers to a group of design drugs closely related to the amphetamine family of illicit drugs. This drug comes from Western Europe, shipped to Asia, and smuggled into the country through the same path as shabu. It is a synthetic psychoactive drug with stimulant and hallucinogenic properties, commonly used by scions of rich families and habitués of chic bars, club hoppers, and teenagers in big cities (Calica, 2002). A tablet costs from P2, 000 to P2,750 (2002).

176

Also used as mood altering drugs are pharmaceutical drugs, like: cough syrups, like corex-D, Mentholez, Barbitrin, and Hycoden; tranquilizers and depressant, like valium, rivotril, mogado; injectables, like morphine; and inhalants, which include rugby solvents and other volatile substances. The Nature and Extent of Drug Use Statistics show that the drug menace has worsened through the years and searched series proportions. In 1972, there were about 20,000 drug users, confined only in metro manila. Marijuana, then, was the drug of choice. By 2003, there are an estimate 3.4million drug users nationwide, majority of them age 15-29 (Philippine drug enforcement agency, 2003). In a study of drug use among college students in the University of the Philippines, college of arts and sciences in 1971-1972, Zarco found certain social and personality variables related to marijuana use, among the findings are: The regular use of marijuana (once a week or more) among freshmen and sophomores; it was used experimentally (less frequent) among the juniors. Data implied that a number of regular users do not continue schooling in the university. Male students had higher participation rate in marijuana use than female students (table 6.1). Premarital sex practice was highly associated with marijuana use. Homosexuality and marijuana use were closely associated. Scholastic performance as measured by grades was inversely correlated with marijuana use. 177

Good parent-child relations and communication were also inversely related to marijuana use. A slightly higher incidence of marijuana use was found among students who live with those living in dormitories or families not their own. Drugs use was highest among members of campus geek letter fraternities and sororities compared to other organizations. The number of drug patients in the government residential centers increased from 1,466 in 1974 to 5,806 in 2000 (Philippine national police 2003) (table 6.1). The Cost of Drug Abuse Drug abuse comes with an immense cost to the user, the family, and the country. The cost of drug abuse to the family is incalculable. Drug users divert funds reserved for necessities to purchase the drugs. Drug use also leads to quarrels, battered spouses, and even the breakup of the family. The effects of drug use on health are tremendous. Shabu can cause heart failure or stroke, blood clots, and respiratory disorders, chronic depression, hallucination, hyperthenia, convulsions, and irreversible damage to blood vessels in the brain. It can cause kidney and lung disorders, chronic depression, hallucination and hypertension. It can also lead to violent and aggressive behavior, malnutrition, and disturbed personality development (Salazar, 2001: B15). Drug abuse can also lead to depression and antisocial activities. Drug offenses do not inherently involve fraud or the use of force and are not classified as crimes (stark 1993:210). But there a link between drugs and crime, as the psychological effects of drugs 178

often stimulate violent reactions. The drug problem has worsened and assumed alarming proportions, to the point of posing a threat to the country’s national security. The drug commonly used and peddled is shabu, which over the years has developed into a multibillion transnational community. The use of “dirty money’’ by drugs syndicates has dire consequence on the country’s national security. The through the evils of narco-politics, narco-justice and narco- terrorism (coronel 2002:22); as money amassed by drug lords can be used to bride government, police and military officials, who in turn will protect these syndicates. Drug money can also be used to bride and corrupt members of the judicial system. Treatment and rehabilitation of drug addicts. Studies on the treatment of drug addict show that addicts show that addiction is one of the most difficult forms of deviant behavior to treat effectively. The rate of relapse or re-addiction is high. Readdiction, according to Lindesmith (as cited in Clinard 1979:334), is a result of long experience with the drug, a self-concept of one as an addict, peer group pressure, and the recognition of the importance of the drug in relation to withdrawal symptoms. Montano’s survey (1983) of drug rehabilitation centers reveals that: 1) Drug patients come from all social classes, 2) Majority of the patients are between the ages of 15 and 24:3) One-half of the patients are high school students or graduates; 4) Frequently used drugs are marijuana, cough syrup, and tranquilizers; 5) Majority of the patients claim that they were drawn to drugs by peer pressure. About one-fifth said curiosity made theme try the 179

drug. About one-tenth said that they had family or personal problems. Rehabilitation involves the process by which the drug dependent’s remaining capabilities for a healthy life –his or her physical, emotional, psychological, spiritual, vocational, and occupational potential-are developed to the optimum. But, as the saying goes, it is better to ensure prevention rather than subject the addict to treatment. Here is where the family, the school, the church, and the community can join hands to prevent drug addiction. Loving protection and guidance in the family, supplemented by proper education programs, the church‘s spiritual as recreational and livelihood activities can go a long way to prevent drug addiction. To increase public awareness on the adverse effects of drug abuse, the Dangerous Drugs Board and NGOs have embarked on preventive education, training, and information programs. A Comprehensive School-based Drug Abuse Prevention Program has been undertaken by the Department of Education, Culture, and Sports. Community-based programs have been organized and the Philippine Information Agency has assisted by producing anti-drug infomercials for television and radio. Government Countermeasures The Dangerous Drugs Act was enacted in 1972 by then Pres. Ferdinand Marcos. The dangerous Drugs Board was created as the policy-making body drug for abuse. However, implementation of measures to prevent and control illegal drugs leave much to be desired due to organizational rivalry (Coronel 2002; 22). Thus, the Drug Law Enforcement and Prevention Coordinating Center was 180

created to consolidate the effort of all government agencies, local governments units, and NGOs in an effective antidrug campaign. In 2003, the government intensified the drive against illegal drugs and ordered the establishment of more government rehabilitation centers. Crime and its Etiology What is crime? Crime is a violation of a norm which is codified into a law and backed by the power and authority of the state. Crime injures both the victim and the society, and there for criminals are punished through the imposition of fines, imprisonment, or the death penalty. Functionalists hold that crime tends to increase as a society becomes more urbanized and industrialized. Social bonds in the family church and the community become week. Members of society tend to pursue their own activities and set up their own goals without consulting the family. This weakening of social constraints results into some degree of social disorganization. When the social bonds are reduced, a certain degree of deviance such as crime may follow. In his paper, “The International Context of Crime and Punishment’’ Dr. Cicero Campos (1995) discusses the role of the family, education, the community, and the mass media in the etiology of crime. 1. The family exerts a great impact on the behavior, values, and attitudes of its member. In the process of socioeconomic and technological development, the strength of the family as a socializing agency has been eroded, 181

leading to so-called dysfunctional family. The result is either excessive strictness or and indifference toward the child, slackness in parental care and control, and lack of harmony in interpersonal relationships. Traumatic experiences resulting from this setup my push the child in to social deviance such as criminal behavior or drug abuse. 2. The school plays a crucial role in integrated development, social maturation and the preparation of the juvenile to become a well adjusted, law-abiding, and productive member of society. However, the failure of the schools to meet young people’s psychological, social, and emotional needs and to adjust to the changing social milieu may lead to unrest, discontent, and disruptive activities. This situation becomes a breeding ground for juvenile delinquency or drug abuse. 3. The peer ground exerts a strong influence on children. Negative peer group influence can drive the child to truancy, vagrancy, and gang membership. Such gangs often indulge in some forms of the vandalism, streets fighting, collective aggression, violent acts, sex-related offences, and organized criminality. 4. The community offers a wide – range of services of young as a supplement to the efforts of the family, the school, and the state. However, disorganizing forces in the community and its institutions can offer structure for inter- generation communications and check crime and juvenile delinquency, Volunteer organization can provide crime prevention 182

measures by way o9f awareness-building, preventive education, guide counseling, treatment, and rehabilitation. In one way or another, mass media influences the development as well as the deterioration of the character of individuals. Media has a big role to play in making or unmaking a society. The crime situation in the Philippines Frequently bannered in the print and broadcast media are heinous crimes like murder, hostage taking, rape, kidnapping, or bank robberies. There are also sensational stories about transnational crimes. These reports give people a feeling or insecurity and anxiety over the peace and order situation. These create the perception that crime is on the increase and that one is not safe even inside one’s own place. What is the crime situation in the country? Tables 6.2 and 6.3 give us a picture of the volume of the index and non-index crime as over a span of five years. Index crimesare committed every 15 minutes. One crime against a person is committed every 23 minutes, with one murder committed every hour and 33 minutes, one homicide every 2 hours and 9 minutes, one physical injury every 48 minutes, and one rape case every 3 hour and 19 minutes (Mendoza 2001:5). The tables show that, with the exception of rape, there was a steady decline in crime. Nevertheless, The total number of crimes increased from 71,080 in 1997 to 83,538 in 1999; but decreased again to 80,108 in 2000. The total crime volume went down from 1999 to 2000. The average monthly crime rate (AMCR) went 183

down from 19.14 in 1990 to 9.14 in 2000. The crime solution efficiency increased from recorded the highest crime volume with 6,223 incidents, representing 20% of crimes nationwide. According to Mendoza (2001:6-7), other sensational crimes are: 1. Kidnap for Ransom-In 2001, the public perception is that kidnap for ransom incidents have been on the rise. However, in many incidents reported by media, there was no ransom demand; some were mere abduction or cases of missing persons. The police solved 47% of the cases nationwide, with 7 of the cases in the NCR. In 2003, kidnapping cases surged, with a record 156 cases from January to November. 2. Illegal drug trafficking remains a major concern, despite the relative success posted in drug law enforcement. 3. Bank robberies increased from 25 incidents in 1998 to 36 in 1999, but this went down to 32 in 2999. From January to June 2001, a total of ten robberies nationwide were recorded. 4. Illegal gambling, includes jueteng, masiso, video karera illegal bookies, and sakla. Despite anti-illegal gambling operations throughout the country, the problem persists. 5. Carnapping incidents have decrease since 1998 by 14%. In 2001,752 vehicles were carnapped nationwide, with a 29 % recovery efficiency. Police personnel have been arrested and charge bin courts nationwide for bribery. In 1001, 24 “kotong” cops (those who take bribes) were arrested, with the NCR topping the list at 14. 184

Table 6.2 Index Crimes 1990-1995. Index Crimes 1990 Murder 9,291 Homicide 8,986 Physical injury 25,389 Rape 1,814 Robbery 15,545 Theft 29,977 Non Index Crime 50,390 Total Crime Volume 37,578 AMCR 19.14 Crime Solution Efficiency (%)

1991 8,707 8,069 21,862 2,026 13,817 22,780

1992 8,293 7,912 20,462 2,149 11,164 17,374

49,065 119,300 16.26

1993 7,758 7,123 18,722 2,285 9,856 12,940

37,365

1994 6,339 6,338 17,883 2,494 9,169 12,240

38,002

102,570 13.70

38,856

94,401 12.35

1995 6,096 5,546 14,682 2,346 7,042 8,781 34,755

93,317 11.63

79,248 9.62

76.93

87.10

Sources: Philippine National Police, 2001. Table 6.3 Index Crimes 1996-2000 Index Crimes 1996 Murder Homicide Physical Injury Rape Robbery Theft Non-Index Crime Total Crime Volume AMCR Crime Solution Efficiency

6,141 5,167 13,600 2,505 6,428 8,539 34,535

1997

1998

1999

2000

5,776 4,540 12,686 2,913 5,795 7,078

5,913 4,467 11,716 3,031 5,519 6,859

5,703 3,920 11,366 3,177 5,740 7,584

5,735 4,079 10,954 3,145 5,884 7,457

32,302

34,070

7,584

7,457

76,915 9.08

71,080 8.11

71,575 8.17

82,538 9.42

80,108 9.14

89.34

90.59

91.27

91.36

92.34

Sources: Philippine National Police, 2001

7. Petty crimes include cell-phone snatching and pickpocketing. From January to May 2001, there were 522 incidents of cell phones snatching, whit 49% of the total incidents occurring in Manila Cases were filed in court, and snatchers or put under investigation. 8. Others forms of robbery include 36 “akyat-bahay” incidents, 171 highway robberies, and 73 robberies on commercial establishment recorder in NCR from January to May 2001. 185

Relentless police operations have been conducted to avert these incidents. Crime Victimization Statistics In March 2001, the SWS conducted a survey on public safety, poverty, and governance. On public safety, the survey ask about common crimes like burglarization of the home, pickpocketing or robbery outside the home, carnapping or loss of a motor vehicle, and injury from physical violence. Respondents said they did not report some crimes to the police due to cost, too much bother, futility, and perceived risk to theme for reporting the crime. The survey result (1,200 house-holds as respondents) 3.2%, homes broken into; 2.6%, lost motor vehicles; 10.7%, victims of crimes against property; and 2% had a family member who got physically hurt in a crime. The SWS survey concurs with government findings that crime victimization since 1989 had declined on the average, although it fluctuates up or down (Mangas 2001:12). Trends in Murder and Rape Incidents in the Philippines and Metro Manila, 1980-1994. Zarco, Gutirrrez, and Dulnuan (1980:45-48) studied trends in murder and rape in the Philippines from 1980-1994. Murder was selected as the main indicator of social violence, murder being the most heinous crime in our penal code, and its frequency and widespread occurrence. The murder volume situation is presented the using the murder volume based on the incidents investigated, discovered, and filed by enforcement agencies. About 75% of the murders reported are disputed-related. The rest are due to financial or material profit motives, or related to other crimes. Few cases are committed for fun, curiosity, or to impress one’s gangmates with one’s boldness. 186

From 1983-1988, national murder volume during a crime wave was 9,000 to 12,3000 incidents for year. The murder rate ranged from 17.9 to 21.4 per 100,000 population; 10% of the crimes occurred within Metro Manila. In Manila, many crimes were property-related such are car theft, robbery, theft, and estafa; interestingly, the murder rate in Metro Manila was 30-40% lower than the national statistics. Since 1988, murder rates were on the decline every year until after 1994. Metro Manila, the decline began in 1990 and the same trend continued to the end of the period of inquiry in 1994. However, the media continued to highlight gruesome massacres, rape-slays, robbery, and homicide cases. The possible factors responsible for the downtrend in murder cases are the gradual decline of communist insurgency, military operations, political conflicts, and between organized labor and management. Rape is one of the most publicized crimes; under Philippine law, it is a crime exclusively against women. It is easier for a prosecutor to gather good evidence and witness (as the victim herself stands as witness) for a conviction in rape cases than for murder. The offenders are men whose averages age is 32 years, while the victim’s averages age is 16. Rape is a crime which carries a heavy stigma on the victims (Zarco, Gutierrez and Dinluan 1995:49). Rape perpetrators are usually members of the victim’s households. A frequent pattern is the father-daughter rape. Rape –slays, sexual attacks usually performed by a gang which result in murder, are infrequent. 90% are committed by men who are known to the victims, while 10% are committed by strangers. Most 187

stranger rapes are reported right way. Existing statistics on rape do not represent the actual number of rapes. Reports show that the rate and the volume per 100,000 from 980 to 1994 were on the rise, both in Metro Manila and in nearby provinces. A possible reason is the number of cases reported is the relative in-crease in women’s empowerment, and with their growing consciousness of their rights comes and increased ability to report abuses against them. This is particularly true in the cases of domestic crimes since women have acquired economic strength. Another reasons is the creation of the women’s Desks in the police service, which makes it easier for women to report rape cases (Ibid. :51-52). Relentless police operations are conducted to avert crimes. The Women’s Crisis Center gives service to women survivors of violence. Their research on rape cases show that: seven of ten victims were raped by men known to them; six of ten were victims of premarital rape to force them into marriage whit their current husband; eight of ten reported reproductive tract infections; eight often have sleeping disorders like insomnia, nightmares, nightmares, and oversleeping. Globalization and Crime With the world becoming a global community, there is a free flow of goods, services, funds, ideas, and information. But, while globalization has brought benefits among nations, it also has dire consequence. Crime, like the other aspects of social life, has also been transformed. 188

The UN Crime congress pointed out that the modern methods of transport, communications, and money transfer have utilized developments in science and technology to collaborate across national frontiers and used global strategies that no government can counteract alone (cited by Campos 1995:87). The rich and the powerful again dominate the transnational criminal organization whose vested interests determine the way things are operated and transacted. Crimes have created significant impact on the political, economic, environmental, social, and cultural stability of the country. Due to the archipelagic nature of the country, it becomes easy for foreign fugitives and criminals to enter the Philippines and to move from one place to another. Domestic crimes that spill to another country and are beyond the jurisdiction of domestic law enforcement are referred to as transnational crimes (Calagan2001:2). Example of transnational crimes are piracy, terrorism, human and drug trafficking, arms smuggling, money laundering, and cyber crimes; these are adverse effects on the security of nation states. Globalization enhances the proliferation of transnational corporations (Calagan 2001:30). Under the auspices of the United Nations, the international community has devised plans for regional cooperation and action offset the threats posted by transnational crimes Countries in the Asia-pacific region are pooling resources against transnational crime, there are plans to develop a standard information reporting system, including the framework for strategic researches, studies, analysis, and assessments. Police agencies give assistance to other countries; and international agreements provide for personnel exchanges and extraditions treaties. What is foremost 189

is the institutionalization of these technical aspects for regional and global cooperation (Callaghan 2001:31-35). Social Control Mechanisms Many considered the breakdown of social control as important causes of crime and deviant behavior. Increasing urbanization, industrialization, modernization, higher levels of education and individualism have brought about intense social and cultural changes. Modern society encourages self-expression and personal freedom. The ability of the family, school, church state to sanction and limit individual behavior becomes weak (Bradshaw, smith 2001:344). In order to prevent deviant behavior, effective means of social control are used in the socialization is to insure conformity to the norms and the values of the group so that the members’ behavior is within the range of societal and group norms. Social control refers to the measures and pressures designed to ensure conformity to the approved standards of behavior of a group or society (Horton and Hunt 1984:156). There are two basic control processes: 1) the internalization of group norms which result from the socialization process. Persons are made aware of what is expected of them by the group and they develop the desire to conform to the norms as their own and to the internalized theme so that they behave accordingly. They are taught to conform regardless and independent of any anticipated reactions from others, like harsh opinions or being the object of gossip. 190

There are two types of social control- the informal and the formal. Informal social control may be observed in small groups or remote rural areas were one knows everyone else and is in continued face to face contact with others. This may be observed in specific mechanisms such as approval and praising, bestowal of affection, disapproval, reprimand, denial of affection, expression of opinion, and gossip. Hollnsteiner (1963:185-188) cites some device and mechanism which reinforce the system of social control in the Philippines: 1. Pakikisama or concession. A person inclined to go alone with the wishes of the even when he or she has a conflicting duty, so as to win social approval. 2. Gossip. The fear of wagging tongues may discourage an individual from deviating from norms. 3. The leveling technique, which Fr. Franck lynch S.J. calls the sociostat. Any individual who publicly takes credit for an act or claims any kind of superiority in the group is cut down to size. 4. Curbing of antisocial attitudes by disallowing privacy or by ascribing undesirable statuses to deviants. Formal social control are mechanisms which involve organized systems of specialized agencies to set up rules, codes, standards of expected behavior, and formal secondary groups and urbanized, industrialized communities. These are enacted by the formal organization and administered by persons who occupy positions authorized by the organization to serve as the agents of social control within these organizations. The state enacts criminal laws, and judges. In the form of promotion, bonuses, certificates of merits, citations or award; conversely, the individual 191

maybe suspended or expelled from the group. In the church, the priests, pastors, minister, or rabbis are the agents of social control, and they usually promises of salvation or future states of euphoria. Penance, withholding of religious services at death, or ex-communication are their sanctions. They may also give scrolls or certificates for exemplary service and commitment. Summary Society exerts pressure on its member to conform; nevertheless, there are cases of nonconformity or defiance of groups of norm and values. Behavior that violates norms is called deviant behavior and his socially defined as such. Deviant behavior may be approved or disapproved. The definition of deviant behavior varies in different cultures or a given culture over a period of time. Sociologists have various explanations for deviant behavior. The functionalists stress the normative society and the interrelatedness of its parts. Rapid social change disrupt the smooth interrelation or the parts. Change in norms increase the commission of deviant behavior. Durkheim and Merton assert that deviant behavior is consequence of anomie of formlessness which results from the existence of diverse sets of norms, with none of them closely binding upon everybody. The control theory asserts that deviance, like, conformity, is learned. Participation in subcultures and counter-cultures is part of the socialization process of becoming a deviant. The conflict theory holds that the heterogeneous nature of sociality and the differences in the distribution of social power 192

lead to a struggle between social classes. The conflict between the powerful and the week effect the creations of deviance and society response to is. Those in power decide the definition of what is criminal and laws favorable to them. Symbolic interactions focuses on the importance of the definitions and labelling of a social act. The cultural transmission theorists point out that as people interact with a deviant, they acquire the techniques, motives, drive, and attitudes appropriate to such behavior. This is how a person learns the deviant behavior. Labelling theory focuses on how crime and deviance become defined and labelled and the affect on a person being so labelled, especially by official and other persons. Two serious forms of deviant behavior, which are considered as social problems in the country, are drug abuse and crime. Drugs abuse refers to the use of drugs, lawful or unlawful, which results in physical, emotional, social, or behavioral impairment. Crime is a violation of a norm codified in to law and carries punishment for it. The result of crime is injury to both the individual and the society. Social control refers to the measure and pressures designed to ensure conformity to the approved standards of behavior in a group or society. These are enforced in the process of socialization. There are two types of social control: informal and formal. Study Guide 1. What is deviant behavior? 193

2. Explain the various theories that account for deviant behavior. What are the limitations of these theories? 3. What are the functions of deviant behavior? a. Differentiate drug abuse from drug addiction. b. What are the most commonly abused drugs in the Philippines? c. What is the social cost of drug abuse? d. What are the social and personality variables related to marijuana use as found by Zarco? e. What is the profile of a drug user? f. How are drug user treated? 4. What is crime? 5. Discuss the etiology of crime. 6. Describe the crime situation in the Philippines. What is the trend in the crime and rape incidents in the Philippines? 7. How does globalization affect crime? Critical Thinking Questions 1. Evaluate the labeling theory as an explanation of crime. 2. Are you in favor of the death sentence or the dictum of “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth” in the punishment of criminals? Why or why not?

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Chapter 7 SOCIAL GROUPS AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS In what might be described as its elementary form, the Filipino is composed of the father, the mother, and their unmarried child or children, naturally born to them or adopted… The Filipino concept of the family, commonly referred to as mag-anak, includes members who reside or sojourn elsewhere, provided they are not married. In its elementary or nuclear form, the Filipino family includes all kindred outside of the conjugal, parental, and affinal relations. However, it includes them in its extended form. These relatives may either live with the family or occupy ‘the next door’ in a family compound or in apartment. This recognition of the bilateral extension of kinship includes moral obligations to support those kindred economically if they are jobless or too young themselves at the time of residence with the family. …Philippine social organization as a whole may be described as “familial” in nature in that almost all social activities in the community center of the family. Within the neighborhood, it is the entire family, not its individual members, that decides on important matters. The interest of the family is primarily focused on the individuals comprising it. The karangalan or honor of the family is also at stake when a member or members commit crimes involving morality. F. Landa Jocano 1998:62-63

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This is an illustration of a social group, that of the Filipino family and a description of the Filipino social organization. What is a Social Group? “No man is an island,” said John Donne. A person is a sociable being, born into a group, and living in a group. Even the so-called loners or the monks of the Middle Ages associated and participated with the fellow monks. Social groups are essential to person’s existence. One is born to a family, is raised to a family, plays in the neighborhood, goes to schools, worship with others and join other groups and other associations. From the group, acquire personal habits, values, attitudes, and ambitions. From the group, one acquires a social identity and depends on it for his or her physical, psychological, emotional, and spiritual needs. The concept of group is one important concerns of sociological inquiry. In studying social behavior, one has to examine the most common and most familiar of social units which is the group (Homans 1950:2). What is a group? Sociologists gives a range of definition of the term “social group,” but the popular view is that consist of two or more persons who are in a social interaction, who are guided by social norms, values, and expectations, and who maintain a stable pattern of relations over a period of time (Homans 1950, Stark 1998, Kendall 2000.) Sociologists observe regularity and uniformities in a group and analyze hoe the behavior of individuals is affected by the patterned ways of group. Sociologists are interested in all kinds of group, whether they are small or large, temporary or permanent and organized. 196

Guided by the norms of the group, members interact recurrently and take each other to into account. Overtime, their interactions become patterned. Once the pattern has been established, it becomes the guide and controlling element of their behavior. The pattern and recurrent form of behavior are sustained and may persist even as members come and go. The members of the group are held together and set apart from others by virtue of their interaction. The members of the group tend to identify with the group and develop a sense of purpose. The Concept of Society Sociology is the science of society and the social interactions taking place. The concept of society was formulated during the 16th and 17th centuries to represent the whole organization as distinct from the state. Society includes the totality of social organizations and the complex network of interconnected, interdependent, and overlapping social relationships. Kendall (2000:3) defines society as a large social grouping whose members shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the political authority and dominant cultural expectations. It symbolizes the group within which human beings can live a total common life – the peer groups; social organizations like the family and kinship groups; economic, political, religious and educational groups; and communities. The members have meaningful interactions and interrelationships and guided by a system of rewards and punishments which ensure the maintenance and stability of society.

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Perucci and Knudsen (1983:9) point out two aspects of society; 1) Society is external to the individual. The norms, beliefs, values, and culture of the society precede the individual who are born into it or joint it. 2) The members perceive society and experiences as a constraint upon their lives. A society represents a geographical aggregate and has boundaries, a similar government, and a common culture. The society exists in natural environment to which its members must adapt if it is to survive. It satisfies the basic needs for food, shelter, security, and eventually, the need for stable sociable order. The society imposes on the group members and shapes their personalities. In turn, members try to shape and change patterned forms of interaction and social relationships. The members develop new norms and think of themselves as a social unit, although conflict among them may also occur. Every society has its own distinct and unique culture. Culture and society are interdependent. All members of the society share a common culture, although, subculture exists. For example, the Maranaos of Mindanao are members of Filipino society, but they have distinct life-style and a set of religious beliefs that set them apart from the mainstream of Filipino society. Usually, society is used synonymously with nation-state. Some societies are cultural autonomous but transcend political boundaries, like the Polar Eskimos who migrated to and from Canada and the Soviet Union. A few nation-states are composed of more than one culturally autonomous society like the Soviet Union, before Latvia, Lithuania, Bosnia and others declared their independence in 1991. Then, there are some areas in Africa 198

where nation-states have been formed without regard for cultural and national boundaries (McGee. Et al. 1977:92-153). There are human clusters which do not form social groups but may be transferred into one. There also considered important by sociologists’ who study them. These are called the aggregate, the social category, and the collectivity. Aggregates Sometimes, a number of persons cluster but do not interact with each other, like in the case of people standing in a street corner waiting for jeepney, people lining up to pay for their purchases in a supermarket, or people sharing an elevator ride. Occasionally, they may look at each other and heave a sigh of complaint, but they are not concerned with the feelings and attitudes of the others. This is referred as aggregate, and it is important characteristic is their physical space. Social Category There are groups whose members may never have met and do not interact socially, but posses common identifying status characteristics. These are so called social category. When referring to males and females, infants, children, youths, adults, and the aged, the distinctions are on the basis of age, sex or race. Other criteria may income or social class, occupation, religion, political beliefs, and ethnicity. These social categories frequently contribute to the formation of the groups. For instance, woman who observes that females are discriminated against in hiring or promotion and in a disadvantaged position in society may form a 199

Women’s Movement to redress the inequalities. The studies of social categories make possible the intelligent understanding of the qualities and behavior of people who are similar (Fichter 1971:78-79) Collectivity Temporary groups like crowds, masses, and public. And social movements are cluster of people interacting with each other, but the interactions are passing short-lived. Temporary groups like collectivities are not governed by the established norms of the culture. They are composed of clusters of people who share some kind of belief which prepare them for action, spontaneously form a temporary or short-lived group. They are characterized by the spontaneous formation of norms and organizations that oppose or interpret existing norms and organizations in a society. Factors that Influence Groups People live in groups and form groups to meet certain social needs. Certain experiences predispose people to form groups with or without conscious planning. Fundamental to the process of group formation is social interaction people who are in close proximity, or who share common experiences around some cultural interest, or who have common objectives tend to interact and form groups in order to satisfy their affectional or economic needs, gain a sense of belonging and achieve security, or to further their political ambitions or obtain recognitions. Various factors influence groups. We shall discuss a few important factors. 200

Motivational base shared by individuals. Individuals find themselves together in similar social situations that may have motivational implications for group formations. The motives cover the entire range of social needs, desire, interest, noble activities, insecurities or problems, or even pursuit of nefarious activities. Exposed to the same experiences and situation, a number of people are able to secure results through group action. Some people find themselves sharing a common cause to fight for. The same may be said about the formation of associations or formal organizations in modern, complex societies motivated by special purpose. Santos (1948:31-40) cites a case of deviant group formed in 1970 outside the Metro Manila. Thirteen boys, whose ages ranged from 19 to 27 years, formed a group centered on the acquisition and use of marijuana. To them, the rituals involved in smoking marijuana became the basis of their friendships and identity. Size of the group. The size of the group may range to two to a million members. When a group has two members, it is called dyad, as in a friendship group. The designation whether a group is small or large arbitrary. In some cultures, a family with six members or a university with a population of 10,000 would be consider large: in other culture, these may not be viewed as “large.” As a group size increases, the type of interaction affected: the number of possible channels and interactions among group members increases geometrically (Dobermen and Hartjen 1979:53). The interactions in a family differs in a university, as relation in a family are generally personal and intimate while most university are more informal and interpersonal. 201

In addition to the number of relationships, other characteristics change with increasing size. Among these are the division of labor, the group structure, type of leadership, and the communication patterns. When the number of members increases, division of members specialized, and group structure becomes more formal and rigid. Social relationships which are personal and intimate in a small group become more impersonal and contractual as group becomes bigger; likewise, the need arises for a more formal type of leader with authority and power to direct influence the behavior of others. As a group size increases communication becomes formal and kept within specific positions of the group. In a large group, work may be divided among communities or small groups which can facilitate the personal, informal type of communication. Type of group goals. It is often said that the structural patterns of social groups are affected by its goals. Therefore, the parts of the organization are assumed to have been formed in order to attain group goals. A group will develop structural forms that will facilitate the achievement of its goals; inversely, it will block structural forms that will slow down the pursuit of its goals (McGee 1977:185-186). Let us take the case of local governments. What structural arrangement is more conducive to the pursuit of its goals? There is the old centralized bureaucratic structure where national government executives exercise control over the local units. Another structure is one where local units have autonomy is some aspects of governance and just coordinate on other matters with the national government. Kind of group cohesion. Group cohesion refers to the degree to which members of a group are able to function and interact 202

towards the pursuit of their goals (Santos 1984:32). Group cohesion may be influenced by size, goals, and the possibility of attaining its goals. According to Santos (Santos 1984:32, group cohesion depends on the degree to which the group has developed the notion of what George Simmel calls a ‘code of honor’. This may be illustrated in the attainment of family honor, the honor of members in a business, or the honor of soldiers in the army. Group cohesion is also determined by the extent to which individuals’ needs and interests are satisfied. In the family, when the members’ needs for affection, physical and psychological wellbeing, and respect for each other area satisfied, cohesion is strong and the breakup of its members will be remote. Likewise, in a business establishment, when members’ needs are met and achievement is recognized, the morale and degree of cohesion will be high. Social Structure Just as physical objects have a structure, society and group also have one. Social structure is an abstraction; it cannot be seen directly, but it can be inferred from observing human behavior. Social structure refers to the patterned social relationships and interrelationship of the parts guided by the norms, expectations and values of the social unit’s members. The behavior patterns to be followed as well as goals and purposes to be pursued area taught through the process of socialization. When we observe the structure of whole societies, we observe that those with similar subsistence strategies tend to have similar 203

social structures. Certain factors, like the availability of particular resources, the weather, or contract with different people, will somehow change some features of the social structures. Small rural communities have the high degree of internal solidarity of cohesiveness but limited division of labor. As the society becomes large, the social structure comes to be made up of more specialized parts and more distinctive division of labor (Howard and Hattis 1992:426). Predictable social relationships can be analyzed in terms of the social structure. In the family for example, the statuses area those of husband, wife, son, daughter, father, mother, brother and sister. Father is a status and attached to it is a set of expected patterns, duties and obligations like being a good provider, dispenser of love and affection, protector to the family, disciplinarian, arbiter of the behavior of the children and above all, a model of good behavior. The father holds his status and plays a role in relation to his sons and daughters. However, in actual life, the holder of such a status may or may not satisfactorily carry out the prescribed standards of behavior. Roles are interdependent, and each member plays one’s role on relation to others. Sometimes, a person may experience role conflict when there are incompatible expectations for two or more social positions they hold simultaneously. The head of a bureau may face a conflict if he or she is employing a relative who is not doing too well because the situation has ethical demands. One can also experience role strain, where a person deals with the challenge of occupying two social positions simultaneously or a single position that causes problems. There is also the problem of 204

role exit, which is the process of disengaging from a role that is central to one’s self-identity; like the retirees who will be leaving their places of work. Social Function Social function is a component of social structure. It refers to the results of action that occur in relation to a particular structure, including the results of activities by individuals occupying particular statuses (Schwarts 1968:181). The social activity of a given social structure has certain consequences which make for adaption or adjustment. The expected functions of the family area to produce offspring socialize them and give security and protection to its members. At times, the expected functions area not realized. Each social group has an organization with overall structure governing the interaction of the members and performing the necessary function of holding the group together. These social groups are not in isolation but are linked together to form the total social organization of society. In the case of Philippines society: The basic element of the Filipino social structure is kinship. It is through this structural unit of society that much local authority, rights and obligations and modes of interactions are expressed, defined, ordered and systematized. Interpersonal and intergroup movements of people or groups in and out the barrios and towns are in most cases, largely determined by 205

kinship. Group alliances are likewise formed on this basis. (Jocano 1966:3) Philippine society consists of a spectrum of social organizations from the nomadic hunting and fishing bands and tribal societies to the agricultural-handicraft-industrial societies of peasant and urban communities. Differences in historical background, economic base and settlement patterns brought organizational variations among the animistic upland groups and Muslim and Christian Filipinos. The integration of Philippine society can be deduced from the establishment and development of a superstructure which is the Philippines bureaucracy. Types of Social Groups Social groups vary in size, quality of group interaction, purpose, structure, or combinations of these. One criterion for the classification of groups is the character of social interaction obtained in the groups, as can be seen from such established classifications as the primary and secondary groups, the in-group and the out-group, Gemeinsschaft and Gesselschaft and the formal and informal groups. These classifications represent ideal types, theoretical ideas, or constructs existing only in minds and so the actual types may not exactly conform to their characteristics. These dichotomies of social groups are useful only insofar as they help one understand the actual or real types by providing bases for comparing and analyzing existing conditions or situations.

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The Primary Group and the Society Group One of the most fundamental distinctions in classifying social groups is that made between the small and intimate primary group versus the large impersonal group, otherwise known as the secondary group. The concept of ‘primary group’ was introduced by Charles W. Cooley (1957:23) By primary groups I mean those characterized by intimate face-to-face association and cooperation. They are primary in several senses, but chiefly in that they are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideals of the individual. The result of intimate association, psychologically, is a certain fusion of individualities in a common whole, so that one’s very self, for many purposes at least, is the common life and purpose of the group. Perhaps the simplest way of describing the wholeness is by saying that it is ‘We’. It involves the sort of sympathy and mutual identification for which ‘we’ is the natural expression. One lives in that feeling of the whole and finds the chief aims of his will in that feeling. Primary groups, small face-to-face structures such as the family and friendship groups, are where personalities are fused into a common whole. These are considered the building blocks of larger society. One can act spontaneously and show ease of manner in a primary group. The members feel a sense of togetherness and belonging, are sympathetic with one another, and share common ends. The relationship is personal and intimate. Likewise, the means of social control are informal. 207

Pervading the whole group is the pakikisama, or attitude of getting along with members of the group so that one thinks in terms of the whole and for the interests of the group. However, being in close physical proximity or face-to-face relationships does not necessarily lead to personal relations as in the case of a lecturer and students in a classroom, a salespersons and customers, or a group of mahjong or chess who play to win and not to have pleasant game. Likewise, a family where the father is a tyrant and where there are constant conflicts and strained relationships wherein a person gets to know another intimately despite indirect contact. Examples are pen pals, phone pals, or cellphone textmates. Primary groups are so-called because they are the initial groups that a person joins; they provide him or her with experiences in social relations. Cooley (1957:27) calls primary groups the ‘nursery of human nature’ as these shapes our personality and develop our self-concept. A child is socialized and gets emotional gratification in the primary groups. From the primary groups, an individual acquires ideas and experiences of love, affection, sympathy, kindness and notions of right and wrong. From these groups are also learned the virtues of fair play, loyalty and justice. Primary groups give one sense of personal worth; they are an important source of social control and social cohesion, and provide the links to the bigger society. The basic primary group is the family. Other primary groups are play groups, peer groups, gangs, the immediate school group, and the cliques formed in large impersonal organizations. 208

In contrast to primary groups, interactions among the members of secondary groups are impersonal, business-like, contractual and casual. The interpersonal relations may be characterized as rational, individualistic and segmental. The composition of the group id heterogeneous and membership is numerous and widespread. Communication is affected through telephone, mail, digital technology, and the media. While members have different ends, they are there for specific purpose or goal. Secondary groups focus on the development of skills and specialized knowhow, enabling their members to perform effectively and thus contribute to the efficient functioning of society. Secondary groups are task-oriented and play specialized ties with the people. Secondary groups tend to impose the patterns of conformity on their members. Hence, they serve to offset the prejudices or vested control of the immediate locality. Having a boundary beyond the primary group, they make their members assume a broader and more universal perspective. The focus is on its goal rather than on personal relationships that characterized the primary and local groups. This universal attitude maybe observed in the planning of business, labor, economic, political and religious organizations. Secondary groups are so called because the individual comes on contact with them later in life. Contacts in secondary groups may be face-to-face or indirect, fleeting or longer in duration. The relationships are valuable only insofar as they facilitate the attainment of one’s end or objectives. A sort of contractual relationships exists where the parties agree to meet a definite purpose without regard for the welfare of the other person and to terminate the relationship once the purpose is achieved. 209

Sentiments do not enter into the relationship. Loyalty and the sense of belonging do not develop spontaneously. As industrialization and urbanization develop in a society, more large-scale secondary groups are formed, such as in industrial companies, labor federations and in political, educational, religious, health and civic groups. New social relations develop as the impersonal relations take the place of the personal intimate relations. This tends to associate with others as mere functionaries rather than as whole persons. However, within the secondary groups, persons may become friends, fall in love and get married and consequently form primary groups. So, within the large-scale secondary groups, a number of friendship groups and cliques are formed, which provide personal intimacy within the group. Primary groups persist in secondary groups because of the individual’s need for intimate, sympathetic relationships (Horton and Hunt 1984:201). Studies by social scientists like shills (1964:34) reveal that the small well-knit primary groups perform a mediating function between the primary group and the corporate body. In the army, for example, primary groups can raise the morale, efficiency and stability of the members. There are advantages in maintaining secondary relations in largescale establishments. In matters of appointment and promotion, the merit system may be employed to ensure equality, fair treatment and efficiency. An employee gets promoted not on account of kinship and friendship, but on the basis of merits and achievement. In instances where the merit system is disregarded, demoralization occurs. The difference between the primary and 210

secondary group is one of degree. Some primary relations develop into secondary ones and some relationships and exchanges in secondary groups may be warm, friendly and personal (Sullivan 2001:198). Gemeinschaft and Gesselschaft A similar distinction in the primary-secondary group dichotomy was that developed by Ferdinand Toennies (1951:82) between Gemeinschaft (close communal relationships or community) and Gesselschaft (organized impersonal relationships or society). A Gemeinschaft is a community of intimate, private and exclusive living and familism. It is based on what Toennies call the ‘natural will’ of the members who relate to one another as total personalities. Their activities, interests and personalities center around the large family groups and neighbors. For the local equivalent, Filipinos have used the terms damay and bayanihan, which imply mutual helpfulness and the sharing of pleasure as well as of sorrow. Members are bound to the community and work for its interests. They live and work together and share a common language, traditions and customs which are not questioned. These experiences and memories strengthen their ties and identification with the community. The unity is based on similarity of objectives, traits and experiences—the type of social designated by Durkheim as “mechanical.” Our tribal groups and agricultural and fishing villages would exemplify Gemeinschaft. In contrast to Gemeinschaft, Gemeinschaft is ‘public life’ or the world itself. This type of group is characterized bi impersonal, secondary, contractual, and rationalized relationships. Members 211

are guided by ‘rational will’ characterized by forethought and deliberation. In Gesselschaft, there is transitory and superficial contact, a characteristic of second group. The members in a Gesselschaft coexist but are independent of one another. In the Gesselschaft, like in the secondary group, there is division of labor, specialization, functional interdependence, and solidarity or cohesion are achieved. The type of solidarity among members is what Durkheim term as ‘organic’ and it is based on the differences arising from dissimilarities in objectives and specialization, resulting in mutual interdependence among members. There is a trend towards Gesselschaft in a changing, dynamic society, as may be observed in the urban-industrial communities. While Gesselschaft has brought about problems replacing primary relations with secondary relations, it has also brought benefits such as efficiency, mass production of goods, and material advantages. Individual talents are developed as a result of specialization and new channels for employment. In-Group and Out-Group Groups may be classifies as in-group and out-group. In-groups and out-groups are not actual groups but a kind of perspective relationship that exists in the minds as an individual learns to use the pronoun ‘we’ to the refer in-group, and ‘they,’ to refer to the out-group. Those who belong consider themselves as a social unit. This unit has boundaries which separate ‘we’ front the ‘they’. Therefore, one says ‘we are in’ and ‘they are out.’ To the in-group and out-group, relations may be primary or secondary, large or small. The differentiation is important for understanding collective phenomena, as in the analysis solidarity 212

in the groups, cooperation and conflict situations, and patterns of discrimination and prejudice between ethnic groups. In the course of socialization process, start in the family and continuing with a series of primary and secondary groups, one learns to distinguish between groups to which one belongs in contrast to other groups. Members of the group have some common interest which draw them together and differentiate them from other groups. The insiders are the “in-group” and the outsiders are the “out-group” or the “other group.” The in-group is the group with which the individual identifies and which gives him or her a sense of belonging, solidarity, camaraderie, esprit de corps, and a protective attitude toward the other members. The members are loyal to each other and one may accept responsibility for the others. Some groups have boundaries which may be marked by entrance rites or membership fees. There are many in-group identities and loyalties, some of which may overlap and cause conflict. A woman who is a member of a women’s movement and at the same time the Catholic Church may be torn between the ideas of the former supporting the use of contraceptives as a means of population control and the Church’s opposing stands. The out-group is viewed as outsiders by the in-group. It is a group which an individual is in sufficient contact with as to be aware of its existence, but which he or she is prone to criticize or ridicule. One usually feels strangeness, indifference, dislike, avoidance, and/or antagonism toward the out-group. There is a tendency to 213

think of those in the out-group in terms of stereotypes which are oversimplified and sometimes misleading. The outsiders may be labelled as ‘headhunters’ or ’dirty pigs’. There may also be stereotype images of social classes, occupational groups, and regional ethnic groups, as when Tagalog are labelled as mayabang (arrogant) or the Ilokano as kuripot (tightwad). The pattern of the in-group and out-group is found in all societies, simple or complex, whenever competition or aggression arises. Acknowledge of this pattern will enable one to gain insights into sentiments and solidarity of the group. It will also enable to understand the processes of cooperation among members of the group and conflicts between the groups and to gain insight into the pattern of solidarity within a group and of intergroup hostility. Membership in an in-group to which one has intense loyalty and identification has both advantages and disadvantages. Members develop self-esteem, social cohesion, and a sense of belonging emerging from shared belief in the superiority of their group. On the other hand, the members may develop a false picture of themselves and others. Reality may be distorted by exaggerating one’s worth while deflating that of the out-group. Physical damage may also be encountered. The in-group and out-group differences may promote chauvinism, racism, sexism, and aggression (Shepard 1999:134-135). However, the solidarity and mutual understanding found in a group does not necessarily imply a corresponding outgroup.

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Formal Organizations and Informal Groups With increasing industrialization and urbanization, members of the society fins themselves being more involved with a type of secondary group called formal organization. These groups are important in industrialized, complex societies. In our daily lives, we come in contact with them vis-à-vis our need for food, clothing, education, jobs, services, spiritual activities, health, and police protection. They are social structures which are deliberately organized for the attainment of specific goals which meet their most fundamental needs. They are source of continuity and permanence in a society’s efforts to meet specific goals. Individual members come and go, but these organizations will continue to function. Schools, churches, hospitals, industrial establishments, trade unions, government agencies, political parties, military and civic organizations created to meet specific goals, many of these groups started as informal social groups. Power, which is defined as the ability to control the behavior of others even against their will, affects human relationships. Power plays an important role in many organizations on account of the diversity of goals and interests that exist among the participants, for example between the executives and the wage earners (Shepard1999:145). The goals of different formal organizations vary greatly. Some are formed for profit, fort the spiritual needs of people, for the education of the youth, for workers’ benefit, for service to the poor, and others. On account of this variety of goals, certain formal organizations come in conflict with other. A labor union’s goal or higher salaries and more fringe benefits may contrast from 215

that of the employer’s goal of increasing profit. A teachers union calling for higher wages may come in conflict with school’s administration’s plan to allocate funds for improving facilities. Conflicts also arise within the formal organization. In a business firm, for example, there may be conflict as to whether it should manufacture its own bottle or buy to another company. In a university, there may be conflict as to whether priority is given to teaching or to research; or to extension work for making profit. Within the structure of these formal organizations are informal groups called dyads (two-person groups), triads (three person groups), cliques, friendship groups or circles. The membership and organization of such group may coincide with the units of the large organizations, but sometimes they are not in consonance with the activity of the formal group. The informal structures are formed spontaneously without any conscious effort of the participants. These meet the need of those involved and provide the members with the personal ties not found in the formal organization. While formal organization contains norms for its members, its fundamental objective is utilitarian, which is to increase productivity and to protect them from what they feel are unreasonable demands of the organizations. The informal structure permits adaptations to situations or demand not provided in the formal organization. These are informal rules, punishments, and rewards, which encourage conformity. These also promote workers satisfaction as well as organizational satisfaction (Sheperd1999:144).

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Formal organizations has an administrative machinery that is aimed to enable to meet their goals. The administrative structure is bureaucracy. The Bureaucracy Oftentimes we hear people speak disparagingly of the bureaucracy. The term is often associated with efficiency, red tape, delay, or under-the-table arrangements. Yet, these are very things which bureaucracy aims to correct. As society becomes more urbanized and industrialized, complex problems arise in carrying out tasks. The bureaucracy aims to meet these problems for, as Merton (1964:489) pointed out, “the chief merit of the bureaucracy is its technical efficiency with a premium placed on precision, control, continuity, discretion, and optimal returns on input.” The bureaucratic type of organization is designed to protect the members’ welfare through a system of rules and procedures. Fairness in decision-making guided by impersonality ensures some protection and more less equal treatment for its members. On the other hand, Webber pointed out that the formality and rationality of the bureaucracy would not necessarily lead to the achievement of the intended desirable results. The efficiency and management of the organization remain in the hands of the leaders. Merton (1964:488) defines the bureaucracy as a formal, rationally organized social structure involving clearly defined patterns of activity in which every series of actions is fundamentally related to 217

the purpose of the organization. It is characterized by a division of labor based on specialization, a hierarchy of authority, a system of rules and procedures, written records of activities, full-time jobs, and impersonal relationships. It lays out the diverse roles of individuals as they occupy statuses for carrying out specifically defined functions of the whole social organization. There is deliberate planning. The classic work on bureaucracy was written by Max Webber (in Merton 1964), the German sociologist and one of the pioneers of sociology. There are several related characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy identified by Webber (1964:465-472). Since the emphasis is on the ideal type, what exists in reality may just appropriate it. However, these can be used in analyzing largescale formal organizations. They include the following: 1. Position and offices are clearly defined and, in principle, exist independent of the incumbent or the person occupying the position. The performance of roles by the incumbent during official hours is according to contract. 2. The hierarchical arrangement of authority, rights, and obligations is specifically drawn and clear-cut. This shows the chain of command and the levels of super-ordination and subordination with their corresponding privileges and responsibilities. Communication through channels is highly regularized, and activities are coordinated and integrated with regard to the pursuit of the organization’s common goals and objectives. 3. The personnel are selected on the basis of technical or professional qualification, expert training, and competence through competitive examination. 218

4. Definite rules govern official behavior. Knowledge of these rules represents special technical learning which the official has. Jurisprudence or administrative or business management is involved. 5. Security of tenure and the pursuit of a career with promotion in the hierarchy are assured. Promotions based on seniority and merit, though slow. Occur periodically to maintain morale and competent performance. Tenure is secure as long as one does not perform any gross misconduct at work. The bureaucracy penetrated various areas of living – government, religion, philosophy, politics, and law, education, health and welfare, public works and communications, and eve crime and vice. As a social organization, it has functions as well as dysfunctions. Among the defects, which may be perpetuated by the bureaucracy itself, are the red tape, or extreme adherence to rigid procedures and paper work; the tendency of those in power to maintain the status quo by withholding vital information from members of out-groups; ‘boss officials’ in key positions who feel that they have become indispensable fixtures of the social organization; and ‘gentlemanly malingerers’ or employees who have become so secure and contented in their jobs that they feel do not have to work too hard (Merton 1957). In the Philippines, the bureaucracy is vulnerable to nepotism and favoritism due to strong family ties. Underlying Philippine bureaucracy are substructures of small kinship groups. The relationships of Filipinos are still personalistic in spite of the rise of impersonalism in urban areas. Unclassified and temporary positions become the convenient instruments for the practice of nepotism, patronage, and influence pending. The demands of 219

personalism are incongruent with the bureaucratic-legal norms (Carino 1979:232). Bureaucracy requires universal and collectively oriented positions, which are in contrast to the particularistic and self-orientation demands of personalism. One will also note the people’s apathetic reaction to bureaucratic misconduct. Some have formed associations to counteract graft and corruption but people generally seem to be injured to such misconducts. These situations are not unique to the Philippines and are present in other countries. There have been attempts to restructure the bureaucracy so as to make it an instrument not only of the national government but also of the regional and urban communities The Philippines is best with an oligarchic elite group that administers the spoils system. Winning candidates tend to reward those who helped them in the election by appointing them tom positions in the bureaucracy, regardless of their qualifications. As a result, the bureaucracy becomes bloated and staffed with inept people. These weaknesses should be overcome because the bureaucracy is necessary for nation-building and carrying out national policies and projects. Reference Groups The reference group, unlike the then other types of groups discussed earlier, is a symbolic reference or anchor for the individual. The reference group is the group to which the individual relates or aspires to relate psychologically. It becomes the individual’s frame of reference and source for the ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, cognitions, and ideas of self. It is 220

important for determining a person’s self-identity, attitudes, and social ties. It becomes the reference in making comparisons or contrast and in evaluating one’s appearance and performance. The knowledge of an individual’s reference group is helpful in determining his or her attitudes, values, standards, goals, and aspirations. Reference groups are indices of status value. In a study of health innovations in rural areas, Coller (1962:60) pointed out the influence of the reference group as a basis for evaluating ones behavior. He wrote: “From the sociological perspective, a health behavior is accordingly seen as part of social behavior. It is thus thought that the health practices of an individual rest upon the particular kinds of social relationships that he has or wants to have with his reference groups. In all cases, however, the reference group values are internalized by the individual and also become a basis for e valuating his own behavior. This means that self-conceptualizations is built upon reference group affiliation.” A reference group is ones membership group which he or she is officially attached or recognized as belonging. Examples are the family, peer group, school group, sorority, or fraternity, religious organization, political parties, or civic group. The family is a reference group to a child if or she has been influenced by its views and attitudes. Children’s are often influenced by their parents’ attitudes toward commonplace ideas and such matters as religion, religion, politics, prejudice, or any ideology. In a study made by Licuanan (1971:1-29) on the impact of modernization and modern Western values on Filipino adolescents, she found 221

out that the peer group and the family are generally important reference groups. Adolescents consider their peers an important reference group. Yet the traditional, interpersonally oriented values reflected in the Filipino family, like placing importance on the qualities on intelligence, dependability, and hard work, are also desired. However, not all reference groups are membership groups. A person may aspire to be a member of another group. An individual coming from a lower class family may identify with the norms and values of the middle or upper class. Sometimes, people behave in terms of the norms they identify with rather than in terms of the norms they are officially supposed to follow. In slow-changing societies that have a unified set of culture, the individual’s membership groups are usually also the reference groups. In modern industrialized societies where numerous group have diverse ideas, individuals have find themselves caught in circumstances where they have to work with people whose values are at odds with their own. Adolescents may find their family’s norms of their school or peer group. Some entrepreneurs may find the norms of their business group in conflict with their religious values. Sullivan (2001:119) holds that the reference groups serve as the standards by which a person evaluates on understands oneself, their attitudes, and behavior. They powerful and pervasive elements in our lives and are important sources of our norms, values, attitudes, and our standards of conduct. We adopt the perspective and the social attitudes required by reference groups affect our self-esteem. 222

A knowledge of a person’s reference group/s is important as it helps us understand why people behave as they do. It is a means of determining their attitudes and judgment. In summing up, it may be said that the reference groups serve regulate attitudes, loyalties, conformities, aspirations, and conceptions about one’s self. It provides the frames of comparisons by which the individuals evaluate themselves and others Social Institutions Social institutions are sometime confused with formal organizations, but these are actual different. A social institution is an abstraction which an organized system of social norms, beliefs, values, and material objects formed around the social needs of people. All societies have intuitions such as family, economy, religion, and education to meet certain social needs. Religion is an institution, while the Roman Catholic Church is a formal organization. Education is an institution, while University of the Philippines is an organization. Today, mass media, sports, science, medicine, military are considered as social institution. A group is composed of specific, identified people. A social institution is a standardized way of doing something and performs certain functions in society. When varied social norms, attitudes, values, beliefs, and material objects become regular and centered around certain fundamental human needs, they become normative systems or institution. They grow out of the needs, drives, or interests of the group and are organized, established, prescribed stable ways of doing things. They are man-made ways of solving some problems that individuals and societies face; are organized around critical 223

issues; and support important values of the group. Among the needs, problems, maintenance of peace and order, and the establishment of communication between human beings and the supernatural. Social institutions consist of combination of certain related type into the configuration of folkways, traditions, and beliefs (Chapin 1935:15). The type parts are: 1. Common reciprocating attitudes and their conventionalized behavior patterns. Within the social institutions are clusters of established and accepted behavior patterns through which the needs of the group are adequately maintained and satisfied. Out of these patterns may develop affection, love, cooperation, loyalty and obedience—feeling expressed by individuals in their roles. 2. Cultural objects of symbolic value which represent social institutions. These symbols give sentimental meaning to the behavior of the individual. Among them are weeding ring for marriage, the cross foe the church, and the flag for the state of the school. 3. Cultural objects possessing utilitarian value which satisfy the wants if the individual. Among these are the house for the family, pews for the church, building for the state, and desks for the schools. In a way, cultural objects satisfy the wants of the individual. 4. Oral or written language symbols or traditions. These give the description, ideological system, and specifications of the patterns of interrelationships. They are generation to generation. 224

Social institutions are the great conservers and transmitters of cultural heritage as they embody the basic cultural values of society. The family provides the means for the accepted sexual activity and procreation. In transmitting the cultural heritage of the group, the functions of the family, school, and the church, are closely, interrelated. The church teaches love of God and neighbors. The state maintains peace and order and protects the country form attack or invasion by outsiders. The economy is responsible for the provision of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. These social institutions are closely interrelated and function as socializing agents and imbuing the members with a sense of purpose. The various institutions in society tend to be interrelated and integrative. The patterns in the family are somehow bound up with other institutions. The church and schools strengthen the values attitudes acquired in the family; business makes use of the knowledge and skills acquired in the schools; and science and technology contribute to the knowledge applied in business. These institutions depend on each other, and change in one institution has far-reaching consequences on other institutions. Changes in the economic institutions, for example, can bring dire consequences to the family, school, and political institutions. Leadership Who is the leader? Usually, we think of a leader as one who directs, or leads the activities of a group. Leadership, according to Hollander (Sullivan2001:122), refers to the exercise of influence over a group and directs behavior toward particular results or 225

goals. Leadership can be formal position like that of a teacher in the classroom or a manger in an office, or an informal one which is shifting and sometimes difficult such as leader of a peer group or a gang. Two important roles which leaders have to perform are the task or instrumental roles and socioeconomic or expressive relationship roles. The leader moves a group toward the achievement of its goals. This requires skill in coordination and command. When the leader focuses on the well-being of the peer group like attaining productivity, understanding, sympathizing, then these are expressions of the socioeconomic roles or expressive relationships. The type of leadership determines the forms of social structure in their degree of defectiveness, which in turn influences the attitude and behavior of the group members (White and Lippet 1960 in Sullivan 2001:123). There are three kinds of leaders in terms of directiveness: 1. Autocratic leader. This kind of leader is thoroughly directive. He or she is a dictator who orders all actions and techniques to be used in achieving group goals. With this kind of leader, there is likely to be more tension, conflict, hostility and aggressiveness. It is commonly believed that an autocratic leader can spur higher productivity, but this is not always true. 2. Democratic Leader. Members are given leeway to participate in determining the policies of the group, choosing procedures for accomplishing the group goals and deciding the course of action to take. There is consensus building. With a democratic leader, members derive more satisfaction and greater interest in relaxed conditions for working 226

together. They are more friendly and convivial toward each other. Evidence shows that the democratic leaders are more influential with their members than the other kinds of leaders. Employee productivity and commitment are high. 3. Laissez faire leader. With this kind of leader, the members are allowed almost complete freedom to make decisions and choose alternative action. The members may view such a situation positively but the laissez faire leader does not work strongly in the achievement of the group. The laissez faire leader is the least effective in achieving group goals. Sullivan (2001:123) averred that the best type of leadership depends on the type of group involved, its goals and the type of environment where the group carries out its work. Working in a stressful environment hinders its work; while quite, stable, positive environment is more conductive to achieving goals. Regarding the issue of gender in leadership, some researchers support the popular belief that men are more influential than women who are deemed as more likely to be swayed. This is consistent with the stereotype of women as the weaker and the more passive of the two sexes. But studies show that this is so because men have more opportunities to hold leadership positions, gain more experience and show a capacity for it. It is not gender per se that affects leadership. What are the traits necessary for leadership? Some decades back, it was believed that the leaders are born with certain traits that are necessary to be successful. Others believe that formed and combination of traits are necessary to become successful. Among these traits are intelligence, pleasing personality, 227

educational background, socioeconomic status, friendliness, energy, decisiveness and responsibility.

integrity,

Felix (1998) cites the qualities needed in a community-based leader as follows: values-centered, responsive, action oriented a consensus builder and a clear sense of accountability. These qualities are necessary for a community leader to shape his/her attitude, behavior and methods of work. Since our actions are influenced by our values, it is necessary for the leader to acquire the core values of life-giving relationships, cultural sensitivity, gender-sensitivity and environmental awareness. When the leaders and the followers share these values, the leadership structure becomes more effective and viable (Felix 1998:23-29). Being responsive to the needs and problems of the people, especially during times of adversity, implies that the leader has a clear vision, mission and goals for community. A good leader has clear objectives and adequate resources to guide people in solving their problems; active yet patient during crisis; creates a climate wherein the members of the community can learn, develop and aim for excellence and more motivates them through appropriate recognition of their achievements. An action-oriented leader implies he/she is enthusiastic to work for the good of the community; is skillful in assigning community members to perform specific tasks toward goal attainment; take risks when needed; initiates and feels competent community action. 228

A consensus builder is one who can establish a conductive interpersonal communication, can reconcile contending perspectives, guides the discussion to attain similarities from conflicting viewpoints, achieves agreement in the members’ varying proposals, and informs members the nature of the problem or project. Accountability refers to the leader being transparent and responsible for providing the members with substantial information on the activities being undertaken. The tasks and performance of the leader are open fro security. Information, ideas, and even feelings are shared, and the leader can account for the community’s funds. The leader and the community have joint responsibility over the results of plans and projects. The issue of leadership emerged with the ascendency of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo to the presidency, following the ouster of Pres. Joseph Estrada from Malacanang on January 20, 2001 for alleged graft and corruption, an extravagant life-style and abuse of power. The country, then, was confronted with tremendous problems—economic instability, insurgency, increasing poverty and unemployment, a bloated bureaucracy, graft and corruption, kidnapping, banditry, and other crimes, and drug abuse, among others. The Philippines was lagging economically behind its Asian neighbors. People expected the alleviation, if not the resolution, of these problems and immediate institution of reforms. However, whatever reforms or policies instituted by the new administration were not sufficient felt by the people. The issue of leadership is now raised: what kind of leader could effectively address problems besetting the country? 229

In surveys on leadership, the priority traits that the people desire in there are: those who show concern for the poor (may malasakit lalo na para sa mga mahirap); and those who are humane (makatao), moral and godly (maka Diyos). During election campaigns, candidates project themselves these traits and those who appear credible get the votes (Miranda 2002:9) In Pulse Asia’s national survey in 2001, respondents were asked to chose, from among eleven, traits they like in a leader. The results show that traditional-value traits, like being godly and prayerful, pro-poor, and relating well to others in humane way, were overtaken by the traits of knowledge, capability to manage the government and strong political will for justice and equity. This may be an indication that voters are looking for a leader who is capable for good governance. Summary An individual is born into and grows up in a social group. A social group is composed of two or more persons who are in a social interaction, guided by set of norms, values, and expectations. Sociologist, observe the uniformities and regularities in a group. Apart from the social group, there are human clusters like the aggregates, social categories, and collectivities which may be transformed into groups. The factors which influence the groups are motivation among the people coming together, its size, the type of goal, and kind of cohesion that the group has. Social groups have a social structure which refers to the patterned relationships among the members guided by the norms, expectations, and values. Some kind of order and meaning is 230

infused into the relationships among members of the group. The process of bringing order and meaning into the social human life and subsequent stable pattern of relation is called social organization. Social groups vary in size, quality of group interaction, purpose, structure, or a combination of these. Among the types are the primary and secondary groups, Gemeinschaft and Gesselschaft in-group and out-group, and informal and formal groups. The administrative structure of formal organization is called bureaucracy. There is also one’s reference groups which are symbolic references or anchors. Playing a periodical in the group is the leader. Leadership refers to the exercise of influence over a group and directing behavior toward particular results of goals. The type of leadership determines the form of social structure. Study Guide 1. Concept to master: Social group Gesselschaft Social organization Informal group Social institution Formal group Primary Group Bureaucracy Secondary Group Reference group Gemeinschaft Leadership 2. What are the characteristics of social groups? 3. How is social group differentiated from aggregate, social category, and collectivity? Five examples. 231

4. Explain the various factors that influence groups. Illustrate each factor. 5. List the various types of groups. Differentiate them and give examples of these groups. 6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of bureaucracy? 7. Why are reference groups so called? Which groups do you consider your reference groups? 8. How do social institutions differ from formal organizations? Describe the type parts of social institutions. 9. What is leadership? What are the traits that one should look for in a leader? Critical Thinking Questions 1. Explain John Donne’s statement: “No man is an island.” 2. How functional is the Philippine bureaucracy? How can the Philippine bureaucracy be strengthened? 3. Who is the leader you will elect or campaign for in the next election? Why?

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Chapter 8 SOCIAL INTERACTION AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP We often get to know about important events through mass media and the internet. Among the significant news events in the recent past are: The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), established for cooperation and cohesion in intra – regional relation, was shaken by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. On September 11, 2001, two passenger jets slammed into the twin towers of the world Trade Center in New York, causing the building to collapse, killing more than 3,000 and injuring hundreds more. Immediately after, leaders of others countries joined the American government in declaring war against terrorism. American British planes struck Afghanistan to smoke out Osama bin Laden, leader of al Qaeda, who was believed to be behind the September attacks. In the process, many innocent civilians, including children, were injured or killed. Under the Balikatan exercises, American troops were deployed to train and advise Philippine soldiers fighting against the Abu Sayyaf. Russian president Vladimir Putin tied to mediate in the conflict between India Pakistan; both countries possess nuclear weapons.

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Militant labo unions and urban poor organizations organized protest rallies against the purchased power agreement. Pampanga governor Mikey Arroyo and Angela Montenegro were married in solemn rites at the St. Augustine Church in Lubao, Pampanga. Pres. Gloria M. Arroyo and First Gentleman Mike Arroyo watched the ceremonies. Ateneo’s blue eagle team bested La Salle’s green archers in the basketball championship of the UAAP at the Araneta coliseum on October 2002. The blue eagle team and their fans were jubilant and teary- eyed. Controversy hounded the Metro Manila film festival 2002 when Ara Mina won the best actress award, Kris Aquino the best supporting actress award, and Mano Po the best film award. Pres. Gloria M. Arroyo announced she would not run in the 2004 election. Her statement elicited praised as well as scepticism. All these are examples of social interaction and social relationship occurring within society and between societies. The Nature of Social Interaction Within a society, we can observe people continually engaging in social interactions. Social interaction is the basic social process, a universal principle without which no social life is possible. A considerable portion of our waking hours is spent in social interaction. As a child, time is spent in conversing or playing with others. As a student, time is spent in talking and listening to others. Members of society are continuously exchanging 234

gestures, actions, or words, as may be observed as people engaged in conversation, in striving for a reward, or while jostling in a fight. Social interaction takes place in both the social groups of which one is a member as well as in social institutions, e.g., the family, religion, government and education. People may be understood in the context f their social actions towards others and in the interplay between their action and the expected or actual reaction of others (Coser and Rosenberg 1963:55) sociologist are particularly interested in studying how people interrelate or interact with each other, and the recurrent and patterned relationships that have attained stability. These situations enable as to make generalizations. The basic types of social relationships studied but sociologists are conflict, competition, differentiation, and cooperation, as well as other types of social relationships which are derived from the basic types. Social interaction is the way in which people respond or communicate with one another within social contexts. This distinctive characteristic of social interaction among human beings is that interprets or defines the other action instead of merely reacting to each other’s reaction (Blumer 1969:79 Ciyed in Schaefer 2000:119). W.I. Thomas (1923) wrote of the concept, ‘definition of the situation,’ wherein people respond not only to the objective features of a person or situation but also to the meaning that the person or situation has for them. Through negotiation, people attempt to reach agreement concerning their objectives, thus changing the patterns of social interaction. People also 235

bargain, compromise, trade-off, mediate, exchange, wheel and deal, and connive. Thus, form, direction, and meaning are given to the individual or group concerned. Social interaction involves reciprocal contact carried out through spoken or written language. Codes, norms, or standards affect and govern the social relationships. In an interaction, the individual responds to the other person, and the response becomes a stimulus which the other has to perceive and interpret. Interaction is a sort of interplay or two way actions between two or more individuals or groups within a society, or an individual and a group, or two or more societies. It is a process of responding in awareness of others and adjusting responses to the way others respond as mediated through symbols. The pattern of interaction is influenced by the manner or response given, body gestures, deference, degree of acquaintance, social status, and numerous other factors. Thus, social interaction is often explicated or formally defined and regulated within a framework that includes an elaborate and specialized apparatus for accomplishing group or natural goals (Lindesmith and Strauss 1968). As persons or groups interact with each other, a pattern of ties or connection develops. There evolves a network of social relationships which allows communication, exchange, or a pattern of social links among social units. The repeated actions between social units develop into a pattern of stable, shared features. Role of Language Social interaction occurs through communications, which is mediated by symbols shred by a group. Language is the most 236

important form of symbol. It may be spoken or written, and make social organization possible. Although interaction may occur through gestures or physical movements which express an idea o an emotion, as in a smile of greeting, a thumbs up sign, or a glaring look at another person, the greater part of social interaction occurs through verbalized symbols. Individuals react according to their interpretation of and conclusion drawn from the behaviour of another. They deduce, judge, and evaluate on this basis. The participants in all forms of social interaction respond to one another, not as mere physical or psychological atoms, but as members of social groups who hold status and roles and act within the context of the acquired norms or culture of the group (Nesbit 1970:28). An individual or group interacts with another on the basis of behaviour as defined by the society, which considers the status and role of the participant. This evaluation becomes the guide for the individual behaviour, for only in the light expected behaviour can an individual act meaningfully. Status position, norms, and reciprocal obligations come into play in the process of interaction. Let us take the case of a group of people huddled over the bargaining table: to be able to strike a good deal, union members who sit at the table must have a social status comparable to that of management representatives. The mutual adjustment of individual viewpoints in order to achieve a measure of similarity in certain respects is an affect of interaction. Groups trying to achieve a goal have to exert concerted and coordinated action. This does not happen automatically; they have to undergo a communicative process of explaining, clarifying, debating, persuading, and arriving at an 237

agreement. This communicative process rests on what sociologists call consensus, where individuals share certain perspectives (Lindesmith and Strauss 1968:22). For instance, people who come together to form a coalition must know their goals and what can be achieved through such coalition. There can be no consensus without communication. Each member has to take into account the others, evaluate the tactics and strategies to be followed, and consider their aims and commitments. Patterns of Interaction Practically all human behaviour involves social interaction: a mother disciplines her child; a group of friends organize a party, teenage group’s quarrel, an Abu Sayyaf members fires at a soldier, or a group of south East Asian leaders collaborate on ASEAN activities. Sociologist has organized social interaction into five types, namely: (Curry 1955:98) exchange, competition, conflict, war, and cooperation. Exchange It is the process by which one transfers social goods, services, and items to another. Exchange takes place when both parties feel that they will benefit from frequent and voluntary interaction. A child tries to behave well in order to get words of appreciation from the mother. Usually a person who gives a gift also expects a gift in return. These exchanges are within the family, among friends, regular costumers and seller or between lovers. Usually, the social exchange is of equal value, and involves not only good and services but also sentiments (Stark 1996:83). For example, politician would do something for their constituents in exchange 238

for their votes. The basic reciprocity is that you do something for another and expect something in return. There is usually trust, gratitude, and affection in the relationship. The exchange stops when one feels the other person is ungrateful or is cheating. Competition Competition is manifested in a variety of situations. One may observe this in situations like two rivals for the same girl, teams playing off for the championship, stores competing for costumers, `presidentiables’ vying for the highest position of the land and even two nations competing for power economic resources, or supremacy. Competition is form of struggle to secure a reward or a goal such as a prize, material object, position, leadership, prestige, or power. The focus is chiefly on the reward rather than on the competitor. Competitions occur between two individuals of groups when the satisfaction of the needs or desires of one is opposed to that of the other (Richter 1987:84). The scarcity of the object or the limited quantity of goods or services is the crucial factor. The emergence and decline of competition is a function of the appearance or disappearance of scarcity. For example, Carner (1981:51) described how three groups of upland farmers the indigenous kaingeros, the marginal kaingeros, and upland rice or corn farmers- competed as their resource base degenerated is the mountainous provinces of Ilocos, Southern Tagalog, Bicol, Eastern Visayas, Central Visayas, Western Visayas, Northern Central Mindanao, and Eastern Mindanao. Land became scarce as loggers, both legal and illegal, took over large tracts of the forest. Some things are inherently scarce and become the focus of competition, i.e. 239

prestige, positions of power, or even space in commercial areas in Metro Manila. When the goal is scarce and considered important by society, the struggle becomes intense. The aim of competition is to excel and surpass the opponent. The competing individuals or groups try to achieve their ends through emotional appeals and gimmicks to sway the judgement to their favour. In some cases, competitors adopt whatever means to find out what their opponents are doing in an attempt to outdo them. Innovations may be introduced to outdo the opponent, as in the case of economic competition. Competition is carried out by peaceful means and is guided by a set of regulations and values. The folkways, norms, and laws of society regulate competition. Competition may be affected by the cultural system, i.e., the effect of inventions, the technological development, the type of economy, or political system. Competition may be personal or impersonal. Personal competition involves direct, face to face contact and is sometimes referred to as rivalry. For example, classmates vying for honors, politicians vying for elected positions, or athletes participating in sport events. Impersonal competition involves struggles between person and groups not directly aware of each other. Two applicants for the same job may never have met; each may even think that there are the only applicant and therefore not aware that they are competing with anyone. The owner of a supermarket competes with all other establishments in the area business firms and government entities compete to recruit dynamic young people into their organizations. Industrial establishments compete for customers. Sugar growers in the Philippines compete with beet 240

growers in the use for customers. U.S. car manufacturers compete with similar carmakers in Japan, U.K. and France. In a dynamic, secular society that puts a premium on achievements, there are numerous opportunities for competition. Thus, the extent and degree of competitions also increase. People scramble for all kinds of jobs. They struggle for housing space – the wealthy in the more expensive, deluxe suburbs, with the lower class in the more crowded areas. Entrepreneurs struggle for markets. Conflict When the rules of competition are broken and the opponents become openly antagonistic, conflict may develop. Business establishments may start as competitors but when malicious gossips, cutthroat techniques, and black propaganda are used, conflict may ensue. However, there are instances when, from the very beginning, the struggle started in the form of a conflict. Coser defines conflicts as a struggle over the values or claims of the conflicting parties are not only to gain the desired values but also to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals (1968:232). In conflict, there is the intent to hurt others physically or mentally or deprive them of liberty or property. Unfriendly interaction between groups ranges from disagreement to violent encounters like wars. Conflict is universal among human personalities. It arises from personal problems and hostilities, and is irrational. It may emerge in relationships with authority, especially authoritarian figures. Employees may be outwardly passive to their boss, but with suppressed rage and hostility. Two 241

departments in the same bureaucracy can be engaged in a bitter rivalry (Smelser, 1995:122). Both competition and conflict are motivated by the desire to secure scarce goals and common values. They are affected by the nature of society and its culture. The parties involves, with disregard for the rules, tries to block, defeat, destroy, or annihilate each other. The relationship is reciprocal, personal, or highly emotional and sometimes violent. Hostility, fear, hate, or anger accompanies conflict. Conflicts may be (a) on a person-to-person basis, as may be seen in spontaneous flights, duels, or hand-tohand combat in war; (b) between groups, as maybe witnessed in riots, violent strikes, lynching, or massacres; and (c) national and international, as shown in rebellion, revolution, or war. Conflicts usually dissipate energy and resources; hence, efforts are made to avoid or contain conflicts. However, conflicts are not always characterized by physical violence. Examples of nonviolent conflict in contemporary society are cold wars psychological warfare where there is a battle of propaganda, espionage, or economic struggle between industrial giants and super powers and intergroup relations. War The most violent and intense form of conflict is war. War wreaks havoc on life and property and disrupts and disorganizes the existing social order. It also foments hatred between combatants. Ironically, wars have been incited or fostered both by the desire for excitement, adventure, and combat, as well as by hatred and conflicting interests of different societies. War can be encouraged by political and military officers who want to enhance their 242

leadership, as well as manufacturers of weapons and other war technology who stand to profit from its sale (Richter 1987:990). A historian estimated that in the past 5,000 years, there have been 14,531 wars with 35 billion people killed. From the beginning, there have been 2.9 wars per year (The Philippines star week 2001:2). The 21st century has unshared in a period of world disorder and conflicts in Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and Europe. Most of these conflicts are rooted in issues of ethnicity and religion (McFerson 1998:38). As of 2002, Philippines government is still engaged in war against the Abu Sayyaf, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), and the National Democratic Front (NDF). On going in the Middle East is the long and bitter struggle between the U.S.-backed Israelis against the Palestinians who are fighting for homeland. The horrors of war overweigh the advantages. Hence, bilateral or multilingual arrangements have been made t limit the possibilities of war (Richter 1987:99). Among them are: a. Norms which require notifying the opponent before the start of the hostilities; b Prohibition against fighting during specific times such as Christmas and at certain places such as important cities; c. Arrangements for a cessation of fighting between officials from each side; d. Prohibitions against the use of certain tactics and weapons like chemical warfare and nuclear weapons; e. Special protection for diplomats, civilians, prisoners, and the wounded; f. Provisions for true; g. Ban against war aggression. In recent years, with the development of modern military technology like nuclear weapons, the superpowers have forged agreement to prevent the outbreak of horrendous war. One such 243

agreement is the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, whereby nations agreed not to acquire nuclear weapons and vowed to accept the principle of international inspection; and limit the production of nuclear weapon and submit to weapon testing. In March 2003, U.S. and British forces invaded Iraq because it allegedly have weapons of mass destruction. However, months after they over threw Saddam Hussein`s government. The US and British were still unable to show tangible evidence of the existence of these weapons of mass destruction. While the conflict can be destructive and wreak havoc in society, it also performs certain function (Coser 1946:207): a. Conflict can help establish unity and cohesion within a group which has been threatened by hostile and antagonistic feelings among its members. Conflict with outsiders may be deliberately instigated by leaders to develop unity and hasten the formation of power within the society. In times of war or other forms of conflict, feuds, jealousies, and petty differences are forgotten, and group’s members close rank behind their leaders against the opponent. b. Internal conflict becomes a stabilizing and integrating mechanism in certain instances. Threshing out differences and clarifying issues goals to eliminate the sources of discord. New rules, norms, association forms, and procedures are laid out, ultimately resulting in a more efficient social system. c. Conflict provides an outlet to express suppressed emotions and frustrations. Inhibitions and blocked passions are released during the course of conflict. It can provide 244

excitement for soldiers craving for action and possibly an opportunity to show heroism. Cooperation Cooperation is as old as this world and is present in varying degrees in every group. It is the central feature of social life. Cooperation ranges from the unity among members of a family or among friends, to the bound found among nations, as in treaties of the ASEAN, NATO, the European Community, and the Gulf Cooperation Council. It was also seen in the 1986 People Power I that ousted Pres. Marcos and the 2001 People Power II that ousted Pres. Estrada. Cooperation may be defined as more specific aspect of human intercourse, one having to do with pooling resources, talents, and efforts to achieve the shared goal or task of a group. It is conjoint action. Like competition and conflict, it is a reciprocal relation and is affected by society’s norms and values. Some members may work harder than the others depending on the role relationships within the group. Cooperation is widespread because many things that people want and need cannot be obtained through individual effort. Certain goals, activities, and projects can only be achieved if there is cooperation among members. A project to keep the Barangay clean cannot be achieved without the cooperation of its residents. Peace in the world will be difficult to obtain without nations bound in alliance to achieve this end. The members achieve mutual advantage and all participants share the reward. The pattern of cooperation acquired in the family and in one’s friendship groups may be more spontaneously manifested in 245

primary groups of Gemeinschaft rather than in secondary groups or Gesselschaft. Loyalty may be found among group such as family, friends, work group, community, church, political party, ethnic group, or nation. This loyalty fosters cooperative behaviour, which requires sacrifice, large or small, by the individuals for the sake of the larger group. When group loyalties are not enough to obtain cooperation, then special incentives like special awards, citations, or prizes may be offered to make the members cooperative. Loyalty is, therefore, necessary in order to make special incentives unnecessary (Richter 1987:88). When there is loyalty, strong and emotional attachments within a group generate some sort of bond that enables them to stick together, to be long, and to be loyal to each other, resulting in social solidarity. Types of Cooperation Bertrand (1973:232-248) classifies cooperation into three major types, namely: informal cooperation, formal cooperation, and symbolic cooperation. Informal cooperation is spontaneous and involves mutual give and take. This type of cooperation is commonly seen in primary groups or Gemeinschaft. It is practiced by the family and can be found in simple societies, particularly in rural areas. In the family, parents love and protect the children who, in turn, love and help their elders. Among food gathering and agricultural societies, food sharing and defense against invaders are basic organizational principles. In Mindoro, for instance, we find informal exchanges and cooperation among the Mangyans and other residents. This type of spontaneous cooperation, which calls for teamwork, is also found in the network of informal groupings of large-scale bureaucratic organizations, and the 246

bayanihan, damayan, or voluntary cooperation in many barangays throughout the country. Formal cooperation is of deliberate contractual nature prescribing the reciprocal rights and obligations of members. Formal goals and objectives are laid out, plans are drawn, and leadership is provided. Such is the type of cooperative activity in large-scale economic organizations, government agencies, religious organizations, civic groups, and international associations. An example of formal cooperation is the cooperative movement. A cooperative is an organization of individuals who get together and run a business for the purpose of improving their social status. All members plan, direct, and execute its economic activities and divide its savings and earnings among themselves. The members are entitled to its net income proportionate to their patronage. This patronage refund is usually given at the end of each year (de Leon 1986:200-201). The mechanics of operating a cooperative are simple. The members bind themselves for a common cause, pool their talents and resources, and help one another to achieve economic independence. There is mutual aid and self-reliance (Sacay 1974). Symbolic cooperation is a situation when two or more members of society, living together harmoniously, are supportive and interdependent. It is a relationship in which an individual participates without knowing that they are doing so. It lacks a common goal or objective. This is seen in the division of labor in society and in the marketplace. Buyers look for goods in marketplace, e.g., agricultural products, and are satisfied when they purchase the goods they need. The profits realized by the 247

sellers in the sale of their goods help them in return. Symbiotic cooperation involves interdependent activities, but the people involved may not be aware that their activity is a form of cooperation. Functions of Cooperation The factors that account for cooperation are varied and complex. It may be loyalty to the group brought about by incentives offered for cooperation, fear of an attack from the out-group, or the need for mutual dependence; or it may be an expression of self-interest (Fichter 1972:244-245). Whatever the factors, cooperation has various functions (Lowry and Ranking 1972:606): 1. It makes for social cohesion and integration among the members of a group. In this way, they can achieve unity and harmonize their activities. 2. It contributes to social stability and order. With the coordination and marshalling of their resources, talents, and efforts, the members can readily achieve their goals. 3. It fosters consensus and compromise in various social issues. This is evident with groups of diverse backgrounds joining forces and maximizing harmony of interest and common benefits. Political parties can join forces to win an election, or nations can form alliances to win a war or attain peace in the world. Differentiation One way to reduce or eliminate competition is by differentiation, which is the creation of interest resulting in individuals or groups 248

needing or wanting different things or services rather than the same thing (Richter 1987:85). Such differentiation is related to the division of labor in society. Persons of different occupational specializations, e.g., an engineer and an architect, do not compete with each other. Rather, they can work cooperatively in a construction project. Two department stores offering different goods or services or with different price levels will not compete with each other even if they are located along the same street. In industrialized societies, the complex division of labor and the increasing variety of skills, occupations, and professions provide opportunities for relatively high paying jobs and, consequently, higher status. This differentiation of social status, life-style, and prestige leads to the creation of subcultures as well as the development of social stratification. This will be discussed in another chapter. Interrelationship of Competition, Conflict, Cooperation, and Differentiation Competition, conflict, cooperation, and differentiation are interdependent and intertwined social forms of relationship present in every society, which can occur simultaneously. Competition among members of a society leads to variation or differentiation. However, while specialization leads to separateness, it can also lead to cooperation and the integration of society. Cooperation may coexist with competition or conflict in some relationships. Members of a basketball team cooperate among themselves in order to win the game, and yet, while they are 249

cooperating with each other, they may also be competing to get the title of the most valuable player in the games. The Arab states in the Gulf Area willingly cooperated with the U.S. and other Western countries to force Iraq to leave Kuwait in 1991. In some societies, competition is stressed, while in others, cooperation is emphasized. The dominant social process depends on the attitudes and the requirements of the culture in that society. If people are striving for a scarce goal, competition is likely to dominate, but if the goods people need are abundant, cooperation is likely to ensue. The prevalence of friendship, kinship, and affection in a group is conducive to cooperation. When the results of the activity are justly shared, people are likely to cooperate rather than compete (Lundberg 1963:95-97). However, the determinants of the intensity and the duration of the particular social relationship depend on the culture of the group. Accommodation The presence of continuous conflict can hamper the group’s activities to the point of disorganization or destruction. The parties concerned, therefore, try to thresh out difficulties in order to minimize, if not stop, the conflict. Some types of accommodation have to be carried out by the parties concerned. Mack and Pease (1973:69) use accommodation in two senses: as a condition and as a process. As a condition, accommodation refers to “the fact of equilibrium between individuals and groups and the rules of the game which have to be followed”. As a process, it refers to “the conscious efforts of men to develop such working arrangements among themselves as will suspend conflict and make their relations more tolerable and less wasteful of energy.” Working 250

arrangements are developed to enable them to pursue their respective activities. Each group tries to adjust to the others, and yet maintain its own identity or interest – a case of living in peaceful coexistence. In some instances, the interests of the group will remain antagonistic, and the equilibrium established may break down again into open conflict. In other instances, major differences are solved in the interest of peace and harmony. When the conflicting parties are coordinate or more or less equal in power, each party yields on some points of difference. They bargain or negotiate to establish an exchange relationship, which limits the goal-setting activities of both. When the relationship is the superordinate-subordinate type where parties are unequal in power, the stronger party is likely to dictate its terms on the other. The types of accommodation are domination, truce, compromise, conciliation– mediation, arbitration, and toleration (Mack and Pease 1973:69-72; Bertrand 1973:240-242). 1. Domination is characteristic of the superordinatesubordinate type of relationship where the stronger party imposes its will to make the order yield. In the family, a dominant husband may subdue his wife. In case of war, the more powerful nations make the opponent yield; or the dictator his will on the subordinate population. In some instances, the loser is given some rights and privileges, even while remaining in subordinate position. Sometimes, in the relationship between dominant and minority groups, an arrangement is made in which the social lives of the dominant and minority groups are kept separate. Their groups live in different neighborhoods and go to different 251

schools and churches. The practice of apartheid in South Africa a few decades ago is an example. Manila has an area called Chinatown where some Chinese live, establish business, school, and churches; Quiapo has pockets or neighborhoods where the Muslims cluster. 2. A truce is an agreement to cease hostilities or fighting for a certain period of time. Meanwhile, both parties seek to arrive at peaceful and mutually satisfactory solution. If no agreement is realized, fighting resumes. Treaties or formal agreements are often preceded by a temporary cessation of hostilities. Prior to the settlement of the U.S - Vietnam War and the Israeli-Syrian hostilities, diplomats negotiated a temporary truce. 3. Compromise refers to the mutual giving of concessions and withdrawal of some demands. Husband and wife may compromise after a bitter quarrel by discussing how they can resolve their conflict. This may entail giving up part of what they like to do. With the increased bargaining powers of organized labor, conflicts have a times produced this form of accommodation. Labor and management sit at the negotiating table, discuss demands and grievances, and arrive at a Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA). This requires that both parties sit down in good faith and arrive at a compromise of mutual concession. Nations of more or less equal power also use compromise to avoid major conflicts. 4. When conflicting parties cannot resolve their disputes because of non-willingness to see the other`s point of view, they may resort to conciliation and mediation. Here, a third party who is impartial, competent, respected and acceptable by both sides intervenes. This usually resorted to in settling disputes between labor and management who set 252

‘work councils’ or ‘shop committees.’ ‘In conciliation, effort is made to get parties to agree although the third party makes no recommendation. In mediation, the neutral party makes suggestions for settlement. If their recommendation is acceptable to the opposing parties, the conflict is resolve. In court cases amenable to mediation, the conflicting parties select a mediator who is fair and caring. For the duration of the mediation, court hearings are suspended while the mediator tries to reconcile the conflicting parties by looking into rational considerations acceptable to both. When they have reached an agreement, the mediator helps the parties to develop a formal document to give to the judge to formally end the case. 5. Should conciliation and mediation fail to resolve the conflict between parties, arbitration may be resorted to. This is a special method of settling disputes through the efforts of a third party that may be chosen by the contending parties or appointed by some large agency power. Generally, a tribunal or court hears the dispute. In the Philippines, the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) handles cases of conciliation, mediation and arbitration. When a complaint or grievance is field with the DOLE, attempts at conciliation and mediation are made. If this fails, the National Labor Relations Commission handles the grievance and voluntary arbitration is used. If this cannot be availed of, then compulsory arbitration by the government is used. 6. The tripartite approach is another way to achieve mutual accommodation. While labor and employers are the parties directly concerned in a labor dispute, the government also relates with them through a consultative mechanism. The 253

three parties reconcile opposing matters of interest such as wages. 7. Toleration is a form of accommodation without formal agreement. It is a result of the `live and let live` policy or the agreement to disagree. Individuals or groups put up with others, without trying to modify them. They maintain their identity and yet interact with each other peacefully. Toleration of their ethnic, political, and religious groups is likely to occur in a society when the members feel that conflicts work to their disadvantage. Although they do not settle a dispute, they interact peacefully with ethnic groups. Peaceful coexistence makes for harmony and order. Each group follows its norms of behaviour and accepts the others as neighbours, fellow workers, or citizens. Through education, public information through the mass media, legal pressure, and research to the causes of intergroup hostilities and ways of reducing them. People from various ethnic groups can live peacefully together. Reciprocity or Utang Na Loob Reciprocity is a kind of social exchange, which is universal form of behaviour. It is a principle where every service receive, solicited or not, demands a return, the nature and proportion of which s determined by the relative status of the parties involved and the kind of exchange at issue (Hollnstiener 1970:65). Utang na loob is kind of reciprocity commonly observe among Filipinos. Literally translated, it means `internal debt of gratitude.` it is an obligation to repay a person from whom one has received a favour. The repayment has to be accepted and the quantification is undefined, so that one cannot be definite as to when the debt is to be fully 254

paid. Payment may in the form of token gifts or service. Inability to pay results in hiya (shame). One who does not pay the debt is considered walang hiya (showing no shame, one of the worst labels one can heap on a Filipino). Even children are supposed to have utang n loob to their parents for giving them life, education, or guidance. They can repay their parents by taking care of them in old age. Hollnstiener (1973:8) holds that utang na loob reciprocity stabilizes the social system in societies such as the Philippines, where the gap between social classes is marked. Through the utang loob reciprocity, a poor person is able to approach a rich one and request a favour, such borrowing money for medicine, tuition, or other necessary expenses. When abused, utang na loob becomes a burden. As it makes a person subservient o the debtor and may hinder his or her freedom of decision as in electing officials in government. I a political context, the repayment of utang na loob usually claimed during election time. Acculturation When one group blends in and takes on the characteristics of another culture, there ensues a process called acculturation. When a dominant group brings in new forms of socialization and education, language and values are also borrowed(Perucci, Knudsen, and Hamby 1977;400). The course of interaction of the Chinese and the Filipinos in the Philippines have brought about adaptations of aspects of culture and values form each other’s culture. Social scientists who observe and record customs and cultures perform valuable service for missionaries. By laying open the 255

people`s beliefs, fears, values, and customs, they suggest new approaches in missionary and pastoral work. Their findings speeds up religious acculturation and accommodation processes, which were important in the effective Christianization of the Filipinos. Arens (1958) cites a few examples from the Philippines where missionary work among the pagans and pastoral work among the Christian Filipinos are often combined. He makes mention of the widely practiced agricultural and social rituals, which have an animistic origin. The result is a kind of folk-liturgy developing from these priestly contacts. Arenas also wrote of worship in barrio Tinambacan in Samar Island which may seem strange to an outsider. He describes the Friday devotion to St. Vincent in the following manner: People from all surrounding barrios flock there on Fridays - although they do not come for the obligatory Sunday mass- to offer candle, use a silver ring, or dip a silver sandal of St. Vincent in water and strike t over their heads, arms and backs (patamak). They take home ordinary water into which they dipped a candle that was offered to St. Vincent. Women having du-difficulty in childbirth are made to drink this water, presumably to ease the pain. Strange promises (sa-ad) are made to St. Vincent for example, to cut the child`s hair in the church, to let the girl wear boy`s clothing until age 14 to 15, not to let the child be baptized until they are of marriageable age, etc. some dance before the statue of St. Vincent (synalogue), others pray in loud and fanatical way: St. Vincent, listen to me. . . (Arenas 1958:16).

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Assimilation When contacts between persons and groups are direct, continuous, and friendly, differences decrease and assimilation may follow. Assimilation implies the acceptance by a person or group of the cultural traits, attitudes, and sentiments of another. This may be observed between husband and wife, parent and child, and teacher and student, who, after constant exposure to each other, begin to think and feel alike even though one mat be more affected than the other. There occurs some kind of interpenetration and fusion of norms, ideas, beliefs, sentiments, and memories. Their difference are reduced or eliminated. Assimilation is best observed in societies composed of various ethnic groups. Blending and merging of cultural traits, patterns, and values of the groups occurs until they have a common culture and become alike. Minority racial or ethnic groups lose their distinctive identity and way of life and become absorbed into the dominant group. Immigrants to a country, like the Chinese who come to the Philippines, bring their culture traits and some kind of exchange of cultural characteristics with the Filipino ensues. There is adjustment, adoption, and assimilation so that they become more or less alike their ways. However, there are still other factors which have deterred the full assimilation of the Chinese into the Filipino culture. In the U.S., the fusion of the cultural patterns and values of various groups have resulted in what is commonly called a melting pot. Members of various ethnic groups tend to interpenetrate each other ways, follow a common set of norms and beliefs, and share similar attitudes and values.

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Certain conditions facilitate assimilation. As a first step, it is important to learn the language of the other ethnic group. Knowledge of the language gives members of the other ethnic group of feeling that the other is friendly and interested in them, so that intimate social contacts follow. The attitude of the members of each group is important. Are they willing to know each other and share ideas? Are they tolerant and friendly? Tolerance of persons and groups with different cultures facilitates communication and speeds up the process of assimilation. If members of the group are willing to extend equal political and economic opportunities to other ethnic groups, cultural barriers are broken down. The blending of folkways, mores, and values is likely to occur. The more similar the cultural patterns, the more rapid the process of assimilation. Another important factor is amalgamation, which hastens the process of assimilation by reducing physical dissimilarities. Cultural Pluralism There can be also be cultural pluralism in which a number of racial and ethnic groups living side-by-side retain their distinctive identity and life-style – and at the same time, share in the aspects of the larger culture. A number of subcultures retain their distinctive life-style (Sullivan 1995:87). The U.S. and Canada have minority groups like the native Indians who retain their traditional beliefs and customs. In the Philippines, the Muslims and the Cordillera groups have retained their religious beliefs and culture patterns.

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Amalgamation When different ethnic groups intermarry, amalgamation results. There is some kind of biological fusion. Oftentimes, color and religion deter amalgamation. Nevertheless, a measure of amalgamation still takes place. Amalgamation hastens assimilation when groups are similar culturally and physically, or when they are friendly with each other. Intermarriage on a large scale has not taken place on account of divergence in both physical and cultural traits. Society may be perceived as a system of personal interrelationships. The members are in constant interaction. Patterns of competition, conflict, differentiation, and cooperation are discernable in all societies. As society becomes more complex, made up of various ethnic groups as a result of international migration, other types of social relationships, like accommodation, acculturation, assimilation, and amalgamation are found. The social relationships are not mutually exclusive. At times, they are interrelated and, in some instances, one shades off into the other. At times, is difficult to draw a sharp delineation between these types of social relationships. Summary Social interaction is a vital principle in society; no social life is possible without it. The members of society are in constant social exchanges and social relationships. Social interaction involves reciprocal contacts. Language is crucial factor in social relationships. In the process of social relationships and social 259

interaction, the status, norms, and reciprocal obligations come into play. The basic social relationships – competition, conflict, cooperation, and differentiation – are universal and may occur between persons or between groups. Competition is a struggle for a goal, wherein the focus is on the reward rather than on the competitor. A crucial factor in competition is scarcity. When the struggle for a goal becomes violent in the attempt to neutralize, hurt, or do away with the opponent, it becomes conflict. War is the most violent and intense form of conflict. Cooperation is the opposite of conflict. In cooperation, the parties concerned join forces, efforts, and talents to achieve their goal. Cooperation may be informal, symbolic, or formal. One way to reduce or eliminate conflict is by differentiation of roles. Differentiation is related to the division of labor in society. As society becomes more complex and composed of different ethnic groups, other types of social relationships emerge. Accommodation refers to the conscious efforts to develop working arrangements to end conflict and make life more tolerable and less wasteful of energy. Acculturation is the process of blending with another culture or changing to the ways of the dominant group as a result of socialization or education. Assimilation refers to cultural fusion or interpenetration of norms, ideas, beliefs, sentiments, and memories so that the individuals or groups become alike. Amalgamation is biological fusion, which comes about with the intermarriage of persons coming from different cultures.

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The various types of social relationships are interrelated; in some instances, one shades off into the other. It is sometimes difficult to draw a dividing line between these various types of social relationships. Any social activity or social movement may be analyzed in terms of these types. Study Guide 1. Concepts to master Social interaction Differentiation Society Accommodation Competition Assimilation Conflict Cultural pluralism 2. Discuss the nature of social interaction. Illustrate how interactions occur in your family, your class in school, or the club of which you are a member. 3. Differentiate competition from conflict. 4. Which is more emphasized in the Philippines, cooperation or competition? Support your answer. 5. What is accommodation? Illustrate the different types of accommodation. 6. Contrast acculturation with assimilation. Why is assimilation called cultural fusion? 7. What is amalgamation? How does it hasten assimilation? Critical Thinking Questions 1. How does culture affect cooperation? Conflict? 2. Propose a solution to the conflict between the government and/or Christian groups and the Muslims in Mindanao. 261

Chapter 9 COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR The 1960s and the early 1970s saw Metro Manila rife with demonstrations, protest rallies, sit-ins, barricades, and boycott of classes. Participants would come to different sections of Metro Manila, assemble at Morayta St. and march to Mendiola (now Chino Roces Bridge), not far from Malacañang Palace. They carried flag and banners, and chanted slogans like “Down with imperialism, fascism, and bureaucrat capitalism” or “Himagsikan” (Revolution). These rallies and demonstrations were directed against congress and then President Ferdinand Marcos, the policy of sending Philippine troops to Vietnam, graft and corruption, and the overstaying Chinese. On October 11, 2000, Ilocos Sur governor Chavit Singson revealed that then President Joseph Estrada (Erap) allegedly received P400 million from jueteng and P130 million kickback from the tobacco excise tax. This triggered chain of events which led to the process of Erap’s impeachment. On November 13, 2000, the House of the Representatives, under Speaker Manuel Villar, garnered enough votes to elevate the impeachment case of the Senate. Thus, began the impeachment trial on the grounds of bribery, graft and corruption, betrayal of public trust, and culpable violation of the Constitution. The proceedings became the primetime telenovela assiduously followed by the populace. 262

On January 16, 2001, there was an impasse in the Senate on the issue of whether to open or not a second envelope which allegedly contained evidence that would indict the president. A vote was taken, and the senator-judges voted 11-10 against its opening. This infuriated the public. Immediately thereafter, people sent text messages to kin and friends to mass-up at the EDSA shrine to protest. There was the collective outraged and disgust over the action of what they called the “abominable 11.” The Catholic Church, business community, a number of cabinet members, and, eventually, the military withdrew their port for President Estrada. The crowd at EDSA was composed of students and the youth, workers, peasants, professionals, artists and other people of all ages and walks of life. As the crowd at EDSA grew from day 1, simultaneous rallies were held in the other parts of the country. Praying, chanting, waving of flags, entertainment, and speechless urging Erap to resign were the main events. The support thrown in by Defense Secretary Orlando Mercado, Chief of Staff General Angelo Reyes, and other generals gave the people added confidence. It was a fight for Erap’s ouster and the preservation of the country’s integrity. On January 20, 2001, a group of rallyists marched to Mendiola to force Erap’s resignation. By the time they reached Malacañang, the president and his party had already fled. By noon that day, Chief Justice Davide administered the oath of office of Gloria M. Arroyo as the fourteenth president of the country. The above accounts are examples of collective behavior. As Randy David (2002) wrote, “EDSA II was the culminating of a movement to restore accountability and idealism in government.” 263

What is Collective Behavior? As we conduct ourselves in our structured social life, we are guided by norms and values which make our behavior patterned, recurrent, and settled. We do things the way they are supposed to be done. However, despite these standards of behavior, we encountered situations where norms do not apply. These types of behavior that are not guided by the group norms are called collective behavior. There is no single definition of the term collective behavior and no agreement as to its important features. It is a kind of group behavior characterized by spontaneous development of form and organization, which contradict or reinterpret the norms of the group. Turner an Killian (1987:3) define collective behavior as “ forms of social behavior in which the usual convention cease to guide social actions and people collectively transcend, bypass, or subvert institutional patterns and structures.” For Zanden (1993:400), collective behavior refers to “ways of thinking, feeling and acting that develop among a large number of people which are relatively spontaneous and unstructured.” This is in contrast to organized or institutionalized behavior which is regulated by established group of norms and clearly defined roles and positions. Collective behavior occurs in time of rapid social change. From the earliest recorded time, people have manifested various types of mass behavior: riots, crowds, religious revivals, and rebellions (Zanden 1993:400), collective behavior occurs in the form of demonstrations, rumors, protests, riots, coup d’etat, cults, religious revivals, and even revolutions. Collective behavior has been observed since the Spanish colonial period, with the outbreaks of social, economic, political, and religious protests. 264

Although collective behavior was once believed to be highly emotional, irrational, and spontaneous, recent studies reveal that collective behavior is characterized by more caution and less emotion. It occurs in situations of stress and social change, and is characterized by some degree of emotion. It is not totally unstructured, as one may observe a pattern of social relationship in the group (Perry and Pugh 1978:10). Demonstrations, rallies, and social movements have a degree of organizational planning as there is the designation of time and assembly place, the speakers, and a person to take charge of obtaining a permit. Explanations And Theoretical Formulations About Collective Behavior How do people come to transcend, bypass or subvert established patterns and structures? Various explanations and theoretical formulation have been given to describe the conditions that bring about collective behavior. Among these are: Convergence Perspective. This explanation is premised on the idea that human behavior is determined by forces within the individual. Collective behavior, like individual behavior, is the result of these forces. The participants in collective behavior have common characteristics such as similarity in social positions based on income, education, social class, and relative deprivation. The group is considered as homogeneous and those who gather share the same needs or aspirations. (Turner Killian 1987:19-20). This may be exemplified in events organized for fund raising; protest movements; and group mobilizations expressing the cause of the poor. 265

The criteria to this perspective is that the homogeneity of the group is over-simplified as interaction take place between individuals, whether or not they are of similar characteristics. The complexity of the human psychological make-up is overlooked, and people have latent tendencies that they do not ordinarily express. Emergent Norm Perspective. This view was initiated by Turner and Killian (1987:36). It states that collective behavior is not characterized by unanimity but by differences in expressions and emotions. Proponents assume that collective behavior is guided by emergent norms. Members who come together have divergent views, some act simultaneously to each other, others express what they feel, and still others are restrained in their behavior. These people interact with each other guided by symbols, and an emergent norm comes about. In the process of responding to each other, a revise definition of the situation comes about and then members act in terms of this definition. So, in rallies, riots, an demonstration, there are some participants who are highly excited, expressing anger, hate, or fear, while some are restrained in the expression of their emotions. The emergent theory emphasizes communication among members that serves to show applicability of a particular norm, thus, justifying the crowd’s action. Moreover, the norm may also define limits to their behavior. Smelser’s Value Added Approach. (1962; Turner and Killian 1987:3, Light and Keller 1982:524-527, Maciones 1997:558-560) Smelser notes certain conditions, which may bring about collective behavior. These are: 266

1. Structural conduciveness, which means that there exist certain social conditions for collective behavior to be possible, such as the existence of factories or other places of work where conflicts may arise between employers and employees or among ethnic groups who live together in the same area. 2. Structural strain, which is brought about by a gap between expectations and reality, resulting in conflict or problems. This is a major determinant of collective behavior, which calls for some kind of action to relieve the strain. For example, the rising prices of commodities and low wages of workers may bring about such a strain. Another example is the incident in 1989, when public school teachers left their classrooms and went on strike over unpaid allowances and low salaries. 3. Generalized belief, which is brought about by the inability of participants to define and analyze the problem. This intensifies the tension as it makes the vague threat more pronounced and can be fostered by the media. A shared common interpretation of their problem arises after some discussion and analysis. This generalized belief may or may not be true. 4. Precipitating factors in the form of dramatic events, which may trigger collective response. The assassination of Senator Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino on August 21, 1983 led to mass demonstration resulting to pent-up emotions and tensions over the authoritarian regime, the abuse of human rights, the growing gap between the rich ad poor, rampant graft and corruption, and other grievances. The non-opening of the second envelope in the impeachment trial of President Estrada triggered the People Power II. 267

5. Mobilization of participants to join the action after the precipitation. Rallies and demonstrations after Ninoy’s assassination continued, dramatized by the throwing of yellow confetti along Ayala St. in Makati. In 1986, the people called up friends and Cardinal sin appealed for people to go to EDSA to express their indignation. Likewise, on January 16, 2001, following the walk-out of the prosecutors in Pres. Estrada’s impeachment trial, there was widespread texting and appeals by Cardinal Sin and former Pres. Aquino to go to the EDSA shrine. 6. The ineffectiveness of the means of social control. With the increased intensity and zeal of actions, as demonstrated by the protest rallies and demonstration after the assassination of Sen. Aquino, social control becomes ineffective. When the forces of social control fail to check the collective action, the collective behavior continues. Smelser’s approach to collective behavior can be useful and applicable in the analysis of collective behavior. It can be used to assess the behavior involved and work out some forms of social control. Types of Collective Behavior The Crowd A crowd is said to be a transitory group of persons in an ambiguous and, to some degree, unstructured situation where participants do not have the clear and pre-existing knowledge of how to behave, but feel that something that can be done. 268

Uncertainty, feasibility and timelessness characterized as crowd, and a combination of these leads to a collective search for appropriate action. When pressure sets in and develops the sense that everyone should share these feelings and definitions, a norm emerges. If this agreement is not reached, members disperse and may come together again when some event creates a renewed sense of urgency (Turner and Killian 1987:78-79). Herbert Blumer’s (1946:174-176) description of the important features of the crowd is embodied in what is known as the contagion theory. Blumer holds that crowd behavior stems from a state of unrest caused by the ordinary routine of life. Tension develops which sets the stage for circular interaction. The interstimulation of emotion results in the movement of emotions (affection, fear, anger, hate, etc.) in circles. Milling, anonymity, suggestibility, and circular interaction may be seen in the crowd. Milling is the aimless, restless movement of the members, which may take the form of both physical and verbal activity such as moving impatiently, asking questions, talking excitedly, and passing on or receiving rumor. Rumor is unverified information accepted as truth about certain things, which become revised, distorted, and condensed or expanded as it is transferred from one person to another. It may incite violence in the group. Anonymity refers to the failure or reluctance of the participants to identify one another even if they can do so. It is this anonymity which is responsible for the contagion of feelings and emotions. Circular interaction is the movement of emotion and excitement in circles. Suggestibility is the tendency to accept unhesitatingly and unconsciously the opinion of others without critical judgment. With the rise of 269

suggestibility, emotions are further heightened and critical thinking decreases. As excitement spreads, there is a degree of collective mood and some kind of behavioral or social contagion. The member’s restraint is loosened, and they engage in the same kind of exciting activity. This collective mood spreads and is the mechanism that sparks riots. Types of Crowd Crowds range from loosely organized casual groups to the more unified acting and expressive crowds. Blumer (1946:178) classifies crowd into casual, conventional, acting and expressive. 1. The casual crowd is the spontaneous, loosely organized and very momentary type of grouping whose members come and go. The emotional interaction is very slight and the group has little unity. Members may form inconvenient aggregations like those who gathered around a bargain counter, a celebrity, or in midnight sales in mall. 2. The conventionalized crowd is characterized by established regular ways of behaving, depending upon the time and place of performance and order of activities. Members may shout, clap their hands, or boo. These are seen in ball games, boxing bouts, or New Year’s Eve parties. 3. The acting crowd is the type most observed by sociologists. This is an active, volatile group of excited 270

persons whose attention is focused on controversial or provocative issue which arouses action, if not indignation. (Light and Keller, 1982:523). It may be motivated by intense love and affection, like those for religious or political leaders, sports or movie idols, but the more common motivations are rage, fear, and hate. A common symbol related to the cultural definitions of the society furnishes the basis for collective actions. In the process, group members lose their ordinary critical understanding and judgment. Slogans are formulated and catchwords are coined. Members believed that they are right and are motivated by the best of intensions. Usually, a leader arises to channel the activity into actions that are deemed as desirable. The leader may stimulate the crowd into action. Once members lose faith in the symbol or leader, the crowd is weakened. Riots, mobs, panic, unruly strikes, and rallies are examples of acting crowds. Cases of such behavior were present since the Spanish times, continued during the American occupation period and still exist today. In a study by Talens (1974:160-161) of premartial law student activism, among the issues raised were the need for government reforms and credibility of the on-going Constitutional Convention to institute these reforms, the high prices of commodities, graft and corruption, feudalism, fascism, imperialism and neo-colonialism. These are still basically the same issues being raised today, although the emotions and action have intensified. A mob is a crowd focused on a target that is resented or seen as a source of frustration. It forms when a large number of people 271

with a common set of impulses communicate with one another and act out on the impulse that they would not have given into if they were alone. The crowd becomes unruly and volatile as they become highly emotionally aroused, but dissipates once the target has been attained. During the First Quarter Storm in 1970s, demonstrators attacked the American Embassy while shouting, “Down with imperialism and fascism!” they hurled stones and Molotov cocktails (Home-made bombs) at the US Embassy, breaking its glass doors and windows. On the evening of February 25, 1986, right after the fight of the Marcoses from Malacañang, an angry mob dashed into the place. They shattered glass panes, ransacked, and looted the palace until they stopped by the police. Similar incidents happened on May 1, 2001, when loyalist of newly ousted President. Estrada marched to Malacañang in a frenzy of anger and hate. With stones, lead pipes, shotguns, and slingshots, they went on a rampage and tried to force their way through gate 7 of Malacañang. A riot ensued between the mob and the police. Riots are similar to mobs, but defused in their activities. Riots are hostiles, violent outburst between groups; random destructive behavior occurs in several places, expressing general resentment. Riots may be of longer duration than mobs. During the 1960s and 1970s, demonstrations, riots, and unruly strikes were common. In January 1970, right after the inauguration of President Marcos, a group of protesting students and workers marched across Mendiola Bridge and tried to storm Malacañang Palace. They lit candles near a coffin to symbolize the death of democracy. While they were being stopped by anti riot police men, Violence broke out resulting in the injury of participants, destruction of property and the death of a 20 year old student. 272

The same phenomena happened in the 80s, 90s, and the early years of the millennium. Related to mobs and riots are protest crowds which have a specific goal. Their activities include marches, boycotts, and strikes. Protest issues were against despotic land owners, low wages, tuition fee increases, price increases, militarization and foreign intervention. Acting crowds can be controlled by the police by keeping maximum tolerance and utilizing scientific crowd control techniques. Panics are situations in which people are largely affected by fear, such as stampedes. Panic situations happen when a building burns, a ship sinks, or when there is an earthquake. People panic when there is a generalized belief that there is insufficient time or inadequate means to avoid injury. There is fear in collective flight as people hasten to escape. Just before the end of 1999, rumors circulated that computers would crash because these would not be able to adjust to the number or the new millennium ; at risk were computer systems of government and business establishments. Some people panicked and stacked on groceries or withdrew large amounts of money from the banks. Fortunately, computer did not crash, and the new millennium was greeted with joy, revelry, and thanks giving in practically the whole world. 4. The Expressive Crowd is characterized by rhythmic activity, intense emotional contagion, and emotional release. Unrestrained physical movements like clapping, singing, dancing, shaking, rolling, or crying is frenzied activity are distinct features of this crowd. The crowd acts but does not develop any goal. Nor is there an external force which is a 273

target of attack. A feeling of exhilaration and excitement is experienced by the members as a result of the release of emotions, tensions, or frustration. Even if they appear unruly or turbulent, the participants are still aware of acceptable of behavior. This type of behavior is observed during major sports events, charismatic sessions, rock concerts, and festivals like ati-atihan in Aklan. The Audience Often confused with the conventionalized crowd is the audience. Sociologists consider the audience as an “institutionalized crowd.” The spectators or audience are usually passive and controlled by certain cultural rules. They have to remain quiet during the performance and clap their hands only after the rendition. There is some kind of seating arrangement. The audience gathers for a specific purpose like entertainment or information. It meets at a predetermined time and place. Audience attention is directed towards the leader who communicates with them. The leader attempts to arouse and catch the attention of the members and to hold their interest. When members are dissatisfied with the performance, they may boo the performer and, if this goes unchecked, bedlam may result. Audience may be seen at lectures, conventions, meetings, or cultural events. The Mass Unlike the crowd, the mass is a diffused collectivity. It is made up of a number of desperate individuals, each responding independently to the same stimulus. Blumer (1946:185-186) characterizes the mass as made up of members coming from all 274

social strata of society and all walks of life; it is composed of anonymous individuals, so that there is hardly any interaction among members; it is very loosely organized and has little unity. The mass has no social organization, no established leader, no structure of statuses and roles. Members are only concerned with their individual condition. Because they encounter the same stimulus, they feel that they are reacting similarly. Each member makes a decision independently, so that discussion is not crucial. The mass only results in a convergence of decision. Mass behavior may be seen in migration, evacuation, and rush to mining sites or to reported sites of miracles and faith healers. Mass behavior may also be observed following a national or international event, a sensational crime trial, a public scandal or a dramatic event, like the kidnapping of foreigners in Palawan in 2001 by Abu Sayyaf members, the impeachment trial of Pres. Estrada, the attack on the World Trade Center in New York, and the reportage on the war launched by a coalition forces led by the U.S and Great Britain on Iraq. The Public Like the mass, the public is a dispersed collective and, like the crowd, it includes the elementary processes of milling and rumor. Unlike the mass, which is confronted by a problematic situation, the public is faced with an issue on which they have the right to agree or disagree. Disagreement, discussion, argument, counterargument, and compromise – which are not important in mass – are important in a public. Unlike the crowd, there is disagreement on the issue before a decision is reached. The public, in Turner 275

and Killian’s (1987) definition, is, “a dispersed group of people interested in and divided about an issue, engaged in discussion of that issue with a view to registering a collective opinion which is effected to affect the course of action of some decision-making group of individuals.” For Turner and Killian, what is crucial is to focus on the ways by which the public’s opinions are communicated to decision-makers and the final outcome of their attempt to influence policy-making. The public results from the presence of an issue, like the election issue. There are as many publics as there are issues. These issues may involve economics, politics, health, education, the family, moral reform, or international commitments. The interaction in a public, such as discussion or argumentation, is effected through personal contacts, rumors, and the mass media. In simple societies, people are faced with fewer issues. However, in industrialized and urbanized societies, issues constantly emerged and create a number of publics. Rumor and Gossip Rumor is unverified or unsubstantial information about events or people which become revised, distorted, condensed or expanded as it is transferred from one person to another. According to Maciones (1997:618), rumor has three essential characteristics. There is a climate of uncertainty as there is no definite information about the topic of concern. It is unstable because, as people spread the information, it becomes altered or distorted. It is difficult to stop. Some rumors disintegrate over time or are stopped by convincing information. 276

Gossip is related to humors. It is also formal and idle talks but centers on the personal affairs of others, usually celebrities like the elite, movie stars, or politicians. These people can be subject of praise or scorn. Usually, the gossip-monger is looked down upon by others in the group or is subject to ridicule or jokes. After the September 11, 2001 bombing of the World Trade Center in New York, there was an outbreak of influenza in some elite schools in Pasig and Mandaluyong, while nearby public schools were unaffected. Thus, rumors spread that this is part of the “biological warfare” targeting the elite. Some schools closed temporarily. The rumor stopped when the Department of Health announced that the outbreak of flu in these schools should not be a source of worry because September is the “flu season”. Fashion, Fads, and Crazes Cultural drifts, such as the changes in fashion, fad, and crazes, are forms of mass interaction or diffused collectivities. They meet a person’s need for excitement, novelty, self-expression, selfesteem, or social status. Fashion is applied to short-lived, socially approved variations in clothing and adornment, art, housing, furniture, and other areas of behavior. It is the prevailing usage or mode of behavior which departs from the customary ways but is generally acceptable. It reflects the prevailing interests of a society and is centered upon the spread of change in taste and life-style. Changes in fashion are continuous. The upper class usually sets the pace for fashion, and the reward for following it is the prestige 277

of using a symbol of high status. As Turner and Killian state, “There is abundant opportunity for popular selection and for the establishment of a partially spontaneous consensus through crowd mechanism operating within the channels of the established social system” (1987:216-217). Styles follow styles and the changes are usually cyclical as evinced in the expression of some women, “iyan ang moda ng 1940’s” (that was the fashion in the 1940s). To illustrate fashion changes, one has only to point to the varying length of hemlines or the variation in sleeve style. Fads are passing fancies or novelties related to trivial deviations from the conventional behavior. They involve minor modifications or decorations of dresses, mannerisms, and use of slang words and other verbal expressions – collective enthusiasm is developed for an innovation that meets the people’s fancy. Adolescents are prone to fads which give them an in-group feeling of security and a means of protest against conventional behavior. A careful qualitative study of fads shows that they are numerous in period of crisis, when they serve to divert attention from the problem. Some fads which Filipino adolescents have followed at different times include sporting long or short hair; wearing low-waisted, bellbottoms, corduroy, or faded jeans; using Pop Swatch, blankets, and beads; expressions like “chicks”, “groovy”, “gimmick”, and “walk.” Some fads were later adopted at large and became conventional behavior.

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Crazes and fads are hard to differentiate. Crazes are new activities which excite persons who become subsequently preoccupied with these. “Transient infatuation” is the apt phrase Stark (1998:585) gives to describe a craze. Crazes rapidly generate interest, but are usually very fleeting in duration and the excitement collapses suddenly. A craze, according to Apppelbaum and Chambliss (1995:540), is an intense attraction to an action, activity, object, or person. They are like fads, although more intense. It is based on a positive wish fulfillment. Get-rich-quick schemes such as investing in tilapia, stock market, or pyramid are examples of crazes. For some people, involvement in crazes provides an outlet for selfexpression, anxieties, and tension. The marketing goods involved in fashion, fads, and crazes is very profitable, and so business corporations develop and produce attractive products in great numbers. However, these products become ordinary after people’s interest in them declines. Disaster Behavior This behavior is displayed during times of disaster such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, typhoons or hurricanes, and coup d’etat. Disaster behavior combines both crowd and mass behavior. Great fear emanating from threatening situation becomes widespread. Mass hysteria and panic ensue as people scamper for safety. This kind of behavior was observed during the 7.6 intensity earthquake in Northern Luzon and Metro Manila on July 16, 1990, the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991, and the 279

typhoon and subsequent flood which swept Leyte in November 1991. Following these phenomena is a flurry of activities to aid disaster victims. Government and private agencies organize groups to solicit material and financial assistance for the victims. Task forces are formed to set up rehabilitation centers, reconstruct damaged infrastructure, and distribute aid and health services. Barangay captains and their kagawads and tanods usually inform people about available evacuation centers. Action lines are set up to receive complaints, give public information, and plan details of the future relief and rescue operations. In view of the various disasters that have hit the country, efforts are being devised by the government and NGO’s (nongovernment organizations) to institute counter-disaster measures. For disaster prevention, infrastructure programs and use of safety devices to offset the consequences of disasters are instituted. Public Opinion The product of collective discussions for decision-making is public opinion, which is the result of interaction vic-a-vis an issue. Public opinion is the composite of individual opinions as these are communicated to leaders who are empowered to render a decision. It is difficult to arrive at a unanimous opinion, but the majority opinion nonetheless is usually acceptable. Public opinion can also be those of leaders or the opinion-makers, thus it may emanate from the minority. 280

Public opinion can be expressed through the ballot or referendum, letters, petitions, delegations, meetings and interest groups. At the local level, the presence of leaders ((Hollnsteinern1963:41, 95-110) in certain municipalities exert influence in forming public opinion. The views of persons who have prestige or are held in high esteem carry weight, and some seek their advice. The social circle to which one belongs is also an important source of one’s opinions. Thus, citizen’s assemblies are effective channels for the expression of opinions on vital problems and issues. Polls and surveys play crucial role in determining public opinion. Surveys are conducted to determine people’s opinion on current issues concerning the economy, politics, and culture related topics. The more popular polling groups in the country are the Social Weather Station, Pulse Asia and Audits and Survey Worldwide. Blumer (1946) avers that, “public opinions occurs as a function of society in operation.” The process by which citizens of a society acquire political attitudes and opinion is complex. It encompasses a continuing interaction among institutional sources of information, interpersonal contacts, and ideological and personality factors (Lowell, in Janowitz and Hirsch 1981:51). Public opinion can be influenced in a wide range of ways, from indirect persuasion to direct propaganda techniques. Representatives of various organizations play an important role in shaping public opinion, and the individual within the public is able to express oneself through the membership in the formal groups. Through their leaders, these organizations make their presence felt by those empowered to make the decision. There are also political and commercial public relations, advertising campaigns, and propaganda which directly attempt to 281

influence public opinion. Mass media also plays an influential role in forming public opinion. In general, it has been found that personal persuasion is more effective than the mass media in influencing opinions and behavior, especially during election campaigns. Mass Communication Public opinion depends on a shared framework for holding together the members of society. In turn, this framework is dependent upon effective media in order to make information and knowledge accessible to the public. Mass media plays an important role in this regard. Mass media refers to large-scale organizations using print and broadcast communications such as radio, television, and film. Media functions as an agent of socialization. It gives information, introduces us to wide variety of people, entertains us by providing opportunities to live variously, and provides an array of viewpoints, products, and services which, if we use, will us acceptable to others (Kendall, 2000:87). During elections, media becomes the venue for informing people about candidate’s platform. Newspaper, reporters and columnists and TV newscasters also interpret information and prescribe possible reactions. The social heritage of the group – its knowledge, norms, and values – are transmitted to the audience. An issue that is constantly raised is how reliable is the media. Is there not too much sensationalism which then distorts the truth? Former President Diosdado Macapagal aptly described this when he wrote, “We cannot close our eyes to the widespread criticism of the media such as considerable cavalier treatment of facts and 282

truth and impingement of integrity known as developmental journalism and other” (1991:7) Polo (2002:15) confirms media’s influence on popular culture, politics, and social power relations in the following: “Popular traditions in our history have been expressed in soap operas, action films and newspapers. A wealth of images has been created for the masses. As a result, the masses have been transformed into social actors who intervened in political events like the ouster of President Estrada. Thus, media serves not only as a source of entertainment and escapism; it also participates in cultural and social processes and constantly interacts with the stress of society.” Newspaper The newspaper is a channel for disseminating information to the public. It relays news, comments and opinions through its reports, editorials and opinions pages. It covers issues of local, national, and international interest and is an important instrument for breaking through to public opinion and social consciousness. However, while a newspaper is intended to render objective and reliable reporting, it will also reflect its own biases and thus becomes inaccurate. Big business or other groups with vested interest may gain control of the press and project their positions in the editorial. News reporting can also be sensationalized to the point of distorting information. Because newspapers derive a large portion of its revenues from advertisements, commercialization can compromise there social value. 283

The guiding principle stressed by the Philippine Council Print Media is freedom with responsibility, our self-censorship. The role of newspapers among farmers can be gleaned from the study of Feliciano and Icban (1967:252-253) on the effectiveness of the farm and home development program of the UP College of Agriculture. They found out that the number of hours spent on reading print media, mostly vernacular magazines, was positively associated with the adaption of new farm practices. Farmers who read more tended to be high adopters, and those who read less, low adopters. In their study of four barrios in Nueva Ecija, they found out that in cases where farmers were ready to change or where there was a keenly felt need for a specific practice, mass media was able to trigger immediate trial and adaptation. So, if farmers had already accepted the idea of using fertilizers to increase crop yield, they would buy “at last” fertilizer right after reading an advertisement in Liwayway magazine. Radio The radio is a powerful medium because it reaches a wide audience. Its effectiveness lies in making listeners feel the speaker’s personality. Although the radio’s chief function is to entertain, it also disseminates news and information through its news cast and public service programs. Like the television, it can instantly broadcast news to the public through on the spot reports. As of 1999, there were 208,580 licensed stations in the Philippines. As of this number, 20,950 stations are governmentowned 187, 622 are privately owned. Through battery- operated transistor, radios, more and more rural folks are able to listen to the radio. Programs are sometime hackneyed, as they try to 284

appeal to the popular taste. They consist mostly of pop songs, dramas, balagtasan, “true confessions”, comedy skits, police reports, agricultural programs, religious broadcast, news and commentaries. Television Television uses both sight and sound in conveying ideas to people. Televisions advantage over the radio is its visual projection for events which makes this appear more real and stimulating. Though primarily intended for entertainment, television has a powerful influence and far reaching effects on viewers. Significant events, both local and international are brought directly into the viewer’s home. The development of satellite networks enables live coverage of events around the world and thus global flow of information. Through the reporter’s commentary or through manipulation of the camera angle, it is possible for television to present a perspective different from that of the actual spectator. The camera operators can present their own interpretation of events by focusing on what they consider important, and relegating into the background what they deem unimportant. Thus, the emphasis of events depends on the judgment and accounts of the television reporter and camera crew. According to Tupperman (1999:39-40), television is graphic and attractive; its depiction of life shows an uninterrupted flow of images that appear like the reality. Viewers take what they see as natural situations of the actual word. They are not aware of the techniques like programming, filming, writing and directing which involve manipulation in editing. 285

Viewer’s also become accustomed to sex, violence, danger and excitement as their standard fantasy fare. Researches shows that constant exposure to violence encourage violent behavior in children, like those that show a perpetrator being rewarded or escaping punishment; justify violence or do not portray evident pain, sorrow, or remorse; accompany physical violence with verbal abuse; do not criticize violence; portray violence in a realistic setting with realistic characters. According to Bautista (2002:A10) of the Philippine Children’s Television Foundation and Community of Learners Foundation, television wields the biggest influence on shaping views and values second to parents and family. Her study on media revealed that Filipino children view an average of 6.2 incidents of violence for every hour of TV viewing, or an average of 13 violent incidents a day. There is less cause for worry of children who live in stable, secure homes where parents and other adults regulate their viewing. A problem arises among children who are neglected and are constantly exposed to TV violence. One effect is the desensitization to such incidents. Since the 1970’s, television networks have been criticized for featuring mainly entertainment programs which are lacking in substance. De Guzman (2002:8) writes that some shows are actually offensive and degrading. Corny expressions bordering on vulgarity are used to appeal to the mass market. Noontime shows are nuances, expressions and body language are overtly sexual. Sexy and revealing outfits do not portray good role models. Soap operas and teledramas catering to millions of viewers show conflict, rivalry, double cross, and violence. Such shows do not 286

honestly reflect reality. The danger is that soap operas and teledramas may influence reality. Motion Pictures Like television, motion pictures are primarily for entertainment, but can also be informative and instructional. Concerns have been raised on the movies reflection of people’s values and the effects they have on the viewers. Powell (1956:353) states that motion pictures are effective to some degree in cementing or changing attitudes; our least influential in affecting attitudes that are remote from the apparent purpose of the film; sometimes implant or strengthen attitudes to those intended. Claims that motion pictures are important for achieving goodwill and peace in modern society are not supported by evidence. Filipino films usually center on love or detective stories, dramas, horror tales, comedies, and musicals. Locally produced comedies are usually of the slapstick varieties, relying on puns and off-color jokes for laughs. The common criticism against local movies is that they are of poor quality, cater to the bakya crowd (the low socio-economic class) and infused with too much sex and violence. Like TV, an issue constantly raised is the effect of too much violence in films on the personality of an individual, especially children. Sen. Santanina Rasul, in her speech, “Education for Peace” (1987), expressed fear that if the children see that violence on television or movies are condoned by people around them, then they will accept it as a fact of life and not consider crime as deviant. Furthermore, when children see that violence is 287

glorified, they might even think that violence is heroic or noble. Studies shows that an increase in aggressive behavior of children as a direct result of viewing violence in films. Many professionals feel that the average adolescent is unharmed by violent scenes, but similar scenes may stimulate an emotionally distuebed child or reinforce delinquent tendencies of gangs (Wright 1974:144146). Social MovemenTS When collective behavior persists and develops a considerable degree of organization, it becomes a social movement. A social movement is a type of collectivity composed of people who share sentiments or grievances who unite to promote or resist change. It is directed toward changing the established norms, values, or social structures. Thus, it challenges the existing social order. Social movements are a function of the level of social and economic deprivation of a group (Light and Keller, 1982:536). Formation of Social Movements To understand social movements, let us use Smelser’s preconditions for its analysis. All social movements start with a feeling of discontent with the existing social order. When people become conscious of their lack of basic social services, social power, or human rights, they become discontented. The perceived deprivation results in frustration. This generalized restlessness and agitation fuels social unrest. Resources are mobilized for leadership, organizational talent, and prestige, in order to attract followers. An organization is set up to serve as the nucleus of a group with a leader (Smelser, 1995:109-110). 288

Important in a social movement is an ideology which is codified from the ideals, beliefs, values, principles, and doctrines of the people. According to Smelser (1995), ideology is the bridge between discontent and action. It defines the problem in terms of right and wrong and offers a guide for action. Communication channels like leaflets, the media, mobile phones and media link like-minded people over a considerable area. Television, radio broadcasts, and cell phones were utilized on January 16, 2001 to call on people to converge at the EDSA Shrine and protest against the senators who voted against the opening of the second envelope which allegedly contained vital evidence against Pres. Estrada in his impeachment trial. The group may opt for aggressive or non-aggressive strategies. Non-institutionalized strategies like demonstrations, boycotts, noise barrage, or even sabotage and other forms of violence are utilized. For social movements to succeed, it is necessary to mobilize people and resources. The social movement must be led by charismatic and competent leaders; it must attract committed and disciplined members and possess needed resources, such as the finance and facilities. It must also be able to counteract external opposition. The social movement must enlist external allies from other major groups and powerful institutions in the society, and unity separate organizations. (Stark 1996:642) Types of Social Movements Social movements that emphasize social change abound in our society. There are movements for agrarian reforms, wages hike, human rights, protection of the environment, peace, a gunless society, pro-life, feminist and political and economic change. 289

Religious movements and cults also abound. Social movements have been classified from the short-lived organizations to the widespread and protracted revolutionary movements. They may be classified according to their goals or their types, such as political, religious, economic, educational, etc. The most common types are the expressive, the resistance and protest, the reform, and the revolutionary movements. Expressive Movement The expressive movement is a form of dissent against the existing power structures. It is not directed to bring about the change in power relations; rather, it is a reaction to a sense of powerlessness or alienation and dissatisfaction. This type of movement may be seen in crank or unconventional movements, messianic movements, gospel sharing and bible study movements. Members are usually detached and dissatisfied with the society they lived in. this type of movement tends to have intense effects on the personalities of the members, strengthen member’s faith, and develop spirituality and a sense of community. Among the messianic cults were: the socio-religious protest of Apolinario de la Cruz, who set up a kingdom of the Tagalogs during the Spanish Regime; the religious movement organized by Gregorio Aglipay to secularize the parishes and remove foreigners from the Catholic Church; the Colorum movement in Tayabas province (now Quezon), led by Ruperto de Dios, who appointed himself Pope and then God; the Lapiang Malaya, founded by Valentin de los Santos in the 1960s; and the Iglesia’s Watawat ng Lahi. 290

In their study of the Lapiang Malaya, Aldaba-lim, Perlas and Sucgang (1967) noted that the members were from Manila and the neighboring provinces, belonged to the lower class, lacked education, and were engaged in unskilled occupations. They were Roman Catholics, but considered the doctrines as foreign and abstract in contrast to the teachings of the Lapiang Malaya which were concrete, personalized, and indigenous. They joined the group to derive spiritual benefits such as loving relations with God, Country, and fellowmen. They sought spiritual security in the face of material deprivation. According to Aldaba-Lim, et al, the Lapiang Malaya was symptomatic of the dissatisfaction within Philippine socio-political structures. In August 2000, the Philippine Benevolent Missionaries led by Ruben Ecleo Jr. came into the news. A team of police, soldiers, and military men entered the cult’s village to serve a warrant of arrest on a cultist member for frustrated murder. The cult’s member responded by attacking police, killing some militiamen and hurting others. According to David (2002:A7) people join cults because these: offer a wide range of assistance to the underprivileged and powerless; give them sense of oneness and community; gives solace and spiritual comfort; healing from the leader is extended to the members; are held in awe for the elaborate rituals, symbols, and incantations of the rites and ceremonies. David adds that, the existence of cults is symptomatic of a society that is underdeveloped, unequal, predatory, and corrupt.

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Resistance and Protest Movements The resistance movement is brought about by structural strain; it aims to change existing social values and institutions which members consider decadent. The social institutions’ weaknesses are attributed to the present leadership who, in the movement’s view, lacks integrity and loyalty. As a reaction, the movement’s members prefer to revert to the folkways and mores of a historical or idealized past. Protest movements aim to oppose social policies or programs. They are an expression of dissent and a need for change. Examples of protest organized by special interest groups are those waged against the low wages, price increases, scams, corruption, and dismissal of a union leader. There were intense protests against the American bases in Clark and Subic Bay and, later, against the Balikatan and Visiting Forces Agreement between the US and Philippine governments. In the 1970s and subsequent decades, a number of non-violent resistance activities or the so-called “people’s power” protests took place in Manila and other parts of the country. The members trace their expression and the injustices committed against them to deeply rooted inequities in the social structure. Among the people’s power action were those organized by Zone One Tondo Organization (ZOTO), a group of 5,000 from the urban poor who opposes the demolition of their homes. In Bontoc and Kalinga, tribal communities fought to prevent a logging company gaining access to their forests and opposed the construction of the Chico River dam which would inundate their lands.in all these cases, non-violent strategies and tactics were used. Some factors that 292

contributed to the success of these mobilizations are the courage and determination of the people who collectively fought for their rights. After the assassination of Sen. Aquino in 1983, protest movements were staged in the business district of Makati, which was a turnabout from its traditional stance of political indifference and conservatism. In a survey-analysis of Makati’s white collar workers, majority of Bautista’s (1985) subjects were college graduates aged 22 to 57 who may be classified middle class. Majorities were not student activists of the 70s, nor were members of any political organization. Their forms and protests include: 99% threw confetti from their offices in various buildings; 82%, joined demonstrations and rallies; 19%, participated in teach-ins; 16%, jogged to protest; 11%, joined motorcades; and less than 1% attended symposia on the current national issues. In their perception, the national crisis was caused by government mismanagement and corruption, the low position of the Philippines in the world’s economy, the political unrest, the New People’s Army, and problems with some Filipinos. Bautista (1985:9) described these protest movements as “a collective and significant expressions expression of an outrage against a brutal murder that hurt the sensibilities of most Filipinos… and a collective camaraderie filled affair of people working in the same office.” The ambience of this protest was like a fiesta. Reform Movements Reform movements are directed at a changing certain aspects if the social class structure or a segment of the power relations in a social system. They usually aim to make the existing social 293

structure work more effectively by extending rights or privileges to certain groups. They seek to change only some segments of the society or culture, as they reaffirm some of its values. They are generally interest groups designed to aid their members; occasionally they act as pressure groups designed to aid their members; occasionally they act as pressure groups for promoting the resisting actual changes in social norms and values. Examples of this type of movement are the labor movement, the women’s liberation movement, pro-life movement, cooperatives movement, consumer’s movement, gay and lesbian rights movement, movement for a more equitable global economy, etc. In his paper Some Implications of Student Activism for Sought East Asia University Administration, Felipe (1969:122-131) identifies the causes of student activism. Foremost is the shift in function of education from providing status and economic opportunities for individual members of society to one of providing economic obligation to the society at large. Second is the change in the character of the student populace resulting from universities’ policy of selective admission, which in turn results in the emergence of a more intelligent, critical, and militant student body, in demonstrations and rallies, students demand the right to speak in behalf of the society and the right of representation, including demands for universities to become accountable to society. They also clamor for a curriculum which is more relevant to and answers the need of the present society. NGOs have taken a lead role in social change and national transformation. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, voluntary groups were engaged in the anti-Marcos dictatorship struggle and the boarder movement for social change. There were also 294

traditional groups which directed activities towards socio-civil and religious aspects. In the 1980s, NGOs advocated and fought for fundamental societal changes and reforms. At present many NGO snare engaged in development work and continue to work for both fundamental changes and reforms. They are effective instruments for mobilizing people’s participation in development activities. (Marilao and Bautista, 1993:22) Rebellion and Revolutionary Movements Rebellion and revolutionary movements aim to change the whole social order and replace the leadership. They challenge the existing folkways and mores and propose a new scheme of norms, values, and organizations. They occur in societies where there is a distinct ruling elite and where there is oppression, conquest, or colonization. Not all suppressed or colonized people revolt against the colonizers or dominant groups. Revolutionary movements involve more radical changes in the society. These are brought about by wide gap between the rich and poor, widespread poverty, oppression of a class by the more powerful groups, suppression of people’s rights and the colonizing groups of exploitation of a nation’s natural resources. A revolution has a long background of unrest and dissatisfaction among the people, but needs a precipitating crisis to start it. People are spurned when the social, economic, and political systems persist in the unjust treatment of the people. Those who feel oppressed try to wrestle power from the ruling class (Light and Keller 1993:564). Leaders arise, members divide tasks and functions, and an ideology evolves. When legitimacy of the authority is challenged and weakened, military forces act to quell 295

disturbances but end up aggravating these. A precipitating crisis sparks the outbreak of the revolution. Force and violence are used to wrench the control from the ruling power. If successful, they establish a revolutionary government. The French, Philippine, Russian, Chinese, and Cuban revolutions are examples of revolutionary movements. During the Japanese Occupation of the Philippines, the Hukbong Magpapalaya ng Bayan struggled to wrest control from the Japanese and Shift the country’s system to socialism. After World War II, the group became known as Huks and continued fighting against the government. The movement was later suppressed by then Defense Secretary Ramon Magsaysay. In 1969, Jose Ma. Sison co-founded the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) and its military arm, the New People’s Army (NPA). It politicize and organize the peasants and workers and aims to set up a national democratic society through its general tactic of seizing the cities from the countryside. In the 1970s, the CPP-NPA staged revolutionary attacks against the Marcos dictatorship, and continues to date to launch military operations to realize its political-economic agenda of changing the structures of government. The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) are Muslim groups whose goal is to secede from the country. At present (2003) there are on-going peace talks with the MILF. Another Muslim group is the Abu Sayyaf. Critics claim, however, that this cannot be considered a revolutionary group since it is engaged in criminal activities, such as kidnapping for ransom and does not have an ideology. 296

Non-Violent and Peaceful Revolutions A notable and unique type of revolution, different from the armed revolutions, was the February 22-25, 1986 people’s Power Revolution at EDSA, Quezon City. It was unique in the sense that it was a nonviolent and peaceful mass action which toppled a 20year old dictatorship. During the years of the Marcos dictatorship, disenchantment steadily grew because of the suppression of human rights, rampant graft and corruption, the widening gap between the rich and the poor as well as the increase in the proportion of poor people, suppression of media, economic instability, and spiraling foreign debts. The First Quarter Storm in the late 1960s and early 1970s ushered students, peasants, and laborers protest against feudalism, neo-classicism, and imperialism. The assassination of opposition leader Sen. Benigno Aquino, Jr. on August 21, 1983 intensified collective actions against the Marco regime. Tension over the snap presidential election on February 7, 1986, with Ferdinand Marcos and Corazon Aquino as candidates, intensified during counting of the ballots. Mrs. Aquino claimed that she won the elections but lost in the counting because of widespread cheating and fraud. Mrs. Aquino called for peaceful rallies and boycotts of crony-owned businesses to protest. On February 1986, the discovery of a plot to overthrow Marcos led to the arrest of members of the Reform the Armed Forces Movement (RAM), involving Minister of Defense Juan Ponce Enrile and Gen Fidel Ramos. Cardinal Sin’s help was seeked; and he appealed for people to gather in front of Camps Aguinaldo and 297

Crame along EDSA where Enrile and Ramos were holed up. The people responded overwhelmingly. Soon, EDSA was teeming with people from all walks of life: nuns, priests, seminarians, laypersons – young, old, rich and poor. They joined hands, prayed for God’s intercession, and barricaded the advancing tanks and troops loyal to Marcos with their own bodies. They appealed to the soldiers, saying, “We are all Filipinos; let us not fight each other.” The defection of key military officers helped the movement. On February 25, 1986, a provisional government was formed with Corazon Aquino as president. Later that morning, Ferdinand Marcos was sworn in as president by his followers at Malacañang. But that evening, Marcos and his family together with some cronies escaped to Hawaii with the help of the US government. This marked the end of the Marcos dictatorship, the triumph of People Power, and the rebirth of freedom. Soon after, a revolutionary government was established under a “freedom constitution”, which remained until a new constitution was drafted by a commission on October 15, 1986. This model of a peaceful, non-violent revolution has inspired other countries. Another People Power Revolution took place on January 16-20, 2000 at the EDSA Shrine. An account is contained at the introduction of this chapter. Social Consequences of Collective Behavior Collective behavior is a result of social change, which promotes non-institutional courses of action with a normative justification. While some circumstances strengthen resistance to change, in the most cases, collective behavior leads to changes. 298

Developments in technology and other changes like urbanization, industrialization, increase in population, and the mixture of diverse ethnic groups open up new self conceptions and create new value perspectives which challenge traditional norms and values. Collective behavior becomes a vehicle for the release of aroused feelings or accumulated tensions, anxieties, and discontent as manifested in the acting and expressive crowds. In the most cases, social movements lead to basic changes in the social structure and policies. Labor movements have succeeded in influencing legislation favorable to workers. The same may be said of the women’s movement which has advocated for equal rights for women. Widespread collective behavior becomes a vehicle for change when diverse cultures interact and supply new values around which collective behavior can become focused. As people continue interacting, collective behavior may develop form and organization. The crowd may develop into sect, the public into a political or interest group, and the mass into a cult. Social movements may result in new institutions with new and radical values or, in a few cases, in the preservation of the social order. Collective behavior may produce new cultural directions and establish new folkways, more, and values. Thus, collective behavior plays an important part in the process of social change. Summary No single definition of the term collective behavior can be given. Turner and Killian define collective behavior as forms of social behavior not guided by usual conventions and involving a 299

transgression of established institutional patterns and structure. It occurs in stress situations, usually brought by social change, and is characterized by a high degree of emotions. A number of theoretical frameworks have been formulated to describe the conditions that bring about collective behavior. Among them are the convergence perspective, the emergent norm perspective, and the value-added approach. Forms of collective behavior include the crowd, mass, public, and social movements. A crowd is a transitory group of persons in an ambiguous and, to some degree, unstructured situation in which participants do not have a clear and pre-existing knowledge of how to behave, but feel that they can do something to correct the situation. Some types of crowd are the casual, conventional, acting and expressive crowds. A mass is composed of desperate individuals, each responding independently to the same stimulus in a similar way. In the public, members are confronted by issues and they discuss, argue, debate, compromise, and form composite views known as public opinion. Public opinion is dependent upon mass media to make information about the issue accessible. Mass communication is organized communication through some systematized structures directed toward a relative large audience during a short period of time. This includes the newspaper, radio, television, and motion pictures. When the collective behavior process becomes so organized that rules and norms are established and a leader arises, it assumes the proportion of a social movement. Social movements 300

emphasize social change and emerge from stressful changes in one’s environment which bring about dissatisfaction with the existing living conditions. The objective of the social movement is to promote change or, in a few cases, to resist change. Study Guide 1. Concepts and terms to master Collective behavior Fashion Organized behavior Fad Crowd Crazes Mass Mass Media Public Social Movement Disaster behavior 2. What is collective behavior? What are its important features? 3. Explain the theoretical framework for describing the collective process. 4. What is crowd? Characterized and give examples of each type of crowd. 5. What is a mass? Give example of mass. Differentiate between fashion, fad, and craze. 6. What is a public? How is public opinion formed and expressed? 7. How is the public influenced by mass media? 8. Characterized social movements. 9. Described the various types of social movement.

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Critical Thinking Questions 1. Explain the collective behavior and activities shown in EDSA II in terms of the Smelser’s value added approach. How would you evaluate the consequences of EDSA II and the so-called People Power III? 2. How do you account for the widespread social protests in 2001-2003? What issues were raised in these protests?

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Chapter 10 THE FAMILY A Philippine Population Report showed that despite the fact that abortion is illegal in the country and condemned by the Catholic Church, one in six pregnancies ends in abortion. The report adds that the prevalence of abortion in the Philippines is higher than other Asian countries like Japan, Bangladesh and India. To console us is the fact that our abortion prevalence is lower than that in Vietnam, China, Mongolia and South Korea. The common denominator in our situation is pregnancy that is ill-timed, unplanned and unintended. This calls for family solidarity, more enlightened social science education and a return to traditional values. Jess Sison, Malaya , 6 Oct. 2002 What is the prevalent attitude of young people towards abortion? What is our concept of family solidarity? Basic Concepts An important institutional element of the family is marriage. It is the cultural mechanism that ensures the family is marriage. Marriage is an institutional practice with social definitions and legal restrictions. People marry for a combination of reasons; love, economic and emotional security, the parents’ wishes, escape from loneliness or 303

an unhappy home situation, money, companionship, protection, adventure, or common interests (Bowman 1970;72). Sex or sexual attraction is the least consideration, but marriage makes sexual intercourse legitimate. It sanctions parenthood and provides a stable background for rearing of children. Marriage is the foundation of the family, an inviolable social institution. Its purpose may not necessarily be for procreation or to have children but for companionship, as in the case of couples past the age of procreation. Since 1949, our Civil Code has prescribed behavior on marriage and family relations. The Family Code of the Philippines, which became effective on August 3, 1988, defines marriage as a special contract of permanent union between a man and a woman entered into in accordance with the law for the establishment of conjugal and family life. The family Code speaks of two aspects of marriage: as a contract and as status. As a contract, it applies to only a man and a woman. It is permanent, unlike other, contracts. The law prescribes penal and civic sanctions, like criminal action for adultery or concubinage, legal separation, or action for support. Once the contract of marriage is valid, the status of being married is created between parties. Marriage is valid in Philippine society only when the following requirements are present: the legal capacity of the contracting parties who must be a male and a female, and the consent freely given by the couple in the presence of the solemnizing officer. The minimum age for marriage is 18 years but parental consent is necessary for those below 21 years. The formal requisites of 304

marriage are the authority of the solemnizing officer (judge or priest), a valid marriage license (good for 120 days), a marriage ceremony which takes place with the appearance of the contracting parties before the solemnizing officer, and their mutual declaration that they take each other as husband and wife in the presence of not less than two witnesses of legal age. After 40 years under the Civil Code, the government has made some changes in the formal requisites for marriage. One of these is that no license is necessary for the marriage if the couple has lived together as husband and wife for at least five years and there is no legal impediment to their marriage. Husband and wife are obliged to live together observe mutual love, respect and fidelity, and render mutual help and support. Forms Of Marriage The form of marriage practiced in a society affects the structure of the family’s kinship group. The accepted form may be either monogamous or polygamous.  Monogamy - permits a man to take only one spouse at a time.  Polygyny - is the marriage of one man to two or more women at the same time. It is example of Muslims that status symbol for the man.  Polyandry - is the marriage of a woman to two or more men at the same time. Practiced by the Kaingang of Brazil.

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Selection of Marriage Partners Various pressures and control operate that regulate the choice of a marriage partner. No society permits a totally free choice. There are 2 types of norms regarding the selection: endogamy and exogamy.  Endogamy –refers to the norms which dictates that one should marry within one’s clan or ethnic group  Exogamy-prescribes that one marries outside one’s clan or ethnic group.  The levirate norm prescribes that a widow marries the brother or nearest kin of the deceased husband.  The sororate norm prescribes that a widower marries the sister or nearest kin of the deceased wife. Family Structures The family is a small institution that unites individuals into cooperative groups to oversee the bearing and raising of children. The family is built on kinship based on blood, marriage, and adoption. As a social institution, the family consists of a social structure providing a more or less stable framework for the performance of reciprocal roles and of certain functions to make the relationship enduring. The nature of the familial structure has a bearing on personality development; an insight on these can shed light on the personality type of the members, as well as on questions 306

concerning the family. Some degree of relationship also exists between family patterns and the type of economy of the society. The structure of the family varies from one culture to another. Within a given society, there may be variations among the families. However, there can be a more or less dominant or typical type. The classification of families into categories can represent ideal types. A number of anthropological and sociological publications classify the forms of the family and kinship organizations in many ways. Basic Concepts Based on internal organization or membership The family is classified as nuclear or extended. The nuclear primary or elementary family is composed of a husband and his wife and their children in a union recognized by the other members of the family. Murdock (1949:2-3) states that every normal adult in every society belongs to two kid of nuclear families, namely, the family of orientation and the family of procreation. The family of orientation (origin) is the family into which one is born, and where one is reared or socialized. It consists of the father, a mother, brothers and sisters. The family of procreation is the family established through marriage and consists of a husband , wife, sons and daughter. The nuclear family is said to be a universal social institution found in every society. However, Mogey (1962:1412) cites to specific cases which are contrary to this view --- the Nayar group of India where the roles of husband and wife are reduced to a ritual 307

ceremony and the Israeli kibbutz, where the parental functions are lost to the community. The nuclear family is the smallest unit responsible for the preservation of the value system of society. Its duty is to see that members are socialized into the basic value system of the society (Bell and Vogel 1968; 18-20). The extended family is composed of two or more nuclear families, economically and socially related to each other. The extensions may be through the parent -child relationship. Where the unmarried children and married children with their families live with the parents. Another type of extensions is through the husband and wife relationship, as in a polygynous marriage. In polygyny the man keeps a number of nuclear families and units them under a larger family group. Linton (Murdock 1949:3940) distinguishes two types of family structures corresponding to the nuclear and extended families. He refers to theme as; (1) the conjugal family, which considers the spouses and their off springs as of prime importance and which has a fringe of comparatively unimportant relatives. The marriage bond is emphasized; (2) the consanguineal family, which considers the nucleus of blood relatives as more important than the spouses. Blood relationships formed during childhood are emphasized. Each type of family presents distinct advantages and disadvantages. The nuclear family, with its emphasis on conjugal bond, motivates the husband and wife to work out and harmonious relationship based on congeniality of interests, 308

mutual understanding, and sympathy. This type of family emphasizes independent residence, strong allegiance to the members, romantic love, and sexual attraction. Since the family has to be independent and economically self-sufficient, the members tend to be imbued with values of independence, initiative, and self-reliance. A disadvantage is the danger that the children may develop emotional problems due to the excessive child-centeredness of the family and the solicitude of the parents for theme. In crises like deaths, separations, divorce and desertion, the members feel the impact of the strain severely. Children can be vulnerable to such crises. An advantage of the extended family over the other type is its likelihood for permanence. A member can turn to a kin for help in times of crises and thus withstand the stresses that it causes. Social relationships are diffused such that the children learn to adjust to persons of varying age levels. The children learn cooperation at an early age. A wide range of protection is afforded to members and the aged can rely on the younger ones to take care of theme. However, such setup can make the children overly dependent on relatives and may stifle the development of selfreliance, initiative, and independence. The different kin relationship may result in confusion of values and norms. Based on Descent Rules of descent imply cultural norms, which affiliate a person with a particular group of kinsfolk for certain social purpose and services, such a mutual assistance and regulation of marriage. Rules of descent do not mean that certain genealogical ties are 309

closer than others are (Murdock 1949:15-16). On the basis of descent, the types of families are: Patrilineal descent affiliates a person with a group of relatives through his or her father. The child has also well-defined relationships with the mother’s kin, but when the child finds it is necessary to seek aid, the child turns to his or her father’s kin. Matrilineal descent affiliates a person with a group of relatives related through, his or her mother. Bilateral descent affiliates a person with a group of relatives related both to his and her parents. Based on Residence The basis of this classification is the preferred rule of the residence. With whom does the newly married couple stay? Patrilocal residence requires that the newly married couple live with or near the domicile of the parents of the groom. Matrilocal residence requires that the newly married couple live with or near the domicile of the parents of the bride. Bilocal residence gives the couple a choice of staying with either the groom’s parents or the bride’s parents, depending on factors like the relative wealth of the families or their status, the wish of the parents, or certain personal preferences of the bride and/or the groom. Neolocal residence permits the newly married couple to reside independently of the parents of either groom or bride. Avuncolocal residence prescribes that the newly married couple reside with or near the maternal uncle of the groom. This type of residence is very rare. 310

The rules of residence reflect the general social, economic, and cultural, conditions of the society. Where the couple choose to live means additional kinsfolk for the family with whom they will stay. Additional kinsfolk means additional labor help and, therefore, enhancement of the power of the family. To the spouse who goes to live with the family of the other, married life with mean living with strangers and may entail problems of adjustment. Based on Authority Where is authority vested--- in the family or kinship group? Based on who wields authority, families are classified into the following types. The patriarchal family is one which the authority is vested on the oldest male in the family, often the father. The sons, especially the eldest, enjoy prestige and privileges. The males speak for the familial group with regard to properties, legal obligations, and criminal offences. The double standard of morality exists. This type of family is further characterized by family solidarity and ancestor worship. The Chinese family of the pre-revolutionary period and the biblical families of Abraham and Isaac (kirkpatrick1963:60) exemplify the ideal types of patriarchal family. The matriarchal family is one in which the authority is vested on the mother’s kin. This type is found in few societies. Individual families, however, may be found in societies where the mother dominates the households. The egalitarian family s one in which the husband and the wife exercise a more or less equal amount of authority. The matricentric family is a recently emerged type found usually in the suburbs of the United States. Burgess and Locke (1963:70-72) attributes its emergence to the fact that, in 311

suburban families, the father commutes to work and his absents gives the mother a dominant position in the family, although the father may also share with the mother in decision-making. Functions of the Family The family, as the basic social institution, performs manifold functions, some of which are reinforced and supported by other social institutions. The social and cultural changes that impinge on the family have weakened some functions but strengthened others. Literature on the sociology of the family abounds with discussions on the functions of the family (Davis1949; Goode 1963; Kenkel 1973; Bell and vogel 1968; Maciones 1997). These functions are: 1. The family regulates sexual behavior and is the unit for reproduction. Within the marriage bond, sex expressions is socially sanctioned. Thus, the perpetuation and continuity of the group are assured. While some societies, like the Ifugaos and the Bontocs, allow premarital relations, most societies condemn the practice. Moreover, extramarital. Relations are frowned upon. Aside from this important biological function, the family also serves to provide legitimate children with a status. 2. The family performs the functions of biological maintenance. The human infant is born helpless and the parents fill the roles of protector, provider, and guardian. They look after the infant’s physical and material needs, giving is sustenance nourishment, and protection. From the family, the infant and, later, the child draws security, affection, and guidance and 312

learns tenderness, sympathy, understanding, and love. In some societies, the family is the group responsible for the care of the aged, the physically incompetent, the unemployed, and the widowed. 3. The family is the chief agency for socializing the child. The family transmits the culture of the group though its patterned ways of living and transmits values by example, teaching, or indoctrination, Supported by a system of reward and punishment, the children imbibe the value system of the society and internalize these; they acquire the basic skills, motivations, and attitudes toward work which are essential for the performance of their tasks. They also acquire the standards of behavior, aspirations, and expectations of the family, which become part of their personality. Parson and Bales (1955:35) state that, as socializing agents, parents perform not only their familial roles but also related roles in other structures of the society – a condition necessary for their affective functions as socializing agents. Further, the child is socialized not only for and in one’s family orientation but also for structures which go beyond their family, such as the peer group, school, family of procreation, and work group. 4. The family gives its members status. A child is born into a family that gives him or her a name and lineage. Whether born into a lower class family or on upper class family, he or she is provided with its attitudes and values. For the upper class family, status is something to be maintained and continuously achieved. In lower and middle class families, status is ascribed and goals are set for an achieved status 313

depending on the motivations and aspirations set by the parents. 5. The family is an important mechanism for social control. It continuously exerts pressure on its members to make them conform to what it considers as desirable behavior. To maintain its good name, the family has to keep its members within bounds in the various aspects of living: in their relations with their fellow human beings, morals, control of the sex drives, etiquette, earning a livelihood, etc. 6. The family performs economic functions, especially in simple societies. It likewise performs educational, recreational, religious and political functions. Structural Characteristics Of The Filipino Family The basic social unit of Philippine society is the nuclear family, which includes the father, mother, and the children, and the bilaterally extended kinship group, which embraces all relatives of the father and mother, Other important relationships are those of the siblings and the cousins, of the grandparents and grandchildren. The Christian Filipino family is described as a large family group, usually including three generations in the same home that is “extended” in terms of membership. However, the study of Barrio Esperanza, an agricultural community in Matalon, Leyte, by Pal (1956:305) showed that only 20% of the households were extended families in the ideal sense. In 12% of the households, the membership included the husband, the wife, the children, and 314

a widowed parent whose presence showed a pattern of parent support. The studies of Castillo and Pua (1963:4-7) of four barrios in Los Banos, Laguna showed that only 21% of the families are extended, while 79% were made up of the family of procreation. The study found an average of 1.85 extra-family members for household heads. Other findings showed that 100 families, or 8% independent households, belonged to the modified family type; meaning, they receive regular assistance from relatives in the form of family expenditures. The researchers raised the question as to whether this modified extended family is a transitional stage between the classical extended type and the nuclear family or a third type of family arrangement. The study of Mendez and Jocano (1974:45-46) In Baras, Rizal, affirm the above findings and showed that 72% of the households are nuclear family. The study of Medina (1991) showed that contrary to expectations, there are more nuclear families in the rural areas than in the urban areas, particularly Metro Manila. Among the Muslims, the more common type is the joint family (Arce 1963:248-251). For Tausugs, the young couple and their children live as a dependent unit with the family of either spouse; for the Samals, the couple lives with the family of the wife. In such a setup, the female continues playing the role of the daughter in her natal family, while she is a mother in her conjugal family. Blood kinship is important in the Filipino family especially in the rural areas. Because of this, the family can be considered consanguineal. Family alliance is further extended by the compadre or compadrazgo system, which is formed through the rituals of baptisms, confirmation, and marriage. 315

The Filipino family is said to be patriarchal in authority. Macaraig (1948:87) cites the patriarchal family as one of the factors responsible for family solidarity. However, studies by other sociologists and anthropologists reveal that the Filipino family is not “patriarchal,” nor was it ever in the past, but is egalitarian. This is attributed to the division labor between husband and wife functioning as a mutually cooperating unit. The husband is usually the bread earner, although the wife shares in the struggle for a living. Decision-making is also shared. Although the father is usually the head of the family, the mother is equally vested with authority over the children. Grandparents are also given authority, and so are aunts and uncles. Moreover, there is a pattern of generational authority. Jocano further states that the family is more supportive in nature than authoritarian. Any member can be assured of support and protection in times of need. This idea of support merged kinship status and obligation, which emphasizes the solidarity of the family, as well as the importance of the kinsfolk to one’s existence in the community. The Filipino family is bilateral in terms of reckoning descent and social allocation. This is evident by the lack of distinction in terminology between the paternal and maternal groups. In terms of residence, the Filipino family can be said to be bilocal and neolocal. The more influential and affluent family is likely to be a place of residence of the newly wed couple. When the girl’s parents are wealthier than the boy’s parents, the couple is likely to 316

choose the residence of the girl. As a rule, Filipinos practice endogamy. In marriage, monogamy is the norm, although polygony is allowed among the Muslims and other cultural communities. Islam allows male members to take as many as four wives. Among the Tausugs, the two or more families who share a common male may live together in one household or separately. Stages of Family Life Courtship is the stage preparatory to marriage and may include all the forms of behavior by which an individual seeks to win the consent of another to a marriage (Burgess, Locke, and Thomas 1963:224). It includes a body of folkways and mores through which a man and a woman can come to some point of mutual understanding from which, in time, a permanent union may emerge. The practice is limited by taboos and there are preferential modes for selection. In the Philippines, there are incest taboos that prohibit marriage between first cousins or between up to the fourth civil degree relationship. Likewise, there is a taboo on premarital sexual relationship, although this has been relaxed in recent times. Traditional courtship is generally observed; young pairs have to be with chaperones when they go out. This is because premarital chastity an important virtue of a girl. In the rural areas, the common ways of courting are by serenading and visiting the girl in her house (medina 1991:65). Because of the western influences and the shift from a gemeinschaft, sacred society to a secular, urban society, norms are changing. There is now a trend among the young people to 317

choose a mate for themselves on the basis of romantic love. The criteria that young people go by in the choice of a marriage partner are physical attraction, congeniality, economic status, intelligence, and similarity in interests, ideas, or likes. However, parental influence is still strong and parents approval is sought and desired. Parents still make their children aware of their expectations and the qualities they consider desirable in a marriage partner and make their children live up to this expectations. Santos-Cuyugan (1961:21) remarks, though, that even the romantic-love complex which has effected a dramatic change in the character of interpersonal relationships with the family has not acted as a threat to the integrity of the larger kinship system, but rather has served to broaden somewhat the base on which nuclear families are formed, through which new elements are recruited the system. A study made by Medina (1971:31-35) of a squatters area in Quezon City showed shorter courtship periods, more intermarriages, and marriages arranged by non-relatives such as employers, sponsors, compadres, and friends. A church wedding is the accepted practice, an influence of the catholic religion. Civil marriages is frowned upon and his not considered a binding union by Roman catholic. There occasional trial marriages in Metro Manila. In cases of elopement, the couple usually goes through a civil ceremony and, when the parents have been pacified, a church wedding follows. Social Change and the Filipino Family The Philippines is undergoing many changes; brought about a number of factors that have affected all segments of the society, 318

including the family. Among these are geographical mobility, increasing population, industrialization and urbanization, the changed status and role of Filipino women, and mass media. As Santos-Cuyugan (1961:911-21) says, the Philippines is undergoing a rapid transition from traditional feudal, peasant, rural economy, and kinship-dominated type of society to a modern, industrial type. Today emerging patterns include mate selection on the basis of freedom of choice. Sex norms have changed. Young girls openly call up boys or take the initiative of inviting the boy out. Premarital pregnancies and live-in unions are now accepted and permitted. Marriage markets are now available through the classified ads in newspapers, lonely hearts clubs, and other private agencies including mail-order bride system which has been regulated by law. There is a decline in the traditional division of labor in family roles. There is also the emergence of solo-parent families, because of marital separation, migration, illegitimacy and adaption even by single men and women. In child rearing practices, parents have been less authoritarian, more liberal and less restrictive. The number of “working mothers” have increased so that there is now “part-time parenthood. Fathers are now are getting more involved in child rearing. Marriages are now more fragile as evidenced by the increase in the number of applications for annulment of marriages. The social pressure to keep husband and wife together is not as strident. Kinship ties and respect for authority of elders have decreased. This is the result of various outside interests and commitments 319

and immigration to cities. Sacred familism is characterized by adherence to traditional moral values, the presence of an authoritarian figure who is status-dominated, gemeinschaft interaction, and a traditionalistic, simple technology with a peasant type of economy. Secular familism is characterized by members of the family who still aim success of the family as their goal but whose definition of success has changed to a secular material sort. These social changes bring about conflict in values and mores, which may in turn bring about social problems. And there is no gain saying the fact that problems beset the Filipino family today. Among these are conflicts in the families, separations and desertion, abortion, illegitimacy, prostitution, juvenile delinquency, drug abuse, etc. the extent of these problems is difficult to ascertain. A study of Filipino elderly by Costello (1994) indicates that value is placed on parental respect. It showed a high incidence of elderly Filipinos living with one of their children (80%), while 15% live with their spouses but with a daughter or son living nearby. Sometimes, they remain economically active after 69years of age and are able to continue to extend financial assistance to their children and relatives. Family values, thus have eased the transition to old age even with modernization. Other changes in the Filipino family is the decline in size. In 1993, Filipino couples averaged four children, or less two children than in 1970. National survey report shows that 80-85% oppose the legislation of divorce. The incidence of single mothers (not windows) remains low compared to other countries. 320

With modernization, poverty is the single most imminent threat to the unity and harmony of the traditional Filipino family (Marilao vol. 45:189-211). Quarrels between spouses include neglect of children and household duties, drunkenness, cruelty, vagrancy, infidelity jealousy, and interference of in laws. David (1984) cites that the Filipino family is burdened by many illusions that prevent us to get a clear picture of the actual changes. These changes are: the increasing fragility of today’s marriages, the loosening of family ties, and the wholesale degradation of Filipino women. We have now in our midst defacto divorces, petitions for annulment of marriages and conjugal separations. It must be viewed instead as an outcome of our socio-political order. Most analyses of the future of societies have been in economic and/or political terms. It is expected that, as societies develop, they will move closer economically to a modern industrial state, and politically to a democratic one. Cultural values and the social features of societies are expected to adjust to economic and political changes. Politically, the Philippines is moving towards the establishment of democratic institutions in the area of the national life. However, some traditional values and its family system can be deterrents in the attainment of this development. Modernization can bring with it changes in life style and values. Family problems may arise, particularly marital separations. For example, while Filipinos living in nuclear households comprise 29.5% of all households in 1990, this situation is common in the 321

rural rather than urban areas. At the early stage of the family, the newly married couples tend to live with one of their set of relatives because of the high cost of living in the urban centers. Changes in society have also increased the incidence of Filipinos seeking overseas employment. This highlights the strength of family ties and the resilience of Filipino families. Work immigration decisions are made by the family members, nothing its benefits to the family. Grandparents, aunts, uncles, sisters, and brothers act as surrogates in caring for the children of overseas workers. The level of migrant support may be seen in the amount of workers’ remittances that enter the Philippine economy. Long term Filipino immigrants still maintain their ties with their families in the Philippines, as in Filipino settlers in Hawaii. Summary The family is the most universal of social institutions. The basic institution in most societies, it is the group that ensures continuity and socializes the child. The concept of family varies from culture to culture. The basic family is the nuclear family. It is composed of husband, wife and children, bound in a union recognized and approved by the society. The foundation of the family is marriage, which provides the cultural mechanism to insure its continuity. The family performs varied functions, among them is sex and parental functions, socializations and social control, biological maintenance, status placement, and economic, religious, educational, recreational, and political functions.

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There are variations in family organizations in terms of structural arrangements. Based on descent, the family is classified as nuclear or extended. Linton classifies the family as conjugal or consanguineal. Based on residence, the family is classified as patrilocal, matricoal, avunculocal, bilocal or neolocal. Based on authority, the family is typed as patriarchal, matriarchal, egalitarian, or matricentric. The forms of marriage may be monoganmy or polygamy. The Filipino family is usually bilaterally extended, embracing all relatives of the father and mother. The family is consanguineal and egalitarian. In terms of residence, the family may be bilocal or neolocal. Exogamy is practiced. Since the society is undergoing social change, the family has been affected with regards to its values and mores. This had led to certain social problems. Among these are conflicts, separation and desertion, abortion, illegitimacy, prostitution, juvenile delinquency, drug abuse, and the like. Study Guide 1. Concepts to master: Family Extended family Marriage Endogamy Nuclear family Exogamy Family of orientation Courtship Family of procreation Monogamy Polygamy 2. Why is the family considered the basic social institution? 3. What is marriage? How is marriage related to the family? 323

4. Discuss the functions of the family 5. Give the various family structures. Give the advantages and disadvantages of this type. 6. What are some of the structural characteristics of the Filipino family? Critical Thinking Questions 1. Discuss the courtship practices of Filipinos. Are these practiced in the locality where you come from? 2. How has Filipino family been affected by social change? 3. What are the various structures of the family in the community where you come from? 4. What are the courtship practices in your school? How has westernization affected courtship practices? 5. How can we enhance Filipino family solidarity?

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Chapter 11 THE ECONOMY AND WORK Multinational companies operating in the Philippines have picked Manila as he most attractive investment site in the Asia-pacific region, conducted by the economic intelligence unit the survey of foreign businessman cited the educated labor force the size of the domestic market the English language proficiency of the people, the long term strategic importance low labor cost and the large export base as the edge of the Philippines over its Asian neighbor. A total of 33 foreign businessmen who responded to the survey, However, pointed inadequate infrastructure government bureaucracy peace and order corruption political system as major concern about investing in the country. Economic intelligence today 11 April 1996:13 Is Metro Manila still the most attractive investment site in AsiaPacific region? The Economy Economy is one of the social system in the totally in the social organization. It refers to the structuring and functioning of the development and utilization of human and natural resources in the production processing distribution and consumption of material goods and services. This aspect of social system is important to society and culture economic activities influences habits, skill, 325

knowledge, expectation, motivation, aspiration. It also affects social norms values and personal relationships within the society. The interrelation between the people’s economic activity and social behavior is clear. Human economic life influence culture and society and vice versa. Table 11.1 labor force and labor by sex and area participation rate Philippines 2000 Labor forces Labor force participation rate Both sexes 30,991 64.9 Male 19,306 81.4 Female 11,605 48.5 Urban 15,147 63.0 Rural 15,764 66.8

Sociology of the Economy The components of the sociology of the economy are property, technology division of labor and organization of work which simultaneously interact with each other. Fundamental in economic development are the social subsystem of the economy. Property refers to the network of rights and duties of one person as against all other persons and groups with respect to some scares goods (Davis 1949:453) Property may be private or public. Private property is relatively free from direct state controls and is generally transferred from the owner to their duly designated heirs. Public property is subject to governmental restrains and is controlled by the respective subsystem of government.

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Technology consist of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to convert available resources into object people need or want. Division of labor represent the differentiation of function performed by the individuals members and small groups of the society (Durkheim 1949). Organization of work is concerned with the application of sociological principles to the study of economic structure changes in these structure and the value and ideologies related to them (Millerand form 1964) it includes organizational problems such as workers morale productivity absenteeism and turnover rates. Structure of economy Economic system moved from agrarian to industrial, subsistence to mechanized underdevelopment to develop. Agricultural activities dominate an agrarian economy. The family is the center of the economic activities, it provides for most of its own needs and seldom produces economic goods nor render economic services beyond its minimal essentials needs the system of exchange is barter. Mechanized economy employ mechanized power of the production processing and distributing of economic goods. These activities are complex to factories or mass production, a network of transportation and communication a chain of banks for the exchange of the economic goods and services for money.

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In underdeveloped economies, a great part of natural and human resources are untapped. In a highly developed economy, there is a high degree of mechanization, industrialization urbanization and automation such that a high cost of living exist. In an industrial economy manufacturing trade and commerce and services dominate. Types of economic system We will limit the discussion on economic system to the main ones namely; capitalism, socialism and communism. Capitalism is an economic system that focuses on the right to own private property to invest it as capital in productive enterprises and to obtain profits from each investment values that favored include aggressiveness and competitiveness in the market (Smelser 1995:334-338). The impetus to the development of modern capitalism was the industrial revolution this industrial growth required investment of capital in machines and equipment. Economic power was transferred from the landlords to bankers and industrialist. Government intervention is almost nil and expected to protect business interest, eventually however government began to regulate the system. Income was redistributed through taxation and benefits schemes, such as social security unemployment compensation and medical aid. Socialism is based on a set of political theories that espouses the collective ownership of the means of production and distribution of goods. It takes on measure such us public ownership of basic utilities and in some other countries an extensive state control over economic planning and direction. 328

Communism is a social political and economic system whereby property publicly owned Karl Marx the leading theorist of communism espoused a classless society in the 1980’s major countries which espouses communism and socialism experienced difficulties in the face of inefficiencies in government planning and state enterprises. In the 1990’s these states were marked by declines in economic output which resulted in high unemployment rates. Function of Economy As a social institution the economy carries out the following important function: 1) provides physical subsistence necessary for group survival in a society 2) generates social changes for the continuity of society 3) maintains a balance with the other social system and its social subsystem in the production processing distribution and consumption of economic goods and services and 4) indicates the nature of social stratification in the society social class and mobility differences. Karl Marx and F. Engles (1885) Thorstein Veblen (1922) and Wliiam Ogburn (1922) ever that the economic system especially its technology is the generation of social change the shift from agricultural to industrial economy brings about significant changes in the other social institution such as culture courtship and marriage patterns, religious rituals government and educational reform health welfare and recreational patterns demographic and ecological structures. The economy in turn is influence by these changes as it makes modifications in its technology division of labor organization of work and property allocation. 329

Land reform in the Philippines The centuries old struggle of landless farmers for agrarian rights continues today inequitable distribution of lands continuous to plague the agriculture sector. It is estimated that 2.9 million small farm holder (with 5 hectares or less) occupy slightly more than one half of the total farmlands I the country while medium sized and large farms (25 hectares and more) account for 11.5% of the total farmlands landownership is concentrated only of a few and landowner-farmer relationship is still feudal. Generally, landowner is not interested in agricultural sustainability and productivity. Their objective is to control the use of their land and the consolidation of their political powers in the rural areas. Marginal farmers total 10.2 million 70% are landless in 1988 the comprehensive agrarian reform program (CARP or RA6657) was in enacted in an effort to change the situation from 1972 to 1966 a period of 25 years, the government distributed a total of 2.56 million ha redistribution can be due to lack of political will to implement agrarian reform on top of this are legal blockage by big landowners many of whom sit in congress or have post in the bureaucracy. The legal impediments that slow down the full implementation of CARP include the exemption of big prawn farms all fish food areas foreign investor’s lease for privates land for up to 75 year and the proposed 25 year moratorium on CARP implementation in Mindanao moreover farmers who have been awarded titles do not receive the support and resource that would enable them to 330

enhance their welfare such as credit facilities and training in land development. The DAR is the principal agency responsible for implementing the CARP the target for 2000 is almost the same as the 1999 target to 171,535 hectares. Actual land distribution accomplishment in 1999 was 131,907 ha. (Philippines update March 2001). Understanding the global economy Globalization is a process by which the money, goods, information and people move across nations at a pace and on a magnitudes made possible by the rapid advance in communication and travel as a result it changed the face of human societies shattered cultures and social system the way the industrial revolution and the expansion of trade transformed Europe and its colonies 250 years ago. The globalization of the economies is driven by two major forces the advance in technologies particularly information technology and the progress of negotiation for regional and international trade and investment agreement by the GATT-WTO, APEC, and the ASEAN free trade agreement technological development is reducing the world into a global village. The regional and international trade and investment agreement are also reshaping many rules of the economic games. The Philippines manufacturing garnered the biggest share of foreign investment during the period 1991-95 the manufacturing sector engaged in domestic and export production received 43% and 20% respectively of total foreign direct investment that flowed into the country in the same period (BOI). 331

The country has lured more than p142.8 billion in foreign investment since the enactment of the foreign investment act of 1991 or R.A 7042 from about p21 billion 1991 investment jumped 78% or P35 billion in 1995 due mainly to the law (Manila Standard:1996;7). However, the system of globalized economy has also produced victims for example, in the Philippines, an engineer lost high paying jobs because corporations streamlined operation or moved operation off-shore solution to the global economic situation should consider the cultural patterns aside from merely the economic. Globalization, Poverty and Social Conflict Globalization have brought about more inequality between and within nations. It has not eliminated poverty. Instant prosperity has been experienced only by a thin layer of society and the rest are confined to marginality, this has brought about more insecurity in the working class all over the world and has dislocated the poor and the indigenous people. The term of globalization have been dictated by a few powerful organization and treatise which they have imposed these organization operate without transparency or democratic oversight what are these organization and agreements: 1. World Trade Organization (WTO) established in 1995 as a powerful international body that develops and enforces rules for trades and investment some analyst summarize WTO’s dictum as in a global economy 332

corporations have all the rights government have all the obligation and democracy is left behind 2. World bank (WB) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) provides loans to underdeveloped countries but their terms makes these countries remain in poverty. Their policies ensure the open market access for big corporation and cut the opportunities of small ones, while speaking of programs such as education, health care and production credits for poor farmers 3. North American Free Trade Agreement includes the entire hemisphere. This is to be implemented by 2005 negotiations take place behind close door, with no inputs from citizens but plenty from business interest groups 4. International Free Trade Agreement provides great opportunities for corporation, but at the expense of maintaining low wages and sacrificing environment regulation. There is plenty of production for corporate profits but little for workers.(Global exchange2/14/03) Basic Policies on Overseas Employment in the Philippines The government recognized the valuable contribution of the overseas Filipino workers. Their remittance spruce up the country’s dollar reserves and sustain the economic survival of many Filipino families. There are however serious problems confronted by workers abroad and the families they leave behind. Employment overseas provide useful and valuable employment alternatives but it should not be at the fore Of our labor policy as a democracy we recognized the right of our people to mobility but the government should not encourage them 333

to go where their welfare will not be clearly protected and enhanced. The overriding policy of the law that governs the overseas employment program is the protection and the promotion of the welfare of the overseas Filipino worker. This is the fundamental policy and trust of the department of labor and employment (DOLE) Philippine economy: Prospects The world growth area has shifted from northwest Europe at turn of the 19th century to Asia and the pacific today the share of the APEC member economies to total world trade has increased from 33.3 percent in 1970 to 45.1 percent in 1995. The world bank project that East Asia will remain the economic growth leader in the world with a per annum growth rate 7.9 percent between 1996 and 2005 by 2005 the three largest economic in the world the us Japan and China will all be located in Asia pacific. The Philippines will be heavily influence by the development in the Asia Pacific region, the co improvement operative advantage of the Philippines is in its shift to low skilled labor intensive manufactures and in human resource intensive industries like electronic and electrical machinery, for the Philippines to benefits from deeper economic integration with the rest of the world it needs a facilities macroeconomic policy environment sustained productivity improvement and stronger institutional and human resources capacity sustained growth in productivity necessaries more efficiency resource allocation more effective infrastructure and bureaucratic support service and higher rate of technological absorption and adaption, between 1970 and 1997 savings rate rose sharply for most of South Asia the availabilities of financial investment promoted domestic savings in contract Philippines 334

gross domestic saving rate dropped substantially in the 1980’s and early 1990s it is now the lowest in the region which is one reason for the investment rate in the country to also be low a robust economy a competitive environment and an efficient pension system are major factors for raising savings rate. Other sources can also be tapped to stimulate the economy foreign capital inflows have been the most obvious choice by the government to keep up the local economy, however the Philippines fails to be a major destination of foreign direct investment foreign direction investment accounted for only one third of investment inflows in 1990 compared to one half for other economies in the region, the ultimate encouragement for foreign investment are improved economic prospect and political stability streamlining of system and procedure will help the environment climate focusing on fewer industries in support of export and industrial restructuring Summary Economy refers to the organization and utilization of natural and human resource in accordance with cultural patterns, economic system are classified as agricultural or industrial subsistence or mechanized underdeveloped developing or developed capitalism socialist or communist its function are to provides for the physical subsistence of the population promote social change maintain a reasonable balance of efficiency with other social institution to enhance selective welfare and determine the stratification in the society its components are property technology division of labor and organization of work which simultaneously interact with each other, industrialization was brought about by major technological innovation this resulted in change in the value system and social 335

organization conflict and accommodation result from this change, the Philippines is in a transition stage from an agricultural to an industrial economy the Philippines has vast natural resources but its population has substandard levels of living The globalization of the economies is driven b the advance in technology and trade and investment agreement in the regional and international spheres. The Philippines government recognizes the contribution of the overseas employment program which is determining the economic survival of many Filipino families and the country as a whole however it should not be at the fore of our employment policy Study Guide 1. Concepts to explain Economy Components of economy Economic system Function of economy Globalization Overseas employment 2. Describe land reform in the Philippines 3. Hoe has the globalization affected the Philippine economy 4. How do economies operate in different societies at different stage of technological development? 5. In what way has the economy been shaped by the industrial revolution? By the information revolution?

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Critical Thinking Question 1. How would you describe the features of the economic system in the community where you came from? To what would you ascribe the economic development of the country? 2. Discuss the pros and cons of overseas employment cite examples of these in your community? 3. Analyzed the tables on overseas employment what change should be undertaken? Explain

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Chapter 12 RELIGION The feast of the Nuestra de Candelaria is a cherished tradition in Silang, Cavite celebrated from February 1 – 3, although the real feast is on February 2. The intense devotion of the people to their patron saint is manifested not only on the physical preparations but also in their fervent ardor in the form of praises and prayers heaped on her. There is soaring of the spirit as devotees look forward to the virgin’s feast. People from the nearby towns converge in the plaza or poblacion marked with festive money making and revelry. A prelude to the fiesta is the ritual of dressing the image of the virgin. Painstaking care is taken to dress the Virgin in the most gorgeous and elaborate gown made of velvet brocade and lace. The colors of the gown are usually blue and white, symbols of purity. Donations pour in to buy the materials needed. There is a story told about the Virgin, which occurred during the Japanese occupation. Gng. Irene Vedar, who was in charge of dressing the virgin, noticed that the hem of her gown is wet with the pieces of tingloy stuck to it. Mrs. Vedar could not explain why this happened. The tale goes on to say that a beautiful lady was wandering around vicinity. At about the same time the Japanese soldiers were engaged in burning houses and buildings from Tagaytay to Bicol but Silang was spared. The people attributed this happening to their beautiful patron saint. People also try to get a piece of material of her gown as this has healing effects.

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The Image of the Nuestra Señora de Candelaria is alos given special devotions on Good Friday, the month of May for the Flores de Mayo and during Christmas season. Teresita Palma Unabia, 2000 The account of the celebration of the feast of the Nuestra Senora de Candelaria was taken from the book Silang 2000 by Unabia. It describes a religious ritual that is common to many towns in the country and which embodies the religious beliefs and practices of those who profess the Catholic religion. The Nature of Religion Like the family and the economy, religion is a universal and pervasive phenomenon, a part of the cultural system. Religion is central to practically every society. Religion is a matter of faith and some turn to it to meet their problems and challenges and as a way of looking toward the future. Religious beliefs and practices become guides to behavior, and thus play an important role in society. Religion is an integrated part of the human experience and shows remarkable continuity through time. Even in the modern secularized societies in the west, religion has persisted and still exerts a great influence in people’s lives. To those who subscribe to a religious view, an explanation or justification of human behavior and social organization regarding the distribution of wealth, or the success or failure of people are answered by religion. Religion is interwoven with the social, cultural, economic, and political life. It is properly one of the areas of interest to a 339

sociologist because of its influence on the individual and its functions in society. A sociologist’s main concern in the study of religion is not to establish the trust or falsity of a certain religion but to look into its structure, to and influences an individual or society. The sociological theorists aver that religious beliefs and practices, cohesion and continuity of the society are attained. What is Religion? Historical records and ethnographic studies show that all societies have some form of religion. According to Edward Taylor (1968), religion came about as people tried to comprehend occurrences and conditions which they could not understand or explain, like: Why am I Here? Where do I go after death? Why do disasters and catastrophes like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, and lightning occur? People in the past and even at present, were baffled by death, dreams and trances and thus attributed these occurrences to external or impersonal forces, such as a supernatural power. Because modes of religious experience are diverse and religion means many different people, the definition of religion varies. It is difficult to reach a generally accepted definition of religion. Etymologically, religion comes from the Latin word religare, which means to “to bind together”. In religions of pre-literate societies, the various phenomena of nature are associated with a number of different personalities and, in many instances, numerous nature deities are honored. Other people attribute to their respective deities ethical qualities that correspond to the prevailing ethical standards. In other religions, the supernatural being is conceived 340

as a spirit, one and invisible, and present in nature yet distinct from it. In the Philippines, majority of the people identify religion with Roman Catholicism – a belief in God, creator of the whole universe, who, because of his love for humanity, sent his only son, Jesus Christ, to the world to save people from sin. Religion is commonly thought of as concerned with spiritual beings and the supernatural, but Giddens (19989:452) pointed out that religion is not solely identified with belief in the supernatural (i.e., belief in phenomena outside of nature). He cited Confucianism as concerned with accepting the natural harmony of the world instead of finding truths that account for them. Durkheim (1961) defines religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden – beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a church all those who adhere to them. Religion and set apart from the mundance, the everyday worldly objects and activities. Sacred things can be a tree, rock, animal, book, cows or people (Christ, Buddha, Mohammed) and all are treated with equal reverence and respect. To Giddens (1989:452), all religions involve a set of symbols which arouses feelings of reverence and awe, and are linked to ceremonial rituals such as church services practiced by a community of believers. There may be personalized gods, a ‘divine force’ or figure who is regarded with reverence and love. Some symbols, like that Star of David for the Jews, the cross for Christians, and the crescent moon for the Muslim, serve as representation of reality and synthesize a people’s mores and 341

values or their way of life. The sacred symbols motivate the members to certain overall courses or events. The members are able to transform their problems of evil, suffering, or injustice into concepts of order vis-à-vis their religion. Thus, they overcome their frustrations, dissatisfactions, and conflicts, if not hostility. Elements of Religion 1. Beliefs. Religion involves a set of institutionalized beliefs and practices dealing with the ultimate meaning of life; it provides a blueprint for social behavior based on a divine, transcendental order. Among the indigenous religions of various non-Christian ethnic groups in north and central Visayas, there is a belief in the power of the spirits to touch people’s lives for good or evil. They call these spirits engkantos. These spirits dwell in large trees like the balete or in lakes and rivers and are generous to those who entertain or give them gifts. These groups also believe in the spirit of the dead who return to the living at night. Burials are followed by prayers and a feast, which is commemorated every year. The family of the dead shares their goods on their birthday and other big feasts (Demetro 1978:90-92). Muslims believe in one God called Allah, the Eternal, whose revelations to prophets serve to guide humankind. Another Muslim belief is that after death, people will stand before Allah to answer for their deeds. Those who have iman (faith) and performed good deeds during their lifetime will go to paradise, but those who do not follow the commandments of Allah will be punished in hell 342

(Sayyed 1983:27). Christians have similar beliefs. Catholics too believe that no one can seek entry to heaven except through good deeds; this belief in salvation and eternal life guides their behavior. 2. The sacred and the profane. Durkheim (1961) held that all religions distinguish between the sacred and the profane. The sacred is related to the supernatural, and beliefs about the sacred entities develop a supernatural quality which evokes reverence, awe, happiness, joy, sorrow, fear, or ecstasy. This aspects of the sacred is related to the control of the society and culture over each individual’s consciousness. The profane refers to the irreverence for sacred things as manifested in greed, selfishness, and adultery. 3. Rituals and ceremonies. Important in the practice of religion is the observance of rituals which prescribe courses of action for dealing with the sacred. These rituals are repetitive sets of action and Sociologist study the patterns of behavior which are socially channeled in the various ceremonies practiced by the Roman Catholics. Patterns of behavior for the regulations of and order in social life. Rituals may be in the form of prayers, songs, chants, dances, and food offerings. Prayers are conversations with the spirits or god and may in the form of adoration and offerings, thanksgiving, contrition, and supplication. Rituals bring the believers of any given religion together and are used to invoke or recall communications with the supernatural. 343

Farmers in agricultural communities also observe rituals before planting rice. They have religious processions, recite the litany, and implore a number of saints to give them a bountiful harvest. After the harvest, they hold the thanksgiving rites in honor of San Isidro de Labrador, patron saint of farmers and laborers. The most common rites are those performed in the various stages in the life of an individual in interaction with the group. These rites are performed when a person changes status. For Catholics, there are rites for birth, baptism, confirmation at the preadolescent stage, marriage, and death or burial. In some societies there is the so-called rite of passage from childhood to adulthood. Rituals become occasions for people to get together to renew or affirm their belief in what they consider as sacred. 4. Moral community. All religions have a community of believers or a church who share common beliefs, rituals, and subjective experiences to heighten group identification. (The sacred becomes the object of worship of collective life.) Religion is collective; beliefs and values are possessed by the group who impose these on its members. Togetherness in worship satisfies human wants and may be found in the religions like Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam, and Christianity.

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Religious Structures Throughout the ages and throughout the world, people have been baffled by the unknown and the mysteries of life for which they have no ready answer. As mentioned earlier, religion is a system of beliefs and practices built around the supernatural. It gives meaning to, and explains, the physical and social environment and the lives of the individual and society. It deals with the creation of the world, the nature of life and death, the relationship of individuals and groups to each other, and the relationship of humankind to the supernatural (Nanda 1991:36). The expression of life and the practices toward the supernatural differs from one society to another. The structural features of religion include a body of ideas, beliefs, doctrines, dogmas, rituals, and ceremonies. In contemporary religions, these are rationalized and systemized in the form of theologies and creeds. The patterns of conduct are those required by the supernatural power of people. There are also practices intended to propitiate the supernatural as well as the intermediaries called shamans, imams, or priests, who are well versed in the doctrines of the church, revolving around religion is a complex web of emotions and faith. The Aetas of Mt. Pinatubo, for example, explain its eruption as an expression of the wrath of God because of the ravages people have made on nature. Science has provided answers to some questions, but certain fundamental questions remain unanswered, and these have become the focus of human religious activities. Some societies have beliefs in personalized supernatural beings or spirits, which is called animism. Tylor (in Mair 1965:188-189) 345

introduced the term ‘animism,’ which includes beliefs in spiritual beings and souls. This involves two doctrines – the doctrine of soul, which survives after death, and the doctrine of spirits, or the idea that other personalized spiritual beings exist. These beliefs arose from certain universal human experiences. The idea of the survival of the soul has given rise to the cult of the dead, particularly in the form of ancestor worship. A number of Philippine ethnic groups have animistic beliefs. The Aetas or Negritos of Negros Oriental believe that unseen beings inhabit trees, streams, and springs, (Oracion 1963:65). These spirits have no names but they are feared and respected. The general term given to them is engkanto or taglogar. The Ifugaos of the Mountain Province have rice deities and gods or reproduction or fetus makers. Their universe is divided into five regions: the Skyworld, the Underworld, the Downstream Region, the Upstream Region, and the Earth. Each of these regions is the habitat of a number of supernatural beings. They believe in regions of other deities and spirits, specialized evildoers of all imaginable kinds (Lambrecht 1962:33-40). In his study The Traditional World of Malitbog, Jocano (1969:321323) reveals a belief in the existence of supernatural beings called engkanto who are conceived to possess powers and authority over certain aspects of human life. The people are in constant fear of these engkantos who are seen to actively participate in human affairs.

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Experience by assigning moral values to human sufferings or good fortune, or offering a theological justification for man’s fat” (1967:756). As Sapir (in Lundberg, Schrag, and Larson 1963:54) said, the function of religion in all cultures is to discover a road to spiritual serenity or to achieve a ‘peace of mind.’ It satisfies people’s emotional and spiritual needs and serves as a soothing balm.  Religion gives meaning and purpose to certain beliefs and provides people with a perspective for looking at the world. It gives tradition a moral imperative and reinforces the central values and norms of the group. The reinforced values and norms become sacred and serve as the moral way. As the individual passes through the major life stage like birth, marriage, and death, religious rituals intensify his or her spiritual awareness. A person also may encounter anxieties about social relationships, economic security, or political tiffs. Religion provides means to minimize these anxieties by providing answers to the broad question about the meaning of life.  Religion integrates and maintains the fundamental values from the ultimate values of the Supreme Being to the subordinate, material, and practical values. It reinforces support for the moral codes and gives justification for one’s behavior. Catholicism, for example, emphasizes adherence to the sacraments of the church and upholding the teachings and commandments of God as a means to eternal salvation. The Second Vatican Council exhorts the laity, as opposed to the religious and the clergy, to live their lives and responsibilities in 347

full engagement in the work of this world, and to engage in apostolate work by participating in carrying out the mission of the church which is to spread the faith and bring the world closer to God. (Bacani 1988:37-38). Catholicism considers marriage a sacrament and an inviolable institution, and therefore divorce as unacceptable. Protestantism, according to Weber (1958), encourages the capitalistic spirit as it considers material success an indication of God’s favor. The values it emphasizes are dedicated work in obedience to God and working for his greater glory. Industry, sobriety, thrift, restraint, and avoidance of fleshy pleasures are behaviors hat have come to be labelled as ‘Protestant ethics.’ To the Muslims, the justification of behavior and their values. To the Muslim, the justification of behavior and their values in relation to each other and their society is found in the Koran.  Religion allays the fears and anxieties of individuals by reassuring them of the care and protection of their deity. It gives the solace and consolation when they are in crisis. Some psychiatrists believe that prayers have cathartic and therapeutic values which support the ego and restore selfconfidence. Some religious promise rewards and salvation for a good life in the next world. Some members are able to transfer their sufferings, injustice, or evil into concepts of order vis-à-vis their religious norms. Thus, they overcome their frustration and conflicts, if not hostility. A person’s bond with his or her god becomes a sort of anchorage, giving them a sense of security and belonging. In a way, people are provided with explanations and rationalization for their frustrations or problems. 348

 Religion has an integrative function and is a means of social cohesion or group solidarity. The expression of common beliefs through collective ritual tends to reinforce devotion to group ends. Religion reinforces moral norms by adding sanctions to the secular means of control and promotes solidarity by providing significant symbolic norms. The members are united through shared symbols, values, moral codes, and a plan for living a decent life. Many religions preach love and peace and become a solidifying force in moral and emotional matters. Moral support is given to a member in times of stress and conflict. Even in death, the belief that a loved one has moved on to a better life allays and relieves a person of their grief and anxiety. Religion binds society, and its symbol is a stand-in for society. Religious symbols and rites become a powerful bond for the members of the organizations. Rituals and ceremonies performed on specific occasions, such as drought or during land preparation, bring group together. This is seen, for example, in the celebration of the canao among the Igorots.  Religion performs welfare, education, and recreation functions. Aside from ministering to spiritual needs, some religions also attend to the temporal and bodily needs of their members. Religious organizations carry out welfare activities and social action programs, stress philanthropy and operate charitable institutions such as hospitals, orphanages, medical and dental clinics, cooperatives, and schools for the poor and underprivileged. 349

 Religion serves as a means of social control. Religion provides norms of behavior and proper conduct of daily activities of the people. This is especially true in simple societies where religious beliefs and practices are deeply intertwined with the various aspects of the economic, political, and social system. Lambrecht (1963:12-13) observed that worship permeates the whole social life of the Ifugao. Prayers and rites attend the important stages of their whole social life cycle and accompany economic activities such as the cultivation of rice and sweet potatoes and the selling of their lands. The whole life of the people is lived in accordance with the ancestor’s sacred traditions.  Religion legitimizes the foundation of the society’s culture and integrates the value system of society. By defining and explaining what the gods require of it believers and providing roles and norms about how one must act, religion regulates human behavior. Members follow rules and commandments such as those regulating marriage. Religion can confer legitimacy for political systems, as when political leaders invoke religion to explain some phenomena or to ask for God’s blessings before starting important activities. All religions have rituals for individuals as they pass from one stage of life to another. Such events are interpreted by the rituals and ceremonies so religion serves to control many aspects of a person’s life. The traits of honest, justice, integrity, and the sex mores are integrated with religious beliefs. Religion delineates what is 350

right and what is wrong and prescribes a system of reward and punishment. Penances for wrongdoing are served, and these extend to the life here-after. The thought of damnation after death among the Christians or perpetual reincarnation into lower animal forms in Hinduism can be a controlling factor for the commission of sin. Religious personnel like shamans, rabbis, pastors, ayatollahs, or priest who are believed to be the representative of God usually mete out penance. Social Conflict Perspective While the functionalist highlights the functions of religion, the social conflict approach downplays them. Instead, t stresses the dysfunctions of religion. For Marx, the ideologies in religion or incorporated in the political doctrines which serve to legitimize the status quo. Religious ideology is used by the ruling elites to favor the capitalists, impede social change, dominate the workers and mislead them about their true interests. People become complacent, as they are lulled by ideas of an afterlife where their poverty and sufferings will be rewarded, and where they will enjoy eternal life. Social inequality is legitimized and passivity among the workers is encouraged. Hence, Marx considered religion as the ‘opiate of the people’ (Kendall 2000:356). Religion can also be divisive factor in society. It can provide unity for those with the same faith, but it can spur conflict between opposing religious groups. Wars have been fought over religion. The inequality of males and females is seen in many religions of the world. This results in a conflict between genders. In many religions, God is usually a male who is vested with power and 351

wisdom (Macionis 1997:488). For Muslims, the Koran proclaims that men take charge over women. Good women are obedient to their men. In Christianity, patriarchy is favored. Man is said to be created in the image and glory of God, while woman was created for man. It is not surprising, therefore, that most leaders or personnel in religious organizations are men. There has been a clamour for women to become priests in the Catholic Church, but so far this has not been granted. Many feminists are advocated a break from the traditional patriarchy and reforms in religious language, symbols, and rituals to eliminate the elements of patriarchy (Kendall 2000:357). Critics of Marx claim that, in many ways, religion has brought about changes as well as equality. Religious groups in the United States were at the forefront to abolish slavery. Many members of the clergy in the United States, Vietnam, and the Philippines have opposed oppression and struggled to bring about changes in society. Symbolic-Interaction Perspective The social interactionists focus their attention on micro-level analysis and examine the meanings and significance of the teachings, doctrines, and symbols of a religion in an individual’s life. The most important impact of religion on an individual is the development of a self-identity or self-concept as a result of the social relationships or interactions in the group. For Catholics, the daily ritual practiced, like saying grace before meals, praying during the Angelus, having a family rosary, or in special rituals observed during the Christmas season, Lenten week, or feast days of saints, the individual learns to distinguish between the 352

sacred and the profane. Eventually, one tends to identify with the group the imbibe norms and values which influence their behavior. The individual acquires a sense of affiliation with the group and a sense of security. In life-threatening situations like sickness, natural disaster, or war, the religious symbols come to the fore and one gain strength or courage to face danger and even death. Religions serves as a reference group. The helps the individual to define their identity. So, to the questions, “Who am I,” one can readily say, “I am a Lutheran, a Buddhist, a Muslim, a born-again Christian, or a Catholic.” The religion’s norms and values become a reference point for their behavior. Religion and Science At the dawn of the modern age, there were startling revelations which threatened the status of religion. Copernicus (1473-1543), a Polish astronomer, came out with a theory that the sun is stationary at the center of the universe with the earth and other planets revolving around it. Galileo (1564-1642), an Italian astronomer, supported the Copernican theory and came out with his own discoveries on the laws of gravity. This was denounced by the Roman Catholic Church and started the dispute between theology and scientific revelations and the view that religion is incompatible with science. Another point of difference concerns evolution and creation. A number of people believe that science and religion are diametrically opposed to each other and that religion should focuses on the supernatural while the sciences should study the natural world. There also emerged a view that biblical accounts are inspired by God and stand for philosophical 353

truths without being correct in a scientific way. Hence, science and religion represent two different levels of understanding that answer different kinds of questions. (Maciones 1997:505). An area of difference between science and religion lies in the point of view. Since, like any other organized pursuit, possesses a faith of its own. It has certain habits of mind and ethical attitudes different from those prevailing in the traditional religions. The goal of science is to pursue the truth trough empirical methods. Science provides explanations for phenomena; it is open to new data and explicitly, advocates various alternatives. Religion, per se, does not oppose empirical testing. What the church, particularly the Catholic Church, holds, to be absolute truths and is beyond any scientific investigations are the dogmas of faith, the creation of the world by God, and his continuous creation of human souls. Religion revolves around existential propositions like the origin of the world, life after death, the nature of heaven, salvation, and the revealed character of the Bible. Religion emphasizes the symbolic and religious sentiments and rituals (Davis 1949:536-537). The difference lies in the view of the physical world, the attitudes toward truth, and the method of pursuing truth. Religion and science can therefore be reconciled; they are not diametrically opposed to each other. Science deals with observable with observable phenomena and studies certain aspects of nature by empirical tests and observations guided by and objective attitude. Thus, in expound the theory of evolution, it gets evidence from the findings of geology, paleontology, and other natural sciences. To the scientist, truth is relative. The moral and theological explanation of the universe belongs to religion. To the theologian, truth is 354

absolute. Since ascertains the nature of the observable world, while religion decides what is ultimately good. At presents, most scientists and religious leaders are in agreement that while science and religion represent distinctive truths, their teachings may be complementary. It is the possible for a person to believe in God and yet be a good scientist Religious Patterns in the Philippines In the Philippines, the presence of diverse religious organizations represent religious pluralism. Table 12.1 shows the various religious organizations in 1970 and 1990, no born-again Christians were listed as yet and a number of denominations and sects were listed as yet and a number of denominations and sects were subsumed under the category of Protestants. The statistics show that the Philippines is still predominantly Catholic; however, the percentage of Catholics in the total population has declined. There is a slight increase in the number of adherents of Islam, the second biggest religion, but even so they account for only 40.57% of the population. The early Filipinos believe in spirits called anitos, who formed a hierarchy of deities in type of animistic religion. These sprits were believed do reside in plants, trees, rivers, or rocks. Ritual, where prayers and food were offered, were performed to appease the spirits. Beliefs in spirits continue to permeate the lives of some rural Filipinos who may still be wearing amulets or agimats protection against danger and other evils. 355

Fourteenth century Arab traders introduced Islam to the Philippines. The religion gained a stronghold in Mindanao. Islam revolves around the teachings of the Koran which are revelations of God to the Prophet Muhammed. Islam is an Arabic word which means peace and submission to the will of God and obedience to His Laws. Like other religions, Islam prescribes prayers, charity work, pilgrimage to a holy place (Mecca), and a period of fasting, solemn worship, and medication (Ramadan). Islam does not condone terrorist acts. When Spain ceded the Philippines to the USA as an aftermath of the Spanish-American War in 1899, many American chaplains, mostly from the Navy, stayed to preach their faith, Protestantism. Later, missionaries from the US came and spread their religion in the rural areas. The early missionaries were mostly from the Methodists, Congregationalists, Baptists, Episcopalians, and the Disciples of Christ. The Christian Missionary Alliance and the Seventh Day Adventists also sent missionaries. Their supposed objective was to serve as agents of civilization. Since then, Protestant groups in the Philippines grew in number and covered a variety of beliefs and structures. The fastest growing group is the Pentecostals who stress emotional expression, which they view as a visitation of the Holy Spirit. They are known for speaking in tongues and faith healing (Hunt 1992:26.28). These groups helped set up churches, schools, hospitals, and seminaries all over the country. The Protestants have contributed their share of leaders in the various sectors of the society, including the country’s first Protestant president, Fidel V. Ramos. The relationship between Catholics and other Christian 356

churches has improved over the years, and toleration of each other’s faith is observed. In the early stage of American regime, Gregorio Aglipay founded the Philippine Independent Church which broke away from Roman Catholic Church. Most adherents are from Northern Luzon. Another religious group is the Iglesia ni Kristo, founded by Felix Manalo in 1914. Starting as a sect, it steadily gained followers after World War II. In the beginning, most adherents came from the lower class who found in the religion moral reassurance and a sense of belonging. Through the years, it developed a bureaucratic formal organization and is considered a force to reckon with during elections as its members are required to vote as a block. There have also been a number of messianic movements, which are in the nature of socio-religious protest. As Osterval (1968:45) pointed out, these movements are strongly syncretic, blending ancient folk beliefs with practices of the Roman Catholic religion. The emphasis is on loyalty and mutual support, the improvement of society, and preparation for the coming of the messiah. Examples of these are the Lapiang Malaya and the Good Wisdom of All Nations. Another group which is now widespread is the Born Again group whose followers call themselves simple as ‘Christian.’ To them, the Bible is only source of the faith. They are not bound by tradition and other doctrines, and consider Christianity as a way of life and a personal relationship with Jesus Christ. Although at times Catholics express prejudice against other denominations aimed at a better understanding between 357

churches on their positions on beliefs and a breaking down of prejudices to undertake cooperation in various activities. It also implies that adherents of different faiths should approach each other as friends, rather than as opponents, in the pursuit of truth. Within the Protestant groups, ecumenicalism has resulted in the actual union of some churches. Separation of Church and State The separation of the church and state was enshrined in the Malolos Constitution of 1898. This principle has been incorporated in subsequent constitutions. Article II Section 6 of the 1987 Constitution expressly provides that, “The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable.” Time and again, however, questions have been raised about this,. This came to a head during the term of President Marcos when the church and the state were in constant conflict over social injustice, violation of human rights, and graft and corruption. Cardinal Sin denounced state violence and enjoined the people to use the parliament of the streets. Likewise, Protestant groups like the National Council of Churches of the Philippines and other non-ecumenical groups were critical of martial law policies. They were very active during the February 1986 snap elections and the church played a crucial role in the EDSA 1 Revolution which overthrow Pres. Marcos. In 1984, the height of Pres. Marcos’ conflict with the church, he accused it of “politicizing the pulpit” and asked it to keep out of partisan politics. He claimed that, in attempting to wrest political power, the church was transgressing on the principle of the 358

separation of church and state. In response, the church maintained that human rights violations and graft and corruption are moral issues; thus, the church is just doing its duty of helping the downtrodden and the exploited by upholding the dignity of the human person. Bishop Bacani (1987:43-44) pointed out that since politics is the dynamic organization f the whole society, then priests should be involved, just like other citizens. This is more so when the issues are the defense of the human rights, promotion of the full development of the person, and pursuit of justice and peace. The issue of separation of the church and state recurred during national elections in 1992, 1998, and 2001. The Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines issued pastoral letters designed to guide the electorate on choosing the right candidates and to heighten the voters’ commitment to guarding the sanctity of the ballot by ensuring clean, orderly, and honest elections. Through their homilies, religious leaders enjoined their flocks to exercise discernment in selecting candidates, as they clamored for electoral reforms. These calls were echoed by the Episcopal Church. Cardinal Sin (1991) maintained that the state, the political community, and the church are autonomous and independent of each other. The political community is concerned with attaining the common good by protecting human rights, securing private property, enacting laws, and pursuing economic and social programs such as agrarian reforms. The church focuses on the Spreading the Word of God and the love of God. Since the church is charged with establishing God’s Kingdom, it is concerned with graft and corruption and political issues. Thus, it is proper for the 359

Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines to inform the electorate about issues of the election, and ensures true freedom of choice at the polls. Cardinal Sin said that while church and state are autonomous in their respective fields, both serve the same Filipino community. Antonio Franco, the Papal Nuncio in Manila, averred that the Vatican fully supports the bishops’ commitment to spiritual and moral values which includes guiding the state in its task of protecting the common good of its citizen (PDI Editorial 2000:A8). The roles of the church and the state are complementary and overlapping. They helping each other and work together for the welfare of the same people. As F.C. Borlongan (1998:11) wrote, the church helps preserve the integrity of the state by holding retreats and organizing moral recovery programs, seminars, and conferences that contribute to the formation of clean values and honest living of government officials. The church operates charitable and educational institution and helps in times of calamity. In turn, the state protects religious assemblies, exempts the church from paying taxes, and safeguards the individual and collective rights of church members. Folk Catholicism or Folk Protestantism Folk Catholicism or folk Protestantism refers to beliefs and practices of indigenous origin that are woven into Christian practices. Official doctrines, beliefs, attitudes, and practices are modified to suit local conditions. People who have been converted into Christianity continue to believe in traditional spirits. Catholicism has saints who may substitute for minor spirits; 360

likewise, feast days may replace pagan rituals (Hunt 1992:27). These practices are a function not only of the official doctrines, but also of the culture where they are obtained. Official Catholicism refers to the doctrines and rituals which are prescribed, approves of, and maintained. Despite their conversion into Roman Catholicism, some rural people are still oriented toward local traditionsand pre-Christian beliefs in spirits and charms – the mangkukulam, the antinganting, the nuno sa punso, the aswang, and the like. They continue to placate the malevolent spirits to whose displeasure they attribute disease, crop failures, or any other catastrophe. They observe the drenching practices or boling-boling on St. John’s Day or on the Sunday before Ash Wednesday and hold fertility rites. These beliefs are superimposed on the practices of the Catholic religion. The rural folks have not given up the old practices, and have instead fitted the external practices of Christianity to suit old patterns. Pal’s observation of barrio people (1964: 391-392) led him to affirm that Christianity has been indigenized, rather than the barrio people Christianized. The concept of the world by the barrio folk revolves around the will of Bathala) their Supreme God). Everything which happens – birth, marriage, death, good harvest, or accidents – is attributed to the will of Bathala. This reflects the fatalistic attitude of the people. Split-Level Christianity Fr. Bulatao (1966; 2-5) calls split-level Christianity as the situations where two or more thought-and-behavior systems 361

which are inconsistent with each other coexist within the same person. Split-level individuals, at one level, profess allegiance to ideas, attitudes, and ways of behaving which are borrowed from the Christian west; at another level, their convictions on behavior and beliefs are inherited from their ancestors. For example, some policemen and customs or immigration personnel collect brides or protection money but they also regularly go to church. The split is between the Catholic principle old justice and the feudal attitude that the Lord may tax those whom he protects or gives favor. Another example is a Catholic who gets married, prepares an elegant and grand feast for the occasion, but continue to maintain a querida (mistress) and then beats his wife for supposedly neglecting her domestic duties. The split is between the Catholic rules regarding marriage and the cultural norms. While the people have imbibed Catholic doctrines that have a strong hold on their psyche, these doctrines have remained abstract concepts; unassimilated into the culture. People hold on to the traditional patterns and ways of thinking passed on to them by their ancestors, resulting in a lack of integration. The Occult: Magic and Faith Healing Although majority of the country has been Christianized, there are still people, even in the urban areas, who depend on the occult as a means of obtaining inner peace or solving personal problems. Occult is derived from the Latin word occultus which means mysterious things and practices related to supernatural forces beyond the five senses. Included under occult are practices and 362

beliefs in astrology, magic, witchcraft, numerology, crystal ball gazing, spiritism, and fortune telling (Villafuerte 1992:7). ‘Magic’ is still commonly practiced in some barrios in the country. This involves mechanically manipulating the supernatural forces for good and evil. Techniques include spells, formulas, and incantations in order to derive results from deities or supernatural powers and forces (Nanda 1991:372) Going to the manghuhula is a popular practice among some people. A manghuhula is someone who is believed to possess psychic power and can foretell the future. Thousands also seek the services of faith healers. A faith healer is a person who serves as a medium for healing energy. This is done by invoking divine power through empathy and reliance on the faith of the patient. The faith healer may assemble a prayer and applies oil on the patient. Some healers perform psychic surgery, i.e., not using any surgical instrument. Reports of successful operations and miracle cures view that faith healing as an alternative cure for ailments considered incurable by Western medical science. Social Change and Religion A few decades before the onset of the 21st century, the forces of industrialization, modernization, globalization, and scientific and technological changes swept the country. These changes were accompanied by social problems and uncertainties. Likewise, catastrophes like floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, coup d’etat, El Nino, and La Nina, have battered the country. Not a few 363

people asked, “Is there a message from God?” Leaders of different religious organizations reacted by calling for peace and reconciliation in the face of anger. Catholic leader Pope John Paul II, together with other Christians and leaders of other religious, pray for peace and the end of war, terrorism, and violence. Dr. Roberto C. Salazar (1994: 190-208) made a study of the fundamentalists, also referred to as ‘born-again’ Christians, a phenomenon which emerged in the early 1970s. the distinctive characteristic of these groups is that these were initiated by local personalities rather than by foreign missionaries. Their major activities include Bible study, prayer meetings, and charismatic healing sessions. Among fundamentalist groups, there are differences concerning political issues. Some groups support the conservative political causes. And are labelled as ‘right-wing Christians’ for their participation in anti-Communist crusades. In the 1990’s, they campaigned for the retention of U.S. military bases in the country. The growth of the fundamentalist evangelical movement seems to be related to the country’s social, economic, and political crisis. During the Marcos regime, poverty, corruption, and human rights violations caused people to turn to a new religion which offered hope, personal success, and salvation. The spread of the movement was facilitated by organizational factors such as leadership style, recruitment strategies, symbolic and ritual elements, and information management. They have ample financial resources, some of which are derived overseas. For the Roman Catholic Church, there have been significant changes following Vatican II. In 1962, reforms were instituted to 364

adapt the liturgy to the local culture. Instead of saying the mass in Latin, the vernacular or English is now used. The laity can now participate in celebrating church rites and are given more Eucharistic privileges. Modern church music is now used and have been translated into local dialects. New rules on marriage and annulment have been also been proclaimed. Because of increased comprehension of the rituals, services have become less boring and more meaningful to the churchgoers. The Church has also intensified its social action program. Priests and nuns are enjoined to become involved in community work. The National Secretariat of Social Action (NASSA), the social arm of the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of the Philippines, was organized to establish and promote social action projects and programs in the Philippines. Their program of activities includes people’s social, economic and political development. NASSA is involved in irrigation, fishing, nutrition, cottage industries , and promotion improved varieties of seeds and breeds for agricultural and livestock production (Victoriano 1972:222-223). Likewise, the Church has been active in conscientiazing the people, i.e., making them aware of their rights and duties, their needs and problems, and the ways and means of building their community. The Catholic Church has played a crucial role in social transformation. Fr. Rene A. Ocampo, S.J., in his presidential address to the Philippine Sociological Society on February 22, 1991, had this say about the role of the Catholic Church in social transformation: Indeed, the situation has become alarming that the Catholic Church in the Philippines is really committing herself365

judging from the documents and deliberating emerging from the Second Plenary Council of the Philippines- to a bold role in the politics. Given the climate of political vacuum and lack of statement, it appears that no single force has dominated the setting of direction or is providing leadership and vision to the nation. In the words of one serious social commentator, Amando Doronilla: ‘In effect, (the Church) stole the initiative from other major political (including political parties) and social institutions like charting the national agenda for social and political transformation.’ Researches on Filipino Religiosity In 1980, the University of Santo Tomas Social Research Center conducted research on the religiosity of the Filipino youth aged 15 to 24. Respondents were asked about their religious practices, attitudes towards social, personal, and sexual issues, and their doctrinal and church beliefs. Among the salient findings were: 1. More urban Catholic youth respondents are moderate to strong believers of doctrines than the rural youth. There is no marked difference in their attitudes on morality. 2. There is a weak association between religious attitudes and sex. Both males and females are moderate to strong believers of doctrines. However, more females than males comply with the weekly observance of mass and communion. For females, the rosary is the preferred form of devotion; for males, it is the special devotion prayer. 3. No significant difference between the young and older respondents exists as to their rating on religious attitude. As the individual grows older, there is less favorableness in 366

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doctrinal attitude but greater favorableness in m0oral attitude. Younger respondents (15-20 years old) tend to observe mass and communion more frequently than the older respondents who tend to have more devotions such as the rosary and novenas. More Catholic-educated youth attend mass regularly and have religious devotions than youth from non-Catholic private schools and public schools without catechetical instruction. A high degree of association exists between doctrinal beliefs and socioeconomic status. There is no significance difference between socioeconomic status and religious practices (mass and communion and personal devotion). In contrast to high-income groups there is less frequent attendance in mass and communication as well as personal devotion among low-income (P750 or less) A high degree of association exists between education and doctrinal beliefs, with those in the graduate level scoring high in favorableness; the high school respondents, moderate; and the elementary level respondents, weak. Association is weak between moral attitude and education. The more favorable the religious attitude, the more frequent in mass attendance and communion. A strong connection exists between doctrinal beliefs and the performance of religious devotions.

The study implies that adherence to church practices among the youth is far from ideal. This may be due to the difference between the traditional practices that were passed on as Christianity and the growing awareness of what the youth think Christianity ought 367

to be. Christian faith is seen as a body of truths and values to be observed in order to attain salvation. Dr. Ricardo C. Abad (1995) analyzed Filipino religiosity by correlating religiosity self-ratings and indices of religiosity with demographic characteristics (gender, age, socioeconomic class, and education) based on the 1991 Social Weather Station (SWS) National Sample. The indices of religiosity used were relationship with God, religious practice, Divine Providence, moral grounding, orthodoxy, sound or correct practices and doctrines, folk beliefs, personal efficacy, and fatalism. Abad found that relationship with God and religious practices are the twin unifying elements in Filipino religiosity; these cut across demographic groups. The patterns of these variations are as follows: 1. Gender and Religiosity. Abad cited a previous analysis on Filipino religiosity by Arroyo (1992:5) which indicated that gender is the only category which shows a difference between males and females, i.e., that female are more religious than males. However, Abad found out that males and females may be equally religious but with different indices. Male religiosity has greater emphasis on orthodox beliefs and moral norms; this is normative, cognitive, or doctrinal in nature. Female religiosity, on the other hand, shows greater acceptance of rituals and religious experiences; moreover, they are experiential in spirit and devotional in nature. This accounts for their greater attendance of church services, novenas, and other forms of devotional worship.

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2. Age and Religiosity. Expressions of religiosity are seen to move through phases – formative, official, and independent. Young people (18-29 years old) associate religiosity with orthodox beliefs, special experiences, a lower sense of selfefficacy, and a more fatalistic view of life. The middle-age group associates religiosity with a moral grounding and beliefs in Divine Providence. The older age group (45 and above) associates religiosity with a close relationship with God and following regular church practices. 3. Class and Religiosity. Compared to the ABC classes and the working D class, persons in the lower E class tend to accept folk beliefs, encounter special experiences, have a fatalistic view of life, uphold moral norms, shows a lower level of self-efficiency, and believe in Divine Providence. Their religiosity is consistent with the folk or low religious tradition. A close relationship with God is the most important correlate of religiosity. The D or working class’s religiosity is associated also with a strong relationship with God. Their religiosity is linked with special religious experiences, belief in Divine Providence, moral norms, low levels of self-efficacy, rejection of folk beliefs, and fatalism. Their religiosity is similar to the conventional kind held by the 30-44 age group. The ABC class religiosity is also associated with a strong relationship with God and regular religious practices, although it is not as strongly expressed as those of the E and D classes. Their religiosity shows very strong attachment to special religious experiences which seem to be an individual expression of faith, a 369

search for personal meaning and dissociated from dogma, moral norms, and traditional attitudes like fatalism. These variations in religiosity reflect particular types of religious consciousness generated by a special social location in economic class. As Abad said, they see what they have been trained to see. 4. Education and Religion. Education has a weak association with religiosity self-ratings and orthodoxy, relationship with God, and belief in Divine Providence. Those with lower educational attainment tend to have a fatalistic view and are more likely to accept folk beliefs and have special religious experiences. Their concern for rural and folk belief has elements of folk tradition. It is weakly related to orthodoxy and personal efficiency. Those with high school education are characterized by a low level of personal efficacy, regular religious practices, and a rejection of folk beliefs. However, they are slightly connected with special religious experiences and orthodoxy. Elements of conventional religiosity prevail in their religious expression. Those with college education are more likely to observe regular religious practices, have a greater sense of self-efficacy, and are more likely to have stronger moral grounding and beliefs. Their religiosity seems to be a search for transcendental experiences and is cognitive in nature. Educational attainment is not as strong a determinant of religiosity as compared to class.

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5. Locale and Religiosity. Rural people rate themselves as more religious than urban residents and are more likely to believe in Divine Providence, take a more fatalistic view of life, and to some extent, accept folk beliefs. Urban residents have a slightly greater tendency than their rural counterparts to engage in regular religious practices and have a greater sense of personal efficacy. The rural pattern of religiosity approximates the national pattern. Like urban religiosity, it is a combination of trends found among persons of different classes and educational levels. Similar in religious pattern across several demographic groups exist, but variations are shown in the emphasis the different groups assign to the different dimensions of religiosity. The pattern of religiosity for the whole sample is in accordance with that of males, persons in the 30-44 age groups, the D class, those with high school education, and the ruralites. The national pattern is least consistent with the religiosity of those with college education and those in the A, B, and C classes. The dimensions of religiosity associated with the basic stand towards God are the same for all demographic groups. However, the variation in religious expressions depends on how the other dimensions of religiosity impinge on them and the people’s social location in terms of the demographic characteristics of sex, gender, age, class, education, and place of residence. Religiosity, thus, is a reflection of one’s social location and enables one to survive within that location.

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Religion in the 21st Century What is the state of religion in the 21st century? Has the role of religion in people’s lives diminished? We can observe that religion still remains a central force in our society. Various church organizations are active in social action programs. They have also actively participated in discussions on issues like agrarian reform, drug abuse and trafficking, divorce, elections, and the Balikatan military exercises. During elections, the church instructs voters on the selection of the right candidates and to work for clean, honest elections. Prior to the impeachment trial of Pres. Estrada, some church organizations led rallies calling for his resignation on the grounds that he had lost his moral ascendancy to govern the country. Some church organizations like the Iglesia ni Kristo and El Shaddai are constantly wooed for support during elections. There has been a rapid growth of the fundamentalist church. Some cults have disappeared, but new ones continue to sprout and gain strong support from some segments of the population. The ministries of various church organizations have been enhanced by the increasing popularity of media ministry. Some preachers and programs have become household names. Increasingly, media is being used for missionary evangelization. Ecumenism is increasingly being observed in the relationship between churches. It is a sort of rapprochement aimed at a better understanding between churches regarding beliefs and break down prejudices in order to undertake various social activities in the spirit of cooperation. Joint prayer rallies to appeal for social changes in the urban areas, religion still exist, but there has been 372

progress in achieving friendlier relationships among different religious groups. These ecumenical activities have helped minimize bigotry and disunity among the members of various religious groups in the country. Summary Like the family and the economy, religion is a universal and persuasive phenomenon, a part of the cultural system. To Durkheim, religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, set apart and forbidden. Its beliefs and practices unite into one single moral community called a church. The sacred symbols motivate the members to certain events, aims, emotion, and results in the expressions of exaltation, adulation, sorrow, piety, and awe. The structures features of religion include a body of beliefs, dogma, rituals, and ceremonies. In contemporary religions, these are rationalized and systemized in the form of theologies and creed. The various forms of religious organizations are the ecclesia (church), sect, denomination, and cult. Religion performs many functions. It gives one peace of mind, serves the basic human needs, gives meaning and purpose to human belonging to the group, and is a means of social control. On the other hand, religion may become a source of conflict between opposing religious groups. A pattern of religious pluralism exists in the Philippines. The country is predominantly Catholic. The other religions are Islam, Aglipayan, Protestantism, Iglesia ni Kristo, Buddhism, and other 373

sects. A fundamentalist or born-again movement emerged in the 1970s and became a threat to the Catholics. The latter took notice and instituted reforms. Basic Ecclesial Communities (BEC) have been organized in order to strengthen faith and for social transformation. Amidst rapid social changes in the urban areas, religion still remains a potent force in the lives of most people. Religious zeal may have declined, but religious movements have tried to intensify religious interest. The Church has endeavored to contribute to the common good. Study Guide 1. Concepts to master: Sacred things Cult Animism Religious pluralism Ecclesia Folk Catholicism Denomination Split-level Christianity Sect Magic 2. What is the religion? Describe its nature. Do you consider communism as a religion? 3. Why is observance of rituals and ceremonies important in religion? Describe the religious rituals of our ethnic groups. 4. Differentiate ecclesia from denomination; sect from cult. 5. Does religious pluralism exist in the country? Explain. 6. Cite examples of split-level Christianity among persons you have come in contact with. 7. Cite instances or experiences you have had regarding magic and faith healing. 8. What is the fundamentalist evangelical movement? Have you met some fundamentalist Christians or born-again Christians? 374

9. What are some research findings on the religiosity of the Filipino youth and Dr. Ricardo Abad’s study on the varieties of the Filipino Religiosity? 10. What changes have been taking place in your church? Are they good? Explain. Critical Thinking Questions 1. What is the relationship between science and religion? Are they in conflict with each other? Explain. 2. Should the church be involved in politics? Support your answer. 3. Is there still a place for religion in our life?

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Chapter 13 GOVERNMENT and LAW While being efficient at different types of economic activity is a necessary condition for wider prosperity and influence, it is not enough. Enduring prosperity requires societies which are stable, ordered and honest. There are countries that will experience a burst of growth from cheap labor and natural resources with a degree of corruption. But as the experience of Argentina demonstrates it is hard to maintain prosperity amidst chaos. Countries must have a balance of order and individualism so that societies will be efficient and humane. If countries want to carry on becoming richer, their people will have to learn to behave better. Haamish Mc Rae 1995 Can we gain prosperity and influence with stability, order and honesty? How important is government and law? Sociology of Politics Politics is the “theory, art, and practice of government.” Political institutions are the social arrangements for legislating and enforcing laws, and providing social services like education, public health and welfare, distributing public funds, collecting taxes, conducting foreign affairs, and deciding on issues of war and peace (Stewart and Glynn 1985:486). They consist of a 376

relatively stable cluster of norms, statuses, and roles that are involved in the acquisition and exercise of power and decisionmaking. The institution that sets social norms and values as to who will possess “the monopoly of legitimate use of physical force within a given territory,” and how that power is acquired and maintained, how that power is organized and exercised comprise what is the state (Weber in Gerth and Mills 1946:78). The complex interplay between the state and society is the crux of political sociology. The State and Political Systems The concept of the state as distinct from society developed gradually. The need for the state arose when groups within society realized that it was for their welfare to centralize authority, set up rules for settling disputes, and apply force to maintain obedience and loyalty to the social norms and values of society. The underlying fabric of authority is ideology. An ideology is a system of values, ideas, beliefs, and attitudes that a society or groups within it share and accept as fact; it contains a set of attitudes toward the various institutions and processes of society. It is a set of interrelated beliefs that provide a picture of the world as a whole; that furnish the believer with an image of the world as it should be. Political ideology, therefore, is like a blueprint for the good society, with practical instructions on how to attain and maintain it. Different political ideologies originated from varied historical experiences such as war, conquest, colonization, liberation, national consciousness, the increased size and changes of 377

population, ethnic diversity, regionalism, and the rise of social problems requiring social action by society (Barnes 1948). Various ideologies differ in what their ends are and the means of attaining these ends. The forms of government envisioned by different political ideologies are autocracy, oligarchy, and democracy. Autocracy is the direct opposite of democracy. It upholds that the government should be in the hand of one individual who has supreme power over the people. Autocratic governments have taken many forms throughout the ages – primitive kingship, despotism, tyranny, and absolute monarchies. Mediator dictatorship and other forms of temporary or emergency rules may also be considered autocratic. A salient feature of autocratic regimes is that the ruler is not accountable to anyone. He/ she make all the decisions and reaps their consequences. He/ she is the law, therefore, in effect, is not subject to any law. Traditional autocracy has been replaced by present day autocracy of rightist and leftist ideologies, otherwise known as totalitarianism, which is based on modern technology and mass legitimization (Friedrich and Bazenzinski 1966:4). Oligarchy is a form of government in which the power or authority resides in the few persons who govern for their own interests. It is also referred to as elitism. C. Wright Mills was a prominent exponent of this view. He believed that a handful of men who represent the corporate rich, the military upper echelons, and the political directorate should make the most significant decisions. According to Mills, the consensus that supposedly exists in such a nation is, in reality, brought into existence by the elite, who manipulate the masses through mass communication. Another sociologist, William Danhoff (Dye, Situate and Duxbury 1972:60) 378

maintains that power wielded by the elite is in effect monolithic because the elite resemble one another in social background and have developed a community of interests and values. Hence, they tend to act in liaison. Democracy is form of government where there is a rule by the people, either directly or through representatives. This grew out of constitutional government. The principles of equal rights and privileges, universal suffrage, and participation in the political process which affect citizens’ lives are features of democratic regimes (Braingart 1976:20). It is generally referred to as “a government of the people, by the people, and for the people.” In the nineteenth century, liberalism initiated the theory of the democratic state as the referee of diverse competing and conflicting interests and the system of checks and balances against the political abuses of public officials. The role of the state as arbiter is emphasized in capitalism or free enterprise where the state asserts its power only when the struggle between interest groups becomes sharp and bitter, as that of labor and capital. There are other political ideologies that have presented alternative views of the state. Socialism become the most pervasive ideology of the twentieth century. It arose as an outcry against the repressive mills of early capitalism, an intense response against the profound changes caused by the industrial revolution, and a reaffirmation of the utopian dream of the heavenly kingdom on earth. It arose from the workers’ associations, libraries, garrets, bourgeois parlors, and occasionally, aristocratic salons. It has been pursued, abused, glorified. 379

French political philosopher Raymond Aron observed that, “in most countries, socialism carries the connotation that whatever is good is socialist, whatever is bad originates in capitalism.” Nobelprize winning Economist Milton Friedman added: “socialism implies egalitarianism and that are living for society, while capitalism has been given the connotation of materialism, ‘greed,’ ‘selfish,’ ‘self-serving,’ and the likes”. Socialist rhetoric derived much of its appeal from the economic battering of the world’s economy in the 1970s. Economic restructuring became more attractive because of the problems of inflation, unemployment, and volatile currencies. There is no universal model of socialism, just as there is none of free-market capitalism. It became regarded as the most reasonable system of human society based on scientific, modern efficient method; a society based on cooperation, a collective movement of people on the lookout for justice, as a bonding of brothers and sisters, uniting hearts and minds. Out of these diverse views of socialism, three main varieties stand out. Marxism-Leninism, Communism, Fascism, and modern totalitarianism. Communism, as espoused by Marxism-Leninism, proposes the abolition of private property and the nationalization of the major means of production and distribution. Also referred to as revolutionary socialism, it maintains the inevitability of revolution in bringing about structural changes. Karl Marx concluded that revolution was the realistic means to attain social betterment. He predicted the disappearance of the state and the rise of a classless society whereby everyone would be compensated according to each one’s efforts (Marx and Engels 1955). 380

This is the variant of socialism which is the governing force in countries like China, North Korea, Laos, Cambodia, Cuba, and the former USSR. Non-literate societies operate on a primitive form of communism where the major economic resources are owned by the community as a whole, rather than by individuals, families, or other private groups. Religious sects, such as the Old Order Amish, Shakers, Hulterites, Oneida Community, Father Divine Movement, Mormons, gypsies, and medieval monasteries and nunneries, are examples of Christian forms of communism. Fascism, a derivative from the Italian Fascist Party, is a political economic system in which all major aspects of society’s life activities are rigidly regulated by a centralized state authority. Private ownership of the means of production is limited by strict state control. There is monopoly of the means of communication; civil rights are severely curtailed; and the state is highly glorified. In modern totalitarianism, absolute power is not attained or maintained easily. It evolves from a one party system and develops entirely new political institutions for controlling and supervising people. It destroys all social, legal, and political traditions of the country (Arendt in Braingart 1976:176-194). There is monopoly of control in every phase of the people’s lives by a single party elite inspired by its ideology.it can banish people, put them to death, or imprison them. It exercises supervision over the governed through an official party, an official ideology, monopoly of public communications, control of organized group life, a managed economy, and arbitrary police power. However, it has features that are similar to constitutional democracy, since 381

it is the main machinery for industrialization and emphasizes participation. Technical and technological expertise is highly prized. Emphasis is placed on mobilization, which is pressuring the population to serve the state; such was the case on Nazi Germany. Social democracy is advocated by ‘bourgeois revisionists,’ who control the government of Britain, West Germany, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Luxembourg, Norway, the Netherlands, and Portugal. They focus on mitigating the hardships fostered by the capitalist economies, such as underemployment, salary and wages, on the job promotion, and taxation inequities rather than on the revision of the structure of societies. Social democracies are generally mixed economies with elements of both free enterprise competition and state ownership of industries. In underdeveloped to developing socialist states, ideology is rooted less in Marxism than in nationalism. Because of their experience with colonialism, they rebuff capitalism which they equate with imperialism and exploitation. They adhere to policies focused on decreasing the role of private property in the economy and sharply restrain investment by private foreign firms. Examples are the Islamic socialism advocated by Algeria and Libya. The Bathist (renaissance) socialism of Syria and Iraq, the Ujammaa (family hood) socialism of Tanzania, the Jamaica and Forbes Burnham of Guyana. These major political ideologies are still undergoing modifications or reinterpretations, but whatever the scheme of the states, its 382

parts interrelate with each other as the state relates to other institutions. Functions of State The main functions of the state are the maintenance of peace and order and the regulation and control of the lives of the people. The state is expected to answer the needs of the citizenry to a certain degree of social order. There are things people must do and/ or refrain from doing; not necessarily for one’s individual benefit, but for the benefit of the entire group. Hence, people create norms and values that define what is wrong and immoral to make sure that major norms are upheld by the laws; to settle disputes that arise among the people living in the society; and to determine who gets what in terms of rewards or punishment. The increased complexity of society has caused the transfer of some institutional functions to the state (Aron 1954): 1. From the family: the state has taken over the provision of protection of home, the formal education of the youth, and the maintenance of public welfare programs for the sick, crippled, feebleminded and insane, the unemployed and underemployed, the widowed and orphaned, the aged, abused, and the like. 2. From the economy: the state has taken over the resolution of labor-capital disputes; the limitation or regulation of production; distribution and consumption of economic resources, goods, and services; the control of wages, prices, taxes, and savings, the operation of research; and the allowances of fringe benefits, and others. 383

3. From the church: the state has taken over the regulation of the conditions for contracting and dissolving marriages, family planning, the moral or spiritual training for the youth, the provision of relief for the poor, and the disposal of the dead. The Social Structure of Politics The state is the formal structure of government. It is the institution whose functions are carried out by the government. Government is the working active arm of the state that provides social control through political processes, the laws it establishes and implements, and the work of its agencies. Although individuals and groups that comprise the government chance, the state continues to function. The same processes that were responsible for institutionalizing social control in the state have also been responsible for the creation of nations. With the increase in size and complexity of societies, people have sought political organizations in clans based on kinship, then in tribes that were collections of clans, and finally in city-states. The state represents a politically organized society functioning through a government; whereas, nation is a culture group of people residing within the territory of the political state. The spirit of nationhood makes a group of people a nation. People unify into a nation through factors such as geographic boundaries (like mountains or bodies of water), commercial ties developed throughout geographical area, and the knowledge of a common language. Additional factors appear with the establishment of a 384

central government, such as an attempt to subordinate former loyalties to the new political order, the development of a common history, a common literature, and a sense of common destiny. When the sense of unity that arises becomes intense, even among a people with deep cleavages due to lack of cultural uniformity, there will be reason to consider themselves distinct from all others whom they designate as foreigners. Nationalism Whether a nation is already existent or whether its people are still fighting for its independence, the ultimate goal is always the social, political, and economic stability of the people. Nationalism, which is the ideology behind the nation-state, has played a significant part in modern history. It has been paramount in the creation of modern societies, mitigating the narrow provincialism of loyalties to family, kin, and community which prevailed in preindustrial societies. Nationalism is a complex social phenomenon, made up of a set of beliefs about the capabilities and uniqueness of one’s own nation, and a defense of its interests, above all others. It implies the individual identification with the nation, culture, interests, and goals. Ethnocentrism cuts across all other loyalties to emphasize loyalty to the national group. As a form of social control, the government operates formally and impersonally through the state. As it operates politically, the following subsystems are discernible (Merton 1957:71-82; Chapin 1935:39): 1. The legalistic, which is wholly regulated by the laws, whether in the international, national, or local spheres. 385

2. The quasi-legal, which is partly within the limits of the law and partly a matter of personal unofficial arrangements, as in the villages; 3. The extra legal, which includes alliances of shady business and underworld dealings, as in predatory-political-crime-vice networks. The Struggle for Power: Legitimacy and Authority Political power is a basic force in the political process and in structuring society. It is both a compensation and a determinant in the distribution of wealth and prestige in the stratification system Weber (1957:152) defined power as “the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance. “ The ability to sway decision-making is a significant gauge of power. It is manifested in small or large groups. The state is the abstract representation of the political system of a society. It has the authority to employ force or violence to implement social control. It has a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force in the enforcement of order. People accept the authority of the state and this acceptance or consent justifies the states’ action. When the power is held by an individual or a group not acceptable to members of society, the power is illegal and illegitimate. Authority is the legitimate possession of power. Power becomes legitimate authority when members of society accept its use as 386

right and proper. A political system is generally considered legitimate if goals and values coincide with the goals and values of the majority of the people. No political system, even one borne of violence and functioning through force, can survive for long without legitimacy. When a government has legitimacy, its laws are followed and its officials respected by the majority of the people in society, regardless of their feelings towards both the laws and the enforcers. There is a crisis of legitimacy if majority of the people believe that the government is not worthy or capable of upholding and enforcing the law. Then, the people themselves disregard the law and do not respect the enforcers. A crisis of legitimacy occur during periods of rapid social change, and becomes severe when major institutions are threatened or if major groups in society have no access to the political system (Lipset, et al. 19633-65). The struggle for power includes the acquisition, exercise, and maintenance of power. The political elite are the persons or groups who support the political leadership in a society at a certain time. In a monarchy, power is inherent in the ruler by “divine right.” It is transferred by hereditary succession and exercised for the benefit of both the rulers and the ruled. Purging members or houses of the royal families brings a change of rulers. In an oligarchy, a small group belonging to the elite class of society holds the political power. Clashes among the cliques within this class regarding their interests commonly bring about shifts in the power structures. 387

In a democracy, power is vested on the masses who, in turn, delegate this power to those whom they elect to represent them in the government; such power is exercised primarily for the peoples’ welfare. Those elected may be removed or retained through periodic elections by the masses. In a totalitarian government, power is held by a small group who rules through coercive, not legitimate, force. Totalitarian governments have been labeled as authoritarian, autocratic, centralized, dictatorial, or fascist. While democratic governments have been referred to as popular, representative, republican, liberal, or capitalistic. At present, governments are actually a combination of the features of the different political ideologies, such as England’s democratic monarchy, Scandinavia’s socialistic monarchies, Spain’s benevolent dictatorship, and Japan’s capitalistic monarchy. The Structure and Function of Philippine Politics Philippine political institutions have undergone the experiences of tribalism, conquest, colonization, unification, centralization, revolution, decentralization, war, liberation, independence, and nationalization. Leadership, at one time or another, has been traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational. Long before any colonizers came, there were tribes which were ruled by absolute monarchies called barangays. These were bound by kinship ties and the need for mutual protection. Each was ruled by either a datu or rajah. These local rulers were in constant conflict over territorial rights, privileges, duties, and responsibilities. The people traded with Chinese merchants. Some Chinese intermarried with the natives and since then had been assimilated. 388

The unification, centralization, and nationalization of the numerous units of government started with Spanish colonization, except for the Muslims in Mindanao and the other cultural minorities who were pushed to the mountains. Mass discontent with Spanish rule gave rise to nationalism, which culminated into the Philippine Revolution of 1896. The revolutionary leaders framed the Malolos Constitution in 1899 and established the Republic which specified decentralization and local autonomy as one of the national goals. At about the same time, Spain and US signed the Treaty of Paris, ceding Spain’s control of the Philippines to the US. The Filipino revolutionaries continued to fight the new colonizers but, not long after, were defeated. The American civil government pursued the policy of local self-government through centralization. This system was carried on during the Commonwealth period. During the Japanese occupation period (1941-1945), the Philippine Commonwealth government, de jure in Washington D. C., US and the Japanese puppet government, de facto in Manila, operated simultaneously. When the Philippines gained political independence after World War II, Filipinos sought the policy of local autonomy. Since there has been vacillation between centralization and decentralization in attempts to tackle the pressing problems of statehood, varied informal and formal political subsystems had to be reckoned with (Encarnation 1957:379-391; Hollnsteiner 1963; Carroll and Salazar 1972:407411).

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The Basis of Power in Philippine Politics Filipinos have used different means to legitimize power and influence the decision-making processes. Consensus has been through voting, political counseling, patronage, public opinion formation, and referendum. Voting. Voters from the rural areas, representing 80% of the total population, have increasingly enlisted in the electoral rosters. In 1970, only 3% of the Philippine population were qualified voters when eligibility was based on property, education, and sex. In 1939, voting requirements were liberalized and eligibility was made to be based on age, citizenship, residence, and literacy. The middle class joined the rank of voters. After World War II, the rural masses were ushered wholesale into the electoral list in the Magsaysay presidential bid. National politics began to focus on the “grass roots.” The electoral list swelled from 2.3 million in 1946 to 6.4 million in 1961 (12.7% and 22.7%) of the total population, respectively. Voters from the cities doubled from 1953 to 1961 and made up 15.4 percent of the electorate. Biennial elections since 1953 indicated a regular high turn-out at the polls, registering 75-81% of all registered voters. In the November 1967 local and national elections, 81.66% of 9,744,604 registered voted (Commission on Elections Yearbook 1969:343). In the 1988 election, almost 95% of the voters registered and 90% of these voted. This development was facilitated by improved communication facilities between Manila and other parts of the country. Other reasons are the rise in literacy and improved mobility of the 390

people. Census figures of 1948 and 1960 indicated a rise in the average highest grade completed (from 4.2 to 5.1 years); increased ability to communicate in Tagalog (from 44.4% to 51.7%) and English (from 39.5% to 41.8%); and increase in the ownership of radios from (87.3 thousand to 516.8 thousand, or a yearly increase of 43.3%) literacy also increased from 72% in 1960 to 83.5 percent in 1970 (Yambot 1975:13). Increased geographical mobility, urbanization, and personalized campaign methods also improved the communication process. Before 1940, politicians, attired in immaculate suits and wellshined-shoes, tapped and haggled with only the local political leaders in provincial capitals. Since the successful presidential campaign of Magsaysay in 1953, candidates for national and local offices used “plain folks” campaign tactics and contact rural folks in more than 20,000 barangays. Most of the rural voters are not political party-affiliated. They personally identify with individual barrio, poblacion provincial or regional leaders who form loose alliances or affiliate with a national political party. No formal procedure of recruitment, roster maintenance, or subscription issuance is maintained. Winning over these votes demand highly organized, well-managed campaign machinery, which is capable of handling financial estimations. Public relations, public opinion formation, and image building. Public relations experts are hired for these tasks. Political parties use print and broadcast journalist and TV and movie personalities to entice voters. In many ways, political campaigns are similar to fiestas.

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Political counseling. Prior to 1972, “information middlemen” in cities and poblacions were consulted on political, legal, and other technical matters by voters. This aspect of political behavior easily provides an area for the perpetuation of the patronage system (de Young 1962; Madigan 1962; Feliciano 1966:257-265; Byrnes 1966:242-256). Patronage. Straight buying and selling of votes operate with a network of personalized reciprocity. Jobs, services, and other concessions are bartered for votes. Voters demand political favors for support given to candidates. Patronage has more farreaching consequences- civic consciousness is greatly retarded; nepotism in government flourish, causing general labor force demoralization, insecurity, and inefficiency. Molding of public opinion. Efforts to provide more scientific public opinion polling are done by professional statistical centers. Newspaper columnists, radio commentators, and political analysts in media are tapped to do the jobs of public relations, imagebuilding/ breaking, and public opinion formation. Making, Interpreting and Enforcing Laws Legal, quasi-legal, and extra legal forces have competed and conflicted in the making, interpreting, and enforcing of laws in the Philippines (Villanueva et al 1966; Alfred 1962; Formalino 1960; Olivar 1966). The worsening economic conditions of the masses aroused some degree of political awareness among the people. However, the electorate, needed more effective organization of greater participation in the affairs of government. The laborers, professionals, and government employees have better bargaining 392

positions if they are organized. Recognizing this reality, eight labor organizations formed the Philippine Council for Agrarian Workers, and others formed federations and alliances. Transitions are never easy. Political transition from dictatorship to democracy is difficult because democratic processes are usually slow, cumbersome, and diverted by the noisy. The competing interests of diverse groups, unequal in influence, have to be harmonized for a policy to emerge. There is also the resistance, including deliberate obstruction by vested interest groups and well-entrenched power blocs, to any change that would reduce their privileged positions. Major political parties have been loose and weak, comprising only of fluid alliances or electoral conditions of local, regional, and national factions. They do not hold on to any ideology nor an organized position on current vital political issues or social problems, such as resolving problems regarding the people’s basic needs – water, electricity, communication/ transportation/ sanitation; the improvement of the economy; the education and training of human resources, and the protection of natural sources. Their membership is extremely flexible, mainly based on loyalties rather than principles. Campaigns focus on personalities, and are limited to the issues of graft and corruption, promises of good and honest government, progress and prosperity, welfare of the masses, or morality. The major parties have internal strifes and intrigues. Intro- and inter- party “wheeling and dealing” is rampant. Party turn-coatism is common. After World War II, the adaptation of a two-party system from the uni-party system brought about political competition and the 393

taking of turns in the power structure. However, this has not uplifted the idealism, skills, and performance of elected officials. Neither party was bound to policies on collective welfare nor had a clear-cut vision of a national socioeconomic development program. As a consequence, cynicism has become widespread, unrelieved local tensions have erupted into violence, and people have settled for an alienated, hopeless, and helpless outlook for the future of the country. Other aspects of the power struggle in Philippine politics were the attempts of the labor sector, the young intellectuals, and a third party to effect changes in the structure of the power elite. Unfortunately, for the labor sector, there had been several cases of opportunistic leadership and the lack of class consciousness that caused some labor leaders to compromise with major parties instead. In the premarital rule era, the formal party system was simply a façade of major clan alignments based on the landed oligarchy. The parties were networks of major political clans, provincial warlords, and their closely connected local elites. Basic logic rested on the bonds between major power brokers. Electoral behavior was determined neither by the party ideology, party membership, nor party platform, but by the candidates’ popularity or ethnolinguistic alignment. Party commitment was low or nil. Religious blocks, particularly the Iglesia ni Kristo, and the economic block, like the sugar block, played significant roles. Neither the diplomatic corps nor the military forces were then assertive as political forces. The landed oligarchy exceeded all other elites in terms of importance giving rise to a social climate 394

that fostered a Marcos authoritarian regime. The traditional process of attaining state power from the local villages was not anymore realized. Instituted in its stead was a system where power at all levels was attainable through the patronage of the autocracy. In the 1978 and 1984 Batasang Pambansa (National Assembly) elections, the proportions of the representative base was changed from the traditional congressional district to the regional, rendering old political clans to independently challenge the autocracy’s candidates. The centralization of patronage in the executive branch fostered even more the strength and elasticity of Marcos’s fascistic dictatorship. Plantation-based elites were incorporated into networks controlled by the regime’s allies (David and Okamura 1992). Changes in the logistics of electoral financing, in the structural arrangement of political rivalry to a “dynamics of pluralism,” and in the ability of the local elite to deliver bailiwick votes, electoral politics no longer follow the traditional pre-martial law patterns (Magno 1992). The mass base of independent progressive political movements cannot be easily converted into electoral bases as they have not been adequately oriented to get into the electoral arena. The 1992 elections were again dominated by traditional politicians and brokers, with campaigns centering on personalities rather than on vital national issues. Ideally, party systems should be a catalyst for the expectations and aspirations of specific socioeconomic constituencies, as in the creation of employment opportunities, educational preparation to match the labor market, provisions for 395

health care, adequate stable water and energy supply, efficient and affordable public transportation, provisions for housing, among other socioeconomic needs. Then, elections would be the rallying activity for party support instead of opportunities for selfaggrandizement. Without definite and clear platform options, elections will only intensify distrust of a disenchantment with democracy (Magno 1992). Philippine politics have been muddled with violence and dynastic bossism, and tainted with money from gambling and drug lords and corrupt officials. Notable now is a new consciousness that is arising in the public mind- changing the existing model of central government and transform this to a federal system; plus the need for political and administrative competence at the lever of barangay officials, councilors, mayors, governors, and provincial boards. Power Beyond the Law Political activities sometimes exceed or do away with established practices. Politics tend to encourage disagreement about goals and means to achieve them. In the Philippines, the foundation of our political system is the Constitution. There are other regulations that guide officials from the president down to the barangay official. Revolution is the overthrow of one political system in order to establish another, usually with the use of violent actions. Common grounds for a revolution are: rising expectations, unresponsive government, and the establishment of a new legitimacy. 396

People power “People Power” does not exist in sociological or political theory. There are, however, related concepts in the literature of social movements, protest actions, and crowds. People power is defined as a large gathering of unarmed people united by a set of political calls (David 2001;242). As 3 political gathering, its objectives are concerned with political power. The people gather in a symbolic place and is sustained over days; the crowd grows in size, density, and fervor. Its activities include speeches singing, dancing, and religious rituals so that the participants are cheerfully engaged. People Power is amorphous and follows no definite timetable, no formal organization or leadership, and no direction. It is a form of protest and struggle against established authorities. The Constitution guarantees freedom of speech and the right to peaceful assembly. In the Philippines, People Power I was triggered by the failure of the 1986 snap elections; People Power II by the failure of the impeachment trial against Pres. Estrada; and People Power III by the arrest and detention of Pres. Estrada whom participants believed was innocent. Corruption A Global forum on Fighting Corruption and Safeguarding Integrity held on 29-31 May 2001, was attended by ministers and government representatives with the aim of preventing and combating corruption in government and in society. 397

Alarmed by the spread of corruption, they likened this to a virus capable of crippling government, discrediting public institutions and private corporations. They noted its devastating impact on human rights. It undermined society and its development, affecting in particular the poor. Poverty reduction strategies will never be effective when corruption is rampant. They recommended that governments, to safeguard integrity, should not only enact correct laws but also establish an independent, effective, and efficient judiciary. In many cases, this presupposes changes in attitude and in long standing practices. Cooperation by the private sector is of utmost importance. Independent and investigative media also has a vital role to play. The press can raise awareness of the negative impact of corruption; educating the youth to make them more aware enables their future involvement. The Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2002 ranked 102 countries. Seven out of ten countries scored less than 5 out of a clean score of 10. Indonesia, Kenya, Angola, Madagascar, Paraguay, Nigeria and Bangladesh, scored less than 2; while developed countries namely, Finland, Denmark, New Zealand, Iceland, Singapore, and Sweden scored higher than 9. Corruption is a malady afflicting both developing and developed countries. Corruption is neutral. It is no respecter of nations, big or small, rich or poor. The developed countries are expected to have a special humanitarian responsibility with the resources at their disposal. They should investigate and prosecute companies in their jurisdictions that are usually bribing officials of other 398

underdeveloped and developing countries. Such bribes and incentives to corrupt public officials and politicians are subverting the orderly development of poor nations, already trapped as they are, in a vicious cycle of poverty, hunger and disease. Corruption impedes sustainable development, robs the children of today of the resources they will need to survive tomorrow. Terrorism Terrorism may be defined as acts of violence or the threat of violence or threat of violence employed employed by an individual or group as a political strategy. The bombing of the federal building in Oklahoma City, US on April 1995 first brought home to the US the deadly nature of terrorism. On 11 September 2001, four passenger jets were hijacked. Two crashed into the World Trade Center; one into the Pentagon; and the last near the White House in Pennsylvania. Everything happened within two hours and is allegedly part of a plot by a Muslim terrorist group. More than 3,000 innocent victims died from this violent incidence. It is said that terrorism is a weak organization’s strategy to harm an enemy. Although democratic societies reject terrorism, democracies are vulnerable to terrorists. Summary Viewed sociologically, politics is “the theory, art, and practice of government.” Students of political sociology focus their attention 399

on the complex interplay between the state and society and the changes that continually occur in this interplay. The state, political institutions and government may be classified according to structure and functions or roles that they perform. The internal structure and functions (infrastructure) of political institutions can be understood by studying the nature of consensus formation; making, interpretation, and enforcement of laws; and the struggle for power among the political elite in the government. The external relationships with other social systems or institutions can be studied through the legal, quasi-legal, and extra-legal forces that influence politics and government. Sociologically, the development of Philippine politics can be examined through its history, the social class stratification system, leader-follower interaction, personality structures, and the social norms and values of the Filipino people. STUDY GUIDE 1. Concepts to master: Political institution Autocracy Communism Authority Power Socialism State Patronage Fascism Totalitarianism Consensus Political Elite Government 2. What is the focus of the sociologist when studying politics? 400

3. How did the concepts of state and politics and their functions arise> 4. What is the nature of people power? 5. Discuss the developments in the Philippine electoral process. Critical Thinking Questions 1. How does authority differ from power? 2. Is the threat of war more likely today than in the past? Why?

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Chapter 14 EDUCATION The Philippines, as expected fared badly in the latest survey of Asian Universities. Only four Philippine universities were ranked regional comparisons, namely, UP-Diliman (48) De La Salle University (71) Ateneo de Manila University (72) and University of Sto. Tomas (74). The top two universities are Kyoto (1) and Tohoko (2) in Japan followed by University of Hong Kong (3), Seoul National University (4) and National University of Singapore (5). The inadequacy of Philippine institutions of higher education can be traced to the poor quality of elementary and secondary schools. Philippine Universities rank badly because they offer their staff poor salaries, little research support and inadequate facilities. Our politicians mostly do not seem to appreciate this neglect of education. Why is education so poorly valued in the Philippines. A university driver in Hong Kong earns more than a university president in the Philippines. Dr.Raul Pertierra The Miseducation of the Filipino PDI ,14 July 2000:9 What is the future of education in the Philippines? How can we be more competitive with our Asian neighbors? 402

Educational Structures Education is defined as a preparation for effective participation in social relations (Horton and Hunt 1972). Sociologically speaking, education is the consciously controlled process whereby changes in behavior are produced in the person and through the person in the group. It is clear that education is major factor in economic growth. A study made in Brazil showed that one additional year of average education per person in the labor force increased output by about 20%. In the Philippines, literacy rate increased from 72% in 1960 to 94% in 1990. This can be attributed to the increased in the number of schools (by 58%, with tertiary schools increasing by 362 percent) and the level of enrolment (by 120%) during the same period. Twenty-eight percent of elementary, secondary, and tertiary schools are public. However, one third of students do not get to reach grade six and one fourth of first year do not reach the fourth year. The statistics for the elementary and secondary levels have not changed in the past ten years. About 30% of tertiary students take up commerce and business management courses and 19%, engineering and technology. Graduates for commerce and business is 36% and for engineering, 15%. Females are highly represented in all the three levels of education. The rates of failures, dropouts, and repetition are higher for males than females. Female graduates also outnumber males. 403

The reasons cited for the above are: 1. daughters receive more education but less land than sons; 2. there are more opportunities for employment for males in the agricultural sector; 3. parents rely more on their daughters to study diligently, keep stable jobs, and provide support in their retirement age. Formal and Non-Formal Education Education may be formal or informal. Informal education is learning through interaction with others in the group. Ideas and facts are acquired through suggestion, observation, example, imitation, and inculcation from the family, play group, neighborhood, or occupational group. Books, newspapers, magazines, radio, films, and television are important instruments through which information and attitudes are acquired or learned. Non-formal education consists of sets of definite learning goals and objectives, generally making use of a more flexible curriculum, less rigid admission procedures, and more participative teaching methods. Non-formal education is not covered by the traditional school system. It usually runs in short durations and, in many instances, seeks only to teach the student a specific skill. Social organizations, private companies, government offices, livelihood training centers, and other institution administer nonformal education. Some schools under the traditional system also provide extension and outreach programs that offer non-formal education. These are offered as supplementary or co-curricular 404

activities to regular students and/or members of the community such as out-of school youth and adult students. Formal education is synonymous with “school.” It sets definite objectives and goals reached through systematized, formal instruction methods. Formal education is achieved in stages: preschool level (nursery and kindergarten), elementary level, secondary level, and tertiary or university level. Schools are run by the state, by private individuals or corporations, or by religious groups. In the Philippines, public education dominates in the elementary and the secondary levels while tertiary level education is largely undertaken by private and religious groups and sustained by student tuition fees and grants. Education in Early Societies In simple societies, the family provides education, assisted by elder members of the community who are called specialists, like the magicians, witchdoctors, shamans, or priests. Informal instruction is given to prepare the youth for adult roles that will enable them to cope with the various demands of the environment. With the development of language, the alphabet, and number system, culture accumulated to a point where it could no longer be effectively transmitted by informal education. The emergence of a “specialized agency” became inevitable and the school developed as the epitome of formal education. The first schools were established in China, Egypt, Babylonia, India, Greece, and Rome. 405

The widespread established of the school system was made possible with the invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century. The printing press became an instrument in the mass production of reading materials, which were prepared for the different stages of education. Learning then became a structured and graduated experience and appropriate printed materials were designed for purposes of this structure. The early reading materials are the forerunners of today’s textbooks. The Functions of Education The purpose of education varies from one society to another. For nations which are ethnically diverse, education is a tool for achieving national identity. In societies undergoing rapid economic development, education becomes a vehicle for preparing the people for an industrial life; while in a revolutionary society, education is aimed at winning the hearts and minds to the revolutionary cause (Bilton et al 1997:331). The school became more important as societies began to modernize and be more complex. But the functions of education remained essentially the same in all societies. They vary only in methods and emphasis (Popenoe1974:358). These functions are: 1. To transmit the cultural heritage. The transmission of the cultural heritage remains the traditional function of education. Cultural heritage includes knowledge, language, mathematics, and science that are familiar to most students. It also includes the attitudes, values, and norms of society. For most of these, imitation and inculcation is required for its transmittal. 406

The Samals of Siasi, Sulu learn skills by imitation. There is a minimum of verbal instruction. Since the relationship between parents and children is so congenial, imitation has become a pleasant and effective process (Eslao 1962:84). Inculcation refers to the process whereby the learner is led to behave through social pressure, propaganda, or other similar medium. Whether the transmission of culture is by imitation or inculcation, this function of education is necessary for continued survival of the society. Increased awareness of cultural attitudes and values are important for maintaining social order. Different societies place various emphasis on this function of education. In a totalitarian state, all agencies of education aim to suppress individual judgment so that citizens learn to conform to the doctrines of the state. In other societies cultural transmission is left in thee hands of a few selected individuals who have complete control of schools, such that the outcome is the perpetuation of caste and class (Brown 1954:204). However, to say that inculcation is not rigid in so-called democratic societies is at the very least a myopic view. In these societies, mass media, the government, the school system, and business establishments interlock to promote a culture of conformity with the consumerist outlook. Advertisements swamp the different mass media, and programs that do not conform to the status quo receive less sponsorship. For the same reason, information that is not 407

complementary to corporate interest does not find media exposure. 2. To help individuals select social roles and to train them for the roles they have chosen. Education is also aimed at developing new social patterns that will bring about different specializations. This means that schools provide not only new experiences but also offers alternatives and a wider selection of social roles. As soon as one has indicated a preference, the school begins to train him or her for it. A society undergoing rapid changes needs to adjust the education system to adapt to the new social patterns. There should be guidelines to ensure against waste of resources and the displacement of many young people because of an oversupply of trained manpower. The points to consider when making adjustments are: Careful planning of the subjects and courses, along with the necessary facilities which the school should provide: a. Training of an adequate number of people according to the demands of specialized lobs market; and b. Matching the talents and abilities of the work force with the specialization needed so that there will be a balance of people who are capable of performing the jobs fill. 3. To integrate into the cultural mainstream the various subcultures and identities. The function of education to socially integrate different groups into the cultural mainstream must be maximized as many countries with 408

internal strife are composed of people that is diverse in dialect, religion, culture, or social class. These differences ted to develop antagonism and conflict, relations and loyalties. Those tasked with administering the Philippine educational system are cognizant of the divergence in culture, geography, and history of its people. They are now engaged in exploring means towards the eliminating friction and conflicts that endanger the solidarity of the nation. The function of education as an integrative force in our society calls for the teaching of a common language that creates free and extensive communication. Philippine schools today provide diverse opportunities for shared experiences to promote cohesion and shared attitudes in the society. Cultural identity is a primary element in social cohesion. When educational institutions work towards this end, it becomes an important instrument for the development of nationalist sentiments and love of country. 4. To serve as source of social and cultural innovation. School activities should be geared towards the development of curiosity and initiative, with students learning to conduct their own investigations, arrive at conclusions, and make new discoveries. In the Philippines, colleges and universities place high valuation on open mindedness and academic freedom, because it is through freedom to express new ideas that advances in science and technology are brought about. When a society is dynamic and responsive to the 409

needs of its people, it is able to produce intelligent and meaningful changes. In societies where there is a high degree of disparity between economic classes, education has also come to function as an “equalizer,” meaning, it becomes a means to uplift the deprived sectors. In the Philippines, education plays a crucial role in self-advancement as it could be a ticket to better job opportunities. Education in the Philippines Educational systems reflect the economic, political, social, and religious values of society. Before the coming of the Spaniards, a system of writing existed among ancient Filipinos, although the characteristics of the syllabic writing is still a subject of contention of contemporary scholars (Jocano 1975:193-194). Philippines education has been influenced by the Spanish and American colonizers. They brought with them educational materials that reflected the ideologies of their countries and the ideas inculcated were representations of their culture. Many problems in education today can be traced to these orientations and did not produce satisfactory results. The objective of education under the Spanish colonizers was to teach moral and religious subjects, using the Spanish language as medium of instruction. Education in the primary grades, which was the only extensive level during that time, was largely for religious purposes. Religion was the core of the curriculum and schools were used mainly to spread Christianity (Isidro 1949:246). 410

Before 1863, schools setup in the barrios were small thatched buildings called visitas. These served as schoolhouse and chapels. The parish priest supervised the schools as part of their duties. In the visita, there were separate rooms for the boys and girls. The subjects of study consisted of reading by alphabet and syllabic method, sacred songs, and music. A little arithmetic and writing were taught to the more advance students. Required readings were common prayers and the Doctrina Christiana (Fresnoza 1957:246-248). The method of learning was memorization, and the punishment meted out to those who did not study their lessons was whipping (Blair and Robertson 1903:99-102). Higher education placed great emphasis on virtue and letters. The schools established during the Spanish colonial period were the Royal College of San Jose, founded in 1605, and the College of Sto. Tomas, established around 1610 and converted into a university in 1645; the secondary schools were the Colegio San Juan de Letran, Ateneo Municipal Manila, and the theological seminaries in Vigan, Manila, and Cebu. Higher education primarily served the upper classes, a degree being a status symbol, a “badge of social standing and prestige.” The educated class was the illustrado, which was the ambition of parents from elite class for their children. This educated class looked on manual labor as degrading and despicable (Aldana 1949:3-4). The Educational Decree of 1863 provided for the establishment of a complete system of education. It mandated for each municipality to have elementary schools, one for boys and another for girls. Compulsory education for children between ages of 7 and 12 was prescribed. The curriculum for the primary grades 411

included reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, Spanish, Christian, doctrine, and vocal music. Boys were required to take up agriculture, while the girls trained in needlework. Vocational schools of arts and trades were established in Manila, and Iloilo; a nautical school and a normal school were set up in Manila. When the Americans took over the reigns of government in 1899, the emphasis on Christianity and the transmission of the Spanish culture shifted towards the development of new social patterns. The system of primary education was extended to all, training students for the duties of citizenship and for the wider participation of the population for eventual self-governance. English was imposed as the medium of instruction. The Educational Act of 1901 organized the general system of public instruction and authorized the establishment of private schools. The curriculum in the primary level consisted of the English language, arithmetic, geography, singing, drawing, physical education, and character training. Grammar and social studies were included in the intermediate grades. At the present, the Philippine educational system is bureaucratic structure under the supervision of the state. There are three coordinate systems: The Department of Education (DE) for elementary and secondary levels; the Commission on Higher Education (CHED); and the Technical Educational Skills and Development Authority (TESDA). The Education Act of 1982 took into account the recommendations and findings of the Presidential Commission to Study Philippine Education (PCSPE), which was created in 1969. 412

The PCSPE reported that the educational system was producing college graduates in excess of what could be absorbed by the jobs market. The body concluded that the Philippine educational system was not responding to the demands of the economy for national development. In 1991, the report of the Join Congressional Commission to Study and Review Philippine Education, or EDCOM, concluded that the quality of education was declining and traced the problem to two main reasons: 1) the government was not investing enough in our education system, and 2) the education department was poorly managed. To improve the state of education, the EDCOM recommended the following: stress on basic education; the development of alternative learning systems especially for the illiterate; the use of Filipino as medium of instruction for basic education; the enlargement and enrichment of technical/vocational education; the restructuring of the Department of Education. It further recommended for the government to: ensure administrators; support both public and private schools; involve the private industry workers, teachers, parents, and the local government in planning, delivery, and financing of education; ensure that children of the poor have greater access to all levels of education; make public tertiary education more cost effective and circular programs more relevant to the communities they serve; and find new sources and money to finance basic education.

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Key issues in Philippine Education The important issues in Philippines education that must be closely examined and immediately resolved are: 1. Quality of Education – Elementary and secondary students scored below the mean target of 75% based on standard tests: This score is low compared to other countries. 2. Accessibility of education – Drop out rate is higher among socioeconomically disadvantage students. On the tertiary level, majority of the students are relatively well-off. Tertiary schools are concentrated in the developed areas, such as the National Capital Region. Private schools here charge higher tuition fees. 3. Government budget for education – The constitution provides that the highest proportion of the budget should go to education. This is hardly applied. 4. Mismatch-Training and actual jobs available are not given due consideration. This results in the unemployment of certificate degree holders. Proposed Reforms 1. Upgrade the salary scale of teachers to attract more good students to train as teachers. 2. Budget per region is based on participation and unit costs; this system favors the more develop region. Amendments should be so that the system will allocate more to the regions in need.

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3. Expand the scholarship program to the poor students in both public and private tertiary schools. This is seen as the better option than increasing the subsidies to state universities. 4. Encourage the participation of the business and industry sector in higher education. This can ease the problem regarding the incongruence of enrollment in certain programs and the jobs market. 5. Develop of a rationalized apprenticeship program by the private sector. Control of technical schools should be transferred to industry groups (Oreta 1994). Computers and the Internet The internet, which links computers throughout the world, has made its impact on information technology. It makes the accessibility of academic resources faster and more convenient. News and discussion groups can now also be set up instantly while opinions, ideas, and attitudes are exchanged in real time. In 1995, the internet covered only more than 2% of the world’s population and grew over short periods. The internet connections over a 3-month period in 1994 grew from 2,172,232 to 2,687,288 (23%) in North America, from 730,429 to 850,993 (17%) in Western Europe, from 15,595 to 21,041 (35%) in Africa, and 117,278 to 127,569 (15%) in Asia, or a total of 3,225,177 to 3,898,233 (21%) (Cohen, Roben and Kennedy 2000:254-255). This rate of acceleration has grown dramatically that by early 1999 alone, the United Kingdom had8.3 million households connected to the internet. Communication technology is still 415

developing rapidly and converging into sets of information technologies. Summary Sociologically speaking, education is the consciously controlled process whereby changes in behavior are produced in the person and through the person in the group. Its ultimate goal is the effective participation of the individual in social relations. Education may be formal or informal. Formal education is synonymous with school education. Learning through interaction with outside of the school is informal education. The functions of educational institutions are: preserving and transmitting the cultural heritage; preparing an individual for the role he or she chooses in society; integrating the various subcultures into the cultural mainstream, serving as a source of social and cultural innovation. The educational system in the Philippines heave been influenced by the Spanish and American systems of education. At the present, the Philippine educational system is a bureaucratic structure under the super vision of the state. There are three coordinate branches: The Bureau of Elementary Education, The Bureau of Secondary Education, and the Bureau of Higher Education. Social change has affected the educational pattern in the Philippines. To keep up with these changes, schools have initiated innovations in the curriculum, like the in-school off-school approach, the opening of preschool classes in poblacions, 416

continuous progression and bilingualism, among other s. These are intended to contribute to the goals of national development. How these programs will help attain universal education and achieve national development will depend on the constant study and re-evaluation of the program by social scientists. Access to and sharing of information though digital technology is seen as an important factor in the advancement of education all over the world. Study Guide 1. Concepts to master: Education Informal education Formal education 2. How do sociologists view education? What are involved in the education process? 3. Describe the various educational structures. 4. Describe the features of education in simple societies. What were the features of education during Spanish regime? How have these affected the present system? 5. Discuss the functions of education. Questions For Critical Thinking 1. Analyze the subjects and courses and the facilities which your school offers. 2. How can we eliminate conflicts so as to enhance the solidarity of the nation? 417

3. How can education produce meaningful changes in our society? 4. Explain how education functions as an “equalizer.” 5. How have the developments in communications affected Philippine education and society? 6. How can we improve the quality of education in the Philippines with consideration to the development in communications and digital technology?

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Chapter 15 RURAL COMMUNITIES I grew up in a town, Bauan, where danger was a much stranger as Martian in the next planet. I remember our house was always open. Fresh air came in through the windows and doors, and so did friends and sometimes farmers from nearby bukids in town for a special church celebration. the holy cross which we lovingly refer to as Poon attracted people from all over. May was intended a festive month of traditions like alay, fiestas, and food galore. It was small town populated by a group of people defined by their common beliefs, whose lives were forever changed but strengthen by the pain and loss brought about by war. I grew up in this town nurtured by extended families. Everyone knew everybody. The church was the meeting place of an entire town to worship and pray for one another. I remember Sunday masses with the town patio hosting bunches of multi-colored ballons, light in its helium flight, merchants with singkamas or bibingka and Beryong’s empanada. I can still savor the home made pancit of Ka Igil and the ice cream delight of Ka Ipe. And of course, there was Ka Graciano who lets us ride his calesa even if we demolished his fee and loaded his calesa with so many of us. The homes were mostly nipa with trees and flowering plants all around. There was an abudance of fruits like duhat, camachile, mango, santol, and sinigwelas. The fragrance of camia and sampaguita permeated the air. And oh do remember the walks at night with hundreds of fireflies lighting the trees and by the endless stream of tutubi like a canvas of a famous painter, vibrant 419

red and yellow and blue endless motion, a sight to behold and entice the restless to stay and just be. Yet the traditions and celebrations pale in the faces and hearts of the Bauanguenos. The bond among the residents was the tread in the tapestry of this town. Yet there existed some kind of separation; the taga Aplaya and taga Bayan played at its turf within the basketball arena and in some social events and dances held in designated areas. While the town proper frolicked in the sands of Aplaya, the fisherman raked in all kinds of fish, tulingan and dulong among others, while patiently and kindly letting everyone enjoy the beaches. I swam in the silangan side as my uncle was there band remember swimming with the sea horses and some tiny fish sometimes nipping at my feet . Today, the fish are from the shores. The foul smell of industry took over the fragrance of our flowers, and poverty has become the birthright of most Batanguenos. Fireflies are a forgotten lot, and dragonflies have been neutralized by the pangs of pollution. Today our children are in crowded classrooms that flood, using comfort rooms that reeks of urine and muck, with books copyrighted in the 60s and 80s if at all, but make no mistake, these children are with razor sharp mind. Carol Atacador In Remembering Bauan, 2001

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The account about Bauan highlights the nostalgia felt by Carol Atacador as she observed the town change from a sleepy place engaged in fishing, characterized by warmth and intimacy in social relationships, to an urbanized town in the throes of urban transformation. The town’s rustic charm and warm intimacy have given way to changes, with its concomitant consequences. What is a Community? What is a community? To the ordinary people, a community is a place where one lives, works, and plays. The word is also used to refer to some subgroup, as in ‘a community of priest,’ or ‘a community of scholars, or ‘artist.’ Thus, we hear about the quest for community (Nisbet1973), which is a kind of obsession for its values as manifested in age groups (youth, middle-aged, or elderly) or interest groups (political, religious, or economic). A community is a social organization that is “territorially localized and through which its members satisfy most of their daily needs and deal with most of their common problems” (Olsen 1968:91). The community can also be viewed as a process or a movement towards unity in the system of social life, an ongoing movement which is never completed or finished (Martindale 1984:11). According to the Calverts (1992:50), the concept of community is not as broad as the concept of society.’ Communities occupy particular territories, share and display common values such as a mutual sense of dependence, identify of interests, a sense of belonging , and an expected pattern of behavior. The essence of community is the feeling of belonging or the “we”.

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Culled from different definitions of community are certain elements like a population or groups of people, an area of territory, a sense of interrelatedness or social interactions, and a sharing of common ties or bond. The essence of a community lies in the relationships within it. As a social organization, the community has a structure and a dynamic phenomenon within an array of interrelated statuses and roles. Each role is patterned to fulfill a special function. The members interact and share common services. They carry on their respective roles to enhance their common goals of fostering solidarity. The community is a localized group, whether the term is used to described a neighborhood, a barangay, a town, a city, or a nation. There are also communities within a community, for communities are types of social groupings of families. They vary in many ways: in size and population density, in occupation and specializations. Some like barrios, are very small and consist of millions of people. Some communities are highly specialized, while others performs multi-services for the inhabitants. While conditions, like climate, available natural resources, and plant and animal life, affect the community, the chief interest of sociologist is to understand the influence of culture on the community, the social life and social interaction taking place, and the social organization and social roles played. Some sociologists are interested in the study of ecology of the community, i.e., of the individuals and their facilities in relation to the environment. Human ecology refers to the study of the development and organization of the community and the spatial distribution in relation to the environment (Hawley 1950:77). The assumption is 422

that groups cooperate and complete with each other for the use of environmental resources. The interplay between social and environmental forces determines what happens to the environment and society (Curry, Jiobu, and Schwirian 1999:138). The basic unity of ecological investigation is the community; such an investigation looks into the structure of functional relationships through which local population provides its daily requirements. More people are now aware of the ecological problem. With flooding, pollution, drought, and other disaster brought about by environmental destruction, they are now working to preserve the balance between the natural resources and the needs of the people. There are present several advocacy and people’s organizations for the protection of our environment. The Rural-Urban Community Dichotomy Communities may be classified according to function and specialization. These represent ideal types and it is difficult to draw the precise dividing line between them. Sometimes, one can make use of the census definition, but this is limited to the quantitative measure. For lack better classification, the ruralurban dichotomy continues to be used. Some sociologist have related the rural communities to familistic Gemeinschaft and the urban community to the Gesellschaft. Among the indices used by sociologist to show rural-urban differences are occupation, size, and density of population, homogeneity or heterogeneity of culture, social differentiation and stratification, social mobility, type of social interaction, and solidarity. In some Western societies like the US, the distinction 423

between rural and urban communities is becoming blurred with the growth of suburbia and the increasing urbanization of rural life. Improved transportation and communication are breaking down the differences between rural and communities. Rural Culture and Social Structure Rural communities are not all alike, but they have some common features. Rural communities are usually small, and people are engaged in agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining, food gathering, and peasants. Peasants are rural folks who produced their own food for subsistence and sell their surplus in the towns and cities. They are source of labor and goods of landlords and officials of the state. Peasantry is associated with commercialization. Peasants differ from farmers in industrialized societies who rely upon the market to exchange crops for almost all the goods and services they need (Ember and Ember 1977:256, 463-437). Peasants are not only rural cultivators; they may also be fisherfolks, artisan, and workers who share the same way of life of cultural orientation as the cultivators. Population density is low and the human-to-land ratio is small, an aspect which affects the natures of social interaction. Although there are few contacts, primary group relations prevail and relationships are personal and intimate. The family and the kinship group play a dominant role. Communal activities are common , and cooperation, both informal and formal, is shown in being helpful to a neighbor and sharing each others work. Informal borrowing and lending of both cash and materials goods is still practiced. Strong mutual aid relations and neighborliness – the Gemeinschaft spirit – prevail. 424

Competitions may be seen among those jockeying for political, religious, or cultural positions, or in the struggle for control over land. Cleavages and factionalism also present, and conflicts occasionally breakout in the interfamily and interpersonal strife. The low population density affects the rural institutions. Social institutions are generally small in membership, not highly specialized, and less distinct. The activities of the family, school, economic institutions, and the church are usually interrelated. Locals leadership is influenced by the size of the rural group in that the leaders are usually chosen with reference to personal qualities that conform to local values (Nelson 1955:22). Low population density and cultural homogeneity result in less urban counterparts. There are fewer social classes and no extremes of wealth. Social differentiation is slight, as individuals and families come in contact with members of the occupation and religious groups. Social status is determined by birth and by the personal qualities of the individual. Horizontal mobility or migration to urban areas is evident, especially of young people and of females. This deprives the area of the creativity, vigor, and industry of the youth. Social control operates through folkways and ores, and is commonly used in the form of gossip, public opinion, and social ostracism. Members of rural communities are more dependent on traditions and cultural heritage than those from urban areas. The cultural advantages are few; art centers, museums, universities, and theatres are rare. Modern facilities, such as running water sewage disposal, electricity, and communications, are limited if not absent in some remote places. On the whole, it may be said 425

that the rural culture is homogenous and that culture change is slow in the rural areas. Rural Communities in the Philippines The Philippines is divided into 16 administrative regions, 79 provinces, 113 cities, 1496 municipalities, and 41,994 barangays. As of year 2000, the population was estimated to be 52.4% of the total population, with the remaining 47% assumed by the urban population (NSO). The Philippines is, thus, still predominantly rural. As Gelia Castillo (1979) put it, the Philippines is “a land of barrios”. These barrios are considered the backbone of the nation, because they provide urban areas with food and raw materials for industry. The term “rural community” is usually associated with the barrio of yore. The images that comes to mind are the idyllic scenes of rolling hills, majestic mountains, meandering streams of rivers, swaying bamboo and coconuts, verdant forest, somnolence and monotony, and simple, unassuming, gentle folks. But such picture is not anymore true. Social changes are taking place in the barrios, and in some places barrio life is not as peaceful as it used to be. Mountains and forest have been denuded, rivers and streams silted and polluted, and birds and animals decimated by hunters. Since the Commonwealth period, the thrust of government administration has been the development of the rural communities; yet, until now, majority of rural folks remain poor. In the past, houses in the barrios were mostly made of nipa and bamboo, which were raised about two to three meters from the ground. At present, most of the houses have galvanize iron roofs 426

and wooden or concrete walls. Water either comes from a spring or an open or artesian well. Piped water is available in barrios, especially those near the poblacion. The fuel used is firewood, kerosene gas, or electricity. Toilet facilities may be an open pit, a public toilet, or the flush or water sealed type. The barrio is people by simple folks, characterized by primary group relations and Gemeinschaft interactions. Although usually characterized as well-knit and having a high degree of group feeling, there also exists intergroup or interfamilial rivalry and factionalism. The unifying force in the barrio is maintained by attitudes, personality traits and habits developed within the family. The clustering of homes in some communities strengthens groups consciousness and kinsfolk, usually work together in the fields and embark on collective projects, such as the construction of local school building or community centers (Abueva 1969:22) In the contrast to city folk, rural people have closer contact with the soil and other forces of nature. Their existence comes from their closeness to nature, whose vicissitudes, like typhoons, drought, or plagues they have to meet. They usually attributed calamities to a supernatural power beyond their control. They have rites before planting, to ensure a bountiful harvest, and after harvesting, to thank the Almighty for the crops produced. Recreational facilities and cultural activities are limited. The usual leisure activities of men are drinking tube or beer and gambling. Young men play basketball, baseball, or sipa, or also engage in drinking. Occasionally, there may be a pool or billiard table. The elder men usually engage in cockfighting; some of them own and train fighting cocks. Women and girls usually visit their 427

neighbours, do needle work, read books, and magazines, or play bingo and checkers. People also bet in jueteng. Communication media consist of newspapers, magazines and comics, and radios. The few wealthy residents own television sets. Many roads are dirt and feeder roads covered with gravel and sand; now and then, one finds asphalt or concrete roads. Lynch’s (1975) study of a barrio in Bicol showed two social classes; the upper and lower classes. The upper class, which constitutes a small portion of the population, is made up of the wealthy landowners, the patrons, and some barrio officials –the “big people”. The lower class which constitutes the bulk of the population is made up of the workers and laborer or the “small people”. Lynch points out that a kind of symbolic relationship exists between the big people and the small people, with the wealthy playing the paternalistic role of providing the material needs of the latter , and the poor giving in return loyalty and manual service. This functional relational relationship works to maintain community stability. Jane Margold’s (1989:38-45) study of Awanen, a farming and fishing community in a coastal municipality in the Ilocos Region, revealed a class hierarchy with the villagers stratified into three levels of poverty: the least poor, the moderate poor, and the poorest. Eight families, considered as least poor, were described by other villagers as rich. The criteria used were land tenure, degree of access to the means of making a living (land, cash, labor, livestock, farming, or fishing implements, and technical skills), house ownership or rental, and possession of consumer goods (radio, clock, television, and a store). 428

Despite their unassuming ways, most barrio folks goal and aspirations center on education, lands, jobs, animals, crops, tools, and peace (Pal 1973; Guthrie 1970; Castillo 1979). Most would like to see their children finish schooling, find a job, have their own home lot, get rich, and gain some recognition. A few do not have aspirations, because they it is hopeless to aspire for anything since they are in such a miserable condition Spatial Patterns of Philippine Communities Settlement patterns, in a way, reveal the human being. This is the relationship between the natural environment and the social structure resulting in an arrangement of dwellings, buildings, and other physical structures related to their social life. In the Philippines, the general Settlement pattern may be divided into two: the nucleated type and the dispersed type (University of Chicago Philippines Studies Program 1956:376-382). The nucleated type is shown in the poblacion with the agglomerated barrios. This is common in Central Luzon where the people are engaged in wet-rice agriculture. Also using wet-rice agriculture are the segmented lineal communities found along roads and rivers in Luzon and the sugar haciendas, which are large communities with a population of over five million. The pineapple plantations and mixed garden farms of Bulkidnon and the Lake Lanao areas are another type of nucleated community. Common here is the data-centered pattern com-posed of small groupings built around a mosque. They engage in dry upland agriculture and follow the data. The dispersed type of settlement consists of a cluster of sitios, where houses are dispersed along the rivers or in the middle of the field. This pattern of settlement is common in the Visayas, especially in Southern Negros and Iloilo. Settlement patterns are affected by the terrain, the type of crops raised, and the social organization. 429

These patterns are now undergoing subtle but far-reaching changes. Gradually, internal migration trends have led population treks from small rural areas to the urban areas. The Rural Family The family is the basic social unit of society and an important socializing agency. In the rural areas, there are more nuclear than extended families (Chapter 10). A newly married couple may stay with either family for a while, until they can stand on their own. The family continually relates to the couple by offering guidance and ad-vice. The family of orientation is held together by strong blood ties. This influence is considered important in the choice of marital partners, friends, or even godparents. Genealogical ties are looked into for possible signs of weakness, 'immorality, and other defects in the family (Medina 1991:18). The family is bilateral, with close ties usually maintained with both sides of the family. The couple can choose where to reside after marriage, either with the bride's or the groom's family, or independently of either family. Hence, in terms of fesidence, the family is either bilocal or neolocal. While the husband and wife have more or less equal authority, the man is considered the head, the guardian, the breadwinner, and protector, while the mother is the keeper of the house, the treasurer, and manager of domestic affairs. Children are within the protective mantle of the family. Children are expected to love, obey, and respect their parents. All children, irrespective of sex, inherit property equally, although there are cases where offsprings experience conflict over the division. Joint decisions by husband and wife are usually made on issues such as children's schooling and discipline, house improvement, purchase of appliances, family business or investment, and choice of vocation 430

(Porio 1974; Mendez and Jocano 1974; Gonzales and Hollnsteiner 1976). The family has immediate neighbors or kapitbahay to which they have interlocking social interactions. The magIcapitbahay help each other in times of crisis, economic needs, and social and religious activities (Imam 1998:49). An individual also has a circle of effective or potentially effective relatives, or magkamaganak, who play a vital role in their life. The individual and siblings are linked to kins coming from both their paternal and maternal sides. People are related to one another in some kind of kinship or blood ties. The membership is not stable but changes at times as in the case of death; others may move out of the barangay or town. The relations are familistic, and there is strong dependence on the family. The strong feeling of family loyalty usually leads to nepotism, lack of self-reliance, and indifference to welfare institutions or parasitism. However, the kin relationship is characterized by the traditional obligations and expectations. Castillo (1979:17) holds that the extended family serves as the basis for social interactions, as well as social insurance for family members. Assistance given by family members can be in the form of farm work and household chores, financing the education of children, extension of cash loans and aid in times of family illness, and sharing rice and other farm products. Norms govern these relationships, and assistance takes place on a reciprocal basis. Social sanctions are applied on parasites, whose life can be made un-comfortable. Some of the traditional practices regarding courtship still persist, although changes have taken place. Serenading, a traditional practice to court a girl, is gradually disappearing. Calling on her is 431

a more accepted practice. Chaperoning is still observed, as chastity is a trait highly valued among unmarried woman. An illegitimate birth will bring scandal and shame to the family. The giving of dowry (bigay-kaya) and parental arrangement, which had their beginnings in pre-Spanish timer, still exist in some form, although they are no longer rigidly observed in many areas. The bigay-kaya may consist of money, a piece of land, or a gift given by the man to the girl's parents. It usually entails some kind of negotiation and bargaining. In case the man cannot afford to give what is asked of him, he renders service in the girl's house for a period extending from a few weeks to a few months. This is a gauge of his industry. Rural Economy The 2000 Philippine Census counts the total population at 76,498,735. Of this number, about 27.6 million or 36% live in poverty. The government estimates the per capita poverty threshold to be P13, 823 per annum. Majority of the poor people live in rural areas and squatter settlements in urban areas. The 2000 Family Income Expenditure Survey (FIES) revealed that the total number of families in the country increased to 15.26 mil-lion from 14,19 million in 1997. According to Castillo (1993:67) most poor households live in the rural areas and are engaged in agricultural enterprises. Remittances from overseas workers have emerged as a source of income for 88% of families. This shows the important role played by rural-urban, rural-rural, and international migration of male and female household members in search of economic opportunities. The farmers are the poorest in the country, and there is a large economic gap 432

between the farmers and non-farmers. Not readily discernible among the farming population is that many do not have a rural residence; they live in the urban areas, probably the poblacion. So, if there is a rural non-farming household, there is also an urban farming household. Farmers have an average of 6.5 children. Parents like to have many children as they are sources of labor. Children help their parents in various chores at home and in the farm. They also provide support during old age. If they had a choice, parents would prefer their children not to be farmers. Instead, they want their children to have a college education as a way out of farming and into white-collar occupation. Despite the economic growth in the 1970s, there were no substantial, gains in the rural areas. The massive investments in industry and infrastructure facilities, the locus of administrative and political power, and the broader environment in the cities attracted labor and deprived rural areas of development resources. The adoption of modern technology in agriculture benefited mainly the middle-level and large farms. Small farmers are left behind, and their principal occupation is limited to subsistence food crop production. Those who could not find work migrated to the cities (Lewes 1979:19). The plight of small fisherfolks is no better than those of the small-scale farmers. A study made by Ardales and David (1986:62-63) of small-scale and subsistence fisherfolks in Iloilo province revealed conditions of dire poverty. Their median income was only P218 per month. Among the poorest of the poor, the monthly income was P65. Their daily food consisted of rice and fish. They were engaged in fishing seasonally and irregularly, and used traditional fishing techniques. Their household was large, averaging 7 members, 433

living in poor housing conditions. Their low educational attainment contributed to their poor quality of life. Tacio (2000:25) gives an account of poor people occupying upland areas in Mindanao. These areas are slopes ranging from 18° and above where both agriculture and forestry are practiced. Their homes are made of bamboo and tree barks, with roofs made of grass. They get water from mountain springs or streams. The poor farmers have insecure land tenure and have become victims of powerful outsiders seeking cheap labor, land, minerals, and timber resources. The influx of people to the uplands has depleted forests and degraded the upland economic system. To augment income, some rural folks take on a second job or trade. The nomenclature for this is 'moonlighting' or 'occupational multiplicity'. Costello (1997:64-88) reviewed studies on occupational multiplicity and analyzed these within the context of rural development patterns in the Third World. However, occupational multiplicity is also practiced in the more developed countries and not only by the lower classes. Farming and fishing are the common occupations in the rural areas; but the income they derive from this is meager. Farmers and fisherfolks are among the poorest in the country. The study by Kerkvliet (1980) of Bukiran, a village in Central Luzon, revealed that very few households rely on the meager returns of their farm. The well-to-do, as well as the poor, besides planting and plowing, also forage, buy and sell, hire out as laborers, raise and sell pigs, and find other ways to earn cash. Data from the Philippine Census of Agriculture show an increase of the percentage of farmers employed in non-agricultural jobs, from, 17.7% in 1970 to 59.9% in 1980. Ecological settings and time 434

periods encourage occupational multiplicity. In Negros and Panay, recession ensued when the sugar prices plunged. As an adaptive response, workers searched for additional employment. However, occupational multiplicity is not limited to the rural poor. As Kerkvliet (1980:33) pointed out, the poor get other jobs to get by day-to-day or week-to-week. The wealthy have diversified jobs in order to accumulate wealth. Fegan (1982: 43) wrote that farm workers have an insecure life. In colloquial Filipino language, this existence is isang kahig, isang tuka (literally one scratch, one peck or hand-to-mouth existence). Family members take on any job possible—as vendors, number runners in jueteng; selling fodder to buffalo owners, and/or combing watercourses for fish, frogs, crabs, and snails. Some get jobs as drivers, policemen, or road workers. Women, aside from household work and work in the fields, raise chickens, pigs, or goats. They hem handkerchiefs, sew shirts, weave fishnets, or vend on borrowed capital for a small profit. Some sell their produce in the city. These are the multiple jobholders of the adaptive type. Usually, these persons are better educated, possess some financial capital, and have hopes of upward mobility. According to David (1979:51), the various "coping strategies utilized by lower status house-holds are not adaptive mechanisms but they are what the poor are mercilessly driven to do." Since the 1970s, foreign and local agribusiness corporations expanded from rice, coconut, and sugarcane to include other cash crops such as banana, pineapple, and coffee. Thus, choice agricultural lands, especially those in Mindanao and Palawan, passed into the bands of agribusiness corporations. The increase in production has not benefited the rural masses, many of whom lost their land. Farm 435

mechanization has displaced a significant number of farmers. The high cost of farm inputs like fertilizers, insecticides, farm tools, and machinery has resulted in low farm profits. All these inputs are manufactured by transnational agribusiness corporations. A study of Del Monte and United Fruit, two major transnational corporations in the banana industry, showed that the penetration of capitalism into agriculture has led to the subordination of small land-owners (Rivera 1983:27-30). With the concentration and centralization of large contiguous fertile lands, the peasants, cultural minorities, and tenants were relegated to a position of subordinates who lost control over any phase of the production process. Hence, the expansion of agribusiness has led to the polarization and wider differentiation between the social classes. Agribusinesses have expanded in some parts of the country; but this has not Rural Cooperatives In 1951, a program on the formation of cooperatives was instituted to help poor farmers. The operation of a cooperative is based on the principle of mutual aid and self-reliance, with members pooling their resources for the common benefit. It is people binding them-selves for a common cause by putting together their money and energy and helping one another. According to Encamacion (1992:7), cooperatives are rural organizations to improve the plight of the farmers in the countryside. As government-initiated organizations, they were seen as channels for government assistance to the rural areas and to serve as instrument for counter insurgency. In 1952; the Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing Administration (ACCFA) was created primarily to assist small farmers get liberal credit; it subsequently became the Agricultural Credit Administration (ACA) in 1963. To help farmers sell their 436

products without having to employ agents, the government also established Farmers Cooperative Marketing Associations (FACOMA). These associations, failed because of weak government supervision and management; many loans were not paid and, hence, the cooperatives lost money. Other farmer cooperatives were organized since the 1950s but only a few of these still exist. With the Agrarian Reform Program revitalized in 1972, the cooperative movement was revived. The Samahang Nayon, a barrio association of farmers registered with the Bureau of Cooperatives Development, was envisioned to be the building block of full-fledged cooperatives. As years went by, the proponents of the cooperative movement and the farmers gradually lost interest in the program. Again, during the term of Pres. Aquino, cooperatives were given a boost. She encouraged people's participation, and 'empowerment' became a buzzword in government policies and programs. Non-government organizations (NG0s) were allowed to participate in the conceptualization and deliberation of the 1990 Cooperative Code. Cooperatives were envisioned to promote self-reliance and harness people's power for economic development and social justice. NGOs assisted people's organizations (POs) in setting up cooperatives by providing training and lending seed money in order to facilitate social transformation and empowerment (Afionuevo 1992:44). The Cooperative Code of the Philippines (enacted March 10, 1990) offers incentives to cooperatives and sets up mechanisms to ensure their success. Foremost among these incentives are tax exemptions, exemptions from payments of court and sheriff fees, and exemptions from putting up an appeal bond when appealing a decision of an inferior court. 437

Despite some achievements during the past 15 years, the cooperative movement is still far from being successful and stable. This may be attributed to the following reasons: weak institutional structures for providing sustained cooperative education and training; absence of a formal system to meet the financial growth needs of cooperatives; lack of qualified cooperative managers and a system for recruiting and training for such positions; lack of a long-term capital buildup program; inadequate incentives from the government to encourage cooperative extension; and the negative effect of government policies particularly in delivering agricultural credit and pricing policies (Rolda 1991:98-100). Moreover, the government policy allowing NGOs to organize cooperatives without outlining appropriate policies and regulations has hurt the movement. In some cases, NGOs organized cooperatives as an excuse to get foreign grants. However, there are also success stories of cooperatives. Ac-cording to Ernesto Bautista (quoted in Miralao 1992:104), certain factors for a successful cooperative include: 1) Business orientation: cooperatives which are more oriented towards the business side of their activities tend to become more successful; 2) Diversification in activities: cooperatives which are more diversified tend to be more successful than those with limited activities; 3) Leadership: a competent leader is one who is dynamic and charismatic; 4) Sufficient internally generated funds: this allows the cooperative to function on a long-term and sustainable basis; 5) Correct policy environment: this includes credit assistance from the government and economic policies conducive for the development of economic activities.

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Rural Government The barangay, or balangay as it was originally called, has its roots in pre-Spanish times. The barangay, later called barrio, was the basic political unit during the Spanish colonial period. It implemented the rural communities programs, policies, plans, and activities of the central government. This arrangement was continued during the American colonial regime. The barrio was under the charge of a member of the Municipal Council. Political autonomy was extended with the passage of the Barrio Council Act of 1956 and the Revised Barrio Charter of 1963. The Charter provided for the formation of a barrio council, with a barrio captain and six councilors functioning as an executive and legislative body. This aimed to facilitate direct participation of the rural masses in local and national politics. During the period of Martial Law, Pres. Marcos decreed the creation of barangays or citizen assemblies in every barrio, municipality, and district in chartered cities. The objective was to broaden the base of citizens' participation in the democratization' process and in the discussion of national issues. However, Pres. Marcos used the barangay to strengthen political structures, particularly during election time. Rola - (1991:71) observed that the barangay became executive centrist. Decisions were made by the barangay chairperson and councilors, landowners, or agency representatives. People were merely consulted, or sometimes just informed of decisions made. During the May 11, 1987 election, a change in the voting behavior was noted. Some observers pointed out a reduction in the practices of vote-buying, political patronage, and of ward leaders fetching their followers from their homes to vote. There was a considerable increase in the percentage of the voting population, which may be an indication of the growing political awareness in 439

the barangay level. This phenomenon was referred to as the 'new politics.' In the election of May 11, 1992, what was noticeable was the tendency of some voters to break away from the traditional candidates and favor those from the entertainment industry. In fact, three personalities from the entertainment industry garnered top places in the 1992 senatorial election. However, the practice of patronage politics continues, and grease money is still used. Vote-buying is still practiced; voters are still swayed and entertained. More than ever, political campaigns are designed to have a fiesta atmosphere. In the 1998 elections, most of the ruralites voted for Joseph Estrada for president. He was hailed as a movie hero and they identified with him in his various roles. They looked at him as simple and approachable, and sympathetic to their plight. In a study of Azanza, entitled Dynamics of Choices among Voters in the Lakeshore Barangays of Laguna (1990), the following were observed: 1. Except for members of the Iglesia ni Cristo, voters will not be swayed by the sect or church to which they belong in the choice of their candidates. 2. The financial or economic status of a candidate is a factor considered by voters. Since political leadership in the rural areas is considered as taking charge of the people as a whole; one who is not an economic success, is viewed as running for employment and not for service. 3. About one-third of the respondents answered that they would accept money from a candidate. This implies that two440

thirds or the majority of the respondents cannot be bought and are aware that it is wrong to sell their votes. Referring to the 2002 barangay and Sangguniang Kabataan elections, Roces (2002:9) wrote, "i.e barangay elections are very important. For the barangay is the original cradle and home of democracy. It is our republic in miniature." This is a tribute to the local folks who, even if they are poor and unlettered, can select their local officials and put democracy to work. A boon to the barangays and other local units is the passage of the Local Government Code in 1991 Considered a landmark legislation, the law transfers to the local government some powers of central government which relate to agricultural finance, health, education, public works, and peace and order. It provides for the formation of Pambansang Katipunan ng Barangay. (PKB) or National Federation of Barrio Councils as umbrella organization of the country's 42, barrio councils. The PKB's development programs and projects wit be implemented, monitored, and evaluated through the barangays. Resources are provided for provinces, cities, municipalities, an barangays. The share of local governments from the national even during the Marcos era was 7%. This was increased to 11% by the Aquino administration. The new Code authorized a further increase to 30% in 1992 and to 40% in 2000. Local governments are entitled to an equitable share of the proceeds from the use and development of national wealth or natural resources located in their respective areas. People are also empowered to recall inept or corrupt locally elected officials. They have the right to initiate legislation and participate in local special bodies such as health boards, school boards, and award committees. 441

The devolution of central government powers to local officials was designed to strengthen democracy and contribute to the modernization of the nation. Through this Code, local governments are to be 'liberated' from the central government in Manila and can now under-take development projects and programs suited to their needs and explore the economic potentials of their locality. The creativity, local initiative, and selfreliance of the barangay will be brought to a test. However, after over a decade of implementation, the process of decentralization is slow. Papers for some projects still have to be fol-lowed up in Metro Manila. Decision-making on funds for local projects has been slow, and funds are usually inadequate. Rural Education Most people in the rural areas dream that their children will achieve a college education, as they believe that a college degree is the means for a better social status and life. It is a sad commentary that education in the rural areas cannot guarantee this. Usually, one finds only a six-grade elementary' school or, at best, a community high school in the barangay. For a college education, one has to go to the poblacion or a major city. Many elementary schools are not accessible to pupils in rural areas. Some remote barangays have no school at all. School buildings are small and dilapidated; often, these can accommodate only Grades 1 and 2 school children. Rural areas lack teachers; and some assigned there appear incompetent and conduct lessons in uninteresting ways. Various programs and measures have been undertaken to improve the quality of education in rural areas. A significant move was the development of the community school, which was intended to meet the people's needs and problems 442

through the integration of learning with living. At the elementary level, there is school and community work and school and home gardening projects. At the secondary level, there is an expanded version of the cooperative scheme. The model is the school and farm family projects. Most of these linkages at the elementary and secondary curriculum are done informally and are loosely organized (Carillo 1992:30). Changes in the elementary and secondary curriculum have been made with the intention of inculcating a healthy sense of work values. In 1969, barangay high schools were instituted to provide high school education for all. The program aimed to solve the problem of dropouts due to the distance between school and home. Thus, the barangay council was authorized to organize a low-cost secondary school whenever at least 40 students in the barrio are available to constitute a class. The new Barrio Development School was organized so that the graduates and the school can formulate and enact programs that would contribute to improving rural life. This was intended for youths who decide to stay, live, and work in the barrio. The curriculum includes supervised farming programs as the core of instruction, supplemented by subjects on production and agriculture, tool subjects (language us-age, applied arithmetic, applied science, and farm economics), and citizenship subjects. Another type of high school offers the 2-2 plan curriculum, where students take the same subjects in the first two years and select between a college preparatory or a vocational curriculum in the third- and fourth-year levels (Castillo 1979: 164-166). In particular, Muslim and cultural minority communities suffer from neglect. Madrasa schools have low quality education, and their textbooks 443

and instructional materials are irrelevant to their culture: These schools lack funds and teachers. Tribal Filipinos' need for education has hardly been met due to irrelevant curriculum and instructional materials and teachers who are unfamiliar with the ways of the tribal groups. For the majority of the rural youth, a high school education is a cul-de-sac. A select few pursue college in urban centers and then stay there as no job opportunities exist in their home barangay. Consequently, rural areas lose their college graduates. More, the school calendar does not take into consideration the planting or harvest season and the market days when all of the community's human resources are not attended. Unless these deficiencies and shortcomings are corrected, the rural populace will continue to lag behind their urban counterparts. Rural Religion Majority of the people in rural areas are Roman Catholics but people of other religions concentration in some regions. In the north, a large number adhere to the Aglipayan religion and, in the south, to the Islam faith. Many Catholics do not understand the church's doctrines and are more interested in its rituals, symbols, and artifacts. Christianity has not been accepted en-toto but has been fused with indigenous belief systems. This situation, called 'Folk Catholicism,' is discussed in the chapter on Religion. Among the Muslims in Mindanao, like the Jama Mapun, the official Islamic doctrines and practices have been modified to suit local practices and rituals. These rituals and ceremonies relate to the life cycle of 444

birth, baptism, circumcision, marriage, and death. In addition, the rituals connected with the annual cycle of planting and harvesting persist. The traditional system of ethics, legends, and ritual observances continue to exert influence upon the general system of morality (Casino 1967:34-48). In some places, the church has embarked on social action and the promotion of rural development. Pacho and Mariano (1975:113-135) cite the case of the Abra diocese which has cooperated with the government in putting up rural projects such as drinking water and irrigation systems, rice and corn mills, and a suspension bridge. This work is in consonance with the church ideal of human development by satisfying the basic human needs. In some rural communities, Basic Ecclesiastical Communities (BEC) have been organized. These are groups composed of about 10 to 100 families, or even a whole barangay, en-gaged in community prayers and worship through a mass or a priestless Sunday service. Other activities include catechism, family life pro-grams, and concerted actions for justice, ecological preservation, and peace (Bacani 1988: 75276). To the rural folks, religion is a means of coping with life's problems and major crises. It also offers opportunities for socializing and engaging in social action programs. Rural Recreation and the Fiesta In rural communities, leisure time consists of visiting and chatting with friends. Panguingue and other card games are common diversions for women, cockfighting and jueteng for men. Mahjong, bingo, arid checkers are becoming popular in barrios near the poblacion. Young boys engage in competitive games like 445

basketball, baseball, volleyball, and sipa. Sungka is played by girls and young women. Marriage, baptism, and death provide occasions for people to gather. Movies popularized by commercial mobile units are sometimes brought to the barrios. Otherwise, the folks go to the poblacion to see a movie. A number of families have transistor radios, and the more affluent ones own television sets. In 1987, 78% of residents in the rural areas had radios, and 24% owned television sets (Jamias 1991:135). The fiesta is a socio-religious activity which is always looked forward to by rural folks. It is an annual celebration in honor of the local patron saint. Preparations for the celebration perks up the people and breaks the humdrum life in the barrio. The community buzzes with activities centering on the nine-day novena and masses, preparation for stage shows, the selection of a barrio queen, and possibly a dance. The chapel is spruced up or a temporary structure is built with some families contributing money or other material goods. Houses are re-paired, cleaned, and decorated. Curtains, cushions, and the best china are brought out. To top all these, a lavish feast is prepared to which families and friends from near and far are invited. In addition to its religious and social functions, the fiesta serves as an occasion for a merrymaking. Fiestas and weddings become occasions for merrymaking as well as family reunion. The fiesta is a status symbol — the more lavish the fiesta and the more important the guests, the higher is the status conferred to a barrio family. However, it can be dysfunctional as it drains the economic resources of the members of the community. Nevertheless, when the fiesta is over, the people look forward to the next one in the following year. 446

Rural Health and Nutrition The barrio has been rhapsodized as a healthy place to live in because of its fresh air, open spaces, and its fresh fruits and vegetables. However, the state of health and nutrition in rural areas shows a different image. Children, as well as adults, die of respiratory, gastrointestinal, and communicable diseases; there is an alarming incidence of malnutrition despite the increase in food production. Food and Nutrition Research Institute surveys in 1960, 1970, and 1982 reveal that pre-school children suffer from severe malnutrition. A joint study on the situation of women and children made by the Philippine government and the United Nations Children's Fund revealed an increase in poverty rate among Filipino families, from 49.3% in 1971 to 59.3% in 1985. The rural incidence was at 64%. Since low food consumption and the consequent malnutrition are related to poverty, the number of rural people nutritionally-at-risk is estimated at 5.7 million. These house-holds were below the $1-day per capita food threshold. The nutritionally-at-risk rural households are those of the hunters, loggers, the small-subsistence or hired fisherfolk, and the seasonally hired farm workers. These families live in substandard dwellings, with unsanitary surroundings and unsafe water supply (Dacanay and Corcolon 1991:169-170 175). Health services are concentrated in the cities, to the neglect of the rural areas where majority of the people live. There is a low ratio of doctor, midwife, and dentist per resident in the remote barrios. In far flung areas, greater trust is placed on herbolarios (herbal medicine practitioners) and faith healers. People who live near the poblacion arrange for exposure programs so that medical practitioners are ex-posed to the essential aspects of rural health 447

delivery services. However, these have been mere palliatives rather than a real and positive approach to improving the country's rural human resources (Reforma 1977:156-175). The tradition of Philippine health care was patterned after the US, which is characterized by a low budget government sector to take care of a large number of indigent and the commercial private sector to provide services to the rich. Rural Health Units (RHU), composed of one doctor, a nurse, a midwife, and a sanitary inspector, constitute the principal arm of the Department of Health. There is one RHU for every 30,000 rural inhabitants. Health NGOs have been engaged in providing health services to the poor (Tan 1993:111). The martial law period ushered in a wave of radicalization in viewpoints. NGOs questioned the traditional approach to correct the increasing social inequalities. The Rural Missionaries of the Philippines, together with health professionals in three Catholic dioceses of Ilagan, Tacloban, and Iligan, set up the first community-based health program (CBHP), using China's barefoot doctors as a model. Health professionals were persuaded to change the elitist, Western-based health care system to one which is mass-based, nationalistic and democratic. They held the view that ill-health is due to social inequality which, in turn, arises from imperialism, feudalism, and bureaucratic capitalism. Primary health care (PHC) was an extensive strategy to direct energies to the social, economic, and political aspects of poor health. It also stressed community participation in the primary health programs involving the training of barangay health workers. In 1980, the Council for Primary Health Care was established as a national coordinating body for the 86 CBHPs and 448

the diverse health workers dealing with the many issue's of health and development. Innovations in health practices and the use of medicinal plants were advocated. During the term of Pres. Aquino, NGOs supported the Generic Act which was intended to lower drug prices. A National Drug Policy was crafted. There are also Rural Improvement Clubs, composed of mothers who are actively involved in farm management, nutrition related pro-grams, health care, and education. They are oriented to utilize indigenous resources and institutions in supporting intervention programs (Iglesias et al. 1985:25). In the 1990s, there were renewed efforts to restore health care to the people. Organizing activities in the villages continued and, in the process, raised the issue of whether to use the comprehensive or vertical approach. The vertical approach focused on particular ailments such as acute respiratory infection, diarrhea, or HIV/AIDS prevention. There were also debates on issues such as the responsibilities and roles that must be taken by the government, commercial private sectors, and NG0s. Activist health NGOs have introduced many changes. Whether they will remain effective and maintain their position in an era of rapid and political changes remains to be seen. (Excerpted from Michael L. Tan, The Development of Health NGOs in the Philippines: A Socio-Historical Review. Philippine Sociological Review, 41 [Nos. 1-4] Jan. Dec. 1993: 111-122.) In a research to determine availment of maternal health care services on three barangays — a farming community, a fishing community and combination farming and fishing community in Leyte, Lamberto (1991:56-82) found out that residents utilized health care services especially those provided by the public sector. They frequented the rural health units (RHU) for preventive health care 449

and treatment. They also received immunization, family planning methods, medical advice, pre-and postnatal care. Most expressed satisfaction with the services because of the perceived competence of RHU staff, especially the midwives, as well as their accommodating and nurturing approach. A few expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of the available medicines or drugs at the RHU and the inaccessibility of the doctor. Very few • consult the herbolarios, but a considerable number sought treatment from the hilots. The middle and upper classes availed of the services of private doctors. Rural Change and Rural Development Rural development has been an area of concern of both government and non-government organizations for the past four decades. The bulk (63%) of the total Philippine labor force, which includes workers in mining, transport, and market enterprises in agriculture, forestry, and fishing areas, are based in the rural areas. However, rural areas continue to lag behind Metro Manila and other urban centers. In the 1950s, community development programs were initiated to uplift the rural areas and bring about a change in the people's attitudes an way of life. As conceived by the government, these would create conditions of economic and social progress for the whole community, largely upon the initiative of the people. The essence was self-help in order to increase productivity. The Presidential Ann on Community Development (PACD), the Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement (PRRM), and the International Institute for Rural Reconstruction undertook community development programs. The PIRRM was established as a volunteer organization by Dr. 450

Y.C. James Yen and an influential group of private citizens during the period of Huk uprisings in the 1950s. Yen called for service to the• people and nation-building through the upliftment of rural communities. Most volunteers were idealistic young people who worked in the barrios to help the village folks organize associations, cooperatives, and health centers. The PRRM emphasized the role of the people as agents, of change in their own lives and of the nation. Agricultural extension services were used to stimulate change by disseminating information on practices and skills. Cooperative and credit movements were also undertaken. PRRM later developed alternative mechanisms for technology transfer, which combined livelihood, education, health, and self-government in an integrated program for people empowerment (Morales 1989 cited by Jamias 1991:131). In the 1960s, the focus was on single community programs, which were production oriented. The Green Revolution was launched with experiments on new rice varieties. This involved the shift from the production of traditional varieties of rice to high-yielding varieties. The primacy of technology was the main characteristic of the program. The Masagana 99 rice production was initiated in the late 1960s and showed the package program approach. It consisted of packages of inputs to increase farm output. Performance was well-monitored. This approach achieved self-sufficiency in rice and was applied later to corn, livestock, and other commodities. However, this approach is considered a short-range and expensive response to crises such as a commodity shortage. Farm efficiency can be achieved only if the farmers are educated or skilled and self-reliant. In the 1970s,' the Integrated Rural Development (IRD) used strategies toenhance and integrate programs and projects in an area having 451

functional linkages, resource utilization, access to basic services, and local participation in the planning and implementation process and integrated with the national goals and objectives (Lawas 1979:21). The integrated rural development concept focused on the development of planned settlements which contained facilities and services to enhance people's well-being and answer their basic needs. Notable examples are the River Basin Development Programs, such as the Upper Pampanga River Basin Project, Bicol River Basin Development, the Cagayan Valley Project, the Job o Resettlement project, the Mindoro Integrated Rural Development Project, and the Second Rural Development and Settlement Project in Bukidnon. " In 1978, the College of Agriculture of the University of the Philip-pines in Los Banos launched the Countryside Action Programs which pilot-tested extension models for agriculture and rural development. These were supported by the National Food and Agricultural Council (NFAC) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food. New varieties of rice and corn, improved animal production system, better techniques for soil testing, pest management system, appropriate hilly land farming technology, improved seed support technology, and market systems were developed and disseminated. However, most people were un-prepared to accept and adapt some of the technologies. The program also suffered from the lack of strong local institutions to implement the project. In 1986, a modified extension program, the Agricultural Development Program for the Countryside, was introduced. It was based on self-help and people-oriented community development and aimed to improve the quality of life of the rural poor through 452

socioeconomic projects, increased farm productivity, improved health and nutritional status, and the involvement of rural folks in the projects (Davide 1991:179-181). Various government agencies aim to support rural development: to increase the productive assets of the poor in the rural areas; to increase the flow of income to the people; to provide social services and satisfy basic needs, and; to promote people and community empowerment. However, because these agencies operate independently of each other, their capacity to achieve success is not maximized (De Guzman, Carada, and Brillantes 1991:191). In 1998, the Department of Labor and Employment launched the Rural Works Program through which infrastructure and reforestation jobs are given to the poor in the rural areas: This is done with the help of the local government units, NG0s, sociocivic groups, and trade unions. During the term of Pres. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, GMA programs (Ginintuang Masaganang Ani - Countryside Assistance for Rural Employment and Services) were launched to assist agricultural workers and empower small farmers and fisherfolk. The program centers on job creation and credit provision without requiring collateral. Despite all these attempts, however, the gap between the rich and the poor is still wide. Most people in rural areas remain poor. Much is still to be done to raise the people's quality of life. Summary People have always lived in communities. A community may be viewed as a social organization or a social process. A community is a social grouping where members carry on a common interdependent life and share commodities or bonds. One can look into the ecology of the community, i.e., the study of 453

individuals and their facilities in relation to the environment and the spatial relationship between them. Communities are usually classified into rural and urban. In highly industrialized societies, the distinction between the two becomes blurred Sociologists use other criteria like occupation, population density, social interaction, social stratification, social differentiation, and social unity. Rural communities are often small. The occupations of the people are farming, fishing, forestry, supplemented by cottage industries. There is low person-to-land ratio; which affects the type of social interaction, social institutions, social stratification, and unity. The Philippines is predominantly rural and consists of barrios (now barangay), considered as the 'backbone of the nation.' The general patterns of the rural communities are of the nucleated and dispersed types of settlement patterns. In rural areas, families are usually nuclear consanguine, bilateral, and either bilocal or neolocal. A high incidence of poverty prevails. Despite the introduction of modern technology, the lot of most farmers has not changed. An emerging issue in Philippine agriculture is the expansion of big agribusiness corporations whose increased production and profit sometimes come at the expense of small farmers. Cooperatives have been established to help poor farmers, but these did not fare well. Agrarian reform has also been instituted and was considered the centerpiece of both Marcos's as well as Aquino's administrations. Despite some success stories, the programs have been severely criticized for its slow implementation. Political autonomy was given to the barrios with the passage of the Barrio Council Act and later the Revised Barrio Charter. Substantial gains in 454

autonomy have been realized with the adoption of the Local Government Code in 1991, which devolved powers to local governments. In education, elementary schools are not accessible to many pupils in some barangays. Dropout rates are higher in the rural than in urban areas. Many college graduates eventually migrate to the urban areas. Majority of the people are Roman Catholics, with the Aglipayan religion predominant in the north and Islam in the south. The fiesta is a socio-religious activity, which breaks the monotony and drabness of barrio life. Health wise, nutrition conditions of the rural folks are deplorable. A great number of children suffer from severe malnutrition. In the past four decades, reforms have been instituted to alleviate poverty in the rural areas. Community Development Programs were initiated in the 1950s to improve conditions for economic and social progress. In the 1 960s, the focus was on productionoriented and single community programs. The Green Revolution was launched, and Masagana 99 rice production was introduced. In the 1970s, the Integrated Rural Development approach was introduced, with the intention of integrating programs and projects in the planning and implementation process. These were later followed by the modified extension program of the Agricultural Development Program for the Country-side. NG0s, private, nonprofit groups, also strive to bring socioeconomic development and service to the rural areas. Dpi .e these, a lot still has to be done to improve the conditions of rural community Study Guide 1. Concepts to master Community Rural community Human ecology 455

2. What is a community? How is a rural community distinguished from an urban community? 3. Discuss the relation between rural culture and social structure. 4. Describe the spatial patterns of rural communities. How does the pattern of Philippine communities fit in? 5. Discuss the characteristics of the various social institutions in the Philippines 6. What is the implication of agrarian reform on rural development? 7. What are the various changes and reforms taking place in rural communities? How have they affected the people? Critical Thinking Questions 1. What can the youth do to uplift the condition of the rural masses? 2. Should the barangay be given more autonomy? Why?

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Chapter 16 URBAN COMMUNITIES Most models used in studying urban communities are derived from the West and are, therefore, difficult to comprehend when applied to Third World countries. Urbanization in the West is different from that in Third World countries, not to mention the differences in cultures and historical experiences. Western cities were established along trade routes, which mean they anticipated population growth and the need for economic goods. Third World urbanization, on the other hand, did not anticipate population growth. In effect, the food resources needed by the growing population were not part of the plan for urbanization. The latter is often referred to as the New Urbanization, where one of the consequences is the growth of slum dwellers who were forced to migrate to the cities because of unemployment. Migration, underemployment, and unemployment are some of problems associated with urbanization. Realidad S Rolda December 8, 2002 Basic Concepts The excerpt above is a commentary on the emergence of a new kind of community called urban community or city. The terms “city” and “urban” are sometimes used interchangeably, but the two concepts are distinct. In social science, urban is used to refer to a quality of life that is typically found in cities. In realty, urban is both a process and a place, as the urban process cannot occur 457

without corresponding resources, population, and economic base (Hawley 1971:8). Urban embraces the whole of organization that is based upon a settlement, which may be a city or something closely resembling a city. Louis Wirth (1938:124) defines a city as a relatively large, dense, and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals. Cities cover a large area, which means that good roads and a public transport system are necessary to enable people to commute from one place to another. Because the area is vast, once cannot meet or know all the other people. Moreover, population density is high, resulting in problems such as traffic congestion, housing shortage, pollution, and garbage disposal. On the positive side, there are amenities like shopping places, pubs, cinemas, restaurants, cafes, clubs, and amusement halls. Cities are made up of people from different ethnic and racial origins, social classes, and religious organizations. This social heterogeneity can create hostility, but it can also create a rich, diverse environment (Calvert 1992:152). Martindale (in Iverson 1984:9) defines city as a geographic area designated by a special name, compromising a large aggregation of people engaged in non-agricultural pursuits, and recognized by its inhabitants and its chartering authority as a city. It is a legally chartered subunit for the contemporary nation state and is characterized by the political, legal, and police powers granted to it. Urban embraces the whole of the organization, which is based upon a center of settlement; it also refers to a process in which special quality of relationships is generated. Raymundo (1983:64) uses the concept or urban in terms of the function in which the rate of urban growth is greater than that of the rural population. 458

The definition of urban area is closely bound up with historical, political cultural and administrative considerations. An area may be defined as urban depending on its size, which varies from one society to another. Other criteria are occupation, density, legal community status, socioeconomic status, and cultural heterogeneity. The culture of the people un urban areas, their patterns of behavior, and their manner of doing things are far from homogenous, and will not likely be so, even with the onset of global communications. They are melting pots of diverse groups and contradictory interests. (Bautista 1998:22). In the Philippines, the National Census and Statistics Office (NCSO) defines urban areas on the basis size and population density. In 1970, the NCSO included other criteria such as distinct street patterns, non-agricultural occupation, and the presence of public and economic establishments. The Local Government Code (1991) refers to urban areas as cities and government centers in municipalities labelled as poblacion. A poblacion is an area of not less than 5,000 square meters where the government center is located. The municipal hall, government buildings, market site, schools, plaza or park, and cemetery are located in the poblacion. The city is composed of more urbanized and developed barangays, which are created, divided, merged, or abolished by an Act of Congress. A city may either be a component or a highly urbanized one. A component city has an average annual income of at least P20,000,000, a population of not less than 150,000, and a contiguous land area of at least 100 square kilometers as certified by a designated office. The territory need not be contiguous if it comprises two or more islands. Highly urbanized cities have a population of at least 200,000, as certified 459

by the National Statistics Office, and an income of at least P50,000, certified by the city treasurer. What is Urbanization? Urbanization is the process of concentrating people within a relatively small geographic area. It is related to social change and growth. From a demographic perspective, it refers to an increase in the number and size of population centers. According to anthropologists, urbanization involves the transfer of tribal, peasant, and other rural populations to urban life-styles. But the transfer from rural to urban communities alone does not make a ruralite an urbanite. It requires a shift in values, attitudes, and behavior that are compatible with local urban patterns and, therefore, requires a long period of time for peasants to internalize an urban life-style. In effect, it is the impact of urban life-styles that enables a migrant to become an urbanite (Rolda 2002). Related to this is what Wirth calls urbanism, which is a way of life and a form of social existence found in cities. Its complex of traits includes a high degree of impersonalism, apathy, cultural heterogeneity, predominance of secular values, and extreme division of labor. In cities, people live in close physical proximity without knowing most of other directly. The contacts between the residents are usually fleeting, superficial, and characterized by competitive relationships, which lead to a sense of alienation and powerlessness (Barker 2000:297-298). Impersonality and secondary relationships do exist in the cities, but studies show that primary relationships and personal integration also develop between kin and non-kin. Urban 460

researches show that physical proximity (neighborhood) is not the important basis of intimacy. Rather, people form intimate networks on the basis of kin, friendships, and work groups. They keep in touch by telephone rather than relying solely on face-toface communications. When they need help, they call on their parents of children. Urbanities have intimates, but they do not necessarily live in the same neighborhood (Brinkerhoff and White 1988:543). Anthropological research demonstrated that while migrants retained their ties with their kin, they also formed groups based on ties of origin, kinship or ethnicity. Migrants often remit their earnings to their families in rural areas who use the money for the education of their siblings, install electricity or construct wells. Urbanization is brought about by the growth of cities. As such, cities are viewed not only as the a dwelling place and workshops of urbanities but also as the initiating and controlling political, cultural, economic, and educational centers. The centers and services offered by the cities have attracted the ruralites. Urbanization in a Historical Perspective The first cities appeared about five or six thousand years ago in the Middle East in Mesopotamia (now Southern Iraq) and Egypt. In Asia, cities were formed in Northwest India in the Indus River Valley (present-day West Pakistan) and in the Yellow River basin in China about 2400 BC. Cities developed in Europe about 2300 BC and the 1900 BC, with Rome as the greatest city. In the New World, cities emerged about 300 BC in Central Mexico. It may be said that cities are a recent development and experience, considering that human beings have been on this earth for the 461

last million or more years. As pointed out by Davis (1980:143), the appearance of cities marks a revolutionary change and the beginning of civilization, as these lay the foundation of later-day civilization. The pre-industrial cities were limited in size. Crowded housing conditions and the lack of adequate sewage facilities made the area susceptible to plagues and fire, resulting in high death rate. Moreover, there was limited food supply due to the difficulty of getting food from the rural areas. Migration to the city was limited due to the existence of serfdom, slavery, and the caste system. Nevertheless, many pre-industrial cities had a sense of community. Although the city was full of people from diverse backgrounds, there was a high degree of social integration (Kendall 2000:440-441). The ancient and medieval cities served as defense and refugee centers as well as trading centers. These were probably the products of war and violence (Martindale 1984:14). From the 10th century onwards, urban settlements were more or less selfgoverning cities controlled by feudal lords. They did not resume their function as centers of trade and manufacturing until the 15th and 16th centuries, with the onset of the industrial revolution and the growth of modern states. The Industrial Revolution altered the nature of the city. Industrialization led to large-scale mechanized production, which required big capital. It spurred population growth, migration and concentration of people in cities, changes in the economic system. The number of specialized jobs and services increased. Industrialization has also its bad effects. With the growth of industries, the demand for raw materials increased, even as the supply of non-renewable resources such as minerals 462

and fossil oil diminished, along with rapid deforestation ad the resultant air and water pollution. Urban development in the West, especially in England, was brought about by several factors, including (1) improvements in transportation, roads, and canals; (2) agricultural innovations and commercialization; (3) the emergence of the factory system with industrial production derived from steam power; and (4) infrastructure technology. As a result, contacts between urban centers and the hinterlands improved, markets were expanded, activities became highly specialized, and migration to the cities was encouraged. The innovations prompted a change in the structure of social organizations, which had to be extended beyond that of family and kin. Other developments were the mergence of more complex social organizations, efficient social political mechanisms, effective working arrangements, some form of exchange among the emerging specialists, and increased division of labor and specialization. Cities also became the major site of politics, with corrupt power seekers and greedy entrepreneur looking for plunder opportunities (Martindale 1984:29). Cities were also the center of concerts, plays, and other social activities. Since then, the cities have grown rapidly. In the 20th century, urban growth was further hastened by technological development. Travel from rural to urban areas became faster, population and industry were re-concentrated, and metropolitan communities emerged. Some countries like the U.K., U.S., the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and Japan are moving toward a saturated urbanization. This is a situation where the population has so diminished the there is little or no migration to the cities. In these 463

countries, the future growth of the cities depends on natural population increase of the balance of births over deaths (Gist and Fava 1974:104; 135-139). In the 1950s, post-industrial cities emerged in the U.S. with the shift from secondary (manufacturing) to tertiary (service and information processing) production. Post-individual cities have light processing services such as airlines and hotel services, educational complexes, medical centers, convention centers, retail trade and shopping malls. Advances in communications and transportation technology made it possible for middle and upper income groups to live farther from their place of work. The ruralurban differences have since been diminished, and society has adopted a common way of life called ‘urbanized social organization.’ The ways of life and social institutions have become so intertwined that any institutional structures will be manifest in the same way on all people regardless of their residential location. People are reached by mass media, and no precise distinctions exist between the ways of life in the cities from that of the farm. In the 1980s and 1990s, capitalism was restructured on a global scale following a global recession. Through information and communications technology, capital was decentralized through globalized production, financing, and distribution. A small number of centers emerged and dominated the world economy. Among these are London, New York, Tokyo, Seoul, Los Angeles, Frankfurt, Paris, and Singapore. These centers act as command and control points for an increasingly dispersed set of economical activities. They became the sites for the accumulation, distribution, and circulation of capital where information and decision-making is made. Citing Harvey (1973, 1985) and 464

Custelles (1983), “the reorganizing of the city is an aspect if the restriction of capitalism on global scale, illustrating the place of urban life in the long line of dependency and exploitation constitutive of worldwide capitalism” (Barkers 2000-299). The post-industrial city is characterized by high-rise, high-density offices in the central business district. These buildings represent technological advances and the power exercised by large multinational corporations. In contrast, are the outlying districts where the physical and cultural presence of ethnic communities represents the other aspect of globalization (Barker 200:301). Urbanization in Developing Countries Urbanization has taken pace in the developing countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. A number of cities were founded as a result of colonialism and imperialism in order to serve as administrative centers and sources of raw materials for the colonial power. Unlike the industrialized societies of the West, these developing countries are dominantly agricultural and are in a stage of transition to an industrialized economy. Prior to the 19th century, European interest in the wealth of Asia prompted radical changes in the structure and independence of Asian states and their urban settlements. It became essential to control established port cities and found new ones to direct trade. Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in India, Jakarta in Indonesia, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Manila were all creations of the mercantile interests of Europeans. The port towns became colonial capitals. Colonial powers encouraged the indigenous inhabitants to develop commerce and provide services instead of 465

manufacturing. Major differences arose between the large capital cities and the provincial towns. In some cases, the differences were so marked that they were called primate cities; examples are Bangkok in Thailand and Manila in the Philippines. The centers attracted people from the rural areas. Rural-urban migration became the trend in Asia, except for China under ma Zedong who emphasized rural development and encouraged urban youth to return to rural areas. During the period of colonial expansion, there was rapid growth due to the lure of employment. After World War II, many colonized countries, which gained independence, experienced rapid urbanization, industrialization, and urban popular growth. However, unlike in the West, industrialization did not keep pace with urbanization. In North America and Europe, cities have jobs for the rural migrants. In the developing countries, the supply of labor from the rural areas exceeded the demand for labor in the rural areas. This resulted in a high unemployment rate and inadequate housing for the migrants. Another difference is that cities in industrialized countries form a pyramid with few large cities at the top, followed by medium sized cities in the middle, and the bulk of the small cities at the bottom. In developing countries, there is often one enormous big city that dwarfs the villages (Shepard 1999:460). Economic development does not go hand-in-hand with rapid urbanization. Former colonies retained the colonial power structure and are dependent on the exportation of raw materials to their former colonial masters.

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Developing countries have manifested a form of urban underdevelopment that has been called pseudo-organization, where growth is not synonymous with urbanization it is a situation where redistribution of population form the rural to the urban areas is not occurring and which is not conducive to economic growth (Iverson 1984:237). Cities in underdeveloped and developing countries are the centers of power and privilege. Concentrated in the urban sector are big shares of investment and consumption. Urban residents enjoy higher standards of living than their rural counterparts. The cities also receive a bigger share of the funds for public works, while the rural areas are generally neglected. Although unemployment and underemployment rates are high, most urban dwellers somehow manage to survive, often with the help of the underground economy (Guggler 1988:85). Urbanization in the Philippines The studies of Laquian (1966), Poethig (1969), Mijares and Nazaret (1973), Pernia (1976), Lawas (1979), Raymundo (1983), Bautista (1980), Costello (1988), Berrner (1998), and others present similar trends of urbanization in the Philippines. Bautista (1998:25-26) cited the following factors for urbanization: 1) The attractiveness of urban life strengthened the stream of migration from the rural areas. The Perceptions by the ruralites of better employment opportunities and accessibility to services and facilities in urban areas bolstered the desire to start a new life in the city. 2) The existence of social networks in the migrant’s destination. The perceived risks of migration are lessened with the assurance of kin and friends who help upon their arrival in the 467

city. Other networks not based on kinship ties have recently emerged. 3) Natural increase. i.e., increasing births and declining deaths of the populace in the city. The country was at an early stage of urbanization in 1903, with 13.1% of its population residing in urban areas (Raymundo 1983:64-68). Compared to the other Southeast Asian countries, the Philippines had an early start at urbanization. This may be due to the resettlement plan and the centralized form of government during the Spanish regime. From 1903 to 1918, urbanization slumped; this could be attributed to the uncertainties during the early part of the American regime. After World War II, there was a marked increase in urbanization brought by the industrialization and Filipinization programs. From 1948 to 1975, the pace of urbanization was slow. Pernia (1976:197ff.) points out that urbanization, which he defined as a “socioeconomic phenomenon involving a rise in the proportion of the country’s population in urban places,” has not been actually rapid. What actually took place was a growth from accelerated natural increase, aggravated by the over-concentration of growth in the Manila area. From 1975, when the level of urbanization was 33.4, there was a rapid increase in the pace f urbanization; by 1980, the level was 37.3 in 1990, the level of urbanization was 48.6. Like other underdeveloped and developing countries, the Philippines manifest over-urbanization, where the economic development is slower in pace than urban concentration. (Table 16.1) Rural folks are lured to big cities like Manila, Davao, Cebu, and Zamboanga. This migration has resulted in an unbalanced growth 468

pattern. This has created problems like the increase in unemployment and underemployment. This situation has forced professionals to look for the proverbial ‘pot of gold’ in foreign countries. Moreover, the raising population has strained water and power resources to breaking points; garbage disposal has become a problem, and so has the proliferation of squatters. In an exploratory study, Wilfredo Arce (1987;104-107) delineated four patterns to characterize urbanism, namely: economic complexity, household stability, ethnic diversity, and cultural complexity. Economic complexity consists of the population component represented by density and urban residents residing in the urban part of the city. Household stability emphasized a nuclear family-centered household and size and stability of that household. Ethnic diversity referred to language diversity and cultural complexity centered on literacy and education. Arce examined how the 60 chartered cities stood on these four selected urbanism patterns. He found that four Metro Manila cities (Caloocan, Manila, Pasay, and Quezon) scored high in all the factors but were not consistently at the top in all of them. The cities which ranked high on economic complexity were Manila, Quezon City, Cebu, Bacolod, Dagupan, Dumaguete, Iloilo, Marawi, Naga, Tacloban, and Tagbilaran. The cities which were high on level I for household stability were Pasay, Caloocan, Batangas, Calbayog, Cavite, Danao, Lucena, Olongapo, Mandaluyong, Ormoc, San Carlos, Negros Oriental, San Pablo, and Toledo. For ethnic diversity, Angeles, Baguio, Butuan, Cagayan de Oro, Cotabato, Davao, Gen. Santos, Iligan Puerto Princesa, Surigao, and Zamboanga ranked high. For cultural complexity, the cities which 469

ranked high were Manila, Quezon, Pasay, Caloocan, Baguio, Batangas, Cavite, Lipa, Olongapo, Tagaytay, and Trece Martires. An important dimension in the Philippine cities is administrative function as, according to their characters, cities are considered centers of political administration. Urban Culture and Social Structure Urban communities have a complex social structure which influences the social behavior and values of their inhabitants. Research by prominent academicians, among them Robert E. Park, E.W. Burgess, R.O. McKenzie, and Louis Wirth from the University of Chicago, points out that a city is a natural ecological system consisting of ‘natural area’ or subareas such as business district, residential areas, industrial zones, ethnic neighborhoods, slums and shanty towns that are in dynamic interaction with each other. Louis Wirth (1938:1) dwelt on urbanism \as a way of life characterized by a complex of traits, such as a high degree of cultural heterogeneity, predominance of secular values, impersonalism, and extreme division of labor. The size of the population affects the character of urban social relationships. The bonds of kinship, neighborliness, and intimacy have declined, making the city potentially alienating. He comes segmented and fragmentary. Relations become impersonal, superficial, transitory, and segmental. Pronounced segmentation is accompanied by a high degree of individualization. Bautista (1998:21-22) posits that the culture in urban communities- norms, language, values, and feelings- is far from 470

homogenous, even with the onset of global communications. Rather, urban communities are melting pots of diverse cultures characterized by cultural hybridization, contrasts, and varying traditions and modern ideas. A study made by a team of statisticians in 1990 divided Metro Manila households into five social classes: A, B, C, D, and E. The AB classes who make up the cream of the upper upper class and lower upper class constitute less than 1% of all barangays. Their life-styles compare with that of the elite in other parts of the world. They own grand mansions, operate several companies, have extensive landholdings, and send their children to exclusive schools here or abroad. Their homes have security guards. The C class is made up of the middle class that constitutes 46% of all Metro Manila villages; it is divided into upper C and lower C. the upper middle C lives in a single detached houses in subdivisions, some of which are as grand as upper class homes. They send their children to private schools and have networks of relatives, officemates, or friends in other parts of their village. They own cars and telephones. The lower C class have single detached homes or apartment units located in relatively congested parts of the metropolis. They send their children to public or less expensive private schools. They have networks of relatives and officemates elsewhere, although those with small-scale businesses in the neighborhood maintain the established locality-based networks. Residents of subdivisions delineated from surrounding areas have attended security concerns as well as access to water and garbage collections. The lower class is made up of the D and E barangays 471

which are found in squatters and slum areas. Although, squatters also occupy land in C and AB barangays. Rapid social change is brought about by the introduction of new technology and the continuous migration of various ethnic groups. The coming together of various ethnic groups creates great social differentiation, developing sophistication, cosmopolitanism, individuality, reserve, loss of traditional ways, a blasé attitude, and at times, a feeling of loneliness, despair, and anomie as well as personal and social disorganization. Living in the city requires unusual skills and the competitive ability to adjust to rapid social change. More social classes develop because of the great inequality in the distribution of wealth. The great social mobility results in greater uncertainty. One has to study how to manipulate others, however, cohesion and solidarity result despite disparity in social economic, cultural and political life. These views are held by the Chicago School and have been questioned. Anthropologists have criticized these findings as applicable only to urban areas in a Western society and not necessarily to cities of developing and underdeveloped countries. They cite that tribal people and peasants who migrate to the cities surrounded themselves with migrants form similar cultural and economic backgrounds, and integrated with them in order to develop cohesive groups of kin and friends. In the Philippines, the study of Arcinas and Angangco (1971:7219) showed that migrants consulted relatives and friends regarding family, financial, and employment problems. Family matters are regarded as too personal and too private a matter to be discussed even with family counsellors or social workers who 472

are regarded as strangers. However, an impersonal, detached and nonchalant attitude maybe observed in urban areas in the country, particularly Metro Manila. In many instances, people would not go to the rescue of a person being assaulted or robbed. The diverse cultural groups also contributes to the impersonality and anonymity of city living. Aloofness and nonchalance may be observed in offices, factories, and even in the church. Social disorganization and deviance are higher in urban than in rural communities. Its rate depends on the complexity and size of the city. A study by Marsella and Escudero (1970:69-75) on interpersonal stress among males in Sampaloc, Manila showed a high frequency of interpersonal stress. The most frequently reported stress is not being understood by the family. Among lower class males, stress is caused by their inability to meet family obligations. Among the upper class, stress is caused by saying things to the family that they later regret. Urban Ecological Processes Urban ecologists monitor the physical changes in the city and the way an individual adapts to the changing urban environment, which in turn influences the way the ecological process functions. A few of these ecological processes will be discussed here. Concentration occurs with the growth of towns and cities. Concentration refers to population increase in a given area, as determined by population density. People tend to cluster in certain areas to satisfy some of their needs or interests or to fulfill certain designated social or economic functions. All cities are functions of population concentration. The opposite tendency is dispersion or 473

the outward spread of population to outlying sections, as seen in the movement of the upper and middle classes to the suburbs. This is observed in the growth of population in Metro Manila, Davao, Cebu City, Baguio, and others. One area in the city tends to have a controlling social and economic position in relation to the other areas. This condition is called dominance. The central business district, which is the hub of economic activities in any city, is the dominant area. It also commands the highest land value. Gradient refers to the condition of receding degrees of dominance from a selected dominant center. Usually a city has a high-value residential area with a cheaper prices in the adjoining areas. The same may be said of the central business district which has an adjoining business area where prices of land are lower. Various institutions and establishments are drawn together along lines of transportation and communication. This condition is referred to as centralization. People performing the same function reside together in a given area. Specific types of institution and business cluster along the same street or the same area. For example, in Manila, the university belt us the area around Mendiola, C.M. Recto, Morayta, and Espana. Hardware stores are in Binondo district. Some streets specialize in specific activities; Carriedo for shoe stores; Raon, electronics and music stores; Tomas Mapua, car spare parts; and Remedios-Adriatico, restaurants. As land value goes up and competition becomes keen in the central district, some business establishments are pushed toward 474

the outlying areas. This process is known as decentralization – the scattering of functions from the main districts to the outlying districts. Facilities such as banks, malls, or shopping centers, hospitals, and moviehouses, transfer to the suburbs in response to economic and social needs. Invasion occurs when new types of people, institutions, or activities enter an area previously occupied by a different type. For example, some residential areas are invaded by business or industry, such that residents are forced to move. Ermita, once a prestigious residential area, has been invaded by business and entertainment enterprises. Complete invasion is called succession, a phenomenon which occurs when the new population or new function gains dominance. In Manila, old houses along Legarda and Claro M. Recto have been replaced with stores or shopping centers. The old Assumption Convent at Pedro Gil was demolished to give way to a hotel and shopping complex. Ecological segregation arises from the fact that people differ according to ethnic grouping, religion, social class, or occupation. People of the same socio economic levels or ethnic characteristics tend to live together. The development of exclusive suburbs for the elite, medium-cost housing areas for the middle class, Chinatown for the Chinese, the area around the mosque in Quiapo for the Muslims all illustrate ecological segregation. The motives differ from one individual to another. Some may choose to live in an area because of the prestige such residence gives; while lower income groups choose low-cost housing projects. The location of residence tends to limit interaction among people of various social classes or ethnic groups. 475

The Metropolitan Region The metropolitan area is an urban phenomenon emerging in different places around the world. The availability and mass marketing of cars and buses was largely responsible for the expansion of cities into surrounding areas. As a city spreads out, it coalesces with other towns and cities. Altogether, they become a region composed of a central city with outlying areas linked to it socially and economically. The central city is the integrating and dominating force, but it has no power to dictate the outlying districts. In the U.S., there is the phenomenon of one metropolitan area expanding and overlapping with another metropolitan area, forming a megalopolis. The negative factors that push people out of the central city are overcrowding, crime, high taxes, and civil disorders. The factors that lure people to relocate in the suburbs are more plentiful land and open space, the possibility of expanding businesses, the desire to give children more space for movement, and, in what Rober Nishbet terms as, a ‘quest for community’ or a place where one can have greater community involvement and feel that he or she belongs. Suburbs are considered the new frontiers where old values can be retained and new ones developed. Fava (1956;34-37) characterizes the suburbs as one where a high degree of neighborliness exists because of selected demographic and ecological characteristics, as well as selective migration to the suburbs. There is a large proportion of young married couples and their children, showing the dominance of the reproductive and 476

child socialization functions. The population is made up largely of upper and middle class families. In recent years, a new life-style has developed in the suburbs. Industry and commerce followed peoples’ movement and acquired chap peripheral property where they have put up shopping centers or malls. Increasingly, the suburbs have become main manufacturing and retail trade centers; while some are basically education and recreation centers. The growth of the suburbs is also facilitated by planned suburban development. These are the residential suburbs where the bulk of the residents commute daily to work outside their community. The Growth of Metropolitan Manila Manila was formally founded by the Spaniards in 1571 and made it the seat of government; its original site being the walled city called Intramuros. It grew through a process of accretion southward and northward. Lying at the mouth of the Pasig River and fronting Manila Bay, it enjoys a vantage position as trading, industrial, and commercial center. It also became the seat of education and religion. It is the meeting ground of the East and West, showing the fusion of its various cultural influences. The steady increase in population is due partly to natural increases, but a significant portion is due to migration. Table 16.2 shows the steady growth of the population of Manila from 1903 to 2000. There was decline in the rate from 1980-1990; it is not possible that during this period there was an out-migration to foreign lands. 477

When the central city became congested, it pushed the residents farther from it. The upper and middle income classes set up income status residential units, which resulted in the proliferation of ‘villages’ and upper class divisions. Model class subdivisions were also developed. These planned communities tend to be economically homogenous and reflect as well as sustain the social stratification system. The government has also set up housing projects. However, squatter communities still sprout along the fringes and interstices of the city like the near railroad tracks, riverbanks, and seawalls. The city has expanded into a metropolitan area: north to Valenzuela, Bulacan, south to Las Pinas and Alabang, and east to Antipolo; it continues to sprawl further. Metropolitan Manila has developed into a primate city which dominates the whole country in terms of the economy, culture, and politics. It is the most modernized and industrialized region of the country and is the focus of national dominance, just like Bangkok, Karachi, and Cairo in their respective countries (Lacquian 1966;1-2). Makati City is the center of business and commerce. It is the headquarters of most of the top corporations in the country , 84% of all commercial banks, and 46 foreign embassies. Its daytime population is close to a million, which is double its resident population (Gloria 1995:1). A referendum held on February 27, 1975 approved the establishment of the Metropolitan Manila Commission. The commission exercised jurisdiction over the cities of Manila, Quezon, Pasay, and Caloocan and the municipalities of Makati, Mandaluyong, San Juan, Las Pinas, Malabon, Navotas, Pasig, 478

Pateros, Paranaque, Marikina, Muntinlupa in Rizal province, and the municipality of Valenzuela in Bulacan. The commission was the central governing authority in the planning and delivery of basic services. The commission was reorganized and renamed the Metropolitan Manila Authority (MMA) in 1990 through an Executive Order issued by Pres. Aquino. The functions of the MMA was rescinded and transferred to the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) in 1995 by virtue of Republic Act No. 7924. The policymaking body and governing board of the MMDA is the Metro Manila Council, composed of the mayors of the cities and municipalities in Metro Manila and other department heads. The services under the MMDA include development planning, transport and traffic management, solid waste disposal and management, urban renewal, zoning, land use planning, shelter services, health and sanitation, urban protection, pollution control, and public safety (Metro Manila Journal 2000). The Urban Family The changes brought about by urbanization and industrialization is reflected in the family. In the Philippine urban areas the extended family household is more of a phenomenon than the nuclear family which is more common in rural areas. In the city, it is more difficult and costly to build a separate house. Ruralites who go to the city to work or study tend to join their wealthy relatives. In fact, household size increases with the increasing level of urbanization of the area. The source of this increase is not natural increase but the arrival of relatives and non-relatives in the household (Medina1991:17). 479

In a study of households in Malate, Manila, Eslao (1966;199-208) found an overwhelming proportion of extended households and a low proportion of the nuclear type as families had to accept relatives, ritual kin, friends, and acquaintances from the barrio who could not afford to rent a place of their own. The study of Mendez and Jocano (1970:262-264) of Project 2 revealed the prevalence of the extended family, also due to housing difficulty. In her study of Barrio Escopa, a slum community in Quezon City, Rolda noted that extended families persisted on account of the economic convenience derived from such a familial structure. In addition, the larger kinship network has a kind of stabilizing influence. AS Arcinas and Angangco (1971-72:19) found out in their study of migrants in Pobres Purok, Quezon City, migrants consulted relatives and friends regarding family, financial, and employment problems. However, observations reveal that the younger members of the community preferred the nuclear families because of the valued independence. Arce (1970) and Hollnsteiner (1970) point out that the economic, political, religious, and educational functions of the family are being taken by other entities as another consequence of industrialization and modernization. The socialization function is diminished as children are sent to day care centers and nursery schools. Among the middle and upper class families, the care of the child is usually left to a maid or yaya. The economic function is taken over by the workplace – an office, factory, or business firm. A function still considered important in urban families is that of providing emotional maintenance and childcare. The degree to 480

which these conditions are satisfied is dependent on the society. Rural-urban differences in family structure and function are unique from country to country. Norms of courtship and marriage practices have changed in urban areas. Young people tend to choose their mate on the basis of romantic love, although parental approval is sometimes considered. With the children going off to colleges and universities and parents and work, the children are removed from the watchful eyes of parents and are introduced to more contemporary ideas of individual freedom, sex, love, and marriage. Engaged couples decide on the wedding arrangements and at times share in the expenses. The wedding reception is family held in a restaurant or hotel. Another trend noted among urban family members is to do things together and share in the domestic chores and baby care. There has been an increasing number of ‘live-ins’ and extramarital births over the last few decades. Marital indefinitely is on the rise on account of the increasing permissiveness, availability of contraceptive devices, and the presence of hotels and motels where illicit relations can take place (Medina 1991:245). Traditional value patterns, which have changed in the urban areas, refers to the children’s attitude toward their aging parents and grandparents. Medina (1991:227-228) says that despite some decline in the closeness of patent-child relations in urban areas, the care and support of parents is still assumed to be a moral obligation and responsibility. The elderly are not usually included in decision-making as their wisdom is no longer relevant 481

to the fast-changing times. Not committing the aged to nursing institutions merely complements the welfare function of the family and is done only as a last resort. It is not necessarily an indication of neglect or indifference, but an involuntary reaction to poverty. With regards to the attitude of children towards their grandparents, Chen (1985:263:271) found that a majority of high school students retain the traditional value orientation of love and respect for the elderly. This strong positive attitude is shown to both paternal and maternal grandparents, suggesting that the bilateral kinship system is still very much in existence. However, although a great number of respondents considered these grandparents as members of the family, they were not prepared to have the old folk live with them. Studies reveal that there are more working wives in the rural areas compared to those in urban areas. Bautista (19776:2-22) disclosed that, contrary to the popular belief that urbanization and economic development provides liberation from household work, the urbanization of society has relegated women more to the home. In fact, in Western countries, the economic value of woman declined in the process of industrialization. Upper class wives take pride in their homes, and most dedicate themselves to full-time housekeeping. The aspiration to manage a home of her own has filtered to the middle-class women and, to a certain extent, to the lower class. The aspiration has also spread top urban women in colonized nations, as can be seen in some middle and upper class Filipino families where women engage in full-time home management. 482

Poethig (1968:377) wrote that in Philippine society, the family still occupies a central position, even in urban areas. The family continues to play a role in determining the members’ behavior and provides the mechanism to guide its members as they enter into the process of socialization in urban society. The family is still the source of security and comfort. Obedience can still be imposed by the parents on their children. Family solidarity is also evident in the development of business corporations, as nearly as 90% of all Filipino corporations are family-owned. Work in the Industrial Urban Setting Of the 24,525,000 workers composing the labor force in 1990, 15.1 million, or 62% were in the rural areas and 9.3 million or 38% were in the urban areas (NCSB, 1991). Of those in the urban labor force, 8.3 million (9%) were employed and 1 million (11.6%) were unemployed. The great diversification of occupations is a characteristic of work in the urban areas, which attracts a number of able bodied men and women. With advances in science and technology, whitecollar jobs expanded. Automation and computerization have speed into the industries, requiring new specialization vis-à-vis knowledge, skills, and attitudes. A new work ethic characterized by industry, thrift, frugality, and innovativeness has emerged; consumer behavior has been altered as factories produce goods at moderate prices which are within the reach of the masses. Various types of banks and credit and financial facilities have developed. Business establishments have become more democratic. With the rising cost of living, the so-called underground economy developed. Also known as informal 483

economy, it is manifested in the sale of a variety of commodities like flood, clothes, jewelry, insurance, and educational plans in offices and schools; and side walk food stalls. Trade, both domestic and foreign, has been enhanced and expanded. Labor has become more organized and more cooperatives have been formed. Wages is a serious issue between workers and management in industry. There has been an incessant clamor for wage increases from the labor sector to adjust wages to the rising cost of living. While industrial establishments’ position is that increase in wages will negate their business viability. Elections in Urban Areas The election of May 11, 1987 was generally peaceful with some perceptible changes for the better; but the subsequent elections reverted to traditional patronage politics. Money was used to put up campaign gimmicks, buy votes, and pay off some lection watchers. Some mayors or barangay chairpersons built strong machinery and employed dubious strategies to win. The result is a multiparty system that enabled persons with vested interest to run for public positions. The political party has no platform and no card – bearing members. Parties are not distinct from each other on their stand regarding national or local issues; political turncoats are common. Unscrupulous politicians with connections to high government officials took advantage of their position for gain and power. The patronage system with its patron-clients system became the rule. Patronage politics has institutionalized nepotism and favoritism. 484

Political campaigns take on a fiesta atmosphere. Movie and TV personalities are invited to add glamour and attract voters to attend the meetings. National figures can be seen dancing, singing, or even clowning to sway votes. Voters are entertained instead of enlightened on issues. As campaign propaganda. Pictures are posted on billboards, posts, trees, and other public places. Other practices are the hakot or bringing voters from their houses to the polling places, disenfranchisement of voters, votebuying, giving food to the voters, boycotting, or terrorism. During the counting of ballots, dagdag-bawas (miscounting of votes) is a common occurrence. Urban Social Problems Cities have certain magnetic powers that attract people. There is a perception that it is a place where one can find a job and improve one’s social status. Cities are centers of art, fashion, and learning. On the other side of the ledger, it is a place where one gets pangs of loneliness and feelings of alienation because of the impersonal and contractual relations found here. Manila has aged and has become decrepit, with unabated migration and tremendous strains on public services like housing, water supply, garbage disposal, sewerage utilities, no top mention education and health. The city is likewise a focal point for social disorganization and social problems. Some problems which beset Metro Manila and other congested cities in the country are the following. Pollution. Metro Manila is one of the most polluted areas in the world. Air pollution comes mostly from fumes and smoke from 485

motor vehicles, factories, and other industrial establishments. Pollution causes respiratory illnesses, headaches, cough, eye irritations, or allergies. Water Pollution results from indiscriminate dumping of garbage into creeks, rivers, and lakes. An example is the Paranaque River which is being used as a sewerage system by the riverside residents. The rice paddies, fishponds, and salt beds have consequently disappeared. Compounding this is the massive conversion of land into roads, highways, and subdivisions. The result is massive flooding during the rainy season (Mayuga 2001:A9). Environmentalists have waged campaigns against toxic waste and malpractices related to environmental protection. Congress passed the Clean Air Act (RA 8749) which bans waste burner and all forms of garbage incinerators and imposes emission standards on vehicles to lessen the degree of pollution. This is opposed by industrialists as large amounts of money are needed to upgrade their machineries. Garbage and Traffic. Garbage is another serious problem in Metro Manila. As of 2001, a total of 10 million tons of solid waste were collected daily; ¼ is generated in Metro Manila alone (David 2001:A70). Garbage, aside from being a eyesore, contributes to flood during the rainy season. The passage of RA 9003, the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000, provides for an integrated national framework for environmentally-friendly solid waste management. But how this will be implemented remains to be seen. 486

Traffic causes headaches to those who have to spend hours commuting to and from work. The tremendous increase in motor vehicles, cars, buses, jeepneys, not to mention tricycles, motorcycles, and bicycles clog the streets of the metropolis and other urban areas. Other causes of the traffic jams are the lack of a master plan for traffic, malfunctioning traffic lights, inefficient traffic aides, violations of traffic rules by some motorists, indiscriminate diggings and repair jobs, and flooding. There is a great need for discipline among the motorists, as well as among traffic aides and cops. Squatters and Slums A consequence of the rapid growth of a city is squatter settlements and slums. This is considered a feature of the Asian primate city, although the West has not been spared of slums either. Squatters are persons who occupy vacant lots owned by the government or private persons even without legal rights to do so. What exacerbates the problem is the activity of ‘professional squatters’ who make a living out of squatting. Some of Manila’s prime areas where the rich lived in the 50s and 60s are now the poor districts of the city. Since the 1970s, a process of local fragmentation occurred with the emergence of enclaves and small, cramped shantytowns in contrast to the polyglot centers with skyscrapers and mansions. Access to land became the most basic human need in urban areas. Slums and squatter settlements constitute much of the city’s low wage earners who cannot avail of basic services with their meager wages. Strong community traditions and family or neighborhood alliances enable them to survive. 487

As of 1987, Metro Manila squatters constituted about 32% of the total population (NHA). By 1992, they were estimated to comprise 40% of the total number of households. Because they have lived there for a long time, squatters feel that they have already earned the right to own the land they occupy (Laquian, 1969:88). A number of networks based on marriage, baptism, neighborhood, and other functional relations become the basis for networking. These networks became the core for the formation of organized groups which develop a common identity and we-consciousness as a group. Some squatter areas have developed into slums. “Slum” is the term applied to residential areas characterized by overcrowding, filth, and squalor. Slums are blighted areas, eyesores with houses falling into ruin, and lacking in facilities for a healthy and comfortable life. Having deteriorated physically and aesthetically, the area has a negative effect on the quality of life of its inhabitants. In his study of Mexican slums, Oscar Lewis, an American anthropologist, describes life there as a “culture of poverty” characterized by economic deprivation. For parents, slums are like a dead-end to their mobility; they tend to pass on such a view to their children. In a study of one of Manila’s largest squatter settlements, Pinches (1985) found that residents, whom he called the urban poor, made up Manila’s cheap labor force. The upper and middle classes associate these people with crime, gang warfare, prostitution, begging, scavenging, and other unsavory or illegal activities. However, it is also from among the urban poor that the rich secure the services of maids, drivers, workers, utility persons, factory workers, and suppliers of commodities. 488

Guerrero (1973:215), who studied three low-income neighborhoods in Metro Manila, found that majority of the residents were below 40 years old with limited schooling. Hence, they lacked work skills and were fit only for service-oriented jobs. One fourth were unemployed. Of the unemployed, about one-third were self-employed and earned very little. Life was miserable as they led a hand-to-mouth existence (isang kahig, isang tuka). Two-thirds did not specify any desire for a better life, but a few aspired for such things as owning a house, being able to send their children to good schools, having better paying jobs, and attaining physical and emotional well-being. Almost one-half expressed optimism about the future. Among the proposals to solve squatters problems are: in-city resettlement so that squatters are close to their places of work, multistory low-rent housing, provision of transportation lines to the sites of employment and services, relocation of squatters and resettlement, industrial decentralization and dispersal, urban land reform for equity and social justice, and subsidized return fare to the province. Urban Planning and Renewal Urban planning and renewal are needed to improve the living standards of people in Metro Manila. Urban planning is a means of directing the city’s physical and social growth to provide a more healthy, pleasant, and prosperous environment (Gist and Fava 1974:642). Implied here are not only structural and spatial arrangements but also provisions for employment, education, health and comfort. 489

This concept of urban planning is not new. Even in the past, there were attempts at zoning, improving basic services, slum clearance, better housing, and other aspects of urban renewal. Reams of paper have been used to plot urban planning programs or projects that aimed to bring about an orderly and harmonious city growth. Most plans remained only in paper; they have never been implemented or at best were halfheartedly carried out. Projects have been initiated, but the results have not been substantial. During the administration of Pres. Fidel Ramos, plans for urban renewal included beautification and greening projects, garbage disposal, housing projects, slum improvements, provisions for livelihood and revenue-generating projects, and infrastructure projects. There was also the P2.7 billion project for Smokey Mountain in Tondo, Manila which aims to convert the dumpsite into a housing and industrial center. The Housing and Land Use Regulating Office is drafting an urban development plan and reviewing existing town and land use plans and housing programs of the government and the private sector in order to formulate a National Urban Development and Housing Framework. Another issue is the preservation of buildings and houses with historical and architectural importance. When the Jai Alai building in Taft Avenue was demolished, a furor was raised by the Heritage Conservation on Society and other people who claimed that such buildings should be preserved for its cultural value. Another site for conservation is Intramuros, which is the center of Spanish colonial heritage. They content that Intramuros should be viewed as a monument rather than a part of the living city and a tourism center (Villalon 2002:D6). 490

Architect Palafox (2002:B4) presents “New Urbanism” which is an urban design movement addressing the ills accompanying the current expansion development in many cities. Among its important principles are: 1) cities or municipalities should be in the form of compact, walkable neighborhoods. Its center would have a public space and public buildings, including a library, medical clinic, and a playground or sports center. From this center, streets are laid out and with public transportation which connects neighborhoods to each other. Within the neighborhood, there is a wide spectrum of housing that would cater to people of different incomes, ages, and family types. 2) the cities should be where one can have a pleasant walk from one’s home to any of the clustered establishments. To complement walkable cities is a transport-oriented developments which would connect communities to transit and intermodal terminals and ports. The task of urban renewal is enormous as difficulties arise on account of the complexities of city life. Planning has to take into consideration not only the physical and aesthetic aspects of the city, but also the values and patterns of life of the people. Questions related to the management of the resources to finance the programs, source of employment, the cultural and social values of the people, and monitoring of the projects have to be considered. Summary Urban communities arose from the concentration of people within a relatively small geographic area in a process called urbanization. The urban community may be a city or something resembling a city, which is relatively large, dense, and permanent 491

settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals. The occupations are usually non-farming and non-fishing. In our Local Government Code (1992), urban refers to highly urbanized cities and governmental centers in municipalities called poblaciones. The definition of an area as urban is linked with historical, cultural, and administrative considerations. The culture of the people in urban areas is heterogeneous. There are diverse groups and contradictory interests. Urbanization refers to the transfer of people from rural to urban areas and involves the internalization or urban life-style. Related to this urbanism, which is a way of life with its complex traits like a high degree of impersonalism, apathy, secular values, and extreme division of labor. The first cities appeared in Mesopotamia (Southern Iraq), Egypt, the Indus River Valley, and the Yellow River basin. Urban development is marked in west and was brought about by improvements in transportation, roads, canals, agricultural innovations, increasing commercialization, and the emergence of the factory system. Urbanization also took place in the developing countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. But in these areas, urbanization did not go hand-in-hand with industrialization and agricultural productivity. Urban communities have a high density, a socially heterogeneous population and a complex social structure which influences social behavior and the inhabitants’ values. Although some sociologists used to think that secondary groupings in urban places dominate, studies have revealed that many cliques and social networks involving close kinship and personal ties are formed in the cities, 492

enabling the members to be oriented and adapted to the urban setting. The growth of the cities is accompanied by the ecological processes of concentration, dispersion, gradient, centralization, invasion, succession, and ecological segregation. Notable also is the emergence of a metropolitan region which is composed of a central city and outlying municipalities of the suburbs, united socially, economically, or event politically. Urbanization affects the structure and functions of the various social institutions. Another consequence is the sprouting of slums and squatter areas. Other problems relate to food, employment, education, health, infrastructure, traffic, garbage disposal, pollution, crime and juvenile delinquency, drug abuse and prostitution. Attempts have been made at urban planning and renewal which were designed to manage the physical and social growth of the city and provide a wholesome environment. However, these were never fully and effectively implemented. The task is enormous and requires a holistic approach as well as the whole hearted cooperation of all sectors of the community. Study Guide 1. Concepts to master Urban Community City Urbanization Urbanism

Concentration Centralization Decentralization Invasion 493

Human Ecology Succession 2. What is considered an urban community in the Philippines? A city? 3. Give a historical account of urbanization in the world. 4. How does urbanization in developing countries differ from that in industrial countries? 5. Describe urban society and culture. 6. What are some of the ecological processes discernible in urban areas? Cite examples of each process taking place in the Philippines. 7. What is metropolitan area? Describe the relation between the central city and the suburbs. 8. Give some characteristics of Metropolitan Manila. 9. Describe the urban family and urban economy. 10. How did slums and squatters sprout in urban areas? Critical Thinking Questions: 1. Is urbanization a blessing or a curse? 2. Are squatter communities and slums a dead-end or a way up? 3. Are you in favor of clearing the cities’ sidewalks of vendors?

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Chapter 17 POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT Notwithstanding these important policy and institutional changes, the government is fully aware that the Philippines has one of the fastest growing population in the Asian region. This is validated in the 1998 National Demographic Survey which indicated a very high fertility rate of 3.7 children. Given this trend, the present population of the Philippines of 68.6 million is estimated to double in size in thirty years. By the year 2050, it is projected by the Population Division that the Philippines will rank number 2 among the countries with the highest population growth. Unless drastic changes in child bearing practices and reproductive goals are attained, the distribution of Philippine population will continue to be dominated by the younger age groups, implying increasing demand for basic education and jobs. Taking into account these findings, the newly elected government has formulated a revised population program, which gives emphasis in helping couples achieve their fertility goals within the context of responsible parenthood as well as in preventing teenage pregnancies, among others. Ofelia Templo Philippine delegate to the 32nd Session of the Commission on Population and Development,1999 495

Are there too many people in the Philippines? What do we foresee if the current trend of population growth rate continues? Population and Development The issues on the relation between population and development have been raised several times. Demographers have warned of a crisis pending the rapid population growth vis-à-vis the limits of the earth’s resources and the depletion of non-renewable resources. The consequences of overpopulation are: climatological changes; coastal flooding; desertification; alteration of the patterns of diseases; water shortages; and consequential poverty and the lowering of standard of the quality of life. These will exacerbate the gap between the rich and the industrialized nations of the North and the poor of the South. It has been calculated that an increase of 3-4% in population impedes the growth by a similar rate of gross national product. However, some economists and experts believe that the problem lies more on the uneven distribution of wealth and access to resources. Alternative resources, such as nuclear, solar, and wind resources, can be utilized and enough food can be produced to accommodate the increasing population with the right technology. The differences in views regarding the relation between population and development continue to date. Demographers thus persist to analyze the demographic data and its consequences of rapid population growth. 496

The Study of Population The study of population is the concern of sociologists and social scientists. Population refers to the number of persons occupying a certain geographic area. The rate of population growth is the net annual increase in population, which is computed by getting the difference between the number of births and the number of deaths. A 2% annual rate means that, in a year, two persons per thousand are added to the population. Demography is the study of size, distribution, composition, and change in population. Demographers study birth, death, and migration data and how these affect the composition, size, and distribution of the population. They analyze the factor which causes the increase or decrease in population. The characteristics of the population, like occupational groupings, marital, religious, educational, and ethnic status, are also gathered. They use statistical methods. The main sources of demographic data are: 1) The population census, with data on age, sex, occupation, employment status, and migration; 2) Vital registration statistics like births, deaths, and marriages; 3) Sample or special surveys on household; 4) Data gathered and processed by government agencies. The data obtained is important for the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of plans, policies, and programs.

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Population Growth of the World Human population grew slowly. It took more than a million years to reach one billion people at the beginning of the 19th century. A second billion was reached after 130 years, a third billion in the next 30 years and the fourth billion in 15 years (McNamara 1992). By the 1990s there were more than five billion people worldwide, and at the end of the 20th century the population was six billion. Malthusian Theory Two centuries ago, English economist Thomas Malthus argued that the population grows geometrically, which add more people every year. While increase in food supply is arithmetic, whereby the food supply is limited by available land, soil quality, and the level of technology. Malthus believes that the increase in population outgrows increases in the food supply. Thus, there is need to keep population growth in line with food supply. Malthus presents two solutions: (1) positive checks to overpopulation by increasing the death rate; which include war, famine, pestilence, and disease; (2) preventive checks to prevent overpopulation by limiting the number of live births; which include abortion, infanticide, sexual abstinence, delayed marriage, and contraceptive use. World population is still growing. In Central America, women average six children, while a more modest number of four children is common in Southeast Asia, the Islamic world, and parts of Africa. In the Philippines, women average 3.7 live births during 498

their lifetime. In 30 years, the current world population of 6 billion will be 3 billion larger. With overpopulation, there will be an accompanying shortage of non-renewable resources, such as land, fresh water, petroleum fuel, and minerals needed for manufacturing. Population growth slows down economic development. The need to spend more on education, health and welfare grows, thus consuming a large part of the national budget. Population and Economic Development The consequences of population growth are the following: high fertility societies are not able to provide good health, education, and welfare programs; the process of industrialization is slowed down technology is costly and uncertain consumption pattern destroy the eco system as technology depletes the national resources and environmental problems are accelerated, it contributes to social inequality, it reduces the country ability to solve problem peacefully. The reason for slow economic growth are global, competition shortage of capital, competing economic and social goals, poor corporate planning, poor political leadership, exploitation by foreign investors, and internal conflicts (Cohen 2000.233). With new technology, however, the economy is expected to develop. With this, the demographic transition of lower deaths and birth rates take place.

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Reducing the Rate of Childbearing In England, birth rates where reduced through a volunteer model. Fertility fell without government interference. Improvements in the medical field and public sanitation brought down the death rates and economic growth resulted with people themselves deciding to have fewer children. China represents the involuntary model of fertility reduction. When the communists, led by Mao Ze Dong, gained control in 1949, China was a poor, agricultural country with a huge population. When it implemented its program for modernization and industrialization, included were policies to control the rate of population growth. Laws that gave equal rights to women and changed the conditions of work and marriage were enacted. Couples to be wed were obliged to get marriage permits and permits to bear children. In 1971, the government launch the “Later, Longer, Fewer” campaign, where people were encouraged to marry later, leave a longer space between births, and bear lesser children. In 1980, the government legislated the one child per couple policy. Those violated are meted with community disapproval and employment, housing, and other social service incentives were remove or lessened. In 1983 survey, statistics showed that the age of marriage increased from 19 to 23, revealing that the Chinese became used to late marriages and total fertility rate dropped from 6.1 to 2.2 children. In a single generation, the Chinese changed their marriage and fertility patterns. China was the success story of the world, producing an economic miracle 500

and now places among the Pacific Rim “tigers” together with Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Korea, and Singapore. Process in Population Change Three variables are involved in population change fertility, mortality, and migration. These variables influence changes in the demographic structure which, in turn, influences the social, economic, and political structure of society. Fertility refers to the actual number of children born to a woman. To measure this, the crude birth rate is computed: the number of registered births per 1,000 of the population in a given area at a specified time. The age at marriage and the number of those who marry affects fertility. Early marriage means higher fertility, while delayed marriage cuts down the number of children one can bear. The knowledge and practice of birth control is another factor that affects fertility. Birth control through contraceptives is not acceptable to all. This value affects the number of children Filipinos have. Mortality refers to the number of deaths per 1,000 of the midyear population in a particular place at a specified time. This is measured by the crude death rate. Mortality rate has dropped because of the advancement in science, particularly in the medical field, improved medical services, extension of vaccination and inoculation services, the adoption of public health and sanitary services, better nutrition, and the use of antibiotics. With 501

the improvement of mortality conditions, life expectancy increased. The increase can be traced from infancy, such that more babies survive to adulthood. Life expectancy refers to the average number of years a person is expected to live from time of birth. Our population growth rate of 2.2% annually may be viewed s the result of the big difference between the birth rate and the death rate in our country. However, it is hard to determine this accurately because local statistics on birth and death rates are incomplete and inadequate because some data are not registered. Migration Population change is affected by migration, which is the movement of people for permanent residency. Immigration poses an economic problem in a slow growing economy and produce problems of assimilation and cultural unity. Some countries do not have a rapid rate of population growth. But these countries have recently experienced an influx of immigrants which has become an explosive political issue. The International Labor Organization proposes aid instead of migration. Those who argue against migration point out the economic, cultural, and social issues. If the host country’s economy is slow-growing, immigrants take away jobs from the present population. People migrate for economic, political, social, psychological, religious, educational or medical reasons. A person migrates for economic security and the desire to improve one’s standard living; 502

or forced to move because of overpopulation and resource pressure. At times, the attraction is the opportunity offered by the more developed societies. Migration involves the push and the pull factors. Push factors are unfavorable or unattractive conditions which are the reasons for moving, such as dissatisfaction with the natural conditions or natural disasters like famine, floods, or volcanic eruptions; racial discrimination or persecution; or internal disorders or war. Pull factors refer to the corresponding conditions or attractions of a locality. Among these are a favorable climate and good topography, employment opportunities, cultural facilities, political freedom and peace. Migration is internal or international. Internal migration is the spatial movement of people within a country. International migration is the movement from one country to another. Immigration is leaving one’s country for another for permanent settlement. In the Philippines, younger age groups migrate more than those in older age groups. At present, females outnumber males. Overseas Filipino workers working as domestic helpers in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Brunei are mostly females, and so are the entertainers who go to Japan. The preferred countries of destination are the US, Australia, and Canada. Many professionals, such as physicians, nurses, chemist, engineers, teachers, accountants, and dentists migrate. This trend has brought about our so-called brain drain. Lately, a number of skilled workers, like electricians, carpenters, masons, 503

plumbers, and tailors, have also been attracted to migrate because of higher wages. Most of them left for the Middle East countries. Age Structure This refers to the proportion of people at the different age levels. It is affected by the rates of fertility and mortality. When the larger portion of the population is below age 20 years, the population is said to be young, when the population is mostly age 20 years and above, it is said to be old. A country with a young population needs to make provisions for the youth’s needs like food, education, and health facilities. With an older population, the need is for pension plans, senior citizen privileges, retirement communities, and institutions and recreational programs for the aged. Sex Composition Sex ratio is computed by counting the number of males per 100 females. When the sex ratio is 100, this means that the number of males and females is balanced. If the sex ratio is more than 100, there is a predominance of females. In the Philippines, there are more male babies born than female babies. However, females outnumber males in later years because men are more exposed to danger. Sex composition affects the social and economic conditions of the society. A high proportion of men means more workers for farming, mining and forestry, and heavy industries. Cities provide 504

more opportunities for females who work in the service industries. That is why there are more females in the cities. The Philippine Population The Philippines, with a population of 79.34 million in 2000, is a fast growing country in terms of population. In 1990, the Philippine population was more than 66 million, up from 48 million in 1980; the growth rate was from 2.5% to 2.6%, down from more than 3% in 1960. In 1990, the birth rate was 29 per 1,000 and the death rate was 7 per 1,000. There was a decline in the death rate in the Philippines after World War II. This was due to improved public health measures and other rural health programs. With a growth rate of 2.2%, the Philippine population of 77million (year 2000) will double every 29 years. By year 2050, the Philippines will be the 12th most populous nation with a population of 146 million. The Philippines ranks as the 13th largest population in 2002. The Philippine population is characterized as “young” since 57% are under age twenty. Considering this, there is a need to double the amount of housing, schools, and health facilities if the population doubles every 29 years. Even if our population growth declined to 2.2% (year 2002), this is not enough to remedy the growing unemployment rate. Population density increased from 160 per square kilometer in 1980 to 220 in 1990. In 2000, the national density is 210 persons 505

per square kilometer (considered as densely populated). The National Capital Region is the densest area, with 17,467 persons per square kilometer. Density is brought about by socioeconomic, geographical, and climatic factors. Implications of Philippine Population Growth Even if the rate of population growth decreased from 2.3% in 1990 to 2.2% in 2000 the figure is still considered high and does not speak well of our population program. This rapid population growth has contributed to the slow social program. This rapid population growth has contributed to the slow social and economic development. The rate of population growth has placed a strain on the national budget. Funds that should have been allocated for investment were spent instead in infrastructure, transportation and communication, housing, waste disposal, police protection, power resources, etc. (Concepcion 1966). Even education and health services have been limited by the number of children in the Philippines. However, the Catholic Church and other pro-life proponents assert that the problem is not in the number but in the misdistribution of resources. NEDA contends for this debate to continue but the social indicators can still be best analyzed in terms of our capabilities to maintain quality health and nutrition, housing, education, employment, and social security.

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Population Policy and Program It was in the 1960s that the Philippine government began to show concern over the rapid population growth. In 1971, the Philippine Congress passed R.A. 635, instituting a national policy on population and created the Population Commission (POPCOM). It eventually became an integral part of the economic development plan of President Decree 79 after Martial Law was declared. The POPCOM became the policymaking, coordinating, and monitoring agency of the Philippines’s family planning program. Its goal was to enhance national development by meeting the social and economic challenges of population growth. A program was formulated for population education and was embodied in the Philippine Development Plan for 1984-1987. Emphasis was placed on achieving demographic goals and efforts on development strategy on population. It called on a strong advocacy of family planning but respecting sociocultural values and religion. The reduction of fertility was a program promoting the use of all legally and medically approved contraceptives. From the 1970s up to the present time, there have been inconsistencies and lacked a clear government agency in charge of our population worries. As a result, there is no coordinated family planning program and not a single centavo is spent on artificial birth control. The weak population policy has increased the number of those in the lower class. It is estimated that, of the 80 million Filipinos today, 40% are living on less than $1 a day (World Bank 2000). 507

The National Demographic and Health Services stated that about 20% of married Filipino women do not want any more children or want at least two years before having another child. This means that about 2 million women have an unmet need for family planning. According to the United States Agency for International Development, the Philippines registers a high rate of abortion per year, with 400,000 or more about16 per 100 pregnancies. On the other hand, the Catholic Church and other religious groups blame moral decay and the “proliferation of contraceptives” for productivity, abortions, and illegitimate births. According to Catholic doctrine, the sexual act should always be for the purpose of procreation and taking place within the context of marriage. The Church recommends only one method of birth control – natural family planning, which helps the couple to develop patience, self-control, and responsibility. POPCOM Program officials believe that this is not practical for a poor country like the Philippines. The population policy from 1969 to 2002 offers contraceptives as the most important factor in the population policy. A study on Philippines population policy in the same period showed the Catholic Church hierarchy’s persistent and consistent opposition to the government policy of reducing population growth through the promotion of artificial family planning methods. Many think that the influence of the Catholic Church regarding artificial methods has contributed to the failure of the country to reduce population growth rate at a substantial level.

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Summary There are several factors to consider when studying population growth in the context of the Philippine experience. We cannot depend on mere equality, better government, or new technology to sustain our growing population. Childbearing contributes most to the rapid population increase. As seen in the China model, their program has brought about the rapid fall fertility. China encouraged their citizens to marry later, wait longer between births, and bear fewer children. In the Philippines, couples are given the choice. A one-child policy to reduce fertility will not pass enactment in our country. Our culture, principally religion, does not allow abortion or the use of contraception. A voluntary program of family planning is seen to work more effectively albeit slowly but hopefully bringing with it the economic development we have long aspired for. Study Guide 1. Distinguish fertility from mortality. How do these affect population? 2. What is migration? What is its significance to the population? 3. Describe the sex pyramid of the Philippine society today and in the coming decades. 4. What are the views of Malthus with regards to population growth? 509

Critical Thinking Questions 1. What programs should young people follow to bring about the reduction of population in the Philippines? Why will that program be workable? 2. Consider a study in your community showing the relationship between population and development. 3. Do you think China’s “later, longer, fewer” campaign will succeed in the Philippines? Why or why not?

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Chapter 18 WOMEN AND CHILDREN “Policies that improve the status of women enable communities to alleviate poverty, develop local economies, expand the number of educated and healthy citizens, sustain the environment and strengthen families.” Elizabeth Fisher Gender Justice: Women’s Rights are Human Rights 1996 Mankind owes to the child the best it has to give. Preamble, Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 Can increase social participation of women and children contribute to the alleviation of poverty? How? Why there is a need for a specific study? This section focuses on gender studies to better understand the sociological issues involved in being a male or female in our culture. The terms “sex” and “gender” have different meaning. Sex refers specifically to one’s internal and external sexual organs. There is no social or cultural component to sex. Gender is the personal, social, or cultural assignment of being male or female. Sex is a purely physical determination of whether one is male or female. If one has a penis and testicles, then that person’s sex is 511

male; if a person has a vagina, fallopian tubes, and ovaries, then that person’s sex is female. Personal perception and one’s self-dignity do not factor into the determination of one’s sex. The only exception is in people known as hermaphrodites, individuals with the rare type of birth defect that lives them with the sex organs of both male and female. A hermaphrodite may have a penis and a vagina, or a penis and ovaries, or any other combination of the male or female sexual organ. The hermaphrodite’s sex is determined by the sex chromosomes. If the person’s chromosomes are XX, the hermaphrodite’s sex is considered female; if the person’s chromosomes are XT, the sex is considered male. Sex is bases exclusively on one’s series of labels that people apply to themselves and what others base on them. Sex belongs to the disciplines of biology or anatomy, while gender falls under the purview of sociology and psychology (Klein 1992). Sociologist is interested in gender not sex. It is believed that men and women behave as a result of process of gender role socialization. Individuals internalize social roles. We are shocked when these roles are transgressed, like when a female is a plumber, surgeon, or engineer or when a male is a nanny or a beautician. Gender role socialization is carried on by parents who choose blue for boys (strong cold color) and pink for girls (weak, warm, delicate). From birth, boys and girls are handled differently. Boys 512

are encouraged to develop physical strength and girls to be fragile or weak. Girls are encouraged to do domestics roles and are pressure in romance, marriage, and motherhood. Girls are generally made to give up school early and marriage is made an important role. Social expectations are for them to sacrifice their careers to bear children and look after them. To reject this role is seen as defiance. On the other hand, these social expectations are not imposed on males. The inclusion of the unique role of women has made an afterthought. The emergence of gender sociology is to make up for the omission of women studies from sociology. Gender Role of Identity and Expectations Cultures have various norms regarding male and female behaviors. Culture, through the socialization process, teaches individuals the behavior that is expected or not acceptable. Gender role identity is a personal belief and attitude system that shapes and guides and individual tastes and actions. Gender role expectations are the do’s and don’ts which society imposes for male and females. These expectations are shaped by the social and cultural belief and attitude system and guide a member’s preferences and behaviors. Nevertheless, gender role identity operates at the individual level. For example, Tony believes that boys don’t cry and it is a man’s responsibility to earn money. While he sits and watches television on weekends, the wife is expected to clean the house, do the laundry, and take of 513

the children’s needs. These represent is gender role identity. When what we believes in and his behaviors adheres to society’s expectations, and it is said that the gender role expectations is the same as is gender role identity. Gender influence may be seen during infancy when baby boys are wrapped in blue blankets and new born females in pink blankets. These differences lead to the later life tendencies for men and women. In childhood, there are stereotype notions on what toys are proper for boys and those for girls. The toys for boys are action oriented, such as toy guns, cars, etc. Girl’s toys are usually domestically related, such as dolls, kitchen tools, play houses, etc. These have a cumulative effect that sends messages to the children about the differences between boys and girls. This is further reinforced during adolescence. Gender Inequality The term gender inequality is the systematic difference between the life experiences, social expectations, and opportunities that are presented because one is male or female. Although women comprise a larger proportion of higher education enrollment than men, women are likely to work on a part time basis or not work at all as they are mothers, wives, and homemakers first. Women who work at home are not counted in the labor force. Thus, statistics show a higher unemployment rate in women than men. In terms of income, women earn less money than the men. In terms of occupation, the number of women is less in architecture, engineering, scientists, physicians, lawyers, etc. 514

Furthermore, women have less opportunity in terms of career placements, job security, prestige and good salaries. Women are over represented in technical, sales and administrative support or service occupations. They are in jobs as secretaries, clerks, bookkeepers, childcare workers, and cleaning and servant workers (Barnard and Burgess 1996; Klein 1992) A document issued by the United States State Department in July 1995 declares that: “In the United States, women make up too large a percentage of those in poverty and constitute too small a percentage of those in power. These inequities exact an unacceptable cost in human potential and in the wellbeing of individuals, families and communities. They therefore warrant our attention and action.” Sadly, the state of women mentioned above is also true in other nations around the world. It has been about eight decades since a worldwide increase in the assertion by women on full equality with men, yet international women’s movements are still strive to explain and remedy the plight of women who have fought for food, shelter, health care, schools, rape crisis centers, shelters for battered women, abortion rights, legal services, equal pay for equal work, educational and training opportunities, day care, land, family planning services, access to political influence in their societies and an end to violence against women, forced marriages, sexual slavery, sexual harassment, and environmental degradation (Fisher and Mackay 1996:xviii) Globalization of the world economy did not help in improving the situation of women. Globalization is based largely on exploiting 515

flexible markets of underpaid workers; women’s participation as workers in this new world economy is not a sign of progress. The global gap between rich and poor has widened and there are now more people living in dire poverty than a decade ago and “women remain in the poorest of the poor, everywhere” (Seager 1997:9). The existing view on the discriminatory and oppressive conception on women comes from society’s assessment of the biological (sex) and cultural (gender) differences between men and women. The role of women in childbearing automatically limits their employment opportunities. “The failure to train women for non-traditional trade (e.g. welding, technician, construction, miner, etc.) is an example of gender bias against women doing work. On the other hand, children were considered adjuncts of women under our customs and laws (Feliciano 2000:41).” Before the adoption of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, the plight of women and children were ignored or dismissed completely. During the Spanish colonial era in the Philippines, the Spanish Civil Code even classified them along with the “deaf-mutes, insane and imbeciles, who were incapacitated to perform certain acts (ibid).” Many changes have traversed the international community since then, yet dominance of men and their preferred status in nearly all accounts of the economic and social inequities between men and women, together with reposts of grave injustices on children, permeate even in the most industrialized of nations.

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Women at Home Development processes are reshaping Filipino families that have become smaller in size and more nuclear in composition. Filipino women now marry at later ages, thus delaying the onset of family formation. In 1998, data from the Social Protection Bureau of the Department of Social Welfare Development (DSWD) indicates that, or women aged 25 – 49 years, the median age for first marriage was 22.1 years. In 1993 it was 21.6 years. The economic role of women has been increasing. Data shows that the average number of female-headed families has risen from 10% in 1970 to 11.3% in 1990, then to 12.2% in 1995. These households are average for members, while male-headed households average 5.2 members. As of 1994, the annual income of female-headed households was P92,526; male-headed households, P91,491. However, the traditional sex role that assigns homemaking only to women still holds despite the fact that women are increasingly economically active. Present economic conditions make matter more difficult for Filipino women as they have to take on the traditional role of raising the family and homemaking, while also having to partake economic task due to persistent poverty condition. This situation forces a number of women to leave home to earn a living, losing the traditional support available to early generation of Filipino families. The added migration of family members, including children and adults, men and women alike, compounds and dilemma as well. 517

Since there are more responsibilities now imposed on women upon marriage, motherhood, and employment, gender inequality in the home and society are more manifest. One of the challenges facing women of contemporary families is the redefinitions and recalibrations of gender roles within the home, as well as the equitable redistributions of household chores among co-family members. Women at Work Since the 1970s women’s economic activities have risen steadily everywhere in the world except Africa. Men’s economic activity rates declined. Locally, women have been joining the labor force party out of economic necessity and partly in response to economic opportunities. There remains a wide gap in female and male labor force participation and employment levels although they have both grown in actual numbers. Filipino women in productive work still have to approximate the employment levels and labor force participation rates of the men. Whereas in 1999, 81.8% or eight out of ten men in the economically active age group (18 and up) are in the labor force; the figure for women is only 15% or five out of ten. In fact, twothirds of the country’s entire labor force is composed of men. The lower rate of women in the labor force reflects the preference given to the employment of males over females and the constraints imposed by domestic responsibilities on women to be able to enter the labor force. Moreover, women spend more of their time in informal-unpaid- and household work than men. The October 1990 NSO labor force survey showed that men made up 518

most of the Philippines’ workers at 66.3%, as well as the wage and salary workers at 62.3%. Women topped the list of unpaid workers at 52.9%. This means that most of women’s labor, primarily informal and household work, neatly go invisible in conventional economic measures. Health and Motherhood “Health refers not only to the absence of disease or disability but encompasses a person’s state of complete physical, mental, emotional, and social well being. Women’s health in all stages of the life cycle is of immense importance, not only because it affects the health of the next generation through its impact on children, but also because women are half of the country’s human resource” (NCRFW 2000). Even if data reveals that: women tend to outlive men; that women’s mortality rate is lower than men; that maternal mortality rates decreased from 200 deaths per 100,00 live births in 1993 to 172 in 1998; Filipinos men still slightly outnumber women. The past decade witnessed slow but steady progress in the overall situation of Filipino women. They appear to have gained more from national health improvements, as gleaned from health indicators such as life expectancy and mortality rates. Nevertheless, a look at women’s health situation in the areas of nutrition, childbearing/reproductive, and other health concerns indicate that much remains to be done in returns to be done of addressing women’s generally poor state of health. (Ibid.)

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Women and Public Life There was an unprecedented increase of women in the political arena during the 1980s, particularly when Ms. Corazon C. Aquino became president. Generally, however, women’s participation in politics and governance continue to be limited. Filipino women at both the national and local levels remain largely unable to influence legislation. Chief executive and other top administrators are mostly men. It is not surprising henceforth that there is no significance increase in the number of women running for elective posts, much less those who actually win. In 1995, there were only 6 females out of the total 28 candidates who ran for senator (or 21.4%). In 1998, out of the 6 females candidates who run for the senator, only 2 were elected; for congressional seats, 25 out of 207 (12.1%); for the gubernatorial posts, 13 out of 75 (17.3%); and for vice gubernatorial posts, 9 of the 75 (12%).Although a few women have held top public positions, including the residency, they still comprise a very small percentage of major office holders. By 1997, the government bureaucracy as a whole has women accounting for the majority, at 53.81% of the 1.38million total government personnel. However, they dominate only the second-level positions at 72.26%. In first and third (highest) levels, they accounted for 34% and 32.5% respectively. Education Compared to other developing countries, the Philippines ranks high in terms of literacy and other educational indicators. Educations policies are very liberal and expansionary. 520

No marked differences exist in the education between Filipino women and men. Nationally and in both rural and urban areas, literacy rates have been on the uptrend, particularly for women. NCSO data reveals that in 1990, literacy rates among Filipino men and women stood at high and nearly equal 94% for men and 93.2% for women. However, a stricter definition of literacy, as employed by the Functional Literacy and Education Mass Media Survey (1989), yielded moderately higher national functional literacy rates for women (74%) than men (72.9%) However, the bigger issue regarding gender is the stereotyping in the fields of study and specialization and its translation into the world of work where men generally occupy the highest paying position. Moreover, women’s larger responsibility for housework and the family impedes their ability to use their educational training and skills for remunerative work. Child Workers The Filipino children work. This fact is useful in realizing that, in both the cities and the rural areas, children do work as a form of socialization or because the parents view this as a training of children to value work. Generally, children are forced to work due to family expectations that everybody should contribute to the family income or to help support their educational aspirations because their families cannot afford to send them to schools. Working children are those aged fifteen and below who work in a public or private establishment where they are not directly under the responsibility of their parents or guardian or where the latter employ other workers apart from their children. They are 521

considered “working” or economically active if, at any time during the reference period, the child engaged in an economic activity for at least one hour. The child may be studying, looking for work, and/or housekeeping while working (NEDA and NSO 1998:5) Although the practice is condemned by developed nations, child labor is intrinsic in the economies of underdeveloped and developing countries such as Philippines. Here, it is widespread, particularly in six-member households or more. The 19959 NSO survey reports that, of the 9.6 million households, 56% or 5.3 million households were engaged in own-households-operated activities or businesses. Twenty-eight percent of these, or roughly 2.6 million, have children working in their own-householdoperated activities and/or in other household’s business. Poverty is a big reason for this occurrence as most of the said households had incomes of only P3,000 to P4,999- 32% were among those with working children. Several concerns arise with child labor, such as unacceptable 20% of child workers are rated to be working under hazardous situations. Article 32 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child recognizes the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child’s education, or to be harmful to the child’s heath or physical, mental, spiritual, moral, and social development. Effects of child labor  Physical harm- when any part of the physical body of the working child are affected directly or adversely leading to 522

conditions that may require immediate medical attention. Physical effects include malnutrition; skin disease; permanent or temporary physical disabilities; unexplained, unusual and periodic bodily injuries; lacerations, bruises, burns, sexually transmitted diseases or death.  Hampering the child’s education- when the child is exposed to work in exchange for the time that he or she is supposed to be in school. The work may force the child to stop schooling, or be dropped or fail in school. It is a major concern that working children’s educational attainment is hampered because of frequent absences, lack of time to study, and monetary constraints that originally obliged them to work. In 1995, of the 3.6 million children who worked, only 68.9% were reported to have attended school. Boys outnumbered girls at 62.2%.  Emotional/Psychological harm- when the manifests withdrawal syndrome, learning disabilities, extreme depression, emotional breakdown, sense of alienation, suicidal or self-destructive tendencies, aggressive behavior, low self-image, relationship problems, rejection, fear, absentmindedness, and/ or confusion. Violence against Women and Children The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and UNICEF were created to develop programs and promote actions worldwide to end the longstanding mistreatment women and children have endured throughout history. These entities are committed to protect women’s and children’s rights, ensure their provision of clean drinking water, adequate shelter, appropriate clothes to wear, and 523

all other necessities to survive. More importantly, their mandate is to advocate an environment which is free of violence. The UN and women’s movements all over the world have helped to get attention for gender violence. The International Women’s Year in 1975 and the United Nations Decade for Women (19761985) paved the way for the CEDAW to facilitate a resolution declaring State Parties to take appropriate actions to address the problem. This effort pushed the passage of the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women in December 1993. Article 2 of the UN/CEDAW Declaration cited the Physical, sexual, and psychological violence occurring in the family; within the general community; and those perpetrated or condoned by the State as issues for concern. Local effort towards the elimination of violence against women and children The family is regarded as a basic social institution that must be cherished, preserved, and protected. The Family Code of the Philippines states that no custom, practice, or agreement destructive of the family shall be recognized or given effect. The premise is that the family is a haven where spouses and children expect protection and security, a place of nurture and growth, and certainly not that of abuse. However, the concept of the family as all important, as upheld in the Family Code, has been misused and distorted to justify an endemic Filipino culture or tradition of keeping it intact at all costs, purportedly for the sake of the children. A restrictive culture maintains that, whatever occurs in a marriage- even if it takes on 524

a violent, criminal nature- is a private matter between husband and wife. It is culture that tolerates violence against children, and considers it within a parent’s right to enforce discipline. In the Philippines, nature of violence against women and children within the home is usually covered by a culture of silence, underscored by lack of information and proper understanding of the phenomenon. Revelations of intra-family violence bring shame and scandal to their victims, and they are continually under tremendous pressure to bear the fear, pain, and rage in silence for the sake of family honor. Compounding the situation is the fact that domestic violence happens inside the home and, such as, keeps it hidden and unrecognized. Laws created to eliminate domestic violence, such as Republic Act 7610, as amended, also known as the Special Protection Act on the Children Against Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination, still need improvement. The criminal justice system, for instance, lacks the proper perspective in the treatment of child abuse cases. Notably, “…in most cases of child abuse, particularly child sexual abuse, there is little evidence to prove the commission of the offense aside from the child victim’s testimony, in which case the abusers absolutely deny the abuse (Lao ed. 1997:30).” This tends to make criminal proceedings less in handling courtroom interrogations, they are traditionally considered to be “incompetent, un reliable witnesses with high imaginative and exaggerated narrations of the circumstances of the case.” (Ibid 1997:28) Emotional trauma is the commonly perceived consequence of the domestic violence. About one-third of the victimized wives were 525

institutionalized and another third separated from their spouses; four-tenths of victimized children had to be institutionalized. Obviously, the actual extend of psychological damage incurred has been established. Some common effects agreed upon by social workers and therapist are stunted emotional growth, low self-esteem, the inability to make simple decisions, depression, and helplessness in the face of everyday problems. (UPCWS Foundation, Inc. et. al. 1996:15) Rectifying the Social Inequities on Women Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) The CEDAW is the product of years of women’s organizing efforts within the United Nations and several nations around the world. It was adopted in 1979 and enforced in 1981. The final impetus for drafting the treaty was the 1975 UN Women’s Conference in Mexico. CEDAW is not the first UN treaty concerning the status of women; several earlier treaties on marriage rights, political rights, and trafficking remain important in themselves and it is these that set the stage for CEDAW. CEDAW establishes a set of standards and principles- in some cases, specified in detail- that are intend to a serve as a template for shaping national policies toward the long term goal of eliminating gender discrimination in every country. States that have signed and ratified CEDAW are committed to pursue policies that eliminate discrimination. Moreover, they must report progress once every four years to a CEDAW Committee (Seager 1997 : 104) many, though not all, UN member states have ratified 526

CEDAW and it prevails an important document being studied by governments willing to undergo specific changes to address the concern of half their constituencies. Local initiatives Philippines laws are in the process of adapting to CEDAW policies. This entails the passage of major legislation that addresses discrimination, domestic violence, as well as other crimes against women. An instance would be the Anti-Rape Law, or Republic Act No. 8353, passed on September 30, 1997, which broadened the definition of rape to include: when man has carnal knowledge of a woman through force or, threat, or intimidation; when the offended party is deprived of reason or otherwise unconscious of fraudulent machination or grave abuse of authority; and when the offended party is under 12 years of age or is demented, even if none of the circumstances mentioned earlier are present. If further provides that rape is committed by any person who, under any of the circumstances mentioned previously, inserts his penis into another person’s mouth or anal orifice, or any instrument or object into genital or anal orifice of another person. The main dilemma previously encountered with the old law has been rectified. Before, the Revised Penal Code declared that rape is a crime against chastity and is committed against women, thereby giving the victim the burden of prosecuting the rapist. It is now classified as a crime against persons and is to be prosecuted by the State itself. Other penal statues concerning women are: R.A. 6955 (1990) which outlaws the practice of matching Filipino women for 527

marriage to foreign national either on mail order basis or through introduction for a fee; R.A. 7309 (1992), which compensates victims of violent crimes, including rape and unjust imprisonment or detention, with amounts of not more P10,000; R.A. 7659 (1993), which imposes the death penalty on heinous crimes, including rape, when committed with certain attendant circumstances and protection to rape victims. Caring for the Future Generation The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), created in December 1946, is a special program of UN which aids States efforts in improving education, health, nutrition and the general welfare of children. UNICEF was originally established to give relief to children in countries devastated during the Second World War. In 1950, it was redirected to generate programs aimed to improve children’s welfare and to cope with various emergency situations especially in less developed nations. Foremost in the aims of UNICEF is the promotions and recognition of the rights of the child, which are, the right to equality, regardless of race, color, religion, sex, and nationality; grow up in a family environment with adequate means of survival, food, clothing, shelter, and medical care; special care for the handicapped; freedom of expression; immediate aid in the event of disaster and emergency; protection from cruelty, neglect and all forms of exploitation; freedom from prosecution; and to an upbringing in the spirit of worldwide brotherhood and peace. The declaration of these rights was signed by the Philippine government at the UN Convention on the rights of the Child in 528

1989; and was ratified on July 1990. However, it is still in the process of full integration within the government structure and is yet to be imbibed in Filipino culture. Among others, there is a need for a comprehensive juvenile justice system that is pro-children, which protects them from exposure to hazardous environment and detrimental occupation, and which will implement information drives on children’s rights. The primary laws on child protection are Republic Act 7610 and Presidential Decree 603 (Child and Youth Welfare Code); while Executive Order 209 (Family Code of the Philippines), the Revised Penal Code, and the Labor Code of the Philippines contain most of the others. Summary WOMEN IN THE Philippines appear to occupy a more favorable position as compared to their counterparts in many other countries, but complete equality with men is yet to be achieved. Organizations created for women’s welfare, both public and NGOs, such as the NCRFW Gabriela, Women’s Media Circle, Third World Movement Against Exploitation of Women, to name a few, have made an impact on the rise of a growing awareness towards rectifying this inequity. Philippine laws pertaining to women and children are ample by most measures. What is lacking, however, is the implementation of these laws. “The hiatus between law and practice has to be examined and remedied in accordance with the present social and economic realities, “(Feliciano IBP Law Journal 2000:78). Given the current trend, there is still much to be done to hurdle 529

the obstacle that limits the maximization of half the population’s potentials. Children need to be loved, cared for, nurtured, and protected to enable them to grow and develop normally. Parents are expected to be the primary source of such needs since it is their foremost responsibility to provide a supportive and secure environment for their children. It is unfortunate, however, that many of today’s children are in vulnerable situations; poverty, urbanization, industrialization, and social unrest compound this condition. In a situation where in both parents are forced to work, children are likely to be neglected or left to care for themselves. This environment makes children susceptible to abuse and exploitation. The presence of many street-children in the metropolis is one obvious result of the social problems besetting our children. Study Guide 1. Why was the plight of women and children ignored before? 2. Discuss the economic role of women. 3. Who are the working children? Why is child labor predominant in underdeveloped countries? Critical Thinking Questions 1. What techniques do mass media use to “sell” women? 2. How can we create a perspective for the working women at all levels of organization? 3. What is to be done to ensure the normal growth and development of Filipino children? Chapter 19 530

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION On April 10, 1912, the ocean liner Titanic slipped away from the docks of Southampton, England, on its maiden voyage across the North Atlantic to New York. A proud symbol of the new industrial age, the towering ship carried twenty – three hundred passengers; some enjoy luxury than most travellers today could imagine. By contrast, poor immigrants crowded the lower decks, journeying to what they hoped would be a better life in the United States. Two days out, the crew received radio warning of icebergs in the area but paid little notice. Then, near midnight, as the ship steamed swiftly and silently westward, a lookout was stunned to see a massive shape rising out of the dark ocean directly ahead. Moments later, the Titanic collided with a huge iceberg, almost as tall as the ship itself, which split open its starboard side as if the grand vessel were nothing more than a giant tin can. Seawater surged into the ship’s lower levels, and within twentyfive minutes people were rushing for the lifeboats. Bye 2:00 in the morning the bow of the Titanic was submerged and the stern reared high above the water. Clinging to the deck, quietly observed by those in the lifeboats, hundreds of helpless passengers solemnly passed their final minutes before the ship disappeared into the frigid Atlantic (Lord 1976). The tragic loss of more than sixteen hundred lives made news around the world. Looking back dispassionately at this terrible accident with a sociological eye, however, we see that some categories of 531

passengers had much better odds of survival than others. In the age of conventional gallantry, women and children boarded the boats first, so that eight percent of casualties were men. Class, too, was at work. Of people holding first-class tickets, more than sixty percent were saved, primarily because they were on the upper decks, where warnings were sounded first and lifeboats were accessible. Of the thirty-six percent of the second class passengers on the lower decks, only twenty-four percent escaped drowning. On board the Titanic, class turned out to mean much more than the quality of accommodations. It was truly a matter of life or death. John Maciones, Sociology 6th ed, 1997 The tragedy that beset the Titanic illustrates the consequences of social inequality. Why? Defining Social Stratification Social stratification in a society may be defined as its internal division into a hierarchy of distinct social groups, each having specific life chances and distinctive style of life. The sociological emphasis on class can be traced to the ideas of Karl Marx, who analyzed the history of all societies as marked with the struggles of social classes. Weber and Durkheim believed that the centrality of class conflict is likened to the struggles of their times. American sociologists place less emphasis on class that their European counterparts, reflecting a popular view that American society is more “open” and less divided by class. In an open society, there is opportunity to move up or down the social 532

hierarchy with great ease and with no marked differences in culture or lifestyle (Scott 1996). Social stratification refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy (high, middle, or low) The following are the basic principles in social stratification: 1) It is characteristic of society. Neither rich nor poor people create social stratification but the system shapes the lives of them all; 2) It persists over generations; 3) It is universal but variable from one society to another; 4) It involves not only inequality but also beliefs. The concepts that define social stratification are social differentiation and social inequality, Social differentiation refers to the distinct conditions of individuals which does not necessarily imply unequal treatment or ranking in society. Social inequality is the condition of unequal access to what is valuable in a society. Both social differentiation and social inequality are preconditions for social stratification. All societies past and present are characterized by some kind of inequality. There are people who are hunger, more intelligent, or have more of what is considered important in a society. The distinction of social rank is based on wealth, biological characteristics, social skills or money. This differentiation of a group is inevitable. Among tribal groups, the division is along the line of gender. Social divisions establish framework of social relations, where the individual is presented with what he or she sought to expect from life. Sociologists call this social stratification. When focusing on 533

larger groups, sociologists call these social classes – which are determined on the basis of income, education, and occupation. The higher the income and education, the higher the prestige. The lower the income, education, occupation and prestige, the lower is the social class. Objective Dimensions of Stratification The dimensions that govern stratification are economic, political, and social. The economic dimension of stratification is measured based on the distribution of income and wealth of the citizenry in relation with the Gross National Product (GNP) and GNP per capita. The political dimension of stratification deals with power inequalities. The social dimension refers to the degree of openness or closeness of societies by analyzing the intra and inter – generational mobility and the patterns of changes in status or positions in an individual’s lifetime. One’s position in the social stratification tends to be transmitted from one generation to another. The family members have the same social position in the hierarchy; this condition opens or limits the range of resources and opportunities available to them. The Basic Components of Social Stratification The basic components of social stratification are social class, status, and roles. Social status is the social standing of a person within a social class or in the entire social stratification system. Roles pertain to the expected behaviour patterns that correspond with a status. Such status bears measure of superiority, equal 534

standing, or inferiority. It is either ascribed or achieved. If ascribed, the role is assumed through heredity, sex, race, or class at birth. If achieved, it is attained through effort or marriage. Table 19.1 Philippine Profile 1998 Size Population Population Density Urban Population (1991) Life Expectancy (1991) Population under 15 (1991) Infant mortality rate per 100 births Adult literacy rate Labor force involved in Agriculture Industry Services GNP per capita (1991) Population in absolute poverty (1980 – 1989) Total external debt (1991) Percent of government expenditures allocated to debt servicing Sources: UNDP, NEDA

300,000 sq km 74 million 210 per sq km 43 % 65 years 40 % 42 90 % 41 % 19 % 40 % $730 US 58 % $32 billion US 40 %

In the Philippines, the groups are divided into three social classes: upper, middle, and lower. The upper class refers to the very rich. They consist of elite families who are successful in agriculture, industry, or government. This class is of two types: the new (noveau) rich and the traditional upper class. This class can be further subdivided into the: 1) Upper-upper: have huge amount of wealth; 2) Lower upper: new money, sometimes lacking in breeding and proper social background and may not have the ability to go up the ladder of the upper-upper so they can send their children to the best schools or marry into upper-upper class; 3) Upper middle: professionals or high-level 535

management personnel like, doctors, lawyers, dentists, and corporate personnel, whose incomes are more than adequate for their needs. The middle class includes small business and industry owners and managers, professionals, office workers, and farm owners. To them, education is the main indicator of social status since majority has less personal properties. There is a strong preference for less-paying white collar jobs to higher-paying but less honorific manual jobs. Child-rearing practices generally revolve around the inculcation of orderliness, conscientiousness, initiative, self-reliance, and responsibility. Conformity to conventions, like citizenship rights and obligations, religious virtues, and sex morality, is given much weight. A subdivision of the class is the lower middle, which includes the low level managers, white collar workers, skilled blue collar workers. Comprising the lower class are the farm workers, unskilled and skilled artisans, service workers, the underemployed and indigent families. They are the largest in number and live on a substance level. They lack certain qualifications which are necessary for upward mobility like income, education or training, acquaintanceship and communication, and family background. Social participation tens to be more confined within the kinship group or to religious and labor union activities. They generally acquire their education from public and non-exclusive private schools. There is relatively greater laxity in sex morality, a tendency to become easily prejudiced, and inclination for authoritarian and corporal punishment in child-rearing techniques, and a belief in 536

limited social mobility. Attitudes and behavior toward religion range form indifferences to fanaticism. The government is regarded either as a remote “third party” or a paternalistic body which takes care of people’s needs. The lower class can be subdivided into the: 1) Upper-lower: known as the working class; blue collar workers; education is limited and little prestige is attached to their work; and 2) Lowerlower; at the bottom of the ladder of social inequality, they get worst of what society has to offer; have the least education and the least income; their jobs are seasonal, like the farmers and fisherfolks. Factors Affecting Social Mobility Social Mobility. This refers to the movement of individuals or groups within a small system wherein a degree of openness or closeness exists. Intra and inter-generational mobility represents the patterns of changes in status or position during the individual’s lifetime and may be carried on the next generations. Changing labor markets, increased geographical and horizontal mobility, changing patterns of fertility, and greater emphasis on education bring about social mobility. Social mobility is a continuous process that involves motivations, cooperation, competition, and conflict. Equalizing opportunities are positive motivations, whereas, unsatisfactory primary group relationships are negative motivations. The overall consequence of social mobility may be a gain or a loss of power or authority, prestige, and/or esteem. A highly dynamic society brings about 537

comparatively greater role differentiation and specialization, conflict, and social insecurity. The degree to which children succeed their parents in their occupations is an important indication of social mobility. Industrialized societies create a number and variety of jobs and tend to make stratification systems open. It is bound to offer more opportunities for mobility than an agriculturally dominated economy. However, this condition accompanies competition towards the top, which requires greater costs for higher training and education attainments and more complicated societal connections Education is a big factor in an occupational mobility but the quality of education generally depends on the parent’s socio-economic status. Horton and Hunt (1984:376) state that, for majority of people, education is a significant mobility ladder but that is possibly less necessary for all kinds of career that has generally been assumed. Mobility may be horizontal, which is the movement from one position to another with the same ranking or vertical, which is the upward or download change in rank (Ingang 1969). Geographical mobility and horizontal mobility usually go hand-inhand and can be prerequisites to vertical mobility. Job opportunities from one location to another can be unfold population movements – from farm to city, from city to the suburb or to a new frontier or vice-versa. More than a call for adventure, these movements present possibilities for upward mobility 538

Studies show that high fertility hinders upwards mobility especially for the very poor. Early marriages and lack of family planning makes it difficult for lower-class members to complete their studies and later compete for good jobs. Low socio-economic position perpetuates or even worsen itself (Hauser 1964:76) The varied agents socialization, among which is the school, tend to extend more opportunities for children of the upper and middle classes. On the other hand, these tend to limit the chances of children of poor families because of lack of encouragement in the home and inconsistencies between norms and the behavior at home and in the school itself. National values emphasize movement within blue collar and white collar ranks; those at top and the bottom tend to remain where they are. The drive for vertical, upward mobility underlies the explosions of rising expectations, calling for change in the social stratification system in developing countries all over the world. Land reform programs and community development and organization programs make the government agents of social change and social mobility. Whether vertical social mobility is upward or downward, it has consequences. A rapid rate of upward social mobility can cause people to breakdown under the pressures of striving for success, which brings about feelings of loneliness, rootlessness, anxiety, frustrations, and various types of social disorganization. It can cause the loosening of family ties and old friendship, departing from former places of residence, making ew but often-casual friendship. Downward social mobility brings about loss of selfconfidence, social isolation, formlessness, desperation, and 539

diverse types of emotional, social , and cultural maladjustments (Coser and Rosenberg 1957: 476-504) Stratification and Technology It has been observed that there is a relationship between a society’s technology and its social stratification. Situating social stratification in a historical perspective will help in understanding why there are varying degrees of inequality worldwide. Simple technology in the hunting and gathering stage provide only what was necessary for day-to-day living. The group was secured by sharing what people gathered. Social stratification gets more complex in societies with more advanced technology. Technological advances create surplus products, thus making social inequality more pronounced. In agrarian societies, small elite controls most of the surplus. Industrialization reverses the historical trend whereby there is a decrease in serial inequality. Education gives the individual more opportunities. With industrial technology, the living standard of the poor majority was improved and the rate of illiteracy. When society is more literate, the population is likely to press for grater voice in political decision-making. This could contribute in reducing social inequity. Summary Social stratification refers to categories of people that are ranked in hierarchy or layers. It denotes the division of society into social classes and statues of varying ranks of superiority and inferiority. It reflects the degree of specialized division of labor. 540

A social class is a stratum of society and represents a group of families that are equal and occupy a common social economic standing and subculture. Status is a social position with is corresponding roles. The social classes are identified in terms of landholding, income, occupation, ethnic and family background. Social stratification may be closed or open. A scribed status is “inherited inequality.” This system is relatively closed. When status is achieved, social opportunities become equal and bring about greater social mobility. Stratification which is open is called class system. Social stratification is characteristic of society and persists over generations. It is universal but varies in form and is supported by cultural beliefs. Critical Thinking Questions 1. Is social stratification present in your campus? Why? 2. How has industrialization shaped social stratification in your community?

Chapter 20 541

RACE AND ETHNICITY Wiping out the Abu Sayyaf Ninety days to wipe out the Abu Sayyaf? The military could grumble all it likes at the capriciousness of the directive but an order is an order, especially if it’s one coming from the commander-in-chief. The soldiers will just have to give it a try. Days after Gloria Arroyo came to power, we recall her boasting that finishing off the Abu Sayaff was as good as done (“isang bala ka lang”). That was two years ago. The Abu Sayyaf is still there, although sharply reduced in number and cornered in Sulu if we can believe military claims. So what has markedly changed since then that gave Arroyo the confidence to give military a deadline? The promise of the United States to send in combat troops is probably the answer. The United States has committed 350 Special Forces operatives to work with the Marines standing offshore as a fast reaction force. This additional striking force, added to the 8,000 soldiers and policemen already on the island, perhaps is more than enough to track down and smash the remaining 250 or so bandits. But what is this flap over the role of American soldiers that emerged during the current visit of Defense Secretary Angelo Reyes in Washington D.C.?

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Reyes insisted the Americans would stay as trainers. That would not engage in combat so their presence would not run afoul of the Constitution. US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, however, maintained that the operational scope earlier agreed upon provided for combat support. Rumsfeld refused to describe this as training. “We can do training operations. But whatever is we do, we describe in language that is consistent with how we do things. And we do not intend to train people in combat, if you will.” Rumsfeld said. Rumsfeld is certified hawk. But he has to regularly watch his back. If an American soldier is killed during operations, he would have a lot of explaining to do to the US Congress and the American public. Why, say, a boy from Iowa supposedly on a training exercise bought the farm in some island called Sulu. The Diplomats from both sides, we understand, are scrambling to craft an agreement that would be acceptable to the publics on both sides of the Pacific. We have no idea how long this would take. But the deadline is running. The military now has only 89 days to smash the Abu Sayyaf. Malaya Editorial, 2 March 2003

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Would you consider the Abu Sayyaf as bandits or an ethnic group? Is there a need to talk with them so that we can attain full unity in the Philippines? Why? Meaning of Race and Ethnic Groups Race and ethnicity may be thought to mean the same thing but these are not interchangeable. Race refers to the classification of humans according to physical characteristics. Ethnicity refers to culturally defined differences between ethnic groups in society. (Johnson 2000) Race refers to physical characteristics transmitted at birth to a group of people. This is manifested in the shape of the head and face, the shape and color of eyes, the shape of the nose, lips, and ears, the texture and color of hair, the skin color, height, blood type and other biological characteristics. Race as biological concept is determined on the basis of a group’s blood line. Different racial groups are the result of long-term processes in which characteristic conditions caused specific physical traits to develop in a certain group of people. Once these traits develop, they become part of that people’s gene pool because the individuals tend to marry one another and have the children with one another. Dark skin is a physical adaptation that people’s ancestors’ bodies made under the conditions in which they lived. Tens of thousand years ago, their ancestors lived in the tropical and subtropical parts of Africa where sunlight is very strong all year round. As the 544

result of the prolonged periods, on a daily basis of the exposure to sunlight, their bodies underwent a change in order to keep them protected. Through an evolutionary process their bodies produced larger amounts of melanin, a substance that darkens the skin and protects it from some of the sun’s damage. This physical change becomes part of their gene pool. As the individuals married and bore children, the darkened skin color is passed down to the next generations. In the process, the black African race was formed. In other parts of the world, the sun is much weaker so that their skin tone evolved in such a way as to appear very light. Because they live a place with a different climate and face different environmental conditions than those living in the equatorial areas, the Caucasian or white race was formed in the northern regions of the world. When sociologists talk about race, they refer to a large number of people who, for social or geographical reasons, have tended to intermarry and interbreed with one another over a long period of time. As a result of these marriages and child-bearing patterns, these people have developed physical characteristics that are passed down from generation to generation in the gene pool. Sociologists take the concept further- race involves a labelling process and an identification process. Race is rooted in biological characteristics. Ethnic groups, on the other hand, are identified by their cultural traits. Ethnicity is rooted in characteristics associated with culture and heritage. Ethnicity involves a sharing of culture and certain cultural traits. (Hugh 1992) 545

An ethnic group refers to a group of people with common cultural background. G. Thomas’ (Timasheff 1967:151-153) theory of the “definition of the situation” in ethnic groups implies that, what is important is not the physical characteristics that identify a group but how such relationship determine the feeling o belonging to each other. When the definitions of physical characteristics affect the relationships of people, this becomes linked to cultural differences. Minority group refers to a group of people that is numerically lesser than the rest of the population. These groups are in nondominant position, whose members possess ethnic, religious, or linguistic characteristics which distinguish them from the rest of the population. Its members share a sense of solidarity and a desire to preserve their culture, traditions, religion of language. The features that characterize a minority group are: 1. The members suffer various disadvantages at the hand of another group; 2. They are identified by group characteristics that are socially visible; 3. It is a self-conscious group with a strong sense of “oneness;” 4. They do not become members of a minority group voluntarily but are born into it; and 5. They tend to marry within the group. In the US, the African-Americans are the only people to have involuntarily migrated. One mechanism by which the American melting pot works is through the intermarriages of different racial, 546

ethnic, and national groups this melting pot however has not melded many unions across racial lines. 99% of African-American women and 97% of African-American men marry one of their race. In 2001, Hispanic-Americans were estimated to be 37 million or nearly 13% of the total population. The increasing number reveals that it is growing five times faster than the general public. According to the Census Bureau report in 2003, Hispanics surpassed blacks as America’s largest minority group. The number of Asian-Americans grew 7 times as fast as the general American population and three times faster than the black population. 23% of Asian-Americans are of Chinese heritage or represented 52% of the Asian-American population in 1960, but now only represent 11.7% East Indians, 11.2% and Koreans, 10.9% of the population. Ethnic Groups in the Philippines The Philippine population is composed of Christian Malay, 91.5%; Muslim Malay, 4%; Chinese, 1.5%; and other cultural minorities, 3%. The country is home to about 72 cultural communities: Luzon, 28; Visayas, 12; Mindoro, 1; Palawan, 8; Sulu 1; TawiTawi, 5; and Mindanao, 18. The indigenous peoples in the Philippines number 7 million (Table 20.1). The two main groups are the Moros and the Igorots because of their numerical size, demographic concentration, and political organization.

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TABLE. 20.1. Distribution of Ethic Group by Provinces (Arrangement: Population Count) Luzon Apayao Ibanag Ivatan/Itbayat Bago Ifugao Iwak Balagao Ikalahan/Kalanguya Pangasinan Bicol Ilocano Kankanaey Bontoc Ilongot Kankanay Ga’dang Isinay Kapampangan Ibaloi Itawit Malaweg Visayas Abakanon Boholano Rombloanon Aklanon Bukidnon Kiniray-a/Hamtikanon Bantoanon Cebuano Masbateno Mindoro Palawan Agutayanen Batu Batak Sulu/ Tawi-tawi Jama Mapun Yakari

Negrito Palanan Kalinga Sambal Tagalog Tinggian Yogad Hiligaynon Sulod Waray

Mangyan Kuyonen

Palawan

Molbog

Tagbanwa

Sama Sama

Dilaut

Mindanao B’taan Kamayo Mandaya Bagobo Kamiguin Tasaday Butuanon Kolibugan Tururay Ilanun Maguindanao Sangil/Sandir Kalangan Mamanwa Subanun SOURCE: Philippine Cultures. February 26, 2003.

Tau ’t

Tausog

T’boli Manobo Maranao

The Igorots of Northern Luzon In Northern Luzon, at the Cordillera Region, is the ancestral domain of the Igorots. They are in the provinces of Abra, Apayao, Buenget, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Mountain province. The Igorots 548

consist of six ethno-linguistic groups: Bontoc, Ibaloi, Ifugao, Ismeg (or Apayao), Kalinga, and the Kanka-naey. The Bontocs live near the Chico River and were known for their head-hunting practices, although they no longer practice this now. Their pre-Christian culture centered around a belief system on and a “hierarchy” of spirits. Their supreme deity is called “Lumawig,” who is the legendary creator, friend, and teacher of Bontocs. They believe in anitos or the spirits of the dead who are to be consulted for important decisions. The village, called ato, is composed of from 14 to 50 homes. The Ifugaos of the southern part of Cordillera region is famous for their rice terraces. Their houses are built at the edge if the fields and have, as a distinctive mark, a high post below the floor beams. This is to keep rats from climbing into the house. The Ismegs live at the banks of the Apayao River. They are headhunters and farmers. In Farming, they used to employ the slash-and-burn technique. But they now practice wet rice agriculture because of the influence of their neighbors. The male head clears the tropical forest and it is the wife who plants and harvests their rice. Women do the cooking and weave bamboo mats and baskets. The men cut timber, build houses, and do the haunting and fishing. When a pig is butchered or deer is haunted, it is their practice to skewer the meat on a bamboo and give to neighbors and relatives. Their main cash crop is coffee. Their ancestors used to be lowlanders who migrated to the mountains of Central Luzon centuries ago in two distinct waves: first, to search for additional source of food and water and to trade 549

for commodities like lumber and gold; second, to seek refuge and flee from the Spaniards and its rule. The Spaniards were never able to dominate these people politically and culturally. Ethnic Groups in Mindanao The Bangsamoro consists of 12 groups who share the Islam religion. They are better known as Moros—meaning Moors or Muslims. It was a term for barbarism and inferiority which was coined by the Spaniards in contempt for the Muslims who fought them. It is now a badge of honor embraced by the Muslims to identify themselves and their nation. The Moros number from 2 – 5 million. They are concentrated mostly in Mindanao. They include the following groups:  Maguindanaos- “People of the Flooded Plain” of Cotabato; the largest group  Maranaos- “people of the lake” live around Lake Lanao  Tausugs “people of the Crescent” of Sulu  Samals of Tawi-tawi  Badjaos of Sulu; called “sea gypsies” because of their migration from island in order to avoid conflct  Yakans of Basilan  Sanguils of Davao  Malebanons of the Balabac Islands  Jama Mapuns of Cagayan  Muslim Palawani of Palawan 550

The indigenous groups or lumads in Mindanao include the T’boli, Mandaya, Manobo, Mansaka, Maranao, Subanon, Tausug and Yakan. The T’bolis are the most colorful of the tribal groups in the Philippines. They are skilled weavers and makers of heavy brass jewelry. In the 15th century, the Islam spread throughout Southern Philippines and various Sultanates were established in Mindanao and Sulu. Islamic influence eventually spread to Luzon. The Philippines was a colony of spain from 16th – 19th century but, all during these times, the Muslims in Mindanao remained unconquered. Muslims in Southeast Asia It is in Southeast Asia that we find the largest number of Muslims. About 200 million Muslims are living in the region, mostly of Malay variants in language and culture. They represent about 1/6 of the world’s total Muslim population, larger than the total number of Arab Muslims. Most of the Muslim nations share a common heritage from the Malay Islamic civilization which was commercial in character, influenced by a number of ethnic groups with a sea-faring life and framed in politics of maritime states which flourished between the 15th and 17th centuries. Extensive networks in the region developed and reinforced by the Malay language the lingua franca of the region. Malay written in Arabic script was the medium developing intellectual creativity in religion, history, and literature and in diplomacy and trade. Islamic education was done in boarding schools. Studies in traditional Islamic scholarship 551

were reinforced by the kinship and marriage ties among the royal families. Muslim communities, however, differ greatly from each other because of differences in colonization and decolonization. For example, Dutch colonialism destroyed scores of Muslim sultanates and principalities in Indonesia. In Malaya, the British colonial power retained the authority of the Sultans in religious and customary matters and gave them monetary rewards. Sultans received large amounts of royalties for concessions in the extraction of natural resources which were manned by Chinese and Indian immigrant labor. The Muslims in the Philippines can be likened to the American Indians who became victims of discriminations and the tyranny of the majority. Filipino Muslims have suffered discrimination under Spanish, American, and Japanese regimes and by the Christian majority. This so-called tyranny of the majority is in the aspects of the political, economic, and religious institutions. Muslim Filipinos trace their nationalism to the days when they resisted the Spanish colonial rule. In 1996, the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) signed a peace accord with the government and was given a key role in the Muslim autonomous region in south. A splinter group, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, called the peace accord a farce and continued to fight for secession. President Estrada’s administration declared an all-out war policy in Mindanao, sending military troops and attacking MILF enclaves. This resulted in the capture MILF’s main camp. The 552

conflict continues to date as Muslims asserts for their rightful place in society and express their long-held grievances against the central government. (Johannason 2002) Chinese Relations The Chinese were in the Philippines even before the first Spanish galleon landed. They came as merchants in Chinese junks. As the country prospered, the Chinese came to stay and gradually increased in number. They worked as bakers, tailors, shoemakers, blacksmiths, furniture makers, cartel drivers, etc. The Chinese introduced cultural elements that have been adapted by local population. Food processing techniques to make miki and misua, bihon, and taho are Chinese in origin. Chinese word, including kinship terms like ate, diko, and ditse, are now part of the Filipino vocabulary (Go and Ang See 1992:70). At present the ethnic Chinese number more than a million or 3% of the total population. Their economic positions are of the same level as the Americans but considered lower in social class. Compared to other ethnic groups, there is a larger number of intermarriages which hastened the assimilation of the Chinese into the Filipino way of life. Their surnames have also been Filipinized like Angsioco, Anganco, Chongbian, Gocheco, Gocuico, Syquia, Tantoco, Uytioco, and Wycoco. American Relations The Americans came at the turn of the 20th century to wrest the political power from the Filipino revolutionaries who fought against 553

Spain. The Filipinos resisted but were eventually conquered and the country became a colony of the US for the next forty years. In 1946, after WW II, the Americans “granted” us independence. However, the Filipinos were never really free and the Philippines still continues to be controlled by the US; not standing up tall and proud but cowering in the face of America’s power. The Filipino hast retained the habit of reliance upon Western nations. The late Manuel Roxas has described us as follows: “Filipinos are not from the orient, except by geography. We are not part of Western world by reason of culture religion, ideology, and economics. Although we are brown-skinned, our mind and heart is almost identical with the west.” With globalization, we have a new battle, a silent battle; the possible loss of our identity (Philippines Today 2001-2002. Indian Relations Majority of Indians and Pakistanis in the Philippines are in Manila. The dominant group are the Sindhi’s, mostly merchants who came from the province of Sindhi, now a part of Pakistan. Smaller groups are absorbed in the labor sector. The Punjabis, from Punjab, are those who wear turbans. They are trustworthy and work as clerks and night watchmen. They are also known for extending loans to Filipinos on a “5-6” basis. Some Punjabis have intermarried with Filipino women. The Sindhis who belong to the upper class usually go to India to marry their brides.

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They have their own centers and organizations: the Sindhi temple; the Bombay Market Association and the Indian Chamber of Commerce. There is no conflict in Filipino-Indian relations. Some have settled outside Metro Manila, many in Cainta, Rizal, where a number of children bear the physical characteristics of their elders. The ancestors, who came to the Philippine when the British occupied the country, were mostly soldiers, called Sepoys. Summary Racial and ethnic groups are part of social organization. Race refers to a group of people with similar physical characteristics which is transmitted through heredity. An ethnic group refers to a given population with homogeneous cultural traits and patterns. When various ethnic groups meet, a certain pattern of relationship follows. These may be competition or conflict, accommodation or cooperation followed by acculturation, assimilation, or amalgamation. Discrimination and prejudice between ethnic groups may characterize the relationships. Ethnic group affiliations influence physical and cultural traits, thus affection the personality and shape the nature of society. Study Guide 1. Differentiate between race and ethnicity. 2. What is minority group? 3. Describe the ethnic groups in the Philippines. 555

4. Discuss the relations between the ethnic and Christian groups. 5. How would you describe the Muslims in the Philippines? Questions for Critical Thinking 1. Describe the nature of Philippine ethnic group relationships. 2. Discuss the effects of development on cultural communities. 3. Can the Muslims be assimilated into the Philippine society? Why or why not?

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Chapter 21 SOCIAL CHANGE We have all witnessed dramatic changes that have taken place in the Philippines. We have seen a sweeping makeover in administration on the national and local level. We have seen political and social unrest at its most agitated state- exposing the ticking social time bomb that is the growing gap between the rich and the poor. We witnessed the worst terrorist attacks in the world’s history. Although the world is reeling from the effect, the worst of the attacks are yet to come. The home grown problems that have plagued the Philippines may yet be worsened by the looming global recession resulting from the attacks. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and its ripple effects have made out bad situation ever worse. The quality of life has not improved. The per capita GNP in 1890 is the same as it is today. China has grown five times more than the Philippines. Thailand has grown at least two times more on a per capita basis, the Thais are three times richer than the Filipinos. At present growth five times more than the Philippines, it will take us twelve years to catch up to where Thailand was three years ago. Twenty five years ago we were ahead of Thailand.

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This requires pursuing relentlessly and with singular attention modernization in four key of our national life. These are the economy, agriculture, education, training, and our political system. There is also a need to give special attention on Mindanao. Edgardo Angara, Philippine Star, 5 October 2001:8 How can we attain national development through social change? What is Social Change? Social change refers to the variations or modifications in the pattern of social organizations of subgroups within a society or the entire society itself. This is manifested in the rise and fall of groups, communities, or institutional structures and functions; or changes in the statuses and roles of members on the family, work setting, church, school, government, leisure, and other subsystems of the social organization. Social change occurs as a result of many factors. It can be actively or consciously brought about through the activities of social movements. Many changes, however, are unintended and unanticipated. His is the case with most political revolutions. Revolutions may involve the active engagement of political groups but the sweep of events could outdistance anything that was originally sought. Modern society is a revolutionary society in several aspects. It is associated with politics, such as the uprising against the 558

dictatorial rule of Marcos in 1986. It may also be associated with industrial and technological changes. Revolutions involve the political activities of a mass movement which succeeds in overthrowing an established government by force. It is similar to a coup d’etat in that a coup d’etat also involves the seizure of power (Giddens 1997). Human societies can be studied based on static social patterns, such as status and role, social stratification, and the various social institutions. The dynamic forces range from innovation in technology to the growth of bureaucracy and the expansion of cities. These are the dimensions of social change and refer to the transformation of culture and social institutions over time. Change is an enduring historical force with noticeable variations through time. Change may be hardly discernible or easily observable; it may be constructive or destructive; but whatever is nature, it occurs everywhere and every time. Change has been regarded in many ways- as a means, process, an end, or even a social movement; a state of affairs involving a program, and ideology, a doctrine, or a problem. The use of new objects or ideas to reach certain goals involves change; the adjustment of persons or groups to achieve relative harmony is change; a socioeconomic program inevitably results in a change; a moral crusade, a period of tension, crises or normalcy, a threat to the interests of certain persons or groups all bring about in the hope for improvements, stability, or security in the future. Frequently, it is equated with progress which is only one of its 559

aspects. Its dimension includes the transformation of culture and social institutions over time. Characteristics of social change: 1. It happens everywhere although the rate of change varies from place to place. Some societies change faster than others. William Ogbum (1946) in his theory of cultural lag, states the things change faster than nonmaterial culture, such as ideas and attitudes. 2. Social change is sometimes intentional but often unplanned. 3. Social change often generates controversy. For example, the social patterns of the relationship between women and men give rise to misunderstanding, tensions, and/or outright hospitality. 4. Social change are more important than fads and fashions which only have a significance. Innovations, like television, stay for generations. Social Change and Technological Development Technological development has both positive and negative impacts, like creating new job opportunities but eliminating old ones. People can be linked faster and more extensively through digital communication but it can also threaten personal privacy. With social change comes modernity. There are social patterns which are linked to industrialization. Peter Berger (1977) notes four general characteristics of modernization:

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1. The decline of small, traditional communities. In rural villages, social life revolve around the family and neighborhood. These provide a strong sense of personal identity. Belonging and purpose. 2. The expansion of personal choices. People see their lives as an unending series of options. 3. Increasing social diversity. Tradition loses its hold and morality becomes a matter of individuals attitude. 4. Future orientation and growing awareness of time, instead of thinking in terms of sunlight and seasons, we think in terms of hours and minutes. Levels of Human Action and Change To make the study of change more tractable, we shall discuss four levels of human action: individual personality; interaction among individuals; group of social system; and cultural system (Appelbaum 1971:2). The first level (individual personality) has historically been the sphere of psychologists, whether they pursue a psychoanalytic or a behaviourist framework. Freud (1958:215) said that the “nature of social relations among human beings, the sum of which constitutes civilization, is to a large extent drawn from infant sexuality and instructive egoism.” Proshanky and Seidenber (1965:6) attempted to explain the relationships between the properties of the physical world and what the identified as fundamental psychological processes (cognition, emotion, and motivation). Empirically, the focus is on the individual’s response to externally induce stimuli which are stimuli abstracted from the social world that is either ignored or considered relevant. 561

The second level (interaction among individuals) constitutes the area of social psychology, specifically students of groups dynamics. It follows the behaviourist perspective, including personality, interactions, and self-theory. Porshanky and Seidenber (1965:4) studied the behaviour of individuals in connection with his or her experiences and the social setting and the context in which social behaviour takes place. i.e. other individuals or groups. George Simmel (1964:15-15) specified the social interaction among the social levels. This involves not only in the relations among human but also the personality developing virtually entirely from human interaction. The third level (group of social system) is of general interest to sociologists. The group is the unit of analysis, particularly the emergent properties of the group where the social level is thought to reside. Emile Durkheim (1964:13) clarified this concerns with his definition of “social facts” as “every way if acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint.” Exteriority to and constraint on the individuals make up social action, the area of inquiry unique to sociology. Twentieth century American sociology dealt mainly with aspects of social action, with the analysis of structural effects on behavioural variables. Marx’s concept of the “social” in terms of class-consciousness parallels Durkheim’s concept Durkheim , a person is constrained by the group both in thought and in action; the group or class has an existence above and apart from that of its members; and individual behaviour reflects the exteriority of the group. Durkheim defines a social group as a small unit of workers, or a social class, or a nation-state, provided that the group exercises constraint or a affects the individual. 562

The fourth level (cultural system) is the concern mainly of anthropology. Parsons (1966:5) states that the meanings and intentions of human acts are formed in terms of symbol systems, along with the codes through which they operate, in patterns that focus on the universal aspect of human society, which is called language. Hoebel (1962:116-117,168), Murdock (1960:218), Kroeber and Kluchkbon (1952), and steward (1955:43-97) refer to culture as the characteristics of human behaviour and their transmission over time, rather than human interactions per se. Major emphasis is given by society to the learning and transmission of values and symbols. Distinction is made between natural (technology) and nonmaterial culture, and between culture as a configuration of existential postulates (about the nature of things) and of normative postulates (about the desirability of things.) Change is pervasive and is taking place in culture, society, and personality. Changes in culture bring about changes in society and human beings; likewise, changes in society and human being bring about changes in culture. Culture change refers to all alterations affecting new traits or trait complexes in cultural context and structure. This include 1) the development of oral and written language and other means of communication; 2) modifications in technology; 3) shifts in economic principles; 4) the historical evolution of religious ritual and dogma, educational philosophy, and political ideology; 5) variations in musical styles and other art form; 6) transitions in scientific theories; and 7) alterations in the forms and rules of social interaction (Davis 1949:622-623).

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Technological change and social change are specific parts of cultural change. Technological change denotes the revisions that occur in the people’s application of their technical knowledge and skills as they adapt to their physical environment. These change can be seen in 1) the increasing divergence in the form of tools, instruments, and implements used; 2) the constant addition to and deletions from the range of inventions; 3) the obsolescence of and advancement in scientific knowledge; and 4) the innovations in the ability to utilize and exploit the natural environment for human needs. Max Weber explained that conflict in material production may force its roots on the world of ideas. In the natural environment, people cast nature as a force to be tamed and reshaped for human purposes, like stripping forests to create fields for farming and cutting trees for materials for building. However, this outlook has also caused problem, such as it had created a habit of over consumption which brings about problems in solid waste management and pollution, among others. Population growth, on the other hand, imposes demands in the natural environment and alters cultural patterns. This forces a shifting in of the composition of a population and migration among societies. In the Philippines, the introduction of new methods of farming, the revival of native themes in literary and art forms, the addition of either practical arts or vocational courses to the educational curriculum, and the indigenization of research theory methodology and social programs represent cultural change. The adoption of scientific techniques to increase rice production and the increase 564

in academic courses to train Filipinos to better control and manipulate their environment are technological changes. The changed norms of the landlord-tenant relationship because of land reform, the significance of learning and adapting managerial skills in farming, the altered Filipino outlook and behaviour toward foreigners and foreign things; the changes in social mobility and the social stratification among Filipinos because of the acceptance and adoption of western value and behaviour patterns typify social change. Social change is manifested in various ways, such as when changes in the competence system cause shifts in the outlook on work, academic competence, and economic achievements; when import and decontrol policies affect the relationships of contracting parties in industry and commerce; when the construction of varied architectural housing units of interactionemigration movements alter status and role aspirations, expectations, and achievements; when the legalization of social controls weaken family and other disorganization, such as crime, juvenile delinquency, mental illness, suicide, alcoholism, drug abuse, prostitution, family conflicts, child abuse/neglect, revolution, and wars. From the sociological view, cultural and technological changes are important to note. These result from the relationships of the members of a society and the overlapping of cultural, technological, and social changes (Davis 1949:622-633). A typology of theories of social change can be employed to clarify some of the assumptions regarding the “social” and “change” contained in these theories. They are not mutually exclusive. 565

There are major differences in the underlying assumptions and derivative approaches to social change. Four broad categories are distinguished: Evolutionary theory—characterized primarily by an assumption of smooth, cumulative change, often in a linear fashion, and always in the direction of increasing complexity and adaptability; Equilibrium theory—characterized by the concept of homeostasis, and focuses on conditions tending toward stability as a consequences; Conflict theory—characterized by the assumption that change is endemic to all social organisms, and focuses on conditions that tend toward instability as a consequence; and “Rise and fall” theory—characterized by the assumption that societies, cultures, or civilization regress as well as grow, and that all societies do not move in the same direction.(Appelbaum 1971:9-10) Evolutionary theories includes both the equilibrium and the conflict theories, each of which assume that societies can be treated as interdependent systems which generally move in the direction of increasing complexity and are involved in maximizing adaptability to environment. Variants of these theories also share the assumption that change is unilinear; meaning, all societies move from a similar initial state to a similar final state, as exemplified in the historical experience of western European nations and the United States. Parsons and Smelser used pattern-variables which identifies before-and-after sets of patterns characterize pre-industrial and industrial societies (1965:33-38); 566

while Marx (Feuer 1959:1-41) laid down the stages of societies which reflect the technological organization of production at any given time and its corresponding class contradictions. There are significant differences in the emphasis of each theory the evolutionary theory emphasizes smooth , cumulative changes, the equilibrium theory emphasizes adjustment and homeostasis among parts ; and the conflict theory emphasizes inherent instability and change. Aside from those mentioned are the modernization and diachrome theories of unilinear change. Modernization has numerous definitions, but all relate to the process or characteristics of industrialization. Levy defines modernization directly in terms of technology – the more modernized the society, the greater the ratio of inanimate to animate power sources and the greater human efforts are multiplied by the use of tools. Smelser (1966: 110-111) conceived of modernization as related to economic development, and often occurring simultaneously in at least four distinct but interrelated processes. 1. In the realm of technology, a developing society is developing from simple and traditional techniques toward the application of a scientific knowledge. 2. In agriculture, the developing society evolves from subsistence farming toward commercial production of agricultural goods, which means specialization in cash crops, purchase of non-agricultural products in the market, and often agricultural wage labor. 3. In industry the developing society undergoes a transition from the use of human and animal power toward 567

industrialization power, or with men working for wages at power-driven machines which produce commodities for outside the community of production. 4. In ecological arrangements, the developing society moves from the farm and village toward urban concentrations. Aside from the concepts of economic development, modernization refers to the technical, economic, and ecological changes which ramify through the whole social and cultural fabric. Profound changes are expected in the emerging nation, such as (1) in the political sphere, as simple tribal or village authority give way to systems of suffrage, political parties, representation, and civil service bureaucracies; (2) in the educational sphere, as society strives to reduce illiteracy and increase economically productive skills; (3) in the religious sphere, as secularized belief systems begin to replace traditionalistic religion; (4) in the familial sphere, as extended kinship units lose their pervasiveness; (5) in the stratification sphere. As geographical and social mobility, tends to loosen fixed, inscriptive hierarchical systems. Factors in Social Change Multiple factors underline the broad and complex nature of social change. Like the phenomenon in the physical sciences, social change in the social sciences displays rate, direction, form, type, cause, order, stimulants, and barriers in its emergence, development, and decline (Davis 1949:623-636;Foster 1962:64146;Appelbaum 1971:11-138). The study of the factors necessitates the delineation of the length of time, the geo graphical area, and the group to be considered. 568

The Rate of Social Change Rate is also referred to as speed of pace. When the balance between opposing forces tilts toward change-preventing ones, the stability of the society predominates; on the other hand, when the balance tilts toward the change-promoting forces, a rate of change occurs. All cultures change but the rates of change vary. Some societies change slowly while others change rapidly. Some change rapidly for a time and then slows down, and vice versa for others. In some societies, parts of the culture change at an unequal speed at a given period, resulting in an unbalanced state in the others; while the other parts of the culture change at a similar speed and maintain their consistency. In the West, prior to the Industrial Revolution, and in many colonized countries before World War II, social change was for the most part slow. The Nuclear-Space age brought about a greatly accelerated speed of change of places reached by mass media. The disparity in the rate of change between different elements of culture- materials and non-materials - is what W.F. Ogburn (1922:200-201) refers to as cultural lag. It represents dysfunctions or the inability of a given society to devise or adapt immediately new ideas to counter-act or check the disruptions brought about by significant new objects, it is regarded as the cause of many problems of human beings. This happens when family, economic, political, religious, educational, health, recreational, and other special patterns instituted several community, many parents still want to completely control the lives of their children in spite of their adult status, like what their ancestors practiced during the 569

earlier years while still in the farm communities. Newcomers to the cities find it difficult to integrate their daily lives to the urban lifestyle. Garbage collection and other public services, land tenure systems, credit facilities, court and police systems, education curricula, religious may not keep pace with the increase in population and migration and the growth of scientific knowledge and technical know-how. Different norms and values of certain socio-economic-political ideologies that are imposed cause serious social problems. In order to adjust to and survive to change in a technologically shifting society, people develop individual and group customs, called tecnicways, to gradually replace old folkways and mores. People reorienting themselves to assemble at designated places for jeep and bus stops, or to line-up to pay the cashier or to buy stamps at the post office, illustrate the formation of tecnicways. When these tecnicways develop into folkways and mores and when the different elements of culture catch up with one another and maintain a balance among themselves for a certain period, then cultural lag fades out. The rate of social change and the cultural lag that follows can be measured by: 1) comparing the overall culture or parts of the culture of different societies at a given period; 2) examining the overall culture or parts of the culture of the same society at different time; 3) viewing the parts of the culture of the same society at a specific period. To illustrate, one can compare the overall state of development, work ethic, migration patterns, or value orientations of the Philippines, Japan, Mexico, and Egypt fifty years after World War 570

The general conditions, the educational system, or Catholicism in the Philippines at the end of the Spanish regime, in 1946 when the country became independent, and 20 years after independence can be examined; or a study may be made of the political system throughout the different presidential eras. The impact of the Agrarian Reform Code on landlord-tenant relationships, kinship obligations, and national development ten to twenty years after its implementation in reform areas can also be scrutinized. Form of Social Change Social change may or may not be repeated over definite periods of time. The characteristics of social change are indicated by the term form. Kingsley Davis (1946:628-629) identified two forms of social change as: (1) the cyclical, in which whole cultures or their parts are repeated over a considerable period of time; and (2) the linear, in which cultures of their specific aspects change in only one direction and never recur. In reality, no culture is precisely cyclical or linear. What is possible to determine is whether the changes in the overall culture or its elements more closely approximate the linear or the cyclical form. Changes viewed over relatively shorter periods of time tend to be linear; these are referred to as trends. Changes viewed through several generation tend to be cyclical; these are called cycles. Changes in population size bring about changes in sex ratio, courtship, and organization. Periods of continuing population growth can enhance delayed marriage or limited childbearing. Scarce economic resources and keen competition in the 571

employment arena may render marriage impractical, with individuals shrinking from family responsibility and encourage single-blessedness (Norman, Jr. 1965:228-230). Direction of Social Change Closely associated with rate and form is the direction of social change. The three are measured according to the objectives that a person or a group wishes to achieve on a long or short-range basis. The rapidity or slowness of social change can be defined in accordance with a tentative schedule set for the attainment of specific objectives, but which could contribute toward the fulfillment of a general goal. For instance, people in a barrio may work for specific objectives, such as learning about their natural resources. They may utilize the services of experts to help them exploit their natural resources effectively in order to obtain a lonerange goal of strengthening the barangay council within a period of ten years, the rate of change can be considered rapid; if these are not achieved even after fifteen years, the rate of social change is considered slow. The form of social change is deduced on the basis of repetition of continuity of change in the period of ten years. The direction of social change is evaluated in the light of its consistency with past and present conditions. For example, the direction of social change be derived by answering the following questions: What aspects of the social organization of the above-cited barrio twenty-five or more years ago are consistent with the objective of strengthening the barrio council and help reinforce it? Is progress or retrogression dependent upon previously identified, defined, and agreed upon criteria for progress or retrogressing? 572

Social change, however, can be so far-reaching that it is difficult to visualize what aspects of a total culture will be changed by the introduction of new things. Therefore, in tracing the rate, form, and direction of social change, one should consider not only the intended but also the unintended results. Unintended results are those that are unexpected. Modernity In studying social change the central concept is modernity. These are the social patterns pertaining to industrialization. Peter Berger (1977) lists four major characteristics of modernization which are: 1) the decline of small, traditional communities; 2) the expansion of personal choice; 3) increasing diversity of beliefs; and 4) future orientation and growing awareness of time. Social change is more often welcomed by societies. Modernity is linked to the idea of progress (moving forward), a state of continued improvements. However, change in terms of progress depends on our underlying values. Life expectancy has been made longer and there are now more amenities to make life comfortable. But such affluence, to an extent, has increased our materialism at the expense of spiritual life. Modernization: The Philippines The harsh truth is that we are a troubled nation. Over the past generation, the quality of life has no improved for majority of our countrymen. The per capita GNP in 1980 is the same as it is today. 573

Forty percent of our countrymen are poor. The richest 10% of Filipinos have 24 times as much wealth as the poorest 10%. Economists estimate that a total of 28 million Filipinos- more than one in three of the nation’s population- are living on less than 31 pesos a day. Poverty has a rural face, with 3 out of 4 poor Filipinos effect belonging to the rural sector. Urban poverty is partly an indirect effect of rural poverty. When the economy stagnates or contracts, the poor bear the greatest burden. New direction, bold initiatives. With a vastly changed economic and social scenario, the need to reshape our goals and redefine our agenda has become even more compelling. We can no longer rely on old formulas that have proven ineffective in addressing the malaise ailing our nation. This requires pursuing relentlessly and with focused attention on modernization in four key areas of national life—the economy; agriculture; education and training; and the political system. Geographically, it requires special attention in Mindanao, one area the government has not taken seriously. Economic modernization. Major reforms have to be seriously considered and undertaken to shape up a poorly performing economy heavily burdened by strangulating business regulations, and an even more antiquated incentive scheme and decrepit infrastructure. Government should concentrate its investments and provide incentives to the private sector to invest in infrastructure, particularly telecommunications and transportation. The lack of it has effectively deterred business investments in the country. 574

Government should provide meaningful incentives to ensure a steady inflow of investments which create jobs. Investments, particularly in depressed areas such as Mindanao, would translate to hundreds of thousands of jobs. Give a man a job – save him from poverty. We need to seriously review the economic provisions of technologies and capital. For every 10% increase in average real income, poverty incidence falls by approximately 17%. A 3.2% growth for the next ten years will translate to only a 5% decrease in a poverty 12 years. On the other hands, a 5% growth in 2002 and 7% for the next 9 years will translate in a drop of poverty rates from 40% to 13%. Agricultural modernization. The Philippine economy will not achieve sustainable growth without reforms in agriculture. Heavy investments in rural infrastructure have to be made – on irrigation, farm to market roads, and fishing ports. No modern agriculture can be attained without investing in research and development. Agriculture research and development is critical for the Philippines. Let a thousand research stations bloom, to it bring about food security for the country. Jobs in rural sector have to be created. Educational modernization. Efforts must focus on educational modernization. The country’s greatest resource is its people. To educate a child is to save a person – and guarantee a good national future.

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Serious reforms need to be undertaken in the educational sector to make education more accessible and responsive, retraining our children for the global and domestic job markets. Children should be trained in science and technology. Distance learning and special education programs for the disabled should be provided in areas where there are no schools. Teachers’ conditions must be alleviated through salary restructuring. Political modernization. No modernization can take place without serious reforms in the political system. A faulty political system breeds bad politics – and bad politicians. It creates opportunities for inefficiency and corruption This requires electoral modernization and computerization so that the voters list can be cleansed and the counting of ballots speedily made. Administrative reform must be undertaken to raise the performance standards of government and thereby creating a bureaucracy which is responsive to our citizenry. Overtime, a gradual shift to a parliamentary form of government can be considered to prevent deadlock and promote a strong and effective leadership. The Mindanao Imperative. Lastly, government needs to give more attention to Mindanao. It is considered as the country’s food basket but remains the land of forgotten promise. Government should provide fiscal incentive for the private sector to invest in Mindanao and create more jobs. More social welfare programs should be provided to solve the massive poverty affection the Muslim people in Central Mindanao. 576

The four Modernization focusing on our economy, agricultural sector, educational, and political systems are what the country urgently needs. The four Modernizations are the foundation for future development and prosperity. It provides the new direction in a radically changed political and economic scenario. (Angara 2001:8) Social Change in Philippine Society Philippine society is in a flux of change. A major consequence of change in the Philippines, which is also taking place in the other parts of the contemporary world, is modernization. This implies a change from the traditional way of life to a more complex, technologically advanced, rapidly changing style of life. The various elements of socio-cultural change are industrialization, urbanization, technology, population, education, bureaucracy, medicine and public health, and recreation. In Philippine agriculture an important phenomenon is the changing Filipino rice farmer. Empirical studies show that the typical rice farmer has begun adapting new rice technology which has lessened the amount of rice importation. This has been accompanied by a modernized outlook in agriculture, new attitudes, aspirations, perceptions and an awareness and acquisition of certain activities showing a growing contractual relationship. Nevertheless, the values of fatalism and belief in good luck and bad luck (swerte) still persist (Astillo 1975:125179). New dimensions of social change are the leadership patterns and national development policies and programs geared toward peace 577

and order, land reform, economic reforms, reorientation of moral values, government reforms, educational reforms, and social services. There is a noticeable focus on regional and local autonomy, Asianism (by developing social, cultural, and economic ties with our Asian neighbors), reconciliation with other Third World societies, and contracting foreign policy treaties and agreements by fostering diplomatic and commercial relations with both communistic and capitalistic societies. What changes have been brought about by natural disasters such as the volcanic eruptions of Pinatubo and Mayon and the flood in Luzon and the Visayas? By the closure of Subic and Clark bases? And the movement of people from the barrios and municipalities to the cities? What coping mechanisms have displaced people from urban slims resorted to? The assessment and evaluation of social development programs are possible with the use of social indicators, like population growth rate and the percentage of urban and rural population, health and life expectancy, education and culture, nutrition, employment and social security, personal security, consumption, wealth and social welfare, electrification, water supply, and communication systems (Bureau of Census and Statistics 1973). Randolph S. David (1982:21) cities a significant set of studies for development in the Philippines, as follows: 1. Clarify what kind of society we have become as a function of our colonial experience; 2. Define the salient features of the global and regional environment within which our society is moving and bring out the basic constraints of theses supra-national systems; 578

3. Reveal the precise mechanisms by which the existing system is able to reproduce and perpetuate itself and bring out the ways and techniques of these powers as well as identify its most vulnerable points. 4. Identify and understand how people can effectively organize themselves in order to gain control over their lives, or simply to effectively insulate themselves from the instabilities of daily life. 5. Constantly assess the possibilities of real structural change in our society, specially by defining the basic characteristics of the environment within which a people’s movement for change must operate and formulate the conditions under which spontaneous people’s organizations can become part of a larger process of societal revivals; 6. Conceptualize a vision of alternative structures in conformity with our people’s desire for a free, just, dignified and prosperous life for all. Summary Social change refers to alterations in the patterns and regulations regarding social interaction. Four levels of human action- the individual personality, interaction among individuals, the group or social systems, and the cultural system-have been delineated to make the study of change more tractable. Four broad categories of theories are distinguished for the study of social change: The evolutionary theory, equilibrium theory, conflict theory, and “rise and fall” theory.

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Social change is the result of cultural change and/or technological change, and it can influence either or both. Its rate, direction, and form can be gauged through the factors of time, place, goals, and objectives. It is caused by the interplay of a large number on nonsocial and social factors. Among its sources are evolution, discovery, invention, and diffusion. Its order may be understood in terms of how individuals, groups, or institutions accept change. It may be directed or nondirected. Depending upon the degree of planning that is involved. The barriers, as well as the stimulants, of social change may be cultural, social, or psychological. Social scientists today are challenged by the need to comprehend more fully the mechanisms of change and to determine the conditions under which a society changes its culture Study Guide 1. Concepts to master: Social change technological change Tecnicways modernization Rate of change cultural lag 2. What are the characteristics of social change? 3. Discuss the levels of human action. 4. Discuss the theories of social change. 5. What are the forms of social change.

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Questions for Critical Thinking 1. Considering the changes that the country has undergone and is undergoing, can you predict the future of Philippine society? 2. Give examples of social change that are unintentional and unplanned? 3. What is your vision in the next twenty years? 4. Why do some analysts say that the government need to give more attention in Mindanao?

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